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6,400	Microsoft_Access	Microsoft Office Access, previously known as Microsoft Access, is a relational database management system from Microsoft that combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface and software development tools. It is a member of the Microsoft Office suite of applications and is included in the Professional and higher versions for Windows and also sold separately. There is no version for MacOS or for Microsoft Office Mobile. Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Jet Database Engine. It can also import or link directly to data stored in other Access databases, Excel, SharePoint lists, text, XML, Outlook, HTML, dBase, Paradox, Lotus 1-2-3, or any ODBC-compliant data container including Microsoft SQL Server, Oracle, MySQL and PostgreSQL. Software developers and data architects can use it to develop application software and non-programmer "power users" can use it to build simple applications. It supports some object-oriented techniques but falls short of being a fully object-oriented development tool. Microsoft Access is part of the Microsoft Office suite and is the most popular Windows desktop database application. It is targeted for the information worker market, and is the natural progression for managing data when the need for a relational database arises or after reaching the limits of Microsoft Excel. History Microsoft Access 2000 Access 1.1 manual cover Access version 1.0 was released in November 1992, quickly followed in May 1993 by an Access 1.1 release to improve compatibility with other Microsoft products and include the Access Basic programming language. Microsoft specified the minimum hardware requirements for Access v2.0: Microsoft Windows v3.1 with 4 MB of RAM required, 6 MB RAM recommended; 8 MB of available hard disk space required, 14 MB hard disk space recommended. The product was shipped on seven 1.44 MB diskettes. The manual shows a 1993 copyright date. Originally, the software worked well with relatively small databases but testing showed some circumstances caused data corruption. For example, file sizes over 10 MB were problematic (note that most hard disks were smaller than 500 MB at the time this was in wide use), and the Getting Started manual warns about a number of circumstances where obsolete device drivers or incorrect configurations can cause data loss. With the phasing out of Windows 95, 98 and ME, improved network reliability, and Microsoft having released 8 service packs for the Jet Database Engine, the reliability of Access databases has been vastly improved in both size and number of users. With Office 95, Microsoft Access 95 became part of the Microsoft Office Professional Suite joining Microsoft Excel, Word, and PowerPoint and transitioning from Access Basic to Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). Since then, there have been releases of Microsoft Access with each release of Office. This includes Access 97 (version 8.0), Access 2000 (version 9.0), Access 2002 (version 10.0), Access 2003 (version 11.5), and Access 2007 (version 12.0). The native Access database format (the Jet MDB Database) has also evolved over the years. Formats include Access 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 95, 97, 2000, 2002, and 2007. The most significant transition was from the Access 97 to the Access 2000 format; which is not backward compatible with earlier versions of Access. At the time of this writing, all newer versions of Access support the Access 2000 format. New features were added to the Access 2002 format which can be used by Access 2002, 2003, and 2007. In Access 2007, a new database format was introduced: ACCDB. The ACCDB supports complex data types such as multivalue and attachment fields. These new field types are essentially recordsets in fields and allow the storage of multiple values in one field. Prior to the introduction of Access, the desktop database market was dominated by Borland with their Paradox and dBase programs, and FoxPro. Microsoft Access was the first mass market database program for Windows. With the purchase of FoxPro and incorporating its Rushmore query optimization routines into Access, Microsoft Access quickly became the dominant database for Windows effectively eliminating the competition which failed to transition from the MS-DOS world. Access's initial codename was Cirrus; the forms engine was called Ruby. This was before Visual Basic - Bill Gates saw the prototypes and decided that the BASIC language component should be co-developed as a separate expandable application, a project called Thunder. The two projects were developed separately as the underlying forms engines were incompatible with each other; however, these were merged together again after VBA. Access was also the name of a communications program from Microsoft, meant to compete with ProComm and other programs. This proved a failure and was dropped. Where did the name for Microsoft Access come from? Years later, Microsoft reused the name for its database software. Uses Microsoft Access is used by programmers and non-programmers to create their own database solutions. Access tables support a variety of standard field types, indices, and referential integrity. Access also includes a query interface, forms to display and enter data, and reports for printing. The underlying Jet database which contains these objects is multiuser aware and handles record locking and referential integrity including cascading updates and deletes. Simple tasks can be automated through macros with point and click options. Microsoft Access is very popular among non-programmers who can create visually pleasing and relatively advanced solutions on their own. It is also easy to place a database on a network and have multiple users share and update data without overwriting each other’s work. Data is locked at the record level which is significantly different from Excel which locks the entire spreadsheet. Microsoft offers a wide range of template databases within the program and for download from their web site. These options are available upon starting Access and allow users to quickly use and enhance a database with pre-defined tables, queries, forms, reports, and macros. Popular templates include tracking contacts, assets, issues, events, projects, and tasks. Templates do not include VBA code. Microsoft Access also offers the ability for programmers to create solutions using the programming language Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), which is similar to Visual Basic 6.0 and used throughout the Microsoft Office programs such as Excel, Word, Outlook and PowerPoint. Most VB6 code including the use of Windows API calls, can be used in VBA. Power users and developers can extend basic end-user solutions to a professional solution with advanced automation, data validation, error trapping, and multi-user support. Database solutions created entirely in Microsoft Access are well suited for individual and workgroup use across a network. The number of simultaneous users that can be supported depends on the amount of data, the tasks being performed, level of use, and application design. Generally accepted limits are solutions with 1 GB or less of data (Access supports up to 2 GB) and 50 or fewer simultaneous users. This is appropriate for workgroup and department solutions where the total number of users number a few hundred. Applications that simply view data or have simple data entry can support considerably more users. Applications that run complex queries or analysis across large datasets would naturally require greater bandwidth and memory. Microsoft Access is designed to scale to support more data and users by linking to multiple Access databases or using a backend database like SQL Server. With the latter design, the amount of data and users can scale to enterprise level solutions. Microsoft Access is not appropriate for web based applications as its forms and reports only work in Windows. Therefore, it cannot be compared to an ASP.NET or Java/J2EE solution. The Access Jet database is a file based system and does not have the features of servers such as SQL Server, Oracle, or other ODBC compliant databases. It also doesn’t have the overhead, hardware, or licensing requirements of server based solutions. People can use Access databases for web based solutions when the number of users is small or if it's just delivering data without editing. Programs like Microsoft FrontPage and many ISPs offer Microsoft Access as a database storage option. In enterprise environments, Microsoft Access is particularly appropriate for meeting end user database needs, and rapid application development. Microsoft Access is easy enough for end users to create their own queries, forms and reports, laying out fields and groupings, setting formats, etc. This frees up professional developers to focus on more complex portions of the application. A “compiled” MDE or ACCDE version of an Access database can be created to prevent users from getting to the design surfaces to modify module code, forms, and reports. This is often used in environments where end user modifications are discouraged or the application's code should be kept private. Microsoft offers a runtime version of Microsoft Access 2007 for download. This allows people to create Access solutions and distribute it for use by non-Microsoft Access owners (similar to the way DLLs or EXEs are distributed). Unlike the regular version of Access, the runtime version allows users to use the Access application but they cannot use its design surfaces. Microsoft also offers developer extensions for download to help distribute Access applications, create database templates, and integrate source code control with Visual SourceSafe. Features Users can create tables, queries, forms and reports, and connect them together with macros. Advanced users can use VBA to write rich solutions with advanced data manipulation and user control. The original concept of Access was for end users to be able to “access” data from any source. Other uses include: the import and export data to many formats including Excel, Outlook, ASCII, dBase, Paradox, FoxPro, SQL Server, Oracle, ODBC, etc. It also has the ability to link to data in its existing location and use it for viewing, querying, editing, and reporting. This allows the existing data to change and the Access platform to always use the latest data. It can perform heterogeneous joins between data sets stored across different platforms. Access is often used by people downloading data from enterprise level databases for manipulation, analysis, and reporting locally. There is also the Jet Database format (MDB or ACCDB in Access 2007) which can contain the application and data in one file. This makes it very convenient to distribute the entire application to another user, who can run it in disconnected environments. One of the benefits of Access from a programmer's perspective is its relative compatibility with SQL (structured query language) — queries can be viewed graphically or edited as SQL statements, and SQL statements can be used directly in Macros and VBA Modules to manipulate Access tables. Users can mix and use both VBA and "Macros" for programming forms and logic and offers object-oriented possibilities. VBA can also be included in queries. Microsoft Access offers parameterized queries. These queries and Access tables can be referenced from other programs like VB6 and .NET through DAO or ADO. From Microsoft Access, VBA can reference parameterized stored procedures via ADO. SQL Express or MSDE (Microsoft SQL Server Desktop Engine) 2000, a scaled down version of Microsoft SQL Server 2000, has been a free download for a decade and may be used with Access as an alternative to the Jet Database Engine. Microsoft Access is a file server based database. Unlike client server RDBMS, Microsoft Access does not implement database triggers, stored procedures, or transaction logging. In ADP files (supported in Access 2000 and later), the database-related features are geared more towards a client-server architecture with MSDE or Microsoft SQL Server serving as the back-end instead of using the Jet Engine. Thus, it supports the creation of nearly all objects in the underlying server (tables with constraints and triggers, views, stored procedures and UDF-s). However, only forms, reports, macros and modules are stored in the ADP file (the other objects are stored in the back-end database). This centralization of queries and tables in the database server offers a more restrictive environment which appeals to certain missions. The advantage of an ADP is that it supports the direct creation and editing of SQL Server tables, views, and stored procedures. The disadvantage compared to the native Access database is the inability to keep temporary tables (the ADP cannot store local tables) or link to data from other sources. By definition, this eliminates the ability to query across different data sources. As a result of these limitations and improvements to the native Access database, Microsoft is recommending the use of linked tables in Access for getting to SQL Server data rather than ADPs. Development All database tables, queries, forms, reports, macros, and modules are stored in the Access Jet database as a single file. For query development, Access offers a Query Designer, a graphical user interface that allows users to create queries without knowledge of the SQL programming language. In the Query Designer, users can "show" the datasources of the query (which can be tables or queries) and select the fields they want returned by clicking and dragging them into the grid. Joins can be created by clicking and dragging fields in tables to fields in other tables. Access allows users to view and manipulate the SQL code if desired. Any Access table, including linked tables from different data sources, can be used in a query. Access also supports the creation of Pass-Through queries. These are queries that can be linked to external data sources through the use of ODBC connections on the local machine. This enables users to interact with data stored outside the Access programme without using linked Tables. The Pass-Through queries are written using the SQL syntax supported by the external data source. When developing Reports that are linked to Queries placing or moving items in the design view of the Report Access runs the linked query in the background on any placement or movement of an item in that Report. If the Report is linked to a Query that takes a long time to return records this forces you to wait until the query has run before you can add/edit or move the next item in the Report (this feature cannot be turned off). Non-programmers can use the macro feature to automate simple tasks through a series of drop down selections. Macros allow users to easily chain commands together such as running queries, importing or exporting data, opening and closing forms, previewing and printing reports, etc. Macros support basic logic (IF conditions) and the ability to call other macros. Macros can also contain sub-macros which are similar to subroutines. In Access 2007, macros are significantly enhanced with the inclusion of error handling and temporary variable support. Access 2007 also introduces embedded macros that are essentially properties of an object's event. This eliminates the need to store macros as individual objects. Macros however, are limited in their functionality by a lack of programming loops and advanced coding logic. Most professional Access developers use the VBA programming language for a richer and more powerful development environment. The programming language available in Access is, as in other products of the Microsoft Office suite, Microsoft Visual Basic for Applications, which is nearly identical to Visual Basic 6.0 (VB6). VBA code can be stored in modules and code behind forms and reports. Modules can also be classes. To manipulate data in tables and queries in VBA, two database access libraries of COM components are provided: the Data Access Objects (DAO), which is included in Access and Windows and evolved to ACE in Microsoft Access 2007 for the ACCDE database format, and ActiveX Data Objects ActiveX Data Objects (ADO). Beside DAO and ADO, developers can also use OLE DB and ODBC for developing native C/C++ programs for Access. For ADPs and the direct manipulation of SQL Server data, ADO is required. DAO is most appropriate for managing data in Access/Jet databases, and the only way to manipulate the complex field types in ACCDB tables. In the database container or navigation pane of Access 2007, Access automatically categorizes each object by type. Many Access developers use the Leszynski naming convention, though this is not universal; it is a programming convention, not a DBMS-enforced rule. Naming Conventions for Microsoft Access It is particularly helpful in VBA where references to object names may not indicate its data type (e.g. tbl for tables, qry for queries). Microsoft Access is most often used for individual and workgroup projects (the Access 97 speed characterization was done for 32 users). Kevin Collins (Microsoft Jet Program Management), "Microsoft Jet 3.5 Performance Overview and Optimization Techniques", MSDN. Retrieved July 19, 2005. Since Access 97, and with Access 2003 and 2007, Microsoft Access and hardware have evolved significantly. Databases under 1 GB in size (which can now fit entirely in RAM) and 50 simultaneous users are well within the capabilities of Microsoft Access. Of course, performance depends on the database design and tasks. Disk intensive work such as complex searching and querying are the most time consuming. As data from a Microsoft Access database can be cached in RAM, processing speed may be substantially better when there is only a single user or if the data is not changing. In the past, the effect of packet latency on the record locking system caused Access databases to be too slow on Virtual Private Network (VPN) or Wide Area Network (WAN) against a Jet database. This is less of an issue now with broadband connections. Performance can also be enhanced if a continuous connection is maintained to the back end database throughout the session rather than opening and closing it for each table access. If Access Database performance over VPN or WAN suffers, then Microsoft Terminal Services is an effective solution. Access databases linked to SQL Server or Access Data Projects work great over VPN and WAN. Split Database Architecture For best results in multiuser environments, Access applications should adopt a split database architecture. The database should be divided into a front end database that contains the application (queries, forms, reports, macros, and modules) that is linked to tables stored in a back end shared database containing the data. The latter database is stored on a shared network drive, and the front-end database is distributed to each user's desktop and linked to the shared database. Using this design, each user has a copy of Microsoft Access installed on their machine along with their application database. This reduces network traffic since the application does not need to be sent over the line for each use, and allows the front end database to contain tables with data that is private to each user for storing settings or temporary data. This split database design also allows development of the application independent of the data. When a new version is ready, the front end database is replaced without impacting the data database. Microsoft Access has two built-in utilities, Database Splitter and Linked Table Manager, to facilitate this architecture. Linked tables in Access use explicit paths rather than relative paths, so the development environment should have the same path as the production environment or a "dynamic-linker" routine should be written in VBA. Access to SQL Server Upsizing To scale Access applications to enterprise or web solutions, a recommended technique is to migrate to Microsoft SQL Server or equivalent server database. A client-server design significantly reduces maintenance and increases security, availability, stability, and transaction logging. Access includes an Upsizing Wizard that allows users to upsize their databases to Microsoft SQL Server an ODBC client-server database. An additional solution, the SQL Server Migration Assistant for Access(SSMA), is also available for download from Microsoft. A variety of upsizing options are available. After migrating the data and queries to SQL Server, the MDB/ACCDB Access database can be linked to the database. This is the easiest migration and most appropriate if the user does not have rights to create objects such as stored procedures on SQL Server. Retrieving data from linked tables is optimized to just the records needed, but are not as efficient for multi-table joins that may require copying the whole table across the network. Access databases can also be converted to an Access Data Projects (ADP) which is tied directly to one SQL Server database. ADPs support the ability to directly create and modify SQL Server objects such as tables, views, stored procedures, views, and SQL Server constraints. The views and stored procedures can significantly reduce the network traffic for multi-table joins. Unfortunately, ADPs do not support temporary tables or link to other data sources beyond the single SQL Server database. (MDB/ACCDB databases can link to a variety of data sources and let you perform heterogenous queries across them). Finally, some Access databases are completely replaced by another solution such as ASP.NET or Java once the data is converted. In many cases, hybrid solutions are created where web interfaces are built by developers using ASP.NET, while administrative or reporting features that don't need to be distributed to everyone and/or change often, are kept in Access for information workers to maintain. While all Access data can migrate to SQL Server, it should be noted that Access queries are richer than SQL Server queries, so some queries cannot migrate successfully. In some situations, you may need to translate VBA functions and user defined functions into TSQL or .NET functions / procedures. Crosstab queries can be migrated to SQL Server using the PIVOT command. Protection Microsoft Access offers several ways to secure the application while allowing users to remain productive. The most basic is a database password. Once entered, the user has full control of all the database objects. This is a relatively weak form of protection which can be easily cracked. A higher level of protection is the use of workgroup security requiring a user name and password. Users and groups can be specified along with their rights at the object type or individual object level. This can be used to specify people with readonly or data entry rights but may be challenging to specify. A separate workgroup security file contains the settings which can be used to manage multiple databases. Workgroup security is not supported in the Access 2007 ACCDB database format, although Access 2007 still supports it for MDB databases. Databases can also be encrypted. The ACCDB format offers significantly advanced encryption from previous versions . Additionally, if the database design needs to be secured to prevent changes, Access databases can be locked/protected (and the source code compiled) by converting the database to a .MDE file. All changes to the VBA project (modules, forms, or reports) need to be made to the original MDB and then reconverted to MDE. In Access 2007, the ACCDB database is converted to an ACCDE file. Some tools are available for unlocking and 'decompiling', although certain elements including original VBA comments and formatting are normally irretrievable. File extensions Microsoft Access saves information under the following file formats: File format Extension Access Project .adp Access Blank Project Template .adn Access Database (2007) .accdb Access Database Runtime (2007) .accdr Access Database Template (2007) .accdt Access Database (2003 and earlier).mdb Access Database, used for addins (2,95,97), previously used for workgroups (2). .mda Access Database Template (2003 and earlier) .mdt Access Workgroup, database for user-level security. .mdw Access (SQL Server) detached database (2000) .mdf Protected Access Database, with compiled VBA (2003 and earlier) .mde Protected Access Database, with compiled VBA (2007) .accde Windows Shortcut: Access Macro .mam Windows Shortcut: Access Query .maq Windows Shortcut: Access Report .mar Windows Shortcut: Access Table .mat Windows Shortcut: Access Form .maf Versions Date Version Versionnumber Supported OS Office suite version 1992 Access 1.1 1 Windows 3.0 1993 Access 2.0 2.0 Windows 3.1x Office 4.3 Pro 1995 Access for Windows 95 7.0 Windows 95 Office 95 Professional 1997 Access 97 8.0 Windows 9x, NT 3.51/4.0 Office 97 Professional and Developer 1999 Access 2000 9.0 Windows 9x, NT 4.0, 2000 Office 2000 Professional, Premium and Developer 2001 Access 2002 10 Windows 98, Me, 2000, XP Office XP Professional and Developer 2003 Access 2003 11 Windows 2000, XP,Vista Office 2003 Professional and Professional Enterprise 2007 Microsoft Office Access 2007 12 Windows XP SP2, Vista Office 2007 Professional, Professional Plus, Ultimate and Enterprise 24-Apr-2009 Microsoft Office Access 2007 SP2 12 Windows XP SP2, Vista Office 2007 Service Pack 2 There are no Access versions between 2.0 and 7.0 because the Windows 95 version was launched with Word 7. All of the Office 95 products have OLE 2 capabilities, and Access 7 shows that it was compatible with Word 7. Competing software Alpha Five Borland Paradox dBase FileMaker Pro (formerly Claris Filemaker) Kexi Lotus Approach NeoOffice OpenOffice.org Base Oracle XE (Express Edition) Sun StarBase Foxpro (later acquired by Microsoft) SQLite Sybase PowerBuilder MySQL PostgreSQL Omnis Studio External links Access Team Blog Microsoft Access Home Page Microsoft Access Newsgroups Microsoft Access 3rd Party Tools Microsoft Access 101 Video Tutorial FAQ site about Microsoft Access Microsoft Access within an Organization's Database Strategy Microsoft Access Performance Tips Microsoft Access Error Numbers and Description Reference Microsoft Access for Beginners References	Microsoft_Access \|@lemmatized microsoft:78 office:21 access:170 previously:2 know:1 relational:3 database:99 management:2 system:3 combine:1 jet:14 engine:8 graphical:2 user:46 interface:4 software:6 development:8 tool:4 member:1 suite:5 application:26 include:17 professional:13 high:2 version:22 window:21 also:22 sell:1 separately:2 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6,401	Nuclear_fusion	Fusion of deuterium with tritium creating helium-4, freeing a neutron, and releasing 17.59 MeV of energy, as an appropriate amount of mass converting to the kinetic energy of the products, in agreement with E = Δm c2. In nuclear physics and nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple like-charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release or absorption of energy, which allows matter to enter a plasma state. The fusion of two nuclei with lower mass than iron (which, along with nickel, has the largest binding energy per nucleon) generally releases energy while the fusion of nuclei heavier than iron absorbs energy; vice-versa for the reverse process, nuclear fission. In the simplest case of hydrogen fusion, two protons have to be brought close enough for their mutual electric repulsion to be overcome by the nuclear force and the subsequent release of energy. Nuclear fusion occurs naturally in stars. Artificial fusion in human enterprises has also been achieved, although has not yet been completely controlled. Building upon the nuclear transmutation experiments of Ernest Rutherford done a few years earlier, fusion of light nuclei (hydrogen isotopes) was first observed by Mark Oliphant in 1932; the steps of the main cycle of nuclear fusion in stars were subsequently worked out by Hans Bethe throughout the remainder of that decade. Research into fusion for military purposes began in the early 1940s as part of the Manhattan Project, but was not successful until 1952. Research into controlled fusion for civilian purposes began in the 1950s, and continues to this day. Overview Fusion reactions power the stars and produce all but the lightest elements in a process called nucleosynthesis. Although the fusion of lighter elements in stars releases energy, production of the heavier elements absorbs energy. When the fusion reaction is a sustained uncontrolled chain, it can result in a thermonuclear explosion, such as that generated by a hydrogen bomb. Reactions which are not self-sustaining can still release considerable energy, as well as large numbers of neutrons. Research into controlled fusion, with the aim of producing fusion power for the production of electricity, has been conducted for over 50 years. It has been accompanied by extreme scientific and technological difficulties, but resulted in steady progress. At present, break-even (self-sustaining) controlled fusion reactions have been demonstrated in a few tokamak-type reactors around the world. These have enabled the creation of workable designs for a reactor which will deliver ten times more fusion energy than the amount needed to heat up plasma to required temperatures (see ITER which is scheduled to be operational in 2018). It takes considerable energy to force nuclei to fuse, even those of the lightest element, hydrogen. This is because all nuclei have a positive charge (due to their protons), and as like charges repel, nuclei strongly resist being put too close together. Accelerated to high speeds (that is, heated to thermonuclear temperatures), they can overcome this electromagnetic repulsion and get close enough for the attractive nuclear force to be sufficiently strong to achieve fusion. The fusion of lighter nuclei, which creates a heavier nucleus and a free neutron, generally releases more energy than it takes to force the nuclei together; this is an exothermic process that can produce self-sustaining reactions. The energy released in most nuclear reactions is much larger than that in chemical reactions, because the binding energy that holds a nucleus together is far greater than the energy that holds electrons to a nucleus. For example, the ionization energy gained by adding an electron to a hydrogen nucleus is 13.6 electron volts—less than one-millionth of the 17 MeV released in the D-T (deuterium-tritium) reaction shown in the diagram to the right. Fusion reactions have an energy density many times greater than nuclear fission; i.e., the reactions produce far greater energies per unit of mass even though individual fission reactions are generally much more energetic than individual ones, which are themselves millions of times more energetic than chemical reactions. Only the direct conversion of mass into energy, such as that caused by the collision of matter and antimatter, is more energetic per unit of mass than nuclear fusion. Requirements A substantial energy barrier of electrostatic forces must be overcome before fusion can occur. At large distances two naked nuclei repel one another because of the repulsive electrostatic force between their positively charged protons. If two nuclei can be brought close enough together, however, the electrostatic repulsion can be overcome by the attractive nuclear force which is stronger at close distances. When a nucleon such as a proton or neutron is added to a nucleus, the nuclear force attracts it to other nucleons, but primarily to its immediate neighbours due to the short range of the force. The nucleons in the interior of a nucleus have more neighboring nucleons than those on the surface. Since smaller nuclei have a larger surface area-to-volume ratio, the binding energy per nucleon due to the strong force generally increases with the size of the nucleus but approaches a limiting value corresponding to that of nucleus with a diameter of about four nucleons. The electrostatic force, on the other hand, is an inverse-square force, so a proton added to a nucleus will feel an electrostatic repulsion from all the other protons in the nucleus. The electrostatic energy per nucleon due to the electrostatic force thus increases without limit as nuclei get larger. At short distances the attractive nuclear force is stronger than the repulsive electrostatic force. As such, the main technical difficulty for fusion is getting the nuclei close enough to fuse. Distances not to scale. The net result of these opposing forces is that the binding energy per nucleon generally increases with increasing size, up to the elements iron and nickel, and then decreases for heavier nuclei. Eventually, the binding energy becomes negative and very heavy nuclei (all with more than 208 nucleons, corresponding to a diameter of about 6 nucleons) are not stable. The four most tightly bound nuclei, in decreasing order of binding energy, are , , , and . The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei Even though the nickel isotope ,, is more stable, the iron isotope is an order of magnitude more common. This is due to a greater disintegration rate for in the interior of stars driven by photon absorption. A notable exception to this general trend is the helium-4 nucleus, whose binding energy is higher than that of lithium, the next heaviest element. The Pauli exclusion principle provides an explanation for this exceptional behavior—it says that because protons and neutrons are fermions, they cannot exist in exactly the same state. Each proton or neutron energy state in a nucleus can accommodate both a spin up particle and a spin down particle. Helium-4 has an anomalously large binding energy because its nucleus consists of two protons and two neutrons; so all four of its nucleons can be in the ground state. Any additional nucleons would have to go into higher energy states. The situation is similar if two nuclei are brought together. As they approach each other, all the protons in one nucleus repel all the protons in the other. Not until the two nuclei actually come in contact can the strong nuclear force take over. Consequently, even when the final energy state is lower, there is a large energy barrier that must first be overcome. It is called the Coulomb barrier. The Coulomb barrier is smallest for isotopes of hydrogen—they contain only a single positive charge in the nucleus. A bi-proton is not stable, so neutrons must also be involved, ideally in such a way that a helium nucleus, with its extremely tight binding, is one of the products. Using deuterium-tritium fuel, the resulting energy barrier is about 0.01 MeV. In comparison, the energy needed to remove an electron from hydrogen is 13.6 eV, about 750 times less energy. The (intermediate) result of the fusion is an unstable 5He nucleus, which immediately ejects a neutron with 14.1 MeV. The recoil energy of the remaining 4He nucleus is 3.5 MeV, so the total energy liberated is 17.6 MeV. This is many times more than what was needed to overcome the energy barrier. If the energy to initiate the reaction comes from accelerating one of the nuclei, the process is called beam-target fusion; if both nuclei are accelerated, it is beam-beam fusion. If the nuclei are part of a plasma near thermal equilibrium, one speaks of thermonuclear fusion. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles, so by heating the nuclei they will gain energy and eventually have enough to overcome this 0.01 MeV. Converting the units between electronvolts and kelvins shows that the barrier would be overcome at a temperature in excess of 120 million kelvins, obviously a very high temperature. There are two effects that lower the actual temperature needed. One is the fact that temperature is the average kinetic energy, implying that some nuclei at this temperature would actually have much higher energy than 0.01 MeV, while others would be much lower. It is the nuclei in the high-energy tail of the velocity distribution that account for most of the fusion reactions. The other effect is quantum tunneling. The nuclei do not actually have to have enough energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier completely. If they have nearly enough energy, they can tunnel through the remaining barrier. For this reason fuel at lower temperatures will still undergo fusion events, at a lower rate. The fusion reaction rate increases rapidly with temperature until it maximizes and then gradually drops off. The DT rate peaks at a lower temperature (about 70 keV, or 800 million kelvins) and at a higher value than other reactions commonly considered for fusion energy. The reaction cross section σ is a measure of the probability of a fusion reaction as a function of the relative velocity of the two reactant nuclei. If the reactants have a distribution of velocities, e.g. a thermal distribution with thermonuclear fusion, then it is useful to perform an average over the distributions of the product of cross section and velocity. The reaction rate (fusions per volume per time) is <σv> times the product of the reactant number densities: If a species of nuclei is reacting with itself, such as the DD reaction, then the product must be replaced by . increases from virtually zero at room temperatures up to meaningful magnitudes at temperatures of 10 – 100 keV. At these temperatures, well above typical ionization energies (13.6 eV in the hydrogen case), the fusion reactants exist in a plasma state. The significance of as a function of temperature in a device with a particular energy confinement time is found by considering the Lawson criterion. Gravitational confinement One force capable of confining the fuel well enough to satisfy the Lawson criterion is gravity. The mass needed, however, is so great that gravitational confinement is only found in stars (the smallest of which are brown dwarfs). Even if the more reactive fuel deuterium were used, a mass greater than that of the planet Jupiter would be needed. Magnetic confinement See Magnetic confinement fusion for more information. Electrically charged particles (such as fuel ions) will follow magnetic field lines (see Guiding center#Gyration). The fusion fuel can therefore be trapped using a strong magnetic field. A variety of magnetic configurations exist, including the toroidal geometries of tokamaks and stellarators and open-ended mirror confinement systems. Inertial confinement See Inertial fusion energy for more information. A third confinement principle is to apply a rapid pulse of energy to a large part of the surface of a pellet of fusion fuel, causing it to simultaneously "implode" and heat to very high pressure and temperature. If the fuel is dense enough and hot enough, the fusion reaction rate will be high enough to burn a significant fraction of the fuel before it has dissipated. To achieve these extreme conditions, the initially cold fuel must be explosively compressed. Inertial confinement is used in the hydrogen bomb, where the driver is x-rays created by a fission bomb. Inertial confinement is also attempted in "controlled" nuclear fusion, where the driver is a laser, ion, or electron beam, or a Z-pinch. Another method is to use conventional high explosive material to compress a fuel to fusion conditions. F. Winterberg"Conjectured Metastable Super-Explosives formed under High Pressure for Thermonuclear Ignition" Zhang, Fan (Medicine Hat, CA)Murray, Stephen Burke (Medicine Hat, CA)Higgins, Andrew (Montreal, CA)(2005)"Super compressed detonation method and device to effect such detonation" The UTIAS explosive-driven-implosion facility was used to produce stable, centered and focused hemispherical implosions I.I. Glass and J.C. Poinssot"IMPLOSION DRIVEN SHOCK TUBE" to generate neutrons from D-D reactions. The simplest and most direct method proved to be in a predetonated stoichiometric mixture of deuterium-oxygen. The other successful method was using a miniature Voitenko compressor, D.Sagie and I.I Glass(1982)"Explosive-driven hemispherical implosions for generating fusion plasmas" where a plane diaphragm was driven by the implosion wave into a secondary small spherical cavity that contained pure deuterium gas at one atmosphere. Some confinement principles have been investigated, such as muon-catalyzed fusion, the Farnsworth-Hirsch fusor and Polywell (inertial electrostatic confinement), and bubble fusion. Production methods A variety of methods are known to effect nuclear fusion. Some are "cold" in the strict sense that no part of the material is hot (except for the reaction products), some are "cold" in the limited sense that the bulk of the material is at a relatively low temperature and pressure but the reactants are not, and some are "hot" fusion methods that create macroscopic regions of very high temperature and pressure. Locally cold fusion Muon-catalyzed fusion is a well-established and reproducible fusion process that occurs at ordinary temperatures. It was studied in detail by Steven Jones in the early 1980s. It has not been reported to produce net energy. Net energy production from this reaction is not believed to be possible because of the energy required to create muons, their 2.2 µs half-life, and the chance that a muon will bind to the new alpha particle and thus stop catalyzing fusion. Generally cold, locally hot fusion Accelerator based light-ion fusion. Using particle accelerators it is possible to achieve particle kinetic energies sufficient to induce many light ion fusion reactions. Accelerating light ions is relatively easy, cheap, and can be done in an efficient manner - all it takes is a vacuum tube, a pair of electrodes, and a high-voltage transformer; fusion can be observed with as little as 10 kilovolt between electrodes. The key problem with accelerator-based fusion (and with cold targets in general) is that fusion cross sections are many orders of magnitude lower than Coulomb interaction cross sections. Therefore vast majority of ions ends up expending their energy on bremsstrahlung and ionization of atoms of the target. Devices referred to as sealed-tube neutron generators are particularly relevant to this discussion. These small devices are miniature particle accelerators filled with deuterium and tritium gas in an arrangement which allows ions of these nuclei to be accelerated against hydride targets, also containing deuterium and tritium, where fusion takes place. Hundreds of neutron generators are produced annually for use in the petroleum industry where they are used in measurement equipment for locating and mapping oil reserves. Despite periodic reports in the popular press by scientists claiming to have invented "table-top" fusion machines, neutron generators have been around for half a century. The sizes of these devices vary but the smallest instruments are often packaged in sizes smaller than a loaf of bread. These devices do not produce a net power output. In sonoluminescence, acoustic shock waves create temporary bubbles that collapse shortly after creation, producing very high temperatures and pressures. In 2002, Rusi P. Taleyarkhan reported the possibility that bubble fusion occurs in those collapsing bubbles (aka sonofusion). As of 2005, experiments to determine whether fusion is occurring give conflicting results. If fusion is occurring, it is because the local temperature and pressure are sufficiently high to produce hot fusion. Access : Desktop fusion is back on the table : Nature News In an episode of Horizon, on BBC television, results were presented showing that, although temperatures were reached which could initiate fusion on a large scale, no fusion was occurring, and inaccuracies in the measuring system were the cause of anomalous results. The Farnsworth-Hirsch Fusor is a tabletop device in which fusion occurs. This fusion comes from high effective temperatures produced by electrostatic acceleration of ions. The device can be built inexpensively, but it too is unable to produce a net power output. The Polywell is a concept for a tabletop device in which fusion occurs. The device is a non-thermodynamic equilibrium machine which uses electrostatic confinement to accelerate ions into a center where they fuse together. Antimatter-initialized fusion uses small amounts of antimatter to trigger a tiny fusion explosion. This has been studied primarily in the context of making nuclear pulse propulsion feasible. This is not near becoming a practical power source, due to the cost of manufacturing antimatter alone. Pyroelectric fusion was reported in April 2005 by a team at UCLA. The scientists used a pyroelectric crystal heated from −34 to 7°C (−30 to 45°F), combined with a tungsten needle to produce an electric field of about 25 gigavolts per meter to ionize and accelerate deuterium nuclei into an erbium deuteride target. Though the energy of the deuterium ions generated by the crystal has not been directly measured, the authors used 100 keV (a temperature of about 109 K) as an estimate in their modeling. Supplementary methods for “Observation of nuclear fusion driven by a pyroelectric crystal” At these energy levels, two deuterium nuclei can fuse together to produce a helium-3 nucleus, a 2.45 MeV neutron and bremsstrahlung. Although it makes a useful neutron generator, the apparatus is not intended for power generation since it requires far more energy than it produces. UCLA Crystal Fusion Physics News Update 729 Coming in out of the cold: nuclear fusion, for real \| csmonitor.com Nuclear fusion on the desktop ... really! - Science - MSNBC.com Hot fusion In "standard" "hot" fusion, the fuel reaches tremendous temperature and pressure inside a fusion reactor or nuclear weapon. The methods in the second group are examples of non-equilibrium systems, in which very high temperatures and pressures are produced in a relatively small region adjacent to material of much lower temperature. In his doctoral thesis for MIT, Todd Rider did a theoretical study of all quasineutral, isotropic, non-equilibrium fusion systems. He demonstrated that all such systems will leak energy at a rapid rate due to bremsstrahlung produced when electrons in the plasma hit other electrons or ions at a cooler temperature and suddenly decelerate. The problem is not as pronounced in a hot plasma because the range of temperatures, and thus the magnitude of the deceleration, is much lower. Note that Rider's work does not apply to non-neutral and/or anisotropic non-equilibrium plasmas. Important reactions Astrophysical reaction chains The proton-proton chain dominates in stars the size of the Sun or smaller. The CNO cycle dominates in stars heavier than the Sun. The most important fusion process in nature is that which powers the stars. The net result is the fusion of four protons into one alpha particle, with the release of two positrons, two neutrinos (which changes two of the protons into neutrons), and energy, but several individual reactions are involved, depending on the mass of the star. For stars the size of the sun or smaller, the proton-proton chain dominates. In heavier stars, the CNO cycle is more important. Both types of processes are responsible for the creation of new elements as part of stellar nucleosynthesis. At the temperatures and densities in stellar cores the rates of fusion reactions are notoriously slow. For example, at solar core temperature (T ≈ 15 MK) and density (160 g/cm³), the energy release rate is only 276 μW/cm³—about a quarter of the volumetric rate at which a resting human body generates heat. FusEdWeb \| Fusion Education Thus, reproduction of stellar core conditions in a lab for nuclear fusion power production is completely impractical. Because nuclear reaction rates strongly depend on temperature (exp(−E/kT)), then in order to achieve reasonable rates of energy production in terrestrial fusion reactors 10–100 times higher temperatures (compared to stellar interiors) are required T ≈ 0.1–1.0 GK. Criteria and candidates for terrestrial reactions In man-made fusion, the primary fuel is not constrained to be protons and higher temperatures can be used, so reactions with larger cross-sections are chosen. This implies a lower Lawson criterion, and therefore less startup effort. Another concern is the production of neutrons, which activate the reactor structure radiologically, but also have the advantages of allowing volumetric extraction of the fusion energy and tritium breeding. Reactions that release no neutrons are referred to as aneutronic. In order to be useful as a source of energy, a fusion reaction must satisfy several criteria. It must be exothermic: This may be obvious, but it limits the reactants to the low Z (number of protons) side of the curve of binding energy. It also makes helium the most common product because of its extraordinarily tight binding, although and also show up; involve low Z nuclei: This is because the electrostatic repulsion must be overcome before the nuclei are close enough to fuse; have two reactants: At anything less than stellar densities, three body collisions are too improbable. It should be noted that in inertial confinement, both stellar densities and temperatures are exceeded to compensate for the shortcomings of the third parameter of the Lawson criterion, ICF's very short confinement time; have two or more products: This allows simultaneous conservation of energy and momentum without relying on the electromagnetic force; conserve both protons and neutrons: The cross sections for the weak interaction are too small. Few reactions meet these criteria. The following are those with the largest cross sections: :{\| border="0" \|- style="height:2em;" \|(1) \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|( \|\|3.5 MeV \|\|) \|\|+ \|\|n0 \|\|( \|\|14.1 MeV \|\|) \|- style="height:2em;" \|(2i) \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|( \|\|1.01 MeV \|\|) \|\|+ \|\|p+ \|\|( \|\|3.02 MeV \|\|) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 50% \|- style="height:2em;" \|(2ii) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|( \|\|0.82 MeV \|\|) \|\|+ \|\|n0 \|\|( \|\|2.45 MeV \|\|) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 50% \|- style="height:2em;" \|(3) \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|( \|\|3.6 MeV \|\|) \|\|+ \|\|p+ \|\|( \|\|14.7 MeV \|\|) \|- style="height:2em;" \|(4) \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|2 n0 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|11.3 MeV \|- style="height:2em;" \|(5) \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|2 p+ \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|12.9 MeV \|- style="height:2em;" \|(6i) \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|p+ \|\|+ \|\|n0 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|12.1 MeV \|\| \|\| 51% \|- style="height:2em;" \|(6ii) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|( \|\|4.8 MeV \|\|) \|\|+ \|\| \|\|( \|\|9.5 MeV \|\|) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| 43% \|- style="height:2em;" \|(6iii) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|( \|\|0.5 MeV \|\|) \|\|+ \|\|n0 \|\|( \|\|1.9 MeV \|\|) \|\|+ \|\|p+ \|\|( \|\|11.9 MeV \|\|) \|\| 6% \|- style="height:2em;" \|(7i) \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\|2 \|\|+ \|\|22.4 MeV \|- style="height:2em;" \|(7ii) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|n0 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|2.56 MeV \|- style="height:2em;" \|(7iii) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|+ \|\|p+ \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|5.0 MeV \|- style="height:2em;" \|(7iv) \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|+ \|\|n0 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|3.4 MeV \|- style="height:2em;" \|(8) \|\|p+ \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|( \|\|1.7 MeV \|\|) \|\|+ \|\| \|\|( \|\|2.3 MeV \|\|) \|- style="height:2em;" \|(9) \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\|2 \|\|+ \|\|p+ \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|16.9 MeV \|- style="height:2em;" \|(10) \|\|p+ \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\|3 \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\| \|\|+ \|\|8.7 MeV \|} For reactions with two products, the energy is divided between them in inverse proportion to their masses, as shown. In most reactions with three products, the distribution of energy varies. For reactions that can result in more than one set of products, the branching ratios are given. Some reaction candidates can be eliminated at once. http://theses.mit.edu/Dienst/UI/2.0/Page/0018.mit.theses/1995-130/30?npages=306 The D-6Li reaction has no advantage compared to p+- because it is roughly as difficult to burn but produces substantially more neutrons through - side reactions. There is also a p+- reaction, but the cross section is far too low, except possibly when Ti > 1 MeV, but at such high temperatures an endothermic, direct neutron-producing reaction also becomes very significant. Finally there is also a p+- reaction, which is not only difficult to burn, but can be easily induced to split into two alpha particles and a neutron. In addition to the fusion reactions, the following reactions with neutrons are important in order to "breed" tritium in "dry" fusion bombs and some proposed fusion reactors: :{\| border="0" \|- style="height:2em;" \|n0 \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|- style="height:2em;" \|n0 \|\|+ \|\| \|\|→ \|\| \|\|+ \|\| \|\|+ \|\|n0 \|} To evaluate the usefulness of these reactions, in addition to the reactants, the products, and the energy released, one needs to know something about the cross section. Any given fusion device will have a maximum plasma pressure that it can sustain, and an economical device will always operate near this maximum. Given this pressure, the largest fusion output is obtained when the temperature is chosen so that <σv>/T² is a maximum. This is also the temperature at which the value of the triple product nTτ required for ignition is a minimum, since that required value is inversely proportional to <σv>/T² (see Lawson criterion). (A plasma is "ignited" if the fusion reactions produce enough power to maintain the temperature without external heating.) This optimum temperature and the value of <σv>/T² at that temperature is given for a few of these reactions in the following table. fuel T [keV] <σv>/T² [m³/s/keV²]- 13.6 1.24×10-24- 15 1.28×10-26- 58 2.24×10-26p+- 66 1.46×10-27p+- 123 3.01×10-27 Note that many of the reactions form chains. For instance, a reactor fueled with and will create some , which is then possible to use in the - reaction if the energies are "right". An elegant idea is to combine the reactions (8) and (9). The from reaction (8) can react with in reaction (9) before completely thermalizing. This produces an energetic proton which in turn undergoes reaction (8) before thermalizing. A detailed analysis shows that this idea will not really work well, but it is a good example of a case where the usual assumption of a Maxwellian plasma is not appropriate. Neutronicity, confinement requirement, and power density The only fusion reactions thus far produced by humans to achieve ignition are those which have been created in hydrogen bombs, the first of which, Ivy Mike, is shown here. Any of the reactions above can in principle be the basis of fusion power production. In addition to the temperature and cross section discussed above, we must consider the total energy of the fusion products Efus, the energy of the charged fusion products Ech, and the atomic number Z of the non-hydrogenic reactant. Specification of the - reaction entails some difficulties, though. To begin with, one must average over the two branches (2) and (3). More difficult is to decide how to treat the and products. burns so well in a deuterium plasma that it is almost impossible to extract from the plasma. The - reaction is optimized at a much higher temperature, so the burnup at the optimum - temperature may be low, so it seems reasonable to assume the but not the gets burned up and adds its energy to the net reaction. Thus we will count the - fusion energy as Efus = (4.03+17.6+3.27)/2 = 12.5 MeV and the energy in charged particles as Ech = (4.03+3.5+0.82)/2 = 4.2 MeV. Another unique aspect of the - reaction is that there is only one reactant, which must be taken into account when calculating the reaction rate. With this choice, we tabulate parameters for four of the most important reactions. fuel ZEfus [MeV]Ech [MeV]neutronicity- 1 17.6 3.5 0.80- 1 12.5 4.2 0.66- 2 18.3 18.3 ~0.05p+- 5 8.7 8.7 ~0.001 The last column is the neutronicity of the reaction, the fraction of the fusion energy released as neutrons. This is an important indicator of the magnitude of the problems associated with neutrons like radiation damage, biological shielding, remote handling, and safety. For the first two reactions it is calculated as (Efus-Ech)/Efus. For the last two reactions, where this calculation would give zero, the values quoted are rough estimates based on side reactions that produce neutrons in a plasma in thermal equilibrium. Of course, the reactants should also be mixed in the optimal proportions. This is the case when each reactant ion plus its associated electrons accounts for half the pressure. Assuming that the total pressure is fixed, this means that density of the non-hydrogenic ion is smaller than that of the hydrogenic ion by a factor 2/(Z+1). Therefore the rate for these reactions is reduced by the same factor, on top of any differences in the values of <σv>/T². On the other hand, because the - reaction has only one reactant, the rate is twice as high as if the fuel were divided between two hydrogenic species. Thus there is a "penalty" of (2/(Z+1)) for non-hydrogenic fuels arising from the fact that they require more electrons, which take up pressure without participating in the fusion reaction. (It is usually a good assumption that the electron temperature will be nearly equal to the ion temperature. Some authors, however discuss the possibility that the electrons could be maintained substantially colder than the ions. In such a case, known as a "hot ion mode", the "penalty" would not apply.) There is at the same time a "bonus" of a factor 2 for - because each ion can react with any of the other ions, not just a fraction of them. We can now compare these reactions in the following table. fuel <σv>/T²penalty/bonus reactivityLawson criterionpower density (W/m3/kPa2)relation of power density- 1.24×10-24 1 1 1 34 1- 1.28×10-26 2 48 30 0.5 68- 2.24×10-26 2/3 83 16 0.43 80p+- 1.46×10-27 1/2 1700 0.005 6800p+- 3.01×10-27 1/3 1240 500 0.014 2500 The maximum value of <σv>/T² is taken from a previous table. The "penalty/bonus" factor is that related to a non-hydrogenic reactant or a single-species reaction. The values in the column "reactivity" are found by dividing 1.24 by the product of the second and third columns. It indicates the factor by which the other reactions occur more slowly than the - reaction under comparable conditions. The column "Lawson criterion" weights these results with Ech and gives an indication of how much more difficult it is to achieve ignition with these reactions, relative to the difficulty for the - reaction. The last column is labeled "power density" and weights the practical reactivity with Efus. It indicates how much lower the fusion power density of the other reactions is compared to the - reaction and can be considered a measure of the economic potential. Bremsstrahlung losses in quasineutral, isotropic plasmas The ions undergoing fusion in many systems will essentially never occur alone but will be mixed with electrons that in aggregate neutralize the ions' bulk electrical charge and form a plasma. The electrons will generally have a temperature comparable to or greater than that of the ions, so they will collide with the ions and emit x-ray radiation of 10-30 keV energy (Bremsstrahlung). The Sun and stars are opaque to x-rays, but essentially any terrestrial fusion reactor will be optically thin for x-rays of this energy range. X-rays are difficult to reflect but they are effectively absorbed (and converted into heat) in less than mm thickness of stainless steel (which is part of a reactor's shield). The ratio of fusion power produced to x-ray radiation lost to walls is an important figure of merit. This ratio is generally maximized at a much higher temperature than that which maximizes the power density (see the previous subsection). The following table shows the rough optimum temperature and the power ratio at that temperature for several reactions. http://theses.mit.edu/Dienst/UI/2.0/Page/0018.mit.theses/1995-130/26?npages=306 fuel Ti (keV)Pfusion/PBremsstrahlung- 50 140- 500 2.9- 100 5.3- 1000 0.72p+- 800 0.21p+- 300 0.57 The actual ratios of fusion to Bremsstrahlung power will likely be significantly lower for several reasons. For one, the calculation assumes that the energy of the fusion products is transmitted completely to the fuel ions, which then lose energy to the electrons by collisions, which in turn lose energy by Bremsstrahlung. However because the fusion products move much faster than the fuel ions, they will give up a significant fraction of their energy directly to the electrons. Secondly, the plasma is assumed to be composed purely of fuel ions. In practice, there will be a significant proportion of impurity ions, which will lower the ratio. In particular, the fusion products themselves must remain in the plasma until they have given up their energy, and will remain some time after that in any proposed confinement scheme. Finally, all channels of energy loss other than Bremsstrahlung have been neglected. The last two factors are related. On theoretical and experimental grounds, particle and energy confinement seem to be closely related. In a confinement scheme that does a good job of retaining energy, fusion products will build up. If the fusion products are efficiently ejected, then energy confinement will be poor, too. The temperatures maximizing the fusion power compared to the Bremsstrahlung are in every case higher than the temperature that maximizes the power density and minimizes the required value of the fusion triple product. This will not change the optimum operating point for - very much because the Bremsstrahlung fraction is low, but it will push the other fuels into regimes where the power density relative to - is even lower and the required confinement even more difficult to achieve. For - and -, Bremsstrahlung losses will be a serious, possibly prohibitive problem. For -, p+- and p+- the Bremsstrahlung losses appear to make a fusion reactor using these fuels with a quasineutral, anisotropic plasma impossible. Some ways out of this dilemma are considered—and rejected—in Fundamental limitations on plasma fusion systems not in thermodynamic equilibrium by Todd Rider. http://fusion.ps.uci.edu/artan/Posters/aps_poster_2.pdf Portable Document Format (PDF) This limitation does not apply to non-neutral and anisotropic plasmas; however, these have their own challenges to contend with. See also Fusion power Pulsed power Nuclear physics Nuclear fission Nuclear reactor Nucleosynthesis Helium fusion Helium-3 Neutron source Neutron generator Timeline of nuclear fusion Periodic table References External links International Fusion Research and Prototype reactor IEC Fusion Video Presentation – Presentation on inertial electrostatic confinement fusion from Dr. Robert Bussard Fusion.org.uk – A guide to fusion from the UKAEA Fusion as an Energy Source– A guide from the Institute of Physics Fusion Science and Technology– Technical journal published by the American Nuclear Society. JET– Nuclear Fusion Research at the Joint European Torus Nuclear Files.org What is Nuclear Fusion? Nature: Chaos could keep fusion under control Nuclear fusion reactions First chapter of The Physics of Inertial Fusion, Stefano Atzeni and Jürgen Meyer-ter-Vehn Science or Fiction - Is there a Future for Nuclear? (Nov. 2007) - A publication from the Austrian Ecology Institute about 'Generation IV' and Fusion reactors.	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6,402	Chinese_remainder_theorem	The Chinese remainder theorem is a result about congruences in number theory and its generalizations in abstract algebra. Theorem statement The original form of the theorem, contained in a third-century AD book Sun Zi suanjing (孙子算经 The Mathematical Classic by Sun Zi) by Chinese mathematician Sun Tzu and later republished in a 1247 book by Qin Jiushao, the Shushu Jiuzhang (數書九章 Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections) is a statement about simultaneous congruences (see modular arithmetic). Suppose n1, n2, …, nk are positive integers which are pairwise coprime. Then, for any given integers a1,a2, …, ak, there exists an integer x solving the system of simultaneous congruences Furthermore, all solutions x to this system are congruent modulo the product N = n1n2…nk. Hence for all , if and only if . Sometimes, the simultaneous congruences can be solved even if the nis are not pairwise coprime. A solution x exists if and only if: All solutions x are then congruent modulo the least common multiple of the ni. Versions of the Chinese remainder theorem were also known to Brahmagupta (7th century), and appear in Fibonacci's Liber Abaci (1202). A constructive algorithm to find the solution This algorithm only treats the situations where the 's are pairwise coprime. The method of successive substitution can often yield solutions to simultaneous congruences, even when the moduli are not pairwise coprime. Suppose, as above, that a solution is needed to the system of congruences: Again, to begin, the product is defined. Then a solution x can be found as follows. For each i the integers and are coprime. Using the extended Euclidean algorithm we can find integers and such that . Then, choosing the label , the above expression becomes: Consider . The above equation guarantees that its remainder, when divided by , must be 1. On the other hand, since it is formed as , the presence of guarantees that it's evenly divisible by any so long as . Because of this, combined with the multiplication rules allowed in congruences, one solution to the system of simultaneous congruences is: For example, consider the problem of finding an integer x such that Using the extended Euclidean algorithm for 3 and 4×5 = 20, we find (−13) × 3 + 2 × 20 = 1, i.e. e1 = 40. Using the Euclidean algorithm for 4 and 3×5 = 15, we get (−11) × 4 + 3 × 15 = 1. Hence, e2 = 45. Finally, using the Euclidean algorithm for 5 and 3×4 = 12, we get 5 × 5 + (−2) × 12 = 1, meaning e3 = −24. A solution x is therefore 2 × 40 + 3 × 45 + 1 × (−24) = 191. All other solutions are congruent to 191 modulo 60, (3 × 4 × 5 = 60) which means that they are all congruent to 11 modulo 60. NOTE: There are multiple implementations of the extended Euclidean algorithm which will yield different sets of , , and . These sets however will produce the same solution i.e. 11 modulo 60. Statement for principal ideal domains For a principal ideal domain R the Chinese remainder theorem takes the following form: If u1, ..., uk are elements of R which are pairwise coprime, and u denotes the product u1...uk, then the quotient ring R/uR and the product ring R/u1R× ... × R/ukR are isomorphic via the isomorphism such that This isomorphism is unique; the inverse isomorphism can be constructed as follows. For each i, the elements ui and u/ui are coprime, and therefore there exist elements r and s in R with Set ei = s u/ui. Then the inverse of f is the map such that Note that this statement is a straightforward generalization of the above theorem about integer congruences: the ring Z of integers is a principal ideal domain, the surjectivity of the map f shows that every system of congruences of the form can be solved for x, and the injectivity of the map f shows that all the solutions x are congruent modulo u. Statement for general rings The general form of the Chinese remainder theorem, which implies all the statements given above, can be formulated for commutative rings and ideals. If R is a commutative ring and I1, ..., Ik are ideals of R which are pairwise coprime (meaning that Ii + Ij = R whenever i ≠ j), then the product I of these ideals is equal to their intersection, and the quotient ring R/I is isomorphic to the product ring R/I1 x R/I2 x ... x R/Ik via the isomorphism such that Applications In the RSA algorithm calculations are made modulo , where is a product of two large prime numbers and . 1024-, 2048- or 4096-bit integers are commonly used, making calculations in very time-consuming. By the Chinese Remainder Theorem, however, these calculations can be done in the isomorphic ring instead. Since and are normally of about the same size, that is about , calculations in the latter representation are much faster. Note that RSA algorithm implementations using this isomorphism are more susceptible to fault injection attacks. The Chinese Remainder Theorem may also be used to construct an elegant Gödel numbering for sequences, which is needed to prove Gödel's incompleteness theorems. The following example shows a connection with the classic polynomial interpolation theory. Let r complex points ("interpolation nodes") be given, together with the complex data , for all and . The general Hermite interpolation problem asks for a polynomial taking the prescribed derivatives in each node : . Introducing the polynomials , the problem may be equivalently reformulated as a system of simultaneous congruences: . By the Chinese remainder theorem in the principal ideal domain , there is a unique such polynomial with degree . A direct construction, in analogy with the above proof for the integer number case, can be performed as follows. Define the polynomials and . The partial fraction decomposition of gives r polynomials with degrees such that , so that . Then a solution of the simultaneous congruence system is given by the polynomial ; and the minimal degree solution is this one reduced modulo , that is the unique with degree less than n. The Chinese Remainder Theorem can also be used in Secret sharing, which consists of distributing a set of shares among a group of people who, all together (but noone alone), can recover a certain secret from the given set of shares. Each of the shares is represented in a congruence, and the solution of the system of congruences using the Chinese remainder theorem is the secret to be recovered. Secret Sharing using the Chinese Remainder Theorem uses, along with the Chinese remainder theorem, special sequences of integers that guarantee the impossibility of recovering the secret from a set of shares with less than a certain cardinality. Non-commutative case: a counter-example The Chinese remainder theorem does not hold in the non-commutative case. Consider the ring of non-commutative real polynomials in and . Let be the principal two-sided ideal generated by and the principal two-sided ideal generated by Then but Proof:''' Observe that is formed by all polynomials with an in every term and that every polynomial in vanishes under the substitution . Consider the polynomial . Clearly . Define a term in as an element of the multiplicative monoid of generated by and . Define the degree of a term as the usual degree of the term after the substitution . On the other hand, suppose . Observe that a term in of maximum degree depends on otherwise under the substitution can not vanish. The same happens then for an element . Observe that the last , from left to right, in a term of maximum degree in an element of is preceded by more than one . (We are counting here all the preceding s. e.g. in the last is preceded by s.) This proves that since that last in a term of maximum degree () is preceded by only one . Hence . On the other hand, it is true in general that implies . To see this, note that , while the opposite inclusion is obvious. Also, we have in general that, provided are pairwise coprime two-sided ideals in , the natural map is an isomorphism. Note that can be replaced by a sum over all orderings of of their product (or just a sum over enough orderings, using inductively that for coprime ideals ). See also Covering system Residue number system Hasse principle Secret Sharing using the Chinese Remainder Theorem References Donald Knuth. The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.3.2 (pp.286–291), exercise 4.6.2–3 (page 456). Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest, and Clifford Stein. Introduction to Algorithms'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0-262-03293-7. Section 31.5: The Chinese remainder theorem, pp.873–876. External links Chinese remainder theorem at cut-the-knot "Chinese Remainder Theorem" by Ed Pegg, Jr., Wolfram Demonstrations Project, 2007. 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6,403	Kagoshima	is the capital city of Kagoshima Prefecture at the southwestern tip of the Kyūshū island of Japan, and the largest city in the prefecture by some margin. It has been nicknamed the 'Naples of the Eastern world' for its bay location (Aira Caldera), hot climate and impressive stratovolcano, Sakurajima. As of 1 January 2005, the city had an estimated population of 605,650 and a density of 1,107.81 persons per km². The total area is 546.71 km². In 2003, the city had an estimated population of only 554,136 and density of 1,911.41 persons per km². The total area was 289.91 km². The reason the city's total area was nearly doubled between 2003 and 2005 is that five towns—Kōriyama, Matsumoto, Kiire, Sakurajima, and Yoshida—were merged into Kagoshima City on 1 November 2004. Kagoshima is approximately 40 minutes from Kagoshima Airport, and the city features large shopping districts and malls, is served by trams, and has many restaurants featuring Satsuma Province regional cuisine: kibi (a kind of tiny fish), tonkatsu (caramelized pork, as opposed to the breaded version encountered elsewhere in Japan), smoked eel, and karukan (sweet cakes made from steamed sweet potatoes and rice flour). A large, modern aquarium has been installed on the old docks overlooking the volcano. The Senganen (Isoteien) Japanese garden is just outside the city. The St. Xavier church is a reminder of the first Christians who came to Japan. One of the best places to see the city (and the active volcano across the bay) is from the Amuran Ferris wheel on top of 'Amu Plaza', the shopping centre attached to Kagoshima Central Train Station. The wheel has two completely transparent gondolas which give a 360-degree view from 91 m above the ground. History Kagoshima was the center of the territory of the Shimazu clan of samurai for many centuries. It was a busy political and commercial port city throughout the medieval period and into the Edo period (1603–1867) when it formally became the capital of the Shimazu's fief, the Satsuma Domain. Satsuma remained one of the most powerful and wealthiest domains in the country throughout the period, and though international trade was banned for much of this period, the city remained quite active and prosperous. It served not only as the political center for Satsuma, but also for the semi-independent vassal kingdom of Ryūkyū; Ryukyuan traders and emissaries frequented the city, and a special Ryukyuan embassy building was established to help administer relations between the two polities and to house visitors and emissaries. Kagoshima was also a significant center of Christian activity in Japan prior to the imposition of bans against that religion in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Map of the Bombardment of Kagoshima on 15 to 18 August, 1863 Kagoshima was bombarded by the British Royal Navy in 1863 to punish the daimyō of Satsuma for the murder of Charles Lennox Richardson on the Tōkaidō highway the previous year and its refusal to pay an indemnity in compensation. (See 'Bombardment of Kagoshima'). Kagoshima was the birthplace and scene of the last stand of Saigō Takamori, a legendary figure in Meiji Japan in 1877 at the end of the Satsuma Rebellion (Seinan Sensō in Japanese). Japan's industrial revolution is said to have started here, stimulated by the young students' train station. Seventeen young men of Satsuma broke the Tokugawa ban on foreign travel, traveling first to England and then the United States before returning to share the benefits of the best of Western science and technology. A statue was erected outside of the train station as a tribute to them. The city was officially founded on April 1, 1889. Kagoshima was also the birthplace of Tōgō Heihachirō. After naval studies in England between 1871 and 1878, Togo's role as Chief Admiral of the Grand Fleet of the Imperial Japanese Navy in the Russo-Japanese War made him a legend in Japanese military history, and earned him the nickname 'Nelson of the Orient' in Britain. He led the Grand Fleet to two startling victories in 1904 and 1905, completely destroying Russia as a naval power in the East, and thereby contributing to the failed revolution in Russia in 1905. The City was covered deep in ashes after the 1914 eruption of the Sakurajima volcano which is seen in the distance across the bay. The 1914 eruption of the volcano across the bay from the city did spread ash throughout the municipality; but relatively little disruption ensued. "Kagoshima," Illustrated London News. January 24, 1914. Shinkansen (bullet train) service opened on March 13, 2004 between Kagoshima-chūō and Shin-Yatsushiro. Sadomitsu Sakoguchi, the renowned Japanese diplomat, revolutionized Kagoshima's environmental economic plan with his dissertation on water pollution and orange harvesting. <div style="clear:right"> Climate Kagoshima has a humid subtropical climate, marked by cool, relatively dry winters, warm, wet springs, hot, wet summers and mild, wet falls. Points of interest Tenmonkan G3 Kagoshima Aquarium Kagoshima Botanical Garden Tenmonkan shopping arcade Neighboring municipalities Cities: Hioki, Ibusuki, Minamisatsuma, Satsumasendai, Tarumizu Districts: Aira District, Ibusuki District, Kawanabe District <div style="clear:right"> Economy Japan Air Commuter, a subsidiary of Japan Airlines, is headquartered in Kagoshima. "会社概要." Japan Air Commuter. Retrieved on May 19, 2009. Transport Railways All lines are operated by Kyushu Railway Company (JR Kyūshū) Kyushu Shinkansen Kagoshima Main Line Nippo Main Line Ibusuki Makurazaki Line Tramway kagoshima city tram taniyama line kagoshima city tram kohrimoto line Highways National Highway 3 National Highway 10 National Highway 58 National Highway 224 National Highway 225 National Highway 226 National Highway 328 Kyushu Expressway Minami Kyushu Expressway Ibusuki Skyline Bus Kagoshima City Bus Kagoshima Kotsu Hayasida bus Nangoku Kotsu JR Kyushu bus MTA Bus Ferry/Jetfoil Sakurajima Ferry A Line (to southern islands) Marix Line (to southern islands) RKK Line (to Okinawa) Toppy (to Tanegashima and Yakushima) Seahawk (to Koshikijima Islands) Airport Kagoshima Airport in Kirishima (35 km NE of Kagoshima) Sister cities Kagoshima City is sister cities with Naples, Italy; Perth, Australia; Miami, United States; and friendship cities with Changsha, People's Republic of China References Amu Plaza Visitors Guide (2006) available in Amu Plaza, Chūō Station, Kagoshima City, Japan External links Kagoshima official website in Japanese Kagoshima Visitor's Guide from the Kagoshima Internationalization Council Amu Plaza, Kagoshima City Official Website in Japanese	Kagoshima \|@lemmatized capital:2 city:25 kagoshima:32 prefecture:2 southwestern:1 tip:1 kyūshū:2 island:4 japan:10 large:3 margin:1 nickname:2 naples:2 eastern:1 world:1 bay:4 location:1 aira:2 caldera:1 hot:2 climate:3 impressive:1 stratovolcano:1 sakurajima:4 january:2 estimate:2 population:2 density:2 person:2 per:2 total:3 area:3 reason:1 nearly:1 double:1 five:1 town:1 kōriyama:1 matsumoto:1 kiire:1 yoshida:1 merge:1 november:1 approximately:1 minute:1 airport:3 feature:2 shopping:3 district:5 mall:1 serve:2 tram:3 many:2 restaurant:1 satsuma:7 province:1 regional:1 cuisine:1 kibi:1 kind:1 tiny:1 fish:1 tonkatsu:1 caramelize:1 pork:1 oppose:1 bread:1 version:1 encounter:1 elsewhere:1 smoke:1 eel:1 karukan:1 sweet:2 cake:1 make:2 steamed:1 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6,404	Panama	{{Infobox country \|native_name =República de Panamá\|conventional_long_name = Republic of Panama \|common_name = Panama \|image_flag = Flag_of_Panama.svg \|image_coat = Escudo armas Panama.png \|image_map = LocationPanama.svg \|national_motto = "Pro Mundi Beneficio""For the Benefit of the World" \|national_anthem = Himno Nacional de Panamá\|official_languages = Spanish \|ethnic_groups = 58.1% Mestizo 14% Black and Mulatto 6.7% Amerindian 8.6% White 5.5% Asian 7.1% other (2000) \|demonym = Panamanian \|capital = Panama City \|latd=8 \|latm=58 \|latNS=N \|longd=79 \|longm=32 \|longEW=W \|largest_city = capital \|government_type = Constitutional Democracy \|leader_title1 = President \|leader_name1 = Martín Torrijos \|leader_title2 = First Vice President \|leader_name2 = Samuel Lewis \|leader_title3 = Second Vice President \|leader_name3 = Rubén Arosemena \|leader_title4 = President-elect \|leader_name4 = Ricardo Martinelli \|sovereignty_type = Independence \|established_event1 = from Spain \|established_date1 = 28 November 1821 \|established_event2 = from Colombia \|established_date2 = 3 November 1903 \|area_rank = 118th \|area_magnitude = 1 E8 \|area_km2 = 75,517 \|area_sq_mi = 29,157 \|percent_water = 2.9 \|population_estimate = 3,309,679 \|population_estimate_rank = 133rd \|population_estimate_year = July 2008 \|population_census = 2,839,177 \|population_census_year = May 2000 \|population_density_km2 = 43 \|population_density_sq_mi = 111 \|population_density_rank = 156th \|GDP_PPP = $38.604 billion \|GDP_PPP_rank = \|GDP_PPP_year = 2008 \|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $12,600 \|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = \|GDP_nominal = $23.088 billion \|GDP_nominal_year = 2008 \|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $7,000 \|HDI = 0.832 \|HDI_rank = 58th \|HDI_year = 2007 \|HDI_category = high \|Gini = 48.5 \|Gini_year = 2002 \|currency = Balboa, U.S. dollar \|currency_code = PAB, USD \|country_code = \|time_zone = \|utc_offset = -5 \|time_zone_DST = \|utc_offset_DST = \|cctld = .pa \|calling_code = 507 }} Panama, officially the Republic of Panama (; ), is the southernmost country of both Central America and, in turn, North America. Situated on the isthmus connecting North and South America, it is bordered by Costa Rica to the northwest, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north and the Pacific Ocean to the south. The capital is Panama City. Panama is an international business center, and although it is only the fourth largest economy in Central America, after Guatemala, Costa Rica and El Salvador, See also , and , both from the CIA. it is the fastest growing economy and the largest per capita consumer in Central America. http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_fin_con_exp_etc_ann_gro-consumption-expenditure-etc-annual-growth http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/eco_fin_con_exp_etc_con_2000_us_percap-constant-2000-us-per-capita Etymology There are several theories about the origin of the name "Panama". Some believe that the country was named after a commonly found species of tree. Others believe that the first settlers arrived in Panama in August, when butterflies abound, and that the name means "many butterflies" in indigenous tongue. The best known of these versions is that a village populated by fishermen originally bore the name "Panamá", after a beach nearby, and that this name meant "many fish". Another vital fact is that Panama is a metaphor for a "brown paper bag", relating to the ripeness phenomenon. History The earliest known inhabitants of Panama were the Cuevas and the Coclé tribes, but they were decimated by disease and fighting when the Spaniards arrived in the 1500s. Pre-Columbian period The earliest coloms traces of these indigenous peoples include fluted projectile points. Central Panama was home to some of the first pottery-making villages in the Americas, such as the Monagrillo culture dating to about 2500-1700 BC. These evolved into significant populations that are best known through the spectacular burials of the Conte site (dating to c. AD 500-900) and the beautiful polychrome pottery of the Coclé style. The monumental monolithic sculptures at the Barriles (Chiriqui) site were another important clue of the ancient isthmian cultures. Prior to the arrival of Europeans, Panama was widely settled by Chibchan, Chocoan, and Cueva peoples, among whom the largest group were the Cueva (whose specific language affiliation is poorly documented). There is no accurate knowledge of size of the indigenous population of the isthmus at the time of the European conquest. Estimates range as high as two million people, but more recent studies place that number closer to 200,000. Archeological finds as well as testimonials by early European explorers describe diverse native isthmian groups exhibiting cultural variety and suggesting people already conditioned by regular regional routes of commerce. Conquest era Rodrigo de Bastidas, sailing westward from Venezuela in 1501 in search of gold, was the first European to explore the isthmus of Panama. A year later, Christopher Columbus visited the isthmus and established a short-lived settlement in the Darien. Vasco Nunez de Balboa's tortuous trek from the Atlantic to the Pacific in 1513 demonstrated that the Isthmus was, indeed, the path between the seas, and Panama quickly became the crossroads and marketplace of Spain's empire in the New World. Gold and silver were brought by ship from South America, hauled across the isthmus, and loaded aboard ships for Spain. The route became known as the Camino Real, or Royal Road, although it was more commonly known as Camino de Cruces (Road of the Crosses) because of the abundance of gravesites along the way. Panama was part of the Spanish empire for 300 years (1538–1821). From the outset, Panamanian identity was based on a sense of "geographic destiny," and Panamanian fortunes fluctuated with the geopolitical importance of the isthmus. The colonial experience also spawned Panamanian nationalism as well as a racially complex and highly stratified society, the source of internal conflicts that ran counter to the unifying force of nationalism. Vasco Núñez de Balboa, a recognized and popular figure of Panamanian history "New Caledonia", the ill-fated Scottish Darien scheme colony in the Bay of Caledonia, west of the Gulf of Darien. In 1538 the Real Audiencia de Panama was established, initially with jurisdiction from Nicaragua to Cape Horn. A Real Audiencia (royal audiency) was a judicial district that functioned as an appeals court. Each audiencia had oidores (Spanish: hearer, a judge). Panama was the site of the ill-fated, Darien scheme, which set up a Scottish colony in the region in 1698. This failed for a number of reasons, and the ensuing debt, contributed to the union of England and Scotland in 1707. When Panama was colonized, the indigenous peoples who survived many diseases, massacres and enslavement of the conquest ultimately fled into the forest and nearby islands. Indian slaves were replaced by Africans. The prosperity enjoyed during the first six centuries (1540-1740) while contributing to colonial growth; the placing of extensive regional judicial authority (Real Audiencia) as part of its jurisdiction; and the pivotal role it played at the height of the Spanish Empire -the first modern global empire- helped define a distinctive sense of autonomy and of regional or national identity within Panama well before the rest of the colonies. Santo Domingo Church. In 1744 Bishop Francisco Javier de Luna Victoria y Castro established the College of San Ignacio de Loyola and on June 3, 1749 founded La Real y Pontificia Universidad de San Javier. By this time, however, Panama’s importance and influence had become insignificant as Spain’s power dwindled in Europe and advances in navigation technique increasingly permitted to round Cape Horn in order to reach the Pacific. While the Panama route was short it was also labor intensive and expensive because of the loading and unloading and laden-down trek required to get from the one coast to the other. The Panama route was also vulnerable to attack from pirates (mostly Dutch and English) and from 'new world' Africans called cimarrons who had freed themselves from enslavement and lived in communes or palenques around the Camino Real in Panama's Interior, and on some of the islands off Panama's Pacific coast. During the last half of the XVIII century and the first half of the XIX migrations to the countryside decreased Panama City’s population and the isthmus' economy shifted from the tertiary to the primary sector. In 1713, the viceroyalty of New Granada (northern South America) was created in response to other Europeans trying to take Spanish territory in the Caribbean region. The Isthmus of Panama was placed under its jurisdiction. But the remoteness of Santa Fe de Bogota proved a greater obstacle than the Spanish crown anticipated as the authority of New Granada was contested by the seniority, closer proximity, previous ties to the viceroyalty of Lima and even Panama's own initiative. This uneasy relationship between Panama and Bogota would persist for a century. Modern Panamanian history has been shaped by its transisthmian canal, which had been a dream since the beginning of Spanish colonization. From 1880 to 1890, a French company under Ferdinand de Lesseps attempted unsuccessfully to construct a sea-level canal on the site of the present Panama Canal. Independence from Spain Panama joined the independence bandwagon like most of the other Central American countries, in 1821. While Panama was of great historical importance to the Spanish Empire, the differences in social and economic status between the more liberal area of Azuero, and the much more royalist and conservative area of Veraguas displayed contrasting perspectives. It is, in fact, known that when the Grito de la Villa de Los Santos occurred, Veraguas firmly opposed the motion for independence. On the other hand, the Panamanian movement for independence can be indirectly attributed to the abolishment of the encomienda system in Azuero, set forth by the Spanish Crown, in 1558 due to repeated protests by locals against the mistreatment of the native population. In its stead, a system of medium and smaller-sized landownership was promoted, thus taking away the power from the large landowners and into the hands of medium and small sized proprietors. The end of the encomienda system in Azuero, however, sparked the conquest of Veraguas in that same year. Under the leadership of Francisco Vázquez, the region of Veraguas passed into Castillan rule in 1558. In the newly conquered region, the old system of encomienda was imposed. On November 10, 1821, the Grito de La Villa de Los Santos occurred. It was a unilateral decision by the residents of Azuero (without backing from Panama City) to declare their separation from the Spanish Empire. In both Veraguas and the capital this act was met with disdain, although on differing levels of said emotion. To Veraguas, it was the ultimate act of treason, while to the capital, it was seen as inefficient and irregular, and furthermore forced them to accelerate their plans. The Grito was an event that shook the isthmus to the core. It was a sign, on the part of the residents of Azuero, of their antagonism towards the independence movement in the capital, who in turn regarded the Azueran movement with contempt, since they (the capital movement) believed that their counterparts were fighting their right to rule, once the peninsulares (peninsular-born) were long gone. It was, as well, an incredibly brave move on the part of Azuero, which lived in fear of Colonel José de Fábrega, and with good reason: the Colonel was a staunch loyalist, and had the entirety of the isthmus' military supplies in his hands. They feared quick retaliation and swift retribution against the separatists. What they had not counted on, however, was the influence of the separatists in the capital. Ever since October 1821, when the former Governor General, Juan de la Cruz Murgeón, left the isthmus on a campaign in Quito and left the Veraguan colonel in charge, the separatists had been slowly converting Fábrega to the separatist side. As such, by November 10, Fábrega was now a supporter of the independence movement. Soon after the separatist declaration of Los Santos, Fábrega convened every organization in the capital with separatist interests and formally declared the city's support for independence. No military repercussions occurred due to the skillful bribing of royalist troops. Separation from Colombia President Carter shakes hands with General Torrijos of Panama after signing the Panama Canal Treaty. In November 1903, with U.S. encouragement, Panama proclaimed its independence and concluded the Hay/Bunau-Varilla Treaty with the United States. The treaty granted rights to the United States "as if it were sovereign" in a zone roughly 10 miles wide and 50 miles long. In that zone, the U.S. would build a canal, then administer, fortify, and defend it "in perpetuity." In 1914, the United States completed the existing 83-kilometer (52 mile) canal. The early 1960s saw the beginning of sustained pressure in Panama for the renegotiation of this treaty. From 1903 until 1968, Panama was a constitutional democracy dominated by a commercially oriented oligarchy. During the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge the oligarchy's political hegemony. In October 1968, Arnulfo Arias Madrid, twice elected president and twice ousted by the Panamanian military, was ousted for a third time as president by the National Guard after only 10 days in office. A military government was established, and the commander of the National Guard, Brigadier General Omar Torrijos, soon emerged as the principal power in Panamanian political life. Torrijos' regime was harsh and corrupt, but his charisma, populist domestic programs, and nationalist (anti-U.S.) foreign policy appealed to the rural and urban constituencies, trade unions and working masses largely ignored by the oligarchy. Torrijos' death in 1981 altered the tone but not the direction of Panama's political evolution. Despite the 1983 constitutional amendments, which appeared to proscribe a political role for the military, the Panama Defense Forces (PDF), as they were then known, continued to dominate Panamanian political life behind a facade of civilian government, commiting numerous human rights violations. By this time, General Manuel Noriega was firmly in control of both the PDF and the civilian government. The United States froze economic and military assistance to Panama in the summer of 1987 in response to the domestic political crisis in Panama and an attack on the U.S. Embassy. In April 1988, U.S. President Ronald Reagan invoked the International Emergency Economic Powers Act, freezing Panamanian Government assets in all U.S. organizations. In May 1989 Panamanians voted overwhelmingly for the anti-Noriega candidates. The Noriega regime promptly annulled the election, and embarked on a new round of repression. By the fall of 1989 the regime was barely clinging to power, and the regime's paranoia made daily existence unsafe for American and Panamanian citizens. On December 20, 1989, President George H.W. Bush ordered the U.S. military into Panama to "protect U.S. lives and property, to fulfill U.S. treaty responsibilities to operate and defend the Canal, to assist the Panamanian people in restoring democracy, and to bring Noriega to justice." The U.S. troops involved in Operation "Just Cause" achieved their primary objectives quickly, and Noriega eventually surrendered to U.S. authorities. He completed his sentence for drug trafficking charges in September 2007. In August 2007, a U.S. federal court in Miami found Noriega extraditable to France to serve a sentence imposed there after an in absentia conviction for money laundering. Noriega remains in custody pending the outcome of his legal challenges to the certificate of extradition issued in August 2007. Post-invasion era Though Panama suffered heavy economic upheavals because of military warfare, it has managed to slowly rebuild its economy. Panama's Electoral Tribunal moved quickly to rebuild the civilian constitutional government, reinstated the results of the May 1989 election on December 27, 1989, and confirmed the victory of President Guillermo Endara and Vice Presidents Guillermo Ford and Ricardo Arias Calderon. During its five-year term, the often-fractious Endara government struggled to meet the public's high expectations. Its new police force was a major improvement over its predecessor but was not fully able to deter crime. Ernesto Perez Balladares was sworn in as President on September 1, 1994, after an internationally monitored election campaign. Perez Balladares ran as the candidate for a three-party coalition dominated by the Democratic Revolutionary Party (PRD), the erstwhile political arm of military dictatorships. Perez Balladares worked skillfully during the campaign to rehabilitate the PRD's image, emphasizing the party's populist Torrijos roots rather than its association with Noriega. He won the election with only 33% of the vote when the major non-PRD forces splintered into competing factions. His administration carried out economic reforms and often worked closely with the U.S. on implementation of the Canal treaties. On September 1, 1999, Mireya Moscoso, the widow of former President Arnulfo Arias Madrid, took office after defeating PRD candidate Martin Torrijos, son of the late dictator, in a free and fair election. During her administration, Moscoso attempted to strengthen social programs, especially for child and youth development, protection, and general welfare. Moscoso's administration successfully handled the Panama Canal transfer and was effective in the administration of the Canal. The PRD's Martin Torrijos won the presidency and a legislative majority in the National Assembly in 2004. Torrijos ran his campaign on a platform of, among other pledges, a "zero tolerance" for corruption, a problem endemic to the Moscoso and Perez Balladares administrations. Since taking office, Torrijos has passed a number of laws making the government more transparent. He formed a National Anti-Corruption Council whose members represent the highest levels of government, as well as civil society, labor organizations, and religious leadership. In addition, many of his closest Cabinet ministers are non-political technocrats known for their support for the Torrijos government's anti-corruption aims. Despite the Torrijos administration's public stance on corruption, many high-profile cases, particularly involving political or business elites, have been acted upon. Politics Martín Torrijos and George W. Bush at the Oval Office, Friday, February 16, 2007. Panama's politics take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Panama is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the National Assembly. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. All people national elections are universal and mandatory to all citizens 18 years and older. National elections for the executive and legislative branches take place every five years. Members of the judicial branch are appointed by the head of state. Panama's National Assembly is elected by proportional representation in fixed electoral districts, so many smaller parties are represented. Presidential elections do not require a simple majority, and Panama's last three presidents were elected with the support of only 30-40% of voters. Since the U.S. invasion and the end of the 21-year military dictatorship, Panama has successfully completed three peaceful transfers of power to opposing political factions. The political landscape is dominated by two major parties and many smaller parties, many of which are driven by individual leaders more than ideologies. President Martin Torrijos is the son of former military dictator Omar Torrijos. He succeeded Mireya Moscoso, the widow of Arnulfo Arias. Panama's most recent national elections ocurred on May 3, 2009 with Ricardo Martinelli being elected as the next President. Provinces and regions Panama is divided into nine provinces, with their respective local authorities (governors) and has a total of ten cities. Also, there are four Comarcas (literally: "Shires") which house a variety of indigenous groups. Geography Panama is located in Central America, bordering both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean, between Colombia and Costa Rica. Its location on the Isthmus of Panama is strategic. By 2000, Panama controlled the Panama Canal that links the North Atlantic Ocean via the Caribbean Sea with the North Pacific Ocean. The dominant feature of the country's landform is the central spine of mountains and hills that forms the continental divide. The divide does not form part of the great mountain chains of North America, and only near the Colombian border are there highlands related to the Andean system of South America. The spine that forms the divide is the highly eroded arch of an uplift from the sea bottom, in which peaks were formed by volcanic intrusions. The mountain range of the divide is called the Cordillera de Talamanca near the Costa Rican border. Farther east it becomes the Serranía de Tabasará, and the portion of it closer to the lower saddle of the isthmus, where the canal is located, is often called the Sierra de Veraguas. As a whole, the range between Costa Rica and the canal is generally referred to by geographers as the Cordillera Central. The highest point in the country is the Volcán Barú (formerly known as the Volcán de Chiriquí), which rises to 3,475 meters (11,401 ft). A nearly impenetrable jungle forms the Darien Gap between Panama and Colombia where Colombian guerilla and drug dealers are operating with hostage-taking. This and forest protection movements - create a break in the Pan-American Highway, which otherwise forms a complete road from Alaska to Patagonia. The Chagres River. Waterways Nearly 500 rivers lace Panama's rugged landscape. Mostly unnavigable, many originate as swift highland streams, meander in valleys, and form coastal deltas. However, the Río Chagres is a source of enormous hydroelectric power. The Kampia and Madden Lakes (also filled with water from the Río Chagres) provide hydroelectricity for the area of the former Canal Zone. The Río Chepo, another source of hydroelectric power, is one of the more than 300 rivers emptying into the Pacific. These Pacific-oriented rivers are longer and slower running than those of the Caribbean side. Their basins are also more extensive. One of the longest is the Río Tuira which flows into the Golfo de San Miguel and is the nation's only river navigable by larger vessels. Today, Colón houses the Cristobal harbor. Harbors The Caribbean coastline is marked by several good natural harbors. However, Cristóbal, at the Caribbean terminus of the canal, had the only important port facilities in the late 1980s. The numerous islands of the Archipiélago de Bocas del Toro, near the Beaches of Costa Rica, provide an extensive natural roadstead and shield the banana port of Almirante. The over 350 San Blas Islands, near Colombia, are strung out for more than 160 kilometers along the sheltered Caribbean coastline. Climate Panama has a tropical climate. Temperatures are uniformly high—as is the relative humidity—and there is little seasonal variation. Diurnal ranges are low; on a typical dry-season day in the capital city, the early morning minimum may be 24°C and the afternoon maximum 29°C. The temperature seldom exceeds 32°C for more than a short time. Temperatures on the Pacific side of the isthmus are somewhat lower than on the Caribbean, and breezes tend to rise after dusk in most parts of the country. Temperatures are markedly cooler in the higher parts of the mountain ranges, and frosts occur in the Cordillera de Talamanca in western Panama. Climatic regions are determined less on the basis of temperature than on rainfall, which varies regionally from less than 1.3 to more than 3 meters per year. Almost all of the rain falls during the rainy season, which is usually from April to December, but varies in length from seven to nine months. In general, rainfall is much heavier on the Caribbean than on the Pacific side of the continental divide. The annual average in Panama City is little more than half of that in Colón. Although rainy-season thunderstorms are common, the country is outside of the hurricane belt. Panama's tropical environment supports an abundance of plants. Forests dominate, interrupted in places by grasslands, scrub, and crops. Although nearly 40 percent of Panama is still wooded, deforestation is a continuing threat to the rain-drenched woodlands. Tree cover has been reduced by more than 50 percent since the 1940s. Subsistence farming, widely practiced from the northeastern jungles to the southwestern grasslands, consists largely of corn, bean, and tuber plots. Mangrove swamps occur along parts of both coasts, with banana plantations occupying deltas near Costa Rica. In many places, a multi-canopied rain forest abuts the swamp on one side of the country and extends to the lower reaches of slopes in the other. Demographics Panama had a population of 3,309,679 in 2008. As of the year 2000, the majority of the population, 58.1%, was Mestizo. Blacks and Mulattos were together the largest minority, accounting for 14%. For the remaining groups the percentages were: Amerindian 6.7%, White 8.6%, Asian 5.5%, and other 7.1%. The Amerindian population includes seven indigenous peoples: the Emberá, Wounaan, Guaymí, Buglé, Kuna, Naso and Bribri. More than half the population lives in the Panama City–Colón metropolitan corridor. The culture, customs, and language of the Panamanians are predominantly Caribbean and Spanish. Spanish is the official and dominant language. About 40% of the population speak various English Creoles, mostly in Panama City and in the islands off the northeast coast. Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), (2005) Languages of Panama. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. Online version. Retrieved on: April 6. 2008. English is spoken widely on the Caribbean coast and by many in business and professional fields. Panama, because of its historical reliance on commerce, is above all a melting pot. This is shown, for instance, by its considerable population of Afro-Antillean and Chinese origin. The first Chinese immigrated to Panama from southern China to help build the Panama Railroad in the 19th century. They were followed by several waves of immigrants whose descendants number around 50,000. Starting in the 1970s, a further 80,000 have immigrated from other parts of mainland China as well. Most of the Panamanian population of West Indian descent owe their presence in the country to the monumental efforts to build the Panama Canal in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The country is the smallest in Spanish-speaking Latin America in terms of population (est. 3,309,679), with Uruguay as the second smallest (est. 3,463,000). The most common religion in Panama is Roman Catholicism – various sources estimate that 75-85% of the population identifies itself as Roman Catholic and 15-25% percent as evangelical Christian. International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Panama. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor (September 14, 2007). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. The Bahá'í Faith community of Panama is estimated at 2.00% of the national population, or about 60,000 and is home to one of the seven Baha'i Houses of Worship. Smaller religious groups include Jewish and Muslim communities with approximately 10,000 members each, and small groups of Hindus, Buddhists and Rastafarians. Indigenous religions include Ibeorgun (among Kuna) and Mamatata (among Ngobe). Culture The culture of Panama derived from European music, art and traditions that were brought over by the Spanish to Panama. Hegemonic forces have created hybrid forms of this by blending African and Native American culture with European culture. For example, the tamborito is a Spanish dance that was blended with Native American rhythms, themes and dance moves. Dance is a symbol of the diverse cultures that have coupled in Panama. The local folklore can be experienced through a multitude of festivals, dances and traditions that have been handed down from generation to generation. Local cities host live Reggae en Español, Cuban, Reggaeton, Kompa, Colombian, jazz, blues, salsa, reggae and rock performances. Outside of Panama City, regional festivals take place throughout the year featuring local musicians and dancers. Another example of Panama’s blended culture is reflected in the traditional products, such as woodcarvings, ceremonial masks and pottery, as well as in its architecture, cuisine and festivals. In earlier times, baskets were woven for utilitarian uses, but now many villages rely almost exclusively on the baskets they produce for tourists. An example of undisturbed, unique culture in Panama stems from the Kuna Indians who are known for molas. Mola is the Kuna Indian word for blouse, but the term mola has come to mean the elaborate embroidered panels that make up the front and back of a Kuna woman's blouse. Molas are works of art created by the women of the Central American Cuna (or Kuna) tribe. They are several layers of cloth varying in color that are loosely stitched together made using an appliqué process referred to as "reverse appliqué". Economy According to the CIA World Factbook, Panama has an unemployment rate of 5.1%. According to the ECLAC, the poverty rate is 28.6% as of 2006 and is expected to decline to 11% by 2009, in spite of the Global financial crisis of 2008 - 2009. Also, an alimentary surplus was registered in August 2008, and infrastructure works are progressing rapidly. On the Human Development Index Panama is ranked at number 58th (2008). The International Monetary Fund has predicted that Panama will be the fastest growing economy in Latin America in 2009. It was the second fastest growing economy in Latin America in 2008, after Peru. Since taking office in 1994 President Ernesto Perez Balladares advanced an economic liberalization program designed to liberalize the trade regime, attract foreign investment, privatize state-owned enterprises, institute fiscal discipline and privatized its two ports in 1997 and approved the sale of the railroad in early assets. Panama joined the World Trade Organization (WTO) and a banking reform law was approved by the legislature in early 1998 and dismantled the Central bank. After two years of near stagnation the reforms began to take root; GDP grew by 3.6% in 1997 and grew by more than 6% in 1998. The most important sectors which drove growth were the Panama Canal and the shipping and port activities of The Colon Free Zone which also rebounded from a slow year in 1996. Economic sectors Panama's economy is mainly based on a well developed service sector heavily weighted towards banking, commerce, tourism, trading and private industries, because of its key geographic location. The handover of the Canal and military installations by the United States has given rise to some construction projects. A referendum regarding the building of a third set of locks for the Panama Canal was approved overwhelmingly (though with low voter turnout) on 22 October 2006. The official estimate of the building of the third set of locks is US$5.25 billion. The canal is of economic importance since it pumps millions of dollars from toll revenue to the national economy and provides massive employment. The United States had a monopoly over the Panama Canal for 85 years. However, the Torrijos-Carter Treaties signed in 1977 began the process of returning the canal to the Panamanian government in 1999. Currency The Panamanian currency is officially the balboa, fixed at parity with the United States dollar since independence in 1903. In practice, however, the country is dollarized; Panama has its own coinage but uses U.S. dollars for all its paper currency. According to the Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean, Panama's inflation as measured by weight CPI was 2.0% in 2006. Panama has traditionally experienced low inflation, as it shares currencies with the U.S. International trade The high levels of Panamanian trade are in large part from the Colón Free Trade Zone, the largest free trade zone in the Western Hemisphere. Last year the zone accounted for 92% of Panama's exports and 64% of its imports, according to an analysis of figures from the Colon zone management and estimates of Panama's trade by the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean. Panama's economy is also very much supported by the trade and exportation of coffee and other agricultural products. The Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) between the governments of the United States and Panama was signed on October 27, 1982. The treaty protects U.S. investment and assists Panama in its efforts to develop its economy by creating conditions more favorable for U.S. private investment and thereby strengthening the development of its private sector. The BIT with Panama was the first such treaty signed by the U.S. in the Western Hemisphere. List of BITs currently in effect. A Trade Promotion Agreement between the United States and Panama was signed by both governments in 2007, but neither country has yet approved or implemented the agreement. U.S. Trade Representative's page on Panama TPA. Tourism Tourism in the Republic of Panama kept its growth during the past 5 years. The number of tourists arriving between January and September 2008 was 1,110,000, 13.1% or 128,452 visitors. This was a significant increase to the 982,640 travelers who had arrived in the same period of 2007, a year that beat all records regarding the entry of tourists into the country. The arrival of tourists from Europe to Panama grew by 23.1% during the first nine months of 2008. According to the Tourism Authority of Panama (ATP), between January and September, 71,154 tourists from the Old Continent entered the country that is 13,373 more than figures for same period last year. Most of Europeans who have visited Panama were Spaniards (14,820), followed by Italians (13,216), French (10,174) and British (8,833). From Germany, the most populous country in the European Union, 6997 tourists arrived. Europe has become one of the key markets to promote Panama as a tourist destination. In 2007 1.445.5 million entered into the Panamanian economy as a result of tourism. This accounted for 9.5% of gross domestic product in the country, surpassing other productive sectors. Panama´s Law No. 8 is still the most modern and comprehensive law for the promotion of tourism investment in Latin America and the Caribbean. In so-called Special Tourism Zones, Law 8 offers incentives such as 100% exemption from income tax, real estate tax, import duties for construction materials and equipment, and other taxes. Panama has declared different parts of the country as Special Tourism Zones which are benefited with multiple tax exemptions and tax holidays. See also Further reading Mellander, Gustavo A.; Nelly Maldonado Mellander (1999). Charles Edward Magoon: The Panama Years. Río Piedras, Puerto Rico: Editorial Plaza Mayor. ISBN 1563281554. OCLC 42970390. Mellander, Gustavo A. (1971). The United States in Panamanian Politics: The Intriguing Formative Years. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Publishers. OCLC 138568. References External links Economy Panama Economy Insight Government and diplomacy The President of Panama List of Panamanian Government Agencies Ministry of External Relations General information Panama at UCB Libraries GovPubs'' Travel Official Site of the Panama Tourism Bureau Panama Travels: a complete guide to Panama News media La Prensa Mi Diario be-x-old:Панама	Panama \|@lemmatized infobox:1 country:18 república:1 de:25 panamá:3 republic:4 panama:115 svg:2 escudo:1 armas:1 png:1 locationpanama:1 pro:1 mundi:1 beneficio:1 benefit:2 world:6 himno:1 nacional:1 spanish:15 mestizo:2 black:2 mulatto:2 amerindian:3 white:2 asian:2 demonym:1 panamanian:23 capital:10 city:12 latd:1 latm:1 latns:1 n:1 longd:1 longm:1 longew:1 w:3 constitutional:4 democracy:4 president:19 martín:2 torrijos:16 first:10 vice:3 samuel:1 lewis:1 second:3 rubén:1 arosemena:1 elect:5 ricardo:3 martinelli:2 independence:10 spain:5 november:5 colombia:6 july:1 may:5 billion:3 hdi:1 high:9 gini:1 currency:5 balboa:4 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6,405	Politics_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland	The Republic of Ireland is a parliamentary representative democratic republic. While there are a number of political parties in the state, the political landscape is dominated by Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, historically opposed and competing entities, though both occupy the traditional centre ground. The state is a member of the European Union. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in the Oireachtas, the bicameral national parliament, which consists of Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Main office holders OfficeNamePartySincePresidentMary McAleeseApolitical A president may be nominated by a political party, but on election represents the entire community and becomes apolitical 11 November 1997Taoiseach (Prime Minister) Brian CowenFianna Fáil7 May 2008Tánaiste (Deputy Prime Minister) Mary CoughlanFianna Fáil7 May 2008 Constitution The state operates under the Constitution of Ireland, officially known as Bunreacht na hÉireann, adopted in 1937. The constitution falls within the liberal democratic tradition. It defines the organs of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. The constitution may only be amended by referendum. Important constitutional referendums have concerned issues such as abortion, the status of the Catholic Church, divorce, and the European Union. Head of state The head of state is the President of Ireland. In keeping with the state's parliamentary system of government the President exercises a mainly ceremonial role but does possess certain specific powers. The presidency is open to all Irish citizens who are at least 35. They are directly elected by secret ballot under the Alternative Vote. A candidate may be nominated for election as President by no less than 20 members of the Oireachtas or by four or more of the Ireland's Ireland's 29 County/County Borough Councils. A retiring President may nominate themselves as a candidate for re-election. If only one valid candidate is nominated for election, for example if there is consensus among the political parties to nominate a single candidate, it is unnecessary to proceed to a ballot and that candidate is deemed elected. The President is elected to a seven year term of office and no person may serve more than two terms. In carrying out certain of their constitutional functions, the President is aided by the Council of State. There is no Vice-President in Ireland. If for any reason the President is unable to carry out his/her functions, or if the Office of President is vacant, the duties of the President are carried out by the Presidential Commission. Executive branch Executive authority is exercised by a cabinet known simply as the Government. Article 28 of the Constitution states that the Government may consist of no less than seven and no more than fifteen members, namely the Taoiseach (prime minister), the Tánaiste (deputy prime minister) and up to thirteen other ministers. The Taoiseach is appointed by the President, after being nominated by Dáil Éireann (the lower house of parliament). The remaining ministers are nominated by the Taoiseach and appointed by the President following their approval by the Dáil. The Government must enjoy the confidence of Dáil Éireann and, in the event that they cease to enjoy the support of the lower house, the Taoiseach must either resign or request the President to dissolve the Dáil, in which case a general election follows. Public sector Government Buildings in Dublin. The Government, through the civil and public services and state-sponsored bodies, is a significant employer in the state; these three sectors are often called the public sector. Management of these various bodies vary, for instance in the civil service there will be clearly defined routes and patterns whilst among public services a sponsoring minister or the Minister for Finance may appoint a board or commission. Commercial activities, where the state involves itself, are typically through the state-sponsored bodies which are usually organised in a similar fashion to private companies. A recent report on public sector employment, Central Statistics Office Public Sector Employment and Earnings (June 2005) shows that at June 2005 the numbers employed in the public sector stood at 350,100; of these by sector they were 38,700 (civil service), 254,100 (public service) and 57,300 (state-sponsored). The total workforce of the state was 1,857,400 that year, thus the public sector represents approximately 20% of the total workforce. Civil service The civil service of Ireland consists of two broad components, the Civil Service of the Government and the Civil Service of the State. Whilst these two components are largely theoretical, they do have some fundamental operational differences. The civil service is expected to maintain the political impartiality in its work, and some sections of it are entirely independent of Government decision making. Legislative branch The parliament of Ireland is the Oireachtas. The Oireachtas consists of the President and two houses: Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann (also known as the Senate). The Dáil is by far the dominant House of the legislature. The President may not veto bills passed by the Oireachtas, but may refer them to the Irish Supreme Court for a ruling on whether they comply with the constitution. Dáil Éireann: Members of the Dáil are directly elected at least once in every five years under the Single Transferable Vote form of proportional representation from multi-seat constituencies. Membership of the house is open to all Irish and UK citizens who are at least 21 and permanently resident in Ireland. The electorate consists of all Irish and UK citizens resident in Ireland over the age of 18. Members of the Dáil are known as Teachta Dála or TDs. Currently there are has 166 TDs, of which one, the Ceann Comhairle (Speaker), is automatically returned at an election. The Taoiseach, Tánaiste and the Minister for Finance must be members of the Dáil. All other members of the Government must be members of the Dáil, however up to two members may be members of the Seanad. The Dáil is the only House which can introduce and amend money bills (e.g. financial and tax legislation). Since the early 1990s no single party has had a majority in Dáil Éireann, so that coalition governments have been the norm. Seanad Éireann: The Senate is a largely advisory body. It consists of sixty members called Senators. A election for the Seanad must take place no later than 90 days after a general election for the members of the Dáil. Eleven Senators are nominated by the Taoiseach while a further six are elected by certain national universities. The remaining 43 are elected from special vocational panels of candidates, the electorate for which consists of the 60 members of the outgoing Senate, the 166 TDs of the recently elected Dáil and the 883 elected members of Ireland's 29 County/County Borough Councils. The Senate has the power to delay legislative proposals and is allowed 90 days to consider and amend bills sent to it by the Dáil (excluding money bills). The Senate is only allowed 21 days to consider money bills sent to it by the Dáil. The Senate cannot amend money bills but can make recommendations to the Dáil on such bills. Judicial branch Ireland is a common law jurisdiction. The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, the High Court and many lower courts established by law. Judges are appointed by the President after being nominated by the Government and can be removed from office only for misbehaviour or incapacity, and then only by resolution of both houses of the Oireachtas. The final court of appeal is the Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice and seven other justices. The Supreme Court has the power of judicial review and may declare to be invalid both laws and acts of the state which are repugnant to the constitution. Public service The public service is a relatively broad term and is not clearly defined and sometimes is taken to include the civil service. The public service proper consists of Government agencies and bodies which provide services on behalf of the Government but are not the core civil service. For instance local authorities, Vocational Education Committees and Garda Siochána are considered to be public services. Local government Local government in Ireland is governed by the Local Government Acts, the most significant of which was in 2001, which established a two-tier structure of local government. The top tier of the structure consists of 29 County Councils. Each of the Republic's 26 traditional counties have councils, with the exceptions of Dublin (divided between three councils), and County Tipperary (divided into two). The five largest cities (Dublin, Cork, Galway, Limerick, and Waterford) also have City Councils, which have the same status as County Councils. The second tier of local government consists of the town councils. The towns of Kilkenny, Sligo, Drogheda, Clonmel, and Wexford use the title of "Borough Council" instead of "Town Council", but they have no additional responsibilities. Local government bodies have responsibility for such matters as planning, roads, sanitation and libraries. North-South Ministerial Council Under the Belfast Agreement (also known as the Good Friday Agreement) and Article 3 of the constitution a North-South Ministerial Council and six North-South Implementation Bodies coordinate activities and exercise a limited governmental role within certain policy areas across the whole island of Ireland. The Implementation Bodies have limited executive authority in six policy areas. Meetings of the Council take the form of meetings between ministers from both the Republic's Government and the Northern Ireland Executive. The Council was suspended from 2002 to 2007. However, with the resumption of devolved government in Northern Ireland in May 2007, the Council has now reassumed its duties. Political parties A number of political parties are represented in the Dáil and coalition governments are common. The Irish electoral system has been characterised by the two and a half party system, with two large catch all parties dominating. The current ruling party in the state is Fianna Fáil, a traditionally liberal conservative party founded in 1927 by Eamon DeValera. It has formed government seven times since Ireland gained independence: 1932–48, 1951–54, 1957–73, 1977–81, 82, 1987–94, and since 1997. Fine Gael is the second largest party currently. It has its origins in the pro-treaty movement of Michael Collins in the Irish Civil War. Traditionally the party of law and order, it is associated with strong belief in pro-enterprise & reward. Today, it is a Christian democratic, economically liberal party along European lines, with a strongly pro-European outlook. It has formed government in the periods 1922-1932(Cumman na nGaedhael), 1948-1951, 1954-1957, 1973-1977, 1981-82, 1982-1987, and 1994-1997. The third largest party in the state is the centre-left Labour Party. Labour is joined on the left by the Green Party and on the far-left by Sinn Féin and the Socialist Party. The Progressive Democrats were founded in 1985 as a liberal party, though in government they laid a greater emphasis on economic liberalism with issues such as privatization; the party fared poorly in the 2007 election, and voted to disband in November 2008. Independent TDs also play an important role in Irish politics, to the extent that governments often make arrangements with a number of them to form the government. Foreign relations Ireland's foreign relations are substantially influenced by its membership of the European Union, although bilateral relations with the United States and United Kingdom are also important to the country. It is one of the group of smaller nations in the EU, and has traditionally followed a non-aligned foreign policy. Military neutrality Ireland tends towards independence in foreign policy, thus it is not a member of NATO and has a longstanding policy of military neutrality. This policy has helped the Irish Defence Forces to be successful in their contributions to UN peace-keeping missions since 1960 (in the Congo Crisis ONUC) and subsequently in Cyprus (UNFICYP), Lebanon (UNIFIL), Iran/Iraq Border (UNIIMOG) Bosnia and Herzegovina (SFOR & EUFOR Althea, Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE), Liberia (UNMIL), East Timor (INTERFET), Darfur and Chad (EUFOR Tchad/RCA). Irish Defence Forces do not deploy in Missions Seville Declarations 21th June 2002 The Taoiseach, Bertie Ahern T.D. was accompanied by the Minister for Foreign Affairs, Brian Cowen T.D., presented Ireland's National Declaration on military neutrality at the European Council meeting in Seville today. A European Council Declaration on Ireland's policy of neutrality was also agreed by Partners at the meeting. A copy of both documents is available from this site. The purpose of the Declarations is to make clear, beyond any reasonable doubt, that the Treaty of Nice poses no threat to Ireland's traditional policy of military neutrality. The Declarations confirm that this understanding is shared by all 15 EU Member States. This is in full conformity with the Government's position on ratification of the Treaty of Nice. The National Declaration reaffirms Ireland's continued attachment to its traditional policy of military neutrality and confirms, in line with this policy, that (i) Ireland is not party to any mutual defence commitment; (ii) that Ireland is not party to any plans to develop a European army; and (iii) that Ireland will take a sovereign decision, on a case by case basis, on whether the Defence Forces should participate in humanitarian or crisis management tasks undertaken by the EU, based on the triple lock of UN authorisation, Government decision and approval by Dáil Éireann. The National Declaration also makes clear that Ireland will not adopt any decision taken by the European Council to move to a common defence, or ratify any future Treaty which would involve a departure from the traditional policy of military neutrality, unless it has first been approved by the Irish people in a referendum. The European Council Declaration confirms that Ireland's policy of military neutrality is in full conformity with the Treaties, including the Treaty of Nice, and that there is no obligation arising from the Treaties which would oblige Ireland to depart from that policy. The Government is confident that publication of the Declarations will allay concerns expressed during the first Nice referendum campaign that Ireland's policy of military neutrality is affected by the Treaty of Nice. In the event of Ireland's ratification of the Treaty of Nice, the National Declaration will be associated with Ireland's instrument of ratification and forwarded to the United Nations. Northern Ireland Northern Ireland has been a major factor in Irish politics since the island of Ireland was divided between Northern Ireland and what is now the Republic in 1920. The creation of Northern Ireland led to conflict between northern nationalists (mostly Roman Catholic) who seek unification with the Republic and Unionists (mostly Protestant) who wish for Northern Ireland to remain within the United Kingdom. This conflict exploded into violence in the late sixties with the beginning of the Troubles, involving groups such as the Provisional IRA, loyalist paramilitaries, the police and the British army. The Troubles have caused thousands of deaths in Northern Ireland but have also spilled over into bombings and acts of violence in England and the Republic. Since its foundation it has been the stated long-term policy of governments of what is now the Republic to bring an end to the conflict in Northern Ireland and to bring about a united Ireland. Northern Ireland has also, in the past, often been a source of tension between the Irish Government and the government of the United Kingdom. In order to find a solution to the Troubles the Irish Government became a partner in the Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement in 1998. While Sinn Féin have long organised in both Northern Ireland and the Republic, Fianna Fáil have recently opened a cumann'''(branch) in Derry and begun recruiting members at Queen's University, Belfast.See also: History of Northern Ireland.International organisation participation The Republic is member of the Australia Group, AustraliaGroup.net - Participants BIS, British-Irish Council, CE, Celtic League, EBRD, ECE, EIB, EMU, ESA, EU, FAO, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC, ICC, ITUC, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, International Maritime Organization, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM (guest), NEA, NSG, OECD, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNFICYP, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNIKOM, UNITAR, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UPU, WCO, WEU (observer), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO, and the Zangger Committee. See also Ireland History of the Republic of Ireland History of Ireland List of Irish general elections List of Irish by-elections Parliamentary Constituencies in the Republic of Ireland References Further reading John Coakley & Michael Gallagher (Editors) Politics in the Republic of Ireland (Routledge, 2004) Sean Dooney & John O'Toole Irish Government Today (Gill & Macmillan Ltd., 1998) Neil Collins & Terry Cradden Irish Politics Today (Manchester University Press, 2001) Noel Whelan Politics, Elections and the Law'' (Blackhall Publishing, 2000) External links ElectionsIreland.org – Irish election results from 1920 to today.	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6,406	Old_English_literature	\|The initial page of the Peterborough Chronicle, likely scribed around 1150, is one of the major sources of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. Anglo-Saxon literature (or Old English literature) encompasses literature written in Anglo-Saxon (Old English) during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period of England, from the mid-5th century to the Norman Conquest of 1066. These works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles, and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research. Among the most important works of this period is the poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle otherwise proves significant to study of the era, preserving a chronology of early English history, while the poem Cædmon's Hymn from the 7th century survives as the oldest extant work of literature in English. Anglo-Saxon literature has gone through different periods of research—in the 19th and early 20th centuries the focus was on the Germanic roots of English, later the literary merits were emphasized, and today the focus is upon paleography and the physical manuscripts themselves more generally: scholars debate such issues as dating, place of origin, authorship, and the connections between Anglo-Saxon culture and the rest of Europe in the Middle Ages. Overview A large number of manuscripts remain from the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period, with most written during the last 300 years (9th–11th century), in both Latin and the vernacular. Old English literature is among the oldest vernacular languages to be written down. Old English began, in written form, as a practical necessity in the aftermath of the Danish invasions—church officials were concerned that because of the drop in Latin literacy no one could read their work. Likewise King Alfred the Great (849–899), wanting to restore English culture, lamented the poor state of Latin education: "So general was [educational] decay in England that there were very few on this side of the Humber who could...translate a letter from Latin into English; and I believe there were not many beyond the Humber" (Pastoral Care, introduction). King Alfred proposed that students be educated in Old English, and those who excelled would go on to learn Latin. In this way many of the texts that have survived are typical teaching and student-oriented texts. Extant manuscripts In total there are about 400 surviving manuscripts containing Old English text, 189 of them considered major. These manuscripts have been highly prized by collectors since the 16th century, both for their historic value and for their aesthetic beauty of uniformly spaced letters and decorative elements. There are four major manuscripts: The Junius manuscript, also known as the Caedmon manuscript, which is an illustrated poetic anthology. The Exeter Book, also an anthology, located in the Exeter Cathedral since it was donated there in the 11th century. The Vercelli Book, a mix of poetry and prose; how it came to be in Vercelli, Italy, no one knows, and is a matter of debate. The Nowell Codex, also a mixture of poetry and prose. This is the manuscript that contains Beowulf. Research in the 20th century has focused on dating the manuscripts (19th-century scholars tended to date them older than modern scholarship has found); locating where the manuscripts were created—there were seven major scriptoria from which they originate: Winchester, Exeter, Worcester, Abingdon, Durham, and two Canterbury houses Christ Church and St. Augustine; and identifying the regional dialects used: Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish, West Saxon (the last being the main dialect). Not all of the texts can be fairly called literature; some are merely lists of names or aborted pen trials. However those that can present a sizable body of work, listed here in descending order of quantity: sermons and saints' lives (the most numerous), biblical translations; translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers; Anglo-Saxon chronicles and narrative history works; laws, wills and other legal works; practical works on grammar, medicine, geography; lastly, but not least important, poetry. Nearly all Anglo-Saxon authors are anonymous, with some exceptions. Old English Poetry In this illustration from page 46 of the Caedmon (or Junius) manuscript, an angel is shown guarding the gates of paradise. Old English poetry is of two types, the heroic Germanic pre-Christian and the Christian. It has survived for the most part in the four major manuscripts. The Anglo-Saxons left behind no poetic rules or explicit system; everything we know about the poetry of the period is based on modern analysis. The first widely accepted theory was constructed by Eduard Sievers (1885). He distinguished five distinct alliterative patterns. The theory of John C. Pope (1942), which uses musical notation to track the verse patterns, has been accepted in some quarters;to be hotly debated. The most popular and well-known understanding of Old English poetry continues to be Sievers' alliterative verse. The system is based upon accent, alliteration, the quantity of vowels, and patterns of syllabic accentuation. It consists of five permutations on a base verse scheme; any one of the five types can be used in any verse. The system was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older Germanic languages. Two poetic figures commonly found in Old English poetry are the kenning, an often formulaic phrase that describes one thing in terms of another (e.g. in Beowulf, the sea is called the whale's road) and litotes, a dramatic understatement employed by the author for ironic effect. Roughly, Old English verse lines are divided in half by a pause; this pause is termed a "caesura." Each half-line has two stressed syllables. The first stressed syllable of the second half-line should alliterate with one or both of the stressed syllables of the first half-line (meaning, of course, that the stressed syllables in the first half-line could alliterate with each other). The second stressed syllable of the second half-line should not alliterate with either of the stressed syllables of the first half. fyrene fremman feond on helle. ("to perpetrate torment, fiend of hell.") -- Beowulf, line 101 Old English poetry was an oral craft, and our understanding of it in written form is incomplete; for example, we know that the poet (referred to as the Scop) could be accompanied by a harp, and there may be other aural traditions of which we are not aware. Poetry represents the smallest amount of the surviving Old English text, but Anglo-Saxon culture had a rich tradition of oral storytelling, of which little has survived in written form. The poets Most Old English poets are anonymous; twelve are known by name from Medieval sources, but only four of those are known by their vernacular works to us today with any certainty: Caedmon, Bede, Alfred, and Cynewulf. Of these, only Caedmon, Bede, and Alfred have known biographies. Caedmon is the best-known and considered the father of Old English poetry. He lived at the abbey of Whitby in Northumbria in the 7th century. Only a single nine line poem remains, called Hymn, which is also the oldest surviving text in English: Now let us praise the Guardian of the Kingdom of Heaven the might of the Creator and the thought of his mind, the work of the glorious Father, how He, the eternal Lord established the beginning of every wonder. For the sons of men, He, the Holy Creator first made heaven as a roof, then the Keeper of mankind, the eternal Lord God Almighty afterwards made the middle world the earth, for men. --(Caedmon, Hymn, St Petersburg Bede) Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne (d. 709), is known through William of Malmesbury who said he performed secular songs while accompanied by a harp. Much of his Latin prose has survived, but none of his Old English remains. Cynewulf has proven to be a difficult figure to identify, but recent research suggests he was from the early part of the 9th century to which a number of poems are attributed including The Fates of the Apostles and Elene (both found in the Vercelli Book), and Christ II and Juliana (both found in the Exeter Book). Heroic poems First page of Beowulf, contained in the damaged Nowell Codex. The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with the Germanic heroic past. The longest (3,182 lines), and most important, is Beowulf, which appears in the damaged Nowell Codex. The poem tells the story of the legendary Geatish hero Beowulf who is the title character. The story is set in Scandinavia, in Sweden and Denmark, and the tale likewise probably is of Scandinavian origin. The story is biographical and sets the tone for much of the rest of Old English poetry. It has achieved national epic status, on the same level as the Iliad, and is of interest to historians, anthropologists, literary critics, and students the world over. Beyond Beowulf, other heroic poems exist. Two heroic poems have survived in fragments: The Fight at Finnsburh, a retelling of one of the battle scenes in Beowulf (although this relation to Beowulf is much debated), and Waldere, a version of the events of the life of Walter of Aquitaine. Two other poems mention heroic figures: Widsith is believed to be very old in parts, dating back to events in the 4th century concerning Eormanric and the Goths, and contains a catalogue of names and places associated with valiant deeds. Deor is a lyric, in the style of Consolation of Philosophy, applying examples of famous heroes, including Weland and Eormanric, to the narrator's own case. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle contains various heroic poems inserted throughout. The earliest from 937 is called The Battle of Brunanburh, which celebrates the victory of King Athelstan over the Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the Five Boroughs (942); coronation of King Edgar (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of Prince Alfred (1036); and death of King Edward the Confessor (1065). The 325 line poem Battle of Maldon celebrates Earl Byrhtnoth and his men who fell in battle against the Vikings in 991. It is considered one of the finest, but both the beginning and end are missing and the only manuscript was destroyed in a fire in 1731. A well-known speech is near the end of the poem: Thought shall be the harder, the heart the keener, courage the greater, as our strength lessens. Here lies our leader all cut down, the valiant man in the dust; always may he mourn who now thinks to turn away from this warplay. I am old, I will not go away, but I plan to lie down by the side of my lord, by the man so dearly loved. -- (Battle of Maldon) Old English heroic poetry was handed down orally from generation to generation. As Christianity began to appear, retellers often recast the tales of Christianity into the older heroic stories. Elegiac poetry Related to the heroic tales are a number of short poems from the Exeter Book which have come to be described as "elegies" elegies or "wisdom poetry". Angus Cameron (1983). "Anglo-Saxon literature" in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, v.1, pp.280-281 Carl Woodring (1995). The Columbia Anthology of British Poetry. Page 1 They are lyrical and Boethian in their description of the up and down fortunes of life. Gloomy in mood is The Ruin, which tells of the decay of a once glorious city of Roman Britain (cities in Britain fell into decline after the Romans departed in the early 5th c., as the early English continued to live their rural life), and The Wanderer, in which an older man talks about an attack that happened in his youth, where his close friends and kin were all killed; memories of the slaughter have remained with him all his life. He questions the wisdom of the impetuous decision to engage a possibly superior fighting force: the wise man engages in warfare to preserve civil society, and must not rush into battle but seek out allies when the odds may be against him. This poet finds little glory in bravery for bravery's sake. The Seafarer is the story of a somber exile from home on the sea, from which the only hope of redemption is the joy of heaven. Other wisdom poems include Wulf and Eadwacer, The Wife's Lament, and The Husband's Message. King Alfred the Great wrote a wisdom poem over the course of his reign based loosely on the neoplatonic philosophy of Boethius called the Lays of Boethius. Classical and Latin poetry Several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts. The longest is a 10th century translation of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy contained in the Cotton manuscript. Another is The Phoenix in the Exeter Book, an allegorization of the De ave phoenice by Lactantius. Other short poems derive from the Latin bestiary tradition. Some examples include The Panther, The Whale and The Partridge. Christian poetry Saints' Lives The Vercelli Book and Exeter Book contain four long narrative poems of saints' lives, or hagiography. In Vercelli are Andreas and Elene and in Exeter are Guthlac and Juliana. Andreas is 1,722 lines long and is the closest of the surviving Old English poems to Beowulf in style and tone. It is the story of Saint Andrew and his journey to rescue Saint Matthew from the Mermedonians. Elene is the story of Saint Helena (mother of Constantine) and her discovery of the True Cross. The cult of the True Cross was popular in Anglo-Saxon England and this poem was instrumental. Guthlac is actually two poems about English Saint Guthlac (7th century). Juliana is the story of the virgin martyr Juliana of Nicomedia. Biblical paraphrases The Junius manuscript contains three paraphrases of Old Testament texts. These were re-wordings of Biblical passages in Old English, not exact translations, but paraphrasing, sometimes into beautiful poetry in its own right. The first and longest is of Genesis, the second is of Exodus and the third is Daniel. The fourth and last poem, Christ and Satan, which is contained in the second part of the Junius manuscript, does not paraphrase any particular biblical book, but retells a number of episodes from both the Old and New Testament. The Nowell Codex contains a Biblical poetic paraphrase, which appears right after Beowulf, called Judith, a retelling of the story of Judith. This is not to be confused with Ælfric's homily Judith, which retells the same Biblical story in alliterative prose. Old English translations of Psalms 51-150 have been preserved, following a prose version of the first 50 Psalms. It is believed there was once a complete psalter based on evidence, but only the first 150 have survived. There are a number of verse translations of the Gloria in Excelsis, the Lord's Prayer, and the Apostles' Creed, as well as a number of hymns and proverbs. Christian poems In addition to Biblical paraphrases are a number of original religious poems, mostly lyrical (non-narrative). The Exeter Book contains a series of poems entitled Christ, sectioned into Christ I, Christ II and Christ III. Considered one of the most beautiful of all Old English poems is Dream of the Rood, contained in the Vercelli Book. It is a dream vision of Christ on the cross, with the cross personified, speaking thus: "I endured much hardship up on that hill. I saw the God of hosts stretched out cruelly. Darkness had covered with clouds the body of the Lord, the bright radiance. A shadow went forth, dark under the heavens. All creation wept, mourned the death of the king. Christ was on the cross." -- (Dream of the Rood) The dreamer resolves to trust in the cross, and the dream ends with a vision of heaven. There are a number of religious debate poems. The longest is Christ and Satan in the Junius manuscript, it deals with the conflict between Christ and Satan during the forty days in the desert. Another debate poem is Solomon and Saturn, surviving in a number of textual fragments, Saturn is portrayed as a magician debating with the wise king Solomon. Other poems Other poetic forms exist in Old English including riddles, short verses, gnomes, and mnemonic poems for remembering long lists of names. The Exeter Book has a collection of ninety-five riddles. Some of them play on obscene interpretations of the object described. The answers are not supplied, a number of them to this day remain a puzzle. There are short verses found in the margins of manuscripts which offer practical advice There are remedies against the loss of cattle, how to deal with a delayed birth, swarms of bees, etc.. the longest is called Nine Herbs Charm and is probably of pagan origin. There are a group of mnemonic poems designed to help memorise lists and sequences of names and to keep objects in order. These poems are named Menologium, The Fates of the Apostles, The Rune Poem, The Seasons for Fasting, and the Instructions for Christians. Specific features of Anglo-Saxon poetry Simile and Metaphor Anglo-Saxon poetry is marked by the comparative rarity of similes. This is a particular feature of Anglo-Saxon verse style, and is a consequence of both its structure and the rapidity with which images are deployed, to be unable to effectively support the expanded simile. As an example of this, the epic Beowulf contains at best five similes, and these are of the short variety. This can be contrasted sharply with the strong and extensive dependence that Anglo-Saxon poetry has upon metaphor, particularly that afforded by the use of kennings. The most prominent example of this in The Wanderer is the reference to battle as a “storm of spears”. "The Wanderer line 99" This reference to battle gives us an opportunity to see how Anglo-Saxons viewed battle: as unpredictable, chaotic, violent, and perhaps even a function of nature. It is with these stylistic and thematic elements in mind, that one should first approach Anglo-Saxon poetry. Alliteration Old English poetry traditionally alliterates. Meaning that a sound (usually the initial consonant sound) is repeated throughout a line. For instance in Beowulf the line weras on wil-siþ wudu bundenne Alexander, Michael, ed. Beowulf: A Glossed Text. London: Penguin Books, 1995. (ln. 216) “man on desired journey bound the ship”, most of the words alliterate on the consonant “w”. So pervasive and important is the alliterative form that in the Beowulf line just cited, the poet probably started off with the word wil-siþ (“desired journey” the most important idea of the line) and then put other words in the line that alliterated with it. So important is alliteration then that it even shapes the meaning of the line. This is not a foreign concept to the study of oral tradition in transcription. Caesura Old English poetry is also commonly marked by the German caesura or pause. In addition to setting pace for the line the caesura also grouped each line into two couplets. Elaboration Anglo-Saxon poetry has a fast-paced dramatic style, and accordingly is not prone to the comparatively expansive decoration that may be found in, for example, Celtic literature of the period. Where a Celtic poet of the time might use 3 or 4 similes to make a point, an Anglo-Saxon poet might insert a single kenning before moving swiftly on. Old English Poetry and the Oral-Formulaic Theory Though Old English Poetry has been extensively studied for evidence of the theory that it was recited using Oral-Formulaic Composition, it seems that it was composed partly in the modern, word-by-word manner and partly by using cobbled-together themes and formulas. Oral-formulaic theory and the "Hero on the Beach." Online. 3 June 2003. Available http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1018577. 23 November 2007. Old English prose The amount of surviving Old English prose is much greater than the amount of poetry. Of the surviving prose, sermons and Latin translations of religious works are the majority. Old English prose first appears in the 9th century, and continues to be recorded through the 12th century as the last generation of scribes, trained as boys in the standardized West Saxon before the Conquest, died as old men. Christian prose The most widely known author of Old English was King Alfred, who translated many books from Latin into Old English. These translations include: Gregory the Great's The Pastoral Care, a manual for priests on how to conduct their duties; The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius; and The Soliloquies of Saint Augustine. Alfred was also responsible for a translation of the fifty Psalms into Old English. Other important Old English translations completed by associates of Alfred include: The History of the World by Orosius, a companion piece for Augustine of Hippo's The City of God; the Dialogues of Gregory the Great; and the Ecclesiastical History of the English People by Bede. Ælfric of Eynsham, wrote in the late 10th and early 11th century. He was the greatest and most prolific writer of Anglo-Saxon sermons, which were copied and adapted for use well into the 13th century. He also wrote a number of saints lives, an Old English work on time-reckoning, pastoral letters, translations of the first six books of the Bible, glosses and translations of other parts of the Bible including Proverbs, Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus. In the same category as Aelfric, and a contemporary, was Wulfstan II, archbishop of York. His sermons were highly stylistic. His best known work is Sermo Lupi ad Anglos in which he blames the sins of the British for the Viking invasions. He wrote a number of clerical legal texts Institutes of Polity and Canons of Edgar. One of the earliest Old English texts in prose is the Martyrology, information about saints and martyrs according to their anniversaries and feasts in the church calendar. It has survived in six fragments. It is believed to date from the 9th century by an anonymous Mercian author. The oldest collection of church sermons are the Blickling homilies in the Vercelli Book and dates from the 10th century. There are a number of saint's lives prose works. Beyond those written by Aelfric are the prose life of Saint Guthlac (Vercelli Book), the life of Saint Margaret and the life of Saint Chad. There are four lives in the Julius manuscript: Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, Saint Mary of Egypt, Saint Eustace and Saint Euphrosyne. There are many Old English translations of many parts of the Bible. Aelfric translated the first six books of the Bible (the Hexateuch). There is a translation of the Gospels. The most popular was the Gospel of Nicodemus, others included "..the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, Vindicta salvatoris, Vision of Saint Paul and the Apocalypse of Thomas". Cameron (1982). "Anglo-Saxon Literature". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Volume 1. pg. 285 One of the largest bodies of Old English text is found in the legal texts collected and saved by the religious houses. These include many kinds of texts: records of donations by nobles; wills; documents of emancipation; lists of books and relics; court cases; guild rules. All of these texts provide valuable insights into the social history of Anglo-Saxon times, but are also of literary value. For example, some of the court case narratives are interesting for their use of rhetoric. Secular prose The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was probably started in the time of King Alfred and continued for over 300 years as a historical record of Anglo-Saxon history. A single example of a Classical romance has survived, it is a fragment of the story of Apollonius of Tyre, from the 11th century. A monk who was writing in Old English at the same time as Aelfric and Wulfstan was Byrhtferth of Ramsey, whose books Handboc and Manual were studies of mathematics and rhetoric. Aelfric wrote two neo-scientific works, Hexameron and Interrogationes Sigewulfi, dealing with the stories of Creation. He also wrote a grammar and glossary in Old English called Latin, later used by students interested in learning Old French because it had been glossed in Old French. There are many surviving rules and calculations for finding feast days, and tables on calculating the tides and the season of the moon. In the Nowell Codex is the text of The Wonders of the East which includes a remarkable map of the world, and other illustrations. Also contained in Nowell is Alexander's Letter to Aristotle. Because this is the same manuscript that contains Beowulf, some scholars speculate it may have been a collection of materials on exotic places and creatures. There are a number of interesting medical works. There is a translation of Apuleius's Herbarium with striking illustrations, found together with Medicina de Quadrupedibus. A second collection of texts is Bald's Leechbook, a 10th century book containing herbal and even some surgical cures. A third collection, known as the Lacnunga, includes many charms and incantations. Anglo-Saxon legal texts are a large and important part of the overall corpus. By the 12th century they had been arranged into two large collections (see Textus Roffensis). They include laws of the kings, beginning with those of Aethelbert of Kent, and texts dealing with specific cases and places in the country. An interesting example is Gerefa which outlines the duties of a reeve on a large manor estate. There is also a large volume of legal documents related to religious houses. Historiography Old English literature did not disappear in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. Many sermons and works continued to be read and used in part or whole up through the 14th century, and were further catalogued and organised. During the Reformation, when monastic libraries were dispersed, the manuscripts were collected by antiquarians and scholars. These included Laurence Nowell, Matthew Parker, Robert Bruce Cotton and Humfrey Wanley. In the 17th century begun a tradition of Old English literature dictionaries and references. The first was William Somner's Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum (1659). Lexicographer Joseph Bosworth began a dictionary in the 19th century which was completed by Thomas Northcote Toller in 1898 called An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, which was updated by Alistair Campbell in 1972. Because Old English was one of the first vernacular languages to be written down, nineteenth century scholars searching for the roots of European "national culture" (see Romantic Nationalism) took special interest in studying Anglo-Saxon literature, and Old English became a regular part of university curriculum. Since WWII there has been increasing interest in the manuscripts themselves—Neil Ker, a paleographer, published the groundbreaking Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon in 1957, and by 1980 nearly all Anglo-Saxon manuscript texts were in print. J.R.R. Tolkien is credited with creating a movement to look at Old English as a subject of literary theory in his seminal lecture Beowulf: The Monsters and the Critics (1936). Old English literature has had an influence on modern literature. Some of the best-known translations include William Morris' translation of Beowulf and Ezra Pound's translation of The Seafarer. The influence of the poetry can be seen in modern poets T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound and W. H. Auden. Tolkien adapted the subject matter and terminology of heroic poetry for works like The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings. Notes See also History of the Anglo-Saxons List of illuminated Anglo-Saxon manuscripts List of poems List of national poetries Anglo-Saxon art Anglo-Saxon architecture References Joseph Bosworth (1889). An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary Alistair Campbell (1972). Englarged Addenda and Corrigenda Angus Cameron (1982). "Anglo-Saxon Literature". Dictionary of the Middle Ages. ISBN 0-684-16760-3 External links An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts a free online seminar by the British Library. 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6,407	Horse_tack	Tack is a term used to describe any of the various equipment and accessories worn by horses in the course of their use as domesticated animals. Saddles, stirrups, bridles, halters, reins, bits, harnesses, martingales, and breastplates are all forms of horse tack. Equipping a horse is often referred to as tacking up. Saddles A horse equipped with a saddle for mounted police. Saddles are seats for the rider, fastened to the horse's back by means of a girth (English-style riding), known as a cinch in the Western US, a wide strap that goes around the horse at a point about four inches behind the forelegs. Some western saddles will also have a second strap known as a flank or back cinch that fastens at the rear of the saddle and goes around the widest part of the horse's belly. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 167-178 It is important that the saddle is comfortable for both the rider and the horse as an improperly fitting saddle may create pressure points on the horse's back muscle (Latissimus dorsi) and cause the horse pain and can lead to the horse, rider, or both getting injured. There are many types of saddles, each specially designed for its given task. Saddles are usually divided into two major categories: "English saddles" and "Western saddles" according to the riding discipline they are used in. Other types of saddles, such as racing saddles, Australian saddles, sidesaddles and endurance saddles do not necessarily fit neatly in either category. Saddle accessories Breastplate or breastcollar: Prevents saddles of all styles from sliding sideways or backward on a horse's back Surcingle Pack saddle Crupper Breeching, also called "Britching" Stirrups Stirrups are supports for the rider's feet that hang down on either side of the saddle. They provide greater stability for the rider but can have safety concerns due to the potential for a rider's feet to get stuck in them. If a rider is thrown from a horse but has a foot caught in the stirrup, they could be dragged if the horse runs away. To minimize this risk, a number of safety precautions are taken. First, most riders wear riding boots with a heel and a smooth sole. Next, some saddles, particularly English saddles, have safety bars that allow a stirrup leather to fall off the saddle if pulled backwards by a falling rider. Other precautions are done with stirrup design itself. Western saddles have wide stirrup treads that make it more difficult for the foot to become trapped. A number of saddle styles incorporate a tapedero, which is covering over the front of the stirrup that keeps the foot from sliding all the way through the stirrup. The English stirrup (or "iron") has several design variations which are either shaped to allow the rider's foot to slip out easily or are closed with a very heavy rubber band. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 185-187 The invention of stirrups was of great historic significance in mounted combat, giving the rider secure foot support while on horseback. Headgear A horse wearing a headcollar (BI) or halter (NA) Bridles, hackamores, halters or headcollars, and similar equipment consist of various arrangements of straps around the horse's head, and are used for control and communication with the animal. Halters A halter (US) or headcollar (BI) (occasionally headstall) consists of a noseband and headstall that buckles around the horse's head and allows the horse to be led or tied. The lead rope is separate, and it may be short (from six to ten feet, two to three meters) for everyday leading and tying, or much longer (up to , eight meters) for tasks such as for leading packhorses or for picketing a horse out to graze. Some horses, particularly stallions, may have a chain attached to the lead rope and placed over the nose or under the jaw to increase the control provided by a halter while being led. Most of the time, horses are not ridden with a halter, as it offers insufficient precision and control. Halters have no bit. Ensminger, M. E. Horses & Tack: A Complete One Volume Reference on Horses and Their Care Rev. ed. Boston:Houghton Mifflin Co. 1991 ISBN 0-395-54413-0 p. 384-385 In Australian and British English, a halter is a rope with a spliced running loop around the nose and another over the poll, used mainly for unbroken horses or for cattle. The lead rope cannot be removed from the halter. A show halter is made from rolled leather and the lead attaches to form the chinpiece of the noseband. These halters are not suitable for paddock usage or in loose stalls. An underhalter is a lightweight halter or headcollar which is made with only one small buckle, and can be worn under a bridle for tethering a horse without untacking. Bridles Bridles usually have a bit attached to reins and are used for riding and driving horses. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 156-159 English Bridles have a cavesson style noseband and are seen in English riding. Their reins are buckled to one another, and they have little adornment or flashy hardware. Western Bridles used in Western riding usually have no noseband, are made of thin bridle leather. They may have long, separated "Split" reins or shorter closed reins, which sometimes include an attached Romal. Western bridles are often adorned with silver or other decorative features. Double bridles are a type of English bridle that use two bits in the mouth at once, a snaffle and a curb. The two bits allow the rider to have very precise control of the horse. As a rule, only very advanced horses and riders use double bridles. Double bridles are usually seen in the top levels of dressage, but also are seen in certain types of show hack and Saddle seat competition. Hackamores and other bitless designs A bosal hackamore A hackamore is a headgear that utilizes a heavy noseband of some sort, rather than a bit, most often used to train young horses or to go easy on an older horse's mouth. Hackamores are more often seen in western riding. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 158 Some related styles of headgear that control a horse with a noseband rather than a bit are known as bitless bridles. The word "hackamore" is derived from the Spanish word jaquima. Hackamores are seen in western riding disciplines, as well as in endurance riding and English riding disciplines such as show jumping and the stadium phase of eventing. While the classic bosal-style hackamore is usually used to start young horses, other designs, such as various bitless bridles and the mechanical hackamore are often seen on mature horses with dental issues that make bit use painful, horses with certain training problems, and on horses with mouth or tongue injuries. Some riders also like to use them in the winter to avoid putting a frozen metal bit into a horse's mouth. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 153 Like bitted bridles, noseband-based designs can be gentle or harsh, depending on the hands of the rider. It is a myth that a bit is cruel and a hackamore is gentler. The horse's face is very soft and sensitive with many nerve endings. Misuse of a hackamore can cause swelling on the nose, scraping on the nose and jawbone, and extreme misuse may cause damage to the bones and cartilage of the horse's head. Other headgear A longeing cavesson (UK: lungeing) is a special type of halter or noseband used for longeing a horse. Longeing is the activity of having a horse walk, trot and/or canter in a large circle around the handler at the end of a rope that is 25 to long. It is used for training and exercise. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 194 Reins Reins consist of leather straps or rope attached to the outer ends of a bit and extend to the rider's or driver's hands. Reins are the means by which a horse rider or driver communicates directional commands to the horse's head. Pulling on the reins can be used to steer or stop the horse. The sides of a horse's mouth are sensitive, so pulling on the reins pulls the bit, which then pulls the horse's head from side to side, which is how the horse is controlled. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 159-161 On some types of harnesses there might be supporting rings to carry the reins over the horse's back. When pairs of horses are used in drawing a wagon or coach it is usual for the outer side of each pair to be connected to reins and the inside of the bits connected by a short bridging strap or rope. The driver carries "four-in-hand" or "six-in-hand" being the number of reins connecting to the pairs of horses. A rein may be attached to a halter to lead or guide the horse in a circle for training purposes or to lead a packhorse, but a simple lead rope is more often used for these purposes. A longe line is sometimes called a "longe rein," but it is actually a flat line about long, usually made of nylon or cotton web, about one inch wide, thus longer and wider than even a driving rein. Ensminger, M. E. Horses & Tack: A Complete One Volume Reference on Horses and Their Care Rev. ed. Boston:Houghton Mifflin Co. 1991 ISBN 0-395-54413-0 p. 385-386 Horses should never be tied by the reins. Not only do they break easily, but, being attached to a bit in the horse's sensitive mouth, a great deal of pain can be inflicted if a bridled horse sets back against being tied. Bits a curb and snaffle bit shown together on a double bridle A pelham bit with a jointed mouthpiece A bit is a device placed in a horse's mouth, kept on a horse's head by means of a headstall. There are many types, each useful for specific types of riding and training. Ensminger, M. E. Horses & Tack: A Complete One Volume Reference on Horses and Their Care Rev. ed. Boston:Houghton Mifflin Co. 1991 ISBN 0-395-54413-0 p. 371-376 The mouthpiece of the bit does not rest on the teeth of the horse, but rather rests on the gums or "bars" of the horse's mouth in an interdental space behind the front incisors and in front of the back molars. It is important that the style of bit is appropriate to the horse's needs and is fitted properly for it to function properly and be as comfortable as possible for the horse. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 149-159 The basic "classic" styles of bits are: Curb bit Snaffle bit Pelham bit Weymouth or Double Bridle While there are literally hundreds of types of bit mouthpieces, bit rings and bit shanks, essentially there are really only two broad categories: direct pressure bits, broadly termed snaffle bits; and leverage bits, usually termed curbs. Bits that act with direct pressure on the tongue and lips of the bit are in the general category of snaffle bits. Snaffle bits commonly have a single jointed mouthpiece and act with a nutcracker effect on the bars, tongue and occasionally roof of the mouth. However, regardless of mouthpiece, any bit that operates only on direct pressure is a "snaffle" bit. Edwards, Elwyn Hartley The Complete Book of Bits and Bitting Newton Abbot, Devonshire:David & Charles 2004 ISBN 0-7153-1163-8 p. 52-58 Leverage bits have shanks coming off the mouthpiece to create leverage that applies pressure to the poll, chin groove and mouth of the horse are in the category of curb bits. Any bit with shanks that works off of leverage is a "curb" bit, regardless of whether the mouthpiece is solid or jointed. Some combination or hybrid bits combine direct pressure and leverage, such as the Kimblewick or Kimberwicke, which adds slight leverage to a two-rein design that resembles a snaffle; Edwards, Elwyn Hartley The Complete Book of Bits and Bitting Newton Abbot, Devonshire:David & Charles 2004 ISBN 0-7153-1163-8 p. 91-93 and the four rein designs such as the single mouthpiece Pelham bit and the double bridle, which places a curb and a snaffle bit simultaneously in the horse's mouth. Edwards, Elwyn Hartley The Complete Book of Bits and Bitting Newton Abbot, Devonshire:David & Charles 2004 ISBN 0-7153-1163-8 p. 87-89 In the wrong hands even the mildest bit can hurt the horse. Conversely, a very severe bit, in the right hands, can transmit subtle commands that cause no pain to the horse. Bit commands should be given with only the quietest movements of the hands, and much steering and stopping should be done with the legs and seat. Harness A harness attaches this horse to a cart. A horse harness is a set of devices and straps that attaches a horse to a cart, carriage, sledge or any other load. There are two main styles of harnesses - breaststrap and collar and hames style. These differ in how the weight of the load is attached. A breaststrap harness has a wide leather strap going horizontally across the horses' breast, attached to the traces and then to the load. This is used only for lighter loads. A collar and hames harness has a collar around the horses' neck with wood or metal hames in the collar. The traces attach from the hames to the load. This type of harness is needed for heavy draft work. Both types will also have a bridle & reins. A harness that is used to support shafts, such as on a cart pulled by a single horse, will also have a saddle attached to the harness to help the horse support the shafts and breeching to brake the forward motion of the vehicle, especially when stopping or moving downhill. Horses guiding vehicles by means of a pole, such as two-horse teams pulling a wagon, a hay-mower, or a dray, will have pole-straps attached to the lower part of the horse collar. Breastplates and martingales Horse wearing a breastplate a horse wearing a running martingale Breastplates, breastcollars or breastgirths attach to the front of the saddle, cross the horse's chest, and usually have a strap that runs between the horse's front legs and attaches to the girth. They keep the saddle from sliding back or sideways. They are usually seen in demanding, fast-paced sports. They are crucial pieces of safety equipment for English riding activities requiring jumping, such as eventing, show jumping, polo, and fox hunting. They are also seen in Western riding events, particularly in rodeo, reining and cutting, where it is particularly important to prevent a saddle from shifting. They may also be worn in other horse show classes for decorative purposes. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 179-181 A martingale is a piece of equipment that keeps a horse from raising its head too high. Various styles can be used as a control measure, to prevent the horse from avoiding rider commands by raising its head out of position; or as a safety measure to keep the horse from tossing its head high or hard enough to smack its rider in the face. Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN 0-684-83995-4 p. 163-165 They are allowed in many types of competition, especially those where speed or jumping may be required, but are not allowed in most "flat" classes at horse shows, though an exception is made in a few classes limited exclusively to young or "green" horses who may not yet be fully trained. Martingales are usually attached to the horse one of two ways. They are either attached to the center chest ring of a breastplate or, if no breastplate is worn, they are attached by two straps, one that goes around the horse's neck, and the other that attaches to the girth, with the martingale itself beginning at the point in the center of the chest where the neck and girth straps intersect. Martingale types include: Running martingale: This design adds leverage to a bit and features a split fork beginning at the chest with a ring on each side of the fork through which the reins pass, enabling the rider to more easily keep the horse under control, but also allowing the horse freedom of movement when needed. Fitted correctly, the running martingale only controls how high the horse carries its head when the rider tightens the reins. The standard adjustment of a running martingale is to set the rings at a height where they do not engage and add leverage to the reins when the horse carries its head at the proper height. Sometimes a running martingale may be adjusted at a greater or lesser length depending on the needs of the horse and rider. Standing martingale: A design with one strap that runs from the girth or the chest and attaches to the noseband of the bridle. The standing martingale acts on the horse's nose and creates an absolute limit to how high a horse can raise its head. The term used in western riding for this piece of equipment is the tie down. Standard adjustment of a standing martingale allows enough slack to bring the strap to the horse's throatlatch when the animal has its head in a relaxed, natural position. However, it is sometimes adjusted shorter. Unlike the running martingale, it limits the freedom of the horse's head, no matter how long or short the reins may be. While standing martingales are common in show hunter and equitation classes, the limits placed on the horse's movement are dangerous for cross-country riding or show jumping. Therefore, in these disciplines, a running martingale is necessary for safety reasons, if a martingale is used at all. German martingale or Market Harborough: This design consists of a split fork that comes up from the chest, runs through the rings of the bit and attaches to the reins of the bridle between the bit and the rider's hand. It acts in a manner similar to a running martingale, but with greater leverage. It is not usually considered show legal and is used primarily as a training aid. Irish martingale: Unlike the previous designs, this very simple "martingale" does not control the height of the horse's head, but merely keeps the reins from going over the horse's head in the result of a fall. It consists of a piece of leather with a ring on each end through which each rein runs. Edwards, Elwyn Hartley The Complete Book of Bits and Bitting Newton Abbot, Devonshire:David & Charles 2004 ISBN 0-7153-1163-8 p. 133 There are other training devices that fall loosely in the martingale category, in that they use straps attached to the reins or bit which limit the movement of the horse's head or add leverage to the rider's hands in order to control the horse's head. Common devices of this nature include the overcheck, the chambon, grazing reins, draw reins and the "bitting harness" or "bitting rig." However, most of this equipment is used for training purposes and is not legal in any competition. In some disciplines, use of leverage devices, even in training, is controversial. 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6,408	Demographics_of_Dominica	This article is about the demographic features of the population of Dominica, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Almost all Dominicans are descendants of African slaves brought in by colonial planters in the 18th century. Dominica is the only island in the eastern Caribbean to retain some of its pre-Columbian population--the Carib Indians--about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast. The population growth rate is very low, due primarily to emigration to more prosperous Caribbean Islands, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Canada. English is the official language and universally understood; however, because of historic French domination, Antillean Creole, a French patois, is also widely spoken. About 80% of the population is Catholic. In recent years, a number of Protestant churches have been established. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 71,540 (July 2000 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 29% (male 10,556; female 10,254) 15-64 years: 63% (male 23,151; female 21,984) 65 years and over: 8% (male 2,294; female 3,301) (2000 est.) Population growth rate -0.08% (2006 est.) Birth rate 18.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate 7.3 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate -22.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.69 male(s)/female total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 17.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 73.35 years male: 70.5 years female: 76.36 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 2.05 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality noun: Dominican(s) adjective: Dominican Ethnic groups Black 90%, Mulatto, 8 % Carib Amerindian 2% Religions Roman Catholic 77%, Protestant 15% (Methodist 5%, Pentecostal 3%, Seventh-day Adventist 3%, Baptist 2%, other 2%), none 2%, Buddhist 0.5%, other 6% Languages English (official), French patois Literacy definition: age 15 and over has ever attended school total population: 94% male: 94% female: 94% (1970 est.) See also Dominica Demographics of the Dominican Republic	Demographics_of_Dominica \|@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:14 dominica:3 include:1 density:1 ethnicity:1 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 almost:1 dominican:4 descendant:1 african:1 slave:1 bring:1 colonial:1 planter:1 century:1 island:3 eastern:1 caribbean:2 retain:1 pre:1 columbian:1 carib:2 indian:1 live:2 east:1 coast:1 growth:2 rate:7 low:1 due:1 primarily:1 emigration:1 prosperous:1 united:2 kingdom:1 state:1 canada:1 english:2 official:2 language:2 universally:1 understood:1 however:1 historic:1 french:3 domination:1 antillean:1 creole:1 patois:2 also:2 widely:1 speak:1 catholic:2 recent:1 year:10 number:1 protestant:2 church:1 establish:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:11 age:2 structure:1 male:10 female:10 birth:5 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:1 ratio:1 total:4 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 black:1 mulatto:1 amerindian:1 religion:1 roman:1 methodist:1 pentecostal:1 seventh:1 day:1 adventist:1 baptist:1 none:1 buddhist:1 literacy:1 definition:1 ever:1 attend:1 school:1 see:1 republic:1 \|@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 pre_columbian:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 day_adventist:1 adventist_baptist:1 literacy_definition:1 dominican_republic:1
6,409	Mary_Wollstonecraft	John Opie, Mary Wollstonecraft, (c. 1797) Mary Wollstonecraft (; 27 April 1759 – 10 September 1797) was an eighteenth-century British writer, philosopher, and feminist. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason. Among the general public and specifically among feminists, Wollstonecraft's life has received much more attention than her writing because of her unconventional and often tumultuous personal relationships. After two ill-fated affairs, with Henry Fuseli and Gilbert Imlay (by whom she had a daughter, Fanny Imlay), Wollstonecraft married the philosopher William Godwin, one of the forefathers of the anarchist movement. Wollstonecraft died at the age of thirty-eight, ten days after giving birth to her second daughter, leaving behind several unfinished manuscripts. Her daughter Mary Godwin, later Mary Shelley, would go on to author Frankenstein. After Wollstonecraft's death, William Godwin published a Memoir (1798) of her life, revealing her unorthodox lifestyle, which inadvertently destroyed her reputation for a century. However, with the emergence of the feminist movement at the turn of the twentieth century, Wollstonecraft's advocacy of women's equality and critiques of conventional femininity became increasingly important. Today Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the founding feminist philosophers, and feminists often cite both her life and work as important influences. Early life Wollstonecraft was born on 27 April 1759 in Spitalfields, London. Although her family had a comfortable income when she was a child, her father gradually squandered it on speculative projects. Consequently, the family became financially unstable and they were frequently forced to move during Wollstonecraft's youth. Tomalin, 9, 17, 24, 27; Sunstein, 11. The family's financial situation eventually became so dire that Wollstonecraft's father compelled her to turn over money that she would have inherited at her maturity. Moreover, he was apparently a violent man who would beat his wife in drunken rages. As a teenager, Wollstonecraft used to lie outside the door of her mother's bedroom to protect her. Todd, 11; Tomalin, 19; Wardle, 6; Sunstein, 16. Wollstonecraft played a similar maternal role for her sisters, Everina and Eliza, throughout her life. For example, in a defining moment in 1784, she convinced Eliza, who was suffering from what was probably postpartum depression, to leave her husband and infant; Wollstonecraft made all of the arrangements for Eliza to flee, demonstrating her willingness to challenge social norms. The human costs, however, were severe: her sister suffered social condemnation and, because she could not remarry, was doomed to a life of poverty and hard work. Todd, 45–57; Tomalin, 34–43; Wardle, 27–30; Sunstein, 80-91. Two friendships shaped Wollstonecraft's early life. The first was with Jane Arden in Beverley. The two frequently read books together and attended lectures presented by Arden's father, a self-styled philosopher and scientist. Wollstonecraft reveled in the intellectual atmosphere of the Arden household and valued her friendship with Arden greatly, sometimes to the point of being emotionally possessive. Wollstonecraft wrote to her: "I have formed romantic notions of friendship…I am a little singular in my thoughts of love and friendship; I must have the first place or none." Quoted in Todd, 16. In some of Wollstonecraft's letters to Arden, she reveals the volatile and depressive emotions that would haunt her throughout her life. See, for example, Todd, 72–75; Tomalin, 18–21; Sunstein, 22-33. The second and more important friendship was with Fanny Blood, introduced to Wollstonecraft by the Clares, a couple in Hoxton who became parental figures to her; Wollstonecraft credited Blood with opening her mind. Todd, 22–24; Tomalin, 25–27; Wardle, 10–11; Sunstein, 39-42. Unhappy with her home life, Wollstonecraft struck out on her own in 1778 and accepted a job as a lady's companion to Sarah Dawson, a widow living in Bath. However, Wollstonecraft had trouble getting along with the irascible woman (an experience she drew on when describing the drawbacks of such a position in Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787)). In 1780 she returned home, called back to care for her dying mother. Wardle, 12–18; Sunstein 51-57. Rather than return to Dawson's employ after the death of her mother, Wollstonecraft moved in with the Bloods. She realized during the two years she spent with the family that she had idealized Blood, who was more invested in traditional feminine values than was Wollstonecraft. But Wollstonecraft remained dedicated to her and her family throughout her life (she frequently gave pecuniary assistance to Blood's brother, for example). Wardle, 20; Sunstein, 73-76. Wollstonecraft had envisioned living in a female utopia with Blood; they made plans to rent rooms together and support each other emotionally and financially, but this dream collapsed under economic realities. In order to make a living, Wollstonecraft, her sisters, and Blood set up a school together in Newington Green, a Dissenting community. Blood soon became engaged and after their marriage her husband, Hugh Skeys, took her to Europe to improve her health, which had always been precarious. Todd, 62; Wardle, 30–32; Sunstein, 92-102. Despite the change of surroundings Blood's health further deteriorated when she became pregnant, and in 1785 Wollstonecraft left the school and followed Blood to nurse her, but to no avail. Todd, 68–69; Tomalin, 52ff; Wardle, 43–45; Sunstein, 103-106. Moreover, her abandonment of the school led to its failure. Tomalin, 54–57. Blood's death devastated Wollstonecraft and was part of the inspiration for her first novel, Mary: A Fiction (1788). See Wardle, chapter 2, for autobiographical elements of Mary; see Sunstein, chapter 7. "The first of a new genus" Frontispiece to the 1791 edition of Original Stories from Real Life (engraved by William Blake) After Blood's death, Wollstonecraft's friends helped her obtain a position as governess to the daughters of the Anglo-Irish Kingsborough family in Ireland. Although she could not get along with Lady Kingsborough, See, for example, Todd, 106–7; Tomalin, 66; 79–80; Sunstein, 127-28. the children found her an inspiring instructor; Margaret King would later say she "had freed her mind from all superstitions". Todd, 116. Some of Wollstonecraft's experiences during this year would make their way into her only children's book, Original Stories from Real Life (1788). Tomalin, 64–88; Wardle, 60ff; Sunstein, 160-61. Frustrated by the limited career options open to respectable yet poor women—an impediment which Wollstonecraft eloquently describes in the chapter of Thoughts on the Education of Daughters entitled "Unfortunate Situation of Females, Fashionably Educated, and Left Without a Fortune"—she decided, after only a year as a governess, to embark upon a career as an author. This was a radical choice, since, at the time, few women could support themselves by writing. As she wrote to her sister Everina in 1787, she was trying to become "the first of a new genus". Wollstonecraft, The Collected Letters, 139; see also Sunstein, 154. She moved to London and, assisted by the liberal publisher Joseph Johnson, found a place to live and work to support herself. Todd, 123; Tomalin, 91–92; Wardle, 80–82; Sunstein, 151-55. She learned French and German and translated texts, Todd, 134–35. most notably Of the Importance of Religious Opinions by Jacques Necker and Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children by Christian Gotthilf Salzmann. She also wrote reviews, primarily of novels, for Johnson's periodical, the Analytical Review. Wollstonecraft's intellectual universe expanded during this time, not only from the reading that she did for her reviews but also from the company she kept: she attended Johnson's famous dinners and met such luminaries as the radical pamphleteer Thomas Paine and the philosopher William Godwin. The first time Godwin and Wollstonecraft met, they were both disappointed in each other. Godwin had come to hear Paine, but Wollstonecraft assailed him all night long, disagreeing with him on nearly every subject. Johnson himself, however, became much more than a friend; she described him in her letters as a father and a brother. Tomalin, 89–109; Wardle, 92–94; 128; Sunstein, 171-75. While in London, Wollstonecraft pursued a relationship with the artist Henry Fuseli, even though he was already married. She was, she wrote, enraptured by his genius, "the grandeur of his soul, that quickness of comprehension, and lovely sympathy". Quoted in Todd, 153. She proposed a platonic living arrangement with Fuseli and his wife, but Fuseli's wife was appalled, and he broke off the relationship with Wollstonecraft. Todd, 197–98; Tomalin 151–52; Wardle, 171–73; 76–77; Sunstein, 220-22. After Fuseli's rejection, Wollstonecraft decided to travel to France to escape the humiliation of the incident, and to participate in the revolutionary events that she had just celebrated in her recent Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790). She had written the Rights of Men in response to Edmund Burke's conservative critique of the French Revolution in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) and it made her famous overnight. She was compared with such leading lights as the theologian and controversialist Joseph Priestley and Paine, whose Rights of Man (1791) would prove to be the most popular of the responses to Burke. She pursued the ideas she had outlined in Rights of Men in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), her most famous and influential work. Tomalin, 144–155; Wardle, 115ff; Sunstein, 192-202. France and Gilbert Imlay 10th of August, attack on the Tuileries Palace; French revolutionary violence spreads Wollstonecraft left for Paris in December 1792 and arrived about a month before Louis XVI was guillotined. France was in turmoil. She sought out other British visitors such as Helen Maria Williams and joined the circle of expatriates then in the city. Todd, 214–15; Tomalin, 156–82; Wardle, 179–84. Having just written the Rights of Woman, Wollstonecraft was determined to put her ideas to the test, and in the stimulating intellectual atmosphere of the French revolution she attempted her most experimental romantic attachment yet: she met and fell passionately in love with Gilbert Imlay, an American adventurer. Whether or not she was interested in marriage, he was not, and she appears to have fallen in love with an idealized portrait of the man. While Wollstonecraft had rejected the sexual component of relationships in the Rights of Woman, Imlay awakened her passions and her interest in sex. Todd, 232–36; Tomalin, 185–86; Wardle, 185–88; Sunstein, 235-45. She soon became pregnant, and on 14 May 1794 she gave birth to her first child, Fanny, naming her after perhaps her closest friend. Tomalin, 218; Wardle, 202–3; Sunstein, 256-57. Wollstonecraft was overjoyed; she wrote to a friend: "My little Girl begins to suck so MANFULLY that her father reckons saucily on her writing the second part of the R[igh]ts of Woman" (emphasis hers). Qtd. in Wardle, 202. She continued to write avidly despite not only her pregnancy and the burdens of being a new mother alone in a foreign country but also the growing tumult of the French Revolution. While at Le Havre in northern France, she wrote a history of the early revolution, An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution, which was published in London in December 1794. Tomalin, 211–219; Wardle, 206–14; Sunstein, 254-55. As the political situation worsened, Britain declared war on France, placing all British subjects in France in considerable danger. To protect Wollstonecraft, Imlay registered her as his wife in 1793, even though they were not married. St Clair, 160; Wardle, 192–93; Sunstein, 262-63. Some of her friends were not so lucky; many, like Thomas Paine, were arrested, and some were even guillotined. (Wollstonecraft's sisters believed she had been imprisoned.) After she left France, she continued to refer to herself as "Mrs Imlay", even to her sisters, in order to bestow legitimacy upon her child. Tomalin, 225. Imlay, unhappy with the domestic-minded and maternal Wollstonecraft, eventually left her. He promised that he would return to Le Havre where she went to give birth to her child, but his delays in writing to her and his long absences convinced Wollstonecraft that he had found another woman. Her letters to him are full of needy expostulations, explained by most critics as the expressions of a deeply depressed woman but by some as a result of her circumstances—alone with an infant in the middle of a revolution. Todd, Chapter 25; Tomalin, 220–31; Wardle, 215ff; Sunstein, 262ff. England and William Godwin Seeking Imlay, Wollstonecraft returned to London in April 1795, but he rejected her. In May 1795 she attempted to commit suicide, probably with laudanum, but Imlay saved her life (although it is unclear how). Todd, 286–87; Wardle, 225. In a last attempt to win back Imlay, she embarked upon some business negotiations for him in Scandinavia, trying to recoup some of his losses. Wollstonecraft undertook this hazardous trip with only her young daughter and a maid. She recounted her travels and thoughts in letters to Imlay, many of which were eventually published as Letters Written During a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark in 1796. Tomalin, 225–31; Wardle, 226–44; Sunstein, 277-90. When she returned to England and came to the full realization that her relationship with Imlay was over, she attempted suicide for the second time, leaving a note for Imlay: Let my wrongs sleep with me! Soon, very soon, I shall be at peace. When you receive this, my burning head will be cold. . . . I shall plunge into the Thames where there is least chance of my being snatched from the death I seek. God bless you! May you never know by experience what you have made me endure. Should your sensibility ever awake, remorse will find its way to your heart; and, in the midst of business and sensual pleasure, I shall appear before you, the victim of your deviation from rectitude. Wollstonecraft, The Collected Letters, 326. James Northcote, William Godwin, oil on canvas, 1802, the National Portrait Gallery She then went out on a rainy night and "to make her clothes heavy with water, she walked up and down about half an hour" before jumping into the River Thames, but a stranger saw her jump and rescued her. Todd, 355–56; Tomalin, 232–36; Wardle, 245–46. Wollstonecraft considered her suicide attempt deeply rational, writing after her rescue, "I have only to lament, that, when the bitterness of death was past, I was inhumanly brought back to life and misery. But a fixed determination is not to be baffled by disappointment; nor will I allow that to be a frantic attempt, which was one of the calmest acts of reason. In this respect, I am only accountable to myself. Did I care for what is termed reputation, it is by other circumstances that I should be dishonoured." Quoted in Todd, 357. Gradually, Wollstonecraft returned to her literary life, becoming involved with Joseph Johnson's circle again, in particular with Mary Hays, Elizabeth Inchbald, and Sarah Siddons through William Godwin. Godwin and Wollstonecraft's unique courtship began slowly, but it eventually became a passionate love affair. St. Clair, 164–69; Tomalin, 245–70; Wardle, 268ff; Sunstein, 314-20. Godwin had read her Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark and later wrote that "If ever there was a book calculated to make a man in love with its author, this appears to me to be the book. She speaks of her sorrows, in a way that fills us with melancholy, and dissolves us in tenderness, at the same time that she displays a genius which commands all our admiration." Once Wollstonecraft became pregnant, they decided to marry so that their child would be legitimate. Their marriage revealed the fact that Wollstonecraft had never been married to Imlay, and as a result she and Godwin lost many friends. Godwin received further criticism because he had advocated the abolition of marriage in his philosophical treatise Political Justice. St. Clair, 172–74; Tomalin, 271–73; Sunstein, 330-35. After their marriage on 29 March 1797, they moved into two adjoining houses, known as The Polygon, so that they could both still retain their independence; they often communicated by letter. Sunstein has printed several of these letters in order so that the reader can follow Wollstonecraft and Godwin's conversation (321ff.) By all accounts, theirs was a happy and stable, though tragically brief, relationship. St. Clair, 173; Wardle, 286–92; Sunstein, 335-40. Death and Godwin's Memoirs Godwin's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1798) On 30 August 1797, Wollstonecraft gave birth to her second daughter, Mary. Although the delivery seemed to go well initially, the placenta broke apart during the birth and became infected, a common occurrence in the eighteenth century. After several days of agony, Wollstonecraft died of septicaemia on 10 September. Todd, 450–56; Tomalin, 275–83; Wardle, 302–306; Sunstein, 342-47. Godwin was devastated: he wrote to his friend Thomas Holcroft, "I firmly believe there does not exist her equal in the world. I know from experience we were formed to make each other happy. I have not the least expectation that I can now ever know happiness again." Quoted in C. Kegan Paul, William Godwin: His Friends and Contemporaries, London: Henry S. King and Co. (1876). Retrieved on 11 March 2007 She was buried at Old Saint Pancras Churchyard, and a memorial to her was constructed there, though both her and Godwin's remains were later moved to Bournemouth. Her tombstone reads, "Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman: Born 27 April 1759: Died 10 September 1797." Todd, 457. In January 1798 Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Although Godwin felt that he was portraying his wife with love, compassion, and sincerity, many readers were shocked that he would reveal Wollstonecraft's illegitimate children, love affairs, and suicide attempts. St. Clair, 182–88; Tomalin, 289–97; Sunstein, 349-51; Sapiro, 272. The Romantic poet Robert Southey accused him of "the want of all feeling in stripping his dead wife naked" and vicious satires such as The Unsex'd Females were published. Robert Southey to William Taylor, 1 July 1804. A Memoir of the Life and Writings of William Taylor of Norwich. Ed. J. W. Robberds. 2 vols. London: John Murray (1824) 1:504. Godwin's Memoirs portrays Wollstonecraft as a woman deeply invested in feeling who was balanced by his reason and as more of a religious skeptic than her own writings suggest. Sapiro, 273-74. Godwin's views of Wollstonecraft were perpetuated throughout the nineteenth century and resulted in poems such as "Wollstonecraft and Fuseli" by British poet Robert Browning and that by William Roscoe which includes the lines: Hard was thy fate in all the scenes of life As daughter, sister, mother, friend, and wife; But harder still, thy fate in death we own, Thus mourn'd by Godwin with a heart of stone. Qtd. in Sapiro, 273. Legacy Wollstonecraft has had what scholar Cora Kaplan labels a "curious" legacy: "for an author-activist adept in many genres… up until the last quarter-century Wollstonecraft's life has been read much more closely than her writing". Kaplan, "Wollstonecraft's reception", 247. After the devastating effect of Godwin's Memoirs, Wollstonecraft's reputation lay in tatters for a century; she was pilloried by such writers as Maria Edgeworth, who patterned the "freakish" Harriet Freke in Belinda (1801) after Wollstonecraft. Other novelists such as Mary Hays, Charlotte Turner Smith, Fanny Burney, and Jane West created similar figures, all to teach a "moral lesson" to their readers. Favret, 131–32. As Wollstonecraft scholar Virginia Sapiro makes clear, few read Wollstonecraft's works during the nineteenth century as "her attackers implied or stated that no self-respecting woman would read her work". Sapiro, 274. Only Lucretia Mott, an early American feminist, seems to have been influenced by Wollstonecraft's works. Sapiro, 276-77. According to Sapiro, "there is little indication that anyone who played a key role in women's history or feminism, other than Lucretia Mott, read Wollstonecraft's work seriously after her death until the twentieth century." Sapiro, 277. However, Millicent Garrett Fawcett, a suffragist and later president of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies, wrote the introduction to the centenary edition of the Rights of Woman, cleansing the memory of Woolstonecraft and claiming her as the foremother of the struggle for the vote. Gordon, 521 With the advent of the modern feminist movement, women as politically dissimilar from each other as Virginia Woolf and Emma Goldman embraced Wollstonecraft's life story and celebrated her "experiments in living", as Woolf termed them in a famous essay. Woolf, Virginia. "The Four Figures". (updated 4 June 2004) Retrieved on 11 March 2007. Many, however, continued to decry Wollstonecraft's lifestyle and her works were still ignored. With the emergence of feminist criticism in academia in the 1960s and 1970s, Wollstonecraft's works returned to prominence. Their fortunes reflected that of the second wave of the feminist movement itself; for example, in the early 1970s, six major biographies of Wollstonecraft were published that presented her "passionate life in apposition to [her] radical and rationalist agenda". Kaplan, "Wollstonecraft's reception", 254; Sapiro, 278-79. Wollstonecraft was seen as a paradoxical yet intriguing figure who did not adhere to the 1970s version of feminism—"the personal is the political". In the 1980s and 1990s, yet another image of Wollstonecraft emerged, one which described her as much more a creature of her time; scholars such as Claudia Johnson, Gary Kelly, and Virginia Sapiro demonstrated the continuity between Wollstonecraft's thought and other important eighteenth-century ideas regarding topics such as sensibility, economics, and political theory. Wollstonecraft's work has also had an effect on feminism outside the academy in recent years. Ayaan Hirsi Ali, a political writer and former Muslim who is critical of Islam in general and its dictates regarding women in particular, cited the Rights of Woman in her autobiography Infidel and wrote that she was "inspired by Mary Wollstonecraft, the pioneering feminist thinker who told women they had the same ability to reason as men did and deserved the same rights". Hirsi Ali, Ayaan. Infidel. New York: Free Press (2007), 295. Major works Educational works First page of the first edition of Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787) The majority of Wollstonecraft's early productions centre around the topic of education; she assembled an anthology of literary extracts "for the improvement of young women" entitled The Female Reader and she translated two children's works, Maria Geertruida van de Werken de Cambon's Young Grandison and Christian Gotthilf Salzmann's Elements of Morality. Her own writings also addressed the topic. In both her conduct book Thoughts on the Education of Daughters (1787) and her children's book Original Stories from Real Life (1788), Wollstonecraft advocates educating children into the emerging middle-class ethos: self-discipline, honesty, frugality, and social contentment. Jones, "Literature of advice", 122-26; Kelly, 58-59. Both books also emphasize the importance of teaching children to reason, revealing Wollstonecraft's intellectual debt to the important seventeenth-century educational philosopher John Locke. Richardson, 24-27; Myers, "Impeccable Governesses", 38. However, the prominence she affords religious faith and innate feeling distinguishes her work from his and links it to the discourse of sensibility popular at the end of the eighteenth century. Jones, "Literature of advice", 124-29; Richardson, 24-27. Both texts also advocate the education of women, a controversial topic at the time and one which she would return to throughout her career, most notably in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Wollstonecraft argues that well-educated women will be good wives and mothers and ultimately contribute positively to the nation. Richardson, 25–27; Jones, "Literature of advice", 124; Myers, "Impeccable Governesses", 37-39. Vindications Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) Published in response to Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), which was a defence of constitutional monarchy, aristocracy, and the Church of England, Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Men (1790) attacks aristocracy and advocates republicanism. Hers was the first response in a pamphlet war that subsequently became known as the Revolution Controversy, in which Thomas Paine's Rights of Man (1792) became the rallying cry for reformers and radicals. Wollstonecraft attacked not only monarchy and hereditary privilege but also the language that Burke used to defend and elevate it. In a famous passage in the Reflections, Burke had lamented: "I had thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her [Marie Antoinette] with insult.—But the age of chivalry is gone." Qtd. in Butler, 44. Most of Burke's detractors deplored what they viewed as theatrical pity for the French queen—a pity they felt was at the expense of the people. Wollstonecraft was unique in her attack on Burke's gendered language. By redefining the sublime and the beautiful, terms first established by Burke himself in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1756), she undermined his rhetoric as well as his argument. Burke had associated the beautiful with weakness and femininity and the sublime with strength and masculinity; Wollstonecraft turns these definitions against him, arguing that his theatrical tableaux turn Burke's readers—the citizens—into weak women who are swayed by show. Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 45; Johnson, 26; Sapiro, 121-22; Kelly, 90; 97-98. In her first unabashedly feminist critique, which Wollstonecraft scholar Claudia L. Johnson argues remains unsurpassed in its argumentative force, Johnson, 27; see also, Todd, 165. Wollstonecraft indicts Burke's defence of an unequal society founded on the passivity of women. In her arguments for republican virtue, Wollstonecraft invokes an emerging middle-class ethos in opposition to what she views as the vice-ridden aristocratic code of manners. Sapiro, 83; Kelly, 94-95; Todd, 164. Influenced by Enlightenment thinkers, she believed in progress and derides Burke for relying on tradition and custom. She argues for rationality, pointing out that Burke's system would lead to the continuation of slavery, simply because it had been an ancestral tradition. Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 44. She describes an idyllic country life in which each family can have a farm that will just suit its needs. Wollstonecraft contrasts her utopian picture of society, drawn with what she says is genuine feeling, to Burke's false feeling. Jones, "Political tradition", 44-46; Sapiro, 216. The Rights of Men was Wollstonecraft's first overtly political work, as well as her first feminist work; as Johnson contends, "it seems that in the act of writing the later portions of Rights of Men she discovered the subject that would preoccupy her for the rest of her career". Johnson, 29. It was this text that made her a well-known writer. \|First American edition of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) A Vindication of the Rights of Woman is one of the earliest works of feminist philosophy. In it, Wollstonecraft argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society and then proceeds to redefine that position, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be "companions" to their husbands rather than mere wives. Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 192. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men. Large sections of the Rights of Woman respond vitriolically to conduct book writers such as James Fordyce and John Gregory and educational philosophers such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who wanted to deny women an education. (Rousseau famously argues in Émile (1762) that women should be educated for the pleasure of men.) Kelly, 123; 126; Taylor, 14-15; Sapiro, 27-28; 13-31; 243-44. Wollstonecraft states that currently many women are silly and superficial (she refers to them, for example, as "spaniels" and "toys" Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 144. ), but argues that this is not because of an innate deficiency of mind but rather because men have denied them access to education. Wollstonecraft is intent on illustrating the limitations that women's deficient educations have placed on them; she writes: "Taught from their infancy that beauty is woman's sceptre, the mind shapes itself to the body, and, roaming round its gilt cage, only seeks to adorn its prison." Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 157. She implies that, without the encouragement young women receive from an early age to focus their attention on beauty and outward accomplishments, women could achieve much more. Kelly, 124-26; Taylor, 14-15. While Wollstonecraft does call for equality between the sexes in particular areas of life, such as morality, she does not explicitly state that men and women are equal. See, for example Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 126, 146. What she does claim is that men and women are equal in the eyes of God. However, such claims of equality stand in contrast to her statements respecting the superiority of masculine strength and valour. Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 110. Wollstonecraft famously and ambiguously writes: "Let it not be concluded that I wish to invert the order of things; I have already granted, that, from the constitution of their bodies, men seem to be designed by Providence to attain a greater degree of virtue. I speak collectively of the whole sex; but I see not the shadow of a reason to conclude that their virtues should differ in respect to their nature. In fact, how can they, if virtue has only one eternal standard? I must therefore, if I reason consequentially, as strenuously maintain that they have the same simple direction, as that there is a God." Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 135. Her ambiguous statements regarding the equality of the sexes have since made it difficult to classify Wollstonecraft as a modern feminist, particularly since the word and the concept were unavailable to her. The words feminist and feminism did not come into existence until the 1890s. Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved on 17 September 2007; see Taylor, 12; 55-57; 105-106; 118-20; Sapiro, 257-59. One of Wollstonecraft's most scathing critiques in the Rights of Woman is of false and excessive sensibility, particularly in women. She argues that women who succumb to sensibility are "blown about by every momentary gust of feeling" and because they are "the prey of their senses" they cannot think rationally. Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 177. In fact, she claims, they do harm not only to themselves but to the entire civilization: these are not women who can help refine a civilization—a popular eighteenth-century idea—but women who will destroy it. Wollstonecraft does not argue that reason and feeling should act independently of each other; rather, she believes that they should inform each other. Jones, 46. In addition to her larger philosophical arguments, Wollstonecraft also lays out a specific educational plan. In the twelfth chapter of the Rights of Woman, "On National Education", she argues that all children should be sent to a "country day school" as well as given some education at home "to inspire a love of home and domestic pleasures." She also maintains that schooling should be co-educational, arguing that men and women, whose marriages are "the cement of society", should be "educated after the same model." Wollstonecraft, Vindications, Chapter 12; see also Kelly, 124-25; 133-34; Sapiro, 237ff. Wollstonecraft addresses her text to the middle-class, which she describes as the "most natural state", and in many ways the Rights of Woman is inflected by a bourgeois view of the world. Kelly, 128ff; Taylor, 167-68; Sapiro, 27. It encourages modesty and industry in its readers and attacks the uselessness of the aristocracy. But Wollstonecraft is not necessarily a friend to the poor; for example, in her national plan for education, she suggests that, after the age of nine, the poor, except for those who are brilliant, should be separated from the rich and taught in another school. Wollstonecraft, Vindications, 311; see also Taylor, 159-61; Sapiro, 91-92. Novels Otto Scholderer's Young Girl Reading (1883); in both Mary and The Wrongs of Woman, Wollstonecraft criticizes women who imagine themselves as sentimental heroines. Both of Wollstonecraft's novels criticize what she viewed as the patriarchal institution of marriage and its deleterious effects on women. In her first novel, Mary: A Fiction (1788), the eponymous heroine is forced into a loveless marriage for economic reasons; she fulfils her desire for love and affection outside of marriage with two passionate romantic friendships, one with a woman and one with a man. Maria: or, The Wrongs of Woman (1798), an unfinished novel published posthumously and often considered Wollstonecraft's most radical feminist work, Taylor, Chapter 9. revolves around the story of a woman imprisoned in an insane asylum by her husband; like Mary, Maria also finds fulfilment outside of marriage, in an affair with a fellow inmate and a friendship with one of her keepers. Neither of Wollstonecraft's novels depict successful marriages, although she posits such relationships in the Rights of Woman. At the end of Mary, the heroine believes she is going "to that world where there is neither marrying, nor giving in marriage," Wollstonecraft, Mary, 68. presumably a positive state of affairs. Poovey, 100-101; Taylor, 232-33. Both of Wollstonecraft's novels also critique the discourse of sensibility, a moral philosophy and aesthetic that had become popular at the end of the eighteenth century. Mary is itself a novel of sensibility and Wollstonecraft attempts to use the tropes of that genre to undermine sentimentalism itself, a philosophy she believed was damaging to women because it encouraged them to rely overmuch on their emotions. In The Wrongs of Woman the heroine's indulgence on romantic fantasies fostered by novels themselves is depicted as particularly detrimental. Johnson, 60; 65-66; Kelly, 44; Poovey, 89; Taylor, 135; Todd, Women's Friendship, 210-11. Female friendships are central to both of Wollstonecraft's novels, but it is the friendship between Maria and Jemima, the servant charged with watching over her in the insane asylum, that is the most historically significant. This friendship, based on a sympathetic bond of motherhood, between an upper-class woman and a lower-class woman is one of the first moments in the history of feminist literature that hints at a cross-class argument, that is, that women of different economic positions have the same interests because they are women. Todd, Women's Friendship, 208; 221-22; Johnson, 67–68; Taylor, 233; 243–44; Sapiro, 155. Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark (1796) Wollstonecraft's Letters Written in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark is a deeply personal travel narrative. The twenty-five letters cover a wide range of topics, from sociological reflections on Scandinavia and its peoples to philosophical questions regarding identity to musings on her relationship with Imlay (although he is not referred to by name in the text). Using the rhetoric of the sublime, Wollstonecraft explores the relationship between the self and society. Reflecting the strong influence of Rousseau, Letters Written in Sweden shares the themes of the French philosopher's Reveries of a Solitary Walker (1782): "the search for the source of human happiness, the stoic rejection of material goods, the ecstatic embrace of nature, and the essential role of sentiment in understanding". Favret, 104; Sapiro, 286-87. While Rousseau ultimately rejects society, however, Wollstonecraft celebrates domestic scenes and industrial progress in her text. Favret, 105–106. The Icebergs (1861) by Frederic Edwin Church Wollstonecraft promotes subjective experience, particularly in relation to nature, exploring the connections between the sublime and sensibility. Many of the letters describe the breathtaking scenery of Scandinavia and Wollstonecraft's desire to create an emotional connection to that natural world. In so doing, she gives greater value to the imagination than she had in previous works. Myers, "Wollstonecraft's Letters", 167; 180; Poovey, 83-84; 106; Kelly, 189-90. As in her previous writings, she champions the liberation and education of women. Myers, "Wollstonecraft's Letters", 174; Favret, 96; 120; 127. In a change from her earlier works, however, she illustrates the detrimental effects of commerce on society, contrasting the imaginative connection to the world with a commercial and mercenary one, an attitude she associates with Imlay. Favret, 119ff; Poovey, 93; Myers, "Wollstonecraft's Letters", 177; Kelly, 179-181. Letters Written in Sweden was Wollstonecraft's most popular book in the 1790s. It sold well and was reviewed positively by most critics. Godwin wrote "if ever there was a book calculated to make a man in love with its author, this appears to me to be the book." Godwin, 95. It influenced Romantic poets such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, who drew on its themes and its aesthetic. Todd, 367; Kaplan, "Mary Wollstonecraft's reception", 262; Sapiro, 35; Favret, 128. See also 90481 Wollstonecraft Godwin-Shelly family tree Timeline of Mary Wollstonecraft List of works This is a complete list of Mary Wollstonecraft's works; all works are the first edition and were authored by Wollstonecraft unless otherwise noted. Sapiro, 341ff. —.Thoughts on the Education of Daughters: With Reflections on Female Conduct, in the More Important Duties of Life. London: Joseph Johnson, 1787. —.Mary: A Fiction. London: Joseph Johnson, 1788. —.Original Stories from Real Life: With Conversations Calculated to Regulate the Affections and Form the Mind to Truth and Goodness. London: Joseph Johnson, 1788. Necker, Jacques. Of the Importance of Religious Opinions. Trans. Mary Wollstonecraft. London: Joseph Johnson, 1788. —.The Female Reader: Or, Miscellaneous Pieces, in Prose and Verse; selected from the best writers, and disposed under proper heads; for the improvement of young women. By Mr. Cresswick, teacher of elocution [Mary Wollstonecraft]. To which is prefixed a preface, containing some hints on female education. London: Joseph Johnson, 1789. de Cambon, Maria Geertruida van de Werken. Young Grandison. A Series of Letters from Young Persons to Their Friends. Trans. Mary Wollstonecraft. London: Joseph Johnson, 1790. Salzmann, Christian Gotthilf. Elements of Morality, for the Use of Children; with an introductory address to parents. Trans. Mary Wollstonecraft. London: Joseph Johnson, 1790. —.A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke. London: Joseph Johnson, 1790. —.A Vindication of the Rights of Woman with Strictures on Moral and Political Subjects. London: Joseph Johnson, 1792. —."On the Prevailing Opinion of a Sexual Character in Women, with Strictures on Dr. Gregory's Legacy to His Daughters". New Annual Register (1792): 457–466. [From Rights of Woman] —.An Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution; and the Effect It Has produced in Europe. London: Joseph Johnson, 1794. —.Letters Written during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. London: Joseph Johnson, 1796. —."On Poetry, and Our Relish for the Beauties of Nature". Monthly Magazine (April 1797). —. The Wrongs of Woman, or Maria. Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; unfinished] —."The Cave of Fancy". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; fragment written in 1787] —."Letter on the Present Character of the French Nation". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; written in 1793] —."Fragment of Letters on the Management of Infants". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; unfinished] —."Lessons". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; unfinished] —."Hints". Posthumous Works of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Ed. William Godwin. London: Joseph Johnson, 1798. [Published posthumously; notes on the second volume of Rights of Woman, never written] —.Contributions to the Analytical Review (1788–1797) [published anonymously] Notes Bibliography Primary works Butler, Marilyn, ed. Burke, Paine, Godwin, and the Revolution Controversy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-28656-5. Wollstonecraft, Mary. The Collected Letters of Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Janet Todd. New York: Columbia University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-231-13142-9. Wollstonecraft, Mary. The Complete Works of Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Janet Todd and Marilyn Butler. 7 vols. London: William Pickering, 1989. ISBN 0-8147-9225-1. Wollstonecraft, Mary. The Vindications: The Rights of Men and The Rights of Woman. Eds. D. L. Macdonald and Kathleen Scherf. Toronto: Broadview Literary Texts, 1997. ISBN 1-55111-088-1. Biographies Flexner, Eleanor. Mary Wollstonecraft: A Biography. New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan, 1972. ISBN 0-6981-0447-1. Godwin, William. Memoirs of the Author of a Vindication of the Rights of Woman. 1798. Eds. Pamela Clemit and Gina Luria Walker. Peterborough: Broadview Press Ltd., 2001. ISBN 1-55111-259-0. Gordon, Lyndall. Vindication: A Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. Great Britain: Virago, 2005. ISBN 1-84408-141-9. Hays, Mary. "Memoirs of Mary Wollstonecraft". Annual Necrology (1797–98): 411–460. Jacobs, Diane. Her Own Woman: The Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. USA: Simon & Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-349-11461-7. St Clair, William. The Godwins and the Shelleys: The biography of a family. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., 1989. ISBN 0-8018-4233-6. Sunstein, Emily. A Different Face: the Life of Mary Wollstonecraft. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1975. ISBN 0-06-014201-4. Todd, Janet. Mary Wollstonecraft: A Revolutionary Life. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 2000. ISBN 0-231-12184-9. Tomalin, Claire. The Life and Death of Mary Wollstonecraft. Rev. ed. 1974. New York: Penguin, 1992. ISBN 0-14-016761-7. Wardle, Ralph M. Mary Wollstonecraft: A Critical Biography. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1951. Other secondary works Conger, Syndy McMillen. Mary Wollstonecraft and the Language of Sensibility. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-8386-3553-9. Falco, Maria J., ed. Feminist Interpretations of Mary Wollstonecraft. University Park: Penn State Press, 1996. ISBN 0-271-01493-8. Favret, Mary. Romantic Correspondence: Women, politics and the fiction of letters. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-521-41096-7. Janes, R. M. "On the Reception of Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman". Journal of the History of Ideas 39 (1978): 293–302. Johnson, Claudia L. Equivocal Beings: Politics, Gender, and Sentimentality in the 1790s. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995. ISBN 0-226-401847. Jones, Chris. "Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindications and their political tradition". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Claudia L. Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-78952-4. Jones, Vivien. "Mary Wollstonecraft and the literature of advice and instruction". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Claudia Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-78952-4. Kaplan, Cora. "Mary Wollstonecraft's reception and legacies". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft Ed. Claudia L. Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-78952-4. Kaplan, Cora. "Pandora's Box: Subjectivity, Class and Sexuality in Socialist Feminist Criticism". Sea Changes: Essays on Culture and Feminism. London: Verso, 1986. ISBN 0-86091-151-9. Kaplan, Cora. "Wild Nights: Pleasure/Sexuality/Feminism". Sea Changes: Essays on Culture and Feminism. London: Verso, 1986. ISBN 0-86091-151-9. Kelly, Gary. Revolutionary Feminism: The Mind and Career of Mary Wollstonecraft. New York: St. Martin's, 1992. ISBN 0-312-12904-1. Myers, Mitzi. "Impeccable Governess, Rational Dames, and Moral Mothers: Mary Wollstonecraft and the Female Tradition in Georgian Children's Books". Children's Literature 14 (1986):31–59. Myers, Mitzi. "Sensibility and the 'Walk of Reason': Mary Wollstonecraft's Literary Reviews as Cultural Critique". Sensibility in Transformation: Creative Resistance to Sentiment from the Augustans to the Romantics. Ed. Syndy McMillen Conger. Rutherford: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-8386-3352-8. Myers, Mitzi. "Wollstonecraft's Letters Written . . . in Sweden: Towards Romantic Autobiography". Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture 8 (1979): 165-85. Poovey, Mary. The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley and Jane Austen. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984. ISBN 0-226-67528-9. Richardson, Alan. "Mary Wollstonecraft on education". The Cambridge Companion to Mary Wollstonecraft. Ed. Claudia Johnson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-521-78952-4. Sapiro, Virginia. A Vindication of Political Virtue: The Political Theory of Mary Wollstonecraft. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. ISBN 0-226-73491-9. Taylor, Barbara. Mary Wollstonecraft and the Feminist Imagination. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-521-66144-7. Todd, Janet. Women's Friendship in Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1980. ISBN 0-231-04562-X External links Memoirs of the Author of a Vindication of the Rights of Woman, by William Godwin, at Project Gutenberg Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1796 edition) at Google Books An Historical and Moral View of the Origin and Progress of the French Revolution at libertyfund.org Biography of Wollstonecraft by Jane Johnson Lewis from about.com Wollstonecraft concordance Mary Wollstonecraft: A 'Speculative and Dissenting Spirit' by Janet Todd at www.bbc.co.uk "Mary" by William Blake at sterneck.net	Mary_Wollstonecraft \|@lemmatized john:4 opie:1 mary:61 wollstonecraft:179 c:2 april:5 september:4 eighteenth:7 century:15 british:4 writer:7 philosopher:8 feminist:20 brief:2 career:6 write:33 novel:12 treatise:2 travel:4 narrative:2 history:5 french:12 revolution:13 conduct:4 book:15 child:19 best:2 know:7 vindication:40 right:46 woman:92 argue:11 naturally:1 inferior:1 men:19 appear:5 lack:1 education:18 suggest:3 treat:1 rational:3 imagine:2 social:4 order:5 found:2 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6,410	Dutch_language	Dutch () is a West Germanic language spoken by over 22 million people as a native language, and over 5 million people as a second language. "1% of the EU population claims to speak Dutch well enough in order to have a conversation." (page 153) Outside the European Union the number of second language speakers of Dutch is relatively small. Most native speakers live in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Suriname, with smaller groups of speakers in parts of France, Germany and several former Dutch colonies. It is closely related to other West Germanic languages (e.g., English, West Frisian and German) and somewhat more remotely to the North Germanic languages. Dutch is the parent language of several creole languages as well as of Afrikaans, one of the official languages of South Africa and the most widely understood in Namibia. Dutch and Afrikaans are to a very large extent mutually intelligible, although they have separate spelling standards and dictionaries and have separate language regulators. The Dutch Language Union coordinates actions of the Dutch, Flemish and Surinamese authorities in linguistic issues, language policy, language teaching and literature. The Nederlandse Taalunie Names In English the language of the people of the Netherlands and Flanders is referred to as Dutch; or rarely as Netherlandic. Britannica on Netherlandic Language; see also C.B. van Haeringen, Netherlandic language research. Men and works in the study of Dutch, 2nd edition, Leiden: Brill 1960. Flemish is a popular informal term to refer to Belgian Dutch, Dutch as spoken in Belgium. The origins of the word Dutch go back to Proto-Germanic, the ancestor of all Germanic languages, þeudiskaz (meaning "national/popular"); akin to Old Dutch dietsc, Old High German diutsch, Old English þeodisc and Gothic þiuda all meaning "(of) the common (Germanic) people". As the tribes among the Germanic peoples began to differentiate its meaning began to change. The Anglo-Saxons of England for example gradually stopped referring to themselves as þeodisc and instead started to use Englisc, after their tribe. On the continent theudo evolved into two meanings: Diets (meaning "Dutch (people)" <archaic> Until World War II, Nederlands was used as the regular term, semi-synonym with archaic Diets. However the similarity to Deutsch resulted in its disuse when the German occupiers and Dutch fascists extensively used that name to stress the Dutch as an ancient Germanic people. ) and Deutsch (German, meaning "German (people)"). At first the English language used (the contemporary form of) Dutch to refer to any or all of the Germanic speakers on the European mainland (e.g. the Dutch, the Flemings and the Germans). For example, in Gulliver's Travels, German is called "High Dutch", whereas what we call Dutch today is called "Low Dutch". Gradually its meaning shifted to the Germanic people they had most contact with, both because their geographical proximity, but also because of the rivalry in trade and overseas territories: the people from the Dutch Republic, the Dutch. www.etymonline.com and Etymologisch Woordenboek van het Nederlands entries "Dutch" and "Diets". In Dutch, the language is referred to as Nederlands. It derives from the Dutch word "neder", a cognate of English "nether" both meaning "low", and "down" (same meaning in both English and Dutch), a reference to the geographical texture of the Dutch homelands, the western and lowest portion of the Northern European plain. See J. Verdam, Middelnederlandsch handwoordenboek (The Hague 1932 (reprinted 1994)): "Nederlant, znw. o. I) Laag of aan zee gelegen land. 2) het land aan den Nederrijn; Nedersaksen, -duitschland." Source on the Low Countries. (De Nederlanden) neder- corresponds with the English nether-, which means "low" or "down". See Online etymological dictionary. Entry: Nether. Classification Indo-European languages Germanic West Germanic Low Franconian languages or Dutch → Nederlands (Afrikaans, Dutch-based creole languages) Dutch is a descendant of several Frankish dialects spoken in the High Middle Ages and Early Modern Times, and to a lesser extent of Frisian, that was spoken by the original inhabitants of Holland. It did not undergo the High German consonant shift (apart from the transition from /θ/ to /d/), and is a Low Franconian language. There was at one time a dialect continuum that blurred the boundary between Dutch and Low Saxon. In some small areas, there are still dialect continua, but they are gradually becoming extinct. Geographic distribution Dutch is an official language of the Netherlands, Belgium, Suriname, Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles. Dutch is also an official language of several international organisations, such as the European Union and the Union of South American Nations. Constitutive Treaty of the Union of South American Nations, Ministério das Relações Exteriores, Brazil It is used unofficially in the Caribbean Community. Europe Netherlands Dutch is the official and foremost language of the Netherlands, a nation of 16.4 million people, of whom 96 percent say Dutch is their mother tongue. In the province of Friesland and a small part of Groningen, Frisian is also recognised, but is spoken by only some hundreds of thousands of Frisians. In the Netherlands there are many different dialects, but these are often overruled and replaced by the language of the media, school, government (i.e., Standard Dutch). Immigrant languages are Indonesian, Turkish, Moroccan Berber, Papiamento, and Sranan. In the second generation these newcomers often speak Dutch as their mother tongue, but sometimes alongside the language of the parents. Belgium Language situation in Belgium Belgium has three official languages, which are, in order from the greatest speaker population to the smallest, Dutch (sometimes colloquially referred to as Flemish), French, and German. An estimated 59% of all Belgians speak Dutch, while French is spoken by 40%. Footnote: Native speakers of Dutch living in Wallonia and of French in Flanders are relatively small minorities that furthermore largely balance one another, hence counting all inhabitants of each unilingual area to the area's language can cause only insignificant inaccuracies (99% can speak the language). Dutch: Flanders' 6.079 million inhabitants and about 15% of Brussels' 1.019 million are 6.23 million or 59.3% of the 10.511 million inhabitants of Belgium (2006); German: 70,400 in the German-speaking Community (which has language facilities for its less than 5% French-speakers), and an estimated 20,000–25,000 speakers of German in the Walloon Region outside the geographical boundaries of their official Community, or 0.9%; French: in the latter area as well as mainly in the rest of Wallonia (3.414 − 0.093 = 3.321 million) and 85% of the Brussels inhabitants (0.866 million) thus 4.187 million or 39.8%; together indeed 100%. Dutch is the official language of the Flemish Region (where it is the mother tongue of about 97% of the population) Hoe trots zijn wij op het Nederlands?, Nederlandse Taalunie, 2005 and one of the two official languages —along with French— of the Brussels Capital Region. Dutch is not official nor a recognised minority language in the Walloon Region, although on the border with the Flemish Region, there are four municipalities with language facilities for Dutch-speakers. The most important Dutch dialects spoken in Belgium are West Flemish, which has a dialect continuum in North-West French Flanders (Frans Vlaanderen); East Flemish, Brabantian and Limburgish, the latter having a dialect continuum in northeastern Wallonia (as Low Dietsch). Brussels Languages spoken at home (Brussels Capital Region, 2006) ”Taalgebruik in Brussel en de plaats van het Nederlands. Enkele recente bevindingen”, Rudi Janssens, Brussels Studies, Nummer 13, 7 January 2008 (see page 4). Since the founding of the Kingdom of Belgium in 1830, Brussels has transformed from being almost entirely Dutch-speaking, to being a multilingual city with French as the majority language and lingua franca. This language shift, the Frenchification of Brussels, is rooted in the 18th century but accelerated after Belgium became independent and Brussels expanded past its original boundaries. Not only is French-speaking immigration responsible for the Frenchification of Brussels, but more importantly the language change over several generations from Dutch to French was performed in Brussels by the Flemish people themselves. The main reason for this was the low social prestige of the Dutch language in Belgium at the time. From 1880 on, more and more Dutch-speaking people became bilingual, resulting in a rise of monolingual French-speakers after 1910. Halfway through the 20th century the number of monolingual French-speakers carried the day over the (mostly) bilingual Flemish inhabitants. "Thuis in gescheiden werelden" — De migratoire en sociale aspecten van verfransing te Brussel in het midden van de 19e eeuw", BTNG-RBHC, XXI, 1990, 3-4, pp. 383-412, Machteld de Metsenaere, Eerst aanwezend assistent en docent Vrije Universiteit Brussel Only since the 1960s, after the fixation of the Belgian language border and the socio-economic development of Flanders was in full effect, could Dutch stem the tide of increasing French use. This phenomenon is, together with the future of Brussels, one of the most controversial topics in all of Belgian politics. Today an estimated 15.6 percent of city residents are native speakers of Dutch, while an additional 12.64 percent claim to speak it "well to excellent". ”Taalgebruik in Brussel en de plaats van het Nederlands. Enkele recente bevindingen”, Rudi Janssens, Brussels Studies, Nummer 13, 7 January 2008 (see page 5). France Language situation in the Arrondissement of Dunkirk, in northern France. French Flemish, a variant of West Flemish, is spoken in the north-west of France by an estimated population of 20,000 daily speakers and 40,000 occasional speakers. It is spoken alongside French, which is gradually replacing it for all purposes and in all areas of communication. Flemish in France. The Euromosaic study by the European Commission. Neither Dutch, nor its regional French Flemish variant, is afforded any legal status in France, either by the central or regional public authorities, by the education system or before the courts. In brief, the State is not taking any measures to ensure use of Dutch in France. In the 9th century the Germanic-Romance language border went from the mouth of the Canche to just north of the city of Lille, where it coincided with the present language border in Belgium. From the late 9th century on, the border gradually started to shift northward and westward to the detriment of the Germanic language. Boulogne-sur-Mer was bilingual up to the 12th century, Calais up to the 16th century, and Saint-Omer until the 18th century. The western part of the County of Flanders, consisting of the castellanies of Bourbourg, Bergues, Cassel and Bailleul, became part of France between 1659 and 1678. However, the linguistic situation in this formerly monolingually Dutch-speaking region did not dramatically change until the French Revolution in 1789, and Dutch continued to fulfil the main functions of a cultural language throughout the 18th century. During the 19th century, especially in the second half of it, Dutch was banned from all levels of education and lost most of its functions as a cultural language. The cities of Dunkirk, Gravelines and Bourbourg had become predominantly French-speaking by the end of the 19th century. In the countryside, until World War I, many elementary schools continued to teach in Dutch, and the Roman Catholic Church continued to preach and teach the cathechism in Flemish in many parishes. Nonetheless, since French enjoyed a much higher status than Dutch, from about the interbellum onward everybody became bilingual, the generation born after World War II being raised exclusively in French. In the countryside, the passing on of Flemish stopped during the 1930s or 1940s. As a consequence, the vast majority of those still having an active command of Flemish belong to the generation of over the age of 60. Therefore, complete extinction of French Flemish can be expected in the coming decades. Asia An anachronous map of the Dutch Empire. The growth of the Dutch East Indies. SarDesai (1997), p.88. Despite the Dutch presence in Indonesia for almost three hundred and fifty years, the Dutch language has no official status Baker (1998), p.202. and the small minority that can speak the language fluently are either educated members of the oldest generation, or employed in the legal profession, Ammon (2005), p.2017. as some legal codes are still only available in Dutch. Booij (1995), p.2 Contrary to other European nations, the Dutch chose not to follow a policy of language expansion amongst the indigenous peoples of their colonies. In the last quarter of the 19th century, however, a local elite gained proficiency in Dutch so as to meet the needs of expanding bureaucracy and business. Westerse koloniale taalpolitiek in Azië, Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, 1998 Nevertheless, the Dutch government remained reluctant to teach Dutch on a large scale out of fear of destabilising the colony. Dutch, the language of power, was supposed to remain in the hands of the leading elite. Instead, use of local languages —or, where this proved to be impractical, of Malay— was encouraged. As a result, less than two percent of Indonesians could speak Dutch in 1940. Only when in 1928 the Indonesian nationalist movement had chosen Malay as a weapon against Dutch influence, the colonial authorities gradually began to introduce Dutch in the educational curriculum. But due to the 1942 Japanese invasion and the subsequent Indonesian independence in 1945, this shift in policy did not come into full effect. After independence, Dutch was dropped as an official language and replaced by Malay. Yet the Indonesian language inherited many words from Dutch, both in words for everyday life, and as well in scientific or technological terminology. Sneddon (2003), p.162. One scholar argues that 20% of Indonesian words can be traced back to Dutch words. A Hidden Language – Dutch in Indonesia Many universities include Dutch as a source language, mainly for law and history students (roughly 35,000 of them nationally). The century and half of Dutch rule in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and southern India left few to no traces of the Dutch language. Dutch-based creole languages (once) spoken in the Dutch East Indies include Javindo and Petjo. Oceania After the independence of Indonesia, Western New Guinea remained a Dutch colony until 1962, known as Netherlands New Guinea. Despite prolonged Dutch presence, the Dutch language is not spoken by many Papuans, the colony having been annexed by Indonesia in 1963. Immigrant communities can be found in Australia and New Zealand. The 2001 Australian census showed 40,190 people speaking Dutch at home. Top 30 Language Groups, Australian 2001 census. According to the 2006 census in New Zealand, 16,347 people claim sufficient fluency in Dutch to hold an everyday conversation. Statistics New Zealand - Concerning Language 2004 - Profile of First Language Retention Americas Location of Suriname in South America. Location of the Netherlands Antilles in the southern Caribbean. Location of Aruba off the north coast of South America. In contrast to the colonies in the East Indies, from the second half of the 19th century onwards, the Netherlands envisaged expansion of Dutch in its colonies in the West Indies. Until 1863, when slavery was abolished in the West Indies, slaves were forbidden to speak Dutch. Most important were the efforts of Christianisation through Dutchification, which did not occur in Indonesia seen the policy of non-involvement in already Islamised regions. Secondly, most of the people in Dutch Guyana (now Suriname) worked on Dutch plantations, which reinforced the importance of Dutch as a means for direct communication. Toelichting bij de overeenkomsttekst, Nederlandse Taalunie In Indonesia, the colonial authorities had less interference in economic life. The size of the population was decisive: whereas the Antilles and Dutch Guyana combined only had a few hundred thousands inhabitants, Indonesia had many millions, by far outnumbering the population of the Netherlands. In Suriname, where in the second half of the 19th century the Dutch authorities introduced a policy of assimilation, Dutch is the sole official language CIA - The World Factbook - Suriname and over 60 percent of the population speaks it as a mother tongue. A further twenty-four percent of the population speaks Dutch as a second language. Source: Zevende algemene volks- en woningtelling 2004, Algemeen Bureau voor de Statistiek Suriname gained its independence from the Netherlands in 1975 and has been an associate member of the Dutch Language Union since 2004. Nederlandse Taalunie The lingua franca of Suriname, however, is Sranan Tongo, Ethnologue on Sranan spoken natively by about a fifth of the population. In Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles, both part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Dutch is the official language but spoken as a first language by only seven to eight percent of the population, CIA - The World Factbook - Netherlands Antilles CIA - The World Factbook - Aruba although most people on the islands can speak the language since the education system is in Dutch at some or all levels. Languages of Aruba The lingua franca of Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao is Papiamento, a creole language that originally developed among the slave population. The population of the three northern Antilles, Sint Maarten, Saba, and Sint Eustatius, is predominantly English-speaking. Dutch colonial presence in North America lasted shorter. In New Jersey in the United States, an extinct dialect of Dutch, Jersey Dutch, spoken by descendants of seventeenth century Dutch settlers in Bergen and Passaic counties, was noted to still be spoken as late as 1921. Jersey Dutch Contrary to what the name would suggest, Pennsylvania Dutch is derived from West Central German and not from Dutch. Other Dutch-based creole languages once spoken in the Americas include Mohawk Dutch (in Albany, New York), Berbice (in Guyana), Skepi (in Essequibo, Guyana) and Negerhollands (in the United States Virgin Islands). According to the 2000 United States census, 150,396 people spoke Dutch at home, US Census 2000 Frisian, Afrikaans and Pennsylvania Dutch exluded. while the 2006 Canadian census gave a number of 159,440 Dutch-speakers. Statistics Canada 2006 (Dutch and Flemish grouped together). In Canada, Dutch is the fourth most spoken language by farmers, after English, French and German. Agriculture-population linkage data for the 2006 Census. The Daily. Africa Belgian Africa The Belgian colonial empire. Belgium, which had gained its independence from the Netherlands in 1830, also held a colonial empire from 1901 to 1962, consisting of the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi. Contrary to Belgium itself, the colonies had no de jure official language. Vlamingen en Afrikanen — Vlamingen in Centraal Afrika, Faculteit Sociale Wetenschappen, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium La langue de la Justice et les Constitutions africaines, by Nazam Halaoui. Editions juridiques associées n°51-52 2002/2-3. Cairn 2007 Although a majority of Belgians residing in the colonies were Dutch-speaking, French was de facto the sole language used in administration, jurisdiction and secondary education. République démocratique du Congo, Laval University, Canada After World War II, proposals of dividing the colony into a French-speaking and a Dutch-speaking part —after the example of Belgium— were discussed within the Flemish Movement. In general, however, the Flemish Movement was not as strong in the colonies as in the mother country. Congo made in Flanders? Koloniale Vlaamse visies op ‘blank’ en ‘zwart’ in Belgisch Congo, by B. Ceuppens. Academia Press. Ghent, 2003. Although in 1956, on the eve of Congolese independence, an estimated 50,000 out of a total of 80,000 Belgian nationals would have been Flemish, only 1,305 out of 21,370 children were enrolled in Dutch-language education. When the call for a better recognition of Dutch in the colony got louder, the évolués ("developed Congolese") —among whom Mobutu Sese Seko— argued that Dutch had no right over the indigenous languages, defending the privileged position of French. School en cultuur: eenheid en verscheidenheid in de geschiedenis van het Belgische en Nederlandse onderwijs (page 18), by Nelleke Bakker and Marjoke Rietveld-van Wingerden. Published by Uitgeverij Van Gorcum, 2006 Moreover, the image of Afrikaans as the language of the apartheid was injurious to the popularity of Dutch. The colonial authorities used Lingala, Kongo, Swahili and Tshiluba in communication with the local population and in education. In Ruanda-Urundi this was Kirundi. ndimurukundo.pdf Problématique de la législation linguistique au Burundi, Université du Burundi Knowledge of French —or, to an even lesser extent, Dutch— was hardly passed on to the natives, of whom only a small number were taught French to work in local public services. After their independence, French would become an official language of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi. Of these, Congo is the most francophone country, with 2 percent speaking the language well and 12 percent speaking it on a basic level. La situation linguistique, les langues en contact et le français dans les anciennes colonies belges en Afrique (Burundi, Rwanda, RD Congo). Réseau de chercheurs — Sociolinguistique et dynamique des langues. Agence universitaire de la Francophonie. Knowledge of Dutch in former Belgian Africa is virtually nonexistent. Afrikaans However this map does not show the large minorities of Afrikaans-speakers in the eastern side of the country. Arguably, the largest legacy of the Dutch language lies in South Africa, which attracted large numbers of Dutch, Flemish and other northwest European farmer (in Dutch, boer) settlers, all of whom were quickly assimilated. After the colony passed into British hands in the early 19th century, the settlers spread into the hinterland, taking their language with them. The subsequent isolation from the rest of the Dutch-speaking world made the Dutch as spoken in Southern Africa evolve into what is now Afrikaans. European Dutch remained the literary language until the early 20th century, when under pressure of Afrikaner nationalism the local "African" Dutch was preferred over the written, European-based standard. In 1925, section 137 of the 1909 constitution of the Union of South Africa was amended by Act 8 of 1925, stating "the word Dutch in Article 137 (...) is hereby declared to include Afrikaans". South Africa: Legislation: 1910-2008, Archontology.org Transformation in the Judiciary — A constitutional imperative. Supreme Court of Appeal, Government of South Africa. The new constitution of 1961 only listed English and Afrikaans as official languages. It is estimated that over 90% of Afrikaans vocabulary is ultimately of Dutch origin. Both languages are still largely mutually intelligible, although this relation can in some fields (such as lexicon, spelling and grammar) be asymmetric, as it is easier for Dutch-speakers to understand Afrikaans than it is for Afrikaans-speakers to understand Dutch. Oxford Journal on Mutual Comprehensibility of Written Afrikaans and Dutch It is the third language of South Africa in terms of native speakers (~13.3%), Key results of the 2001 census, Statistics South Africa of whom 53 percent Coloureds and 42.4 percent Whites. Primary tables: 1996 and 2001 compared, Statistics South Africa In 1996, 40 percent of South Africans reported to know Afrikaans at least at a very basic level of communication. Language policy development in South Africa, by V.N. Webb, Centre for Research in the Politics of Language, University of Pretoria It is the lingua franca in Namibia, The World Factbook (CIA) — Namibia where it is spoken natively in 11 percent of households. Languages Spoken in Namibia, Namibian Government In total, Afrikaans is the first language for about 6 million and a second language for 10 million people, Ethnologue on Afrikaans compared to over 22 million and 5 million respectively, for Dutch. History The history of the Dutch language begins around AD 450–500 after Old Frankish, one of the many West Germanic tribal languages, was split by the Second Germanic consonant shift. At more or less the same time the Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law led to the development of the direct ancestors of modern Dutch Low Saxon, Frisian and English. The northern dialects of Old Frankish generally did not participate in either of these two shifts, except for a small amount of phonetic changes, and are hence known as Old Low Franconian; the "Low" refers to dialects not influenced by the consonant shift. The most south-eastern dialects of the Franconian languages became part of High – though not Upper – German even though a dialect continuum remained. The fact that Dutch did not undergo the sound changes may be the reason why some people say that Dutch is like a bridge between English and German. Within Old Low Franconian there were two subgroups: Old East Low Franconian and Old West Low Franconian, which is better known as Old Dutch. East Low Franconian was eventually absorbed by Dutch as it became the dominant form of Low Franconian, although it remains a noticeable substrate within the southern Limburgish dialects of Dutch. As the two groups were so similar, it is often difficult to determine whether a text is Old Dutch or Old East Low Franconian; hence most linguists will generally use Old Dutch synonymously with Old Low Franconian and mostly do not differentiate. Dutch, like other Germanic languages, is conventionally divided into three development phases which were: 450/500–1150 Old Dutch (First attested in the Salic Law) 1150–1500 Middle Dutch (Also called "Diets" in popular use, though not by linguists) 1500–present Modern Dutch (Saw the creation of the Dutch standard language and includes contemporary Dutch) The transition between these languages was very gradual and one of the few moments linguists can detect somewhat of a revolution is when the Dutch standard language emerged and quickly established itself. Standard Dutch is very similar to most Dutch dialects. The development of the Dutch language is illustrated by the following sentence in Old, Middle and Modern Dutch: "Irlôsin sol an frithe sêla mîna fan thên thia ginâcont mi, wanda under managon he was mit mi" (Old Dutch) "Erlossen sal [hi] in vrede siele mine van dien die genaken mi, want onder menegen hi was met mi" (Middle Dutch) (Using same word order) "Verlossen zal hij in vrede ziel mijn van degenen die [te] na komen mij, want onder velen hij was met mij" (Modern Dutch) (Using correct contemporary Dutch word order) "Hij zal mijn ziel in vrede verlossen van degenen die mij te na komen, want onder velen was hij met mij" (Modern Dutch) (see Psalm 55:19) "He shall my soul in peace free from those who me too near come, because amongst many was he with me" (English literal translation in the same word order) "He will deliver my soul in peace from those who attack me, because, amongst many, he was with me" (English translation) (see Psalm 55:18) A process of standardisation started in the Middle ages, especially under the influence of the Burgundian Ducal Court in Dijon (Brussels after 1477). The dialects of Flanders and Brabant were the most influential around this time. The process of standardisation became much stronger at the start of the 16th century, mainly based on the urban dialect of Antwerp. In 1585 Antwerp fell to the Spanish army: many fled to the Northern Netherlands, especially the province of Holland, where they influenced the urban dialects of that province. In 1637, a further important step was made towards a unified language, when the Statenvertaling, the first major Bible translation into Dutch, was created that people from all over the United Provinces could understand. It used elements from various, even Dutch Low Saxon, dialects but was predominantly based on the urban dialects of Holland. Dialects Dutch dialects are remarkably diverse and distinct. The same applies to the Flanders region in Belgium. A special series on Dutch dialects provides detailed information on this subject. The introduction of Standard Dutch in the 1960's began later in Flanders, due in part to the dominance of the French language in Belgium. Sounds For many English speakers, basic Dutch, when written, looks recognisable though pronunciation may be markedly different. This is true especially of the diphthongs and of the letter <g>, which is pronounced as a velar continuant. The rhotic pronunciation of <r> causes some English-speakers to believe Dutch sounds similar to a West Country accent; this is the reason for Bill Bryson's "when one hears Dutch, one feels one ought to be able to understand it". Dutch diphthongs and gutturals can be difficult to pronounce for English-speakers. Dutch devoices all consonants at the ends of words (e.g. a final becomes ), which presents a problem for Dutch speakers when learning English. This is partly reflected in the spelling: the singular of huizen (houses) becomes huis, and that of duiven (doves) becomes duif. The other cases, viz. "p"/"b" and "d"/"t" are always written with the voiced consonant, although a devoiced one is actually pronounced, e.g. sg. baard (beard), pronounced as baart, has plural baarden and sg. rib (rib), pronounced as rip has plural ribben. Because of assimilation, often the initial consonant of the next word is also devoiced, e.g. het vee (the cattle) is . This process of devoicing is taken to an extreme in some regions (Amsterdam, Friesland) with almost complete loss of , and . These phonemes are certainly present in the middle of a word. Compare e.g. Northern Dutch pronunciation logen and loochen vs. . In the Southern provinces of the Netherlands (i.e., Zeeland, Brabant and Limburg) and in Belgium, the contrast is even greater: vs. . The final 'n' of the plural ending -en is often not pronounced (as in Afrikaans where it is also dropped in the written language), except in the northeast Netherlands (where dialects of Low Saxon are spoken rather than the Low Franconian dialects spoken in the remainder of the Netherlands and in Flanders. Some linguists consider dialects of Low Saxon native to the Netherlands to be a variety of Dutch, vide Dutch Low Saxon) and western Flanders (where West Flemish is spoken) where the ending becomes a syllabic n sound. Dutch is a stress language; the stress position of words matters. Stress can occur on any syllable position in a word. There is a tendency for stress to be at the beginning of words. In composite words, secondary stress is often present. There are some cases where stress is the only difference between words. For example vóórkomen (occur) and voorkómen (prevent). Marking the stress (´) in written Dutch is optional, never obligatory, but sometimes recommended. Vowels The vowel inventory of Dutch is large, with 14 simple vowels and four diphthongs. The vowels , , are included on the diphthong chart because they are actually produced as narrow closing diphthongs in many dialects, but behave phonologically like the other simple vowels. (a near-open central vowel) is an allophone of unstressed and . IPA chart of Netherlandic Dutch monophthongsImage:Dutch-monophthongs.png IPA chart of Netherlandic Dutch diphthongsImage:Dutch-diphthongs.png + Dutch Vowels with Example WordsSymbolExampleIPAIPAorthographyEnglish translationkip'chicken'biet'beetroot'hut'cabin'fuut'grebe'bed'bed'beet'bite' de'the'neus'nose'bad'bath'zaad'seed'bot'bone'boot'boat'hoed'hat'ei, wijn'egg', 'wine'ui'onion'zout, faun'salt', 'faun' Consonants The syllable structure of Dutch is (C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)(C). Many words, as in English, begin with three consonants; for example, straat (street). There are words that end in four consonants—e.g., herfst (autumn), ergst (worst), interessantst (most interesting), sterkst (strongest)—most of these being adjectives in the superlative form. The greatest number of consonants in a single cluster is found in the word slechtstschrijvend (worst writing) with 9 consonants (though there are only 7 phonemes since 'ch' represents a single phoneme, and in normal speech the number of phonemes is usually reduced to 6 because of assimilation of 'tstsch' to 'stsch', or even to 5 by many speakers who pronounce the cluster 'schr' as 'sr'). The consonant system of Dutch did not undergo the High German consonant shift and has more in common with English, Low German and the Scandinavian languages. Like most Germanic languages it has a syllable structure that allows fairly complex consonant clusters. Dutch is often noted for the prominent use of velar fricatives. BilabialLabio-dentalAlveolarPost-alveolarPalatalVelarUvularGlottalNasal Plosivevoiceless voiced Fricativevoiceless voiced Trill Approximant Notes: is not a separate phoneme in Dutch, but is inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words after and and often also at the beginning of a word. is not a native phoneme of Dutch and only occurs in borrowed words, like goal or when is voiced, like in zakdoek . and are not native phonemes of Dutch, and usually occur in borrowed words, like show and bagage ('baggage'). And even then they are usually realized as and respectively. However, + phoneme sequences in Dutch are often realized as , like in the word huisje ('little house'). In dialects that merge s and z often is realized as . The sound spelled <ch> is a uvular fricative in Standard Dutch and velar in Belgian dialects. In some dialects, the voiced fricatives have almost completely merged with the voiceless ones; is usually realized as , in the North is usually realized as , is usually realized as , yet only in the North. In the South is pronounced as and as . In the North is usually realized as , whereas in the South the distinction between and has been preserved. The realization of the phoneme varies considerably from dialect to dialect. In "standard" Dutch, is realized as the alveolar trill . In some dialects it is realized as the alveolar tap , the voiced uvular fricative , the uvular trill , or even as the alveolar approximant . The realization of the varies considerably from the Northern to the Southern and Belgium dialects of the Dutch language. A number of Belgian dialects pronounce it like a bilabial approximant (). Other, mainly Northern Dutch, dialects pronounce it as a labiodental approximant: . Furthermore, in Suriname it is pronounced as . The lateral is slightly velarized postvocalically. Dutch consonants with example wordsSymbolExampleIPAIPAorthographyEnglish translationpen'pen'biet'beetroot'tak'branch'dak'roof'kat'cat'goal'goal' (sports)mens'human being'nek'neck'eng'scary'fiets'bicycle'oven'oven'sok'sock'zeep'soap'sjaal'shawl'jury'jury' (North)acht'eight' (South)acht'eight' (North)gaan'to go' (South)gaan'to go'rat'rat'hoed'hat'wang'cheek'jas'coat'land'land / country'heel'whole'beamen'to confirm' Historical sound changes Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did not participate in the second Germanic (High German) Sound Shift – compare German machen Dutch maken, English make, German Pfanne , Dutch pan, English pan, German zwei , Dutch twee, English two. Dutch underwent a few changes of its own. For example, words in -old or -olt lost the l in favor of a diphthong as a result of vocalisation. Compare English old, German alt, Dutch oud. Germanic /uː/ turned into /y/ through palatalization, which sound in turn became a diphthong /œy/, spelt 〈ui〉. Long /iː/ also diphthongized to , spelt 〈ij〉. The phoneme became a voiced velar fricative , or a voiced palatal fricative (in the South: Flanders, Limburg, Brabant). Grammar Dutch is grammatically similar to German, such as in syntax and verb morphology (for a comparison of verb morphology in English, Dutch and German, see Germanic weak verb and Germanic strong verb). Dutch has grammatical cases, but these are now mostly limited to pronouns and set phrases. Dutch has three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter although masculine and feminine have merged to form the common gender (de), whilst the neuter (het) remains distinct as before. This gender system is similar those of most Continental Scandinavian languages. As in English, the inflectional grammar of the language (e.g., adjective and noun endings) has simplified over time. Genders and cases The table of definite articles below demonstrates that contemporary Dutch is much simpler than German. DutchGermanMasculine singularFeminine singularNeuter singularPlural (any gender)Masculine singularFeminine singularNeuter singularPlural (any gender)NominativededehetdederdiedasdieGenitiveobsoletedesderdesderDativededehetdedemderdemdenAccusativededehetdedendiedasdie The Dutch written grammar has simplified over the past 100 years: cases are now mainly used for the pronouns, such as ik (I), mij, me (me), mijn (my), wie (who), wiens (whose: masculine or neuter singular), wier (whose: feminine singular, masculine or feminine plural). Nouns and adjectives are not case inflected (except for the genitive of proper nouns (names): -s, -'s or -'). In the spoken language cases and case inflections had already gradually disappeared from a much earlier date on (probably the 15th century) as in all continental West Germanic dialects. Inflection of adjectives is a little more complicated: nothing with indefinite neuter nouns in singular and -e in all other cases. Note that water and huis are neuter, the other words in the table are masculine or feminine. Masculine singularFeminine singularPlural (any gender)Neuter singularDefinite(with definite articleor pronoun)de mooie huizen (the beautiful houses)die mooie vrouwen (those beautiful women)het mooie huis (the beautiful house)mijn mooie huis (my beautiful house)dit koude water (this cold water)Indefinitewith indefinite article orno article and no pronoun)een mooie vrouw (a beautiful woman)mooie huizen (beautiful houses)koude soep (cold soup)een mooi huis (a beautiful house)koud water (cold water) In e is never appended to an adjective in sentences like De soep is koud. More complex inflection is still found in certain lexicalized expressions like de heer des huizes (literally, the man of the house), etc. These are usually remnants of cases (in this instance, the genitive case which is still used in German, cf. Der Herr des Hauses) and other inflections no longer in general use today. In such lexicalized expressions remnants of strong and weak nouns can be found too, e.g. in het jaar des Heren (Anno Domini), where “-en” is actually the genitive ending of the weak noun. Also in this case, German retains this feature. Word order Like all other continental West Germanic languages, Dutch has a word order that is markedly different from that of English, which presents a problem for some Anglophones learning Dutch. A simple example often used in Dutch language classes and text books is "Ik kan mijn pen niet vinden omdat het veel te donker is" which word-for-word translates to "I can my pen not find because it much too dark is" but actually translates to "I can't find my pen because it's much too dark". This can be explained by saying that the first (main) verb goes at the beginning of a clause while the remaining verbs go at the end of the clause. It must also be noted that Dutch (like German) often splits larger sentences into smaller ones, each of which can have distinctly different grammatical rules depending on what is actually being said and where the emphasis is placed. Because of Dutch resembling German more than English in both sentence structure and vocabulary, this also means that English speakers who study German extensively (meaning the equivalent of about three years of university courses) can often understand written Dutch fairly well. Diminutives Dutch nouns can take endings for size: -je for singular diminutive and -jes for plural diminutive. Between these suffixes and the radical can come extra letters depending on the ending of the word: boom (tree) - boompje ring (ring) - ringetje koning (king) - koninkje tien (ten) - tientje (a ten euro note) These diminutives are very common. Some people exaggerate their use, in particular when they speak to children. As in German, all diminutives are neuter. A diminutive ending can also be appended to an adverb or adjective (but not when followed by a noun). klein (little, small) - een kleintje (a small one) Compounds Like most Germanic languages, Dutch forms noun compounds, where the first noun modifies the category given by the second, for example: hondenhok (doghouse). Unlike English, where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in open form with separating spaces, Dutch (like the other Germanic languages) either uses the closed form without spaces, for example: boomhuis (Eng. tree house) or hyphenated: VVD-coryfee (outstanding member of the VVD, a political party). Like German, Dutch allows arbitrarily long compounds, but the longer they get, the less frequent they tend to be. The longest serious entry in the Van Dale dictionary is (ceasefire negotiation). Leafing through the articles of association (Statuten) one may come across a 30-letter (right of representation). An even longer word cropping up in official documents is ziektekostenverzekeringsmaatschappij (health insurance company) though the shorter ziektekostenverzekeraar (health insurer) is more common. Notwithstanding official spelling rules, some Dutch people nowadays tend to write the parts of a compound separately, which is sometimes dubbed “the English disease” or "de Engelse ziekte". SOS! - In het Nederlands moeten samengestelde woorden gewoon aan elkaar geschreven worden Engelse ziekte - Dutch language Wikipedia Vocabulary Dutch vocabulary is predominantly Germanic in origin, considerably more so than English. This is to a large part due to the heavy influence of Norman on English, and to Dutch patterns of word formation, such as the tendency to form long and sometimes very complicated compound nouns, being more similar to those of German and the Scandinavian languages. The Dutch vocabulary is one of the richest in the world and comprises at least 268,826 headwords. Van Dale Groot woordenboek van de Nederlandse taal, "Van Dale Groot woordenboek van de Nederlandse taal is a Dutch dictionary containing over 268,826 headwords" Like English, Dutch includes words of Greek and Latin origin. Somewhat paradoxically, most loanwords from French have entered into Dutch vocabulary via the Netherlands and not via Belgium, in spite of the cultural and economic dominance exerted by French speakers in Belgium until the first half of the 20th century. This happened because the status French enjoyed as the language of refinement and high culture inspired the affluent upper and upper-middle classes in the Netherlands to adopt many French terms into the language. In Belgium no such phenomenon occurred, since members of the upper and upper-middle classes would have spoken French rather than Frenchify their Dutch. French terms heavily influenced Dutch dialects in Flanders, but Belgian speakers did (and do) tend to resist French loanwords when using standard Dutch. Nonetheless some French loanwords of relatively recent date have become accepted in standard Dutch, also in Belgium, albeit with a shift in meaning and not as straight synonyms for existing Dutch words. For example, "blesseren" (from French blesser, to injure) is almost exclusively used to refer to sports injuries, while in other contexts the standard Dutch verbs "kwetsen" and "verwonden" continue to be used. Especially on the streets and in many professions, there is a steady increase of English loanwords, rather often pronounced or applied in a different way (see Dutch pseudo-anglicisms). The influx of English words is maintained by the dominance of English in the mass media and on the Internet. Unlike some other languages, Dutch adopts these new English terms with little or no resistance. Efforts to develop Dutch alternatives for English loanwords have extremely little success and indeed are often met with derision. The most important dictionary of the modern Dutch language is the Van Dale groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal, www.vandale.nl more commonly referred to as the Dikke van Dale ("dik" means "thick"). However, it is dwarfed by the 45,000-page "Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal", a scholarly endeavour that took 147 years from initial idea to first edition. Writing system Dutch is written using the Latin alphabet. Arguably the Dutch have one additional character beyond the standard alphabet, the digraph IJ. It has a relatively high proportion of doubled letters, both vowels and consonants. This is due to the formation of compound words and also to the spelling devices for distinguishing the many vowel sounds in the Dutch language. An example of five consecutive doubled letters is the word voorraaddoos (supply box). The diaeresis (Dutch: trema) is used to mark vowels that are pronounced separately. In the most recent spelling reform, a hyphen has replaced the diaeresis in compound words (i.e., if the vowels originate from separate words, not from prefixes or suffixes), e.g. zeeëend (seaduck) is now spelled zee-eend. The acute accent occurs mainly on loanwords like café, but can also be used for emphasis or to differentiate between two forms. Its most common use is to differentiate between the indefinite article 'een' (a, an) and the numeral 'één' (one); also 'hé' (hey, also written 'hee'). The grave accent is used to clarify pronunciation ('hè' [what?, what the ...?, tag question 'eh?'], 'bèta') and in loanwords ('caissière' [female cashier], 'après-ski'). In the recent spelling reform, the accent grave was dropped as stress sign on short vowels in favour of the acute accent (e.g. 'wèl' was changed to 'wél'). Other diacritical marks such as the circumflex only occur on a few words, most of them loanwords from French. The official spelling is set by the Wet schrijfwijze Nederlandsche taal (Law on the writing of the Dutch language; Belgium 1946, Netherlands 1947; based on a 1944 spelling revision; both amended in the 1990s after a 1995 spelling revision). The Woordenlijst Nederlandse taal, more commonly known as "het groene boekje" (i.e. "the green booklet", because of its colour), is usually accepted as an informal explanation of the law. However, the official 2005 spelling revision, which reverted some of the 1995 changes and made new ones, has been welcomed with a distinct lack of enthusiasm in both the Netherlands and Belgium. As a result, the Genootschap Onze Taal (Our Language Society) decided to publish an alternative list, "het witte boekje" ("the white booklet"), which tries to simplify some complicated rules and offers several possible spellings for many contested words. This alternative orthography is followed by a number of major Dutch media organisations but mostly ignored in Belgium. Dutch as a foreign language As a foreign language, Dutch is mainly taught in primary and secondary schools in areas adjacent to the Netherlands and Flanders. In French-speaking Belgium, over 300,000 pupils are enrolled in Dutch courses, followed by over 20,000 in the German states of Lower Saxony and North Rhine-Westphalia, and over 7,000 in the French region of Nord-Pas de Calais (of which 4,550 already in primary school). Dutch is the obligatory medium of instruction in schools in Suriname, even for non-native speakers. Het Nederlands op Surinaamse scholen. Short documentary on Dutch in Surinamese schools by the Nederlandse Taalunie Dutch is taught in various educational centres in Indonesia, the most important of which is the Erasmus Language Centre (ETC) in Jakarta. Each year, some 1,500 to 2,000 students take Dutch courses there. Dutch worldwide: Indonesia: old ties, Nederlandse Taalunie, 2008 In total, several thousands of Indonesians study Dutch as a foreign language. Waar ben je nou? Nederlands leren in Indonesië. Short documentary on Dutch in Indonesia by the Nederlandse Taalunie At an academic level, Dutch is taught in over 225 universities in more than 40 countries. About 10,000 students worldwide study Dutch at university. Hoeveel studenten studeren er jaarlijks Nederlands aan universiteiten buiten het taalgebied?, Nederlandse Taalunie, 2008 The largest number of faculties of neerlandistiek can be found in Germany (30 universities), followed by France and the United States (20 each). Nederlands studeren wereldwijd, Nederlandse Taalunie, 2005 Neerlandistiek Wereldwijd, Nederlandse Taalunie, 2007 Due to centuries of Dutch rule in Indonesia, many old documents are written in Dutch. Many universities therefore include Dutch as a source language, mainly for law and history students. Indonesië, Nederlandse Taalunie, 2008 In Indonesia this involves about 35,000 students. In South Africa, the number is difficult to estimate, since the academic study of Afrikaans inevitably includes the study of Dutch. Elsewhere in the world, the number of people learning Dutch is relatively small. Common difficulties Pronunciation can be a challenge as many of the Dutch vowel sounds are difficult for non-native speakers. Diphthongs such as the "ui" sound in such words as "zuid" (south) or "huis" (house), the "eu" in "keuze" (choice) or "sleutel" (key), and the "ij" sound in words like "mijt" (mite) or "wijn" (wine) present difficulties. Even though some of these words are superficially like their English equivalents the correct sound is very different. Another issue with pronunciation is the "ch"-sound, which Dutch native speakers pronounce as /x/ (North) or /ç/ (South). It has no counterpart in English. Particularly the voiced equivalents /ɣ/ (North) and /ʝ/ (South) are rare among other European languages. The morphologic versatility and cohesiveness of Dutch sometimes also produces words that might baffle speakers of other languages due to the large number of consecutive consonants, such as the word () (scream of fear), which has grand total of eight in a row (ngstschr) (although the ng and ch are digraphs). It has to be noted though that the pronunciation of a word can differ greatly from its written form. In this case, "angstschreeuw" actually features 6 consonants (ng-s-t-s-ch-r) originating from two distinct compounded words ("angst" and "schreeuw"), which is reduced further by some speakers in everyday pronunciation by blending consecutive consonants ("ch" and "r") into one sound. See also Bargoens Dutch grammar Dutch Language Union Dutch linguistic influence on military terms Dutch literature Dutch name Dutch orthography Dutch-based creole languages French Flemish Indo-European languages List of English words of Dutch origin Low Dietsch Meuse-Rhenish Middle Dutch Old Dutch Old Frankish References External links English - Dutch and Dutch - English Dictionary History of the Dutch Language Sampa for Dutch Dutch and Afrikaans with Japanese translation incl.sound files be-x-old:Нідэрляндзкая мова	Dutch_language \|@lemmatized dutch:274 west:17 germanic:27 language:134 speak:44 million:15 people:25 native:12 second:11 eu:2 population:14 claim:3 well:8 enough:1 order:7 conversation:2 page:5 outside:2 european:12 union:8 number:13 speaker:32 relatively:5 small:13 live:1 netherlands:26 belgium:28 suriname:10 group:4 part:10 france:9 germany:2 several:7 former:2 colony:14 closely:1 relate:1 e:17 g:12 english:44 frisian:6 german:35 somewhat:3 remotely:1 north:14 parent:2 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6,411	List_of_marine_aquarium_fish_species	The following is a list of marine aquarium fish species commonly available in the aquarium trade. It is not a completely comprehensive list; certain rare specimens may sometimes be available commercially yet not be listed here. A brief section on each, with a link to the page about the particular species is provided along with references for further information. Angelfish (Large) A Queen Angelfish These big beauties are considered to be quite hardy, but because of their size may present a significant challenge to the potential keeper. They need huge aquariums, up to 180 gallons to house one for its entire lifespan. Two angels might be kept in the same aquarium provided it is a large aquarium, they are properly acclimated as juveniles, and they are have very different colouring and body shape. However, because all Angelfish have essentially the same diet, mixing them is a feat that should be left to only advanced keepers. None are reef safe, and a potential owner should be aware that they need to have plenty of vegetable matter in their diet. They undergo major changes in colouration while maturing, and unless specified given descriptions are for adult specimens. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care level Description Max size Annularis Angelfish Pomacanthus annularis No Moderate 30cm (12 in) Asfur Angelfish Pomacanthus asfur No Easy Bellus Angelfish Genicanthus bellus Yes Moderate Light blue all over. Exhibits strong sexual dimorphism- females have wide black bands, males' bands are orange. 18 cm (7 in) Blue Angelfish Holacanthus bermudensis No Moderate Blue Angelfish has an overall aqua hue with a yellow shimmer and yellow edges on the fins and scales. The Blue Angelfish does not have the striking blue crown or other blue highlights of the Queen Angelfish. 45 cm (18 in) Bluespotted Angelfish Chaetodontoplus caeruleopunctatus No Difficult 21 cm (8 in) Blueface Angelfish Euxiphipops xanthometopon No Moderate 40 cm (15 in) Cortez Angelfish Pomacanthus zonipectus No Moderate Darkly hued with yellow stripes. 46 cm (18 in) Emperor Angelfish Pomacanthus imperator No Moderate Juveniles are black with blue-white spiraling; Adults are blue with yellow stripes, accented with white and black and a blue mask. Will easily be the dominate angelfish if housed with other angels. 40 cm (16 in) French Angelfish Pomacanthus paru No Difficult Juveniles are black with 3 yellow vertically running stripes, may also display blue on pelvic fins. Adults lard black with white vertical stripes. 41 cm (16 in) Gray Angelfish Pomacanthus arcuatus No Easy to Moderate Light grey with dark spots and bluish/grey mask over face. Closely related to French Angelfish. 60 cm (26 in) Griffis Angelfish Apolemichthys griffisi No Moderate 25 cm (10 in) Half-Moon Angelfish Pomacanthus maculosus No Easy Blue with yellow splotch-like marking on side. 50 cm (20 in) Koran Angelfish Pomacanthus semicirculatus No Moderate Grey towards the face, becoming a navy blue towards the caudal fin with striking iridescent blue accents throughout. 40 cm (15 in) Majestic Angelfish Pomacanthus navarchus No Difficult Yellow sides and back, transitioning to blue towards the base of the caudal fin and face, with a bright blue streak across the chin. 28 cm (11 in) Passer Angelfish or King Angelfish Holacanthus passer No Moderate Very dark blue with yellow caudal fin and distinctive white stripe. 36 cm (14 in) Personifer Angelfish Chaetodontoplus meridithii No Moderate 37cm (14 in) Queen Angelfish Holacanthus ciliaris No Moderate Tan coloured with bright orange caudal fin and neon blue outlined fins. 45 cm (17 in) Royal Angelfish Pygoplites diacanthus No Expert Orange and blue striped with dark blue dorsal fin and lemon yellow caudal fin. 25 cm (10 in) Scribbled Angelfish Chaetodontoplus duboulayi No Moderate 25 cm (10 in) Japanese Swallow Angelfish Genicanthus semifasciatus Yes Moderate Black and tan striped back with yellow blaze beginning at the mouth and tapering off towards the centre of the side, with light blueish grey underside. Has distinctively shaped tail resembling that of a swallow. 21 cm (8 in) Xanthurus Cream Angelfish Apolemichthys xanthurus No Easy 21 cm (8 in) Angelfish (Dwarf) A Flame Angelfish Although Dwarf Angelfish are smaller and generally more manageable than their larger counterparts, they still have some specific care requirements. They are omnivores, but plenty of vegetable matter, preferably in the form of macroalgae, should be provided for their grazing pleasure. Their suitability for reef tanks is hotly debated, so add at your own risk. Specimens that have been successfully maintained in reef aquaria include the Flame and Coral Beauty angels. However, for obvious reasons they should not be put into tanks with expensive decorative macroalgae. Common name Image Taxonomy Reef safe Care level Description Max size Barred Angelfish Centropyge multifasciata With caution Difficult White fish with vertical black stripes. (Or is it a black fish with vertical white stripes?) 12 cm (4 in) Bicolor Angelfish Centropyge bicolor With caution Moderate 15 cm (6 in) Brazilian Flameback Angelfish Centropyge aurantonotus With caution Moderate 3in(8cm) Coral beauty Angelfish Centropyge bispinosa With caution Easy to Moderate Reddish body with blue back and orange fins. A shy fish that prefers multiple hiding locations. 10 cm (4 in) Cherubfish or Pygmy Angelfish Centropyge argi With caution Easy To Moderate Blue colored body with an orange yellow head. 8 cm (3 in) Eibli Angelfish Centropyge eibli With caution Moderate Tan coloured body with vertical brown stripes and large distinctive black splotch covering the back of the fish, including the caudal fin. 15 cm (6 in) Flame Angelfish Centropyge loricula Yes Easy to Moderate Vivid orange-red with vertical black stripes and blue patches toward the end of the dorsal and anal fins. 15 cm (6 in) Half-black Angelfish Centropyge vroliki With caution Difficult Anterior is gray to pearly white with orange accent around eye, posterior is deep black. 12 cm (4 in) Herald's Angelfish Centropyge heraldi With caution Moderate Completely lemon yellow, with a brown marking around the eye. 10 cm (4 in) Keyhole Angelfish Centropyge tibicens No Easy Centropyge type species. Overall black with an elongate vertical black blotch on the middle of the upper sides. When small, mainly black with a white bar. Dorsal and anal fins with submarginal blue line; most of the pelvic and the anterior portion of the anal fin yellow. Caudal fin with submarginal blue line. 19 cm (7.5 in) Lemonpeel Angelfish Centropyge flavissima With caution Moderate Bright yellow with distinctive dark semicircle by operculum. 14 cm (5 in) Multicolor Angelfish Centropyge multicolor With caution Moderate 9 cm (3.5 in) Orange-back Angelfish Centropyge acanthops With caution Moderate Dark blue with golden yellow blaze running from the face down the dorsal fin, with a colourless caudal fin. 8 cm (3 in) Pacific Pygmy Angelfish Centropyge flavicauda With caution Moderate Potter's Angelfish Centropyge potteri With caution Difficult Similarly coloured to the Coral Beauty, but with a blue body and reddish fins. 10 cm (4 in) Rusty Angelfish Centropyge ferrugata Yes Easy to Moderate Tan coloured body with dark spots and a reddish tint around the anal fin. 10 cm (4 in) Venustus Angelfish Sumireyakko venustus With caution Moderate Anthias A Squareback anthias Although Anthias resemble damsels in shape and size, the two should never be confused. Where damsels are the goats of the Saltwater world, Anthias (also called "Fairy Basslets in) are finicky and many starve to death in captivity. In the wild, they eat zooplankton, and will not accept anything but in the aquarium. They also need to be fed nearly constantly, three times a day at least. The best way to ensure the health and longevity of an Anthias is to attach a refugium where you can grow copepods to "drip" into the display tank. Unlike many other saltwater aquarium inhabitants, they can be kept in groups. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeBartlett's anthias Pseudanthias bartlettorum Yes Difficult Back and face light yellow, underside pink with a swallowtail-shaped caudal fin. 9 cm (3 in)Bicolor Anthias Pseudanthias bicolor Yes Difficult Similarly shaped and coloured to Bartlett's Anthias, but with a slightly more rounded back. 13 cm (5 in)Cooper's Anthias Pseudanthias cooperi Yes Difficult Orange back and finnage with white patch below the mouth running down toward the anal fin with pink sides. 14 cm (5 in)Diadem Anthias Pseudanthias parvirostris Yes Difficult Pink fish with yellow streak on top of head running along the lateral line. Caudal fin is red with yellow tips. 7 cm (2 in)Orangehead Anthias Pseudanthias heemstrai Yes Difficult Pink underside with orange back and mask, dark red splotch on caudal fin, along with iridescent blue anal and pelvic fins. 13 cm (5 in)Redbar Anthias Pseudanthias rubrizonatus Yes Difficult Tannish-pink with a single vertical red stripe and a dorsal fin with the skin between the rays pulled back like on a lionfish. 12 cm (4 in)Lyretail Anthias Pseudanthias squamipinnis Yes Difficult Also known as Sea Goldie. Orange with lyre-shaped caudal fin. 15 cm (6 in)Squareback anthias Pseudanthias pleurotaenia Yes Difficult Red back and pink underside with distinctive blue square shaped marking and blue fins. 20 cm (7 in)Stocky Anthias Pseudanthias hypselosoma Yes Difficult Orange back with cream colored underside. As its name suggests, slightly stockier than other Anthias. 19 cm (7 in)Threadfin Anthias Pseudanthias huchtii Yes Difficult Olive green with black caudal fin and red stripe running from the eye to the pectoral fin. 12 cm (4 in) Bass & Groupers A Blue Dot Grouper In this exceedingly large group of fish, few are considered proper aquarium inhabitants, for various reasons including diet and size. Be aware that Basses vary greatly from species to species, and do appropriate research before purchasing a specimen. Many unsuspecting hobbyists bring home cute little specimens of popular aquarium fish such as the Lyretail Grouper, only to realize several months later that they don't have the resources to care for a meter-long that may cost hundreds of dollars a month to feed. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeAfrican Grouper Cephalopholis taeniops No Easy 69 cm (27 inches)Blacktip Grouper Epinephelus fasciatus No easy The tips of the spines of the dorsal fin are black, and it may have a dark red cap above the eyes. There is a variant with a uniformly pale body except for the frontal part. 40cm(16 inches)Blue and Yellow Grouper Epinephelus flavocaeruleus No Moderate 90.0 cm (35 inches)Blue Dot Grouper Cephalopholis argus No Moderate Deep black to tan fish with blue spots throughout. 50 cm (20 in)Blue Line Grouper Cephalopholis formosa No Moderate Dark tan with horizontal blue stripes that aren't particularly straight. The caudal fin has more of these stripes, and they radiate from the base of the fin out to the tips. 34 cm (13 in)Chalk Bass Serranus tortugarum Yes Easy to Moderate Blue iridescent body with distinctive black topside that is interrupted by small vertical blue stripes. 8 cm (3 in)Coney Grouper Cephalopholis fulva No Moderate 41 cm (16 in)Golden Grouper Mycteroperca rosacea No Moderate 86 cm (34 in)Golden Stripe Soapfish Grammistes sexlineatus No Moderate Chocolate brown with light yellow horizontal stripes. Similar in patterning to C. argus (with exception to the coloration). 30 cm (11 in)Harlequin Bass Serranus tigrinus Yes Easy to Moderate Very striking black and white checkerboard pattern all over, with very long tapering nose. 29 cm (11 in)Leaflip Grouper Pogonoperca punctata No Moderate Sports a large, hinged mouth and is tan with little spots. Has brown triangle shaped markings down the spine. 35 cm (13 in)Marine Beta Calloplesiops altivelis Yes Easy 15 cm (6 in) Miniatus Grouper Cephalopholis miniatus No Moderate Orange to red with large blue spots throughout. 45 cm (18 in)Orange Spot Grouper Cephalopholis panamensis No Easy 30 cm(12 in)Panther Grouper Cromileptes altivelis No Difficult Gorgeous pure white fish with black spots and a distinctive "hump" on the head, leading to a popular common name, "Humpback Grouper". 75 cm (30 in)Painted Comber Serranus scriba No Easy to Moderate Large fish with classic Bass body, Silvery in colour with vertical tan stripes and a blue underside. 36 cm (14 in)Polleni Grouper Cephalopholis polleni No Moderate 43 cm(17 in)Red Flag Grouper Cephalopholis urodeta No Moderate Very similar to C. miniatus, but the caudal fin is dark. 28 cm (11 in)Lyretail Grouper Variola louti No Moderate Silver back changing to red around the underside, darkening toward the caudal fin, which is lyre-shaped with neon green edging. 80 cm (31 in)Saddle Grouper Plectropomus laevis No easy 125 cm (50 inches)Spotted Grouper Epinephelus summana No Moderate Dark black fish with many light green spots all over body, increasing in number toward the posterior. 52 cm (20 in)Strawberry Grouper Cephalopholis spiloparaea No Moderate 30cm(12 inches)V Tail Grouper Cephalopholis urodelus No Easy-Moderate 28cm (11 inches) Basslets & Assessors A Royal Gramma Basslets and Assessors are small, long bodied fish strongly resembling Anthias. Their care requirements, however, are closer to those of damsels. They should be kept individually, and generally not with other fish of similar shape and colour. Feeding is easy: they will generally eat any meaty foods offered. Good water quality should be maintained at all times. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Black Cap Gramma Gramma melacara Yes Moderate Purple with a black mask beginning at the mouth and ending at the base of the dorsal fin. 6 cm (2 in) Blue Assesor Assessor macneilli Yes Easy to Moderate Entirely navy blue with white edging of the dorsal fin. 7 cm (3 in) Royal Gramma Gramma loreto Yes Easy to Moderate Purple head and anterior, abruptly changing to yellow about halfway down the body. Has black marking through eye and another on the dorsal fin. Do not confuse with the Brazilian Gramma or the Bicolor Dottyback. 5 cm (2 in) Brazilian Gramma Gramma brasiliensis Yes Easy to Moderate Very similar to the royal gramma, however the change from purple to yellow occurs farther down the body and the black markings are absent. 6 cm (2 in) Yellow Assessor Assessor flavissimus Yes Easy to Moderate Bright lemon yellow with peach fringing of the dorsal fin and around the eye. 7 cm (3.5 in) Batfish A Dusky Batfish Batfish are gorgeous and striking fish that are not common in aquaria for one major reason: they get huge. A two or three hundred gallon tank is needed for one, minimum, and larger is better. They start out as tiny, manageable-looking cuties, which often fools aquarists into purchasing them for their small aquariums. However they quickly grow to gargantuan proportions, and require large amounts of food as well as space, so beware. They are not reef safe and should be fed plenty of large meaty foods. Batfish change greatly as they grow, however the potential aquarist is most likely to see them in their juvenile form, so that is the description of the colouration here. They all have generally the same body shape: disk-like with tall dorsal and anal fins, similar to a Freshwater Angelfish. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeOrbiculate Batfish Platax orbicularis No Difficult Brown with generally random black markings resembling a rotting leaf. 50 cm (20 in)Dusky Batfish Platax pinnatus No Difficult Dark black body completely edged by distinctive yellow and orange. 45 cm (17 in)Teira Batfish Platax teira No Difficult Silver with black fins and a black stripe across the face. 70 cm (27 in) Blennies A Lawnmower Blenny Blennies are popular aquarium fish, and for good reason. They are peaceful, colorful, and many are downright helpful. For example, the aptly named Lawnmower Blenny will keep your green algae well trimmed and presentable. With the exception of Fang Blennies, Blennies are totally reef safe- in fact a reef environment is really best for them because they can be shy and the intricate rockwork of a reef provides ample hiding spaces. They are omnivores and should be fed a varied diet of frozen or live foods and plant matter. Blennies don't have teeth or functional jaw, so food must be small enough for them to swallow whole. Blennies are often confused with Gobies, but there is an easy way to tell the difference. Gobies have two distinct dorsal fins, Blennies have a single dorsal fin that runs the length of their body. Also, Gobies' pelvic fins are fused to form a sucker, similar to Remoras. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeSpinyhead Blenny Acanthemblemaria spinosa Yes Moderate Brown checkered body with distinctive yellow frills on head. 2 cm (.8 in)Bicolor Blenny Ecsenius bicolor Yes Easy to Moderate Characterized by the striking contrast of a blue head and upper torso followed by a yellow orange lower torso. 11 cm (4.3 in)Black Combtooth Blenny Ecsenius namiyei Yes Easy 10cm(4 in)Blackline Fang Blenny Meiacanthus nigrolineatus No Easy to Moderate Yellow bodied with bright blue mask and dark black line running from the eye to the caudal fin. 9 cm (3.4 in)Black Sailfin Blenny Atrosalarias fuscus Yes Moderate 10cm(4 in)Blue & Gold Blenny Enchelyurus flavipes Yes Easy 5cm(2 in)Bundoon Blenny Meiacanthus bundoon No Easy to Moderate Black with lighter patch over caudal fin. Very distinctive swallowtail caudal fin. 8 cm (3.1 in)Canary Fang Blenny Meiacanthus oualanensis No Easy to Moderate Similarly shaped to M. bundoon, but canary yellow. 5 cm (2 in)Ember Blenny Cirripectes stigmaticus No Moderate 12 cm (5 in)Lawnmower Blenny Salarias fasciatus Yes Moderate To Difficult Tan and brown striped and spotted with iridescence. Requires Mature Tank. 14 cm (5.5 in)Linear Blenny Ecsenius lineatus No Easy 9 cm (3.5 in)Midas Blenny Ecsenius midas Yes Easy to Moderate Although often seen yellow, this fish has the ability to change its color to match the surroundings. It has a very distinctive swallowtail shaped caudal fin. 13 cm (5.1 in)One Spot Blenny Crossosalarias macrospilus No Easy 10 cm (4 in)Red Lip Blenny Ophioblennius atlanticus Yes Easy to Moderate Black to grayish yellow with red patch over mouth. 19 cm (7.5 in)Red Sea Mimic Blenny Ecsenius gravieri Moderate Sky blue anterior fading to yellow towards the tail, with a black stripe running the eye to the base of the caudal fin. 8 cm (3.1 in)Sailfin Blenny Emblemaria pandionis Yes Moderate Very similar to S. fasciatus but slightly darker and with a much larger dorsal fin. 5 cm (2 in)Segmented Sailfin Blenny Salarias segmentatus Yes Easy 10 cm (4 in)Starry Blenny Salarias ramosus Yes Easy 14 cm (5.5 in)Striped Blenny Meiacanthus grammistes Yes Moderate 12 cm (5 in)Tail Spot Blenny Ecsenius stigmatura Yes Moderate Drab tan all over with dark spot at the base of the caudal fin and a light yellow line through eye. 6 cm (2.4 in)Two-Spot Blenny Ecsenius bimaculatus Yes Moderate The top half of this fish is black towards the front and fades to white closer to the tail. The bottom half is white with two distinctive black spots right under the pectoral fins. 4.5 cm (1.8 in) Diamond Blenny Malacoctenus boehlkei Yes Moderate Gray with black splotches, and a yellow mask. Shaped more like hawkfish than a blenny. 6.5 cm (2.6 in) Convict Blenny Pholidichthys leucotaenia Yes Moderate Black eel-shaped body with a distinctive white stripe running down the body. Adults are yellow and black striped. 34 cm (13.4 in) Boxfish & Pufferfish A Dogface Pufferfish Members of the family Tetraodontidae, Boxfish, Puffers and their cousins Cowfishes and Porcupinefishes can be very personable and quirky pets, for the prepared. They are not thought of as an ordinary aquarium tank mate, but are quickly gaining popularity. They do pose a hazard in the community tank however. They are capable of releasing a very powerful toxin which can kill other fish and in some cases, the boxfish itself. They generally only use it when threatened or dying, but can become disturbed easily with aggressive tank mates or overcrowded aquarium. Generally they are reef safe, though they will pick at invertebrates if not fed well enough. Many people think puffed up Pufferfish, like in the picture, are cute, but an owner should never subject their pet to this as they are often unable to expel the air should they be out of the water. To prevent this, never remove a puffer from the water. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeGolden Puffer Arothron meleagris No Easy 48cm(19 inches)Hawaiian Blue Puffer Canthigaster papua No Easy 10cm (4 inches)Hawaiian Saddle Puffer Canthigaster coronata No Easy 14.0 cm (5 inches)Hawaiian Spotted Puffer Canthigaster jactator No Easy 9cm (4 inches)Helmet Cowfish Tetrasomus gibbosus Caution Expert Tan with dark speckles and brown spots at the base of the caudal fin. 30 cm (11.8 in)Immaculate Puffer Arothron immaculatus No Moderate 28cm (11 inches)Longhorn Cowfish Lactoria cornuta Caution Expert Grayish tan with very distinctive "horns" near the eyes and under the caudal fin. 46 cm (18.1 in)Scribbled Boxfish Ostracion solorensis Caution Moderate Dark navy blue with iridescent "scribbling" and spots. 12 cm (4.7 in)Dogface Pufferfish Arothron nigropunctatus Caution Moderate Tan with a brown mask over eyes and other over mouth. Also has yellow markings on the pectoral and dorsal fins. 33 cm (13 in)Map Puffer Arothron mappa No Moderate 65cm(25 inches)Porcupine Pufferfish Diodon holocanthus No Moderate Tan with slightly darker spots throughout and very conspicuous spines that lay flat against the body. When puffed up, the spikes stand up and make the fish completely inedible. 50 cm (19.7 in)Spotfin Porcupinefish Diodon hystrix No Moderate White and covered in small black spots. 91 cm (35.8 in)Sharpnose Pufferfish Canthigaster rostrata Caution Difficult Cream, with reddish purple topside and underside, and yellow on the caudal fin. 12 cm (4.7 in)Star Puffer Arothron stellatus No Easy 120cm(47 inches)Stars and Stripes Puffer Arothron hispidus No Moderate 50 cm(20 inches)Striped Dogface Puffer Arothron manilensis No Moderate 31cm (12 inches)Valentini Pufferfish Canthigaster valentini Caution Moderate Tan with giraffe-like spots and dark brown markings that resemble saddles over the back. Has distinctive bright green eyes. 11 cm (4.3 in)Whitebelly Puffer Canthigaster bennetti No Moderate 10cm(4 inches)Yellow Boxfish Ostracion cubicus Caution Expert Usually seen as a juvenile, bright yellow with little black spots. When it reaches maturity it is gray with yellow lines and pink lips. 45 cm (17.7 in) Butterflyfish A Sickle Butterflyfish Butterflyfish, when properly cared for, can make beautiful and distinctive additions to fish only marine aquariums. Often large and usually not suited for those with smaller aquariums, nor those of the faint of heart. Nevertheless, when fed a varied diet and kept in pristine conditions, Butterflyfish will usually thrive. That is, if you choose the right species. With Butterflyfish, usually a fish is going to survive, or it's not. Many species simply cannot be kept in captivity, and potential keepers must take care to only purchase those species that have a fighting chance. Also, be very picky about which specimen you choose- any sign of mishandling should be taken as a red flag. The following species are relatively hardy and an experienced aquarist should have no trouble with them, so long as they are diligent. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeCopperbanded Butterflyfish Chelmon rostratus Caution Difficult Silver with black edged gold stripes, a long nose, and a black eyespot on the dorsal fin. 20 cm (7.9 in)Bannerfish Heniochus diphreutes No Moderate Sometimes referred to as the "Poor Man's Moorish Idol" because of the resemblance. White and black striped with yellow caudal fin and a dorsal fin that forms a long, thin banner. 21 cm (8.3 in)Longnose Butterflyfish Forcipiger flavissimus No Moderate From the pectoral fins forward, black above the eye and silver below, with an exceptionally mouth. Past the pectoral fins, bright yellow with an eyespot on the anal fin. 22 cm (8.7 in)Raccoon Butterflyfish Chaetodon lunula No Moderate Very distinctive and complexly colored. Is mostly yellow with a darker saddle and a black and white mask. 20 cm (7.9 in)Redback Butterflyfish Chaetodon paucifasciatus No Moderate White with black stripes that form chevrons on the side and a bright red patch on the posterior. 14 cm (5.5 in)Merten's Butterflyfish Chaetodon mertensii No Moderate White with fuzzy black stripes and a yellow posterior. Also has a black line through the eye. 12.5 cm (5 in)Teardrop Butterflyfish Chaetodon unimaculatus No Moderate Completely yellow with the exception of black stripes at the base of the caudal fin and through the eye, and an eyespot directly below the dorsal fin. 20 cm (7.8 in)Latticed Butterflyfish Chaetodon rafflesii No Moderate Very similar to C. unimaculatus, but with scales that are brighter than the body, forming a lattice-like pattern, and lacking the eyespot. 18 cm (7.1 in)Pacific Double Saddle Butterflyfish Chaetodon ulietensis No Moderate Silver with two dark saddles over the body (plus a dark mask) and yellow dorsal and caudal fins. 15 cm (5.9 in)Sickle Butterflyfish Chaetodon falcula No Moderate Often confused with C. ulietensis, but easily distinguished. The saddles are wedge shaped rather than stripes and don't reach the underside. Overall more yellow coloring. 20 cm (7.9 in)Threadfin Butterflyfish Chaetodon auriga No Moderate White anterior with thin black stripes at 45 and 120 degree angles from the head. Posterior is yellow, but with a black wedge shape where the stripes meet the yellow coloring. 23 cm (9.1 in)Tinker's Butterflyfish Chaetodon tinkeri No Moderate White with small black spots, a yellow mask, and a black dorsal fin. 15 cm (5.9 in)Masked Butterflyfish Chaetodon semilarvatus No Moderate Bright lemon yellow with subtle vertical orange stripes and a black splotch behind the eye. 23 cm (9.1 in) Cardinalfish A Banggai Cardinal One of the few groups of shoaling fish commonly available to marine aquarists, Cardinalfish are nocturnal and tend to be quite shy. They require meaty foods and will often not take prepared foods such as flakes and tablets. For the best chance of success, keep a wide variety of frozen foods on hand. In the event of a hunger strike, they will almost always take adult brine shrimp. As far as other care requirements they are similar to damsels: not picky. So long as they are properly acclimated, they tolerate a wide range of parameters. Watch the ammonia/nitrite, as they are particularly sensitive to these chemicals. Common name image Taxonomy Reef Care Level Description Max SizeFragile Cardinalfish Apogon fragilis Yes Moderate 5 cm(1.9 in)Banggai Cardinal Pterapogon kauderni Yes Moderate Black and silver striped with very tall fins and many white spots. Wild populations have been decimated, consider captive bred specimens. 8 cm(3in)Blackstripe Cardinalfish Apogon nigrofasciatus Yes Moderate Body completely covered in horizontal yellow and black stripes, with red fins. 10 cm(4in)Bluebarred Cardinalfish Apogon flores Yes Moderate 5 cm(1.9 in)Bluestreak Cardinalfish Apogon leptacanthus Yes Moderate 6.5 cm(2.5 in)Flamefish Apogon maculatus Yes Moderate Bright red with black spots at the base of the caudal fin, under the second dorsal fin, and on the operculum. 11 cm(4 in)Frostfin Cardinalfish Apogon hoeveni Yes Moderate 5 cm(1.9 in)Gilbert's Cardinalfish Apogon gilberti Yes Moderate 5 cm(1.9 in)Girdled Cardinalfish Archamia zosterophora Yes Moderate 8 cm(3.1 in)Orange-Striped Cardinalfish Apogon cyanosoma Yes Moderate Light yellow with iridescent yellow horizontal stripes. 8 cm(3in)Pajama Cardinalfish Sphaeramia nematoptera Yes, caution with small shrimp Easy This fish displays three distinct color bands: the first, stretching from the nose to base of the first dorsal fin, is a tannish peach. The second, a thin band which runs down the center of the fish, is chocolate brown, and the posterior of the fish is white with brown spots. 8.5 cm(3in)Ochre-Striped Cardinalfish Apogon compressus Yes Moderate Almost identical to A. nigrofasticus, but with blue eyes. 12 cm(5in)Ringtailed Cardinalfish Apogon aureus Yes Moderate Yellow body with a black stripe (ring) at the base of the caudal fin and iridescent blue streaks across the eye. 14.5 cm(6in) Chromis A Chromis viridis Chromis are perhaps the ultimate reef fish. Generally peaceful, most species are easy to take care of and quite colorful. Like anthias, they will school, but in many cases this tendency disappears as they age. They are, nevertheless, at least ambivalent with their own species, as well as completely reef safe. Like Damsels and Anemonefish, their close cousins, Chromis are omnivores and will accept most foods offered. A flake staple is usually sufficient, but for best color and health supplement with frozen and live foods when possible. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeAmbon Chromis Chromis amboinensis Yes Moderate 8cm cm(3.1in)Barrier Reef Chromis Chromis nitida Yes Easy 10 cm(4in)Black and Gold Chromis Neoglyphidodon nigroris Yes Difficult Mostly silver, but with a large patch of yellow around the caudal fin and a distinct black line on the operculum. 13 cm(5in)Half and Half Chromis Chromis iomelas Yes Moderate Completely black from the middle of the dorsal fin to the nose, completely white from the middle of the dorsal fin to the end of the caudal fin. 9 cm(3.5in)Black bar Chromis Chromis retrofasciata Yes Easy Yellowish with bright blue iridescent pelvic fins and a distinct black bar at the base of the caudal fin. 5 cm(2.5in).Blue Chromis Chromis cyanea Yes Moderate Bright blue all over, although lighter toward the front. 13 cm(5.1in)Damselfish Chromis chromis Yes Easy Completely black. Despite the name, this is actually a chromis, in fact, it is the chromis. 25 cm(10in)Green Chromis Chromis viridis Yes Easy Generally bluish green, but some specimens may be spring green. 8 cm(3in)Limbaughi Chromis Chromis limbaughi Yes Moderate Dark navy blue with bright yellow spot that covers the dorsal fin and much of the posterior. 10 cm(4in)Lined Chromis Chromis lineata Yes Moderate 5cm cm(2in)Paletail Chromis Chromis xanthura Yes Moderate 15cm (5.9in)Purple Chromis Chromis atripectoralis Yes Easy Spiny Chromis Acanthochromis polyacanthus Yes Easy Dark chocolate brown, slightly lighter around the pectoral fins. 14 cm(6in)Sunshine Chromis Chromis insolatus Yes Moderate Rather drab tannish-orange throughout. 16 cm(6.3in)Yellowspotted Chromis Chromis flavomaculata Yes Moderate 15cm (5.9in) Clownfish A False Percula Clownfish, more technically known as Anemonefish, are the classic aquarium fish. Both hardy and attractive, they are perhaps best known for their symbiotic relationship with Sea Anemones, a relative of coral. In the wild, Anemonefish are always found with a host, leading many potential keepers to believe that an anemone is necessary to keep them. Anemonefish are easy to keep, but their cnidarian counterparts are inordinately finicky and need high light levels, and luckily Anemonefish will thrive without them. Aquarists often find that Anemonefish will host in other things, from corals and Feather Duster Worms to powerheads and other equipment. Anemonefish care is identical to that of Damselfish, as they are actually very closely related. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Cinnamon Anemonefish Amphiprion melanopus Yes Easy to Moderate Dark orange body becoming black towards the caudal fin, with a bright white stripe running from the front of the dorsal fin to the pectoral fins and golden colored fins. 12 cm (4.72 in) Clarkii Anemonefish Amphiprion clarkii Yes Easy to Moderate Black or dark brown with bright yellow finnage and two thick white stripes running perpendicular to the body. 15 cm (5.9 in) False Percula Amphiprion ocellaris Yes Easy Bright orange or yellow body with white stripes. Fins are orange, rimmed with black. A. ocellaris from northern Australia are black. 11 cm (4.3 in) Maroon Clownfish Premnas biaculeatus Yes but aggressive Easy Maroon to bright red with three very thin white stripes. 17 cm (6.7 in) Percula Clown Amphiprion percula Yes Easy Nearly identical to A. ocellaris, but the white stripes are edged with black. 11 cm (4.3 in) Pink Skunk Anemonefish Amphiprion perideraion Yes Moderate Pink to orange body with one white stripe over the operculum and another running from the tip of the snout, along the back to the dorsal fin. All fins are white. 10 cm (3.9 in) Tomato Clownfish Amphiprion frenatus Yes Easy Bright red with a single white stripe running from the front of the dorsal fin to the bottom of the head. 14 cm (5.1 in) Saddleback Anemonefish Amphiprion polymnus Yes Moderate Similar to A. ocellaris and percula, but the second stripe does not extend the full with of the body and instead resembles a saddle. 13 cm (5.1 in) Sebae Anemonefish Amphiprion sebae Yes Moderate Black or dark brown body from above the pectoral fin, yellow below. Has two white stripes, the second resembling that of A. polymnus. 16 cm ( in) Damsels Blue and gold damsel All Damselfish can be considered reef-safe, sometimes excluding larger, more aggressive Dascyllus varieties. Some Damselfish will host in anemones like clownfish. Most Damselfish are aggressive and difficult to catch once you put them in an aquarium. Damselfish change gender as they grow larger and older. Small damselfish are ungendered. Eventually, they become males if no males prevent them from doing so. 1 or sometimes 2 males live with a female and guard over the eggs. Females are the largest fish and dominant over the males and juveniles. They will not allow other females into an area they have claimed as their territory without a fight. They may not allow new males or juveniles, either. Aggression increases with each change. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Ambon damsel Pomacentrus amboinensis Yes Easy ibid., p. 216 10cm(4in) Azure Damsel Chrysiptera hemicyanea Yes Easy A beautiful fish with neon blue on its body and a gold underside and caudal fin. Easy to care for and does best on a good diet. Fairly aggressive so choose tankmates carefully. 10cm(4in)Black and Gold damsel Neoglyphidodon nigroris Yes Easy 13cm(5in)Blackmargined damsel Pomacentrus nigromarginatus Yes Easy 9cm(3.5in)Blue damsel Chrysiptera cyanea Yes Easy An orange tail indicates breeding success. The males have orange on their tails while the females do not. This fish is hardy and aggressive. 5cm(2in)Blue and gold damsel Pomacentrus coelestis Yes Easy 9cm(3.5in)Blue velvet damsel Paraglyphidodon oxyodon Yes 15cm(6in)Blueback damsel Pomacentrus simsiang Yes Easy 9cm(3.5in)Blueline demoiselle Chrysipetra caeruleolineata Yes Easy 6cm(2.4in)Bluefin damsel Neoglyphidodon melas Yes Easy 18cm(7in)Caerulean damsel Pomacentrus caeruleus Yes Easy 8cm(3.1in)Canary Deep Water damsel Chrysiptera galba Yes Easy 9cm(3.5in)Cloudy damsel Dascyllus carneus Yes Easy 7cm(3in)Cross' damsel Neoglyphidodon crossi Yes Easy 13cm(5.1in)Domino damsel Dascyllus trimaculatus Yes Easy also known as the three spot damsel, this fish is easy to care for, but is also very aggressive. The fish is black except for three distinct white spots that fade as the fish ages. 14cm(5in)Fiji blue devil damsel Chrysiptera taupou Yes Easy This striking blue damsel is one of the most popular beginner fish. Like other damsels, it is very hardy, and very aggressive when mature. 8cm(3in)Four stripe damsel Dascyllus melanurus Yes Easy The four stripe damsel is a perfect beginner marine fish as it is very hardy. This fish is highly territorial and is best suited for a semi-aggressive to aggressive tank. 10cm(4in)Garibaldi damsel Hypsypops rubicunda Yes Easy to Moderate These are temperate fish and require cooler water. They are much larger than most other damsels. 30cm(12in)Honey head damsel Dischistodus prosopotaenia Yes Difficult 17cm(6in)Hawaiian Dascyllus Dascyllus albisella Yes Easy 12.5(5in)Jewel damsel Microspathodon chrysurus Yes Easy Among the largest and most aggressive Damsels 20cm(8in)King demoiselle Chrysipetra rex Yes Easy 7cm(2.8in)Lemon damsel Pomacentrus moluccensis Yes Easy 9cm(3.5)Longfin gregory Stegastes diencaeus Caution Easy Turns brown, and becomes highly territorial as it ages 12.5cm(5in)Marginated damsel Dascyllus marginatus Yes Easy The marginated damsel is noted for blue fins as well as the yellow head and white body. This fish is hardy like most damsels and is also highly aggressive when mature. 6cm(2.5in)Neon damsel Pomacentrus alleni Yes 6cm(2.5in)Orangetail damsel Chrysipetra cyanea Yes Easy 8.5cm(3.5)Ocellate damsel Pomacentrus vaiuli Yes Easy 9cm(3.5in)Pavo damsel Pomacentrus pavo Yes Easy 11cm(4.3in)Pink smith damsel Pomacentrus smithi Yes Easy 7cm(3in)Rolland's demoiselle Chrysipetra rollandi Yes Easy 6cm(2.4in)Sergeant major damsel Abudefduf saxatilis Yes Easy 15cm(6in)Speckled damsel Pomacentrus bankanensis Yes Easy 9cm(3.5in)Springer's damsel Chrysiptera springeri Yes Easy 5.5cm(2in)Stark's damsel Chrysiptera starcki Yes Easy 7cm(3in)Talbots damsel Chrysiptera talboti Yes Moderate This damselfish is somewhat a little more delicate than other. It does best in small groups in large tanks with good water quality and an SG of 1.026. Feed on a good diet for best results. Fairly peaceful. 8cm(3in)Three stripe damsel Dascyllus aruanus Yes Easy Highly aggressive and territorial. Will harass fish many times its size. Best kept in an aggressive/semi-aggressive tank. 10cm(4in)Three Spot damsel Stegastes planifrons Yes Easy 13cm(5in)Tuxedo damsel Chrysiptera tricincta Yes 6cm(2.5in)Two Stripe Damsel Dascyllus reticulatus Yes Easy the two stripe damsel is a very hardy fish. This fish is perfect for the beginner marine aquarist, as it can tolerate substandard water quality. This fish is highly aggressive, and requires many hiding places. 10cm(4in)Yellow damsel Amblyglyphidodon aureus Yes 13cm(5in)Yellow Threespot dascyllus Dascyllus auripinnis Yes Easy 14.5cm(5.7in)Yellowfin demoiselle Chrysipetra caeruleolineata Yes Easy 6cm(2.4in)Yellowbelly damsel Pomacentrus auriventris Yes Easy 5.5cm(2in)Yellowtail dascyllus Dascyllus flavicaudus Yes 12cm(5in)Yellowtail damsel Chrysiptera parasema Yes Easy The yellowtail damsel possess an all blue body with a striking yellow tail. This damsel is a good beginner fish as it is very hardy and can tolerate substandard water quality. This damsel is also less aggressive than some other damsel species. 8cm(3in)Yellowtail demoiselle Neopomacentrus azysron Yes Easy 7.5cm(3in) Dartfish A Purple Fire Fish Most should be kept as pairs or small groups where all individuals are added at once. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Blue Gudgeon Dartfish Ptereleotris hanae Yes Easy 13cm(5in) Fire Fish Nemateleotris magnifica Yes Easy 9cm(3in) Purple Fire Fish Nemateleotris decora Yes Easy 9cm(3in) Scissortail Dartfish Ptereleotris evides Yes Easy 14cm(5.5in) Zebra Barred Dartfish Ptereleotris zebra Yes Easy 10cm(4in) Dragonets A Mandarinfish Dragonets are often mis-categorized as gobies or blennies by fish sellers. They are bottom-dwelling fish that constantly hunt tiny invertebrates for food. Most starve to death in a marine aquarium unless you provide a refugium or place for the invertebrates to reproduce safely without any fish being able to reach them. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Mandarinfish Synchiropus splendidus Yes Difficult; attach a refugium to the tank A brightly colored member of the dragonet family. Eats only copepods and will die in captivity without an adequate supply, which can only be had in very large, well established reef tanks 6cm(2.5in) Red Scooter Blenny Synchiropus stellatus Yes Moderate; attach a refugium to the tank Not a true blenny. Often only eats live copepods and amphipods. 12cm(5in) Scooter Blenny Synchiropus ocellatus Yes Moderate; attach a refugium to the tank Not a true blenny. Often only eats live copepods and amphipods. 8cm(3in) Spotted Mandarin Synchiropus picturatus Yes Difficult; attach a refugium to the tank Not a true blenny. Often only eats live copepods and amphipods. 10cm(4in) Eels A Tessalata Eel Most eels are easily kept in a large aquarium, although several species such as the Blue Ribbon Eel should usually be avoided. With any moray eel care must be taken to secure the lid as one of the most common causes of death is escaping from the tank, and onto the floor. Common name Image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeBanded Snake Eel Myrichthys colubrinus No Easy 97cm(38 inches)Banded Eel Echidna polyzona No Intermediate 69cm(27 inches)Black Edge Moray Eel Gymnothorax saxicola No Moderate 60cm(24 inches)Blue Ribbon Eel, Black Ribbon Eel Rhinomuraena quaesita No Difficult 130cm(51 inches)Chainlink Moray Eel Echidna catenata No Easy Can be kept with fish too small to swallow 165cm(65 inches)Dragon Moray Eel Enchelycore pardalis No Easy A fish eater that will eat anything it can fit in its mouth. When available is typically quite expensive 92cm (36 inches) Golden Dwarf Eel Gymnothorax melatremus No Moderate Rarely available, among the smallest of the moray eels 26cm (10 inches)Golden moray eel Gymnothorax miliaris May eat fish and shrimp Easy to moderate These fish should only be kept in fish-only tanks as any small invertebrates will be looked on as food. Keep with fish large enough not to be eaten. Feed on a diet of whitefish, cockles, cod roe, haddock and frozen foods. 70.0 cm(28 inches)Green moray eel Gymnothorax funebris No Difficult Requires a 180 gallon tank with tight fitting lid. Compatible with rays, sharks, and other large fish. 250 cm(98 inches)Jeweled Moray Eel Muraena lentiginosa No easy 61cm(24 inches)Kidako Moray Eel Gymnothorax kidako No easy 91cm(36 inches)Peppered Moray Gymnothorax picta No Moderate 135cm(54 inches)Snowflake eel Echidna nebulosa May eat shrimp if underfed Easy A pebble-tooth moray that generally eats crustaceans and similar. Safer in reef aquariums than other species but be prepared to remove it in case it starts to eat desired invetebrates. 100cm(39 inches) Spotted Garden-Eel Taenioconger hassi With Caution Difficult Rarely available, best avoided by inexperienced aquarists 40cm(16 in)Spotted Snake Eel Myrichthys maculosus No Moderate Requires at least six inches of substrate 100cm(39 inches)Tessalata Eel, or Laced Moray Gymnothorax favagineus No Easy 300 cm(118 inches)Yellowhead Moray Eel Gymnothorax fimbriatus No Easy 80cm(32 inches)Yellow Mouth Moray Eel Gymnothorax nudivomer No Intermediate 178cm(70 inches)Whitemouth Moray Eel Gymnothorax meleagris With Caution easy 120cm(47 inches)Wolf Eel Congrogadus subducens No Easy Actually a Dottyback, but has the body shape of an eel. 45cm(18 inches)Zebra moray Gymnomuraena zebra No Easy One of the easier moray eels to keep, is usually safe with most fish but will eat most invertebrates. 150 cm(59 inches) Filefish A Orangespotted Filefish Less often kept than their relatives the Triggerfish and Puffers there are many filefish that make good aquarium residents, and a few that require specialized diets making it hard to sustain them in an aquarium. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeClown filefish Cantherhines dumerili Caution Easy 38cm(15in)Colored filefish Pervagor melanocephalus Caution Easy 15cm(6in)Fantail orange filefish Pervagor spilosoma No Easy 18cm(7in)Horseshoe Filefish Meuschenia hippocrepis No Intermediate 51cm(20in)Jade Filefish Paramonacanthus japonicus No Intermediate 13cm(5in)Mimic Filefish Paraluteres prionurus No Intermediate 11cm(4.5in)Orangespotted Filefish Oxymonacanthus longirostris No Expert 13cm(5in)Tassle filefish Chaetodermis penicilligerus Caution Easy 30cm(12in) Foxface See Rabbitfish Flatfish Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Peacock Flounder Bothus lunatus no Moderate 46cm(18in) Banded sole Soleichthys heterorhinos Will eat shrimp and other invertebrates, won't harm coral Moderate 18cm Frogfish A Giant Anglerfish A type of Anglerfish, Frogfish are ambush predators with huge mouths. They are capable of eating fish up to twice their length so care should be taken in choosing tank mates. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Longlure Frogfish Antennarius multiocellatus no Difficult Giant Anglerfish Antennarius commerson no Intermediate 38cm(15in) Sargassum Frogfish Histrio histrio no Difficult 20 cm (8 inches) Striated frogfish Antennarius striatus no Moderate 15 cm (6 in) Wartskin Angler Antennarius maculatus no Moderate Has the ability to change color to match its surrounding 10 cm(4 in) Goatfish A Yellow Goatfish While not as common a choice for aquariums as many other species, they are typically hardy and brightly colored Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Bicolor Goatfish Parupeneus barberinoides With Caution Moderate 25cm(10in) Goldsaddle Goatfish Parupeneus cyclostomus With Caution Difficult 51cm(20in) Manybar Goatfish Parupeneus multifasciatus With Caution Moderate 30cm(12in) Yellow Back Goatfish Parupeneus barberinus With Caution Easy 41cm(16in) Gobies Typically are hardy and do not harm invertebrates which makes them a good choice of fish for a reef tank. A Hi Fin Red Banded goby Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Black Barred Convict goby Priolepis nocturna Yes easy 4cm(1.5in) Black clown goby Gobiodon acicularis Mostly; can destroy unhealthy acropora by laying its eggs in the coral's tissue Moderate Similar to Yellow clown goby, but black Bluespotted Watchman goby Cryptocentrus pavoninoides Yes easy 12cm(5in) Catalina goby Lythrypnus dalli Yes Moderate A cold water species 5cm(2in) Cave Transparent goby Coryphopterus glaucofraenum Yes Easy 8cm(3in) Citron clown goby Gobiodon citrinus Mostly; can destroy unhealthy acropora by laying its eggs in the coral's tissue Moderate 8cm(3in) Court Jester Goby Amblygobius rainfordi Easy 6cm(2.5in) Diagonal Bar Prawn Goby Amblyeleotris diagonalis Yes Easy 8cm(3in) Diamond Watchman Goby Valenciennea puellaris Yes Easy "sleeper gobies"; borrow and sift sand constantly; very good algea eaters 20cm(7in) Dracula goby Stonogobiops dracula Yes Moderate 8cm(3in) Engineer goby Pholidichthys leucotaenia Yes Easy to Moderate small burrowing goby/ but they can get large. Gold Neon Eviota goby Eviota pellucida Yes easy 3cm(1in) Green banded goby Gobiosoma multifasciatum Yes Moderate small burrowing goby with green vertical stripes 3.5cm(1 inch) Green Clown goby Gobiodon atrangulatus Yes Easy 4cm(1.5 in) Hector's goby Amblygobius hectori Yes Easy 8cm(3 in) Hi Fin Red Banded goby Stonogobiops nematodes Yes Easy 5cm(2 in) Neon goby Elacatinus oceanops Yes Easy A Caribbean cleaner species that sometimes eats larger parasites from other fish. Orange Spotted goby Amblyeleotris guttata Yes Easy 9cm(3.5in) Orange Stripe Prawn goby Amblyeleotris randalli Yes Easy 9cm(3.5in) Orangemarked goby Amblygobius decussatus Yes Easy 8cm(3in) Pinkspotted Shrimp Goby Cryptocentrus leptocephalus May eat ornamental shrimp Easy White fish with pink bands around the body and pink spots on face and fins. One of the most handsome members of the group. 15 cm(5.9in) Pinkbar goby Cryptocentrus aurora Yes Easy 10cm(4in) Red Head goby Elacatinus puncticulatus Yes Easy A small goby that can clean like the neon goby but is easily frightened. Often said to 'disappear' in a larger tank, as it never swims out into view. 5cm(2in) Red Striped goby Trimma cana Yes Easy 3cm(1in) Sleeper Banded goby Amblygobius phalaena Yes Easy 15cm(6in) Sleeper Blue Dot goby Valenciennea sexguttata Yes Easy 13cm(5.5in) Sleeper Gold Head goby Valenciennea strigata Yes Moderate 13cm(5.5in) Sleeper Railway Glider goby Valenciennea helsdingeni Yes Easy 15cm(6in) Sleeper Striped goby Valenciennea longipinnis Yes Easy 15cm(6in) Steinitz goby Amblyeleotris steinitzi Yes Easy 8cm(3in) Tangaroa goby Ctenogobiops tangaroai Yes Easy 5cm(2in) Tiger Watchman goby Valenciennea wardii Yes Easy 12cm(5in) Two Spot goby Signigobius biocellatus Yes Easy 8cm(3in) Wheeler's Watchman goby Amblyeleotris wheeleri Yes Easy 8cm(3in) Yellow Watchman goby Cryptocentrus cinctus Yes Moderate A species of "watchman" or "shrimp" goby that can form a symbiotic relationship with pistol shrimp 2.8in (7cm) Yashia goby Stonogobiops yasha Yes ? A species of "watchman" or "shrimp" goby that will form a symbiotic relationship with the red and white banded pistol shrimp, Alpheus randalli. 6cm(2.5in) Yellow clown goby Gobiodon okinawae Yes Moderate small yellow fish that likes branching corals 3.5cm(1 inch) Yellow Priolepis goby Priolepis aureoviridis Yes Easy 6cm(2.5in) Yellow Stripe Clingfish Diademichthys lineatus Yes Easy 5cm(2in) Grunts Spotted Sweetlips Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeCrescent Banded Grunt Terapon jarbua No Easy Dogfish Orientalis Plectorhinchus lineatus No Expert 86 cm (34 in)Oriental Sweetlips Plectorhinchus orientalis No Expert 84 cm (33 in)Painted Sweetlips Plectorhinchus picus No Expert 84 cm (33 in)Porkfish Anisotremus virginicus No Intermediate 41 cm (16 in)Spotted Sweetlips Plectorhinchus chaetodonoides No Expert 74 cm (29 in)Striped Sweetlips Plectorhinchus diagrammus No Expert 51 cm (20 in)Twostriped Sweetlips Plectorhinchus albovittatus No Intermediate 99cm(39 in) Hamlet A Blue Hamlet Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeBarred Hamlet Hypoplectrus puella No Easy 15cm(6in)Black Hamlet Hypoplectrus nigricans No Easy 15cm(6in)Blue Hamlet Hypoplectrus gemma Not with shrimp Moderate 13cm(5in)Butter Hamlet Hypoplectrus unicolor Not with shrimp Easy 13cm(5in)Golden Hamlet Hypoplectrus gummigutta Not with shrimp Easy Indigo Hamlet Hypoplectrus indigo 14cm(5.5in)Shy Hamlet Hypoplectrus guttavarius Not with shrimp Moderate 13cm(5in) Hawkfish A Spotted hawkfish Attractive and relatively small, Hawkfish make excellent additions to fish only or FOWLR aquariums. With extreme caution taken, they could be kept in reef aquariums, but because of their propensity to eat small ornamental shrimps and other mobile invertebrates (usually leaving sessile invertebrates alone) they are not considered reef safe. Lacking a swim bladder, Hawkfish can often be found resting in crevices of rocks or among the branches of corals or gregonians. Hawkfish are easy to care for and not picky at all about water quality. A varied diet, including spirulina and small meaty foods like Mysis is recommended. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeArc eye hawkfish Paracirrhites arcatus Caution; will eat shrimp Easy Brown to yellow body with reddish dorsal fin, distinctive white caudal fin, and small semicircular marking behind eye. 20 cm (7.9 in)Blood Red hawkfish Cirrhitichthys fasciatus Caution; will eat shrimp Easy 12.7 cm (5 in)Coral hawkfish Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus Caution; may eat small shrimp Easy 8.5 cm (3.3 in)Falco's hawkfish Cirrhitichthys falco Caution; may eat small shrimp Easy 7 cm (2.7 in)Flame hawkfish Neocirrhitus armatus Caution; may eat small shrimp Easy Striking red body with black on fin tips and yellow lips. 9 cm (3.5 in)Freckled hawkfish Paracirrhites forsteri Caution; will eat shrimp Easy 22.5 cm (8.8 in)Golden hawkfish Paracirrhites xanthus Caution; will eat shrimp Easy 12 cm (4.7 in)Longnose hawkfish Oxycirrhites typus Caution; may eat small shrimp Easy White with red lattice-like markings resembling a grid. Nose is elongated and tissue between the spines of the dorsal fin is missing. 13 cm (5.1 in)Lyretail hawkfish Cirrhitichthys polyactis Caution; may eat small shrimp Easy 14 cm (5.5 in)Redspotted hawkfish Amblycirrhitus pinos Caution; may eat small shrimp Easy 9.5 cm (3.7 in)Spotted hawkfish Cirrhitichthys aprinus Caution; may eat small shrimp Easy Bright red with distinctive diamond shaped markings down back, becoming darker towards the topside of body. 12.5 cm (5 in)Whitespot hawkfish Paracirrhites hemistictus Caution; will eat shrimp Easy 29 cm (11.3 in)Yellow hawkfish Cirrhitichthys aureus Caution; may eat small shrimp Easy 7 cm (2.7 in) Hogfish A Spanish Hogfish Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeCoral Hogfish Bodianus mesothorax No Moderate 20cm(8in)Cuban Hogfish Bodianus pulchellus Caution Easy 28.5cmHawaiian Hogfish Bodianus bilunulatus Caution Easy 55cmRed Diana Hogfish Bodianus diana No Moderate 60cm(24in)Spanish Hogfish Bodianus rufus No Moderate 40cm(16in)Twin Spot Hogfish Bodianus bimaculatus No Easy 10cm(4in) Jacks A Threadfin Lookdown Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeGolden Pilotfish Gnathanodon speciosus No Difficult Indian Threadfin Alectis indicus No Difficult 165cm(65in)Threadfin Lookdown Selene vomer No Difficult 48cm(19in) Jawfish A Yellowhead jawfish Jawfish are burrowers and require a sandy substrate of sufficient depth. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeBlack cap jawfish Opistognathus lonchurus Almost always Moderate Requires a 30 gallon tank and 3 inch substrate. Tank should remain tightly lidded. May eat small shrimp. 10cm(4in)Blue dot jawfish Opistognathus rosenblatti Yes Moderate 9cm(3.5in)Dusky jawfish Opistognathus whitehurstii Yes Moderate Requires a 30 gallon tank and 3 inch sand substrate. Tank should remain tightly lidded. 14cm(5.5in)Yellowhead jawfish Opistognathus aurifrons Yes Moderate Requires a 30 gallon tank and 5 to 7 inch soft substrate. Tank should remain tightly lidded. 10cm(4in) Lionfish A Radiata lionfish Lionfish have venomous spines and should be treated With caution. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Antenneta Lionfish Pterois antennata Caution Moderate 20cm (8 inches) Blackfoot Lionfish Parapterois heterura Caution easy 23.0 cm(9 inches) Devil lionfish Pterois mombasae Caution Moderate (8 inches) Fu Man Chu Lionfish Dendrochirus biocellatus Caution Difficult 13.0 cm(5 inches) Fuzzy dwarf lionfish Dendrochirus brachypterus Caution Moderate Carnivore; Males 6< stripes on pectoral fin femals >6 17.0 cm(7 inches) Green lionfish Dendrochirus barberi Caution easy 16.5 cm(7 inches) Radiata lionfish Pterois radiata Moderate 24.0 cm(9.5 inches)Russell's lionfish Pterois russelli Easy to Moderate 30cm(12 inches)Volitan lionfish Pterois volitans Caution Easy to Moderate Semi-aggressive; carnivore; Can grow up to 38 cm in length in captivity 38.0 cm(15 inches)Zebra lionfish Dendrochirus zebra Caution Moderate 25cm(10 inches) Parrotfish A Princess Parrotfish Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Bicolor Parrotfish Cetoscarus bicolor No Expert 76cm(30in) Princess Parrotfish Scarus taeniopterus Yes Expert 25cm(10in) Pipefish A Dragonface Pipefish Pipefish are relatives of seahorses and require a similar level of care. They should only be bought by experienced aquarium owners. Captive bred specimens are sometimes available, and are significantly more likely to survive. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Banded Pipefish Doryrhamphus dactyliophorus Yes Expert 20cm(8in) Dragonface Pipefish Corythoichthys haematopterus Yes Difficult 18cm(7in) Janss' Pipefish Doryrhamphus janssi Yes Expert 20cm(8in) Yellow Multibanded Pipefish Doryrhamphus pessuliferus Yes Expert 18cm(7in) Pseudochromis A Fridmani pseudochromis Usually only a single specimen can be kept in an aquarium. Sometimes multiple specimens can be kept in larger aquariums, but usually this requires them to be added at the same time or they will be too territorial. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Allen's Dottyback Manonichthys alleni May eat shrimps Easy 12cm(4.7in) Australian multicolor pseudochromis Ogilbyina novaehollandiae May eat shrimps Moderate 10cm(4in) Bicolor pseudochromis Pseudochromis paccagnellae May eat shrimps Easy to Moderate resembles royal gramma in coloration. The bicolor pseudochromis is semi-aggressive and will defend its territory against fish several times its size. This fish is fairly hardy, and is a good beginner fish. 6cm(2in) Blue flavivertex pseudochromis Pseudochromis flavivertex May eat shrimps Moderate Captive Bred specimens are sometimes available 8cm(3in) Bluelined Dottyback Pseudochromis cyanotaenia May eat shrimps Easy 6.1cm(2.4in) Brown Dottyback or Yellow Pseudochromis Pseudochromis aureus May eat shrimps Moderate 10cm(4in) Cherry Dottyback Pholidochromis cerasina May eat shrimps Easy 7.9cm(3.1in) Dilectus Dottyback Pseudochromis dilectus May eat shrimps Moderate Dusky Dottyback Pseudochromis fuscus May eat shrimps Moderate 10cm(4in) Elongate Dottyback Pseudochromis elongatus May eat shrimps Easy 6.4cm(2.5in) Firetail Dottyback Pseudochromis flammicauda May eat shrimps Easy 5.6cm(2.2in) Fridmani pseudochromis or Orchid dottyback Pseudochromis fridmani May eat shrimps Easy to Moderate community fish does well in most aquariums. is not nearly as aggressive as other dottybacks. 8cm(3in) Longfin Dottyback Manonichthys polynemus May eat shrimps Easy 12cm(4.7in) Lyretail Dottyback Pseudochromis steenei May eat shrimps Moderate 12cm(5in) Neon pseudochromis, Arabian dottyback or neon dottyback Pseudochromis aldabraensis May eat shrimps Moderate Captive Bred specimens are sometimes available 10cm(4in) Oblique-lined Dottyback Cypho Purpurascens May eat shrimps Easy 7.4cm(2.9in) Orangetail Dottyback Pseudochromis coccinicauda May eat shrimps Easy 5.8cm(2.3in) Purple stripe pseudochromis or diadema basslet Pseudochromis diadema May eat shrimps Easy to Moderate 6cm(2in) Red Dottyback Labracinus cyclophthalmus With Caution Easy Large and aggressive for a Dottyback 22cm(8in) Sailfin pseudochromis Pseudochromis veliferus May eat shrimps Moderate 12cm(5in) Splendid pseudochromis Pseudochromis splendens May eat shrimps Moderate 13cm(5in) Springeri pseudochromis Pseudochromis springeri May eat shrimps Moderate Captive Bred species are sometimes available 5cm(2in) Striped dottyback Pseudochromis sankeyi May eat shrimps Moderate Captive Bred specimens are sometimes available 8cm(3in) Strawberry pseudochromis or purple psuedochromis Pseudochromis porphyreus May eat shrimps Easy to Moderate 6cm(2.5in) Twolined Dottyback Pseudochromis bitaeniatus May eat shrimps Easy 6.9cm(2.7in) Rabbitfish A Foxface Less commonly kept than some other species, many still make hardy and colorful aquarium residents. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeBicolor Foxface Siganus uspi With Caution Moderate 24 cm (9 in) Blue-Lined Rabbitfish Siganus doliatus With Caution Moderate 25 cm (10 in) Foxface Siganus vulpinus Easy to Moderate 23 cm (9 in) Magnificent foxface Siganus magnificus Easy to Moderate 24cmOne Spot Foxface Siganus unimaculatus With Caution Moderate 18cm(7in)Rabbitfish Siganus spp. Easy to Moderate Yellow Blotch Rabbitfish Siganus guttatus With Caution Moderate 42cm(16in) Rays A Round stingray All rays have a poisonous spine near the base of the tail. Care must be taken to avoid this animal when performing tank maintenance and during capture. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeFiddler stingray Trygonorhina fasciata No Expert Requires a minimum 360 gallon aquarium with a 1 meter width and a fine grained substrate. Coarse substrates may damage the underside of this animal, causing infection. Round stingray Urobatis halleri No Expert Requires a minimum 180 gallon aquarium and a fine grained substrate. Coarse substrates may damage the underside of this animal, causing infection. 31cm(12 inches)Spotted Caribbean stingray Urolophus spp. No Expert Requires a minimum 180 gallon aquarium and a fine grained substrate. Coarse substrates may damage the underside of this animal, causing infection. Thornback stingray Platyrhinoidis triseriata No Expert Requires a minimum 360 gallon aquarium with a 1 meter width Scorpionfish A Leaf Fish Because they are relatively inactive fish, most species can be kept in smaller aquariums than other equally large fish, and 30 gallon tanks are not unusual. Because they are capable of eating fish that are surprisingly large, but will often be picked at by fish that eat invertebrates a species tank is often set up for them. Some fish will never accept anything but live food, typically these specimens are fed on gut packed guppies, mollies, or Ghost Shrimp. Similarly to the Lionfish, care should be taken when handling these fish as they are also venomous. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeAmbon Scorpionfish Pteroidichthys amboinensis Not with shrimp or small fish> Moderate 12cm Decoy Scorpionfish Iracundus signifer Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 13cm(5.1in) Eschmeyer's Scorpionfish Rhinopias eschmeyeri Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 19cm Flasher Scorpionfish Scorpaenopsis macrochir Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 13cm(5.1in) Lacey Scorpionfish Rhinopias aphanes Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 24cm Leaf Fish Taenianotus triacanthus With Caution Moderate 10cm(4in) Mozambique Scorpionfish Parascorpaena mossambica Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 10cm(3.9in) Papuan Scorpionfish Scorpaenopsis papuensis Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 20cm(7.9in) Poss's Scorpionfish Scorpaenopsis possi Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 19.3cm(7.6in) Rogue Scorpion Amblyapistus taenionotus With Caution Moderate 10cm(4in)Sea Goblin Inimicus didactylus Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 18cm(7.1in) Stone Fish synanceja verrucosa No Difficult Highly Venomous! have caused human deaths 40cmWeedy Scorpionfish Rhinopias frondosa Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 23cm(9.1in) Yellowspotted Scorpionfish Sebastapistes cyanostigma Not with shrimp or small fish Moderate 8cm(3.1in) Seahorse A White's Seahorse It takes a special aquarist to maintain these delicate beauties. A potential keeper must be dedicated and willing to throw artistic creativity to the winds- as what seahorses need isn't always beautiful. They require taller tanks, live/frozen food, and many hitching posts, as well as very peaceful tankmates. In fact, beginners would be well-advised not to mix seahorses with any other species until they have more experience. Seahorses found in stores are generally Captive Bred, but occasionally one might find a Wild Caught specimen. WC Seahorses should only be purchased by Seahorse experts who are going to breed them, as they tend to be finicky and most are endangered in the wild. One of the advantages of Seahorses is that many species stay small and can (in fact, some should) be kept in smaller tanks, making them idea for aquarists who are pressed for space or money. Seahorses are among the few popular marine aquarium species that can be temperate. Species vary in their temperature requirement, so here an extra category has been added. TR=Tropical ST=Sub-Tropical TM=Temperate Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Temp. Care Level DescriptionBrazilian Seahorse H. reidi Caution ST Difficult Usually bright yellow, with a particularly long snout. Max size 17 cm.Spotted Seahorse H. kuda Caution TR Difficult Generally yellow, but can also range from tan to dark black. Max size 30 cm.Great Seahorse H.kelloggi Caution ST Difficult Light tan, with some darker specimens. Max size 28 cm.Pot-Bellied Seahorse H.abdominalis Caution TM Difficult Light colored with dark spots and a large abdomen. Max size 35 cm.Pygmy Seahorse H. bargibanti Caution TR Difficult White with pink (occasionally yellow) knobby protrusions. Max size 2.4 cm.Short-Snouted Seahorse H. breviceps Caution TM Difficult Grayish to tan with short snout and a spiny head. Max size 15 cm.Tiger Tail Seahorse H. comes Caution TR Difficult Varying colors with dark striped tail. Max size 18 cm.Lined Seahorse H. erectus Caution ST Difficult Dark colored with ligher belly and white ridges. Max size 19 cm.White's Seahorse H. whitei Caution TM Difficult Fuller bodied with a comparatively larger head. Max size 13 cm.Dwarf Seahorse H. zosterae Caution ST Difficult Similar to H. reidi but much smaller. Max size 5 cm.Thorny Seahorse H. histrix Caution TR Difficult Varying colors with distinctive spines all over body. Max size 17 cm. Squirrelfish A Glass Eye Squirrelfish Typically are hardy fish that can be kept with a wide variety of tankmates. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max Size Big Eye Soldierfish Myripristis vittata With Caution Easy 25cm(10in) Blackbar Soldierfish Myripristis jacobus With Caution Easy 25cm(10in) Glass Eye Squirrelfish Heteropriacanthus cruentatus With Caution Moderate 30cm(12in) Popeye Catalufa Soldierfish Pristigenys serrula With Caution Moderate 34cm(13in) Scarlet Squirrelfish Sargocentron tiere With Caution Easy 33cm(13in) Striped Squirrelfish Sargocentron xantherythrum With Caution Moderate 18cm(7in) Sharks A Bamboo Shark Will outgrow most home aquariums. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeBlack banded cat shark Chiloscyllium punctatum No Difficult Requires a 180+ gallon tank. 104cm(41 inches)Coral cat shark Atelomycterus marmoratus No Difficult Requires a 180+ gallon tank. 24inEpaulette Shark Hemiscyllium ocellatum No Difficult Requires a 180+ gallon tank. Northern Wobbegong Shark Orectolobus wardi No Expert requires 300+ gallon tank Nurse Shark Ginglymostoma cirratum No Expert Grows to over 14 feet and will outgrow any home aquarium Ornate Wobbegong Shark Orectolobus ornatus No Expert Grows to near nine feet and will outgrow a home aquarium Port Jackson Shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni No Expert Requires a 1000 gallon tank. 1.67 m(5.5 feet)Spotted Wobbegong Shark Orectolobus maculatus No Expert Grows to near nine feet and will outgrow a home aquarium Whitespotted Bambooshark Chiloscyllium plagiosum No Difficult Requires a 180 gallon tank. 93 cm (37 inches) Snappers A Black Snapper Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeBlack Snapper Macolor niger No Expert 76cm(30in)Emperor Snapper Lutjanus sebae No Expert 114cm(45in)Threadfin Snapper Symphorichthys spilurus No Expert 58cm(23in)Yellowback Fusilier Caesio xanthonota No Intermediate 38cm(15in) Tangs A Yellow Tang Tangs generally feed on algae, though there are a few carnivorous species. Most tangs will not tolerate other fish the same color and/or shape as them. They have a spine on their tails that can cut open other fish and unprotected hands. All tangs should be given plenty of swimming room; try to have at least a 4' tank. Contrary to popular belief they will tolerate smaller (4' to 5') tanks just fine but tend to live better in larger tanks, over 5'. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeAchilles tang Acanthurus achilles Yes Difficult Atlantic blue tang Acanthurus coeruleus Yes Moderate Blonde naso tang Naso lituratus Yes Easy to Moderate Blue Eyed tang Ctenochaetus binotatus Yes Easy Blue Lined Surgeonfish Acanthurus nigroris Yes Easy Bristletooth tang Ctenochaetus striatus Yes Easy to Moderate Chocolate tang Acanthurus pyroferus Yes Easy to Moderate Chevron tang Ctenochaetus hawaiiensis Yes Easy to Moderate Clown tang Acanthurus lineatus Yes Difficult Convict tang Acanthurus triostegus Yes Easy Desjardini tang Zebrasoma desjardinii Yes Moderate Doctorfish Acanthurus chirurgus Yes Easy Dussumieri tang Acanthurus dussumieri Yes Difficult 53cm(21 in) Eibli mimic tang Acanthurus tristis Yes Moderate Gold Rim tang Acanthurus nigricans Yes Easy Hippo tang Paracanthurus hepatus Yes Moderate Very prone to Cryptocaryon irritans. More tolerant of other tangs than most other species. Kole tang Ctenochaetus strigosus Yes Easy to Moderate Lavender tang Acanthurus nigrofuscus Yes Moderate Lopezi tang Naso Lopezi Yes Easy Mimic tang Acanthurus pyroferus Yes Easy to Moderate Naso tang Naso lituratus Yes Easy to Moderate Orange Shoulder tang Acanthurus olivaceus Yes Moderate Powder blue tang Acanthurus leucosternon Yes Moderate Very prone to Cryptocaryon irritans. Powder Brown Tang Acanthurus japonicus Yes Moderate Purple tang Zebrasoma xanthurus Yes Easy to Moderate Sailfin tang Zebrasoma veliferum Yes Easy to Moderate Scopas tang Zebrasoma scopas Yes Easy to Moderate Similar to the yellow tang in shape and feeding. Sohal tang Acanthurus sohal Yes Easy Tennent tang Acanthurus tennenti Yes Easy Tomini tang Ctenocheatus tominiensis Yes Easy Unicorn tang Naso unicornis Yes Moderate Vlamingi tang Naso Vlamingi Yes Easy White Freckled surgeon Acanthurus maculiceps Yes Easy Yellow tang Zebrasoma flavescens Yes Easy to Moderate The yellow tang requires ample swimming room and plenty of algae to graze on. The tang will not tolerate another of its kind unless there is ample space for each tang to have their own territory. The tang requires high oxygen levels. Can be kept in shoals when a tank of at least 5 ft is provided. Yellowfin surgeon Acanthurus xanthopterus Yes Moderate Tilefish Though often categorized as Gobies, Tilefish are a separate species. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeBlue-headed tilefish Hoplolatilus starcki Moderate 10cm(4in)Purple tilefish Hoplolatilus purpureus Moderate 15cm(6in)Redlined tilefish Hoplolatilus marcosi Moderate Triggerfish A Clown trigger While they are generally considered monsters that will chomp invertebrates, a few species can make great reef fish. Other more aggressive species such as the Undulated Trigger, and Clown Trigger will sometimes be so aggressive that it is necessary to keep as the sole inhabitant of the aquarium. All will require large tanks, with good filtration. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeAssasi trigger Rhinecanthus assasi No Easy 30cm(12 inches)Blue jaw trigger / Blue throat trigger Xanthichthys auromarginatus Widely regarded as the only reef safe trigger. Moderate 30cm(12 inches)Blue line trigger Pseudobalistes fuscus No Moderate 55cm(22 inches)Bursa trigger Rhinecanthus verrucosus No easy 23cm(9 inches)Clown trigger Balistoides conspicillum No Easy 50cm(20 inches)Crosshatch trigger Xanthichthys mento No Easy A shy reserved fish when first added to the aquarium, comes into its own when it associates itself with the aquarist. Infrequently available 29cm(11 inches)Halfmoon Trigger Sufflamen chrysopterum No Easy 30cm(12 inches)Goldenback trigger Xanthichthys caeruleolineatus No Easy Rarely available 35cm(14 inches)Golden Heart trigger Balistes punctatus No Intermediate 61cm(24 inches)Halfmoon trigger Sufflamen chrysopterum No Easy 30cm(12 inches)Hawaiian black trigger Melichthys niger No Moderate 50cm(20 inches)Lei trigger Sufflamen bursa No Moderate 25cm(10 inches)Indian black trigger Melichthys indicus No Moderate 25cm(10 inches)Niger trigger Odonus niger No Easy Among the more peaceful of triggers, can usually be kept in a community tank 50cm(20 inches)Picasso trigger Rhinecanthus aculeatus No Easy to Moderate 30cm(12 inches)Pinktail trigger Melichthys vidua No Moderate 40cm(16 inches)Queen trigger Balistes vetula No Moderate A large fish that should only be kept in very large aquariums. 60cm(24 inches)Rectangular trigger Rhinecanthus rectangulus No Easy 30cm(12 inches)Sargassum trigger Xanthicthys ringens No Easy A shy reserved fish when first added to the aquarium, comes into its own when it associates itself with the aquarist. Infrequently available 25cm(10 inches)Starry Trigger Abalistes stellatus No Easy 60cm(24 inches)Titan trigger Balistoides viridescens No Moderate Can only be housed in the largest of marine aquariums 75cm(30 inches)Undulated trigger Balistapus undulatus No Easy Probably the most aggressive fish kept in marine Aquariums. Older specimens should be housed alone. 30cm(12 inches)Whitetail Trigger Sufflamen albicaudatum With Caution Easy 22cm(8.5 inches) Wrasse A Lyretail Wrasse A diverse group of fish with an equally wide range of characteristics. Some wrasse species are aggressive towards small fish and invertebrates, others are reef safe. Some are quite hardy, some typically die within weeks. Common name image Taxonomy Reef safe Care Level Description Max SizeBanana Wrasse Thalassoma lutescens No Easy 30cm (12 inches)Bird Wrasse Gomphosus varius No Easy 28cm (11 inches)Bluehead Wrasse Thalassoma bifasciatum With Caution Easy-Moderate 28cm (11 inches)Carpenter's fairy wrasse Paracheilinus carpenteri Yes; feeds on tiny organisms Moderate 8cm (3 inches)Cheeklined Maori Wrasse Cheilinus diagrammus No Moderate 36cm(14 inches) Christmas Wrasse Thalassoma trilobatum No 15cm (5 inches)Cortez Rainbow Wrasse Thalassoma lucasanum No Moderate 15cm (5 inches)Dragon Wrasse Novaculichthys taeniourus No Moderate 30cm (12 inches)Eight line wrasse Pseudocheilinus octotaenia Yes; feeds on tiny organisms Easy to Moderate Exquisite fairy wrasse Cirrhilabrus exquisitus Yes; feeds on tiny organisms Difficult 10cm (4 inches)Fine-spotted fairy wrasse Cirrhilabrus punctatus Yes; feeds on tiny organisms Difficult 10cm(4 inches)Flame Wrasse Cirrhilabrus jordani Yes Moderate 10cm(4 inches)Formosa Wrasse Coris formosa No Moderate 61cm (24 inches)Four line wrasse Pseudocheilinus tetrataenia Yes; feeds on tiny organisms Easy to Moderate Goldbar Wrasse Thalassoma hebraicum With Caution Moderate 23cm (9 inches)Green Wrasse Halichoeres chloropterus With Caution Moderate 20cm (8 inches)Greenback fairy wrasse Cirrhilabrus scottorum Yes; feeds on tiny organisms Difficult 15cm(6in)Harlequin tusk Choerodon fasciatus Generally, yes, but may eat shrimps Moderate Hoeven's Wrasse Halichoeres melanurus With Caution Easy 13cm (5 inches)Jansen Saddle Wrasse Thalassoma jansenii No Easy 20cm (8 inches)Labout's Fairy Wrasse Cirrhilabrus laboutei yes Easy 8cm(3 inches)Leopard Wrasse Macropharyngodon meleagris yes Expert 15cm(6 inches) Lineatus Fairy Wrasse Cirrhilabrus lineatus yes Easy 13cm(5 inches)Longfin Fairy Wrasse Cirrhilabrus rubriventralis yes Easy 8cm(3 inches)Lyretail Wrasse Thalassoma lunare No Moderate 25cm (10 inches)Marble Wrasse Halichoeres hortulanus No Easy-Moderate 28cm (11 inches)McCosker's Flasher wrasse Paracheilinus mccoskeri Yes easy 15cm(6 inches)Multicolor Lubbock's Wrasse Cirrhilabrus lubbocki Yes; feeds on tiny organisms easy 8cm(3inches)Multicolor velvet wrasse Cirrhilabrus cyanopleura Yes; feeds on tiny organisms Moderate Mystery wrasse Pseudocheilinus ocellatus Yes Easy Orange-Back Fairy wrasse Cirrhilabrus aurantidorsalis Yes Easy 13cm(5 inches)Pinkface wrasse Thalassoma quinquevittatum With Caution Easy 15cm (6 inches)Potter's wrasse Macropharyngodon geoffroyi Yes; feeds on tiny organisms Difficult Red Coris Wrasse Coris gaimard No Easy 36cm (14 inches)Red-head fairy wrasse Cirrhilabrus solorensis Yes; feeds on tiny organisms Difficult 13cm(5 inches)Red Velvet Wrasse Cirrhilabrus rubrisquamis Yes Easy 8cm(3 inches)Scarlet Pin Stripe Wrasse Pseudocheilinus evanidus Yes Moderate 8cm(3 inches)Six line wrasse Pseudocheilinus hexataenia Yes Easy to Moderate small pink fish with six purple horizontal lines 8cm(3 inches)Radiant Wrasse Halichores iridis Yes easy 15cm(6 inches)Rhomboid Fairy Wrasse Cirrhilabrus rhomboidalis Yes Moderate Medium sized (~5" max) Golden body with purple horizontal stripes on head Whip Fin Fairy Wrasse Cirrhilabrus filamentosus Yes Easy 9cm(3.5 inches)Yellow Wrasse Halichoeres chrysus Yes With Caution 13cm(5 inches)Yellow & Purple Wrasse Halichoeres trispilus Yes With Caution 13cm(5 inches)Yellowband Wrasse Cirrhilabrus luteovittatus Yes Moderate 13cm(5 inches)Yellow Fin Fairy Wrasse Cirrhilabrus flavidorsalis Yes Moderate 8cm(3 inches)Yellow-Flanked Fairy Wrasse Cirrhilabrus lyukyuensis Yes Moderate 10cm(4 inches) See also List of fish common names List of freshwater aquarium fish species List of brackish aquarium fish species References	List_of_marine_aquarium_fish_species \|@lemmatized following:2 list:6 marine:10 aquarium:50 fish:102 specie:35 commonly:3 available:14 trade:1 completely:10 comprehensive:1 certain:1 rare:1 specimen:18 may:47 sometimes:12 commercially:1 yet:1 brief:1 section:1 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6,412	Kashmir	A map of the Kashmir region showing the Pir Panjal range and the Vale of Kashmir. Nanga Parbat, the 9th highest peak in the world and one of the most dangerous for climbers, is in the Northern Areas. Kashmir (Balti: کشمیر; Dogri: कश्मीर, Poonchi/Chibhali: کشمیر; Kashmiri: कॅशीर, کٔشِیر; Ladakhi: ཀཤམིར; Shina: کشمیر; Uyghur: كھسىمڭر) is the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term "Kashmir" referred only to the valley lying between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range.; since then, it has been used for a larger area that today includes the Indian administered state of Jammu and Kashmir consisting of the Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh; the Pakistani-administered provinces of the Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir, and the Chinese-administered, mostly uninhabited, regions of Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. In the first half of the first millennium, Kashmir became an important center of Hinduism and later of Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, Kashmir Shaivism arose in the region. Basham, A. L. (2005) The wonder that was India, Picador. Pp. 572. ISBN 033043909X, p. 110. The heritage of Kashmir during this period is well documented in Rajatarangini by Kalhana. In 1349, Shah Mir became the first Muslim ruler of Kashmir and inaugurated the line Salatin-i-Kashmir. Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93-95. For the next five centuries Kashmir had Muslim monarchs, including the Mughals, who ruled until 1751, and thereafter, the Afghan Durranis, who ruled until 1820. That year, the Sikhs under the Jat-Sikh King Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir. In 1846, upon the purchase of the region from the British under the Treaty of Amritsar, the Dogras—under Gulab Singh—became the new rulers. Dogra Rule, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) of the British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the former princely state became a disputed territory, now administered by three countries: India, Pakistan, and the People's Republic of China. Etymology General view of Temple and Enclosure of Marttand or the Sun, near Bhawan. Probable date of temple A.D. 490-555. Probable date of colonnade A.D. 693-729. Photograph of the Surya Temple at Martand in Jammu & Kashmir taken by John Burke in 1868. The Nilamata Purana describes the Valley's origin from the waters, Ka means "water" and Shimir means "to desiccate". Hence, Kaashmir stands for "a land desiccated from water", or vale. There is also a theory which takes Kaashmir to be a contraction of Kashyap-mira or Kashyapmir or Kashyapmeru, the "sea or mountain of Kashyapa", the sage who is credited with having drained the waters of the primordial lake Satisar, that Kaashmir was before it was reclaimed. The Nilamata Purana gives the name Kaashmira to the Valley considering it to be an embodiment of Uma and it is the Kaashmir that the world knows today. The Kaashmiris, however, call it Kashir, which has been derived phonetically from Kaashmir, as pointed out by Aurel Stein in his introduction to the Rajatarangini. In the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the 12th century, it is stated that the valley of Kaashmir was formerly a lake. This was drained by the great rishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla (Varaha-mula). Cashmere is a variant spelling of Kaashmir. "Kaashmir." The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989. History Buddhism in Kashmir This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa near Baramulla, with two figures standing on the summit, and another at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burke in 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE The Mauryan emperor Ashoka is often credited with having founded the city of Srinagar. Kashmir was once a Buddhist seat of learning, perhaps with the Sarvāstivādan school dominating. East and Central Asian Buddhist monks are recorded as having visited the kingdom. In the late 4th century AD, the famous Kuchanese monk Kumārajīva, born to an Indian noble family, studied Dīrghāgama and Madhyāgama in Kashmir under Bandhudatta. He later became a prolific translator who helped take Buddhism to China. His mother Jīva is thought to have retired to Kashmir. Vimalākṣa, a Sarvāstivādan Buddhist monk, travelled from Kashmir to Kucha and there instructed Kumārajīva in the Vinayapiṭaka. Muslim rule Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din's Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date A.D. 400 to 500, 1868. John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Library. The Muslims and Hindus of Kashmir lived in relative harmony, since the Sufi-Islamic way of life that a few ordinary Muslims followed in Kashmir complemented the Rishi tradition of Kashmiri Pandits. This led to a syncretic culture where Hindus and Muslims revered the same local saints and prayed at the same shrines . Famous sufi saint Bulbul Shah was able to convert Rinchan Shah who was then prince of Kashgar Ladakh to an Islamic lifestyle, thus founding the Sufiana composite culture. Under this rule, Muslim, Hindu and Buddhist Kashmiris generally co-existed peacefully. Over time, however, the Sufiana governance gave way to outright Muslim monarchs. Some Kashmiri rulers, such as Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin, were tolerant of all religions in a manner comparable to Akbar. However, several Muslim rulers of Kashmir were intolerant of other religions. Sultãn Sikandar Butshikan of Kashmir (AD 1389-1413) is often considered the worst of these. Historians have recorded many of his atrocities. The Tarikh-i-Firishta records that Sikandar persecuted the Hindus and issued orders proscribing the residence of any other than Muslims in Kashmir. He also ordered the breaking of all "golden and silver images". The Tarikh-i-Firishta further states: "Many of the Brahmins, rather than abandon their religion or their country, poisoned themselves; some emigrated from their native homes, while a few escaped. After the emigration of the Brahmins, Sikandar ordered all the temples in Kashmir to be thrown down. Having broken all the images in Kashmir, (Sikandar) acquired the title of ‘Destroyer of Idols’." Muhammad Qãsim Hindû Shãh Firishta : Tãrîkh-i-Firishta, translated by John Briggs under the title "History of the Rise of the Mahomedan Power in India." First published in 1829, New Delhi Reprint 1981. The metrical chronicle of the kings of Kashmir, called Rajatarangini, has been pronounced by Professor H.H.Wilson to be the only Sanskrit composition yet discovered to which the appellation "history" can with any propriety be applied. It first became known to the Muslims when, on Akbar's invasion of Kashmir in 1588, a copy was presented to the emperor. A translation into Persian was made at his order. A summary of its contents, taken from this Persian translation, is given by Abul Fazl in the Ain-i-Akbari. The Rajatarangini was written by Kalhana about the middle of the 12th century. His work, in six books, makes use of earlier writings that are now lost. The Rajatarangini is the first of a series of four histories that record the annals of Kashmir. Commencing with a rendition of traditional history of very early times, the Rajatarangini comes down to the reign of Sangrama Deva, (c.1006 AD). The second work, by Jonaraja, continues the history from where Kalhana left off, and, entering the Muslim period, gives an account of the reigns down to that of Zain-ul-ab-ad-din, 1412. P. Srivara carried on the record to the accession of Fah Shah in 1486. The fourth work, called Rajavalipataka, by Prajnia Bhatta, completes the history to the time of the incorporation of Kashmir in the dominions of the Mogul emperor Akbar, 1588. Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu 1909 Map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. The names of regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are underlined in red. By the early 19th century, the Kashmir valley had passed from the control of the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four centuries of Muslim rule under the Mughals and the Afghans, to the conquering Sikh armies. Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo, the Raja of Jammu, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of the Kashmir valley) was captured by the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh of Lahore and afterwards, until 1846, became a tributary to the Sikh power. Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. "Kashmir: History." pp. 94-95. Ranjit Deo's grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequently sought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguished himself in later campaigns, especially the annexation of the Kashmir valley by the Sikhs army in 1819, and, for his services, was appointed governor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his officer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured Ladakh and Baltistan, regions to the east and north-east of Jammu. In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out, and Gulab Singh "contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the trusted advisor of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded. By the first the State of Lahore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to the British, as equivalent for (rupees) one crore of indemnity, the hill countries between Beas and Indus; by the second Treaty of Amritsar, March 16, 1846. the British made over to Gulab Singh for (Rupees) 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the east of Indus and west of Ravi" (i.e. the Vale of Kashmir). Soon after Gulab Singh's death in 1857, his son, Ranbir Singh, added the emirates of Hunza, Gilgit and Nagar to the kingdom. Portrait of Maharaja Gulab Singh in 1847, a year after signing the Treaty of Amritsar, when he became Maharaja by purchasing the territories of Kashmir "to the eastward of the river Indus and westward of the river Ravi" From the text of the Treaty of Amritsar, signed March 16, 1846. for 75 lakhs rupees from the British (Artist: James Duffield Harding). The Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu (as it was then called) was constituted between 1820 and 1858 and was "somewhat artificial in composition and it did not develop a fully coherent identity, partly as a result of its disparate origins and partly as a result of the autocratic rule which it experienced on the fringes of Empire." Bowers, Paul. 2004. "Kashmir." Research Paper 4/28, International Affairs and Defence, House of Commons Library, United Kingdom. It combined disparate regions, religions, and ethnicities: to the east, Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its inhabitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu had a mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in the heavily populated central Kashmir valley, the population was overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there was also a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiri brahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populated Baltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh, but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparsely populated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostly Shi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but of different ethnicity than the Kashmir valley. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, in which Kashmir sided with the British, and the subsequent assumption of direct rule by Great Britain, the princely state of Kashmir came under the suzerainty of the British Crown. Year 1947 and 1948 Ranbir Singh's grandson Hari Singh, who had ascended the throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarch in 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcontinent and the subsequent partition of the British Indian Empire into the newly independent Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. As parties to the partition process, both countries had agreed that the rulers of princely states would be given the right to opt for either Pakistan or India or—in special cases—to remain independent. In 1947, Kashmir's population "was 77% Muslim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan. Hence, it was anticipated that the Maharaja would accede to Pakistan, when the British paramountcy ended on 14-15 August. When he hesitated to do this, the adjacent Muslims in newly created Pakistan along with many Pashtun began to enter his territory. The Maharaja, appealed to Mountbatten Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of British India, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948, serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of India. for assistance, and the Governor-General agreed and demanded that the ruler first accede to India before assistance." Stein, Burton. 1998. A History of India. Oxford University Press. 432 pages. ISBN 0195654463. p. 368. Once the Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession, "Indian soldiers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small section of the state. The United Nations was then invited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mission insisted that the opinion of Kashmiris must be ascertained, while India insisted that no referendum could occur until all of the state had been cleared of irregulars." In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed under UN auspices; however, since the plebiscite demanded by the UN was never conducted, relations between India and Pakistan soured, and eventually led to two more wars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999. India has control of about half the area of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir; Pakistan controls a third of the region, the Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica: The Karakash River (Black Jade River) which flows north from its source near the town of Sumde in Aksai Chin, to cross the Kunlun Mountains. The UN Security Council on 20 January, 1948 passed Resolution 39, establishing a special commission to investigate the conflict. Subsequent to the commission's recommendation, the Security Council ordered in its Resolution 47, passed on 21 April 1948, that the invading Pakistani army retreat from Jammu & Kashmir and that the accession of Kashmir to either India or Pakistan be determined in accordance with a plebiscite to be supervised by the UN. The Government of India holds that the Maharaja signed a document of accession to India on October 26, 1947. Pakistan has disputed whether the Maharaja actually signed the accession treaty before Indian troops entered Kashmir, and claims that the he signed it under duress. Furthermore, Pakistan claims the Indian government has never produced an original copy of this accession treaty and thus its validity and legality is disputed. However, India has produced the instrument of accession with an original copy image on its website. Maharaja Hari Singh later died in Mumbai in 1962. Alan Campbell-Johnson, the press attaché to the Viceroy of India states that "The legality of the accession is beyond doubt." Rediff: Legality of Accession Unquestionable. Pakistan was of the view that the Maharaja of Kashmir had no right to call in the Indian Army, because he was merely a British appointee and not a hereditary ruler. Hence Pakistan decided to take some action but British appointed Army Chief of Pakistan Douglas Gracey did not send troops to the Kashmir front and refused to obey the order to do so given by Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Governor-General of Pakistan. http://www.fascistarmy.org/09_dcy/articles0001.htm His argument was that the Indian forces occupying Kashmir represented the British Crown and so did he hence he could not engage in a military encounter with Indian forces. Pakistan finally did manage to send troops to Kashmir but by then the Indian forces had taken control of two-thirds the territory of Kashmir. Post-1948 developments Topographic map of Kasmir. The eastern region of the erstwhile princely state of Kashmir has also been beset with a boundary dispute. In the late 19th- and early 20th centuries, although some boundary agreements were signed between Great Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northern borders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agreements, and the official Chinese position did not change with the communist takeover in 1949. By the mid-1950s the Chinese army had entered the north-east portion of Ladakh. Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 27, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. "By 1956–57 they had completed a military road through the Aksai Chin area to provide better communication between Xinjiang and western Tibet. India's belated discovery of this road led to border clashes between the two countries that culminated in the Sino-Indian war of October 1962." China has occupied Aksai Chin since the early 1950s and, in addition, an adjoining region almost 8% of the territory, the Trans-Karakoram Tract was ceded by Pakistan to China in 1963. Meanwhile, elections were held in Indian Jammu & Kashmir, which brought up the popular Muslim leader Sheikh Abdullah, who with his party National Conference, by and large supported India. The elected Constituent Assembly met for the first time in Srinagar on October 31, 1951. Then The State Constituent Assembly ratified the accession of the State to the Union of India on February 6, 1954 and the President of India subsequently issued the Constitution (Application to J&K) Order under Article 370 of the Indian Constitution extending the Union Constitution to the State with some exceptions and modifications. The State’s own Constitution came into force on January 26, 1957 under which the elections to the State Legislative Assembly were held for the first time on the basis of adult franchise the same year. This Constitution further reiterated the ratification of the State’s accession to Union of India. However, these tidings were not recognized by Pakistan, which has continued to press for a plebiscite to ascertain the wishes of the people. Pakistan set up its own Kashmir, called Azad Kashmir in a tiny Western chunk that it controls. The much larger region of Pakistani Kashmir in the North-West, which was a province named Northern Areas in the erstwhile state, by and large bore no mention in Pakistani laws and Constitution as being of any status, until in 1982 the Pakistani President General Zia ul Haq proclaimed that the people of the Northern Areas were Pakistanis and had nothing to do with the State of Jammu and Kashmir. As stated by Emma Nicholson "All the evidence points to the fact that Gilgit and Baltistan region were constituent parts of Jammu and Kashmir by 1877". They were under the sovereignty of Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir and remained in this princely domain till the date of accession “in its entirety Letter of Baroness Nicholson dated 22, May 2007 to the Ambassador, Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan to the European Union. to the new Dominion of India” on October 26, 1947. The European Parliament has also endorsed the report on Kashmir of Baroness Emma Nicholson, which inter alia relies on an official 1909 map of Kashmir which inter alia depicts the Taghdumbash Pamir in Kanjut as Part of Kashmir as well as the correspondence of the Maharaja of Kashmir dated October 26, 1947 with Lord Mountbatten, Governor General of India, with an overwhelming majority. Current status and political divisions Populous http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312921/Vale-of-Kashmir Kashmir Valley (highlighted in dark brown), and Siachen Glacier (white) are in Indian control. There has been much economic development of the Indian side particularly sponsored by the government. Kashmir Railway is the second highest railway in the world and has facilitated growth in the Indian-Administrated Kashmir . The region is divided among three countries in a territorial dispute: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) and Ladakh, and China controls the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of the Siachen Glacier area including the Saltoro Ridge passes, whereas Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwest of the Saltoro Ridge. India controls of the disputed territory, Pakistan and China, the remaining . Jammu and Azad Kashmir lie outside Pir Panjal range, and are under Indian and Pakistani control respectively. These are populous regions. Main cities are Jammu, Muzaffarabad and Rawalakot. The Northern Areas are a group of territories in the extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram, the western Himalayas, the Pamir, and the Hindu Kush ranges. With its administrative center at the town of Gilgit, the Northern Areas cover an area of 72,971 km² (28,174 mi²) and have an estimated population approaching 1,000,000. The other main city is Skardu. Ladakh is a region in the east, between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south. Main cities are Leh and Kargil. It is under Indian administration and is part of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in the area and is mainly inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent. Aksai Chin is a vast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes up to . Geographically part of the Tibetan Plateau, Aksai Chin is referred to as the Soda Plain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no permanent settlements. Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has formally recognised the accession of the areas claimed by the other. India claims those areas, including the area "ceded" to China by Pakistan in the Trans-Karakoram Tract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistan claims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought several declared wars over the territory. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, with Pakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and India one-half, with a dividing line of control established by the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire. Kashmir Valley Kashmir valley seen from satellite. Snow capped Pir Panjal range separates the valley from plains. View on the Jhelum river at Srinagar. The Kashmir Valley or Vale of Kashmir is a valley between Himalayas and the Pir Panjal Range. It is around 135 km long and 32 km wide, formed by the Jhelum River. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312921/Vale-of-Kashmir It was called as "Heaven on Earth" by Jahangir. It lies completely within Indian administration in the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Srinagar is its main city and also the summer capital of Jammu and Kashmir. There has been armed insurgency since 1989 due to the conflict. It has access to the rest of India through Banihal Tunnel near Qazigund on NH 1A to Jammu, which is interrupted by snowfall in winter. Other main cities are Anantnag and Baramulla. Demographics In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, Muslims constituted 74.16% of the total population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu, Hindus, 23.72%, and Buddhists, 1.21%. The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 80% of the population. In the Kashmir Valley, Muslims constituted 93.6% of the population and Hindus 5.24%. These percentages have remained fairly stable for the last 100 years. Forty years later, in the 1941 Census of British India, Muslims accounted for 93.6% of the population of the Kashmir Valley and the Hindus for 4%. Rai, Mridu. 2004. Hindu Ruler, Muslim Subjects: Islam and the History of Kashmir. Princeton University Press. 320 pages. ISBN 0691116881. p. 37. In 2003, the percentage of Muslims in the Kashmir Valley was 95% BBC. 2003. The Future of Kashmir? In Depth. and those of Hindus 4%; the same year, in Jammu, the percentage of Hindus was 66% and those of Muslims 30%. In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the population of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was 2,905,578. Of these 2,154,695 were Muslims (74.16%), 689,073 Hindus (23.72%), 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. A Muslim shawl making family shown in Cashmere shawl manufactory, 1867, chromolith., William Simpson. Among the Muslims of the princely state, four divisions were recorded: "Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names known as krams ..." It was recorded that these kram names included "Tantre," "Shaikh,", "Bhat", "Mantu," "Ganai," "Dar," "Damar," "Lon" etc. The Saiyids, it was recorded "could be divided into those who follow the profession of religion and those who have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is "Mir." While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix to his name." The Mughals who were not numerous were recorded to have kram names like "Mir" (a corruption of "Mirza"), "Beg," "Bandi," "Bach," and "Ashaye." Finally, it was recorded that the Pathans "who are more numerous than the Mughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan colonies have from time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who retain all the old customs and speak Pashtu." The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where they constituted a little less than 80% of the population. Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. Oxford University Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99-102. In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented "524 in every 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in the frontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out of every 10,000 persons (0.94%)." In the same Census of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total population was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Muslim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindu population 60,641. Among the Hindus of Jammu province, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of the Hindu population of the princely state), the most important castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000) and the Thakkars (93,000)." In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to 3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Muslims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs, and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census of British India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir and Jammu (which as a result of the second world war, was estimated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these, the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), the Hindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh 55,000 (1.39%). Brush, J. E. 1949. "The Distribution of Religious Communities in India" Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 39(2):81-98. According to political scientist Alexander Evans, approximately 95% of the total population of 160,000-170,000 of Kashmir Brahmins, also called Kashmiri Pandits, (i.e. approximately 150,000 to 160,000) left the Kashmir Valley in 1990 "as militant violence engulfed the state". Evans, Alexander. 2002. "A departure from history: Kashmiri Pandits, 1990-2001" Contemporary South Asia, 11(1):19-37. According to the CIA Factbook chapter on India, approximately 300,000 Kashmiri Pandits from the state of Jammu and Kashmir are internally displaced. CIA Factbook: India–Transnational Issues Occupied by Area Population % Muslim % Hindu % Buddhist % Other IndiaJammu~3 million30%66%–4%Kashmir Valley~4 million95%4%––Ladakh~0.25 million46%–50%3% PakistanNorthern Areas~1 million99%–––Azad Kashmir~2.6 million100%–––ChinaAksai Chin––––– Statistics from the BBC In Depth report. About 300,000 Hindus in Indian Administered Kashmir are internally displaced due to militancy. - CIA Culture and cuisine Brokpa women from Kargil, northern Ladakh, in local costumes Kashmiri cuisine includes dum aloo (boiled potatoes with heavy amounts of spice), tzaman (a solid cottage cheese), rogan josh (lamb cooked in heavy spices), zaam dod (curd), yakhayn (lamb cooked incurd with mild spices), hakh (a spinach-like leaf), rista-gushtava (minced meat balls in tomato and curd curry) and of course the signature rice which is particular to Asian cultures. The traditional wazwan feast involves cooking meat or vegetables, usually mutton, in several different ways. Alcohol and Beef are not widely consumed in Kashmir. There are two styles of making tea in the region: nun chai, or salt tea, which is pink in colour and popular with locals; and kahwah, a tea for festive occasions, made with saffron and spices. Economy Tourism is one of the main sources of income for vast sections of the Kashmiri population. Shown here is the famous Dal Lake in Srinagar. Skardu in the Northern Areas, is the point of departure for mountaineering expeditions in the Karakorams. Kashmir's economy is centred around agriculture. Traditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, which formed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given its temperate climate, it is suited for crops like asparagus, artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot, cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in the valley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples, peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar, firs and pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut, apple, cherry. Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide when Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations (exports have ceased due to decreased abundance of the cashmere goat and increased competition from China). Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making Pashmina shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery. Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as organic foods mainly to the Middle East. Srinagar is known for its silver-work, papier mache, wood-carving, and the weaving of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the 2005 Kashmir earthquake which, as of October 8 2005, resulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlled part of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian controlled Kashmir. History of Tourism in Kashmir During the 19th century rule, Kashmir was a popular tourist destination due to its climate. Only 200 passes a year were issued by the government. European sportsmen and travellers, in addition to residents of India, traveled there freely. The railway to Rawalpindi, and a road thence to Srinagar made access to the valley easier. When the temperature in Srinagar rose at the beginning of June, the residents migrated to Gulmarg, which was a fashionable hill station during British rule. This great influx of visitors resulted in a corresponding diminution of game for the sportsmen. Special game preservation rules were introduced, and nullahs were let out for stated periods with a restriction on the number of head to be shot. Rawalakot was another popular destination. See also Line of Control Kashmir Conflict Who's Who of Kashmir Kargil War 2005 Kashmir earthquake List of Jammu and Kashmir related articles Srinagar Notes Further reading Blank, Jonah. "Kashmir–Fundamentalism Takes Root," Foreign Affairs, 78,6 (November/December 1999): 36-42. Drew, Federic. 1877. “The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations; 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971. Evans, Alexander. Why Peace Won’t Come to Kashmir, Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April 2001 p. 170-175. Hussain, Ijaz. 1998. "Kashmir Dispute: An International Law Perspective", National Institute of Pakistan Studies. Irfani, Suroosh, ed "Fifty Years of the Kashmir Dispute": Based on the proceedings of the International Seminar held at Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu and Kashmir August 24-25, 1997: University of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, AJK, 1997. Joshi, Manoj Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in the Nineties (Penguin, New Delhi, 1999). Khan, L. Ali The Kashmir Dispute: A Plan for Regional Cooperation 31 Columbia Journal of Transnational Law, 31, p. 495 (1994). Knight, E. F. 1893. Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971. Köchler, Hans. The Kashmir Problem between Law and Realpolitik. Reflections on a Negotiated Settlement. Keynote speech delivered at the "Global Discourse on Kashmir 2008." European Parliament, Brussels, 1 April 2008. Lamb, Hertingfordbury, UK: Roxford Books,1994, "Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy. Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825, Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c. 18th Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of this edition is unknown - but the 16th edition was published in 1938). Schofield, Victoria. 1996. Kashmir in the Crossfire. London: I B Tauris. Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī–A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr, 2 vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979. Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward 1917. Kashmir. A. & C. Black, London. Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. "Kashmir and the Convergence of Time, Space and Destiny", 2004; ISBN 0-945747-00-4. First published as a four-part series, March 2002 - April 2003, in 'Prakash', a review of the Jagat Guru Bhagavaan Gopinath Ji Charitable Foundation. Muhammad Ayub. An Army; Ita Role & Rule (A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil 1947-1999) Rosedog Books, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA 2005. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3. External links Instrument of Accession In-depth Coverage on Kashmir United Nations Military Observers Group in Kashmir Crisis profile Kasmir dispute From Reuters Alertnet University of California Berkeley: Conflict in Kashmir - Selected Internet Resources Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front Kashmir Issue as covered by BBC Frontline-World: Kashmir, The Road to Peace Official website of the Jammu and Kashmir Government (Indian-administered Kashmir) Official website of the Jammu and Kashmir tourism (Indian-administered Kashmir) Official website of the Pakistani-administered Kashmir Government Letter of Baroness Nicholson which refers to the 1909 map of Kashmir Excerpts of telegram dated 26 October, 1947 from Jawaharlal Nehru to the British Prime Minister, Clement Attlee Article on Kashmir by the International Museum of Women.	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6,413	Linear_model	In statistics, given a (random) sample the most general form of linear model is formulated as where may be nonlinear functions. In matrix notation this model can be written as where Y is an n × 1 column vector, X is an n × (p + 1) matrix, β is a (p + 1) × 1 vector of (unobservable) parameters, and ε is an n × 1 vector of errors, which are uncorrelated random variables each with expected value 0 and variance σ2. Note that depending on the context the sample can be seen as fixed (observable), or random. Much of the theory of linear models is associated with inferring the values of the parameters β and σ2. Typically this is done using the method of maximum likelihood, which in the case of normal errors is equivalent to the method of linear least squares. Assumptions Multivariate normal errors Often one takes the components of the vector of errors to be independent and normally distributed, giving Y a multivariate normal distribution with mean Xβ and co-variance matrix σ2 I, where I is the identity matrix. Having observed the values of X and Y, the statistician must estimate β and σ2. Rank of X We usually assume that X is of full rank p, which allows us to invert the p × p matrix . The essence of this assumption is that the parameters are not linearly dependent upon one another, which would make little sense in a linear model. This also ensures the model is identifiable. Methods of inference Maximum likelihood β The log-likelihood function (for independent and normally distributed) is where is the ith row of X. Differentiating with respect to βj, we get so setting this set of p equations to zero and solving for β gives Now, using the assumption that X has rank p, we can invert the matrix on the left hand side to give the maximum likelihood estimate for β: . We can check that this is a maximum by looking at the Hessian matrix of the log-likelihood function. σ2 By setting the right hand side of to zero and solving for σ2 we find that Accuracy of maximum likelihood estimation Since we have that Y follows a multivariate normal distribution with mean Xβ and co-variance matrix σ2 I, we can deduce the distribution of the MLE of β: So this estimate is unbiased for β, and we can show that this variance achieves the Cramér-Rao bound. A more complicated argument A.C. Davidson Statistical Models. Cambridge University Press (2003). shows that since a chi-squared distribution with n − p degrees of freedom has mean n − p, this is only asymptotically unbiased. Generalizations Generalized least squares If, rather than taking the variance of ε to be σ2I, where I is the n×n identity matrix, one assumes the variance is Ω, where Ω is a known matrix other than the identity matrix, then one estimates β by the method of "generalized least squares", in which, instead of minimizing the sum of squares of the residuals (the squared euclidean length of the residual), one minimizes the squared Mahalanobis Length of the residual vector: This has the effect of "de-correlating" normal errors, and leads to the estimator which is the best linear unbiased estimator for . If all of the off-diagonal entries in the matrix Ω are 0, then one normally estimates β by the method of weighted least squares, with weights proportional to the reciprocals of the diagonal entries. The GLS estimator is also known as the Aitken estimator, after Alexander Aitken, the Professor in the University of Otago Statistics Department who pioneered it. Alexander Craig Aitken Generalized linear models Generalized linear models, for which rather than E(Y) = Xβ, one has g(E(Y)) = Xβ, where g is the "link function". The variance is also not restricted to being normal. An example is the Poisson regression model, which states that Yi has a Poisson distribution with expected value . The link function is the natural logarithm function. Having observed xi and Yi for i = 1, ..., n, one can estimate and by the method of maximum likelihood. References See also ANOVA, or analysis of variance, is historically a precursor to the development of linear models. Here the model parameters themselves are not computed, but X column contributions and their significance are identified using the ratios of within-group variances to the error variance and applying the F test. 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6,414	Category_theory	In mathematics, category theory deals in an abstract way with mathematical structures and relationships between them: it abstracts from sets and functions to objects linked in diagrams by morphisms or arrows. One of the simplest examples of a category (which is a very important concept in topology) is that of groupoid, defined as a category whose arrows or morphisms are all invertible. Categories now appear in most branches of mathematics and also in some areas of theoretical computer science where they correspond to types and mathematical physics where they can be used to describe vector spaces. Category theory provides both with a unifying notion and terminology. Categories were first introduced by Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane in 1942–45, in connection with algebraic topology. Category theory has several faces known not just to specialists, but to other mathematicians. A term dating from the 1940s, "general abstract nonsense", refers to its high level of abstraction, compared to more classical branches of mathematics. Homological algebra is category theory in its aspect of organising and suggesting manipulations in abstract algebra. Diagram chasing is a visual method of arguing with abstract "arrows" joined in diagrams. Note that arrows between categories are called functors, subject to specific defining commutativity conditions; moreover, categorical diagrams and sequences can be defined as functors (viz. Mitchell, 1965). An arrow between two functors is a natural transformation when it is subject to certain naturality or commutativity conditions. Both functors and natural transformations are key concepts in category theory, or the " real engines" of category theory. To paraphrase a famous sentence of the mathematicians who founded category theory: 'Categories were introduced to define functors, and functors were introduced to define natural transformations'. Topos theory is a form of abstract sheaf theory, with geometric origins, and leads to ideas such as pointless topology. A topos can also be considered as a specific type of category with two additional topos axioms. Background The study of categories is an attempt to axiomatically capture what is commonly found in various classes of related mathematical structures by relating them to the structure-preserving functions between them. A systematic study of category theory then allows us to prove general results about any of these types of mathematical structures from the axioms of a category. Consider the following example. The class Grp of groups consists of all objects having a "group structure". More precisely, Grp consists of all sets G endowed with a binary operation satisfying a certain set of axioms. One can proceed to prove theorems about groups by making logical deductions from the set of axioms. For example, it is immediately proved from the axioms that the identity element of a group is unique. Instead of focusing merely on the individual objects (e.g., groups) possessing a given structure, category theory emphasizes the morphisms – the structure-preserving mappings – between these objects; it turns out that by studying these morphisms, we are able to learn more about the structure of the objects. In the case of groups, the morphisms are the group homomorphisms. A group homomorphism between two groups "preserves the group structure" in a precise sense – it is a "process" taking one group to another, in a way that carries along information about the structure of the first group into the second group. The study of group homomorphisms then provides a tool for studying general properties of groups and consequences of the group axioms. A similar type of investigation occurs in many mathematical theories, such as the study of continuous maps (morphisms) between topological spaces in topology (the associated category is called Top), and the study of smooth functions (morphisms) in manifold theory. If one axiomatizes relations instead of functions, one obtains the theory of allegories. Functors Abstracting again, a category is itself a type of mathematical structure, so we can look for "processes" which preserve this structure in some sense; such a process is called a functor. A functor associates to every object of one category an object of another category, and to every morphism in the first category a morphism in the second. In fact, what we have done is define a category of categories and functors – the objects are categories, and the morphisms (between categories) are functors. By studying categories and functors, we are not just studying a class of mathematical structures and the morphisms between them; we are studying the relationships between various classes of mathematical structures. This is a fundamental idea, which first surfaced in algebraic topology. Difficult topological questions can be translated into algebraic questions which are often easier to solve. Basic constructions, such as the fundamental group or fundamental groupoid of a topological space, can be expressed as fundamental functors to the category of groupoids in this way, and the concept is pervasive in algebra and its applications. Natural transformation Abstracting yet again, constructions are often "naturally related" – a vague notion, at first sight. This leads to the clarifying concept of natural transformation, a way to "map" one functor to another. Many important constructions in mathematics can be studied in this context. "Naturality" is a principle, like general covariance in physics, that cuts deeper than is initially apparent. Historical notes In 1942–45, Samuel Eilenberg and Saunders Mac Lane were the first to introduce categories, functors, and natural transformations as part of their work in topology, especially algebraic topology. Their work was an important part of the transition from intuitive and geometric homology to axiomatic homology theory. Eilenberg and Mac Lane later wrote that their goal was to understand natural transformations; in order to do that, functors had to be defined, which required categories. Stanislaw Ulam, and some writing on his behalf, have claimed that related ideas were current in the late 1930s in Poland. Eilenberg was Polish, and studied mathematics in Poland in the 1930s. Category theory is also, in some sense, a continuation of the work of Emmy Noether (one of Mac Lane's teachers) in formalizing abstract processes; Noether realized that in order to understand a type of mathematical structure, one needs to understand the processes preserving that structure. In order to achieve this understanding, Eilenberg and Mac Lane proposed an axiomatic formalization of the relation between structures and the processes preserving them. The subsequent development of category theory was powered first by the computational needs of homological algebra, and later by the axiomatic needs of algebraic geometry, the field most resistant to being grounded in either axiomatic set theory or the Russell-Whitehead view of united foundations. General category theory, an extension of universal algebra having many new features allowing for semantic flexibility and higher-order logic, came later; it is now applied throughout mathematics. Certain categories called topoi (singular topos) can even serve as an alternative to axiomatic set theory as a foundation of mathematics. These foundational applications of category theory have been worked out in fair detail as a basis for, and justification of, constructive mathematics. More recent efforts to introduce undergraduates to categories as a foundation for mathematics include Lawvere and Rosebrugh (2003) and Lawvere and Schanuel (1997). Categorical logic is now a well-defined field based on type theory for intuitionistic logics, with applications in functional programming and domain theory, where a cartesian closed category is taken as a non-syntactic description of a lambda calculus. At the very least, category theoretic language clarifies what exactly these related areas have in common (in some abstract sense). Categories, objects and morphisms A category C consists of the following three mathematical entities: A class ob(C), whose elements are called objects; A class hom(C), whose elements are called morphisms or maps or arrows. Each morphism f has a unique source object a and target object b. We write f: a → b, and we say "f is a morphism from a to b". We write hom(a, b) (or Hom(a, b), or homC(a, b), or Mor(a, b), or C(a, b)) to denote the hom-class of all morphisms from a to b. A binary operation , called composition of morphisms, such that for any three objects a, b, and c, we have hom(a, b) × hom(b, c) → hom(a, c). The composition of f: a → b and g: b → c is written as or gf (some authors write fg), governed by two axioms: Associativity: If f : a → b, g : b → c and h : c → d then , and Identity: For every object x, there exists a morphism 1x : x → x called the identity morphism for x, such that for every morphism f : a → b, we have . From these axioms, it can be proved that there is exactly one identity morphism for every object. Some authors deviate from the definition just given by identifying each object with its identity morphism. Relations among morphisms (such as fg = h) are often depicted using commutative diagrams, with "points" (corners) representing objects and "arrows" representing morphisms. Properties of morphisms Some morphisms have important properties. A morphism f : a → b is: a monomorphism (or monic) if fog1 = fog2 implies g1 = g2 for all morphisms g1, g2 : x → a. an epimorphism (or epic) if g1of = g2of implies g1 = g2 for all morphisms g1, g2 : b → x. an isomorphism if there exists a morphism g : b → a with fog = 1b and gof = 1a. Note that a morphism that is both epic and monic is not necessarily an isomorphism! For example, in the category consisting of two objects A and B, the identity morphisms, and a single morphism f from A to B, f is both epic and monic but is not an isomorphism. an endomorphism if a = b. end(a) denotes the class of endomorphisms of a. an automorphism if f is both an endomorphism and an isomorphism. aut(a) denotes the class of automorphisms of a. Functors Functors are structure-preserving maps between categories. They can be thought of as morphisms in the category of all (small) categories. A (covariant) functor F from a category C to a category D, written F:C → D, consists of: for each object x in C, an object F(x) in D; and for each morphism f : x → y in C, a morphism F(f) : F(x) → F(y), such that the following two properties hold: For every object x in C, F(1x) = 1F(x); For all morphisms f : x → y and g : y → z, A contravariant functor F: C → D, is like a covariant functor, except that it "turns morphisms around" ("reverses all the arrows"). More specifically, every morphism f : x → y in C must be assigned to a morphism F(f) : F(y) → F(x) in D. In other words, a contravariant functor is a covariant functor from the opposite category Cop to D. Natural transformations and isomorphisms A natural transformation is a relation between two functors. Functors often describe "natural constructions" and natural transformations then describe "natural homomorphisms" between two such constructions. Sometimes two quite different constructions yield "the same" result; this is expressed by a natural isomorphism between the two functors. If F and G are (covariant) functors between the categories C and D, then a natural transformation from F to G associates to every object x in C a morphism ηx : F(x) → G(x) in D such that for every morphism f : x → y in C, we have ηy o F(f) = G(f) o ηx; this means that the following diagram is commutative: Commutative diagram defining natural transformations The two functors F and G are called naturally isomorphic if there exists a natural transformation from F to G such that ηx is an isomorphism for every object x in C. Universal constructions, limits, and colimits Using the language of category theory, many areas of mathematical study can be cast into appropriate categories, such as the categories of all sets, groups, topologies, and so on. These categories surely have some objects that are "special" in a certain way, such as the empty set or the product of two topologies, yet in the definition of a category, objects are considered to be atomic, i.e., we do not know whether an object A is a set, a topology, or any other abstract concept – hence, the challenge is to define special objects without referring to the internal structure of those objects. But how can we define the empty set without referring to elements, or the product topology without referring to open sets? The solution is to characterize these objects in terms of their relations to other objects, as given by the morphisms of the respective categories. Thus, the task is to find universal properties that uniquely determine the objects of interest. Indeed, it turns out that numerous important constructions can be described in a purely categorical way. The central concept which is needed for this purpose is called categorical limit, and can be dualized to yield the notion of a colimit. Equivalent categories It is a natural question to ask: under which conditions can two categories be considered to be "essentially the same", in the sense that theorems about one category can readily be transformed into theorems about the other category? The major tool one employs to describe such a situation is called equivalence of categories, which is given by appropriate functors between two categories. Categorical equivalence has found numerous applications in mathematics. Further concepts and results The definitions of categories and functors provide only the very basics of categorical algebra; additional important topics are listed below. Although there are strong interrelations between all of these topics, the given order can be considered as a guideline for further reading. The functor category DC has as objects the functors from C to D and as morphisms the natural transformations of such functors. The Yoneda lemma is one of the most famous basic results of category theory; it describes representable functors in functor categories. Duality: Every statement, theorem, or definition in category theory has a dual which is essentially obtained by "reversing all the arrows". If one statement is true in a category C then its dual will be true in the dual category Cop. This duality, which is transparent at the level of category theory, is often obscured in applications and can lead to surprising relationships. Adjoint functors: A functor can be left (or right) adjoint to another functor that maps in the opposite direction. Such a pair of adjoint functors typically arises from a construction defined by a universal property; this can be seen as a more abstract and powerful view on universal properties. Higher-dimensional categories Many of the above concepts, especially equivalence of categories, adjoint functor pairs, and functor categories, can be situated into the context of higher-dimensional categories. Briefly, if we consider a morphism between two objects as a "process taking us from one object to another", then higher-dimensional categories allow us to profitably generalize this by considering "higher-dimensional processes". For example, a (strict) 2-category is a category together with "morphisms between morphisms", i.e., processes which allow us to transform one morphism into another. We can then "compose" these "bimorphisms" both horizontally and vertically, and we require a 2-dimensional "exchange law" to hold, relating the two composition laws. In this context, the standard example is Cat, the 2-category of all (small) categories, and in this example, bimorphisms of morphisms are simply natural transformations of morphisms in the usual sense. Another basic example is to consider a 2-category with a single object; these are essentially monoidal categories. Bicategories are a weaker notion of 2-dimensional categories in which the composition of morphisms is not strictly associative, but only associative "up to" an isomorphism. This process can be extended for all natural numbers n, and these are called n-categories. There is even a notion of ω-category corresponding to the ordinal number ω. Higher-dimensional categories are part of the broader mathematical field of higher-dimensional algebra,a concept introduced by Ronald Brown. For a conversational introduction to these ideas, see John Baez, 'A Tale of n-categories' (1996). See also List of category theory topics Important publications in category theory Glossary of category theory Domain theory Enriched category theory Higher category theory Timeline of category theory and related mathematics Higher-dimensional algebra Notes References Freely available online: Adámek, Jiří, Herrlich, Horst, & Strecker, George E. (1990) Abstract and concrete categories. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-60922-6. Freyd, Peter J. (1964) Abelian Categories. New York: Harper and Row. Michael Barr and Charles Wells (1999) Category Theory Lecture Notes. Based on their book Category Theory for Computing Science. ——— (2002) [http://www.cwru.edu/artsci/math/wells/pub/ttt.html Toposes, triples and theories.] Revised and corrected translation of Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften (Springer-Verlag, 1983). Leinster, Tom (2004) Higher operads, higher categories (London Math. Society Lecture Note Series 298). Cambridge Univ. Press. Schalk, A. and Simmons, H. (2005) An introduction to Category Theory in four easy movements. Notes for a course offered as part of the MSc. in Mathematical Logic, Manchester University. Turi, Daniele (1996–2001) Category Theory Lecture Notes. Based on Mac Lane (1998). Goldblatt, R (1984) Topoi: the Categorial Analyis of Logic A clear introduction to categories, with particular emphasis on the recent applications to logic. A. Martini, H. Ehrig, and D. Nunes (1996) Elements of Basic Category Theory (Technical Report 96-5, Technical University Berlin) Other: Awodey, Steven (2006). Category Theory (Oxford Logic Guides 49). Oxford University Press. Borceux, Francis (1994). Handbook of categorical algebra (Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications 50-52). Cambridge Univ. Press. Freyd, Peter J. & Scedrov, Andre, (1990). Categories, allegories (North Holland Mathematical Library 39). North Holland. Hatcher, William S. (1982). The Logical Foundations of Mathematics, 2nd ed. Pergamon. Chpt. 8 is an idiosyncratic introduction to category theory, presented as a first order theory. Lawvere, William, & Rosebrugh, Robert (2003). Sets for mathematics. Cambridge University Press. Lawvere, William, & Schanuel, Steve (1997). Conceptual mathematics: a first introduction to categories. Cambridge University Press. Mac Lane, Saunders (1998). Categories for the Working Mathematician. 2nd ed. (Graduate Texts in Mathematics 5). Springer-Verlag. ——— and Garrett Birkhoff (1967). Algebra. 1999 reprint of the 2nd ed., Chelsea. ISBN 0-8218-1646-2. An introduction to the subject making judicious use of category theoretic concepts, especially commutative diagrams. May, Peter (1999). A Concise Course in Algebraic Topology. University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-51183-9. Pedicchio, Maria Cristina & Tholen, Walter (2004). Categorical foundations (Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications 97). Cambridge University Press. Taylor, Paul (1999). Practical Foundations of Mathematics. Cambridge University Press. An introduction to the connection between category theory and constructive mathematics. Pierce, Benjamin (1991). Basic Category Theory for Computer Scientists. MIT Press. External links Chriss Hillman, Categorical primer, formal introduction to Category Theory. J. Adamek, H. Herrlich, G. Stecker, Abstract and Concrete Categories-The Joy of Cats Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Category Theory" -- by Jean-Pierre Marquis. Extensive bibliography. Homepage of the Categories mailing list, with extensive resource list. Baez, John, 1996,"The Tale of n-categories." An informal introduction to higher order categories. The catsters" a Youtube channel about category theory. Categories, Logic and the Foundations of Physics, Webpage dedicated to the use of Categories and Logic in the Foundations of Physics. Interactive Web page which generates examples of categorical constructions in the category of finite sets. 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6,415	Bob_Wills	James Robert (Bob) Wills (March 6, 1905 – May 13, 1975) was an American Western swing musician, songwriter, and bandleader, considered by many music authorities one of the fathers of Western swing Wolff, Country Music, "Big Balls in Cowtown: Western Swing From Fort Worth to Fresno", p. 29: If any single person deserves to be considered the 'father' of western swing, it must be Bob Wills." West, "Trails and Footprints", p. 39: "Snyder [Texas] hosts the West Texas Western Swing Festival ('Come Fiddle Around in Snyder'), recognizing the regional origins of the father of western swing, Bob Wills, from Turkey (a bit more than a hundred miles due north in Hall County) ..." and called by his fans the "King of Western Swing." New Mexico, Texas, and Oklahoma He was born near Kosse, Texas to Emma Lee Foley and John Tompkins Wills. Ancestry of Bob Wills His father was a statewide champion fiddle player. Milton Brown and the Founding of Western Swing. Cary Ginell. 1994. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02041-3 and the Wills family was either playing music, or someone was "always wanting us to play for them", in addition to raising cotton on their farm. In addition to picking cotton the young Jim Bob was taught to play the fiddle and the mandolin. Both a sister and brother played guitar, while another sister played piano. The Wills frequently held country dances in their home, and there was dancing in all four rooms. San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 17. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 Wills not only learned traditional music from his family, he learned some Negro songs directly from African Americans, and said that he did not play with many white children other than his siblings, until he was seven or eight years old. African Americans were his playmates, and his father enjoyed watching him jig dance with black children. San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 4. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 "I don't know whether they made them up as they moved down the cotton rows or not," Wills once told Charles Townsend, author of San Antonio Rose: The Life and Times of Bob Wills, "but they sang blues you never heard before." SF State News As a young man "Jim Rob", as he was then known, drifted for several years, hopping freight trains and traveling from town to town to try and earn a living. In his 20s he attended barber school, got married, and moved first to Roy, New Mexico then to Turkey, Texas (now considered his home town) to be a barber. He alternated barbering and fiddling even when he moved to Fort Worth in 1929. There he played in minstrel and medicine shows, and, as with other Texas musicians such as Ocie Stockard, continued to earn money as a barber. He wore blackface makeup to appear in comedy routines, something that was common at the time. "He was playing his violin and singing." There were two guitars and a banjo player with him. "Bob was in blackface and was the comic; he cracked jokes, sang, and did an amazing jig dance." San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 45. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 Since there was already a "Jim" on the show, the manager began calling him "Bob." San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 45. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 Wills was known for his hollering and wisecracking. One source for this was when, as a very young boy, he would hear his father, grandfather, and cowboys give out a loud cries when the music moved them. San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 107. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 When asked if his wisecracking and talking on the bandstand came from his medicine show experience, he said it did not. Rather, he said that it came directly from playing and living close to Negroes, and that he never did it necessarily as show, but more as a way to express his feelings. San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 46. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 Here, he added the "rowdy city blues" of Bessie Smith and Emmett Miller to a repertoire of mainly waltzes and breakdowns he had learned from his father, and patterned his vocal style after that of Miller and other performers such as Al Bernard. Milton Brown and the Founding of Western Swing. Cary Ginell. 1994. University of Illinois Press. page 32,33. ISBN 0-252-02041-3 Wills acknowledged that he idolized Miller. Furthermore, his 1935 version of St. Louis Blues is nearly a word for word copy of Al Bernard's patter on his 1928 recording of the same song. Milton Brown and the Founding of Western Swing. Cary Ginell. 1994. University of Illinois Press. page 245, 246. ISBN 0-252-02041-3 The fact that Wills made his professional debut in blackface is commented on by Wills' daughter, Rosetta: "He had a lot of respect for the musicians and music of his black friends," Rosetta is quoted as saying on the Bob Wills and the Texas Playboys Web site. She remembers that her father was such a fan of Bessie Smith, "he once rode 50 miles on horseback just to see her perform live." (Wills is quoted as saying, "I rode horeseback from the place between the rivers to Childress to see Bessie Smith...She was about the greatest thing I had ever heard. In fact, there was no doubt about it. She was the greatest thing I ever heard." San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 40. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 In Fort Worth, Wills met Herman Arnspinger and formed The Wills Fiddle Band. In 1930 Milton Brown joined the group as lead vocalist and brought a sense of innovation and experimentation to the band, now called the Light Crust Doughboys due to radio sponsorship by the makers of Light Crust Flour. Brown left the band in 1932 to form the Musical Brownies, the first true Western swing band. Brown added twin fiddles, tenor banjo and slap bass, pointing the music in the direction of swing, which they played on local radio and at dancehalls. Texas Music History Online \| Artist Wills remained with the Doughboys and replaced Brown with new singer Tommy Duncan in 1932. He found himself unable to get along with future Texas Governor W. Lee "Pappy" O'Daniel, the authoritarian host of the Light Crust Doughboy radio show. O'Daniel had parlayed the show's popularity into growing power within Light Crust Flour's parent company, Burrus Mill and Elevator Company and wound up as General Manager, though he despised what he considered "hillbilly music." Wills and Duncan left the Doughboys in 1933 after Wills had missed one show too many due to his sporadic drinking. Wills recalled the early days of what became known as Western swing music, in a 1949 interview. NPR : Honky Tonks, Hymns and the Blues "Here's the way I figure it. We sure not tryin' to take credit for swingin' it." Speaking of Milt Brown and himself working with songs done by Jimmie Davis, the Skillet Lickers, Gid Tanner And The Skillet Lickers Jimmie Rodgers, Jimmie Rodgers - The Father of Country Music and others, and songs he'd learned from his father, he said that "We'd pull these tunes down an set 'em in a dance category. It wouldn't be a runaway, and just lay a real nice beat behind it an the people would get to really like it. It was nobody intended to start anything in the world. We was just tryin' to find enough tunes to keep 'em dancin' to not have to repeat so much." Wills is also quoted as saying, "You can change the name of an old song, rearrange it and make it a swing. "One Star Rag", "Rat Cheese under the Hill", "Take Me Back to Tulsa", "Basin Street Blues", "Steel Guitar Rag", and "Trouble in Mind" were some of the songs in his extensive repertory." Dance Across Texas. by Betty Casey. 1985. University of Texas Press. page 43. ISBN 029271551X After forming a new band, "The Playboys", and relocating to Waco, Wills found enough popularity there to decide on a bigger market. They left Waco in January of 1934 for Oklahoma City. Wills soon settled the renamed "Texas Playboys" in Tulsa, Oklahoma, and began broadcasting noontime shows over the 50,000 watt KVOO radio station. Their 12:30-1:15 Monday-Friday broadcasts became a veritable institution in the region. Nearly all of the daily (except Sunday) shows originated from the stage of Cain's Ballroom. In addition, they played dances in the evenings, including regular ones at the ballroom on Thursdays and Saturdays. By 1935 Wills had added horn, reed players and drums to the Playboys. The addition of steel guitar whiz Leon McAuliffe in March, 1935 added not only a formidable instrumentalist but a second engaging vocalist. Wills himself largely sang blues and sentimental ballads. With its jazz sophistication, pop music and blues influence, plus improvised scats and wisecrack commentary by Wills, the band became the first superstars of the genre. Milton Brown's tragic and untimely death in 1936 had cleared the way for the Playboys. Wills' 1938 recording of "Ida Red" served as a model for Chuck Berry's decades later version of the same song - Maybellene. Bob Wills CMT.com : Bob Wills : NASHVILLE SKYLINE: Two Country Giants Get Musical Tributes In 1940 "New San Antonio Rose" sold a million records and became the signature song of The Texas Playboys. The song's title referred to the fact that Wills had recorded it as a fiddle instrumental in 1938 as "San Antonio Rose". By then, the Texas Playboys were virtually two bands: one a fiddle-guitar-steel band with rhythm section and the second a first-rate big band able to play the day's swing and pop hits as well as Dixieland. In 1940 Wills, along with the Texas Playboys, co-starred with Tex Ritter in “Take Me Back to Oklahoma”. Other films would follow. In late 1942 after several band members had left the group, and as World War II raged , Wills joined the Army, but received a medical discharge in 1943. TSHA Online - Texas State Historical Association - Home Bob Wills History CMT.com : Bob Wills : Biography California After leaving the Army in 1943 Wills moved to Hollywood and began to reorganize the Texas Playboys. He became an enormous draw in Los Angeles, where many of his Texas, Oklahoma and regional fans had also relocated during the Great Depression and World War II in search of jobs. Monday through Friday the band broadcast from 12:01 to 1:00 p.m. over KMTR-AM (now KLAC) in LA. They also played regularly every Friday, Saturday, and Sunday night at the Mission Beach Ballroom in San Diego. San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 241. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 He commanded enormous fees playing dances there, and began to make more creative use of electric guitars to replace the big horn sections the Tulsa band had boasted. For a very brief period in 1944 the Wills band included twenty-three members., and around mid year he toured Northern California and the Pacific Northwest with a 21-pieces in the orchestra. San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 350. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 While on his first cross-country tour, he appeared on the Grand Ole Opry and defied that conservative show's ban on using drums of any sort. In 1945 Wills' dances were outdrawing those of Tommy Dorsey and Benny Goodman, and he had moved to Fresno, California. Then in 1947 he opened the Wills Point nightclub in Sacramento and continued touring the Southwest and Pacific Northwest from Texas to Washington State. While based in Sacramento his radio broadcasts over 50,000 watt KFBK were heard all over the West. Workin' Man Blues - Country Music in California. Gerald W. Haslan. University of California Press. 1999. page 82. ISBN 0-520-21800-0. Famous swing orchestras in California realized that many of their followers were leaving to dance to Bob Will's western swing. Because he was in such demand, some places booked Wills any time he had an opening, regardless of how undesirable the date. The manager of a popular auditorium in the LA Basin town of Wilmington, California: "Although Monday night dancing is frankly an experiment it was the only night of the week on which this outstanding band could be secured." San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 241. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 During the postwar period, KGO radio in San Francisco syndicated a Bob Wills & His Texas Playboys show recorded at the Fairmont Hotel. Many of these recordings survive today as the Tiffany Transcriptions, and are available on CD. They show off the band's strengths significantly, in part because the group was not confined to the three-minute limits of 78 RPM discs. They featured superb instrumental work from fiddlers Joe Holley and Louis Tierney, steel guitarists Noel Boggs and Herb Remington, guitarists Eldon Shamblin and Junior Barnard and electric mandolinist-fiddler Tiny Moore. The original recorded version of Wills's Faded Love, appeared on the Tiffanys as a fairly swinging instrumental unlike the ballad it became when lyrics were added in 1950. Wills and the Texas Playboys played dances throughout the West to more than 10,000 people every week. They held dance attendance records at Jantzen Beach in Portland, Oregon; Santa Monica, California, and at the Oakland (California) Auditorium, where they drew 19,000 people in two nights. San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 252. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 Wills also broke an attendance record of 2,100 previously held by Jan Garbner at the Armory in Klamath Falls, Oregon, by attracting 2,514 dancers. San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 252. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 Clint Eastwood recalled seeing Wills when he was 18 or 19 (~1948/1949) and working at a pulp mill in Springfield, Oregon. The King of Western Swing - Bob Wills Remembered. Rosetta Wills. 1998. page 165. ISBN 0-8230-7744-6. The author has a magazine clipping, but doesn;t specify the magazine or date. Appearances at the Bostonia Ballroom in San Diego continued throughout the 1950s. www.sandiegoconcertarchive.com bob wills San Diego Concert Archive accessed 3.19.2009 Still a binge drinker, Wills became increasingly unreliable in the late 1940s, causing a rift with Tommy Duncan (who bore the brunt of audience anger when Wills's binges prevented him from appearing). It ended when he fired Duncan in the fall of 1948. Winding Down Having lived a lavish lifestyle in California, in 1949 Wills moved back to Oklahoma City, then went back on the road to maintain his payroll and Wills Point. An even more disastrous business decision came when he opened a second club, the Bob Wills Ranch House in Dallas, Texas. Turning the club over to managers later revealed to be dishonest left Wills in desperate financial straits with heavy debts to the IRS for back taxes that caused him to sell many assets including, mistakenly, the rights to "New San Antonio Rose." It wrecked him financially. In 1950 Wills had two Top Ten hits, "Ida Red Likes the Boogie" and "Faded Love". After 1950 radio stations began to increasingly specialize in one form or another of commercially popular music. Wills did not fit into the popular Nashville country and western stations, although he was usually labeled "country and western". Neither did he fit into the pop or middle of the road stations, although he played a good deal of pop music, and was not accepted in the pop music world. San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 281. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 He continued to tour and record through the 1950s into the early 1960s, despite the fact that Western Swing's popularity, even in the Southwest, had greatly diminished. Bob could draw "a thousand people on Monday night between 1950 and 1952, but he could not do that by 1956. Entertainment habits had changed." San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. page 267. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 On Wills's return to Tulsa late in 1957, Jim Downing of the Tulsa Tribune wrote an article headlined "Wills Brothers Together Again — Bob Back with Heavy Beat". The article quotes Wills as saying, "Rock and Roll? Why, man, that's the same kind of music we've been playin' since 1928!...We didn't call it rock and roll back when we introduced it as our style back in 1928, and we don't call it rock and roll the way we play it now. But it's just basic rhythm and has gone by a lot of different names in my time. It's the same, whether you just follow a drum beat like in Africa or surround it with a lot of instruments. The rhythm's what's important." San Antonio Rose - The Life and Music of Bob Wills. Charles R. Townsend. 1976. University of Illinois. pages 268, 269. ISBN 0-252-00470-1 Even a 1958 return to KVOO, where his younger brother Johnnie Lee Wills had maintained the family's presence, did not produce the success he hoped for. He made several appearances on ABC-TV's Jubilee USA and kept the band on the road into the 1960s. After two heart attacks, in 1965 he dissolved the Texas Playboys (who briefly continued as an independent unit) to perform solo with house bands. While he did well in Las Vegas and other areas, and made records for the Kapp Records label, he was largely a forgotten figure — even though inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968. A 1969 stroke left his right side paralyzed, ending his active career. The May 26, 1975 issue of TIME (Milestones section) read: "Died. Bob Wills, 70, "Western Swing" bandleader-composer; of pneumonia; in Fort Worth. Wills turned out dance tunes that are now called country rock, introducing with his Texas Playboys such C & W classics as Take Me Back to Tulsa and New San Antonio Rose". "Milestones". - TIME. - May 26, 1975. Discography Albums Year Album US Country Label 1966 From the Heart of Texas 33 Kapp 1967 King of Western Swing 43 1968 Here's That Man Again 24 1974 For the Last Time 28 United Artists 1975 The Best of Bob Wills Vol. II 36 MCA 1976 Remembering...The Greatest Hits of Bob Wills 46 Columbia Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys in Concert 44 Capitol 1977 24 Great Hits by Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys 39 MGM Singles Year Single US Country Label 1935 "Osage Stomp (Rukus Juice Shuffle)" Vocalion 03096 "Good Old Oklahoma" Vocalion 3086 "Spanish Two Step" Vocalion 03230 "Maiden's Prayer" Vocalion 03924 "I'm Sitting on Top of the World" Vocalion 3139 1936 "Steel Guitar Rag" Vocalion 03394 "Right or Wrong" Vocalion 03451 1937 "Playboy Stomp" Vocalion 03763 "I'm a Ding Dong Daddy from Dumas" Vocalion 03659 1938 "Ida Red" Vocalion 05079 "San Antonio Rose" Vocalion 04755 "Beaumont Rag" Vocalion 04999 1940 "Corrine, Corrina" OKeh 06530 "New San Antonio Rose" OKeh 6894 "Time Changes Everything" OKeh 05753 1941 "Maiden's Prayer" OKeh 06205 "Take Me Back to Tulsa" OKeh 06101 "My Life's Been a Pleasure" OKeh 06676 "Cherokee Maiden" OKeh 06568 "Dusty Skies" OKeh 06598 1942 "If You're from Texas" OKeh 6722 "Let's Ride with Bob" OKeh 6692 1944 "New San Antonio Rose" 3 OKeh 5694 "We Might as Well Forget It" 2 OKeh 6722 "You're from Texas" 2 1945 "Smoke on the Water" 1 OKeh 6736 "Hang Your Head in Shame" 3 "Stars and Stripes on Iwo Jima" 1 OKeh 6742 "You Don't Care What Happens to Me" 5 "Texas Playboy Rag" 2 Columbia 36841 "Silver Dew on the Blue Grass Tonight" 1 1946 "White Cross on Okinawa" 1 Columbia 36881 "New Spanish Two Step" 1 Columbia 16966 "Roly Poly" 3 "Stay a Little Longer" 2 Columbia 37097 "I Can't Go on This Way" 4 1947 "I'm Gonna Be Boss from Now On" 5 Columbia 37205 "Sugar Moon" 1 Columbia 37313 "Bob Wills Boogie" 4 Columbia 37357 1948 "Bubbles in My Beer" 4 MGM 10116 "Keeper of My Heart" 8 MGM 10175 "Texarkana Baby" 15 Columbia 38179 "Thorn in My Heart" 10 MGM 10236 1950 "Ida Red Likes the Boogie" 10 MGM K10570 "Faded Love" 8 MGM K10786 1960 "Heart to Heart Talk" (w/ Tommy Duncan) 5 Liberty 55260 1961 "The Image of Me" (w/ Tommy Duncan) 26 Liberty 55264 1976 "Ida Red" (re-release) 99 Vocalion 05079 Legacy Wills' musical legacy, however, endured. His style influenced performers Buck Owens and Merle Haggard and helped to spawn a style of music now known as the Bakersfield Sound (Bakersfield, California was one of Wills' regular stops in his heyday). A 1970 tribute album by Haggard directed a wider audience to Wills' music, as did the appearance of younger "revival" bands like Asleep at the Wheel and the growing popularity of longtime Wills disciple and fan Willie Nelson. By 1971, Wills recovered sufficiently to travel occasionally and appear at tribute concerts. In 1973 he participated in a final reunion session with members of some the Texas Playboys from the 1930s to the 1960s. Merle Haggard was invited to play at this reunion. The session, scheduled for two days, took place in December, 1973, with the album to be titled For the Last Time. Wills, speaking or attempting to holler, appeared on a couple tracks from the first day's session but suffered a stroke overnight. He had a more severe one a few days later. The musicians completed the album without him. Wills by then was comatose. He lingered until his death on May 13, 1975. In addition to being inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968, Bob Wills was inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1970, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in the Early Influence category along with the Texas Playboys in 1999, and received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2007. During the 49th Grammy Awards, Carrie Underwood performed his song "San Antonio Rose." From the 1970s until his 2002 death, Waylon Jennings performed a song called "Bob Wills is Still the King". In addition, the Rolling Stones performed this song live in Austin, Texas at Zilker Park for their DVD The Biggest Bang. Wills ranked #27 in CMT's 40 Greatest Men in Country Music in 2003. Today, George Strait performs Bob Wills music live on concert tours and also records songs greatly reflecting the magic of Bob Wills and his Texas style swing. Asleep at the Wheel, the Austin, Texas-based western swing band has been paying homage to Bob Wills for over 35 years, best demonstrated by their continuing performances of the musical drama A Ride With Bob which debuted in Austin in March, 2005 to coincide with celebrations of Wills' 100th birthday. Hollywood films In addition to the 1940 film Take Me Back to Oklahoma, Wills appeared in The Lone Prairie (1942), Riders of the Northwest Mounted (1943), Saddles and Sagebrush (1943), The Vigilantes Ride (1943), The Last Horseman (1944), Rhythm Round-Up (1945), Blazing the Western Trail (1945), and Lawless Empire (1945). According to one source, he appeared in a total of 19 films. References Bibliography Townsend, Charles R. (1998). "Bob Wills". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kinsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 594-5. West, Elliot. "Trails and Footprints: The Past of the Future Southern Plains". The Future of the Southern Plains (pp. 17-37) edited by Sherry L. Smith. University of Oklahoma Press, 2005. ISBN 0-861-3735-5 Whitburn, Joel. The Billboard Book of Top 40 Country Hits. Billboard Books, 2006. ISBN 0-8230-8291-1 Wolff, Kurt; Orla Duane. Country Music: The Rough Guide. Rough Guides, 2000. ISBN 1-85828-534-8 External links Official Website Texas Playboys website The Bob Wills Tiffany Transcriptions Western Swing Famous Texans Video about Bob Wills Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum	Bob_Wills \|@lemmatized james:1 robert:1 bob:51 march:3 may:4 american:3 western:22 swing:24 musician:4 songwriter:2 bandleader:2 consider:4 many:7 music:41 authority:1 one:10 father:10 wolff:2 country:18 big:5 ball:1 cowtown:1 fort:4 worth:4 fresno:2 p:3 single:3 person:1 deserves:1 must:1 west:5 trail:3 footprint:2 snyder:2 texas:36 host:2 festival:1 come:4 fiddle:8 around:2 recognize:1 regional:2 origin:1 turkey:2 bit:1 hundred:1 mile:2 due:3 north:1 hall:6 county:1 call:7 fan:4 king:4 new:11 mexico:2 oklahoma:9 bear:1 near:1 kosse:1 emma:1 lee:3 foley:1 john:1 tompkins:1 ancestry:1 statewide:1 champion:1 player:3 milton:5 brown:9 founding:3 cary:3 ginell:3 university:22 illinois:18 press:7 isbn:24 family:3 either:1 play:18 someone:1 always:1 want:1 u:3 addition:7 raise:1 cotton:3 farm:1 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6,416	Elvis_Presley	Elvis Aaron Presley (May 9, 2002). "Elvis Presley - the Singer". bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2007-10-12. "FAQ: Elvis' middle name, is it Aron or Aaron?" Elvis.com. Retrieved 2007-10-22. (January 8, 1935 – August 16, 1977; middle name sometimes written Aron) was an American singer, actor, and musician. A cultural icon, he is commonly known simply as "Elvis," and is also sometimes referred to as "The King of Rock 'n' Roll" or "The King". In 1954, Presley began his career as one of the first performers of rockabilly, an uptempo fusion of country and rhythm and blues with a strong back beat. His novel versions of existing songs, mixing "black" and "white" sounds, made him popular—and controversial See Fensch, Thomas. The FBI Files on Elvis Presley, pp.15-17. An example of press criticism can be found at Gould, Jack (June 6, 1956). "TV: New Phenomenon" (PDF). The New York Times. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. —as did his uninhibited stage and television performances. He recorded songs in the rock and roll genre, with tracks like "Hound Dog" and "Jailhouse Rock" later embodying the style. Presley had a versatile voice WikiQuote: Elvis Presley and had unusually wide success encompassing other genres, including gospel, blues, ballads and pop. To date, he has been inducted into four music halls of fame. In the 1960s, Presley made the majority of his 31 movies, most of which were poorly reviewed but financially successful musicals. Falk and Falk, p.52 In 1968, he returned to live music in a television special, Hopkins 2007, p.215 and performed across the U.S., notably in Las Vegas. Throughout his career, he set records for concert attendance, television ratings and recordings sales. [Is Elvis the Biggest Selling Recording Artist? - Sorting Out Records Sales Stats & RIAA Rules. http://www.elvis.com/news/full_story.asp?id=131]. Retrieved 2008-10-27. He is one of the best-selling and most influential artists in the history of music. Health problems, drug addiction and other factors led to his death aged 42. Biography Early life Elvis Presley owed his ancestry to diverse European ethnic strains, primarily British and German; Presley's lineage also included some Cherokee descent. German American Corner: PRESLEY, Elvis "Elvis roots 'lead to Scotland'"; a March 23, 2004 BBC story that cites Allan Morrison, the author of the then-unpublished book The Presley Prophecy Elvis's great-great-great-grandmother, Morning White Dove (1800–1835), was a full-blooded Cherokee Indian "Elvis Presley's Roots" His father, Vernon Elvis Presley Guralnick 1994, p.13 (April 10, 1916–June 26, 1979), had several low-paying jobs, including sharecropping and working as a truck driver. His mother, Gladys Love Smith (April 25, 1912 – August 14, 1958) worked as a sewing machinist. They met in Tupelo, Mississippi, and eloped to Pontotoc County where they married on June 17, 1933. Presley's ancestry is discussed at the following sites: Rossacher, Hannes (August 16, 2007). Austrian and French TV documentary: "Elvis-O-Rama". ARTE. Retrieved on 2007-10-12. (August 11, 2007). "Die wahre Wiege des Rock ’n’ Roll." Ludwigshafen: Die Rheinpfalz. "Biography: Presley, Elvis". German Heritage.com. Retrieved October 12, 2007. (March 23, 2004). "Elvis roots 'lead to Scotland'". BBC News Online. Retrieved on 2007-10-12. "Elvis Presley's Roots". fife.50megs.com. Retrieved October 12, 2007. "Elvis Was a Metis: Cherokee-Scots-Irish (Celt)". WolfLodge.org. Retrieved October 12, 2007. Presley was born in a two-room shotgun house, built by his father, in East Tupelo. He was an identical twin; his brother was stillborn and given the name Jesse Garon. Growing up as an only child he "was, everyone agreed, unusually close to his mother." Guralnick 1994, p.13 The family lived just above the poverty line and attended an Assembly of God church. Guralnick 1994, p.29 Vernon has been described as "a malingerer, always averse to work and responsibility." Goldman, p.16 His wife was "voluble, lively, full of spunk" and had a fondness for drink. In 1938, Vernon was jailed for an eight dollar check forgery. During his eight-month incarceration, Gladys and her son lost the family home, and they moved in with relatives. Guralnick 1994, p.12 Stanley and Coffey, p.19 Elvis Presley Home. Elvis-Presley-Biography.com. Retrieved July 15, 2007. In September 1942, Presley entered first grade at Lawhorn School in Tupelo. He was considered a "well-mannered and quiet child", but sometimes classmates threw "things at him — rotten fruit and stuff — because he was different... he stuttered and he was a mama's boy." Guralnick 1994, p.36Referring to an account by singer Barbara Pittman in Humphries, Patrick (April 1, 2003). "Elvis The #1 Hits: The Secret History of the Classics" Andrews McMeel Publishing, p.117. ISBN 0-7407-3803-8. On October 3, 1945, he made his first public performance in a singing contest at the Mississippi-Alabama Fair and Dairy Show at the suggestion of his teacher, Mrs. J.C. Grimes. Dressed as a cowboy, Presley had to stand on a chair to reach the microphone and sang Red Foley's "Old Shep." He came fifth, winning $5 and a free ticket to all the Fair rides. "Elvis.com Biography" In 1946, for his eleventh birthday, Presley received his first guitar. (October 14, 2001). "Elvis Presley's First Guitar". Tupelo Hardware. Retrieved 2007-10-14. He wanted a bicycle or rifle for his birthday, but his parents could only afford a guitar. www.elvis.am/bio Elvis Biography Retrieved 2008-05-30 Over the following year, Vernon's brother, Vester, gave Elvis basic guitar lessons. In September 1948, the family moved to Memphis, Tennessee, allegedly because Vernon—in addition to needing work—had to escape the law for transporting bootleg liquor. Escott, p.420 In 1949, they lived at Lauderdale Courts, a public housing development in one of Memphis' poorer sections. Presley practiced playing guitar in the laundry room and also played in a five-piece band with other tenants. One resident, another future rockabilly pioneer, Johnny Burnette, recalled, "Wherever Elvis went he'd have his guitar slung across his back... [H]e'd go in to one of the cafes or bars... Then some folks would say: 'Let's hear you sing, boy.'" Carr and Farren, p.10 Presley enrolled at L. C. Humes High School where some fellow students viewed his performing unfavorably; one recalled that he was "a sad, shy, not especially attractive boy" whose guitar playing was not likely to win any prizes. Presley was made fun of as a 'trashy' kind of boy, playing 'trashy' hillbilly music." Guralnick, Last Train to Memphis, chapter 1. Other children however, "would beg him" to sing, but he was apparently too shy to perform. Hopkins 2007, p.33 In September 1950, Presley occasionally worked evenings as an usher at Loew's State Theater—his first job—to boost the family income, Stanley and Coffey, p.20 Lichter, p.10 but his mother made him quit as she feared it was affecting his school work. He worked again at Loew's in June the following year, but was fired after a fistfight over a female employee. He began to grow his sideburns and, when he could afford to, dress in the wild, flashy clothes of Lansky Brothers on Beale Street. Lichter, p.9 He stood out, especially in the conservative Deep South of the 1950s, and was mocked and bullied for it. Guralnick 1994, p.50 Childhood friend Red West said: "In the sea of 1600 pink-scalped kids at school, Elvis stood out like a camel in the arctic. ... [but] ... his appearance expressed a defiance which his demeanor did not match..." Matthew-Walker 1979, p.5 Despite any unpopularity or shyness, he was a contestant in his school's 1952 "Annual Minstrel Show" and won by receiving the most applause. His prize was to sing encores, including "Cold Cold Icy Fingers" and "Till I Waltz Again With You". After graduation, Presley was still a rather shy "kid who had spent scarcely a night away from home". Guralnick 1994, p.149 His third job was driving a truck for the Crown Electric Company. He began wearing his hair longer with a ducktail;the style of truck drivers at that time. (1996). "Elvis Presley". history-of-rock.com. Retrieved 2007-10-14. Early musical influences Initial influences originated from his family's attendance at the Assembly of God. Rolling Stone wrote: "Gospel pervaded Elvis' character and was a defining and enduring influence all of his days." George-Warren, Holly; Patricia Romanowski, Jon Pareles (2001). The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock And Roll. Fireside. ISBN 0-7432-0120-5. Excerpt in "Elvis Presley biography". Rolling Stone. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. Presley himself stated: "Since I was two years old, all I knew was gospel music. That music became such a part of my life it was as natural as dancing. A way to escape from the problems. And my way of release." "" Quoted in How Stuff Works. Retrieved on 2008-11-14. See also Southern gospel. Throughout his life—in the recording studio, in private, or after concerts—Presley joined with others singing and playing gospel music at informal sessions. Guralnick 1994, p.461 The legendary Southern Gospel singer Jake Hess was Presley's favorite singer and was the greatest influence on his singing style. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/jake-hess-549231.html Jake Hess Obituary The young Presley frequently listened to local radio; his first musical hero was family friend Mississippi Slim, a hillbilly singer with a radio show on Tupelo’s WELO. Presley performed occasionally on Slim’s Saturday morning show, Singin’ and Pickin’ Hillbilly. "He was crazy about music... That’s all he talked about," recalls his sixth grade friend, James Ausborn, Slim’s younger brother. Guralnick 1994, p.21 Before he was a teenager, music was already Presley’s "consuming passion". J. R. Snow, son of 1940s country superstar Hank Snow, recalls that even as a young man Presley knew all of Hank Snow’s songs, "even the most obscure". Guralnick 1994, p.171 Presley himself said: "I loved records by Sister Rosetta Thorpe, ... Roy Acuff, Ernest Tubbs, Ted Daffan, Jimmie Rodgers, Jimmy Davis and Bob Wills." Matthew-Walker (1979), p. 3, quoted sic, the correct spellings being Ernest Tubb and Jimmie Davis. In Memphis, Presley went to record stores that had jukeboxes and listening booths, playing old records and new releases for hours on end. He was an audience member at the all-night white—and black—"gospel sings" downtown. (August 18, 1997). "Good Rockin'". Newsweek, pp.54-5 Memphis Symphony Orchestra concerts at Overton Park were another Presley favorite, along with the Metropolitan Opera. His small record collection included Mario Lanza and Dean Martin. Presley later said: "I just loved music. Music period." Memphis had a strong tradition of blues music and Presley frequented blues as well as hillbilly venues. Many of his future recordings were inspired by local African American composers and recording artists, including Arthur Crudup, Rufus Thomas and B.B. King. Guralnick, Peter (August 11, 2007). "How Did Elvis Get Turned Into a Racist?" New York Times. Retrieved August 15, 2007. King says that he "knew Elvis before he was popular. He used to come around and be around us a lot ... on Beale Street." Szatmary, p.35 Presley "was an untrained musician who played [guitar and piano] entirely by ear. 'I don't read music,' he confessed, 'but I know what I like.' ... Because he was not a songwriter, Presley [would] rarely [have] material prepared for recording sessions..." When later, as a young singer, he "ventured into the recording studio he was heavily influenced by the songs he had heard on the jukebox and radio." Bertrand, p.205 First recordings and performances On July 18, 1953, Presley went to Sun Records' Memphis Recording Service to record "My Happiness" with "That's When Your Heartaches Begin", supposedly a present for his mother. "Elvis biography: 1935–1957". elvis.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. During his initial introduction at Sun Records, assistant Marion Keisker asked him who he sounded like. Presley replied: "I don't sound like nobody." On January 4, 1954, he cut a second acetate. At the time, Sun Records boss Sam Phillips was on the lookout for someone who could deliver a blend of black blues and boogie-woogie music; he thought it would be very popular among white people. Miller, p.71 When Phillips acquired a demo recording of "Without Love (There Is Nothing)" and was unable to identify the vocalist, Keisker reminded him about the young truck driver. She called him on June 26, 1954. Presley was not able to do justice to the song (though he would record it years later). Lichter, p.12 Phillips would later recall that "Elvis was probably as nervous as anybody, black or white, that I had seen in front of a microphone." Everything Elvis, ISBN 0-7535-0960-1 Despite this, Phillips invited local musicians Winfield "Scotty" Moore and Bill Black to audition Presley. Though they were not overly impressed, a studio session was planned. "Sam Phillips Sun Records Two". history-of-rock.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. During a recording break, Presley began "acting the fool" first with Arthur Crudup's "That's All Right (Mama)". Guralnick, Peter (1992). The Complete 50's Masters (CD booklet notes). Phillips quickly got them all to restart, and began taping. This was the sound he had been looking for. Jorgensen, p.13 The group recorded other songs, including Bill Monroe's "Blue Moon of Kentucky". After the session, according to Scotty Moore, Bill Black remarked: "Damn. Get that on the radio and they'll run us out of town". (August 11–August 17, 2007). "Would he still be King?". Radio Times. BBC, p.12 "That's All Right" was aired on July 8, 1954, by DJ Dewey Phillips. Carr and Farren, p.6 Listeners to the show began phoning in, eager to find out who the singer was. (The DJ mispronounced Presley's apparently unusual name as "Elton Preston.") Clayton and Heard, p.58 The interest was such that Phillips played the demo fourteen times. During an interview on the show, Phillips asked Presley what high school he attended—to clarify Presley's color for listeners who assumed he must be black. The first release of Presley's music featured "That's All Right" and "Blue Moon of Kentucky". With Presley's version of Monroe's song consistently rated higher, both sides began to chart across the South. EPE (July 21, 2004). "Elvis Presley Sun Recordings". elvis.co.au. Retrieved on August 17, 2007. Moore and Black began playing regularly with Presley. They gave performances on the July 17 and July 24, 1954 to promote the Sun single at the Bon Air, a rowdy music club in Memphis, where the band was not well-received. EPE. "Elvis Presley's First Record & Early Gigs". ElvisPresley.com.au. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. On July 30 the trio, billed as The Blue Moon Boys, made their first paid appearance at the Overton Park Shell, with Slim Whitman headlining. Burnett, Brown (ed.) (August 2, 2004). "Overton Park Shell 50th Anniversary, Elvis’ 1st live show". Memphis Mojo Newspaper. Reprinted in "The Buzzards". RedClock.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. A nervous Presley's legs were said to have shaken uncontrollably during this show: his wide-legged pants emphasized his leg movements, apparently causing females in the audience to go "crazy". Naylor and Halliday, p.43 Scotty Moore claims it was just the natural way he moved and had nothing to do with "nerves." Clayton and Heard, p.61 Presley consciously incorporated similar movements into future shows. Elvis Presley Classic Albums (DVD). Eagle Eye Media, EE19007 NTSC. Elvis himself said that, "I didn't realize that my, that I was movin', my body was movin'. It was a natural thing to me." Elvis on Elvis. WHE/Sonic Pictures. ~11:00 Label: Well Go USA Original Release Date: 2008 DVD Release Date: March 18, 2008 Deejay and promoter Bob Neal became the trio's manager (replacing Scotty Moore). Moore and Black left their band, the Starlight Wranglers and, from August through October 1954, appeared with Presley at The Eagle's Nest. Presley debuted at the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville on October 2; Hank Snow introduced Presley on stage. He performed "Blue Moon of Kentucky" but received only a polite response. Afterwards, the singer was supposedly told by the Opry's Jim Denny: "Boy, you’d better keep driving that truck," Naylor and Halliday, pp.43-6 though others deny it was Denny who made that statement. Clayton and Heard, p.69 Country music promoter and manager Tillman Franks booked Presley for the Louisiana Hayride on October 16. Before Franks saw Presley, he referred to him as "that new black singer with the funny name". Naylor and Halliday, p.46 During Presley's first set, the reaction was muted; Franks then advised Presley to "Let it all go!" for the second set. House drummer D.J. Fontana (who had worked in strip clubs) complemented Presley's movements with accented beats. Bill Black also took an active part in encouraging the audience, and the crowd became more responsive. Naylor and Halliday, p.52 Clayton and Heard, p.73 According to one source, regarding Presley's engagements from that time, "Audiences had never before heard [such] music... [or] seen anyone who performed like Presley either. The shy, polite, mumbling boy gained self-confidence with every appearance... People watching the show were astounded and shocked, both by the ferocity of his performance, and the crowd’s reaction to it... Roy Orbison saw Presley for the first time in Odessa, Texas: 'His energy was incredible, his instinct was just amazing... I just didn’t know what to make of it. There was just no reference point in the culture to compare it.'" Cook, p.50 Sam Phillips said Presley "put every ounce of emotion ... into every song, almost as if he was incapable of holding back." Guralnick 1994 By August 1955, Sun Studios had released ten sides, credited to "Elvis Presley, Scotty and Bill", all typical of the developing Presley style which seemed hard to categorize; he was billed or labeled in the media as "The King of Western Bop", "The Hillbilly Cat" and "The Memphis Flash". Hopkins 2007, p.53 On August 15, 1955, "Colonel" Tom Parker became Presley's manager, signing him to a one year contract, plus renewals. Stanley and Coffey, p.28 Several record labels had shown interest in signing Presley and, by the end of October 1955, three major labels had made offers up to $25,000. Stanley and Coffey, p.29 On November 21, 1955, Parker and Phillips negotiated a deal with RCA Victor Records to acquire Presley's Sun contract for an unprecedented $40,000, $5,000 of which was a bonus for the singer for back royalties owed to him by Sun Records Carr and Farren, p.21 (Presley, at 20, was officially still a minor, so his father had to sign the contract). Escott, p.421 By December 1955, RCA had begun to heavily promote its newest star, and by the month's end had re-released all of his Sun recordings. 1956 Breakthrough On January 10, Presley made his first recordings for RCA in Nashville, Tennessee. Stanley and Coffey, p.30 The session produced "Heartbreak Hotel/I Was The One" which was released on January 27. The public reaction to "Heartbreak Hotel" prompted RCA to release it as a single in its own right (February 11). By April it had hit number one in the U.S. charts, selling in excess of one million copies. To increase the singer's exposure, Parker finally brought Presley to national television (In March 1955, Presley had failed an audition for Arthur Godfrey's Talent Scouts). He booked six appearances on CBS-TV's Stage Show in New York, beginning January 28, 1956. Presley was introduced on the first by Cleveland DJ Bill Randle. He stayed in town and on January 30, he and the band headed for the RCA's New York Studio. The sessions yielded eight songs, including "My Baby Left Me" and "Blue Suede Shoes". The latter was the only hit single from the collection, but the recordings marked the point at which Presley started moving away from the raw, pure Sun sound to the more commercial and mainstream sound RCA had envisioned for him. On March 23, RCA Victor released Elvis Presley, his first album. Like the Sun recordings, the majority of the tracks were country songs. Hilburn, Robert (2005-02-11). "Review: Elvis Presley CD". elvis.com.au. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. The album went on to top the pop album chart for 10 weeks. On April 1, Presley launched his acting career with a screen-test for Paramount Pictures. His first motion picture, Love Me Tender, was released on November 21 (See 'Acting career'). Colonel Parker had also obtained a deal for two lucrative appearances on NBC-TV's The Milton Berle Show. Presley first appeared from the deck of the USS Hancock in San Diego on April 3. His performance was cheered by a live audience of appreciative sailors and their dates. Jorgensen, p.45 A few days after, a flight taking Presley's band to Nashville for a recording session left all three badly shaken (the plane lost an engine and almost went down over Texas). From April 23, Presley was scheduled to perform four weeks at the New Frontier Hotel and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip—billed this time as "the Atomic Powered Singer" (since Nevada was the home of the U.S.'s atomic weapons testing, Parker thought the name would be catchy). His shows were so badly received by critics and the conservative, middle-aged guests, that Parker cut short the engagement from four weeks to two. Stanley and Coffey, p.32 D.J. Fontana said, "I don't think the people there were ready for Elvis..... We tried everything we knew. Usually Elvis could get them on his side. It didn't work that time". While in Vegas, Presley saw Freddie Bell and the Bellboys live, and liked their version of Leiber and Stoller's "Hound Dog". By May 16, he had added the song to his own act. Butler, Peter. "Blackie". RockabillyHall.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. After more hectic touring, Presley made his second appearance on The Milton Berle Show (June 5). Whilst delivering an uptempo version of "Hound Dog" (without his guitar), he then stopped, and immediately after began performing a slower version. See complete Milton Berle Show Hound Dog footage with original music. Presley's "gyrations" during this televised version of "Hound Dog" created a storm of controversy—even eclipsing the "communist threat" headlines prevalent at the time. Jorgensen, p.49 The press described his performance as "vulgar" and "obscene". An example of press criticism can be found at Gould, Jack (June 6, 1956). "TV: New Phenomenon" (PDF). The New York Times. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. The furor was such that Presley was pressured to explain himself on the local New York City TV show Hy Gardner Calling: "Rock and roll music, if you like it, and you feel it, you can't help but move to it. That's what happens to me. I have to move around. I can't stand still. I've tried it, and I can't do it." After this performance he was dubbed "Elvis the Pelvis". Presley disliked the name, calling it "one of the most childish expressions I ever heard." Farren and Marchbank, p.89 The Berle shows drew such huge ratings that Steve Allen (NBC), not a fan of rock and roll, booked him for one appearance in New York on July 1. Allen wanted "to do a show the whole family can watch" and introduced a "new Elvis" in white bow tie and black tails. Presley sang "Hound Dog" for less than a minute to a Basset Hound in a top hat. According to one author, "Allen thought Presley was talentless and absurd... [he] set things up so that Presley would show his contrition..." Austen, p.13 Beebe, Fulbrook and Saunders, p.97 In his book "Hi-Ho Steverino!" Allen wrote the following: "When I booked Elvis, I naturally had no interest in just presenting him vaudeville-style and letting him do his spot as he might in concert. Instead we worked him into the comedy fabric of our program. We certainly didn't inhibit Elvis' then-notorious pelvic gyrations, but I think the fact that he had on formal evening attire made him, purely on his own, slightly alter his presentation." The Steve Allen Comedy Show The day after (July 2), the single "Hound Dog" was recorded and Scotty Moore said they were "all angry about their treatment the previous night". (Presley often referred to the Allen show as the most ridiculous performance of his career.) Raymond, Susan (Director) (1987, Re-released 2000). Elvis '56 - In the Beginning (DVD). Warner Vision. A few days later, Presley made a "triumphant" outdoor appearance in Memphis at which he announced: "You know, those people in New York are not gonna change me none. I'm gonna show you what the real Elvis is like tonight." Jorgensen, p.51 Country vocalists The Jordanaires accompanied Presley on The Steve Allen Show and their first recording session together produced "Any Way You Want Me", "Don't Be Cruel" and "Hound Dog". The Jordanaires would work with the singer through the 1960s. Though Presley had been unhappy, Allen's show had, for the first time, beaten The Ed Sullivan Show in the ratings, causing a critical Sullivan (CBS) to book Presley for three appearances for an unprecedented $50,000. For more on the TV host rivalries of the period, see "The Steve Allen Show (And Various Related Programs)". The Museum of Broadcast Communications. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. Presley's first Ed Sullivan appearance (September 9, 1956) was seen by some 55–60 million viewers. Biographer Greil Marcus has written: "Compared to moments on the Dorsey shows and on the Berle show, it was ice cream." Marcus, Greil, "Elvis Presley: The Ed Sullivan Shows." "Official Press Release". elvis.com.au. Retrieved on 2007-10-22. On the third Sullivan show, in spite of Presley's established reputation as a "gyrating" performer, he sang only slow paced ballads and a gospel song. Presley was nevertheless only shown to the television audience 'from the waist up', as if to censor the singer. Marcus claims he "stepped out in the outlandish costume of a pasha, if not a harem girl", and was shot in close up during this last broadcast, as if Sullivan had tried to 'bury' the singer. Marcus, "Elvis Presley: The Ed Sullivan Shows." It was also claimed that Colonel Parker had himself orchestrated the 'censorship' merely to generate publicity. Clayton and Heard, pp.117-8 Gibson, Christine (December 6, 2005). "Elvis on Ed Sullivan: The Real Story". American Heritage Magazine. Retrieved on 2007-10-22. In spite of any misgivings about the controversial nature of his performing style (see 'Sex symbol'), Sullivan declared at the end of the third appearance that Presley was "a real decent, fine boy" and that they had never had "a pleasanter experience" on the show. On December 4, Presley dropped into Sun Records where Carl Perkins and Jerry Lee Lewis were recording. Stanley and Coffey, p.37 Sam Phillips made sure the session of the three performing was recorded; the results would later appear on a bootlegged recording titled The Million Dollar Quartet in 1977 (Johnny Cash is often thought to have performed with the trio, but he was only present briefly at Phillips' instigation for a photo opportunity). Jorgensen, p.71 RCA would eventually iron out legal difficulties and release an authorized version a few years later. On December 29, Billboard revealed that Presley had placed more songs in the Top 100 than any other artist since chart records began. classicbands.com Elvis Timeline This news was followed by a front page report in the Wall Street Journal on December 31, that suggested Presley merchandise had grossed more than $22 million in sales. Elvis Presley 1956 Controversy and cultural impact When "That's All Right" was played, many listeners were sure Presley must be black, prompting white disc-jockeys to ignore his Sun singles. However, black disc-jockeys did not want anything to do with any record they knew was made by a white man. Carr and Farren, pp.11, 16 To many black adults, Presley had undoubtedly "stolen" or at least "derived his style from the Negro rhythm-and-blues performers of the late 1940s", Bayles, p.22 though such criticism ignored Presley's use of "white" musical styles. Some black entertainers, notably Jackie Wilson, argued: "A lot of people have accused Elvis of stealing the black man’s music, when in fact, almost every black solo entertainer copied his stage mannerisms from Elvis." Blank, Christopher (July 15, 2006). "Elvis & Racism - Elvis Presley Legacy is cloudy through lens of race". elvis.com.au. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. By the spring of 1956, Presley was becoming popular nationwide and teenagers flocked to his concerts. Scotty Moore recalled: "He’d start out, 'You ain’t nothin’ but a Hound Dog,' and they’d just go to pieces. They’d always react the same way. There’d be a riot every time." Moore and Dickerson, p.175 Bob Neal wrote: "It was almost frightening, the reaction... from [white] teenage boys. So many of them, through some sort of jealousy, would practically hate him." In Lubbock, Texas, a teenage gang fire-bombed Presley's car. Carr and Farren, p.12 Some performers became resentful (or resigned to the fact) that Presley's unmatched hustle onstage before them would "kill" their own act; he thus rose quickly to top billing. At the two concerts he performed at the 1956 Mississippi-Alabama Fair and Dairy Show, one hundred National Guardsmen were on hand to prevent crowd trouble. "Elvis Rock 'n' Roll History". showbuzz.CBSnews.com. Retrieved 2007-10-14. To many white adults, the singer was "the first rock symbol of teenage rebellion. ... they did not like him, and condemned him as depraved. Anti-Negro prejudice doubtless figured in adult antagonism. Regardless of whether parents were aware of the Negro sexual origins of the phrase 'rock 'n' roll', Presley impressed them as the visual and aural embodiment of sex." Billboard writer Arnold Shaw, cited in Denisoff, p.22. In 1956, a critic for the New York Daily News wrote that popular music "has reached its lowest depths in the 'grunt and groin' antics of one Elvis Presley" and the Jesuits denounced him in their weekly magazine, America. "Elvis Presley - 1956". PBS. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. Even Frank Sinatra opined: "His kind of music is deplorable, a rancid smelling aphrodisiac. It fosters almost totally negative and destructive reactions in young people." Khurana, Simran. "Quotes About Elvis Presley". about.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. Presley responded to this (and other derogatory comments Sinatra made) by saying: "I admire the man. He has a right to say what he wants to say. He is a great success and a fine actor, but I think he shouldn't have said it... This ... [rock and roll] ... is a trend, just the same as he faced when he started years ago." Hopkins, p.126 According to the FBI files on the singer, Presley was even seen as a "definite danger to the security of the United States." His actions and motions were called "a strip-tease with clothes on" or "sexual self-gratification on stage." They were compared with "masturbation or riding a microphone." Some saw the singer as a sexual pervert, and psychologists feared that teenaged girls and boys could easily be "aroused to sexual indulgence and perversion by certain types of motions and hysteria—the type that was exhibited at the Presley show." See Fensch, Thomas. The FBI Files on Elvis Presley, pp.15-17. Presley would insist, however, that there was nothing vulgar about his stage act, saying: "Some people tap their feet, some people snap their fingers, and some people sway back and forth. I just sorta do ‘em all together, I guess." Elvis Quotes In August 1956, a Florida judge called Presley a "savage" and threatened to arrest him if he shook his body while performing in Jacksonville. The judge declared that Presley's music was undermining the youth of America. Throughout the performance (which was filmed by police), he kept still as ordered, except for wiggling a finger in mockery at the ruling. Marino, Rick. "Elvis and Jacksonville, Florida". LadyLuckMusic.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. (Presley recalls this incident during the '68 Comeback Special.) In 1957, despite Presley's demonstrable respect for "black" music and performers, Guralnick, Peter (August 11, 2007). "How Did Elvis Get Turned Into a Racist?". New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-08-13 he faced accusations of racism. He was alleged to have said in Boston, Massachusetts: "The only thing Negro people can do for me is to buy my records and shine my shoes." A journalist at Jet magazine (run by and for African Americans) subsequently pursued Presley, and his acquaintances in Memphis, for any other admissions or anecdotes to back up the perception that the singer was racist. None was found, nor could any evidence be found of the date, location and persons involved regarding the alleged remark (Presley had never visited Boston). Presley himself was interviewed on the set of Jailhouse Rock where he denied saying, or ever wanting to make, such a racist remark. His parents moved home in Memphis, but the singer lived there briefly. With increased concerns over privacy and security, Graceland was bought and renovated in 1957, a mansion with several acres of land. This was Presley's primary residence until his death. Presley's record sales grew quickly throughout the late 1950s, with hits like "All Shook Up", "(Let me Be Your) Teddy Bear" and "Too Much". Military service and mother's death Rank and Insignia Date of Rank Private Drafted24 March 1958 Private First-Class 27 November 1958 Specialist 4 1 June 1959 Sergeant 20 January 1960 On December 20, 1957, Presley received his draft notice. Hal Wallis and Paramount Pictures had already spent $350,000 on the film King Creole, and did not want to suspend or cancel the project. The Memphis Draft Board granted Presley a deferment to finish it. On March 24, 1958, he was inducted as US Army private #53310761 at Fort Chaffee near Fort Smith, Arkansas. Two Army officers Arlie Metheny and John J. Mawn, coordinated the entry and shielded Presley from bombardment by national media and free-lance photographers. Presley completed basic training at Fort Hood, Texas, on September 17, 1958, before being posted to Friedberg, Germany, with the 3rd Armored Division, where his service took place from October 1, 1958 until March 2, 1960. Elder, Daniel K. "Remarkable Sergeants: Ten Vignettes of Noteworthy NCOs". ncohistory.com. Retrieved on 2007-11-13. Fellow soldiers have attested to Presley's wish to be seen as an able, ordinary soldier, despite his fame, and to his generosity while in the service. To supplement meager under-clothing supplies, Presley bought an extra set of fatigues for everyone in his outfit. He also donated his Army pay to charity, and purchased all the TV sets for personnel on the base at that time. Clayton and Heard, p.160 Presley had chosen not to join "Special Services", which would have allowed him to avoid certain duties and maintain his public profile. Lichter, p.51 He continued to receive massive media coverage, with much speculation echoing Presley's own concerns about his enforced absence damaging his career. However, early in 1958, RCA Victor producer Steve Sholes and Freddy Bienstock of Hill and Range (Presley's main music publishers) had both pushed for recording sessions and strong song material, the aim being to release regular hit recordings during Presley's two-year hiatus. Jorgensen, p.107 Hit singles—and six albums—duly followed during that period. As Presley's fame grew, his mother continued to drink excessively and began to gain weight. She had wanted her son to succeed, "but... [the] hysteria of the crowd frightened her." Rodriguez, p.87 In early August 1958, doctors had diagnosed hepatitis and her condition worsened. Presley was granted emergency leave to visit her, arriving in Memphis on August 12. Two days later, Gladys Presley died of heart failure, aged forty-six. Presley was heartbroken, "grieving almost constantly" for days. Guralnick 1999, p.480 Some months later, in Germany, "[a] sergeant had introduced [Presley] to amphetamines when they were on maneuvers at Grafenwöhr... it seemed like half the guys in the company were taking them." Friends around Presley, like Diamond Joe Esposito, also began taking them, "if only to keep up with Elvis, who was practically evangelical about their benefits." The Army also introduced Presley to karate—something which he studied seriously, even including it in his later live performances. Guralnick 1994, p.71 Presley returned to the U.S. on March 2, 1960, and was honorably discharged with the rank of sergeant on March 5. "What was his rank when he got out of the army?". AllExperts. Retrieved on 2008-08-23. Any doubts Elvis had about his popularity must have been dispelled as "The train which carried him from New Jersey to Memphis was mobbed all the way, with Presley being called upon to appear ... at whistle-stops" to placate his fans. Matthew-Walker 1979, p.19 First post-Army recordings The first recording session, on March 20, 1960, was attended by all of the significant businessmen involved with Presley; none had heard him sing for two years, and there were inevitable concerns about him being able to recapture his previous success. Jorgensen, p.120 The session was the first at which Presley was recorded using a three-track machine, allowing better quality, postsession remixing and stereophonic recording. Jorgensen, p.120 This, and a further session in April, yielded some of Presley's best-selling songs. "It's Now or Never" ended with Presley "soaring up to an incredible top G sharp ... pure magic." His voice on "Are You Lonesome Tonight?" has been described as "natural, unforced, dead in tune, and totally distinctive." Matthew-Walker 1979, p.49 Although some tracks were uptempo, none could be described as "rock and roll", and many of them marked a significant change in musical direction. Most tracks found their way on to an album—Elvis is Back!—described by one critic as "a triumph on every level... It was as if Elvis had... broken down the barriers of genre and prejudice to express everything he heard in all the kinds of music he loved". Jorgensen, p.128 The album was also notable because of Homer Boots Randolph's acclaimed saxophone playing on the blues songs "Like A Baby" and "Reconsider Baby", the latter being described as "a refutation of those who do not recognize what a phenomenal artist Presley was." Acting career In 1956, Presley launched his career as a film actor. He screen-tested for Paramount Pictures by lip-synching "Blue Suede Shoes" and performing a scene as 'Bill Starbuck' in The Rainmaker. Elvis Presley Timeline Retrieved on 2008-07-31 Despite being quietly confident that The Rainmaker would be his first film—even going as far as saying so in an interview The Rainmaker Trivia Retrieved July 31, 2008 —the role eventually went to Burt Lancaster. After signing a seven-year contract with Paramount, Presley made his big-screen début with the musical western, Love Me Tender. It was panned by the critics but did well at the box office. Harbinson, p.62 The original title—The Reno Brothers—was changed to capitalize on the advanced sales of the song "Love Me Tender". The majority of Presley's films were musical comedies made to "sell records and produce high revenues." Falk and Falk, p.52 He also appeared in more dramatic films, like Jailhouse Rock and King Creole. The erotic, if not homoerotic, See Brett Farmer, Spectacular Passions: Cinema, Fantasy, Gay Male Spectatorships (Duke University Press, 2000), p.86. dance sequence to the song "Jailhouse Rock", which Presley choreographed himself, "is considered by many as his greatest performance ever captured on film." Billy Poore, Rockabilly: A Forty-Year Journey (1998), p. 20. To maintain box office success, he would later even shift "into beefcake formula comedy mode for a few years." "Elvis goes Hollywood: Fun in the sun, and not much else". CNN.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-19. He also made one non-musical western, Charro!. Presley stopped live performing after his Army service with the exception, ironically—given Sinatra's previously scathing criticism—of a guest appearance on The Frank Sinatra Timex Show: Welcome Home Elvis (1960). He also performed three charity concerts—two in Memphis and one in Pearl Harbor (1961). Guralnick 1999, pp.89-91 In the Army, Presley had said on many occasions that "more than anything, he wanted to be taken seriously as a dramatic actor." Guralnick 1999, p.50 His manager had negotiated the multi-picture seven-year contract with Hal Wallis with an eye on long-term earnings. Guralnick 1999, p.27 The singer would later star alongside several established or up-and-coming actors, including Walter Matthau, Carolyn Jones, Angela Lansbury, Charles Bronson, Barbara Stanwyck, Mary Tyler Moore—and even a very young Kurt Russell in his screen debut. Although Presley was praised by directors, like Michael Curtiz, as polite and hardworking (and as having an exceptional memory), "he was definitely not the most talented actor around." Verswijver, p.129 Others were more charitable; critic Bosley Crowther of the New York Times said: "This boy can act," about his portrayal in King Creole. Director Joe Pasternak believed "Elvis should be given more meaty parts. ... He would be a good actor. He should do more important pictures." Hopkins 2007, p.185 Presley's movies were generally poorly received, with one critic dismissing them as a "pantheon of bad taste." Caine, p.21 The scripts of his movies "were all the same, the songs progressively worse." Kirchberg and Hendricks, p.67 For Blue Hawaii, "fourteen songs were cut in just three days." Hopkins, p.31 Julie Parrish, who appeared in Paradise, Hawaiian Style, says that Presley hated many of the songs chosen for his films; he "couldn't stop laughing while he was recording" one of them. Lisanti 2000, pp.19, 136 Others noted that the songs seemed to be "written on order by men who never really understood Elvis or rock and roll." Hopkins, p.32 Sight and Sound wrote that in his movies "Elvis Presley, aggressively bisexual in appeal, knowingly erotic, [was] acting like a crucified houri and singing with a kind of machine-made surrealism." Sight and Sound, The British Film Institute, British Institute of Adult Education (1992), p.30. However, several reputable songwriters/partnerships contributed soundtrack songs, including Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, Don Robertson, Sid Tepper and Roy C. Bennett, and Otis Blackwell and Winfield Scott. Whatever the quality of the material, some observers have argued that Presley generally sang well in the studio, with commitment, and always played with distinguished musicians and backing singers. Matthew-Walker 1979, p.66 Despite this, critics maintained that "No major star suffered through more bad movies than Elvis Presley." Lyon, p.511 Presley movies were nevertheless very popular, and he "became a film genre of his own." Lisanti 2000, p.18 Hal Wallis would later remark: "An Elvis Presley picture is the only sure thing in Hollywood." Elvis Presley Movie Facts Retrieved on 2008-07-30 Elvis on celluloid was the only chance for his worldwide fans to see him, in the absence of live appearances (the only time he toured outside of the U.S. was in Canada in 1957). His Blue Hawaii even "boosted the new state's tourism. Some of his most enduring and popular songs came from those [kind of] movies," like "Can't Help Falling in Love," "Return to Sender" and "Viva Las Vegas." Hopkins, vii His 1960s films and soundtracks grossed some $280 million. Alagna, Elvis Presley On December 1, 1968, the New York Times wrote: "Three times a year Elvis Presley ... [makes] multimillion-dollar feature-length films, with holiday titles like Blue Hawaii, Fun in Acapulco, Viva Las Vegas, Tickle Me, Easy Come, Easy Go, Live a Little, Love a Little and The Trouble With Girls. For each film, Elvis receives a million dollars in wages and 50 per cent of the profits. ... [E]very film yields an LP sound-track record which may sell as many as two-million copies." In 1964, Richard Burton and Peter O'Toole had starred in Hal Wallis' acclaimed Becket. Wallis admitted to the press that the financing of such quality productions was only possible by making a series of profitable B-movies starring Presley. Elvis branded Wallis "a double-dealing sonofabitch" (and he thought little better of Tom Parker), realizing there had never been any intention to let him develop into a serious actor. Guralnick 1999, p.171 Presley was similarly exploited the following year with the film Tickle Me. Allied Artists had serious financial problems and hoped a Presley film would help them "stay afloat". Behind the Scenes of Tickle Me By agreeing to a lower fee, using previously recorded songs and filming on the studio back-lot, Allied Artists were able to keep costs very low. Considered one of the weakest of all Presley pictures, it became the third highest grossing picture in Allied Artists' history, and saved them from bankruptcy at the time. Presley was one of the highest paid actors during the 1960s, but times were changing. "[The] Elvis Presley film was becoming passé. Young people were tuning in, dropping out and doing acid. Musical acts like Jefferson Airplane, Grateful Dead, The Doors, Janis Joplin and many others were dominating the airwaves. Elvis Presley was not considered cool as he once was." Lisanti 2000, p.9 Priscilla Presley recalls: "He blamed his fading popularity on his humdrum movies" and "... loathed their stock plots and short shooting schedules." She also notes: "He could have demanded better, more substantial scripts, but he didn't." Presley, p.188 Change of Habit (1969) was the singer's final movie role. His last two films were concert documentaries in the early 1970s, though Presley was keen to consider dramatic movie roles. George-Warren, Romanowski and Pareles, The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock And Roll. Excerpt in "Elvis Presley biography". Rolling Stone. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. (See: 'Influence of Colonel Parker and others'). As well as the formulaic movie songs of the 1960s, Presley added to the studio recordings of Elvis Is Back, by recording other noteworthy songs like "She's Not You", "Suspicion," "Little Sister", "(You're the) Devil in Disguise" and "It Hurts Me." In 1966 he recorded a cover of Bob Dylan's "Tomorrow is a Long Time" (which RCA Victor relegated to a bonus track on the soundtrack album for Spinout). He also produced two gospel albums: His Hand in Mine (1960) and How Great Thou Art (1966). In 1967, he recorded some well-received singles, like Guitar Man, by songwriter/guitar player Jerry Reed. However, "during the Beatles era (1963-70), only six Elvis singles reached number ten or better. 'Suspicious Minds' was the lone number one." Kirchberg, Connie and Marc Hendricks 1999, p.66. "The Fab Four" meet "The King" During filming of Paradise, Hawaiian Style, Presley returned to his Bel Air home. The Beatles were at the end of their second U.S. tour. Colonel Parker had been negotiating a meeting for some time, through The Beatles' manager Brian Epstein, though Parker simply saw it as a valuable publicity opportunity (he had apparently even tried to get the group and Presley to perform the closing song in the same movie, but The Beatles' film contract precluded it). The group arrived in Bel Air amid a flurry of elaborate security arrangements made by Parker at 10pm, on August 27, 1965. Guralnick 1999, p.211 The visit lasted about four hours. Many of Presley's closest and trusted friends— members of the so-called "Memphis Mafia"—were present, including school friend and bodyguard Red West, Marty Lacker, Jerry Schilling, Larry Geller and their girlfriends. Biographer Peter Guralnick maintains that Presley was at best "lukewarm" about playing host to people he did not really know, and it took a while for everyone to feel comfortable. Paul McCartney later said: "It was one of the great meetings of my life. I think he liked us. I think at that time, he may have felt a little bit threatened, but he didn't say anything. We certainly didn't feel any antagonism. I only met him that once, and then I think the success of our career started to push him out a little, which we were very sad about, because we wanted to coexist with him." Elvis Presley News Marty Lacker recalls Presley saying: "'Quite frankly, if you guys are going to stare at me all night, I'm going to bed. I thought we'd talk a while and maybe jam a little.' And when he said that, they [The Beatles] went nuts." Nash, Smith, Lacker and Fike Elvis and the Memphis Mafia, p359-360 The group told stories, joked and listened to records. The five of them had an impromptu jam session. "They all went to the piano," says Lacker, "and Elvis handed out a couple of guitars. And they started singing Elvis songs, Beatle songs, Chuck Berry songs. Elvis played Paul's bass part on "I Feel Fine", and Paul said something like, 'You're coming along quite promising on the bass there, Elvis.' I remember thinking later, 'Man, if we'd only had a tape recorder.'" Ringo Starr played pool with two others that night; George Harrison "looked to most of the guys to be stoned" on arrival and allegedly smoked a joint with Larry Geller and talked about Hinduism (see: 'Influence of Colonel Parker and others'). Parker played roulette with Epstein. However, Guralnick claims The Beatles were, overall, disappointed by the visit. They still reciprocated with an invitation for Elvis to visit them, but only some of Presley's "Memphis Mafia" accepted. "John Lennon went out of his way to tell Jerry [Schilling] how much the evening had meant to him" and asked Schilling to tell Presley, "'[I]f it hadn't been for him I would have been nothing.'" Schilling says that when he told Presley he did not say anything, but "just kind of smiled." Guralnick 1999, p.212 (See: '1970–1972)'). Sex symbol Presley's sexual appeal and photogenic looks have been acknowledged: for example, director Steve Binder, not a fan of Presley's music at the time, recalled from the '68 Comeback Special (when Presley was fit and tanned): "I'm straight as an arrow and I got to tell you, you stop, whether you're male or female, to look at him. He was that good looking. And if you never knew he was a superstar, it wouldn't make any difference; if he'd walked in the room, you'd know somebody special was in your presence." According to Marjorie Garber, a "male rock critic writing in 1970 praised Elvis as 'The master of the sexual simile, treating his guitar as both phallus and girl.' ... rumor had it that into his skin-tight jeans was sewn a lead bar to suggest a weapon of heroic proportions." She cites a boyhood friend of Presley's who claims the singer actually used a cardboard toilet roll tube to make it "look to the girls up front like he had one helluva thing there inside his pants." Garber, Marjorie, Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing & Cultural Anxiety, p. 382. Ed Sullivan had apparently heard similar rumors and instructed his director Marlo Lewis to film only Presley's chest and head for his final Sullivan appearance. However, Lewis was skeptical about Presley wearing such a device and says simply: "It wasn't there". Clayton and Heard, p. 118. Accounts of Presley's numerous sexual conquests may be exaggerated. Kirchberg and Hendricks, p. 62. Curtin, Curtin and Ginter, p. 119. Cybill Shepherd reveals that Presley kissed her all over her naked body - but refused to have oral sex with her. See "Hollywood Actress Reveals Her Elvis Sex Secrets". WENN, April 25, 2000. Ex-Girlfriends Judy Spreckels and June Juanico had no sexual relationships with Presley. Byron Raphael and Alanna Nash have stated that the star "would never put himself inside one of these girls..." Raphael, Byron; Alanna Nash (November 2005). "In Bed with Elvis". Playboy, 52 (11): pp. 64-8, 76, 140. Cassandra Peterson ("Elvira") says she knew Presley for only one night, but all they did was talk. Stein, Ruthe August 3, 1997. San Francisco Chronicle. Cher regrets turning him down when he asked her to stay with him in Las Vegas, because she was too nervous of spending the night with him. http://www.contactmusic.com/news.nsf/article/nervous%20cher%20turned%20down%20a%20date%20with%20elvis_1058762 Peggy Lipton claims that he was "virtually impotent" with her, but she attributed this to his boyishness and drug misuse. Lipton, Dalton and Dalton, p. 172. Guralnick concurs with others, "he wasn't really interested", preferring to lie in bed, watch television and talk. Guralnick 1994, p. 415. Ann-Margret (Presley's co-star in Viva Las Vegas) refers to Presley as her "soulmate" but has revealed little else. Margret, Ann-Margret: My Story A publicity campaign about Presley and Margret's romance was launched during the filming of Viva Las Vegas, Presley, p. 175. which helped to increase Margret's popularity. Gamson, p. 46. Harrington and Bielby, p. 273. Presley apparently dated many female co-stars for publicity purposes. Stein, Ruthe (August 3, 1997). "Girls! Girls! Girls! From small-town women to movie stars". San Francisco Chronicle. Lori Williams dated him for a while in 1964. She says their "courtship was not some bizarre story. It was very sweet and Elvis was the perfect gentleman." Lisanti 2003, p. 207. Former partner Linda Thompson says they did not consummate their relationship until after a few months of dating. After they broke up in December 1976, many say Presley never had sex again. See McVeigh, Tracy, "Elvis Special: Love me tender." The Observer, Sunday August 11, 2002. His last girlfriend, Ginger Alden claims that the singer planned to marry her and that she was engaged to Presley at the time of his death, though her story is somewhat contradicted by many of Presley's close friends. For instance, according to Charlie Hodge, Presley himself said, "I'm never going to marry her." See Kirchberg, Connie and Hendrickx, Marc, Elvis Presley, Richard Nixon, and the American Dream, p. 157-158. Marriage to Priscilla Elvis and Priscilla met in 1959 at a party in Bad Nauheim, Germany during his stay in the army. She was 14 at the time, while he was 24. They quickly began a romantic relationship and were frequently together until Elvis left Germany in 1960. In her autobiography, Elvis and Me, Priscilla says that Elvis refused to have sex with her until they were married. However, biographer Suzanne Finstad writes that Priscilla and Elvis slept together on their second date, and that she wasn't a virgin when she met him. Finstad, Suzanne, Child Bride: The Untold Story of Priscilla Beaulieu Presley (1997). Priscilla later filed a lawsuit against Currie Grant for his claim in Finstad's book that he had sex with her in exchange for introducing her to Presley and won. However, neither Finstad nor her publisher was a party to the lawsuit, and Finstad says she stands by the account in her book. Priscilla and Elvis stayed in contact over the phone, though they would not see each other again until the summer of 1962, when Priscilla's parents agreed to let her visit for two weeks. Priscilla, Biography Channel After another visit at Christmas, Priscilla's parents finally let her move to America for good. Part of the agreement was that she would be privately educated, to complete her senior year, and live with Elvis' father and his wife, Dee, in their home—due to Presley's difficulty with accepting his stepmother, he arranged for them to live in a separate house on the Graceland estate. Priscilla's parents allowed her to live at Graceland only if Elvis promised to eventually marry her. However, it wasn't long until Priscilla was moved into Graceland to live with Elvis. Shortly before Christmas 1966, Elvis proposed to Priscilla. They married on May 1, 1967 at the Aladdin Hotel in Las Vegas after an eight-year courtship. In typical fashion, Colonel Parker had arranged a photo session and press conference to be conducted shortly after the ceremony. elvis.com Biography According to Finstad, this marriage was part of a mastermind for fame hatched by Priscilla and her mother. Their only child, Lisa Marie, was born on February 1, 1968. Influence of Colonel Parker and others By 1967, Colonel Tom Parker had negotiated a contract that gave him 50% of Presley's earnings. Parker's excessive gambling—and his subsequent need to have Presley signed up to commercially lucrative contracts—may well have adversely affected the course of Presley's career. http://archives.tcm.ie/businesspost/2002/08/18/story343531628.asp. Retrieved on 2008-07-30. Parker's concerns about his own U.S. citizenship (he was a Dutch immigrant) may have also been a factor in Parker and the singer never exploiting Presley's popularity abroad (see: '1973–1976'). It has been claimed that Presley's original band was fired in order to isolate the singer: Parker wanted no one close to Presley to suggest that a better management deal might exist. Dickerson, Colonel Tom Parker: The Curious Life of Elvis Presley's Eccentric Manager As well as signing Presley to RCA Victor, Parker also cut a deal with Hill and Range Publishing Company to create a separate entity— "Elvis Presley Music Incorporated"—to handle all of Presley's songs and accrued royalties. Parker would later use this set-up to make songwriters relinquish some of their royalties; this ultimately resulted in the better writers refusing to provide songs for Presley, causing a marked decline in the quality of his output over the years. Presley apparently disliked several songs—even some of the earliest top sellers he became famous for (which suggests commercial influences were sometimes greater than his own desires). Presley's friend Jerry Schilling relates that one way to really annoy the singer was to play a song, like "All Shook Up", on a jukebox at one of his private parties. "Get that crap off," was his typical reaction. Schilling, Jerry (2006-07-10). "Why I Wrote Me And A Guy Named Elvis". elvis.com.au. Retrieved on 2007-10-23. In 1969, record producer Chips Moman and Presley recorded with Moman's own musicians at his American Sound Studios in Memphis. Given the control exerted by RCA and the music publishers, this was a significant departure. Moman still had to deal with Hill and Range staff on site and was not happy with their song choices. Moman could only get the best out of the singer when he threatened to quit the sessions and asked Presley to remove the "aggravating" publishing personnel from the studio. Clayton and Heard, p.264-5 RCA Victor executive Joan Deary was later full of praise for the song choices and superior results of Moman's work, like "In the Ghetto" and "Suspicious Minds", but despite this, no producer was to override Hill and Range's control again. Clayton and Heard, p.267 According to life-long friend and "Memphis Mafia" member George Klein, over the years Presley was offered lead roles in the film Midnight Cowboy and in West Side Story. Robert Mitchum personally offered him the lead in Thunder Road. Clayton and Heard, p.226 In 1974, Barbra Streisand approached Presley to star with her in the remake of A Star is Born. In each case, any ambitions the singer may have had to play such parts were thwarted by his manager's negotiating demands, or his flat refusals. Marty Lacker regarded Parker as a "hustler and scam artist" who abused Presley's trust, but Lacker acknowledged that Parker was a master promoter. Nash, Lacker, Fike and Smith, Elvis Aron Presley: Revelations from the Memphis Mafia Priscilla Presley noted that "Elvis detested the business side of his career. He would sign a contract without even reading it." Presley, Elvis and Me Presley's father in turn distrusted Lacker and the other members of the "Memphis Mafia"; he thought they collectively exercised an unhealthy influence over his son. Humphries, p.79 "[I]t was no wonder" that as the singer "slid into addiction and torpor, no one raised the alarm: to them, Elvis was the bank, and it had to remain open." Harris, John (March 27, 2006). "Talking about Graceland". The Guardian. Musician Tony Brown noted the urgent need to reverse Presley's declining health as the singer toured in the mid-1970s. "But we all knew it was hopeless because Elvis was surrounded by that little circle of people... all those so-called friends and... bodyguards." Clayton and Heard, p.339 Larry Geller became Presley's hairdresser in 1964. Unlike others in the "Memphis Mafia", Geller was interested in 'spiritual studies', and was subsequently viewed with suspicion and scorn by the singer's manager and friends. Guralnick 1999, p.173 From their first conversation, Geller recalls how Presley revealed his secret thoughts and anxieties, how "there's got to be a reason... why I was chosen to be Elvis Presley.'" He then poured out his heart in "an almost painful rush of words and emotions," telling Geller about his mother and the hollowness of his Hollywood life, things he could not share with anyone around him. Thereafter, Presley voraciously read books Geller supplied, on religion and mysticism. Perhaps most tellingly, he revealed to Geller: "I swear to God, no one knows how lonely I get and how empty I really feel." Guralnick 1999, p.174 and in passim Presley would be preoccupied by such matters for much of his life, taking trunkloads of books with him on tour. 1968 comeback In 1968, even Presley's version of Jerry Reed's hook-laden "Guitar Man" had failed to enter the U.S. Top 40. He continued to issue movie soundtrack albums that sold poorly compared to those of films like Blue Hawaii from 1961. It had also been nearly six years since the single "Good Luck Charm" had topped the Billboard Hot 100. Kubernick, The Complete '68 Comeback Special Booklet Presley was, by now, "profoundly" unhappy with his career. Colonel Parker's plans once again included television, and he arranged for Presley to appear in his own special. The singer had not been on television since Frank Sinatra's Timex special in May of 1960. Parker shrewdly manoeuvred a deal with NBC's Tom Sarnoff which included the network's commitment to financing a future Presley feature film—something that Parker had found increasingly difficult to secure. The special was made in June, but was first aired on December 3, 1968 as a Christmas telecast called simply Elvis. Later dubbed the '68 Comeback Special by fans and critics, the show featured some lavishly staged studio productions. Other songs however, were performed live with a band in front of a small audience—Presley's first live appearance as a performer since 1961. The live segments saw Presley clad in black leather, singing and playing guitar in an uninhibited style—reminiscent of his rock and roll days. Rolling Stone called it "a performance of emotional grandeur and historical resonance." Jon Landau in Eye magazine remarked: "There is something magical about watching a man who has lost himself find his way back home. He sang with the kind of power people no longer expect of rock 'n' roll singers. He moved his body with a lack of pretension and effort that must have made Jim Morrison green with envy." Hopkins 2007, p.215 Its success was helped by director and co-producer, Steve Binder, who worked hard to reassure the nervous singer Binder, Steve (2005-07-08). "Interview with Steve Binder, director of Elvis' 68 Comeback Special". elvis.com.au. Retrieved on 2007-10-19. and to produce a show that was not just an hour of Christmas songs, as Colonel Parker had originally planned. Guralnick 1999, p.293 Binder, Steve (Aired: August 14, 2007). "Comeback Special". BBC Radio Two. By January, 1969, one of the key songs written specifically for the special, "If I Can Dream", reached number 12. The soundtrack of the special also broke into the Top 10. On December 4, when the TV ratings were released, NBC reported that Presley had captured 42 percent of the total viewing audience. It was the network's number one rated show that season. Jerry Schilling recalls that the special reminded Presley about what "he had not been able to do for years, being able to choose the people; being able to choose what songs and not being told what had to be on the soundtrack. ... He was out of prison, man." Steve Binder said of Presley's reaction: "I played Elvis the 60-minute show, and he told me in the screening room, "Steve, it's the greatest thing I've ever done in my life. I give you my word I will never sing a song I don't believe in." Buoyed by the experience, Presley engaged in the prolific series of recording sessions at American Sound Studios, which led to the acclaimed From Elvis in Memphis (Chips Moman was its uncredited producer). Jorgensen, p.281 It was followed by From Memphis To Vegas/From Vegas To Memphis, a double-album. The same sessions lead to the hit singles "In the Ghetto", "Suspicious Minds", "Kentucky Rain" and "Don't Cry Daddy". Return to live performances In 1969, Presley was keen to resume regular live performing. Following the success of Elvis, many new offers came in from around the world. The King on The Road, Elvis Presley Enterprises The London Palladium offered Parker $28,000 for a one week engagement. He responded: "That's fine for me, now how much can you get for Elvis?" By May, the brand new International Hotel in Las Vegas announced that it had booked Presley; he was scheduled to perform from July 31, after Barbra Streisand opened the new venue. Presley duly delivered fifty-seven shows over four weeks at the hotel, which had the largest showroom in the city. He had assembled some of the finest musicians—including an orchestra—and some of the best soul/gospel back-up singers available. Despite such a prestigious backing, Presley was nervous; his only other engagement in Las Vegas (1956) had been a disaster, critically. Parker therefore promoted the singer's appearances heavily; he rented billboards and took out full-page advertisements in local and trade papers. The lobby of the International displayed Presley souvenirs; records, T-shirts, straw boaters and stuffed animals. Parker intended to make Presley's return the show business event of the year, and hotel owner Kirk Kerkorian planned to send his own plane to New York to fly in the rock press for the debut performance. Presley took to the stage with no introduction. The audience—which included Pat Boone, Fats Domino, Wayne Newton, Dick Clark, Ann-Margret, George Hamilton, Angie Dickinson, and Henry Mancini—gave him a standing ovation before he sang one note. After a well-received performance, he returned to give an encore, of "Can't Help Falling in Love", and was given his third standing ovation Backstage, many well-wishers, including Cary Grant, congratulated Presley on his triumphant return which, in the showroom alone, had generated over $1,500,000. Newsweek commented: "There are several unbelievable things about Elvis, but the most incredible is his staying power in a world where meteoric careers fade like shooting stars." Elvis Quotes Rolling Stone magazine declared Presley to be "supernatural, his own resurrection", while Variety proclaimed him a "superstar". At a press conference after his opening show, when a reporter referred to him as "The King", Presley pointed to Fats Domino, standing at the back of the room. "No," he said, "that’s the real king of rock and roll." Cook, p.39 The next day, Parker's negotiations with the hotel resulted in a five-year contract for Presley to play each February and August, at a salary of $1 million per year. 1970–1972 In January 1970, Presley returned to the International Hotel for a month-long engagement, performing two shows a night. RCA recorded some shows and the best material appeared on the album On Stage - February 1970. Stanley and Coffey, p.94 In late February, Presley performed six more attendance-breaking shows at the Houston Astrodome in Texas. Stanley and Coffey, p.95 In August at the International Hotel, MGM filmed rehearsal and concert footage for a documentary: Elvis - That's The Way It Is. He wore a jumpsuit—a garment that would become a trademark of Presley's live performances in the 1970s. Although he had new hit singles in many countries, some were critical of his song choices and accused him of being distant from trends within contemporary music. (Aired: August 7, 2002). "How Big Was The King? Elvis Presley's Legacy, 25 Years After His Death." CBS News. Around this time Presley was threatened with kidnapping at the International Hotel. Phone calls were received, one demanding $50,000; if unpaid, Presley would be killed by a "crazy man". The FBI took the threat seriously and security was stepped up for the next two shows. Presley went on stage with a Derringer in his right boot and a .45 in his waistband, but nothing untoward transpired. Hopkins 2007, p.254 Stanley and Coffey, p.96 (The singer had had many threats of varying degrees since the fifties, many of them made without the singer's knowledge). Hopkins 2007, p.253 After closing his Las Vegas engagement on September 7, Presley embarked on his first concert tour since 1958. Feeling exhausted, Presley spent a month relaxing and recording before touring again in October and November. Stanley and Coffey, p.99 He would tour extensively in the U.S. up to his death; many of the 1,145 concerts setting attendance records. On December 21, 1970, Presley met with President Richard Nixon at the White House (Presley arrived with a gift—a handgun. It was accepted but not presented for security reasons). Presley had engineered the encounter to express his patriotism, his contempt for the hippie drug culture and his wish to be appointed a "Federal Agent at Large". He also wished to obtain a Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs badge to add to similar items he had begun collecting. He offered to "infiltrate hippie groups" and claimed that The Beatles had "made their money, then gone back to England where they fomented anti-American feeling." Guralnick 1999, p.420 Nixon was uncertain and bemused by their encounter, and twice expressed his concern to Presley that the singer needed to "retain his credibility". Guralnick 1999, in passim Ringo Starr later said he found it very sad to think Presley held such views. "This is Mr. Hips, the man, and he felt we were a danger. I think that the danger was mainly to him and his career." Paul McCartney said also that he "felt a bit betrayed ... The great joke was that we were taking drugs, and look what happened to [Elvis]. ... It was sad, but I still love him. ..." Brian Roylance, The Beatles Anthology, 2000, Chronicle Books. p.192 On January 16, 1971 Presley was named 'One of the Ten Outstanding Young Men of the Nation' by the U.S. Junior Chamber of Commerce (The Jaycees). http://www.fiftiesweb.com/elvis-bio-70s.htm Presley Seventies Biography That summer, the City of Memphis named part of Highway 51 South "Elvis Presley Boulevard",. In April 1972, MGM again filmed Presley, this time for Elvis on Tour, which won a 1972 Golden Globe for Best Documentary. A fourteen-date tour started with an unprecedented four consecutive sold-out shows at Madison Square Garden, New York. RCA taped the shows for a live album. After the tour, Presley released the 1972 single "Burning Love"—his last top ten hit in the U.S. charts. Divorce from Priscilla Off stage, Presley had continuing problems. He and Priscilla became increasingly distant due to Elvis being on the road so much. It was widely reported that he had cheated on her both before and after they married. In spite of his own infidelity, Presley was furious that Priscilla was having an affair with a mutual acquaintance—Mike Stone, a karate instructor she had met in 1971 backstage at one of Presley's concerts. It was Presley himself who first suggested Priscilla should take lessons from Stone. Once the news of their affair came to his attention, he raged obsessively: "There's too much pain in me... Stone [must] die." Guralnick 1999, p.489 A bodyguard, Red West, felt compelled to get a price for a contract killing and was relieved when Presley decided: "Aw hell... Maybe it's a bit heavy..." Guralnick 1999, p.490 The Presleys separated on February 23, 1972 after 13 years together. Elvis filed for legal separation in August 1972, and divorce in January 1973. In the following months, Priscilla visited Elvis in Las Vegas where she claims that he forced himself upon her in his hotel room and said "This is how a real man makes love to a woman.".<ref>Presley, Priscilla, Elvis & Me (19).</ref> They were divorced on October 9, 1973, agreeing to share custody of their daughter. Following his separation from Priscilla, he lived with Linda Thompson, a songwriter and one-time Memphis beauty queen, from July 1972 until just a few months before his death. Hopkins 2007, p.291 Following their breakup, he had a relationship with Ginger Alden, who has said that they were engaged. Aloha from Hawaii In January 1973, Presley performed two charity concerts in Hawaii for the Kui Lee cancer foundation. The first (January 12) was primarily a practice run for the main show which was broadcast live on January 14 (The first show also served as a backup if technical problems affected the live broadcast). The "Aloha from Hawaii" concert was the world's first live concert satellite broadcast, reaching at least a billion viewers live and a further 500 million on delay. The show's album went to number one and spent a year in the charts. See "Aloha From Hawaii" The album also proved to be Presley's last U.S. Number One album during his lifetime. 1973–1976 After his divorce in 1973, Presley became increasingly unwell, with prescription drugs affecting his health, mood and his stage act. His diet had always been unhealthy, and he now had significant weight problems. Cause Of Death, ElvisPresleyNews.com. Retrieved on 2008-10-20. He overdosed twice on barbiturates, spending three days in a coma in his hotel suite after the first. (August 11, 2002). "Elvis Special: Doctor Feelgood". The Observer. Reprinted in Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved on 2007-10-12. According to Dr. George C. Nichopoulos, Presley's main physician, the singer was "near death" in November 1973 because of side effects of Demerol addiction. Nichopoulos notes that the subsequent hospital admission "was crazy", because of the enormous attention Presley attracted, and the measures necessary to protect his medical details. Lab technicians were even exploiting Presley's ill-health by selling samples of his blood and urine. Clayton and Heard, p.293 In his book, Elvis: The Final Years, Jerry Hopkins writes: "Elvis' health plummeted as his weight ballooned." At a University of Maryland concert on September 27 (1974), band members "had trouble recognizing him. ... 'He walked on stage and held onto the mike for the first thirty minutes like it was a post. Everybody was scared.' Guitarist John Wilkinson ... recalled, ... 'He was all gut. He was slurring. ... It was obvious he was drugged, that there was something terribly wrong with his body. It was so bad, the words to the songs were barely intelligible. ... We were in a state of shock.' " Despite this, his "thundering" live version of "How Great Thou Art" won him a Grammy award in 1974. Jorgensen, p.381. Presley won three competitive "Grammies" for his gospel recordings: "How Great Thou Art"—the album, as well as the single—and for the album He Touched Me (1972). (He had fourteen nominations during his career, though it has been claimed that "Elvis has never been adequately appreciated by those who give the Grammies.") Roy 1985, p.131. In April 1974, rumors began that he would actually be playing overseas after years of offers. Stanley and Coffey, p.123 A $1,000,000 bid came in from a source in Australia for him to tour there, but Colonel Parker was uncharacteristically reluctant to accept such large sums. This prompted those closest to Presley to speculate about Parker's past and circumstances, and the reasons for his apparent unwillingness to apply for a passport to travel abroad. He set aside any notions Presley had of overseas work by citing poor security in other countries, and the lack of suitable venues for a star of his status. Presley apparently accepted such excuses, at the time. Presley continued to play to sell-out crowds in the U.S.; a 1975 tour ended with a concert in Pontiac, Michigan, attended by over 62,000 fans. However the singer now had "no motivation to lose his extra poundage... he became self-conscious... his self-confidence before the audience declined... Headlines such as 'Elvis Battles Middle Age' and 'Time Makes Listless Machine of Elvis' were not uncommon." Roy, p.70 According to Marjorie Garber, when Presley made his later appearances in Las Vegas, he appeared "heavier, in pancake make-up... with an elaborate jewelled belt and cape, crooning pop songs to a microphone ... [He] had become Liberace. Even his fans were now middle-aged matrons and blue-haired grandmothers, ... Mother's Day became a special holiday for Elvis' fans." Garber, Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing & Cultural Anxiety (1992), p.380 On July 13, 1976, Presley's father fired "Memphis Mafia" bodyguards Red West, Sonny West and David Hebler. All three were taken by surprise, especially the Wests, who had been with Presley since the beginning of his career. Stanley and Coffey, p.139 Presley was away in Palm Springs when it happened, and some suggest the singer was too cowardly to face them himself. Hopkins 2007, p.354 Vernon Presley cited the need to "cut back on expenses" when dismissing the three, but David Stanley has claimed they were really fired because of becoming more outspoken about Presley's drug dependency. Stanley and Coffey, p.140 A "trusted associate" of Presley, John O'Grady, also stated, in agreement with Parker and Vernon Presley, that the bodyguards "were too rough with the fans... resulting in a lot of unnecessary lawsuits" and lawyers' fees. The Wests and Hebler would later write a devastating indictment of Presley, notably his drug-taking, in the book: Elvis: What Happened?, published August 1, 1977. Stanley and Coffey, p.148 Almost throughout the 1970s, Presley's recording label had been increasingly concerned about making money from Presley material: RCA Victor often had to rely on live recordings because of problems getting him to attend studio sessions. A mobile studio was occasionally sent to Graceland in the hope of capturing an inspired vocal performance. Once in a studio, he could lack interest or be easily distracted; often this was linked to his health and drug problems. Final year and death In 2006, a journalist recalled: "Elvis Presley had [in 1977] become a grotesque caricature of his sleek, energetic former self... he was barely able to pull himself through his abbreviated concerts." Scherman, T. (August 16, 2006). "Elvis Dies". American Heritage. In Alexandria, Louisiana, the singer was on stage for less than an hour and "was impossible to understand." Guralnick 1999, p.628 In Baton Rouge, Presley failed to appear: he was unable to get out of his hotel bed, and the rest of the tour was cancelled. In Knoxville, Tennessee on May 20, "there was no longer any pretence of keeping up appearances. The idea was simply to get Elvis out on stage and keep him upright..." Despite his obvious problems, shows in Omaha, Nebraska and Rapid City, South Dakota were recorded for an album and a CBS-TV special: Elvis In Concert. Guralnick 1999, pp.637-8 In Rapid City, "he was so nervous on stage that he could hardly talk... He was undoubtedly painfully aware of how he looked, and he knew that in his condition, he could not perform any significant movement." Roy, Elvis: Prophet of Power, p.71. His performance in Omaha "exceeded everyone's worst fears... [giving] the impression of a man crying out for help..." According to Guralnick, fans "were becoming increasingly voluble about their disappointment, but it all seemed to go right past Elvis, whose world was now confined almost entirely to his room and his [spiritualism] books." Guralnick 1999, p.634 A cousin, Billy Smith, recalled how Presley would sit in his room and chat, recounting things like his favorite Monty Python sketches and his own past japes, but "mostly there was a grim obsessiveness... a paranoia about people, germs... future events", that reminded Smith of Howard Hughes. Guralnick 1999, p.212 and 642 The book Elvis: What Happened? was the first exposé to detail Presley's years of drug misuse, and was apparently the authors' revenge for them being sacked, and also a plea to get Presley to recognize the extent of his drug problems. Review of Medical Report. ElvisPresleyNews.com. Retrieved 2007-10-12. The singer "was devastated by the book. Here were his close friends who had written serious stuff that would affect his life. He felt betrayed." Patterson, Nigel (2003-01-30). David Stanley interview. Elvis Information Network (EIN). Retrieved on 2007-10-12. Presley's final performance was in Indianapolis at the Market Square Arena, on June 26, 1977. According to many of his entourage who accompanied him on tour, it was the "best show he had given in a long time" with "some strong singing". Another tour was scheduled to begin August 17, 1977, but at Graceland the day before, Presley was found on his bathroom floor by fiancée, Ginger Alden. According to the medical investigator, Presley had "stumbled or crawled several feet before he died"; he had apparently been using the toilet at the time. Guralnick 1999, p.651 Death was officially pronounced at 3:30 pm at the Baptist Memorial Hospital. Before his funeral, hundreds of thousands of fans, the press and celebrities lined the streets and many hoped to see the open casket in Graceland. One of Presley's cousins, Bobby Mann, accepted $18,000 to secretly photograph the corpse; the picture duly appeared on the cover of the National Enquirer, making it the largest and fastest selling issue of all time. Hopkins 2007, p.386 Two days after the singer's death, a car plowed into a group of 2000 fans outside Presley's home, killing two women and critically injuring a third. Matthew-Walker 1979, p.26 Among the mourners at the funeral were Ann-Margret (who had remained close to Presley) and his ex-wife. Clayton and Heard, p.394. U.S. President Jimmy Carter issued a statement (See 'Legacy'). Woolley, John T.; Gerhard Peters. "Jimmy Carter: Death of Elvis Presley Statement by the President". The American Presidency Project. Santa Barbara, CA:University of California (Hosted). Retrieved on 2007-10-12. On Thursday, August 18, following a funeral service at Graceland, Elvis Presley was buried at Forest Hill Cemetery in Memphis, next to his mother. After an attempt to steal the body on August 28, and with no signs of security concerns at the cemetery abating, his—and his mother's—remains were reburied at Graceland in the Meditation Garden in October. Presley had developed many health problems during his life, some of them chronic. Baden and Hennessee, p.35 "Elvis had an enlarged heart for a long time. That, together with his drug habit, caused his death. But he was difficult to diagnose; it was a judgment call." Opinions differ regarding the onset of his drug abuse. He did take amphetamines regularly in the army; it has been claimed that pills of some form were first given to him by Memphis DJ Dewey Phillips, Goldman, Albert, Elvis: The Last 24 Hours, p. 9 but Presley's friend Lamar Fike has said: "Elvis got his first uppers from what he stole from his mother. Gladys was given Dexedrine to help her with her 'change of life' problems." Priscilla Presley saw "problems in Elvis' life, all magnified by taking prescribed drugs." Presley's physician, Dr. Nichopoulos, has said: "[Elvis] felt that by getting [pills] from a doctor, he wasn't the common everyday junkie getting something off the street. He... thought that as far as medications and drugs went, there was something for everything." According to Guralnick: "[D]rug use was heavily implicated... no one ruled out the possibility of anaphylactic shock brought on by the codeine pills... to which he was known to have had a mild allergy." In two lab reports filed two months later, each indicated "a strong belief that the primary cause of death was polypharmacy," with one report "indicating the detection of fourteen drugs in Elvis' system, ten in significant quantity." Guralnick, p.652 The medical profession has been seriously questioned. Medical Examiner Dr. Jerry Francisco had publicly offered a cause of death while the autopsy was still being performed, but before toxicology results were known. Dr. Francisco dubiously stated that cardiac arrhythmia was the cause of death, a condition that can only be determined in a living person—not post mortem. "Coverup for a King". Court TV Crime Library. Retrieved 2007-10-12. Many doctors had been flattered to be associated with Presley (or had been bribed with gifts) and supplied him with pills, which simply fed his addictions. Clayton and Heard, p.336 The singer allegedly spent at least $1 million annually during his latter years on drugs and doctors' fees or inducements. Goldman, Albert, Elvis: The Last 24 Hours, p. 56 Although Dr. Nichopoulos was exonerated with regard to Presley's death, "In the first eight months of 1977 alone, he had [prescribed] more than 10,000 doses of sedatives, amphetamines, and narcotics: all in Elvis' name. On January 20, 1980, the board found [against] him... but decided that he was not unethical [because he claimed he'd been trying to wean the singer off the drugs]." His license was suspended. In July 1995, it was permanently revoked after it was found he had improperly dispensed drugs to several patients including Jerry Lee Lewis. In 1994, the autopsy into Presley's death was re-opened. Coroner Dr. Joseph Davis declared: "There is nothing in any of the data that supports a death from drugs [i.e. drug overdose]. In fact, everything points to a sudden, violent heart attack." However, there is little doubt that polypharmacy/Combined Drug Intoxication caused his premature death. Legacy Author Samuel Roy has argued: "Elvis' death did occur at a time when it could only help his reputation. Just before his death, Elvis had been forgotten by society." Roy, p.173 Biographer Ernst Jorgensen has observed that when Presley died, "it was as if all perspective on his musical career was somehow lost." Jorgensen, p.4 His latter-day song choices had been seen as poor; many who disliked Presley had long been dismissive because he did not write his own songs. Others complained—incorrectly—that he could not play musical instruments. Such criticism of Presley continues. Cook, p.20 Sinclair, Tom (August 9, 2002). "Elvis Presley is overrated". CNN.com. Retrieved 2007-10-12. The tabloids had ridiculed his obesity and his kitschy, jump-suited performances. Comedian George Carlin remarked, "America got what it deserved in Elvis Presley: a big fat, drug-addicted squealer." Carlin, George, Napalm and Silly Putty (2001), p.248. Sade Adu said about Presley: "when I see him in his fifties movies, Jailhouse Rock and King Creole, that's an image I desire to look like. But when he's in his jumpsuit I just think of him as a drag queen." Cited in Nina Rapi and Maya Chowdhry, Acts of Passion (1998), p.231. His sixties' film career was mocked. (In 1980, John Lennon said: "[Presley] died when he went into the army. That's when they killed him, that's when they castrated him.") Acknowledgment of his vocal style had been reduced to mocking the hiccuping, vocalese tricks that he had used on some early recordings—and to the way he said "Thankyouverymuch" after songs during live shows. Associated Press (2002-08-07). How big was the king? CBS News. Retrieved 2007-10-18. This was only countered by the uncritical adulation of die-hard fans, who had even denied that he looked "fat" before he died. Wall, David S. (2003). "Policing Elvis: legal action and the shaping of post-mortem celebrity culture as contested space" (PDF). Entertainment Law, 2 (3): pp.35-69. . Retrieved on 2007-10-18. Any wish to understand Elvis Presley—his genuine abilities and his real influence—"seemed almost totally obscured." Presley has featured prominently in a variety of polls and surveys designed to measure popularity and influence. However, sociologist Philip Ennis writes: "Perhaps it is an error of enthusiasm to freight Elvis Presley with too heavy a historical load" because, according to a opinion poll of high school students in 1957, Pat Boone was nearly the "two-to-one favorite over Elvis Presley among boys and preferred almost three-to-one by girls..." See Ennis, Philip H., The Seventh Stream: The Emergence of Rocknroll in American Popular Music (Wesleyan University Press, 1992), pp.251-252. Despite this, and unlike Pat Boone, Presley's early music and live performances are credited with helping to lay a commercial foundation which allowed established black music acts of the 1950s to receive due recognition. Performers like Fats Domino, Chuck Berry and Little Richard, came to national prominence after Presley's mix of musical styles was accepted among White American teenagers. Rather than Presley being seen as a white man who 'stole black music', Little Richard argued: "He was an integrator, Elvis was a blessing. They wouldn't let black music through. He opened the door for black music." Al Green agreed, saying; "He broke the ice for all of us." It has also been claimed that Presley's sound and persona helped to relax the rigid color line and thereby fed the fires of the civil rights movement. Bertrand, Race, Rock, and Elvis In the late 1960s, composer and conductor Leonard Bernstein remarked: "Elvis is the greatest cultural force in the twentieth century. He introduced the beat to everything, music, language, clothes, it's a whole new social revolution... the 60's comes from it." Khurana, Simran. "Quotes about Elvis". About.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-18. Other celebrated pop and rock musicians have acknowledged that the young Presley inspired them. The Beatles were all big Presley fans. "Elvis Presley biography". Music-Atlas. Retrieved on 2007-10-18. John Lennon said: "Nothing really affected me until I heard Elvis. If there hadn't been an Elvis, there wouldn't have been a Beatles." Cook, p.35 Deep Purple's Ian Gillan said: "For a young singer he was an absolute inspiration. I soaked up what he did like blotting paper... you learn by copying the maestro." Ian Gillan (2007-01-03). "Elvis Presley". Classic Rock. Retrieved on 2007-10-18. Rod Stewart declared: "Elvis was the King. No doubt about it. People like myself, Mick Jagger and all the others only followed in his footsteps." Cher recalls from seeing Presley live in 1956 that he made her "realize the tremendous effect a performer could have on an audience." Bob Dylan said: "When I first heard Elvis' voice I just knew that I wasn't going to work for anybody; and nobody was going to be my boss. Hearing him for the first time was like busting out of jail." By 1958, singers obviously adopting Presley's style, like Marty Wilde and Cliff Richard (the so-called "British Elvis"), were rising to prominence in the UK. Elsewhere, France's Johnny Hallyday and the Italians Adriano Celentano and Bobby Solo were also heavily influenced by Presley. "Johnny Hallyday biography". RFI Musique. Retrieved on 2007-10-18. Gundle, Stephen (September 2006). "Adriano Celentano and the origins of rock and roll in Italy". Journal of Modern Italian Studies, 11 (3): pp.367-86. Royal Holloway, University of London: Routledge. . Presley's recorded voice is seen by many as his enduring legacy. Music critic Henry Pleasants writes: "Elvis Presley has been described variously as a baritone and a tenor. An extraordinary compass... and a very wide range of vocal color have something to do with this divergence of opinion. The voice covers two octaves and a third ... Moreover, he has not been confined to one type of vocal production. In ballads and country songs he belts out full-voiced high G's and A's that an opera baritone might envy. He is a naturally assimilative stylist with a multiplicity of voices—in fact, Elvis' is an extraordinary voice, or many voices." It has also been noted that "Presley’s comprehensive musical knowledge and talent also surprised and impressed songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller... [They] considered Presley to be an 'idiot savant' because he knew so many songs. His knowledge of the blues especially impressed them. Leiber remembers that Presley "could imitate anything he heard. He had a perfect ear,"... Presley could sing and/or play a song on the piano after hearing it only once or twice. His natural ear for music, ability to play by ear, and to improvise were well known to his friends and musical associates." Gospel tenor Shawn Nielsen, who sang backing vocals for Presley on tour, said: "He could sing anything. I've never seen such versatility... He had such great soul. He had the ability to make everyone in the audience think that he was singing directly to them. He just had a way with communication that was totally unique." Presley's informal jamming in front of a small audience in the '68 Comeback Special is regarded as a forerunner of the so-called 'Unplugged' concept, later popularized by MTV. Johnson, Brett (2004-06-28). "Steve Binder, Director Of Elvis' '68 Comeback Special Talks About The King". elvis.com.au. Retrieved 2007-10-18. The singer has been inducted into four music 'Halls of Fame': the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (1986), the Rockabilly Hall of Fame (1997), the Country Music Hall of Fame (1998), and the Gospel Music Hall of Fame (2001). In 1984, he received the W. C. Handy Award from the Blues Foundation and the Academy of Country Music’s first Golden Hat Award. In 1987, he received the American Music Awards’ first posthumous presentation of the Award of Merit. Cook, p.33 Presley has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7080 Hollywood Boulevard. He was also honored by the Mississippi Blues Commission with a Mississippi Blues Trail historic marker placed in Tupelo, his birth place, in recognition of his contribution to the development of the blues in Mississippi. In 1994, the 40th anniversary of Presley's "That's All Right" was recognized with its re-release, which made the charts worldwide, making top three in the UK. During the 2002 World Cup a Junkie XL remix of his "A Little Less Conversation" (credited as "Elvis Vs JXL") topped the charts in over twenty countries and was included in a compilation of Presley's U.S. and UK number one hits, Elv1s: 30. In the UK charts (January 2005), three re-issued singles again went to number one ("Jailhouse Rock", "One Night"/"I Got Stung" and "It's Now or Never"). Throughout the year, twenty singles were re-issued—all making top five. In the same year, Forbes magazine named Presley, for the fifth straight year, the top-earning deceased celebrity, grossing US$45 million for the Presley estate during the preceding year. In mid-2006, top place was taken by Nirvana's Kurt Cobain after the sale of his song catalogue, but Presley reclaimed the top spot in 2007. Goldman, Lea; David M. Ewalt, eds. (2007-10-29). "Top-Earning Dead Celebrities". Forbes. Retrieved on 2007-10-31. Paul F. Campos has written: "The Elvis cult touches on so many crucial nerves of American popular culture: the ascent of a workingclass boy from the most obscure backwater to international fame and fortune; the white man with the soul of black music in his voice; the performer whose music tied together the main strands of American folk music – country, rhythm and blues, and gospel; and, perhaps most compellingly for a weight-obsessed nation, the sexiest man in America's gradual transformation into a fat, sweating parody of his former self, straining the bounds of a jewel-encrusted bodysuit on a Las Vegas stage. The images of fat Elvis and thin Elvis live together in the popular imagination." Campos, Paul F., The Obesity Myth: Why America's Obsession with Weight is Hazardous to Your Health (2004), p.81. The singer continues to be imitated—and parodied—outside the main music industry and Presley songs remain very popular on the karaoke circuit. People from a diversity of cultures and backgrounds work as Elvis impersonators ("the raw 1950s Elvis and the kitschy 1970s Elvis are the favorites.") Stecopoulos, p.198 In 2002, it was observed: Discography See also List of best-selling music artists List of artists by total number of USA number one singles List of artists by total number of UK number one singles List of honorific titles in popular music Notes Presley's genuine birth certificate reads "Elvis Aaron Presley" (as written by a doctor). There is also a souvenir birth certificate that reads "Elvis Aron Presley." When Presley did sign his middle name, he used Aron. It reads 'Aron' on his marriage certificate and on his army duffel bag. Aron was apparently the spelling the Presleys used to make it similar to the middle name of Elvis' stillborn twin, Jesse Garon. Elvis later sought to change the name's spelling to the traditional and biblical Aaron. In the process he learned that "official state records had always listed it as Aaron. Therefore, he always was, officially, Elvis Aaron Presley." Knowing Presley's plans for his middle name, Aaron is the spelling his father chose for Elvis' tombstone, and it is the spelling his estate has designated as the official spelling whenever the middle name is used today. His death certificate says "Elvis Aron Presley." This quirk has helped inflame the "Elvis is not dead" conspiracy theories. Presley's version dropped the word "Mama" from the title. The issue of whether Presley "stole" music of black origin continued decades later. See: Kolawole, Helen (August 15, 2002). "He wasn't my king". Guardian Unlimited. Retrieved on 2007-10-14 In 1973, Presley was keen to produce a karate movie/documentary, enlisting the help of several top instructors and film-makers. Instructor Rick Husky says: "...Basically [our meeting] never went anywhere... Elvis got up and did some demonstrations with Ed [Parker], you know stumbled around a little bit, and it was very sad." Husky was aware that Presley was "stoned." "Colonel" Parker thought the project was folly—and a drain on their resources—from the start. (Guralnick 1994, p.531 and in passim). The film footage was finally edited, restored and released as The New Gladiators in 2002.New Gladiators (2002) Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved on 2007-10-12; Susan, King (November 17, 2002). "When Elvis bowed to karate kings" Los Angeles Times. Reprinted in IssacFlorentine.com. Retrieved on 2007-10-12. In 2008, it was claimed that Presley had flown to London in 1958 whilst in the Army for a one-day secret trip: his only visit to the UK was thought to have been a stop-over at Prestwick Airport, Scotland in 1960. Tommy Steele, Presley's alleged London chaperone, said that he'd sworn not to divulge details of the visit. Friends of Presley, including Army buddy Lamar Fike, insist that the trip never took place. . See also: Cook, Graceland National Historic Landmark Nomination Form. Other analyses of Presley's voice credit him with a three octave range. VH1 ranked Presley #8 on its 100 Greatest Artists in Rock and Roll in 1998 while CMT ranked him #15 on CMT's 40 Greatest Men in Country Music. Presley is one of only three artists to make both VH1's and CMT's lists, the others being Johnny Cash and The Eagles. (1998). "VH1: 100 Greatest Artists of Rock & Roll". VH1. Retrieved on 2007-10-16. (2005). "CMT's 40 Greatest Men in Country Music". CMT. Retrieved on 2007-10-16. Elvis also ranked second for BBC's "Voice of the Century", eighth on Discovery Channel's "Greatest American" list, in the top ten of Variety's "100 Icons of the century", sixty-sixth in The Atlantic Monthly's "100 most influential figures in American history", and third in Rolling Stone's "The Immortals: The Fifty Greatest Artists of All Time" for which he was chosen by Bono. (April 18, 2001). "Sinatra is voice of the century" BBC NEWS, Retrieved on 2007-10-16. "Greatest American". Discovery Channel. Retrieved on 2007-10-16. "100 Icons of the century". Variety. Retrieved on 2007-10-16. (December 2006). "Top 100 most influential figures in American history". The Atlantic Monthly. Retrieved on 2007-10-16. (2004-04-15). "The Immortals: The First Fifty". Rolling Stone (946). Retrieved on 2007-10-16. Footnotes References Alagna, Magdalena (2002). Elvis Presley. Rosen Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8239-3524-8. Austen, Jake (2005). TV-A-Go-Go: Rock on TV from American Bandstand to American Idol. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 1-55652-572-9. Baden, Michael M.; Judith Adler Hennessee (1992). Unnatural Death: Confessions of a Medical Examiner. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-8041-0599-5. Bayles, Martha (1996). Hole in Our Soul: The Loss of Beauty and Meaning in American Popular Music. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-03959-5. Bertrand, Michael T. (2000). Race, Rock, and Elvis. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02586-5. Beebe, R.; D. Fulbrook, B. Saunders (eds.) (2002). Rock over the Edge. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-2915-8. Brown, Peter Harry; Pat H. Broeske (1998). Down at the End of Lonely Street: The Life and Death of Elvis Presley. Signet. ISBN 0-451-19094-7. Caine, A. (2005). Interpreting Rock Movies: The Pop Film and Its Critics in Britain. Palgrave Macmillan. 0719065380. Carr, Roy; Mick Farren (1982). Elvis: The complete illustrated record. Eel Pie Publishing. ISBN 0-906008-54-9. Clayton, Rose; Dick Heard (2003). Elvis: By Those Who Knew Him Best. Virgin Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-7535-0835-4. Cook, J., Henry, P. (ed.) (2004). Graceland National Historic Landmark Nomination Form (PDF). United States Department of the Interior. Curtin, Jim; James Curtin, Renata Ginter (1998). Elvis: Unknown Stories behind the Legend. Celebrity Books. ISBN 1-58029-102-3. Dickerson, James L. (2001). Colonel Tom Parker: The Curious Life of Elvis Presley's Eccentric Manager. Cooper Square Press. ISBN 0-8154-1267-3. Denisoff, R. Serge (1975). Solid Gold: The Popular Record Industry. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Books. ISBN 0-87855-586-2. Dundy, Elaine (1986). Elvis and Gladys: The Genesis of the King, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-7088-3087-0. Escott, Colin. (1998). "Elvis Presley". In The Encyclopedia of Country Music. Paul Kingsbury, Editor. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517608-1. Falk, Ursula A.; Gerhard Falk (2005). Youth Culture and the Generation Gap. Algora Publishing. ISBN 0-87586-367-1. Farren, Mick; Pearce Marchbank (1977). Elvis In His Own Words. New York: Omnibus Press. ISBN 0-86001-487-8. Finstad, Suzanne (1997). Child Bride: The Untold Story of Priscilla Beaulieu Presley. New York: Harmony Books. ISBN 0-517-70585-0. Gamson, Joshua (1994). Claims to Fame: Celebrity in Contemporary America. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-08352-0. George-Warren, Holly; Patricia Romanowski, Jon Pareles (2001). The Rolling Stone Encyclopedia of Rock And Roll. Fireside. ISBN 0-7432-0120-5. Goldman, Albert (1990). Elvis: The Last 24 Hours. St Martins. ISBN 0-312-92541-7. Guralnick, Peter (1994). Last Train to Memphis: The Rise of Elvis Presley. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0-316-33225-9. Guralnick, Peter (1999). Careless Love. The Unmaking of Elvis Presley. Back Bay Books. ISBN 0-316-33297-6. Harbinson, W. A., (1977). The life and death of Elvis Presley. London: Michael Joseph. ISBN 0-517-24670-8. Harrington C. Lee; Denise D. Bielby (2000). Popular Culture: Production and Consumption. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-21710-X. Hopkins, Jerry (2002). Elvis in Hawaii. Bess Press. ISBN 1-57306-142-5. Hopkins, Jerry (2007). Elvis. The Biography. Plexus. ISBN 0-85965-391-9. Humphries, Patrick (2003). Elvis The #1 Hits: The Secret History of the Classics. Andrews McMeel. ISBN 0-7407-3803-8. Jorgensen, Ernst (1998). Elvis Presley: A life in music. The complete recording sessions. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-18572-3. Kirchberg, Connie; Marc Hendricks (1999). Elvis Presley, Richard Nixon, and the American Dream, Jefferson, NC: McFarland and Company. ISBN 0-7864-0716-6. Lichter, Paul (1980). Elvis - The Boy Who Dared To Rock. Sphere Books. ISBN 0 7221 5547-6. Lipton, Peggy; Coco Dalton, David Dalton (2005). Breathing Out. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-32413-8. Lisanti, Tom (2000). Fantasy Femmes of 60's Cinema: Interviews with 20 Actresses from Biker, Beach, and Elvis Movies. McFarland and Company. ISBN 0-7864-0868-5. Lisanti, Tom (2003). Drive-In Dream Girls: A Galaxy of B-Movie Starlets of the Sixties. McFarland. ISBN 0-7864-1575-4. Margret, Ann; Todd Gold (1994). Ann-Margret: My Story. G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-13891-9. Matthew-Walker, Robert (1979). Elvis Presley. A Study in Music. Tunbridge Wells: Midas Books. ISBN 0-85936-162-4. Miller, James (1999). Flowers in the Dustbin: The Rise of Rock and Roll, 1947–1977. Fireside. ISBN 0-684-86560-2. Moore, Scotty; James Dickerson (1997). That’s Alright, Elvis. Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-864599-5. Nash, A.; M. Lacker, L. Fike, B. Smith (1995). Elvis Aron Presley: Revelations from the Memphis Mafia. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-109336-X. Naylor, Jerry and Steve Halliday (2007). The Rockabilly Legends; They Called It Rockabilly Long Before they Called It Rock and Roll (Book and DVD). Hal Leonard Publishing Corporation. ISBN 1-4234-2042-X. Pratt, Linda R. (1979). "Elvis, or the Ironies of a Southern Identity". Elvis: Images and Fancies. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. Presley, Priscilla, (1985). Elvis and Me. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. ISBN 0-399-12984-7. Rodman, G., (1996). Elvis After Elvis, The Posthumous Career of a Living Legend. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11002-5. Rodriguez, R., (2006). The 1950s' Most Wanted: The Top 10 Book of Rock & Roll Rebels, Cold War Crises, and All-American Oddities. Potomac Books. ISBN 1-57488-715-7. Roy, Samuel (1985). Elvis: Prophet of Power. Branden Publishing Co. Inc. ISBN 0-8283-1898-0. Shepherd, Cybill; Aimee Lee Ball (2000). Cybill Disobedience. Thorndike Press. ISBN 0-06-103014-7. Stanley, David E.; Frank Coffey (1998). The Elvis Encyclopedia. London: Virgin Books. ISBN 0-7535-0293-3. Stecopoulos, H.; M. Uebel (1997). Race and the Subject of Masculinities. Duke University Press. ISBN 0-8223-1966-7. David Szatmary (1996). A Time to Rock: A Social History of Rock 'n' Roll. New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-864670-3. Verswijver, L., (2002). Movies Were Always Magical: Interviews with 19 Actors, Directors, and Producers from the Hollywood of the 1930s through the 1950s. McFarland & Company. ISBN 0-7864-1129-5. Walser, Robert; David Nicholls (ed.) (1999). The Cambridge History of American Music. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45429-8. West, Red; Sonny West, Dave Hebler (As Told To Steve Dunleavy) (1977). Elvis: What Happened. Bantam Books. ISBN 0-345-27215-3. Further reading Goldman, Albert (1981). Elvis. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-023657-7. Allen, Lew (2007). Elvis & the birth of rock. Genesis Publications. ISBN 1-905662-00-9. Cantor, Louis (2005). Dewey and Elvis - The Life and Times of a Rock 'n' Roll Deejay. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-02981-X. Chadwick, Vernon (ed.) (1997). In Search of Elvis: Music, Race, Art, Religion. Proceedings of the first annual International Conference on Elvis Presley, Westview. ISNB 0813329876. Doss, Erika Lee (1999). Elvis Culture: Fans, Faith, and Image. University of Kansas Press. ISBN 0-7006-0948-2. Hopkins, Jerry (2007). Elvis. The Biography. Plexus. ISBN 0-85965-391-9. Marcus, Greil (1991). Dead Elvis: A Chronicle of a Cultural Obsession. Marcus, Greil (2000). Double Trouble: Bill Clinton and Elvis Presley in a Land of No Alternative. ISBN 0-571-20676-X. Nash, Alanna (1995). Elvis Aaron Presley: Revelations from the Memphis Mafia. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-109336-X. Nash, Alanna (2003). The Colonel: The Extraordinary Story of Colonel Tom Parker and Elvis Presley. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-1301-7. Tamerius, Steve D. & Worth, Fred L. (1990). Elvis: His Life From A to Z''. Contemporary Books. ISBN 0-8092-4528-0. External links Elvis Presley Enterprises - Official site of the Elvis Presley brand. Elvis Resources - Interviews and articles about Elvis Presley By Elvis Australia Elvis Presley's Graceland - A detailed history of Elvis' Graceland, with photos. 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6,417	Albert_Camus	Albert Camus () (7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was a French author, philosopher, and journalist who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1957. He is often associated with existentialism, but Camus refused this label. On the other hand, as he wrote in his essay The Rebel, his whole life was devoted to opposing the philosophy of nihilism while still delving deeply into individual freedom. In 1949, Camus founded the Group for International Liaisons, in the Revolutionary Union Movement, according to the book Albert Camus, une vie by Olivier Todd, a group opposed to some tendencies of the surrealistic movement of André Breton. Camus was the second-youngest recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature (after Rudyard Kipling) when he became the first Africa-born writer to receive the award, in 1957. He is also the shortest-lived of any literature laureate to date, having died in an automobile accident only three years after receiving the award. In an interview in 1945, Camus rejected any ideological associations: "No, I am not an existentialist. Sartre and I are always surprised to see our names linked…" Les Nouvelles litteraires, 15 November 1945 Early years Albert Camus was born on 7 November 1913 in Mondovi, Algeria to a French (Pied-Noir) settler family. Albert Camus -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia His mother was of Spanish extraction and was half-deaf. His father Lucien, a poor agricultural worker of Alsatian origin, died in the Battle of the Marne in 1914 during the First World War, while serving as a member of the Zouave infantry regiment. Camus lived in poor conditions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of Algiers. In 1923, he was accepted into the lycée and eventually to the University of Algiers. However, he contracted tuberculosis in 1930, which put an end to his football activities (he had been a goalkeeper for the university team) and forced him to make his studies a part-time pursuit. He took odd jobs including private tutor, car parts clerk and work for the Meteorological Institute. He completed his licence de philosophie (BA) in 1935; in May 1936, he successfully presented his thesis on Plotinus, Néo-Platonisme et Pensée Chrétienne, for his diplôme d'études supérieures (roughly equivalent to an M.A. thesis). Camus joined the French Communist Party in the Spring of 1935 seeing it as a way to "fight inequalities between Europeans and 'natives' in Algeria." He did not suggest he was a Marxist or that he had read Das Kapital, but did write that "[w]e might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities". Todd, O Albert Camus: A Life, p37, 250, Alfred A. Knopf, 1998; Carroll & Graf, 2000. In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded. Camus joined the activities of the Algerian People's Party (Le Parti du Peuple Algérien), which got him into trouble with his Communist party comrades. As a result, he was denounced as a Trotskyite and expelled from the party in 1937. Camus went on to be associated with the French anarchist movement. The anarchist Andre Prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting in 1948 of the Cercle des Etudiants Anarchistes (Anarchist Student Circle) as a sympathiser who was familiar with anarchist thought. Camus went on to write for anarchist publications such as Le Libertaire, La révolution Proletarienne and Solidaridad Obrera (the organ of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT). Camus also stood with the anarchists when they expressed support for the uprising of 1953 in East Germany. He again stood with the anarchists in 1956, first with the workers’ uprising in Poznan, Poland, and then later in the year with the Hungarian Revolution. In 1934, he married Simone Hie, a morphine addict, but the marriage ended as a consequence of infidelities on both sides. In 1935, he founded Théâtre du Travail — "Worker's Theatre" — (renamed Théâtre de l'Equipe ("Team's Theatre") in 1937), which survived until 1939. From 1937 to 1939 he wrote for a socialist paper, Alger-Républicain, and his work included an account of the peasants who lived in Kabylie in poor conditions, which apparently cost him his job. From 1939 to 1940, he briefly wrote for a similar paper, Soir-Republicain. He was rejected by the French army because of his tuberculosis. In 1940, Camus married Francine Faure, a pianist and mathematician. Although he loved Francine, he had argued passionately against the institution of marriage, dismissing it as unnatural. Even after Francine gave birth to twins, Catherine and Jean, on 5 September 1945, he continued to joke wearily to friends that he was not cut out for marriage. Camus conducted numerous affairs, particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the Spanish-born actress Maria Casares. In the same year Camus began to work for Paris-Soir magazine. In the first stage of World War II, the so-called Phony War stage, Camus was a pacifist. However, he was in Paris to witness how the Wehrmacht took over. On 15 December 1941, Camus witnessed the execution of Gabriel Péri, an event that Camus later said crystallized his revolt against the Germans. Afterwards he moved to Bordeaux alongside the rest of the staff of Paris-Soir. In the same year he finished his first books, The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus. He returned briefly to Oran, Algeria in 1942. Literary career During the war Camus joined the French Resistance cell Combat, which published an underground newspaper of the same name. This group worked against the Nazis, and in it Camus assumed the nom de guerre "Beauchard". Camus became the paper's editor in 1943, and when the Allies liberated Paris, Camus reported on the last of the fighting. He was, however, one of the few French editors to publicly express opposition to the use of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima soon after the event on 8 August 1945. He eventually resigned from Combat in 1947, when it became a commercial paper. It was then that Camus became acquainted with Jean-Paul Sartre. After the war, Camus began frequenting the Café de Flore on the Boulevard Saint-Germain in Paris with Sartre and others. Camus also toured the United States to lecture about French thinking. Although he leaned left politically, his strong criticisms of Communist doctrine did not win him any friends in the Communist parties and eventually also alienated Sartre. In 1949 his tuberculosis returned and he lived in seclusion for two years. In 1951 he published The Rebel, a philosophical analysis of rebellion and revolution which made clear his rejection of communism. The book upset many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France and led to the final split with Sartre. The dour reception depressed him and he began instead to translate plays. Camus' first significant contribution to philosophy was his idea of the absurd, the result of our desire for clarity and meaning within a world and condition that offers neither, which he explained in The Myth of Sisyphus and incorporated into many of his other works, such as The Stranger and The Plague. Despite the split from his "study partner," Sartre, some still argue that Camus falls into the existentialist camp. However, he rejected that label himself in his essay Enigma and elsewhere (see: The Lyrical and Critical Essays of Albert Camus). The current confusion may still arise, as many recent applications of existentialism have much in common with many of Camus' practical ideas (see: Resistance, Rebellion, and Death). However, the personal understanding he had of the world (e.g. "a benign indifference", in The Stranger), and every vision he had for its progress (e.g. vanquishing the "adolescent furies" of history and society, in The Rebel) undoubtedly set him apart. In the 1950s Camus devoted his efforts to human rights. In 1952 he resigned from his work for UNESCO when the UN accepted Spain as a member under the leadership of General Franco. In 1953 he criticized Soviet methods to crush a workers' strike in East Berlin. In 1956 he protested against similar methods in Poland (protests in Poznań) and the Soviet repression of the Hungarian revolution in October. The monument to Camus built in the small town of Villeblevin, France where he died in an automobile accident on 4 January 1960 He maintained his pacifism and resistance to capital punishment anywhere in the world. One of his most significant contributions to the movement against capital punishment was an essay collaboration with Arthur Koestler, the writer, intellectual and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment. The bronze plaque on the monument to Camus, built in the small town of Villeblevin, France. The plaque reads: "From the Yonne area's local council, in tribute to the writer Albert Camus who was watched over in the Villeblevin town hall in the night of 4 January – 5 January 1960." When the Algerian War began in 1954 it presented a moral dilemma for Camus. He identified with pied-noirs, and defended the French government on the grounds that the revolt in Algeria was really an integral part of the 'new Arab imperialism' led by Egypt and an 'anti-Western' offensive orchestrated by Russia to 'encircle Europe' and 'isolate the United States'. Actuelles III: Chroniques Algeriennes, 1939–58 Although favouring greater Algerian autonomy or even federation, though not full-scale independence, he believed that the pied-noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war he advocated civil truce that would spare the civilians, which was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began to work for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty. From 1955 to 1956 Camus wrote for L'Express. In 1957 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in literature "for his important literary production, which with clear-sighted earnestness illuminates the problems of the human conscience in our times" not for his novel The Fall, published the previous year, but for his writings against capital punishment in the essay Réflexions sur la Guillotine. When he spoke to students at the University of Stockholm, he defended his apparent inactivity in the Algerian question and stated that he was worried about what might happen to his mother, who still lived in Algeria. This led to further ostracism by French left-wing intellectuals. The Revolutionary Union Movement and the European Union As he wrote in L'Homme révolté (in the chapter about "The Thought on Midday") he was a follower of the ancient Greek 'Solar Tradition' (la pensée solaire). So, not only was he the leader of the French resistance movement "Combat," but he also set up in 1947-8 the Revolutionary Union Movement (Groupes de liaison internationale - GLI) which was formed in 1949 and can be described as a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary syndicalism (Syndicalisme révolutionnaire). For more, see the book : Alfred Rosmer et le mouvement révolutionnaire internationale by Christian Gras). His colleagues were Nicolas Lazarévitch, Louis Mercier, Roger Lapeyre, Paul Chauvet, Auguste Largentier, Jean de Boë (see the article: "Nicolas Lazarévitch, Itinéraire d'un syndicaliste révolutionnaire" by Sylvain Boulouque in the review Communisme, n° 61, 2000). His main aim was to express the positive side of surrealism and existentialism, rejecting the negativity and the nihilism of André Breton and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1944 Camus founded the "French Committee for the European Federation" (Comité Français pour la Féderation Européene -CFFE) declaring that Europe "can only evolve along the path of economic progress, democracy and peace if the nation states become a federation". From 1943, Albert Camus had correspondence with Altiero Spinelli who founded the European Federalist Movement in Milan—see Ventotene Manifesto and the book "Unire l'Europa, superare gli stati", Altiero Spinelli nel Partito d'Azione del Nord Italia e in Francia dal 1944 al 1945-annexed a letter by Altiero Spinelli to Albert Camus. In 22-25 March 1945, the first conference of the European Federalist Movement was organised in Paris with the participation of Albert Camus, George Orwell, Emmanuel Mounier, Lewis Mumford, André Philip, Daniel Mayer, François Bondy and Altiero Spinelli (see the book "The Biography of Europe" by Pan Drakopoulos). This specific branch of the European Federalist Movement disintegrated in 1957 after the domination of Winston Churchill's ideas about the European integration. Camus and Orwell Three essays by Dr. Miho Takashima in the International Journal of Humanities ("Revolt and Equilibrium: A Comparative Study of Nineteen Eighty-Four and L'Homme Révolté, the Views and Struggles of Orwell and Camus", "Art and Representation: A Comparative Study of George Orwell and Albert Camus on their Literary Works", and "George Orwell and Albert Camus: A Comparative Study – Their Views and Dilemmas in the Politics of the 1930s and 40s") explore the relation between the work of the French writer Albert Camus and the English writer George Orwell. Takashima argues that Orwell—perhaps intentionally, in order to warn the intellectual elite—compromised with "Big Brother", while Camus confronted with The Plague. This is observed not only in the comparison between Nineteen Eighty-Four and The Rebel but, especially, in Camus' play The State of Siege. This theatrical play was written together with the novel The Plague and the essay The Rebel. It is the work which—according to Camus himself—represents him best and is a response to George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four. The hero, Diego, opposes the totalitarian dictator named Plague, and dies in order to set a Spanish town free from the Inquisition. The State of Siege is a work against totalitarianism, written in the same epoch when Camus' contemporary, George Orwell, wrote Nineteen Eighty-Four. The play includes an allegorical reference to the end of Orwell's novel. The original title of The State of Siege was The Holy Inquisition in Cadix. In the French edition of the book, Camus has included an essay under the title "Why Spain?". In this polemical text, he answers his Catholic friend Gabriel Marcel who criticized him for setting the plot in Spain. Here Camus expresses his opposition to the totalitarian regimes of the West, and to the behavior of the Vatican and the Pope during World War II. The most important phrase of this essay is "Why Guernica, Gabriel Marcel?". Death Camus died on 4 January 1960 in an automobile accident near Sens, in a place named "Le Grand Fossard" in the small town of Villeblevin. In his coat pocket lay an unused train ticket. It is possible that he had planned to travel by train, but decided to go by car instead. KIAD MA in Fine Art: a student run seminar Albert Camus' gravestone The driver of the Facel Vega car, Michel Gallimard — his publisher and close friend — was also killed in the accident. Camus was buried in the Lourmarin Cemetery, Lourmarin, Vaucluse, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France. He was survived by his twin children, Catherine and Jean, who hold the copyrights to his work. Two of Camus' works were published posthumously. The first, entitled A Happy Death published in 1970, featured a character named Meursault, as in The Stranger, but there is some debate as to the relationship between the two stories. The second posthumous publication was an unfinished novel, The First Man, that Camus was writing before he died. The novel was an autobiographical work about his childhood in Algeria and was published in 1995. Summary of Absurdism Many writers have written on the Absurd, each with his or her own interpretation of what the Absurd actually is and their own ideas on the importance of the Absurd. For example, Sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience, while Kierkegaard explains that the absurdity of certain religious truths prevent us from reaching God rationally. Camus was not the originator of Absurdism and regretted the continued reference to him as a philosopher of the absurd. He shows less and less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The Myth of Sisyphus). To distinguish Camus' ideas of the Absurd from those of other philosophers, people sometimes refer to the Paradox of the Absurd, when referring to Camus' Absurd. His early thoughts on the Absurd appeared in his first collection of essays, L'Envers et l'endroit (The Two Sides Of The Coin) in 1937. Absurd themes appeared with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, Noces (Nuptials), in 1938. In these essays Camus does not offer a philosophical account of the Absurd, or even a definition; rather he reflects on the experience of the Absurd. In 1942 he published the story of a man living an Absurd life as L'Étranger (The Stranger), and in the same year released Le Mythe de Sisyphe (The Myth of Sisyphus), a literary essay on the Absurd. He had also written a play about a Roman Emperor, Caligula, pursuing an Absurd logic. However, the play was not performed until 1945. The turning point in Camus' attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous German friend, written between July 1943 and July 1944. The first was published in the Revue Libre in 1943, the second in the Cahiers de Libération in 1944, and the third in the newspaper Libertés, in 1945. All four letters have been published as Lettres à un ami allemand (Letters to a German Friend) in 1945, and have appeared in the collection Resistance, Rebellion, and Death. Camus' ideas on the Absurd In his essays Camus presented the reader with dualisms: happiness and sadness, dark and light, life and death, etc. His aim was to emphasize the fact that happiness is fleeting and that the human condition is one of mortality. He did this not to be morbid, but to reflect a greater appreciation for life and happiness. In Le Mythe, this dualism becomes a paradox: We value our lives and existence so greatly, but at the same time we know we will eventually die, and ultimately our endeavours are meaningless. While we can live with a dualism (I can accept periods of unhappiness, because I know I will also experience happiness to come), we cannot live with the paradox (I think my life is of great importance, but I also think it is meaningless). In Le Mythe, Camus was interested in how we experience the Absurd and how we live with it. Our life must have meaning for us to value it. If we accept that life has no meaning and therefore no value, should we kill ourselves? Meursault, the Absurdist hero of L'Étranger, has killed a man and is executed. Caligula ends up admitting his Absurd logic was wrong and is killed by an assassination he has deliberately brought about. However, while Camus possibly suggests that Caligula's Absurd reasoning is wrong, the play's anti-hero does get the last word, as the author similarly exalts Meursault's final moments. Camus' understanding of the Absurd promotes public debate; his various offerings entice us to think about the Absurd and offer our own contribution. Concepts such as cooperation, joint effort and solidarity are of key importance to Camus. Camus made a significant contribution to a viewpoint of the Absurd, and always rejected nihilism as a valid response. "If nothing had any meaning, you would be right. But there is something that still has a meaning." Second Letter to a German Friend, December 1943. What still had meaning for Camus is that despite humans being subjects in an indifferent and "absurd" universe, in which meaning is challenged by the fact that we all die, meaning can be created, however provisionally and unstably, by our own decisions and interpretations. Opposition to totalitarianism Throughout his life, Camus spoke out against and actively opposed totalitarianism in its many forms. Interview with Catherine Camus Early on, Camus was active within the French Resistance to the German occupation of France during World War II, even directing the famous Resistance journal, Combat. On the French collaboration with Nazi occupiers he wrote: Now the only moral value is courage, which is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in the name of the people In Camus' notebooks and letters, as quoted in Albert Camus A Life By Olivier Todd. Camus' well-known falling out with Sartre is linked to this opposition to totalitarianism. Camus detected a reflexive totalitarianism in the mass politics espoused by Sartre in the name of radical Marxism. This was apparent in his work L'Homme Révolté (The Rebel) which not only was an assault on the Soviet police state, but also questioned the very nature of mass revolutionary politics. Camus continued to speak out against the atrocities of the Soviet Union, a sentiment captured in his 1957 speech, The Blood of the Hungarians, commemorating the anniversary of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, an uprising crushed in a bloody assault by the Red Army. Camus and solidarity Solidarity in The Stranger In The Stranger, Albert Camus characterizes his justification of the absurd through the experiences of a protagonist who simply does not conform to the system. His inherent honesty disturbs the status quo; Meursault's inability to lie cannot seamlessly integrate him within society and in turn threatens the simple fabrics of human mannerisms expected of a structurally ordered society. Consequently, the punishment for his crime is not decided on the basis of murder, but rather for the startling indifference towards his mother's recent death. Even after a conflicting spiritual discussion with a pastor inciting Meursault to consider a possible path towards redemption, the latter still refuses to take upon salvation and symbolizes his ultimatum by embracing the "gentle indifference of the world"; an act which only furthers his solidarity with a society incapable of realizing his seemingly inhumane and misanthropic behavior. Solidarity in The Plague The plague is an undeniable part of life. As posited in The Plague, it is omnipresent, just like death was always an impeding factor in The Stranger. Albert Camus once again questions the meaning of the moral concepts justifying humanity and human suffering within a religious framework. For Camus, the rationale behind Christian doctrine is useless; as mortal beings, we cannot successfully rationalize the impending and inescapable death sentence forced upon every human. The plague, which befalls Oran, is a concrete and tangible facilitator of death. Ultimately, the plague enables people to understand that their individual suffering is meaningless. As the epidemic "evolves" within the seasons, so do the citizens of Oran, who instead of willfully giving up to a disease they have no control over, decide to fight against their impending death, thus unwillingly creating optimism in the midst of hopelessness. This is where Camus channels his thoughts behind the importance of solidarity: although the plague is still primarily an agent of death, it provides the uncanny opportunity for people to realize that individual suffering is absurd. In the midst of complete suffering, the challenging response adopted by the majority of the citizens of Oran demonstrates an inexplicable humanistic connection between distraught and distant characters. Only by making the choice to fight an irreversible epidemic are people able to create the ever-lacking meaning to a life destined for execution the moment of its creation. Camus and football Camus was once asked by his friend Charles Poncet which he preferred, football or the theatre. Camus is said to have replied, "Football, without hesitation." Albert Camus and football Camus played as goalkeeper for Racing Universitaire Algerois (RUA won both the North African Champions Cup and the North African Cup twice each in the 1930s) junior team from 1928–30. RedHotPawn.com : General : Yan!! Camus The sense of team spirit, fraternity, and common purpose appealed to Camus enormously. Ashley Lattal'S Paper: Albert Camus In match reports Camus would often attract positive comment for playing with passion and courage. Any aspirations in football disappeared at age 17, upon contracting tuberculosis—then incurable, Camus was bedridden for long and painful periods. When Camus was asked in the 1950s by an alumni sports magazine for a few words regarding his time with the RUA, his response included the following: After many years during which I saw many things, what I know most surely about morality and the duty of man I owe to sport and learned it in the RUA. Camus was referring to a sort of simplistic morality he wrote about in his early essays, the principle of sticking up for your friends, of valuing bravery and fair-play. Camus' belief was that political and religious authorities try to confuse us with over-complicated moral systems to make things appear more complex than they really are, potentially to serve their own needs. Bibliography Novels The Stranger (L'Étranger, often translated as The Outsider) (1942) The Plague (La Peste) (1947) The Fall (La Chute) (1956) A Happy Death (La Mort heureuse) (written 1936-1938, published posthumously 1971) The First Man (Le premier homme) (incomplete, published posthumously 1995) Short stories Exile and the Kingdom (L'exil et le royaume) (collection) (1957) "The Adulterous Woman" ("La Femme adultère") "The Renegade or a Confused Spirit" ("Le Renégat ou un esprit confus") "The Silent Men" ("Les Muets") "The Guest" ("L'Hôte") "Jonas or the Artist at Work" ("Jonas ou l’artiste au travail") "The Growing Stone" ("La Pierre qui pousse") Non-fiction Betwixt and Between (L'envers et l'endroit, also translated as The Wrong Side and the Right Side) (Collection, 1937) Nuptials (Noces) (1938) The Myth of Sisyphus (Le Mythe de Sisyphe) (1942) The Rebel (L'Homme révolté) (1951) Notebooks 1935-1942 (Carnets, mai 1935 — fevrier 1942) (1962) Notebooks 1943-1951 (1965) Notebooks 1951-1959 (2008) Published as "Carnets Tome III : Mars 1951-December 1959" (1989) Essays Create Dangerously (Essay on Realism and Artistic Creation) (1957) The Ancient Greek Tragedy (Parnassos lecture in Greece) (1956) The Crisis of Man (Lecture at Columbia University) (1946) Why Spain? (Essay for the theatrical play L' Etat de Siege) (1948) Reflections on the Guillotine (Réflexions sur la guillotine) (Extended essay, 1957) Neither Victims Nor Executioners (Combat) (1946) Plays Caligula (performed 1945, written 1938) Requiem for a Nun (Requiem pour une nonne, adapted from William Faulkner's novel by the same name) (1956) The Misunderstanding (Le Malentendu) (1944) The State of Siege L' Etat de Siege (1948) The Just Assassins (Les Justes) (1949) The Possessed (Les Possédés, adapted from Dostoyevsky's novel by the same name) (1959) Collections Resistance, Rebellion, and Death (1961) - a collection of essays selected by the author. Lyrical and Critical Essays (1970) Youthful Writings (1976) Between Hell and Reason: Essays from the Resistance Newspaper "Combat", 1944-1947 (1991) Camus at "Combat": Writing 1944-1947 (2005) Cultural influences Film Several of Camus' works have been adapted into movies. The Stranger has been adapted into an Italian 1967 movie by Luchino Visconti, and also to a 2001 Turkish adaptation titled Yazgi (Fate) by Zeki Demirkubuz. The Plague was adapted to a 1992 film titled La Peste by Luis Puenzo and set in modern day America. Music Quite a few musical artists refer to Camus and his work in their music. The post-punk band The Fall took their name from Camus' novel The Fall. These also include an album by Jeff Martin (Exile and the Kingdom, 2006) and songs by Gentle Giant ("A Cry for Everyone", 1972), The Cure ("Killing an Arab", 1978), Tuxedomoon ("The Stranger", 1979), Digable Planets ("Reachin' (A New Refutation of Time and Space)", 1993) The Magnetic Fields ("I Don't Want To Get Over You", 1999), The Manic Street Preachers ("The Masses Against The Classes", 2000), JJ72 ("Algeria", 2000), Suede ("Obsessions", 2002), Streetlight Manifesto ("Here's To Life", 2003), A Perfect Circle ("A Stranger" and "The Outsider", 2003), Angela McCluskey ("Know it All", 2004), Joanna Newsom ("This Side of the Blue", 2004), Tarkio ("Neapolitan Bridesmaid", 2006), The Independence, ("20-Ought-Almost-Talkin' Blues", 2008), Drought ("To the Benign Indifference of the Universe", 2008), Titus Andronicus ("No Future Part Two: The Day After No Future" and "Albert Camus", 2008) Anti-folk singer-songwriter Jeffrey Lewis references Camus, as well as Bob Dylan and Allen Ginsberg, in a 2005 song, "Williamsburg Will Oldham Horror" in the line, "And I'm sure the thing is probably Dylan himself too, stayed up some nights wishing he was as good as Ginsberg or Camus." Further reading Camus (1959), by Germaine Brée (ISBN 1-122-01570-4) Camus (1966), by Adele King (ISBN 0-050-01423-4) Camus: vida e obra (1970), by Vicente de Paulo Barretto. Albert Camus: A Biography (1997), by Herbert R. Lottman (ISBN 3-927258-06-7) Albert Camus and the Minister (2000), by Howard E. Mumma (ISBN 1-55725-246-7) Albert Camus, The Artist in the Arena (1965), by Emmett Parker () Albert Camus, A Study of His Work (1957), by Philip Malcolm Waller Thody () Albert Camus: A Life (2000), by Olivier Todd (ISBN 0-7867-0739-9) Albert Camus: Kunst und Moral, by Heiner Wittmann (ISBN 3-631-39525-6) Sartre and Camus in Aesthetics. The Challenge of Freedom.(2009), by Heiner Wittmann, Ed. by Dirk Hoeges. Dialoghi/Dialogues. Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs, vol. 13, Frankfurt/M. ISBN 978-3-631-58693-8 Ethics and Creativity in the Political thought of Simone Weil and Albert Camus 2004, by Dr. John Randolph LeBlanc (ISBN 978-0-7734-6567-1) The Mandarins by Simone de Beauvoir (1954) Winner of the 1954 Goncourt Prize; Camus himself states that he is "the hero" of the book in his Notebooks 1951-1959. References External links Audio book (mp3): The Fall (La Chute'', 1956) Nobel Prize in Literature (1957) Link "Accidental Friends" the story of the Camus-Sartre friendship and very public breakup Interview with daughter Catherine - 3AM Another interview with daughter Catherine - Spike The Logic of Existential Meaning Albert Camus Society UK Lesjustes.co.uk : English synopsis of "Les Justes" for students Camus 'Bookweb' on literary website The Ledge, with suggestions for further reading. be-x-old:Альбэр Камю	Albert_Camus \|@lemmatized albert:28 camus:119 november:3 january:5 french:16 author:3 philosopher:3 journalist:1 award:4 nobel:4 prize:5 often:3 associate:2 existentialism:3 refuse:2 label:2 hand:1 write:19 essay:22 rebel:7 whole:1 life:15 devote:2 oppose:4 philosophy:2 nihilism:3 still:8 delve:1 deeply:1 individual:4 freedom:2 found:5 group:3 international:2 liaison:2 revolutionary:5 union:6 movement:11 accord:2 book:9 une:2 vie:1 olivier:3 todd:4 tendency:1 surrealistic:1 andré:3 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6,418	Acquire	Acquire is a board game designed by Sid Sackson. The game was originally published in 1962 by 3M as a part of their bookshelf games series. In most versions, the theme of the game is investing in hotel chains. In the 1990s Hasbro edition, the hotel chains were replaced by generic corporations, though the actual gameplay was unchanged. The game is currently published by Avalon Hill, and the companies are once again hotel chains. The object of the game is to earn the most money by developing and merging hotel chains. When a chain in which a player owns stock is acquired by a larger chain, players earn money based on the size of the acquired chain. At the end of the game, all players liquidate their stock in order to determine which player has the most money. Components The components of the game have varied over the years. In particular, the tiles have been made from wood, plastic, and cardboard in various editions of the game. In the current 2008 version, the tiles are cardboard. The following components are included in all versions: Game board with 108 spaces arranged in a 12 by 9 array 108 tiles corresponding to the squares in the array 7 markers, one for each of the hotel chains: American, Continental, Festival, Imperial, Luxor (or Sackson in the 2008 version), Tower, and Worldwide. 25 shares of stock for each of the seven hotel chains A supply of play money, in denominations of $100, $500, $1000, and $5000 6 charts listing the prices of shares of the chains The array on the game board is arranged with lettered rows (A through I) and numbered columns (1 through 12). The 108 tiles correspond to each of the squares: 5E, 10B, and so forth. Rules Acquire is a game for three to six players, though earlier editions included special rules for two players. Standard tournament games are played with four players. Setup At the beginning of the game, each player receives $6000 in cash. Each player draws a tile and places it on the board. The player whose tile is in the topmost row (closest to row A) goes first. If more than one player selects a tile in that row, then the player whose tile is in the leftmost column (closest to 1) goes first. All players place these tiles on the board. Then, starting with the first player, each player draws six tiles. Play of the Game A turn consists of three steps: placing a tile buying stock drawing a replacement tile Tile placement falls in one of four categories. The tile placed could be an orphan, adjacent to no other tile on the board. The tile could create a new chain of tiles, and the player who placed it on the board would have the opportunity to found a new chain. The tile could increase the length of an existing chain already on the board. Or the tile could link two chains, causing a merger of two or more chains. Since there are only seven hotel chains in the game, placing a tile that would create an eighth chain is not permitted. When a player founds a chain, he receives one free share of stock in that chain. If, however, there are no shares left when the chain is founded, then the founding player does not receive the free share. Chains are deemed "safe" if they have 11 or more links; placing a tile that would cause such a chain to be acquired by a larger chain is also not permitted. After a player places a tile, and the results of that placement have been handled, he may purchase up to three shares of stock. A player may only purchase shares of stock in chains that have already been founded. The price of a share depends on the size of the chain, according to a chart that lists prices according to size. A player may purchase shares in one, two, or three existing chains (assuming at least three chains are currently in play), in any combination up to a total of three shares. Finally, the player replaces the tile he played, ensuring that he has six tiles at the end of his turn. Growing and Merging Chains A chain is a conglomeration of tiles that are linked to each other either horizontally or vertically but not diagonally. For example, adjacent to square 5F are squares 4F, 6F, 5E, and 5G, but not 6E or 4G. If there is a tile in 5F, then placing either tile 4F or 5G would result in founding a new hotel chain. A chain grows when a player increases the length of a chain. Suppose a chain consists of squares 8D, 8E, and 8F. Playing tile 9F would add to the length of the chain. Playing tile 9E would not. Chains merge when a player places the tile that eliminates the empty space between them. Suppose there is a chain at 1A, 2A, 3A, and 4A, along with another chain at 6A and 7A. Placing tile 5A would cause these two chains to merge. When a merger occurs, the larger hotel chain always acquires the smaller hotel chain. That is, the hotel chain with more tiles will continue to exist and now grows to include the smaller hotel chain (after bonuses have been calculated according to the steps outlined below). If a tile is placed between two hotel chains of the same size, the individual player who places the tile decides which hotel chain remains on the board and which is acquired. In this situation, there are a number of strategic reasons why an individual player might select one hotel chain over another to be the one that remains on the board. However, often it is most advantageous for the player selecting to choose to let the more expensive chains remain on the board (and trade in their stock of the less expensive chain at the 2-to-1 ratio described below). Mergers The merger is the mechanism by which the players compete. Mergers yield bonuses for the two shareholders who hold, respectively, the largest and second-largest interests in a chain. Mergers also give each player who holds any interest at all in a chain a chance to sell his stock or to trade it in for shares of the acquiring chain. A merger takes place in three steps: Bonuses for majority and minority shareholders. Each player counts his or her stock in the acquired chain. The player with the largest number of shares is the "majority" shareholder, and the player with the second-largest number of shares is the "minority" shareholder. If two players tie for majority, they will share both shareholder bonuses. If two players tie for minority, they will share the minority shareholder bonus.Suppose Festival is the chain being acquired. Alex owns 10 shares, Betty owns 8, and Carla owns 6. Alex is the majority shareholder, and Betty is the minority shareholder.Suppose now that Worldwide is the chain being acquired. Alex owns 8 shares, Betty owns 8 shares, and Carla owns 7. Alex and Betty would share the majority and minority bonuses, and Carla would get no bonus. If instead Betty and Carla both owned 7 shares, then Alex would keep the majority bonus for herself, while Betty and Carla would split the minority bonus. Sell, trade, or hold shares. Starting with the player who caused the merger to happen, each player may either sell his shares in the acquired chain, trade in two shares of the acquired chain for one share of the acquiring chain, or hold onto his shares of the acquired chain. Shares are sold at the same price as the current cost of one share of stock in the acquired chain. A player may trade in as many shares as he owns, but may not trade in one share of the acquired chain for half a share of the acquiring chain. If a player holds onto his stock, he runs the risk that the acquired chain may not reemerge before the game ends. If that happens, then he will be holding worthless stock at the end of the game. Defunct chain. The acquired chain then becomes defunct. It is eligible to be founded again if another player founds a chain again in a later turn. If placing a tile causes three or four chains to merge, then the merger steps are handled between the largest and second-largest chain, then with the third-largest chain, and finally with the smallest chain. Rules issues The rules do not specify whether a player should hold his shares of stock face up or face down. That is, the rules do not say whether one player may ask another how many shares of stock he or she owns in a particular chain. Whether this is public or private information should be agreed upon between players before the game begins. In the 1999 rules for Acquire, players could remove one or more permanently unplayable tiles from the game (tiles that would merge safe corporations) and replace them with new tiles at the end of their turn. According to the 2008 rules, players that have no legal plays because their hands are full of unplayable tiles may reveal their hands, set aside their unplayable tiles, and draw six new tiles at the beginning of their turn. Some players have criticized the new rule because it requires them to hold onto bad tiles longer. 2008 Acquire Rule change on invalid tiles, BoardGameGeek Retrieved November 16, 2008. The current rules do not provide for a two-player game. However, the stock market was used as a "third shareholder" in previous versions of the game. By this rule, a tile is drawn whenever a merger is declared. The number on the tile indicates how many shares the stock market owns in the company that is being acquired. The players must compete with the market as well as with each other in order to receive bonuses. Ending the Game The game ends when either all existing chains are safe -- that is, they cannot be acquired because they are at least 11 tiles in size -- or when one chain reaches 41 tiles in size. A player must determine on his or her turn that the game is over and then declare that fact to the other players; he may, of course, keep that information to himself, hope that other players do not notice, and attempt to leverage further play to his advantage. Once the game ends, the minority and majority bonuses are paid to the minority and majority holders in each of the remaining chains; each player sells his or her shares of stock in each of the remaining chains; and the player with the most money wins. Awards GAMES magazine has inducted Acquire into their buyers' guide Hall of Fame. References External links Acquire Wizards of the Coast page Acquire Webnoir page	Acquire \|@lemmatized acquire:27 board:11 game:27 design:1 sid:1 sackson:2 originally:1 publish:2 part:1 bookshelf:1 series:1 version:5 theme:1 invest:1 hotel:15 chain:73 hasbro:1 edition:3 replace:3 generic:1 corporation:2 though:2 actual:1 gameplay:1 unchanged:1 currently:2 avalon:1 hill:1 company:2 object:1 earn:2 money:5 develop:1 merge:6 player:52 stock:18 large:10 base:1 size:6 end:8 liquidate:1 order:2 determine:2 components:1 component:2 vary:1 year:1 particular:2 tile:47 make:1 wood:1 plastic:1 cardboard:2 various:1 current:3 following:1 include:3 space:2 arrange:2 array:3 correspond:2 square:5 marker:1 one:13 american:1 continental:1 festival:2 imperial:1 luxor:1 tower:1 worldwide:2 share:34 seven:2 supply:1 play:9 denomination:1 chart:2 list:2 price:4 lettered:1 row:4 numbered:1 column:2 forth:1 rule:11 three:8 six:4 early:1 special:1 two:11 standard:1 tournament:1 four:3 setup:1 beginning:2 receive:4 cash:1 draw:5 place:15 whose:2 topmost:1 close:2 go:2 first:3 select:3 leftmost:1 start:2 turn:6 consist:2 step:4 buy:1 replacement:1 placement:2 fall:1 category:1 could:5 orphan:1 adjacent:2 create:2 new:6 would:12 opportunity:1 find:1 increase:2 length:3 exist:4 already:2 link:4 cause:5 merger:10 since:1 eighth:1 permit:2 found:7 free:2 however:3 leave:1 deem:1 safe:3 also:2 result:2 handle:2 may:10 purchase:3 depend:1 accord:4 assume:1 least:2 combination:1 total:1 finally:2 ensure:1 grow:3 conglomeration:1 either:4 horizontally:1 vertically:1 diagonally:1 example:1 suppose:4 add:1 eliminate:1 empty:1 along:1 another:4 occur:1 always:1 small:3 continue:1 bonus:11 calculate:1 outline:1 individual:2 decide:1 remain:5 situation:1 number:4 strategic:1 reason:1 might:1 often:1 advantageous:1 choose:1 let:1 expensive:2 trade:6 less:1 ratio:1 describe:1 mechanism:1 compete:2 yield:1 shareholder:9 hold:8 respectively:1 second:3 interest:2 give:1 chance:1 sell:5 take:1 majority:8 minority:9 count:1 tie:2 alex:5 betty:6 carla:5 get:1 instead:1 keep:2 split:1 happen:2 onto:3 cost:1 many:3 half:1 run:1 risk:1 reemerge:1 worthless:1 defunct:2 become:1 eligible:1 late:1 third:2 issue:1 specify:1 whether:3 face:2 say:1 ask:1 public:1 private:1 information:2 agree:1 upon:1 begin:1 remove:1 permanently:1 unplayable:3 legal:1 hand:2 full:1 reveal:1 set:1 aside:1 criticize:1 require:1 bad:1 longer:1 change:1 invalid:1 boardgamegeek:1 retrieve:1 november:1 provide:1 market:3 use:1 previous:1 whenever:1 declare:2 indicate:1 must:2 well:1 cannot:1 reach:1 fact:1 course:1 hope:1 notice:1 attempt:1 leverage:1 advantage:1 pay:1 holder:1 win:1 award:1 magazine:1 induct:1 buyer:1 guide:1 hall:1 fame:1 reference:1 external:1 wizard:1 coast:1 page:2 webnoir:1 \|@bigram horizontally_vertically:1 hall_fame:1 external_link:1
6,419	International_Data_Encryption_Algorithm	In cryptography, the International Data Encryption Algorithm (IDEA) is a block cipher designed by Xuejia Lai and James Massey of ETH Zurich and was first described in 1991. The algorithm was intended as a replacement for the Data Encryption Standard. IDEA is a minor revision of an earlier cipher, PES (Proposed Encryption Standard); IDEA was originally called IPES (Improved PES). The cipher was designed under a research contract with the Hasler Foundation, which became part of Ascom-Tech AG. The cipher is patented in a number of countries but is freely available for non-commercial use. The name "IDEA" is also a trademark. The patents will expire in 2010–2011. Today, IDEA is licensed in all the countries where it is patented by MediaCrypt. IDEA was used in Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) v2.0, and was incorporated after the original cipher used in v1.0, BassOmatic, was found to be insecure. IDEA is an optional algorithm in the OpenPGP standard. Operation IDEA operates on 64-bit blocks using a 128-bit key, and consists of a series of eight identical transformations (a round, see the illustration) and an output transformation (the half-round). The processes for encryption and decryption are similar. IDEA derives much of its security by interleaving operations from different groups — modular addition and multiplication, and bitwise eXclusive OR (XOR) — which are algebraically "incompatible" in some sense. In more detail, these operators, which all deal with 16-bit quantities, are: Bitwise eXclusive OR (denoted with a blue ⊕). Addition modulo 216 (denoted with a green boxplus). Multiplication modulo 216+1, where the all-zero word (0x0000) is interpreted as 216 (denoted by a red odot). After the eight rounds comes a final "half round", the output transformation illustrated below: Image:International Data Encryption Algorithm InfoBox Diagram Output Trans.png Key schedule Each round uses six sub-keys, while the half-round uses four. Each sub-key is a sixteen-bit value. The first eight sub-keys are extracted directly from the key, with K1 from the first round being the lower sixteen bits; further groups of eight keys are created by rotating the main key left 25 bits between each group of eight. This means that it is rotated less than once per round, on average, for a total of six rotations. Security The designers analysed IDEA to measure its strength against differential cryptanalysis and concluded that it is immune under certain assumptions. No successful linear or algebraic weaknesses have been reported. Some classes of weak keys have been found — E.g. (Daemen et al., 1994) — but these are of little concern in practice, being so rare as to be unnecessary to avoid explicitly. , the best attack which applies to all keys can break IDEA reduced to 6 rounds (the full IDEA cipher uses 8.5 rounds) . Bruce Schneier thought highly of IDEA in 1996, writing, "In my opinion, it is the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public at this time." (Applied Cryptography, 2nd ed.) However, by 1999 he was no longer recommending IDEA due to the availability of faster algorithms, some progress in its cryptanalysis, and the issue of patents . IDEA is patented in Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom, (European patent EP-B-0482154), the United States (US patent #5,214,703, issued May 25, 1993 and expiring January 7, 2012) and Japan (JP 3225440). MediaCrypt is now also offering a successor to IDEA and focuses on its new cipher (official release on May 2005) IDEA NXT, which was previously called FOX. References J. Daemen, R. Govaerts, and J. Vandewalle, Weak keys for IDEA, CRYPTO '93. pp224–231. Hüseyin Demirci, Erkan Türe, Ali Aydin Selçuk, A New Meet in the Middle Attack on The IDEA Block Cipher, 10th Annual Workshop on Selected Areas in Cryptography, 2004. Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey, A Proposal for a New Block Encryption Standard, EUROCRYPT 1990, pp389–404 Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey and S. Murphy, Markov ciphers and differential cryptanalysis, Advances in Cryptology — Eurocrypt '91, Springer-Verlag (1992), pp17–38. Eli Biham, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller, A New Attack on 6-round IDEA, Fast Software Encryption Workshop, 2007. External links RSA FAQ on Block Ciphers SCAN entry for IDEA IDEA in 448 bytes of 80x86 IDEA Applet	International_Data_Encryption_Algorithm \|@lemmatized cryptography:3 international:2 data:3 encryption:7 algorithm:6 idea:23 block:6 cipher:10 design:2 xuejia:3 lai:3 james:3 massey:3 eth:1 zurich:1 first:3 describe:1 intend:1 replacement:1 standard:4 minor:1 revision:1 early:1 pe:2 propose:1 originally:1 call:2 ipes:1 improve:1 research:1 contract:1 hasler:1 foundation:1 become:1 part:1 ascom:1 tech:1 ag:1 patent:7 number:1 country:2 freely:1 available:2 non:1 commercial:1 use:7 name:1 also:2 trademark:1 expire:2 today:1 license:1 mediacrypt:2 pretty:1 good:1 privacy:1 pgp:1 incorporate:1 original:1 bassomatic:1 find:2 insecure:1 optional:1 openpgp:1 operation:2 operate:1 bit:6 key:11 consist:1 series:1 eight:5 identical:1 transformation:3 round:11 see:1 illustration:1 output:3 half:3 process:1 decryption:1 similar:1 derive:1 much:1 security:2 interleave:1 different:1 group:3 modular:1 addition:2 multiplication:2 bitwise:2 exclusive:2 xor:1 algebraically:1 incompatible:1 sense:1 detail:1 operator:1 deal:1 quantity:1 denote:3 blue:1 modulo:2 green:1 boxplus:1 zero:1 word:1 interpret:1 red:1 odot:1 come:1 final:1 illustrate:1 image:1 infobox:1 diagram:1 trans:1 png:1 schedule:1 six:2 sub:3 four:1 sixteen:2 value:1 extract:1 directly:1 low:1 create:1 rotate:2 main:1 leave:1 mean:1 less:1 per:1 average:1 total:1 rotation:1 designer:1 analyse:1 measure:1 strength:1 differential:2 cryptanalysis:3 conclude:1 immune:1 certain:1 assumption:1 successful:1 linear:1 algebraic:1 weakness:1 report:1 class:1 weak:2 e:1 g:1 daemen:2 et:1 al:1 little:1 concern:1 practice:1 rare:1 unnecessary:1 avoid:1 explicitly:1 best:2 attack:3 apply:2 break:1 reduce:1 full:1 bruce:1 schneier:1 think:1 highly:1 write:1 opinion:1 secure:1 public:1 time:1 ed:1 however:1 long:1 recommend:1 due:1 availability:1 fast:2 progress:1 issue:2 austria:1 france:1 germany:1 italy:1 netherlands:1 spain:1 sweden:1 switzerland:1 united:2 kingdom:1 european:1 ep:1 b:1 state:1 u:1 may:2 january:1 japan:1 jp:1 offer:1 successor:1 focus:1 new:4 official:1 release:1 nxt:1 previously:1 fox:1 reference:1 j:2 r:1 govaerts:1 vandewalle:1 crypto:1 hüseyin:1 demirci:1 erkan:1 türe:1 ali:1 aydin:1 selçuk:1 meet:1 middle:1 annual:1 workshop:2 select:1 area:1 l:2 proposal:1 eurocrypt:2 murphy:1 markov:1 advance:1 cryptology:1 springer:1 verlag:1 eli:1 biham:1 orr:1 dunkelman:1 nathan:1 keller:1 software:1 external:1 link:1 rsa:1 faq:1 scan:1 entry:1 byte:1 applet:1 \|@bigram block_cipher:3 eth_zurich:1 encryption_decryption:1 exclusive_xor:1 differential_cryptanalysis:2 et_al:1 bruce_schneier:1 springer_verlag:1 eli_biham:1 external_link:1
6,420	Old_Prussian_language	Prussian is an extinct Baltic language, once spoken by the inhabitants of Prussia in an area (see map and article by Marija Gimbutas below) of what later became East Prussia (now north-eastern Poland and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia) and eastern parts of Pomerelia (some parts of the region East of the Vistula river). It was also spoken much further east and south in what became Polesia and part of Podlasia with the conquests by Rus and Poles starting in the 10th century and by the German colonisation of the area which began in the 12th century. In Old Prussian itself, the language was called “Prūsiskan” (Prussian) or “Prūsiskai Bilā” (the Prussian language). According to Gimbutas, the entire area has thousands of river names that can be traced back to an original Baltic language, even though they have undergone slavicization. A few experimental communities involved in reviving a reconstructed form of the language now exist in Lithuania, Poland, and other countries. The Æsti, mentioned by Tacitus in his Germania, may have been a people who spoke Old Prussian. However, Tacitus describes them as being just like the Suebi (a group of Germanic peoples) but with a more Britannic-like (Celtic) language. Old Prussian was closely related to the other extinct Western Baltic languages, Curonian, Galindian and Sudovian. It is more distantly related to the surviving Eastern Baltic languages, Lithuanian and Latvian. Compare the Prussian word seme (zemē<ref name = "Lie">Mikkels Klussis. Bāziscas prûsiskai-laîtawiskas wirdeîns per tālaisin laksikis rekreaciônin.</ref>), the Latvian zeme, the Lithuanian žemė. In addition to the German colonists, groups of people from Poland A Short History of Austria-Hungary and Poland by H. Wickham Steed, et al. "For a time, therefore, the Protestants had to be cautious in Poland proper, but they found a sure refuge in Prussia, where Lutheranism was already the established religion, and where the newly erected university of Königsberg became a seminary for Polish ministers and preachers." ccel.org Christianity in Poland"Albert of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the German Order in Prussia, called as preacher to Konigsberg Johann Briesaman (q.v.), Luther's follower (1525); and changed the territory of the order into a hereditary grand duchy under Polish protection. From these borderlands the movement penetrated Little Poland which was the nucleus for the extensive kingdom. [...] In the mean time the movement proceeded likewise among the nobles of Great Poland; here the type was Lutheran, instead of Reformed, as in Little Poland. Before the Reformation the Hussite refugees had found asylum here; now the Bohemian and Moravian brethren, soon to be known as the Unity of the Brethren (q.v.), were expelled from their home countries and, on their way to Prussia (1547), about 400 settled in Posen under the protection of the Gorka, Leszynski, and Ostrorog families." , Lithuania, France, Scotland , England and Austria found refuge in Prussia during the Protestant Reformation and thereafter. Such immigration caused a slow decline in the use of Old Prussian, as the Prussians adopted the languages of the others, particularly German, the language of the German government of Prussia. Baltic Old Prussian probably ceased to be spoken around the beginning of the 18th century due to many of its remaining speakers dying in the famines and bubonic plague epidemics harming the East Prussian countryside and towns from 1709 until 1711 Donelaitis Source, Lithuania . The regional dialect of Low German spoken in Prussia (or East Prussia), Low Prussian, preserved a number of Baltic Prussian words, such as kurp, from the Old Prussian kurpi, for shoe (in contrast to the standard German Schuh). The language is called “Old Prussian” to avoid confusion with the German dialects Low Prussian and High Prussian, and the adjective “Prussian”, which also relates to the later German state. The Old Prussian name for the nation, not being Latinized, was Prūsa. This too may be used to delineate the language and the Baltic state from the later German state. Old Prussian began to be written down in the Latin alphabet in about the 13th century. A small amount of literature in the language survives. Until the 1930s, when the Nazi government began a program of Germanization, and 1945, when the Soviets annexed Prussia and made Old Prussian place-names illegal . , one could find Old Prussian river and place names in East Prussia, like Tawe, Tawelle, and Tawelninken. Monuments Lord´s Prayer Lord´s Prayer after Simon Grunau Nossen Thewes, cur tu es Delbes, Schwiz gesger thowes Wardes; Penag mynys thowe Mystalstibe; Toppes Pratres giriad Delbszisne, tade tymnes sennes Worsinny; Dodi momines an nosse igdenas Magse; Unde geitkas pamas numas musse Nozegun, cademas pametam nusson Pyrtainekans; No wede numus panam Padomum; Swalbadi mumes newusse Layne. Jesus. Amen. Lord´s Prayer after Prätorius Thewes nossen, cur tu es Debbes, Schwisch gesger thowes Wardes; Pena mynis thowe Wiswalstybe; Toppes Patres gir iat Delbeszisne, tade tymnes senjnes Worsinny; Annosse igdenas Mayse dodi mums szon Dien; Pamutale mums musu Noschegun, kademas pametan nousson Pyktainekans; No wede numus panam Paadomam; Swalbadi numes ne wust Tayne. Lord´s Prayer in mixed dialects Thawe nuson kas tu asse Andangon, Swintits wirst twais Emmens; Pergeis twais Laeims; Twais Quaits audasseisin na Semmey, key Andangon; Nusan deininan Geittin deis numons schindeinan; Bha atwerpeis numans nuson Auschautins, kay mas atwerpimay nuson Auschautenikamans; Bha ny wedais mans Enperbandan; Sclait is rankeis mans assa Wargan. Amen Lord´s Prayer in the dialect of Insterburg (Prediger Hennig) Tewe musu, kurs essi Danguje, Buk szwenczamas Wardas tawo, Ateik tawo Karalijste; Buk tawo Walle kaip Daguje, taip ir an Zemes; Duna musu dieniszka duk mums ir sze Diena; Atleisk mums musu Kaltes, kaip mes atoeidzjam sawo Kaltiems; Ne wesk mus Pagundima; Bet gelbek mus nu Pikto. Lord´s Prayer in the dialect of Nadruvia (Simon Prätorius) Tiewe musu, kursa tu essi Debsissa, Szwints tiest taws Wards; Akeik mums twa Walstybe; Tawas Praats buk kaip Debbesissa taibant wirszu Sjemes; Musu dieniszka May e duk mums ir szen Dienan; Atmesk mums musu Griekus, kaip mes pammetam musi Pardokonteimus; Ne te wedde mus Baidykle; Bet te passarge mus mi wissa Louna (Pikta) A list of monuments of Old Prussian : Prussian-language geographical names within the territory of (Baltic) Prussia. The first basic study of these names was by Georg Gerullis, in Die altpreußischen Ortsnamen (The Old Prussian Place-names), written and published with the help of Walter de Gruyter, in 1922. Prussian personal names. Reinhold Trautmann, Die altpreußischen Personennamen (The Old Prussian Personal-names). Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, Göttingen: 1923. Includes the work of Ernst Lewy in 1904. Separate words found in various historical documents. Vernacularisms in the former German dialects of East and West Prussia, as well as words of Old Curonian origin in Latvian, and West-Baltic vernacularisms in Lithuanian and Belarusian. The so-called Basel Epigram Basel Epigram. . It reads: Kayle rekyse. thoneaw labonache thewelyse. Eg. koyte poyte. nykoyte. pe^nega doyte; which may be: Kaīls rikīse! Tu ni jāu laban asei tēwelise, ik kwaitēi pōiti, ni kwaitēi peningā dōiti. (In English: "Hello Sir! You are no longer a nice uncle, if you want to drink but do not want to give a penny!" Basel Epigram. ) This is an inscription from the 14th century, most probably by a Prussian student studying in Prague, found by St. McCluskey in one of the folios at the Basel university in 1974. Various fragmentary texts: Recorded in several versions by Hieronymus Maletius in Sudovian Nook in the middle of the 16th century, as noted by Vytautas Mažiulis, are Beigeite beygeyte peckolle - Run, run, devils!Kails naussen gnigethe - Hello our friend!Kails poskails ains par antres - (a drinking toast, reconstructed as Kaīls pas kaīls, aīns per āntran, or, in English : A healthy one after a healthy one, one after another!)Kellewesze perioth, Kellewesze perioth - A carter drives here, a carter drives here!Ocho moy myle schwante panicke (also recorded as O hoho Moi mile swente Pannike, O ho hu Mey mile swenthe paniko, O mues miles schwante Panick) - Oh my dear holy fire! an expression from the list of the Vocabulary of friar Simon Grunau, an historian of the German Order: sta nossen rickie, nossen rickie, This (is) our lord, our lord. A manuscript fragment of the first words of the Pater Noster in Prussian, from the beginning of the 15th century: Towe Nüsze kås esse andangonsün swyntins. 100 words (in strongly varying versions) of the Vocabulary by Simon Grunau, written ca. 1517–1526; these have been reconstructed into a more unified single system of spelling by Mažiulis. The so-called Elbing Vocabulary, which consists of 802 thematically sorted words and their German equivalents. This manuscript, copied by Peter Holcwesscher from Marienburg on the boundary of the 14th and 15th centuries, was found in 1825 by Fr. Neumann among other manuscripts acquired by him from the heritage of the Elbing merchant A. Grübnau; it was thus dubbed the “Codex Neumannianus”. Again, the words have been reconstructed into a more unified single system of spelling by V. Mažiulis, a scholar and contributor to the revival of the Prussian language. The three Catechisms Prussian Catechisms. printed in the Prussian language in Königsberg in 1545, 1545, and 1561 respectively. The first two consist of only 6 pages text in Prussian — the second one being a correction of the first into another sub-dialect. The third one, however, consists of 132 pages of Prussian text, and is a translation by Abel Will of Martin Luther’s Enchiridion. An adage of 1583, Dewes does dantes, Dewes does geitka. This is, in all probability, not Prussian — the form does in the second instance corresponds to Lithuanian future tense duos ‘will give’ — however it is included in this list because it is commonly thought of as Prussian. As for trencke, trencke! (Strike! Strike!), it too is in all probability Lithuanian, not Prussian. Examples of Prussian Here are several basic Prussian phrases : Translation PhrasePrussian [language] PrūsiskanPrussia Prūsa and PrūsijaHello KaīlsGood morning Kaīls AnksteīnaiGood-bye ĒrdiwThank you DīnkaHow much? Kelli?Yes JāNo NiWhere is the bathroom? Kwēi ast Spektāstuba?(Generic toast) Kaīls pas kaīls aīns per āntranDo you speak English? Bilāi tū Ēngliskan? Prussian was a highly inflected language, as can be seen from the declination of the demonstrative pronoun stas, "that". (Note that translators of the Teutonic Order frequently misused stas as an article for the word "the''".) Case m.sg. f.sg. n.sg. m.pl. f.pl. n.pl. Nominative stas stāi stan stāi stās stai Genitive stesse stesses stesse stēisan stēisan stēisan Dative stesmu stessei stesmu or stesmā stēimans stēimans stēimans Accusative stan stan stan or sta stans stans stans or stas Prussian also possessed a vocative case. References Literature G. H. F. Nesselmann, Thesaurus linguae Prussicae, Berlin, 1873. E. Berneker, Die preussische Sprache, Strassburg, 1896. R. Trautmann, Die altpreussischen Sprachdenkmäler, Göttingen, 1910. G. Gerullis, Die altpreussischen Ortsnamen, Berlin-Leipzig, 1922. G. Gerullis, Georg: Zur Sprache der Sudauer-Jadwinger, in Festschrift A. Bezzenberger, Göttingen 1927 R. Trautmann, Die altpreussischen Personnennamen, Göttingen, 1925. J. Endzelīns, Senprūšu valoda. – Gr. Darbu izlase, IV sēj., 2. daļa, Rīga, 1982. 9.-351. lpp. L. Kilian: Zu Herkunft und Sprache der Prußen Wörterbuch Deutsch-Prußisch, Bonn 1980 J.S. Vater: Die Sprache der alten Preußen Wörterbuch Prußisch-Deutsch, Katechismus, Braunschweig 1821/Wiesbaden 1966 J.S. Vater: Mithridates oder allgemeine Sprachenkunde mit dem Vater Unser als Sprachprobe, Berlin 1809 V. Mažiulis, Prūsų kalbos paminklai, Vilnius, t. I 1966, t. II 1981. W. R. Schmalstieg, An Old Prussian Grammar, University Park and London, 1974. W. R. Schmalstieg, Studies in Old Prussian, University Park and London, 1976. V. Toporov, Prusskij jazyk: Slovar', A - L, Moskva, 1975-1990 (nebaigtas, not finished). V. Mažiulis, Prūsų kalbos etimologijos žodynas, Vilnius, t. I-IV, 1988-1997. M. Biolik, Zuflüsse zur Ostsee zwischen unterer Weichsel und Pregel, Stuttgart, 1989. R. Przybytek, Ortsnamen baltischer Herkunft im südlichen Teil Ostpreussens, Stuttgart, 1993. M. Biolik, Die Namen der stehenden Gewässer im Zuflussgebiet des Pregel, Stuttgart, 1993. M. Biolik, Die Namen der fließenden Gewässer im Flussgebiet des Pregel, Stuttgart, 1996. G. Blažienė, Die baltischen Ortsnamen in Samland, Stuttgart, 2000. R. Przybytek, Hydronymia Europaea, Ortsnamen baltischer Herkunft im südlichen Teil Ostpreußens, Stuttgart 1993 A. Kaukienė, Prūsų kalba, Klaipėda, 2002. V. Mažiulis, Prūsų kalbos istorinė gramatika, Vilnius, 2004. LEXICON BORVSSICVM VETVS. Concordantia et lexicon inversum. / Bibliotheca Klossiana I, Universitas Vytauti Magni, Kaunas, 2007. OLD PRUSSIAN WRITTEN MONUMENTS. Facsimile, Transliteration, Reconstruction, Comments. / Bibliotheca Klossiana II, Universitas Vytauti Magni / Lithuanians' World Center, Kaunas, 2007. External links Studies in Prussian language, history, archeology and culture, experimental revival of Prussian, the fate of Baltic Prussia and Baltic Prussians, bibliography and links Prussian-German-English dictionary Dictionary of recovered and reconstructed Prussian Frederik Kortlandt: Electronic text editions (contains transcriptions of Old Prussian manuscript texts) Discussion forum in Prussian Nērtiks website (in Prussian) Prussian language on Ethnologue Map of former Old Prussian language area, with placenames in Old Prussian Discussion on possibiity of having a Prussian Wikipedia Bilingual catechism (first page) of 1545 M. 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6,421	Edmund_I	Edmund I (or Eadmund) (922 – May 26 946), called the Elder, the Deed-Doer, the Just or the Magnificent, was King of England from 939 until his death. He was a son of Edward the Elder and half-brother of Athelstan. Athelstan died on October 27 939, and Edmund succeeded him as king. Military threats Shortly after his proclamation as king he had to face several military threats. King Olaf III Guthfrithson conquered Northumbria and invaded the Midlands. When Olaf died in 942 Edmund reconquered the Midlands. In 943 he became the god-father of King Olaf of York. In 944, Edmund was successful in reconquering Northumbria. In the same year his ally Olaf of York lost his throne and left for Dublin in Ireland. Olaf became the king of Dublin as Olaf Cuaran and continued to be allied to his god-father. In 945 Edmund conquered Strathclyde but conceded his rights on the territory to King Malcolm I of Scotland. In exchange they signed a treaty of mutual military support. Edmund thus established a policy of safe borders and peaceful relationships with Scotland. During his reign, the revival of monasteries in England began. Louis IV of France One of Edmund's last political movements of which we have some knowledge is his role in the restoration of Louis IV of France to the throne. Louis, son of Charles the Simple and his Anglo-Saxon queen Eadgifu, had resided at the West-Saxon court for some time until 936, when he returned to be crowned king of France. In the summer of 945, he was captured by the Norsemen of Rouen and subsequently released by Duke Hugh the Great, who however, held him in custody. The chronicler Richerus claims that Eadgifu wrote letters both to Edmund and to Otto I in which she requested support for her son; Edmund responded to her plea by sending angry threats to Hugh, who however, brushed them aside. Richerus, Historiae, Book 2, chapters 49-50. See MGH online. Flodoard's Annales, one of Richerus' sources, report: Death and succession On 26 May, 946, Edmund was murdered by Leofa, an exiled thief, while celebrating St Augustine's Mass Day in Pucklechurch (South Gloucestershire). "Here King Edmund passed away on St Augustine’s Day [26 May]. It was widely known how he ended his days, that Liofa stabbed him at Pucklechurch. And Æthelflæd of Damerham, daughter of Ealdorman Ælfgar, was then his queen." Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, MS D, tr. Michael Swanton. John of Worcester and William of Malmesbury add some lively detail by suggesting that Edmund had been feasting with his nobles, when he spotted Leofa in the crowd. He attacked the intruder in person, but in the event, Edmund and Leofa were both killed. John of Worcester, Chronicon AD 946; William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum, book 2, chapter 144. The description of the circumstances remained a popular feature in medieval chronicles, such as Higden's Polychronicon: "But William, libro ij° de Regibus, seyth (says) that this kyng kepyng a feste at Pulkirchirche, in the feste of seynte Austyn, and seyng a thefe, Leof by name, sytte [th]er amonge hys gestes, whom he hade made blynde afore for his trespasses -- (quem rex prios propter scelera eliminaverat, whom the King previously due to his crimes did excile) -- , arysede (arrested) from the table, and takenge that man by the heire of the hedde, caste him unto the grownde. Whiche kynge was sleyn -- (sed nebulonis arcano evisceratus est) -- with a lyttle knyfe the [th]e man hade in his honde [hand]; and also he hurte mony men soore with the same knyfe; neverthelesse he was kytte (cut) at the laste into smalle partes by men longyng to the kynge." Polychronicon, 1527. See Google Books Edmund's sister Eadgyth, wife to Otto I, died (earlier) the same year, as Flodoard's Annales for 946 report. Edmundus rex Transmarinus defungitur, uxor quoque regis Othonis, soror ipsius Edmundi, decessit. "Edmund, king across the sea, died, and the wife of King Otto, sister of the same Edmund, died also." (tr. Dorothy Whitelock, English Historical Documents c. 500-1042. 2nd ed. London, 1979. p. 345). Edmund was succeeded as king by his brother Edred, king from 946 until 955. Edmund's sons later ruled England as: Eadwig of England, King from 955 until 957, king of only Wessex and Kingdom of Kent from 957 until his death on October 1 959. Edgar of England, king of only Mercia and Northumbria from 957 until his brother's death in 959, then king of England from 959 until 975. Notes References Flodoard, Annales, ed. Philippe Lauer, Les Annales de Flodoard. Collection des textes pour servir à l'étude et à l'enseignement de l'histoire 39. Paris: Picard, 1905. 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6,422	Krupp	The three rings were the symbol for Krupp, based on the radreifen - the seamless railway wheels patented by Alfred Krupp. The rings are currently part of the ThyssenKrupp logotype. The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their steel production and for their manufacture of ammunition and armaments. The family business, known as Friedrich Krupp AG Hoesch-Krupp in modern times, merged with Thyssen AG in 1999 to form ThyssenKrupp AG, a large industrial conglomerate. Overview Friedrich Krupp (1787–1826) launched the family's metal-based activities, building a pioneering steel foundry in Essen in 1810. His son Alfred (1812–87), known as "the Cannon King" or as "Alfred the Great", invested heavily in new technology to become a significant manufacturer of railway material and locomotives. He also invested in fluidized hotbed technologies (notably the Bessemer process) and acquired many mines in Germany and France. He invested in subsidized housing for his workers and started a program of health and retirement benefits. The company began to make steel cannons in the 1840s—especially for the Russian, Turkish, and Prussian armies. Low non-military demand and government subsidy meant that the company specialized more and more in weapons: by the late 1880s the manufacture of armaments represented around 50% of Krupp's total output. When Alfred started with the firm, it had five employees. At his death twenty thousand people worked for Krupp—making it the world's largest industrial company and the largest private company in the German empire. In the 20th century the company was headed by Gustav Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach (1870–1950), who assumed the surname of Krupp when he married the Krupp heiress, Bertha Krupp. After Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933, the Krupp works became the center for German rearmament. In 1943, by a special order from Hitler, the company reverted into a family holding, and Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach (1907–67) took over the management. After Germany's defeat, when Gustav proved incapable of going on trial, the Nuremberg Military Tribunal convicted Alfried as a war criminal in the Krupp Trial for his company's use of slave labor. It sentenced him to 12 years in prison and ordered him to sell 75% of his holdings. In 1951, as the Cold War developed and no buyer came forward, the authorities released him, and in 1953 he resumed control of the firm. In 1999, the Krupp Group merged with its largest competitor, Thyssen AG; the combined company—ThyssenKrupp AG, became Germany's fifth-largest firm and one of the largest steel producers in the world. History of the family Early history The Krupp family first appeared in the historical record in 1587, when Arndt Krupp joined the merchants' guild in Essen. Arndt, a trader, arrived in town just before an epidemic of plague and became one of the city's wealthiest men by purchasing the property of families who fled the epidemic. After he died in 1624, his son Anton took over the family business; Anton oversaw an extensive gunsmithing operation during the Thirty Years' War (1618-48), beginning the family's long association with weapon manufacturing. For the next century the Krupps continued to prosper, generation after generation, becoming Essen's most powerful family and accumulating more and more property in the city. By the mid-eighteenth-century, Friedrich Jodocus Krupp, Arndt's great-great-grandson, headed the Krupp family. In 1751, he married Helene Amalie Ascherfeld (another of Arndt's great-great-grandchildren); Jodocus died six years later, which left his widow to run the business: a family first. The Widow Krupp greatly expanded the family's holdings over the decades, acquiring a mill, shares in four coal mines, and (in 1800) an iron forge located on a stream near Essen. Friedrich's era In 1807 the progenitor of the modern Krupp firm, Friedrich Krupp, began his commercial career at age 19 when the Widow Krupp appointed him manager of the forge. Friedrich's father, the widow's son, had died 11 years previously; since that time, the widow had tutored the boy in the ways of commerce, as he seemed the logical family heir. Unfortunately, Friedrich proved too ambitious for his own good, and quickly ran the formerly profitable forge into the ground. The widow soon had to sell it away. Friedrich continued to squander the family's money. In 1810, the widow died, and in what would prove a disastrous move, left virtually all the Krupp fortune and property to Friedrich. Newly enriched, Friedrich decided to discover the secret of cast (crucible) steel. Benjamin Huntsman, a clockmaker from Sheffield, had pioneered a process to make crucible steel in 1740, but the British had managed to keep it secret since then, forcing others to import steel. But after Napoleon's began its blockade of the British Empire (see Continental System), British steel became unavailable, and so Napoleon offered a prize of four thousand francs to anyone who could replicate the British process. This prize piqued Friedrich's interest. Thus, in 1811 Friedrich founded the Krupp Gusstahlfabrik (Cast Steel Works). He soon discovered, however, that he would need a large facility with a power source for success, and so he built a mill and foundry on an Essen stream. Soon Friedrich started pouring huge amounts of time and money into the small, waterwheel-powered facility, neglecting all other Krupp business. After much work, Friedrich produced his first smelted steel in 1816. Alfred's era Alfred Krupp Alfred Krupp (born Alfried Felix Alwyn Krupp), son of Friedrich Carl, was born in Essen. Friedrich's death in 1826 left his widow as owner of the works. Alfred had to leave school at the age of fourteen and take on the direction of the works. The prospect seemed a cheerless one. His father had spent a considerable fortune in the attempt to cast steel in large blocks: in order to keep the works going at all, the family had to live in extreme frugality, while the youthful director laboured alongside the workmen by day, and carried on his father's experiments at night. For the next fifteen years, the works made barely enough money to cover the workmen's wages. In 1841, his invention of the spoon-roller brought in enough money for Alfred to enlarge the factory and spend money on casting steel blocks. In 1847 he made his first cannon of cast steel. At the Great Exhibition of 1851 he exhibited a 6 pounder (2.7 kg) cannon made entirely from cast steel, and a solid flawless ingot of steel weighing 2000 pounds (907 kg), more than twice as much as any previously cast. Krupp's exhibit caused a sensation in the engineering world, and the Essen works at once became famous. In 1851, another successful invention, one for the making of railway tyres, made a profit, which Alfred Krupp devoted partly to enlarging and equipping the factory, and partly to his long-cherished scheme - the construction of a breech-loading cannon of cast steel. Krupp himself strongly believed in the superiority of breech-loaders over muzzle-loaders, on account of the greater accuracy of firing and the saving of time, but this view did not win general acceptance in Germany till after the Franco-Prussian war. Krupp supplied his perfected field-pieces throughout Europe and wished to fulfill an order of guns to Austria-Hungary on the eve of the Austro-Prussian War, much to Bismarck's fury. His greatest grievance against the French was that the French high command had refused to purchase his guns despite Napoleon's support. Following the French defeat he did sell them his guns. Once the quality of this product gained recognition, the factory developed very rapidly. At the time of Alfred Krupp's death in 1887 he employed 20,200 men; and including those in works outside Essen, his rule extended over 75,000 people. A curious incident took place before the Franco-German war. At the time that war was approaching Alfred was in the process of building his palatial new home, for which he needed French granite. Bowing to his demand, both the French and the Prussian monarchs agreed to have a special shipment of granite delivered to him from France despite the mutual trade embargo. Krupp constructed special "colonies" for the employees and their families - with parks, schools and recreation grounds - while the widows' and orphans' and other benefit schemes insured the men and their families against anxiety in case of illness or death. He tried to control most aspects of his worker's lives: he demanded loyalty oath, required workers to obtain written permission from their foremen when they needed to stop working to use the toilet, and issued proclamations explicitly telling his workers not to concern themselves with national politics. A political conservative, Alfred frequently proclaimed he wished to have "a man come and start a counter-revolution" against Jews, socialists and liberals. In some of his odder moods, he considered taking the role himself. According to William Manchester, his great grandson Alfried would interpret these outbursts as a prophecy fulfilled by the coming of Hitler. Friedrich Alfred's Era Friedrich Alfred Krupp, 1900.Workers in 1905. After Alfred's death in 1887 his only son, Friedrich Alfred, carried on the work. His father had been a hard man, known as "Herr Krupp" since his early teens. His son was "Fritz" all his life, and was strikingly dissimilar to his father in terms of personality. He was a philanthropist, a rare commodity amongst the Ruhr industrial leaders; though part of his philanthropy went towards supporting the study of eugenics. He did, however, possess an industrial genius, though of a different sort from his father. Fritz was a master of the subtle sell, and cultivated a close rapport with the Kaiser, Wilhelm II. Under Fritz's management, the firm's business blossomed further and further afield, spreading across the globe. It was under him as well that many new products that would do much to change history were authorized. Hiram Maxim peddled his machine gun, and Rudolf Diesel brought his new engine to Krupp to construct. The program that eventually resulted in the German U-Boat fleet was also begun during his tenure. During his lifetime, Fritz married and had two daughters — Bertha Krupp (1886–1957) and Barbara (1887–1972) — married 1907 to Tilo von Wilmowsky (1878–1966). He also enjoyed living on the island of Capri, where he built a villa and did biological research. In 1902 he, and also the painter Christian Wilhelm Allers, were caught up in a pederastic scandal involving youths Fritz had "procured" in Capri and transported to the Bristol hotel in Berlin (after even the corrupt Capri authorities had had enough of his pederasty). A tumultuous few weeks ensued, which ended in the death of Fritz, ostensibly of a stroke, though suicide is a more probable answer. Gustav's Era Upon Fritz's death, his daughter Bertha inherited his empire. It was not thought possible for a woman to run the business, so Kaiser Wilhelm II arranged for Bertha Krupp to marry Gustav von Bohlen und Halbach, a courtier and career diplomat. Ironically in view of the Krupps' prominent role in two World Wars against American soldiers, Gustav's mother was the daughter of US Civil War General Henry Bohlen, killed in 1862. Bohlen und Halbach took the additional surname "Krupp," which was to be passed to his eldest son but not to the couple's other children. He soon came to identify himself totally with the Krupp firm and its traditions. Gustav led the firm through World War I, which saw it concentrate almost entirely on artillery manufacturing, particularly following the loss of its overseas markets as a result of the Allied blockade. In 1918 Gustav was named by the Allies as one of the German industrialists to be tried as a war criminal, but these trials never proceeded. After the war, the firm was forced to renounce arms manufacturing. Gustav reoriented the Krupp firm to civilian production, under the slogan "Wir machen alles!" (we make everything!). During the French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923, Gustav was imprisoned for resisting French orders, which made him a national hero. During the Weimar Republic, Krupp was deeply involved with the Reichswehr's evasion of the Treaty of Versailles, and engaged in secret arms manufacturing and planning. Gustav Krupp was initially skeptical towards Nazism and Hitler. However, not long after Hitler took power, Gustav soon experienced a conversion and became enamoured with the party (Fritz Thyssen described him as "a super-Nazi"), to a degree his wife and subordinates found bizarre. Gustav was nonetheless alarmed at Hitler's aggressive foreign policy after the Munich accord but by then he was fast succumbing to senility and was effectively displaced by Alfried. He was indicted at the Nuremberg Trials but never tried, due to his advanced dementia. He was thus the only German to be named as a war criminal after both world wars. Alfried's era Alfried Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach inherited the firm in 1943 when Hitler authorised the transfer of all Bertha's shares to him, and the transfer of executive authority from the ailing Gustav via the Lex Krupp. Like his father, he helped re-arm Nazi Germany. He played an increasingly large role in the firm's management, and effectively controlled it for most of the Second World War. During the Second World War, Krupp used foreign slaves from occupied countries. Their total number cannot be calculated due to constant fluctuation, but the highest number at any one time was about 25,000 civilian workers and prisoners of war in January 1943, all of whom worked in Krupp production facilities. Krupp set up a fusion factory near Auschwitz, but never used it. It was taken over by Union Werl later the same year. Krupp was tried at the Krupp Trial held after World War II in Nuremberg following the main Nuremberg trials. He and his co-defendants were convicted of using forced slave labour, and condemnded to 12 years on prison and the “forfeiture of all [his] property both real and personal.” Two years later John J. McCloy, High Commissioner of the American zone of occupation, gave amnesty January 31, 1951. Alfried's son, Arndt von Bohlen und Halbach (1938-1986), decided in the early 1960s that he didn't want to take over the family business. Thus, when Alfried was found dead in Essen in 1967, the Krupp line came to an end-just one year short of the 400th anniversary of the 1587 arrival of Krupps in Essen. The line would have died with Arndt in any event; he was married but had no children. Roles played in important historical events World War I The Krupp Gun Works during World War I Krupp produced most of the artillery of the Imperial German Army, including its big ones: The 1914 420 mm Big Bertha, the 1916 Lange Max, and the seven Paris Guns in 1917 and 1918. World War II During WWII, Krupp produced submarines, tanks, artillery, naval guns, armor plate, munitions and other armaments for the German military. The Krupp-owned Germaniawerft shipyard also produced a part of Germany's WWII U-boats (130 between 1934 and 1945) using preassembled parts supplied by other Krupp factories in a process similar to the construction of the US Liberty ships. In the 1930s, Krupp developed two 800 mm railway guns, the Schwerer Gustav and the Dora. These guns were the largest artillery pieces ever fielded by an army during wartime, and weighed almost 1,344 tons. They could fire a 7-ton shell over a distance of 37 kilometers. More crucial to the operations of the German military was Krupp's development of the famed 88 mm anti-aircraft cannon, a notoriously effective weapon that also became a deadly anti-personnel weapon and anti-tank gun. The cannon Aron. One of the two guns in the main Oslo coastal fortress that took part in the sinking of Blücher In April 1940, Krupp was dealt an embarrassing blow when two obsolete 28 cm Krupp guns, installed in the Oscarsborg Fortress in the late 19th century, were responsible for heavily damaging the German cruiser Blücher, leading to her sinking by torpedoes. The Blücher was involved in Operation Weserübung, the German invasion of Denmark and Norway, and was leading the attack on Oslo. 830 German sailors and soldiers lost their lives in the sinking. In 1940-41, Krupp acquired a controlling shareholding in the Bremen-based shipbuilders, Deutsche Schiff- und Maschinenbau AG (Deschimag). A huge number of civilian forced laborers from occupied countries, Allied prisoners of war and Jews who had been rounded up in concentration camps were used as forced laborers by Krupp during the war. The total number of all foreign workers having been employed in Krupp factories cannot be calculated due to a constant fluctuation, but the highest number at a reference date was ca. 25 000 civilian workers and prisoners of war in January 1943. In an address to the Hitler Youth, Adolf Hitler stated "In our eyes, the German boy of the future must be slim and slender, as fast as a greyhound, tough as leather and hard as Krupp steel." („... der deutsche Junge der Zukunft muß schlank und rank sein, flink wie Windhunde, zäh wie Leder und hart wie Kruppstahl.”) References Friz, D. M.: Alfried Krupp und Berthold Beitz — der Erbe und sein Statthalter, Zürich: Orell-Füssli 1988; ISBN 3-280-01852-8. Manchester, William (1968). The Arms of Krupp: 1587 - 1968. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. Paperback edition 2003: ISBN 0-316-52940-0. (Unpopular with German Revisionists) Mason, Peter. Blood and Iron. Penguin USA. Paperback edition 1985: ISBN 0-14-007149-0. Gall, Lothar: Krupp. Der Aufstieg eines Industrieimperiums, Berlin 2000; Gall, Lothar (ed.): Krupp im 20. Jahrhundert, Berlin 2002 Tenfelde, Klaus (ed.): Pictures of Krupp: Photography and History in the Industrial Age, London/New York 2005 Arendt, Hannah: Eichmann in Jerusalem, New York 1994.	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6,423	First_aid	First Aid symbol First aid is the provision of initial care for an illness or injury. It is usually performed by a lay person to a sick or injured casualty until definitive medical treatment can be accessed. Certain self-limiting illnesses or minor injuries may not require further medical care past the first aid intervention. It generally consists of a series of simple and, in some cases, potentially life-saving techniques that an individual can be trained to perform with minimal equipment. While first aid can also be performed on animals, the term generally refers to care of human patients. History The earliest instances of recorded first aid were provided by religious knights, such as the Knights Hospitaller, formed in the 11th century, providing care to pilgrims and knights, and training other knights in how to treat common battlefield injuries. First Aid: From Witchdoctors & Religious Knights to Modern Doctors, retrieved December 10, 2006. The practice of first aid fell largely in to disuse during the High Middle Ages, and organized societies were not seen again until in 1859 Henry Dunant organized local villagers to help victims of the Battle of Solferino, including the provision of first aid. Four years later, four nations met in Geneva and formed the organization which has grown into the Red Cross, with a key stated aim of "aid to sick and wounded soldiers in the field". This was followed by the formation of St. John Ambulance in 1877, based on the principles of the Knights Hospitaller, to teach first aid, and numerous other organization joined them, with the term first aid first coined in 1878 as civilian ambulance services spread as a combination of 'first treatment' and 'national aid' in large railway centres and mining districts as well as with police forces. First aid training began to spread through the empire through organisations such as St John, often starting, as in the UK, with high risk activities such as ports and railways. Industrial Revolution: St. John Ambulance, retrieved December 10, 2006. Many developments in first aid and many other medical techniques have been driven by wars, such as in the case of the American Civil War, which prompted Clara Barton to organize the American Red Cross. American Red Cross -- Museum, retrieved December 10, 2006. Today, there are several groups that promote first aid, such as the military and the Scouting movement. New techniques and equipment have helped make today’s first aid simple and effective. Aims The key aims of first aid can be summarised in three key points: Preserve life - the overriding aim of all medical care, including first aid, is to save lives Prevent further harm - also sometimes called prevent the condition from worsening, this covers both external factors, such as moving a patient away from any cause of harm, and applying first aid techniques to prevent worsening of the condition, such as applying pressure to stop a bleed becoming dangerous. Promote recovery - first aid also involves trying to start the recovery process from the illness or injury, and in some cases might involve completing a treatment, such as in the case of applying a plaster to a small wound. First aid training also involves the prevention of initial injury and responder safety, and the treatment phases. Key skills In case of tongue fallen backwards, blocking the airway, it is necessary to hyperextend the head and pull up the chin, so that the tongue lifts and clears the airway. Certain skills are considered essential to the provision of first aid and are taught ubiquitously. Particularly, the "ABC"s of first aid, which focus on critical life-saving intervention, must be rendered before treatment of less serious injuries. ABC stands for Airway, Breathing, and Circulation. The same mnemonic is used by all emergency health professionals. Attention must first be brought to the airway to ensure it is clear. Obstruction (choking) is a life-threatening emergency. Following evaluation of the airway, a first aid attendant would determine adequacy of breathing and provide rescue breathing if necessary. Assessment of circulation is now not usually carried out for patients who are not breathing, with first aiders now trained to go straight to chest compressions (and thus providing artificial circulation) but pulse checks may be done on less serious patients. Some organizations add a fourth step of "D" for Deadly bleeding or Defibrillation, while others consider this as part of the Circulation step. Variations on techniques to evaluate and maintain the ABCs depend on the skill level of the first aider. Once the ABCs are secured, first aiders can begin additional treatments, as required. Some organizations teach the same order of priority using the "3Bs": Breathing, Bleeding, and Bones (or "4Bs": Breathing, Bleeding, Brain, and Bones). While the ABCs and 3Bs are taught to be performed sequentially, certain conditions may require the consideration of two steps simultaneously. This includes the provision of both artificial respiration and chest compressions to someone who is not breathing and has no pulse, and the consideration of cervical spine injuries when ensuring an open airway. Preserving life In order to stay alive, all persons need to have an open airway - a clear passage where air can move in through the mouth or nose through the pharynx and down in to the lungs, without obstruction. Conscious people will maintain their own airway automatically, but those who are unconscious (with a GCS of less than 8) may be unable to maintain a patent airway, as the part of the brain which automatically controls breathing in normal situations may not be functioning. If the patient was breathing, a first aider would normally then place them in the recovery position, with the patient leant over on their side, which also has the effect of clearing the tongue from the pharynx. It also avoids a common cause of death in unconscious patients, which is choking on regurgitated stomach contents. The airway can also become blocked through a foreign object becoming lodged in the pharynx or larynx, commonly called choking. The first aider will be taught to deal with this through a combination of ‘back slaps’ and ‘abdominal thrusts’. Once the airway has been opened, the first aider would assess to see if the patient is breathing. If there is no breathing, or the patient is not breathing normally, such as agonal breathing, the first aider would undertake what is probably the most recognized first aid procedure - Cardiopulmonary resuscitation or CPR, which involves breathing for the patient, and manually massaging the heart to promote blood flow around the body. Promoting recovery The first aider is also likely to be trained in dealing with injuries such as cuts, grazes or broken bones. They may be able to deal with the situation in its entirety (a small adhesive bandage on a paper cut), or may be required to maintain the condition of something like a broken bone, until the next stage of definitive care (usually an ambulance) arrives. Training First aid scenario training in progress Much of first aid is common sense. Basic principles, such as knowing to use an adhesive bandage or applying direct pressure on a bleed, are often acquired passively through life experiences. However, to provide effective, life-saving first aid interventions requires instruction and practical training. This is especially true where it relates to potentially fatal illnesses and injuries, such as those that require cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR); these procedures may be invasive, and carry a risk of further injury to the patient and the provider. As with any training, it is more useful if it occurs before an actual emergency, and in many countries, emergency ambulance dispatchers may give basic first aid instructions over the phone while the ambulance is on the way. Training is generally provided by attending a course, typically leading to certification. Due to regular changes in procedures and protocols, based on updated clinical knowledge, and to maintain skill, attendance at regular refresher courses or re-certification is often necessary. First aid training is often available through community organizations such as the Red Cross and St. John Ambulance, or through commercial providers, who will train people for a fee. This commercial training is most common for training of employees to perform first aid in their workplace. Many community organizations also provide a commercial service, which complements their community programmes. Australia In Australia, Nationally recognized First Aid certificates may only be issued by Registered training organisations who are accredited on the National Training Information System (NTIS). Most First Aid certificates are issued at one of 3 levels: Level 1 (or “Basic First Aid”, or “Basic Life Support”): is a 1-day course covering primarily life-threatening emergencies: CPR, bleeding, choking and other life-threatening medical emergencies. Level 2 (“Senior First Aid”) is a 2 day course that covers all the aspects of training in Level 1, as well as specialized training for treatment of burns, bites, stings, electric shock and poisons. Level 2 reaccreditation is a 1 day course which must be taken every 3 years, but CPR reaccrediation may be required more frequently (typically yearly). Level 3 (“Occupational First Aid”) is a 4-day course covering advanced first aid, use of oxygen and Automated external defibrillators and documentation. It is suitable for workplace First Aiders and those who manage First Aid facilities. Other courses outside these levels are commonly taught, including CPR-only courses, Advanced Resuscitation, Remote Area or Wilderness First Aid, Administering Medications (such as salbutamol or the Epi-Pen) and specialized courses for parents, school teachers, community first responders or hazardous workplace first aiders. CPR Re-accredidation courses are sometimes required yearly, regardless of the length of the overall certification. Canada In Canada, first aid certificates are awarded by one of several organizations including the Red Cross, the Lifesaving Society, St. John Ambulance, the Heart and Stroke Foundation, and Ski Patrol. Workplace safety regulations vary depending on occupation. Many workplaces opt to have their employees trained in Standard First Aid (see below). Emergency First Aid: is an 8-hour course covering primarily life-threatening emergencies: CPR, bleeding, choking and other life-threatening medical emergencies. Standard First Aid: is a 16-hour course that covers the same material as Emergency First Aid and will include training for some, but not all, of the following: breaks; burns; poisons, bites and stings; eye injuries; head and neck injuries; chest injuries; wound care; emergency child birth; and multiple casualty management. Medical First Responder (BTLS - known by different names among different Canadian organizations): is a 40 hour course. It requires Standard First Aid certification as a prerequisite. Candidates are trained in the use of oxygen, Automated external defibrillators, airway management, and the use of additional emergency equipment. CPR certification in Canada is broken into several levels. Depending on the level, the lay person will learn CPR and choking procedures for adults, children, and infants. CPR H.C.P. (Health Care Professional) also provides training on artificial respiration, the use of bag valve masks, and suction. This level of qualification is usually not offered to the general public. Ireland In Ireland, the workplace qualification is the Occupational First Aid Certificate. The Health and Safety Authority issue the standards for first aid at work and hold a register of qualified instructors, examiners and organisations that can provide the course. A FETAC Level 5 certificate is awarded after passing a three day course and is valid for two years from date of issue. Occupational First Aiders are more qualified than Cardiac First Responders (Cardiac First Response and training on the AED is now part of the OFA course) but less qualified than Emergency First Responders but strangely Occupational First Aid is the only one of the three not certified by PHECC. Organisations offering the certificate include, Ireland's largest first aid organisation, the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps, the St John Ambulance Brigade, and the Irish Red Cross. The Irish Red Cross also provides a Practical First Aid Course aimed at the general public dealing primarily with family members getting injured. Many other (purely commercially run) organisations offer training. The Netherlands In the The Netherlands first aid training and certification for lay persons are provided mostly by specialised (commercial) first aid training companies or voluteers of the "Dutch Red Cross" and the foundations "Het Oranje Kruis" and "LPEV". They offer a variety of levels in first aid training, from basic CPR to First Responder. Medical first aid must be provided by certified ambulance crews, physicians and in hospitals. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, there are two main types of first aid courses offered. An “Emergency Aid for Appointed Persons” course typically lasts one day, and covers the basics, focusing on critical interventions for conditions such as cardiac arrest and severe bleeding, and is usually not formally assessed. A “First Aid at Work” course is usually a four-day course (two days for a re-qualification) that covers the full spectrum of first aid, and is formally assessed by recognized Health and Safety Executive assessors. Certificates for the “First Aid at Work” course are issued by the training organization and are valid for a period of three years from the date the delegate passes the course. Other courses offered by training organizations such as St. John Ambulance, St. Andrew’s Ambulance Association or the British Red Cross include Baby & Child Courses, manual handling, people moving, and courses geared towards more advanced life support, such as defibrillation and administration of medical gases such as oxygen & entonox). Specific disciplines There are several types of first aid (and first aider) which require specific additional training. These are usually undertaken to fulfill the demands of the work or activity undertaken. Aquatic/Marine first aid - Usually practiced by professionals such as lifeguards, professional mariners or in diver rescue, and covers the specific problems which may be faced after water-based rescue and/or delayed MedEvac. Battlefield first aid - This takes in to account the specific needs of treating wounded combatants and non-combatants during armed conflict. Hyperbaric first aid - Which may be practiced by SCUBA diving professionals, who need to treat conditions such as the bends. Oxygen first aid - Providing oxygen to casualties who suffer from conditions resulting in hypoxia. Wilderness first aid is the provision of first aid under conditions where the arrival of emergency responders or the evacuation of an injured person may be delayed due to constraints of terrain, weather, and available persons or equipment. It may be necessary to care for an injured person for several hours or days. Symbols Although commonly associated with first aid, the symbol of a red cross is an official protective symbol of the Red Cross. According to the Geneva Conventions and other international laws, the use of this and similar symbols is reserved for official agencies of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent, and as a protective emblem for medical personnel and facilities in combat situations. Use by any other person or organization is illegal, and may lead to prosecution. The internationally accepted symbol for first aid is the white cross on a green background shown at the start of the page. Some organizations may make use of the Star of Life, although this is usually reserved for use by ambulance services, or may use symbols such as the Maltese Cross, like the Order of Malta Ambulance Corps and St John Ambulance. Other symbols may also be used. Conditions that often require first aid Also see medical emergency. Altitude sickness, which can begin in susceptible people at altitudes as low as 5,000 feet, can cause potentially fatal swelling of the brain or lungs. Anaphylaxis, a life-threatening condition in which the airway can become constricted and the patient may go into shock. The reaction can be caused by a systemic allergic reaction to allergens such as insect bites or peanuts. Anaphylaxis is initially treated with injection of epinephrine. Battlefield first aid - This protocol refers to treating shrapnel, gunshot wounds, burns, bone fractures, etc. as seen either in the ‘traditional’ battlefield setting or in an area subject to damage by large scale weaponry, such as a bomb blast or other terrorist activity. Bone fracture, a break in a bone initially treated by stabilizing the fracture with a splint. Burns, which can result in damage to tissues and loss of body fluids through the burn site. Choking, blockage of the airway which can quickly result in death due to lack of oxygen if the patient’s trachea is not cleared, for example by the Heimlich Maneuver. Childbirth. Cramps in muscles due to lactic acid build up caused either by inadequate oxygenation of muscle or lack of water or salt. Diving disorders, drowning or asphyxiation. Gender-specific conditions, such as dysmenorrhea and testicular torsion. Heart attack, or inadequate blood flow to the blood vessels supplying the heart muscle. Heat stroke, also known as sunstroke or hyperthermia, which tends to occur during heavy exercise in high humidity, or with inadequate water, though it may occur spontaneously in some chronically ill persons. Sunstroke, especially when the victim has been unconscious, often causes major damage to body systems such as brain, kidney, liver, gastric tract. Unconsciousness for more than two hours usually leads to permanent disability. Emergency treatment involves rapid cooling of the patient. Heat syncope, another stage in the same process as heat stroke, occurs under similar conditions as heat stroke and is not distinguished from the latter by some authorities. Heavy bleeding, treated by applying pressure (manually and later with a pressure bandage) to the wound site and elevating the limb if possible. Hyperglycemia (diabetic coma) and Hypoglycemia (insulin shock). Hypothermia, or Exposure, occurs when a person’s core body temperature falls below 33.7°C (92.6°F). First aid for a mildly hypothermic patient includes rewarming, but rewarming a severely hypothermic person could result in a fatal arrhythmia, an irregular heart rhythm. Insect and animal bites and stings. Joint dislocation. Poisoning, which can occur by injection, inhalation, absorption, or ingestion. Seizures, or a malfunction in the electrical activity in the brain. Three types of seizures include a grand mal (which usually features convulsions as well as temporary respiratory abnormalities, change in skin complexion, etc) and petit mal (which usually features twitching, rapid blinking, and/or fidgeting as well as altered consciousness and temporary respiratory abnormalities). Muscle strains and Sprains, a temporary dislocation of a joint that immediately reduces automatically but may result in ligament damage. Stroke, a temporary loss of blood supply to the brain. Toothache, which can result in severe pain and loss of the tooth but is rarely life threatening, unless over time the infection spreads into the bone of the jaw and starts osteomyelitis. Wounds and bleeding, including lacerations, incisions and abrasions, Gastrointestinal bleeding, avulsions and Sucking chest wounds, treated with an occlusive dressing to let air out but not in. See also Abdominal thrusts Ambulance Artificial respiration Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) Mental health first aid Occlusive dressing Oxygen first aid Triage Tourniquet Recovery position References External links First Aid Guide at the Mayo Clinic First Aid References at the U.S.A. Center for Disease Control First Aid at BBC Health First Aid Project for Mobiles FirstAi.de (multilingual) First Aid Training Online Book 1 & 2	First_aid \|@lemmatized first:96 aid:78 symbol:8 provision:5 initial:2 care:9 illness:4 injury:13 usually:12 perform:5 lay:3 person:12 sick:2 injured:4 casualty:3 definitive:2 medical:11 treatment:8 access:1 certain:3 self:1 limiting:1 minor:1 may:22 require:10 far:2 past:1 intervention:4 generally:3 consist:1 series:1 simple:2 case:5 potentially:3 life:17 save:4 technique:5 individual:1 train:9 minimal:1 equipment:4 also:15 animal:2 term:2 refer:2 human:1 patient:15 history:1 early:1 instance:1 record:1 provide:13 religious:2 knight:6 hospitaller:2 form:2 century:1 pilgrim:1 treat:8 common:4 battlefield:4 witchdoctors:1 modern:1 doctor:1 retrieve:3 december:3 practice:3 fell:1 largely:1 disuse:1 high:3 middle:1 age:1 organize:3 society:2 see:6 henry:1 dunant:1 local:1 villager:1 help:2 victim:2 battle:1 solferino:1 include:11 four:3 year:4 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6,424	Epistle_to_the_Ephesians	Described by William Barclay as the "Queen of the Epistles", the Epistle to the Ephesians is one of the books of the Bible in the New Testament. William Barclay, The Daily Bible Study: Revised Edition: The Letters to the Galatians and the Ephesians, (Edinburgh: Saint Andrew Press, 1976) 61 Saint Paul is traditionally said to have written the letter while he was in prison in Rome (around AD 62). This would be about the same time as the Epistle to the Colossians (which in many points it resembles) and the Epistle to Philemon. However, some critical scholars have questioned the authorship of the letter, and suggest it may have been written between AD 80 and 100, or perhaps as late as 170. Outline Ephesians contains: 1:1, 2. The greeting 1:3–2:10. A general of the blessings that the gospel reveals. This includes the source of these blessings, the means by which they are attained, the reason they are given, and their final result. The first part of this section (Eph 1:3–1:14) is one continuous sentence in the original Greek. It ends with a fervent prayer for the further spiritual enrichment of the Ephesians. 2:11–3:21. A description of the change in the spiritual position of Gentiles as a result of the work of Christ. It ends with an account of how Paul was selected and qualified to be an apostle to the Gentiles, in the hope that this will keep them from being dispirited and lead him to pray for them. 4:1–16. A chapter on unity in the midst of the diversity of gifts among believers. 4:17–6:9. Instructions about ordinary life and different relationships. 6:10–24. The imagery of spiritual warfare (including the metaphor of the Armor of God), the mission of Tychicus, and valedictory blessings. Historical context Place, date, and purpose of the writing of the letter If Paul was the author of the letter, then it was probably written from Rome during Paul's first imprisonment (3:1; 4:1; 6:20), and probably soon after his arrival there in the year 62, four years after he had parted with the Ephesian elders at Miletus. However, scholars who dispute Paul's authorship date the letter anywhere between 70-170. In the latter case, the possible location of the authorship could have been within the church of Ephesus itself. Ignatius of Antioch himself seemed to be very well versed in the epistle to the Ephesians, and mirrors many of his own thoughts in his own epistle to the Ephesians See Markus Barth, Ephesians: Introduction, Translation, and Commentary on Chapters 1–3 (New York: Doubleday and Company Inc., 1974), 50-51 The major theme of the letter is the Church and, in particular, its foundation in Christ as part of the will of the Father. In the Epistle to the Romans, Paul writes from the point of view of the demonstration of the righteousness of God--his covenant faithfulness and saving justice--in the gospel; the author of Ephesians writes from the perspective of union with Christ, who is the head of the true church. Founding of the church at Ephesus Paul's first and hurried visit for the space of three months to Ephesus is recorded in Acts 18:19–21. The work he began on this occasion was carried forward by Apollos (24–26) and Aquila and Priscilla. On his second visit early in the following year, he remained at Ephesus "three years," for he found it was the key to the western provinces of Asia Minor. Here "a great door and effectual" was opened to him (1 Cor 16:9), and the church was established and strengthened by his diligent labours there (Acts 20:20, 31). From Ephesus the gospel spread abroad "almost throughout all Asia" (19:26). The word "mightily grew and prevailed" despite all the opposition and persecution he encountered. On his last journey to Jerusalem, the apostle landed at Miletus and, summoning together the elders of the church from Ephesus, delivered to them a farewell charge (Acts 20:18–35), expecting to see them no more. The following parallels between this epistle and the Milesian charge may be traced: Acts 20:19 = Eph 4:2. The phrase "lowliness of mind". Acts 20:27 = Eph 1:11. The word "counsel", denoting the divine plan. Acts 20:32 = Eph 3:20. The divine ability. Acts 20:32 = Eph 2:20. The building upon the foundation. Acts 20:32 = Eph 1:14, 18. "The inheritance of the saints." Author and audience The first verse in the letter, according to later manuscripts, is: Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, To the saints in Ephesus, the faithful in Christ Jesus. (Eph 1:1 NIV) Hence the letter would in this case explicitly designate the Ephesian church as its recipient and Paul as its writer. However, there are a few problems with this: The earliest and best known manuscripts omit the words "in Ephesus", rendering the phrase simply as "to the saints ... the faithful in Christ Jesus" (NIV alternative translation). The letter lacks any references to people in Ephesus, or any events Paul experienced there. Phrases such as "ever since I heard about your faith" (1:15 NIV) seem to indicate that the writer has no firsthand knowledge of his audience. Yet the book of Acts records that Paul spent a significant amount of time with the church in Ephesus, and in fact was one of its founders. There are four main theories in Biblical scholarship that address the question of Pauline authorship. These four views all come from Markus Barth, Ephesians: Introduction, Translation, and Commentary on Chapters 1-3 (New York: Doubleday and Company Inc., 1974), 38 The traditionalist view that the epistle is written by Paul is supported by scholars that include Ezra Abbot, Asting, Gaugler, Grant, Harnack, Haupt, Fenton John Anthony Hort, Klijn, Johann David Michaelis, Percy, Robinson, A. Robert, and André Feuillet, Roller, Sanders, Schille, Schlier, Schmid, Scot, Brooke Foss Westcott, and Theodor Zahn A second position suggests that Ephesians was dictated by Paul with interpolations from another author. Some of the scholars that espouse this view include Albertz, Benoit, Cerfaux, Goguel, Harrison, H. J. Holtzmann, Murphy O'Conner, and Wagenfuhrer. Some scholars think it improbable that Paul authored Ephesians at all. Among this group are Allan, Beare, Brandon, Bultmann, Conzelmann, Dibelius, Goodspeed, Kilsemann, J. Knox, W.L. Knox, Klimmel, K and S Lake, Marxsen, Masson, Mitton, Moffatt, Nineham, Pokorny, Schweizer, and J. Weiss. Still other scholars suggests there is a lack of conclusive evidence. Some of this group are Cadbury, Julicher, McNeile, and Williams. It should be noted that many of the early "Christian fathers" support Paul's authorship. Among those who attest to this are Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Hermas, and Polycarp. The lack of any references to Ephesus in the early manuscripts led Marcion, a second-century Gnostic who created his own cut and paste version of the Bible, to believe that the letter was actually addressed to the church at Laodicea. The view is not uncommon in later traditions either, considering that the content of the letter seems to suggest a similar socio-critical context to the Laodicean church mentioned in the Revelation of John. For more details, see the article Authorship of the Pauline epistles. For a thorough defense of the Pauline authorship of Ephesians, See Ephesians: An Exegetical Commentary by Harold W. Hoehner, pp 2-61, from Baker Academic Press. Purpose The purpose of the Epistle to the Ephesians is born out of its particular socio-historical context and the situational context of both the author and the audience. Originating in the circumstance of a multicultural church (primarily Jewish and Hellenistic), the author addressed issues appropriate to the diverse religious and cultural backgrounds present in the community. For reasons that are unclear in the context and content of the letter itself, Paul exhorts the church repeatedly to embrace a specific view of salvation, which he then explicates. It seems most likely that Paul's Christology of sacrifice is the manner in which he intends to affect an environment of peace within the church. In short: "If Christ was sacrificed for your sake, be like him and be in submission to one another." Paul addresses hostility, division, and self-interest more than any other topic in the letter, leading many scholars to believe that his primary concern was not doctrinal, but behavioral. Some theologians, such as Frank Charles Thompson, agree the main theme of Ephesians is in response to the newly converted Jews who often separated themselves from their Gentile brethren. The unity of the church, especially between Jew and Gentile believers, is the keynote of the book. This is shown by the recurrence of such words and phrases as: Together: made alive together, 2:5; raised up together, sitting together, 2:6; built together, 2:22 One, indicating unity: one new man, 2:15; one body, 2:16; one Spirit, 2:18; one hope, 4:4; one Lord, one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, 4:5-6. The Pauline theme of unity based on a sacrificial Christology may also be noted in the epistle to the Philippians. Interpretations Ephesians is notable for its treatment of women. commands not only that women should submit to their husbands but that husbands should love their wives. Feminist theologians such as Katharine Bushnell and Jesse Pen-Lewis interpret in context of the preceding verse 21, a general command of submission to others. Thus, all Christians should submit to each other: both husbands to wives and wives to husbands. Ephesians 6:5 was used by Confederate slaveholders in support of a slaveholding position. E.N. Elliott, ed. Cotton is king, and pro-slavery arguments comprising the writings of Hammond, Harper, Christy, Stringfellow, Hodge, Bledsoe, and Cartwright, on this important subject. Augusta, Ga. : Pritchard, Abbott & Loomis, 1860. See also Earlier Epistle to the Ephesians Textual variants in the Epistle to the Ephesians Notes External links Ephesians Reading Room -extensive collection of online resources for Ephesians; Tyndale Seminary Lookup Passage Ephesians Online - a collection of resources on the Epistle to the Ephesians Biblical Expository on Ephesians	Epistle_to_the_Ephesians \|@lemmatized describe:1 william:2 barclay:2 queen:1 epistle:15 ephesian:23 one:13 book:3 bible:3 new:4 testament:1 daily:1 study:1 revise:1 edition:1 letter:14 galatian:1 edinburgh:1 saint:5 andrew:1 press:2 paul:18 traditionally:1 say:1 write:4 prison:1 rome:3 around:1 ad:2 would:2 time:2 colossian:1 many:4 point:2 resemble:1 philemon:1 however:3 critical:2 scholar:7 question:2 authorship:7 suggest:4 may:3 perhaps:1 late:2 outline:1 ephesians:3 contains:1 greet:1 general:2 blessing:3 gospel:3 reveals:1 include:4 source:1 mean:1 attain:1 reason:2 give:1 final:1 result:2 first:4 part:3 section:1 eph:7 continuous:1 sentence:1 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6,425	Cartography	Cartography (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study and practice of making geographical maps. Combining science, aesthetics, and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality can be modeled in ways that communicate spatial information effectively. The fundamental problems of cartography are to: Set the map's agenda and select traits of the object to be mapped. This is the concern of map editing. Traits may be physical, such as roads or land masses, or may be abstract, such as toponyms or political boundaries. Represent the terrain of the mapped object on flat media. This is the concern of map projections. Eliminate characteristics of the mapped object that are not relevant to the map's purpose. This is the concern of generalization. Reduce the complexity of the characteristics that will be mapped. This is also the concern of generalization. Orchestrate the elements of the map to best convey its message to its audience. This is the concern of map design. History Copy (1475) of St. Isidore's TO map of the world. The earliest known map is a matter of some debate, both because the definition of "map" is not sharp and because some artifacts speculated to be maps might actually be something else. A wall painting, which may depict the ancient Anatolian city of Çatalhöyük (previously known as Catal Huyuk or Çatal Hüyük), has been dated to the late 7th millennium BCE. "A Tale of two obsessed archeologists, one ancient city, and nagging doubts about whether science can ever hope to reveal the past" by Robert Kunzig. Discover Magazine, May 1999. "A bird’s eye view - of a leopard’s spots. The Çatalhöyük ‘map’ and the development of cartographic representation in prehistory" by Stephanie Meece. Anatolian Studies, 56:1-16, 2006. Other known maps of the ancient world include the Minoan “House of the Admiral” wall painting from c. 1600 BCE, showing a seaside community in an oblique perspective and an engraved map of the holy Babylonian city of Nippur, from the Kassite period (14th 12th centuries BCE). http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html The Nippur Expedition The ancient Greeks and Romans created maps, beginning at latest with Anaximander in the 6th century BC. History of Cartography In the 2nd century AD, Ptolemy produced his treatise on cartography, Geographia. J. L. Berggren, Alexander Jones; Ptolemy's Geography By Ptolemy, Princeton University Press, 2001 ISBN 0691092591 This contained Ptolemy's world map - the world then known to Western society (Ecumene). As early as the 700s, Arab scholars were translating the works of the Greek geographers into Arabic. Geography In ancient China, geographical literature spans back to the 5th century BC. The oldest extant Chinese maps come from the State of Qin, dated back to the 4th century BC, during the Warring States Period. In the book of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao, published in 1092 by the Chinese scientist Su Song, a star map on the equidistant cylindrical projection. Miyajima, Kazuhiko (1997). Projection Methods in Chinese, Korean and Japanese Star Maps from "Highlights of Astronomy" vol. 11B p. 714. Ed. J. Andersen. Norwell: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 569. Although this method of charting seems to have existed in China even prior to this publication and scientist, the greatest significance of the star maps by Su Song, is that they represent the oldest existent star maps in printed form. Early forms of cartography of India included legendary paintings; maps of locations described in Indian epic poetry, for example, the Ramayana. Sircar 327 Indian cartographic traditions also covered the locations of the Pole star, and other constellations of use. These charts may have been in use by the beginning of the Common Era for purposes of navigation. Sircar 330 Mappa mundi is the general term used to describe Medieval European maps of the world. Approximately 1,100 mappae mundi are known to have survived from the Middle Ages. Of these, some 900 are found illustrating manuscripts and the remainder exist as stand-alone documents (Woodward, p. 286). The Tabula Rogeriana, drawn by Muhammad al-Idrisi for Roger II of Sicily in 1154. The Arab geographer, Muhammad al-Idrisi, produced his medieval atlas Tabula Rogeriana in 1154. He incorporated the knowledge of Africa, the Indian Ocean and the Far East, gathered by Arab merchants and explorers with the information inherited from the classical geographers to create the most accurate map of the world up until his time. It remained the most accurate world map for the next three centuries. S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire, pp. 461-2. In the Age of Exploration, from the 15th century to the 17th century, European cartographers both copied earlier maps (some of which had been passed down for centuries) and drew their own based on explorers' observations and new surveying techniques. The invention of the magnetic compass, telescope and sextant enabled increasing accuracy. In 1492, Martin Behaim, a German cartographer, made the oldest extant globe of the Earth. Globes and Terrain Models -- Geography and Maps: An Illustrated Guide, Library of Congress Johannes Werner refined and promoted the Werner map projection. In 1507, Martin Waldseemüller produced a globular world map and a large 12-panel world wall map (Universalis Cosmographia) bearing the first use of the name "America". Portuguese cartographer, Diego Ribero, was author of the first known planisphere with a graduated Equator (1527). Italian cartogapher Battista Agnese produced at least 71 manuscript atlases of sea charts. Due to the sheer physical difficulties inherent in cartography, map-makers frequently lifted material from earlier works without giving credit to the original cartographer. For example, one of the most famous early maps of North America is unofficially known as the "Beaver Map", published in 1715 by Herman Moll. This map is an exact reproduction of a 1698 work by Nicolas de Fer. De Fer in turn had copied images that were first printed in books by Louis Hennepin, published in 1697, and François Du Creux, in 1664. By the 1700s, map-makers started to give credit to the original engraver by printing the phrase "After [the original cartographer]" on the work. "Map Imitation" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada Technological changes A pre-Mercator nautical chart of 1571, from Portuguese cartographer Fernão Vaz Dourado (c. 1520-c.1580). It belongs to the so-called plane chart model, where observed latitudes and magnetic directions are plotted directly into the plane, with a constant scale, as if the Earth were plane (Portuguese National Archives of Torre do Tombo, Lisbon). In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment; therefore, varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the compass and much later, magnetic storage devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally. Advances in mechanical devices such as the printing press, quadrant and vernier, allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the telescope, sextant and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their latitude by measuring angles to the North Star at night or the sun at noon. Advances in photochemical technology, such as the lithographic and photochemical processes, have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving, which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps. Advances in electronic technology in the 20th century ushered in another revolution in cartography. Ready availability of computers and peripherals such as monitors, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters, along with computer programs for visualization, image processing, spatial analysis, and database management, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps. The ability to superimpose spatially located variables onto existing maps created new uses for maps and new industries to explore and exploit these potentials. See also: digital raster graphic. These days most commercial-quality maps are made using software that falls into one of three main types: CAD, GIS and specialized illustration software. Spatial information can be stored in a database, from which it can be extracted on demand. These tools lead to increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. Map types General vs thematic cartography Small section of an orienteering map. Topographic map of Easter Island. In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography. General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features. General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series. For example, the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. The government of the UK produces the classic 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile) "Ordnance Survey" maps of the entire UK and with a range of correlated larger- and smaller-scale maps of great detail. Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes, oriented toward specific audiences. A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties, divided into numerical choropleth classes. As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial, cultural and social data. An orienteering map combines both general and thematic cartography, designed for a very specific user community. The most prominent thematic element is shading, that indicates degrees of difficulty of travel due to vegetation. The vegetation itself is not identified, merely classified by the difficulty ("fight") that it presents. Topographic vs topological A topographic map is primarily concerned with the topographic description of a place, including (especially in the 20th century) the use of contour lines showing elevation. Terrain or relief can be shown in a variety of ways (see Cartographic relief depiction). A topological map is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin. It often disregards scale and detail in the interest of clarity of communicating specific route or relational information. Beck's London Underground map is an iconic example. Though the most widely used map of "The Tube," it preserves little of reality. It varies scale constantly and abruptly, it straightens curved tracks, and it contorts directions haphazardly. The only traits the map preserves are the order of the stations and crossings along the tracks and whether a station or crossing is north or south of the River Thames. Yet those are all a typical passenger wishes to know, so the map fulfills its purpose. Devlin, Keith. The Millennium Problems. New York, New York: Basic Books, 2002. Pages 162-163. Map design Illustrated map. Arthur H. Robinson, an American cartographer influential in thematic cartography, stated that a map not properly designed "will be a cartographic failure." He also claimed, when considering all aspects of cartography, that "map design is perhaps the most complex." Robinson codified the mapmaker's understanding that a map must be designed foremost with consideration to the audience and its needs. From the very beginning of mapmaking, maps "have been made for some particular purpose or set of purposes". The intent of the map should be illustrated in a manner in which the percipient acknowledges its purpose in a timely fashion. The term percipient refers to the person receiving information and was coined by Robinson. The principle of figure-ground refers to this notion of engaging the user by presenting a clear presentation, leaving no confusion concerning the purpose of the map. This will enhance the user’s experience and keep his attention. If the user is unable to identify what is being demonstrated in a reasonable fashion, the map may be regarded as useless. Making a meaningful map is the ultimate goal. Alan MacEachren explains that a well designed map "is convincing because it implies authenticity" (1994, pp. 9). An interesting map will no doubt engage a reader. Information richness or a map that is multivariate shows relationships within the map. Showing several variables allows comparison, which adds to the meaningfulness of the map. This also generates hypothesis and stimulates ideas and perhaps further research. In order to convey the message of the map, the creator must design it in a manner which will aid the reader in the overall understanding of its purpose. The title of a map may provide the "needed link" necessary for communicating that message, but the overall design of the map fosters the manner in which the reader interprets it (Monmonier, 1993, pp. 93). In the 21st century it is possible to find a map of virtually anything from the inner workings of the human body to the virtual worlds of cyberspace. Therefore there are now a huge variety of different styles and types of map - for example, one area which has evolved a specific and recognisable variation are those used by public transport organisations to guide passengers, namely urban rail and metro maps, many of which are loosely based on 45 degree angles as originally perfected by Harry Beck and George Dow. Naming conventions Most maps use text to label places and for such things as a map title, legend and other information. Maps are often made in specific languages, though names of places often differ between languages. So a map made in English may use the name Germany for that country, while a German map would use Deutschland and a French map Allemagne. A word that describes a place, using a non-native terminology or language is referred to as an exonym. In some cases the proper name is not clear. For example, the nation of Burma officially changed its name to Myanmar, but many nations do not recognize the ruling junta and continue to use Burma. Sometimes an official name change is resisted in other languages and the older name may remain in common use. Examples include the use of Saigon for Ho Chi Minh City, Bangkok for Krung Thep and Ivory Coast for Côte d'Ivoire. Difficulties arise, when transliteration or transcription between writing systems is required. National names tend to have well established names in other languages and writing systems, such as Russia for Росси́я, but for many placenames a system of transliteration or transcription is required. In transliteration, the symbols of one language are represented by symbols in another. For example, the Cyrillic letter Р is traditionally written as R in the Latin alphabet. Systems exist for transliteration of Arabic, but the results may vary. For example, the Yemeni city of Mocha is written variously in English as Mocha, Al Mukha, al-Mukhā, Mocca and Moka. Transliteration systems are based on relating written symbols to one another, while transcription is the attempt to spell in one language the phonetic sounds of another. Chinese writing is transformed into the Latin alphabet through the Pinyin phonetic transcription systems. Other systems were used in the past, such as Wade-Giles, resulting in the city being spelled Beijing on newer English maps and Peking on older ones. Further difficulties arise when countries, especially former colonies, do not have a strong national geographic naming standard. In such cases, cartographers may have to choose between various phonetic spellings of local names versus older imposed, sometimes resented, colonial names. Some countries have multiple official languages, resulting in multiple official placenames. For example, the capital of Belgium is both Brussels and Bruxelles. In Canada, English and French are official languages and places have names in both languages. British Columbia is also officially named la Colombie-Britannique. English maps rarely show the French names outside of Quebec, which itself is spelled Québec in French. This section based on: The study of placenames is called toponymy, while that of the origin and historical usage of placenames as words is etymology. Map symbology The quality of a map’s design affects its reader’s ability to extract information and to learn from the map. Cartographic symbology has been developed in an effort to portray the world accurately and effectively convey information to the map reader. A legend explains the pictorial language of the map, known as its symbology. The title indicates the region the map portrays; the map image portrays the region and so on. Although every map element serves some purpose, convention only dictates inclusion of some elements, while others are considered optional. A menu of map elements includes the neatline (border), compass rose or north arrow, overview map, scale bar, projection and information about the map sources, accuracy and publication. When examining a landscape, scale can be intuited from trees, houses and cars. Not so with a map. Even such a simple thing as a north arrow is crucial. It may seem obvious that the top of a map should point north, but this might not be the case. Color, likewise, is equally important. How the cartographer displays the data in different hues can greatly affect the understanding or feel of the map. Different intensities of hue portray different objectives the cartographer is attempting to get across to the audience. Today, personal computers can display up to 16 million distinct colors at a time, even though the human eye can distinguish only a minimum number of these (Jeer, 1997). This fact allows for a multitude of color options for even for the most demanding maps. Moreover, computers can easily hatch patterns in colors to give even more options. This is very beneficial, when symbolizing data in categories such as quintile and equal interval classifications. Quantitative symbols give a visual measure of the relative size/importance/number that a symbol represents and to symbolize this data on a map, there are two major classes of symbols used for portraying quantitative properties. Proportional symbols change their visual weight according to a quantitative property. These are appropriate for extensive statistics. Choropleth maps portray data collection areas, such as counties or census tracts, with color. Using color this way, the darkness and intensity (or value) of the color is evaluated by the eye as a measure of intensity or concentration (Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005). Map generalization A good map has to provide a compromise between portraying the items of interest (or themes) in the right place for the map scale used, against the need to annotate that item with text or a symbol, which takes up space on the map medium and very likely will cause some other item of interest to be displaced. The cartographer is thus constantly making judgements about what to include, what to leave out and what to show in a slightly incorrect place - because of the demands of the annotation. This issue assumes more importance as the scale of the map gets smaller (i.e the map shows a larger area), because relatively, the annotation on the map takes up more space on the ground. A good example from the late 1980s was the Ordnance Survey's first digital maps, where the absolute positions of major roads shown at scales of 1:1250 and 1:2500 were sometimes a scale distance of hundreds of metres away from ground truth, when shown on digital maps at scales of 1:250000 and 1:625000, because of the overriding need to annotate the features. In popular culture Lewis Carroll's Sylvie and Bruno Concluded tells of a fictional map that had "the scale of a mile to the mile." Jorge Luis Borges wrote a short story about a map made to 1:1 scale. It is an homage to Lewis Carroll's work mentioned above. The story, "On Exactitude in Science", is located in a collection called, A Universal History of Infamy. J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth is a renowned example of fictional cartography. Nicholas Crane's television series Map Man made originally for BBC Two, portrays cartography and cartographers. In the television series, Arrested Development, the character Byron "Buster" Bluth has purportedly studied cartography extensively. In Lemony Snicket's A Series of Unfortunate Events, character Quigley Quagmire is a skilled cartographer. See also Aerial photography Animated mapping British Cartographic Society Cartogram Cartographic relief depiction Cartographic generalization Contour line Critical cartography Cybercartography Digital Cadastral DataBase Figure-ground in map design Four color theorem Gazetteer Geocode Geographic Information System (GIS) Geovisualization Here be dragons Isostasy Japanese map symbols List of cartographers Locator map Map projection National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency OpenStreetMap, a free project mapping the world's roads using GPS Orthophoto Pictorial maps Planetary cartography Point of Beginning Sea level Terra incognita References Further reading Belyea, B. 1992. Amerindian Maps: the Explorer as Translator. Journal of Historical Geography 18, no.3 :267-277. Bender, B. 1999. Subverting the Western Gaze: mapping alternative worlds. In The Archaeology and Anthropology of Landscape: Shaping your landscape (eds) P.J. Ucko & R. Layton. London: Routledge. Crawford, P.V. 1973. The perception of graduated squares as cartographic symbols. Cartographic Journal 10, no.2:85-88. ESRI. 2004. ESRI Cartography: Capabilities and Trends. Redlands, CA. White Paper Harvard Graduate School of Design, 2005. http://www.gsd.harvard.edu/gis/manual/style/index.htm Jeer, S. 1997. Traditional Color Coding for Land Uses. American Planning Association. pp. 4–5 Kent, A.J. 2005. "Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?" The Cartographic Journal 42(2) pp.182–188 Imus, D. and Dunlavey, P. 2002. Back to the Drawing Board: Cartography vs the Digital Workflow. MT. Hood, Oregon. Oliver, J. 2007. The Paradox of Progress: Land Survey and the Making of Agrarian Society in Colonial British Columbia. In Contemporary and Historical Archaeology in Theory (eds) L. McAtackney, M. Palus & A. Piccini, pp. 31–38. Oxford: BAR, International Series 1677 Olson, Judy M. 1975. Experience and the improvement of cartographic communication. Cartographic Journal 12, no. 2:94-108 Phillips, R., De Lucia, A., and Skelton, A. 1975. Some Objective Tests of the Legibility of Relief Maps. The Cartographic Journal. 12, pp. 39–46 Phillips, R. 1980. A Comparison of Color and Visual Texture as Codes for use as Area Symbols on Relief Maps. Ergonomics. 23, pp. 1117–1128. Rice, M., Jacobson, R., Jones. D. 2003. Object Size Discrimination and Non-visual Cartographic Symbolization. CA. pp. 1–12. "Map Imitations" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada Wood, Denis, The Power of Maps, New York/London, The Guilford Press, 1992 External links Cartography and Geographic Information Society (CaGIS), USA The CaGIS(ociety)promotes research, education, and practice to improve the understanding, creation, analysis, and use of maps and geographic information. The society serves as a forum for the exchange of original concepts, techniques, approaches, and experiences by those who design, implement, and use cartography, geographical information systems, and related geospatial technologies. CartoTalk - The discussion board for cartographers and anyone who designs or just loves maps. A very rich resource about cartography from those who practice the art every day. National Cartographic Center of Iran (NCC), Tehran British Cartographic Society Mapping History - a learning resource from the British Library Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide, by the staff of the US Library of Congress. The history of cartography at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland Antique Maps by Carl Moreland and David Bannister - complete text of the book, with information both on mapmaking and on mapmakers, including short biographies of many cartographers North American Cartographic Information Society Society of Cartographerssupports the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography, Newberry Library UPCT : project aimed at creating a world map (a French map to begin) with voluntaries using GPS OpenStreetMap : project aimed squarely at creating and providing free geographic data such as street maps to anyone who wants them. GITTA - A webbased open content eLearning course with basic and intermediate cartography lessons based on the eLML XML framework. cartographers on the net SVG, scalable vector graphics: tutorials, examples, widgets and libraries See Maps for more links to modern and historical maps; however, most of the largest sites are listed at the sites linked below. Map history has extensive links to online map resources, including several large collections of images online and articles on the history of cartography. Odden's fascinating world of maps and mapping has a huge database of links on maps and cartography (under "Literature"). Online map catalogs in North America and Europe lists some good places to search for online maps. A listing of over 5000 websites describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar MapRef A collection of map projections and reference systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library, web-site from the UN Environment Programme with hundreds of examples of thematic maps Kartografi-Indonesia A website displaying cartograms of various Indonesian-related data made by the Dept. Computational Sociology of Bandung Fe Institute. IslamicCartography A weblog on Islamic cartography by Tarek Kahlaoui a PhD student in the University of Pennsylvania Mapping Our World Oxfam's interactive site to help pupils develop geography skills through activities all about maps, globes and how we view the world Platial, The People's Atlas User-created maps	Cartography \|@lemmatized cartography:35 greek:3 chartis:1 map:163 graphein:1 write:7 study:4 practice:3 make:13 geographical:3 combine:2 science:3 aesthetic:2 technique:3 build:1 premise:1 reality:2 model:3 way:3 communicate:3 spatial:4 information:16 effectively:2 fundamental:1 problem:2 set:2 agenda:1 select:1 trait:2 object:4 concern:7 edit:1 may:12 physical:2 road:3 land:4 mass:2 abstract:1 toponym:1 political:1 boundary:1 represent:4 terrain:3 mapped:2 flat:1 medium:2 projection:7 eliminate:2 characteristic:2 relevant:1 purpose:9 generalization:4 reduce:1 complexity:1 also:8 orchestrate:1 element:5 best:1 convey:3 message:3 audience:5 design:15 history:9 copy:3 st:2 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6,426	Piano_Trios,_Op._70_(Beethoven)	Opus 70 is a set of two Piano Trios by Ludwig van Beethoven. They were published in 1809. Written for piano, violin, and cello. The first, in D major, known as the Ghost, is one of his best known works in the genre (rivaled only by the Archduke Trio). The D major trio features themes found in the second movement of Beethoven's Symphony No. 2. These pieces are representative of Beethoven's "Middle" stylistic period, which went from roughly 1803 to 1812, and which included many of his most famous works. Beethoven wrote the two piano trios while spending the summer of 1808 in Heiligenstadt, Vienna, where he had completed his Symphony No. 5 the previous summer. He wrote the two trios immediately after finishing his Sinfonia pastorale, Symphony No. 6. This was a period of uncertainty in Beethoven's life, in particular because he had no dependable source of income at the time. After finishing the trios, in the fall of 1808, he began sketching the Choral Fantasy, the work considered to be the "first draft" of the last movement of the famous Symphony No. 9. Opus 70 No. 1 - Piano Trio No. 5 in D major "Ghost" Allegro vivace e con brio Largo assai ed espressivo Presto Opus 70 No. 2 - Piano Trio No. 6 in E-flat major Poco sostenuto - Allegro, ma non troppo Allegretto Allegretto, ma non troppo Finale. Allegro The second movement is in double variation form. External links Performance of Ghost Trio op. 70 no. 5 by the Claremont Trio from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museumin MP3 format	Piano_Trios,_Op._70_(Beethoven) \|@lemmatized opus:3 set:1 two:3 piano:5 trio:10 ludwig:1 van:1 beethoven:5 publish:1 write:3 violin:1 cello:1 first:2 major:4 know:2 ghost:3 one:1 best:1 work:3 genre:1 rival:1 archduke:1 feature:1 theme:1 find:1 second:2 movement:3 symphony:4 piece:1 representative:1 middle:1 stylistic:1 period:2 go:1 roughly:1 include:1 many:1 famous:2 spend:1 summer:2 heiligenstadt:1 vienna:1 complete:1 previous:1 immediately:1 finish:2 sinfonia:1 pastorale:1 uncertainty:1 life:1 particular:1 dependable:1 source:1 income:1 time:1 fall:1 begin:1 sketch:1 choral:1 fantasy:1 consider:1 draft:1 last:1 allegro:3 vivace:1 e:2 con:1 brio:1 largo:1 assai:1 ed:1 espressivo:1 presto:1 flat:1 poco:1 sostenuto:1 non:2 troppo:2 allegretto:2 finale:1 double:1 variation:1 form:1 external:1 link:1 performance:1 op:1 claremont:1 isabella:1 stewart:1 gardner:1 museumin:1 format:1 \|@bigram piano_trio:4 ludwig_van:1 van_beethoven:1 violin_cello:1 beethoven_symphony:1 non_troppo:2 external_link:1 trio_op:1
6,427	England	England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. The Countries of the UK statistics.gov.uk, accessed 10 October, 2008 Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population, National Statistics Online - Population Estimates. Retrieved 6 June 2007. while its mainland territory occupies most of the southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain. England is bordered by Scotland to the north, Wales to the west and the North Sea, Irish Sea, Celtic Sea, Bristol Channel and English Channel. The capital is London, the largest urban area in Great Britain, and the largest urban zone in the European Union by many measures. The official definition of LUZ (Larger Urban Zone) is used by the European Statistical Agency (Eurostat) when describing conurbations and areas of high population. This definition ranks London highest, above Paris (see Larger Urban Zones (LUZ) in the European Union); and a ranking of population within municipal boundaries also puts London on top (see Largest cities of the European Union by population within city limits). However, research by the University of Avignon in France ranks Paris first and London second when including the whole urban area and hinterland, that is the outlying cities as well (see Largest urban areas of the European Union). England became a unified state in the year 927 and takes its name from the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes who settled there during the 5th and 6th centuries. It has had a significant cultural and legal impact on the wider world England - Culture. Britain USA. Retrieved 12 September 2006. being the place of origin of the English language, the Church of England, and English law, which forms the basis of the common law legal systems of countries around the world. In addition, England was the birth place of the Industrial Revolution, thus being the first country in the world to industrialise. It is home to the Royal Society, which laid the foundations of modern experimental science. England has the world's oldest parliamentary system, and consequently, other constitutional, governmental and legal innovations that stemmed from England have been widely adopted by other nations. The Kingdom of England (including Wales) continued as a separate state until 1 May 1707, when the Acts of Union, putting into effect the terms agreed in the Treaty of Union the previous year, resulted in political union with the Kingdom of Scotland to create the united Kingdom of Great Britain. In 1800, Great Britain was united with Ireland through another Act of Union 1800 to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922, the Irish Free State was created, and the Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act in 1927 officially established the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which exists today. Etymology and usage England is named after the Angles, the largest of the Germanic tribes who settled in England in the 5th and 6th centuries, and who are believed to have originated in the peninsula of Angeln, in what is now Denmark and northern Germany. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. (The further etymology of this tribe's name remains uncertain, although a popular theory holds that it need be sought no further than the word angle itself, and refers to a fish-hook-shaped region of Holstein.) OED (etymology) entry for Angle) The Angles' name has had various spellings. The earliest known reference to these people is under the Latinised version Anglii used by Tacitus in chapter 40 of his Germania, Germania by Tacitus. Retrieved 18 November 2006. written around 98 AD. He gives no precise indication of their geographical position within Germania, but states that, with six other tribes, they worshipped a goddess named Nerthus, whose sanctuary was situated on "an island in the Ocean". The early 8th century historian Bede, in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People), refers to the English people as Angelfolc (in English) or Angli (in Latin). Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum. Retrieved 19 November 2006. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first known usage of "England" referring to the southern part of the island of Great Britain was in 897, with the modern spelling first used in 1538. England is officially defined as "subject to any alteration of boundaries under Part IV of the Local Government Act 1972, the area consisting of the counties established by section 1 of that Act, Greater London and the Isles of Scilly." History Stonehenge, a Neolithic and Bronze Age megalithic monument in Wiltshire, thought to have been erected c.2000–2500 BC. Bones and flint tools found in Norfolk and Suffolk show that Homo erectus lived in what is now England about 700,000 years ago. Bone find may rewrite history, BBC News, 4 June 2002. Retrieved 20 November 2006 At this time, Great Britain was joined to mainland Europe by a large land bridge. The current position of the English Channel was a large river flowing westwards and fed by tributaries that would later become the Thames and the Seine. This area was greatly depopulated during the period of the last major ice age, as were other regions of the British Isles. In the subsequent recolonisation, after the thawing of the ice, genetic research shows that present-day England was the last area of the British Isles to be repopulated, Stephen Oppenheimer, The Origins of the British, Constable and Robinson about 13,000 years ago. The migrants arriving during this period contrast with the other of the inhabitants of the British Isles, coming across lands from the south east of Europe, whereas earlier arriving inhabitants came north along a coastal route from Iberia. These migrants would later adopt the Celtic culture that came to dominate much of western Europe. Industry in England: Historical Outlines, By Henry de Beltgens Gibbins, 9th edition, Published by C. Scribners's sons, 1916; page 3, Original from the University of California By AD 43, the time of the main Roman invasion, Britain had already been the target of frequent invasions, planned and actual, by forces of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire. It was first invaded by the Roman dictator Julius Caesar in 55 BC, but it was conquered more fully by the Emperor Claudius in 43 AD. Like other regions on the edge of the empire, Britain had long enjoyed trading links with the Romans, Industry in England: Historical Outlines, By Henry de Beltgens Gibbins, 9th edition, Published by C. Scribners's sons, 1916; page 17, Original from the University of California and their economic and cultural influence was a significant part of the British late pre-Roman Iron Age, especially in the south. The earliest English kings, By D. P. Kirby, Edition: 2, revised, illustrated, Published by Routledge, 2000; page 193 ISBN 0-415-24211-8, 9780415242110 With the fall of the Roman Empire 400 years later, the Romans left the Province of Britannia, much of which later came to be known as England. Anglo-Saxon England By Peter Clemoes, Michael Lapidge, Published by Cambridge University Press, 1972 ISBN 0-521-03842-1, 9780521038423; page 163, 167 Medieval England An Anglo-Saxon helmet found at Sutton Hoo, probably belonging to Raedwald of East Anglia circa 625. The History of Anglo-Saxon England covers the history of early mediæval England from the end of Roman Britain and the establishment of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the 5th century until the Conquest by the Normans in 1066. Fragmentary knowledge of Anglo-Saxon England in the 5th and 6th centuries comes from the British writer Gildas (6th century) the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (a history of the English people begun in the 9th century), saints' lives, poetry, archaeological findings, and place-name studies. The dominant themes of the seventh to tenth centuries were the spread of Christianity and the political unification of England. Christianity is thought to have come from three directions—from Rome to the south, and Scotland and Ireland to the north and west, respectively. From about 500 AD, it is believed England was divided into seven petty kingdoms, known as the Heptarchy: Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia, Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms tended to coalesce by means of warfare. As early as the time of Ethelbert of Kent, one king could be recognised as Bretwalda ("Lord of Britain"). Generally speaking, the title fell in the 7th century to the kings of Northumbria; in the 8th to those of Mercia; and in the 9th to Egbert of Wessex, who in 825 defeated the Mercians at the Battle of Ellendun. In the next century, his family came to rule England. Medieval England: rural society and economic change, 1036-1348, ISBN 0-582-48218-6, 9780582482180 By Edward Miller, John Hatcher, Edition: 3, illustrated, reprint, Published by Longman, 1978; Original from the University of Michigan, pg. 172-189 The "Great Heathen Army" of Danish Vikings pillaged and conquered much of England in the late 9th century. The Penguin Dictionary of British History, Ed. Juliet Gardiner The signing of the Magna Carta in 1215. It was one of the first steps towards the idea of modern democracy. Originally, England was a geographical term to describe the part of Britain occupied by the Anglo-Saxons, rather than a name of an individual nation-state. It became politically united through the expansion of the kingdom of Wessex, whose king Athelstan brought the whole of England under one ruler for the first time in 927, although unification did not become permanent until 954, when Edred defeated Eric Bloodaxe and became King of England. Medieval England: rural society and economic change, 1036-1348, ISBN 0-582-48218-6, 9780582482180 By Edward Miller, John Hatcher, Edition: 3, illustrated, reprint, Published by Longman, 1978; Original from the University of Michigan, pg. 134-147 In 1016, England was conquered by the Danish king Canute the Great and became the centre of government for his short-lived empire. With the accession of Edward the Confessor, heir of the native English dynasty, in 1042, England once again became a separate kingdom. Its ties and nature, however, were forever changed following the Norman Conquest in 1066. Medieval England, By Kathryn Hinds, Published by Marshall Cavendish, 2001 ISBN 0-7614-0308-6, 9780761403081 The next few hundred years saw England as a major part of expanding and dwindling empires based in France with the "Kings of England" using England as a source of troops to enlarge their personal holdings in France for years (Hundred Years' War) starting with Edward III; Medieval England: an aerial survey By Maurice Warwick Beresford, John Kenneth Sinclair St. Joseph, Published by University Press, 1958; Original from Indiana University, pg 200-207 in fact, the English crown did not relinquish its last foothold on mainland France until Calais was lost in 1558, during the reign of Mary Tudor (the Channel Islands are still crown dependencies, though not part of the UK). Arms and Armour Glossary Terms. 1992-2003. Knighthood, Chivalry, and Tournaments Resource Library. 10 Mar. 2005 Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the Battle of Agincourt. In the 13th century Wales (the remaining Romano-Celts) was brought under the control of English monarchs through conquest. This was formalised in the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284 and Wales was legally annexed to the Kingdom of England by the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542. Wales shared a legal identity with England as the joint entity originally called England and later England and Wales. Medieval England: rural society and economic change, 1036-1348 By Edward Miller, John Hatcher Edition: 3, illustrated, reprint; Published by Longman, 1978, Original from the University of Michigan, ISBN 0-582-48218-6, 9780582482180 An epidemic of catastrophic proportions, the Black Death first reached England in the summer of 1348. "A List of National Epidemics of Plague in England 1348-1665" The Black Death is estimated to have killed between a third and two-thirds of Europe's population. England alone lost as much as 70% of its population, which passed from seven million to two million in 1400. The plague repeatedly returned to haunt England throughout the 14th to 17th centuries. The Great Plague of London in 1665–1666 was the last plague outbreak. Early Modern period Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I made to commemorate the English victory over the Spanish Armada in 1588. During the English Reformation in the 16th century, the external authority of the Roman Catholic Church in England was abolished and replaced with Acts of Royal Supremacy and the establishment of the Church of England ("Anglican Church") under the Supreme Governance of the English monarch. This occurred during the reign of Henry VIII. The English Reformation differed from its European counterparts in that its roots were more political than theological. Cf. "The Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the 'Reformation Parliament' of 1529–36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not until later make substantial change in doctrine". Roger Scruton, A Dictionary Political Thought, Macmillan: 1996, p.470. The English Reformation paved the way for the spread of Anglicanism in the church and other institutions. The period known as the English Civil War (1642–1651) saw political machinations and armed conflicts between supporters of the Long Parliament (Roundheads) and of King Charles I (Royalists) in 1642 to 1645 and 1648 to 1649, followed by conflict between supporters of the Rump Parliament and of King Charles II in 1649 to 1651. The War ended with the Parliamentary victory at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651. It had led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son Charles II, the replacement of the English monarchy with the Commonwealth of England (1649–1653) and personal rule by Oliver Cromwell during The Protectorate (1653–1659). The Restoration under Charles II restored peace after the Civil War. After Cromwell's death in 1659, a brief return, lead by Cromwell's weak son, to Commonwealth rule was attempted before Parliament invited Charles II to return to England in 1660 and restore the monarchy. During the interregnum, the Church of England's monopoly on Christian worship in England came to an end and the Protestant Ascendancy consolidated in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established a precedent that British monarchs could not govern without parliamentary consent, although this would not be cemented until the Glorious Revolution later in the century. Although embattled for centuries, the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland had been drawing increasingly together since the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century and in 1603, with the Scottish king James VI accession to the English crown, the two countries became linked by a personal union, being ruled by the same Stuart dynasty. Following a number of attempts to unite the Kingdoms, a Treaty of Union was agreed on 22 July 1706 by representatives of the English and Scottish parliaments, Articles of Union with Scotland 1707 www.parliament.uk and put into effect by the Acts of Union which resulted in political union between the states with the creation of the united Kingdom of Great Britain on 1 May 1707. (Ireland joining in 1801 with all of Ireland except Northern Ireland leaving in 1922 has resulted in the current name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland). Within the Union After the Union, England and Wales retained their separate legal identity since the continuance of the separate Scottish legal system was enshrined in the Articles of the Treaty of Union. Wales was already part of the Kingdom of England but the Wales and Berwick Act 1746 made it explicit that laws passed for England were automatically applicable to Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act 1746 also referred to the formerly Scottish burgh of Berwick-upon-Tweed. The border town changed hands several times and was finally conquered by England in 1482 but was not officially incorporated into England. Contention about whether Berwick was in England or Scotland was ended by the union of the two in 1707. The Union of England and Wales, By William Rees, Published by University of Wales Press, 1948; page 51, 54, 56 Berwick remains within the English legal system and so is regarded today as part of England (though there has been suggestion in Scotland that Berwick should be invited to 'return to the fold'). 'Return to fold' call for Berwick BBC News, 10 February 2008 The county of Monmouthshire has long been an ambiguous area with its legal identity passing between England and Wales at various periods. In the Local Government Act 1972, it was made part of Wales. The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are crown dependencies and are not part of England. Government and politics A mediæval manuscript, showing the Parliament of England in front of the king c. 1300 There has not been a Government of England since 1707, when the Acts of Union 1707, putting into effect the terms of the Treaty of Union that had been agreed the previous year, joined the Kingdom of England with the Kingdom of Scotland to form the united Kingdom of Great Britain. Treaty of Union www.scotshistoryonline. Retrieved 6 August 2008 Prior to this, England was ruled by a monarch and the Parliament of England. However, following the establishment of devolved government for Scotland and Wales in 1999, England was left as the only country within the United Kingdom still governed in matters by the UK government and the UK parliament in London. Groups such as Mebyon Kernow who proclaim a distinct national identity for Cornwall and campaign for a Cornish assembly would dispute this claim. Since Westminster is the UK parliament but also legislates on matters that affect England alone, devolution of national matters to parliament/assemblies in Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland has refocused attention on the anomaly called the West Lothian question. The "question" is why Scottish and Welsh MPs should continue to be able to vote on legislation relating only to England while English MPs have no equivalent right to legislate on devolved matters. Scottish and Welsh MPs are also unable to vote on devolved issues affecting their own constituencies. This constitutional arrangement resulted in the Labour government only winning a 2004 vote to impose higher tuition fees on students in England due to the support of Scottish Labours MPs. Blair wins key top-up fees vote BBC News, 27 January 2004 This "question" is also exacerbated by the large number of Scottish MPs in the government, a group sometimes disparagingly called the Scottish mafia, and by having a Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, who represents a Scottish constituency that is unaffected by the policy decisions he takes. There are calls for a devolved English parliament, such as by former minister Frank Field MP, Gordon Brown pressed on English parliament www.timesonline.co.uk. Retrieved 14 July 2008 and there is opinion poll evidence of public support for the idea. 'Most' support English parliamentBBC News, 16 January 2007 Some minor English parties go further, calling for the dissolution of the Union. However, the approach favoured by the current Labour government was (on the basis that England is too large to be governed as a single sub-state entity) to propose the devolution of power to the Regions of England. Lord Falconer claimed a devolved English parliament would dwarf the rest of the United Kingdom. BBC politics. Retrieved 12 November 2006. The Conservative Party, on the other hand, are considering proposals to ban Scottish MPs from voting on English only legislation in Westminster. English votes for English laws' plan by Torieswww.independent.co.uk, 1 July 2008 Today, therefore, England's affairs are managed by a combination of the UK government, the UK parliament, and England-specific quangos such as English Heritage. Politics A total of 529 of the current 646 MPs in the House of Commons represent English constituencies, which will rise to 533 out of 650 at the next general election. At the 2005 General Election, the Conservative Party won more votes than any other single party, with 35.7% of the vote. However, Labour won a majority of England's MPs, having 284 MPs elected, on the basis of just 35.4% of the popular vote with the Conservative Party winning just 194 MPs. The Liberal Democrats were the third party winning 47 MPs with 22.5% of the vote, and the only other MPs elected were one for Respect and a Kidderminster Hospital campaigner. Results: England bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 21 August 2008 Subdivisions and local government Manchester Town Hall The upper-tier subdivisions of England are the nine Regions of England or European Union government office regions. A London referendum in 1998 on the question of having a directly elected assembly and directly elected mayor produced a large majority in favour and it was intended that other regions would also be given their own elected regional assemblies. However, a rejection by a referendum in 2004 of a proposed assembly in the North East region stopped this idea in its tracks. "The Government is now expected to tear up its twelve-year-old plan to create eight or nine regional assemblies in England to mirror devolution in Scotland and Wales." During the campaign, a common criticism of the proposals was that England did not need "another tier of bureaucracy". BBC talking point. Retrieved 12 November 2006. Below the regional level, London consists of 32 London boroughs and the rest of England has either county councils and district councils or unitary authorities. At the lowest level, much of England is divided into parishes though parishes are prohibited from existing in Greater London. Law and criminal justice The Royal Courts of Justice The English common law legal system, developed over the centuries, is also the foundation of many legal systems throughout the English-speaking countries of the world. Common law - Tiscali reference. URL retrieved 6 June 2007. It continued to apply in England and Wales after the Treaty of Union because the terms of the Treaty specifically guaranteed the continued existence of Scotland's separate legal system, which meant that England's system has also remained separate. The essence of English common law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts, applying their common sense and knowledge of legal precedent (stare decisis) to the facts before them. The court system is headed by the Supreme Court of Judicature of England and Wales, consisting of the Court of Appeal, the High Court of Justice (for civil cases) and the Crown Court (for criminal cases). The Appellate Committee of the House of Lords (usually just referred to as "The House of Lords") is presently the highest court for both criminal and civil cases in England and Wales though recent constitutional changes will see the powers of the House of Lords transfer to a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. , Department for Constitutional Affairs. Retrieved on 2006-05-22 A decision of the highest appeal court in England and Wales, the House of Lords, is binding on every other court in the hierarchy, and they will follow its directions. Crime in England and Wales increased between 1981 and 1995, but fell 42% overall from 1995 to 2006/7. Crime over the last 25 years homeoffice.gov.uk However, despite this fall in crime rates, the prison population of England and Wales almost doubled during the same period to over 80,000, giving England and Wales the highest rate of incarceration in Western Europe at 147 inmates per 100,000 population. New record high prison population BBC News, 8 February 2008 Her Majesty's Prison Service, which reports to the Ministry of Justice, manages most of the prisons within England and Wales. Crawford, Adam. The Local Governance of Crime: Appeals to Community and Partnerships, 1997. Geography A view of Borrowdale from Grayrigg Forest in the Lake District. The rolling terrain of the North York Moors The River Avon under the Pulteney Bridge in Bath, Somerset A view of Sheffield, one of England's largest cities England comprises the central and southern two-thirds of the island of Great Britain, plus offshore islands of which the largest is the Isle of Wight. It is bordered to the north by Scotland and to the west by Wales. It is closer to continental Europe than any other part of mainland Britain, divided from France only by a 24-statute mile (52 km or 21 nautical mile) Eurotunnel.com – UK History sea gap. The Channel Tunnel, near Folkestone, directly links England to mainland Europe. The English/French border is halfway along the tunnel. Much of England consists of rolling hills, but it is generally more mountainous in the north with a chain of low mountains, the Pennines, dividing east and west. Other hilly areas in the north and Midlands are the Lake District, the North York Moors, and the Peak District. The approximate dividing line between terrain types is often indicated by the Tees-Exe line. To the south of that line, there are larger areas of flatter land, including East Anglia and the Fens, although hilly areas include the Cotswolds, the Chilterns, and the North and South Downs. The largest natural harbour in England is at Poole, on the south-central coast. Some regard it as the second largest harbour in the world, after Sydney, Australia, although this fact is disputed (see harbours for a list of other large natural harbours). Climate England has a temperate climate, with plentiful rainfall all year round, although the seasons are quite variable in temperature. However, temperatures rarely fall below −5 °C (23 °F) or rise above 30 °C (86 °F). The prevailing wind is from the south-west, bringing mild and wet weather to England regularly from the Atlantic Ocean. It is driest in the east and warmest in the south, which is closest to the European mainland. Snowfall can occur in winter and early spring, although it is not that common away from high ground. The highest temperature recorded in England is 38.5 °C (101.3 °F) on 10 August 2003 at Brogdale, near Faversham, in Kent. Temperature record changes hands BBC News, 30 September 2003. Retrieved 12 September 2006. The lowest temperature recorded in England is −26.1 °C (−15.0 °F) on 10 January 1982 at Edgmond, near Newport, in Shropshire. English Climate Met Office. Retrieved 12 September 2006. Major rivers England has a number of important rivers including the Severn (the longest river and largest river basin in Great Britain), Tees, Thames, Trent, Humber, Tyne, Wear, Ribble, Ouse, Mersey, Dee, Aire, Avon and Medway. Major conurbations London is by far the largest urban area in England and one of the largest and busiest cities in the world. Other cities, mainly in central and northern England, are of substantial size and influence. The list of England's largest cities or urban areas is open to debate because, although the normal meaning of city is "a continuously built-up urban area", this can be hard to define, particularly because administrative areas in England often do not correspond with the limits of urban development, and many towns and cities have, over the centuries, grown to form complex urban agglomerations. "Religious centres recover city status", The Guardian, 8 July 1994. Patrick O'Leary, "Derby's long road to city status", The Times, 29 July 1977, p.14 For the official definition of a UK (and therefore English) city, see City status in the United Kingdom. According to the ONS urban area populations for continuous built-up areas, these are the 15 largest conurbations (population figures from the 2001 census): Economics The City of London is a major business and commercial centre, ranking alongside New York City and Tokyo as the leading centre of global finance. England's economy is the among the largest in the world. It follows the Anglo-Saxon economic model. England's economy is the largest of the four economies of the United Kingdom, with 100 of Europe's 500 largest corporations based in London. Financial Centre, by the Corporation of the City of London. Retrieved 20 November 2006. As part of the United Kingdom, England is a major centre of world economics. One of the world's most highly industrialised countries, England is a leader in the chemical and pharmaceutical sectors and in key technical industries, particularly aerospace, the arms industry and the manufacturing side of the software industry. London exports mainly manufactured goods and imports materials such as petroleum, tea, wool, raw sugar, timber, butter, metals, and meat. Fact Monster. Retrieved 18 November 2006. England exported more than 30,000 tons of beef last year, worth around £75,000,000, with France, Italy, Greece, the Netherlands, Belgium and Spain being the largest importers of beef from England. Eblex. Retrieved 18 November 2006. The central bank of the United Kingdom, which sets interest rates and implements monetary policy, is the Bank of England in London. London is also home to the London Stock Exchange, the main stock exchange in the UK and the largest in Europe. London is one of the international leaders in finance The Competitive Position of London as a Global Financial Centre (PDF) (November 2005), City of London government. and the largest financial centre in Europe. Traditional heavy and manufacturing industries have declined sharply in England in recent decades, as they have in the United Kingdom as a whole. At the same time, service industries have grown in importance. For example, tourism is the sixth largest industry in the UK, contributing 76 billion pounds to the economy. It employs 1,800,000 full-time equivalent people—6.1% of the working population (2002 figures). Visit Britain. Retrieved 18 November 2006. The largest centre for tourism is London, which attracts millions of international tourists every year. England's official currency is the Pound Sterling (also known as the British pound or GBP). International Financial Statistics; By International Monetary Fund; Published by International Monetary Fund, 1962; Item notes: v. 15; Original from the University of Michigan Money, By Mark F. Dobeck, Euel Elliott, Edition: illustrated, Published by Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007; page 18; ISBN 0-313-33852-3, 9780313338526 Demography Ceremonial Counties of England, colour-coded to show population. The City of London is not included. With 50,431,700 inhabitants (84% of the UK total), Population Estimates National Statistics Online, 24 August 2006. Retrieved 12 September 2006 England is the most populous and most ethnically diverse nation in the United Kingdom. If it were a sovereign state, England would have the fourth largest population in the European Union and would be the 25th largest country by population in the world. The population of England grew from 8.3 million in 1801 to 30.5 million in 1901. The UK population: past, present and future. Statistics.gov.uk. England's population continues to grow: with the exception of 1976, there have been more births than deaths every year since 1901. Population Estimates National Statistics Online, 24 August 2006. Retrieved 12 September 2006. While the percentage of people over 65 increases, the percentage of people under 16 is falling, meaning the country's population is ageing overall. With a density of 383 people per square kilometre (992/sq mi), Retrieved 19 November 2006 it is the most densely populated country in Europe, having recently overtaken the Netherlands. The generally accepted view is that the ethnic background of the English populace, before 19th and 20th century immigration, was a mixed European one deriving from historical waves of Celtic, Roman, Anglo-Saxon, Norse, and Norman invasions, along with the possible survival of pre-Celtic ancestry. http://www.academon.com/lib/paper/6359.html Papers on "Class Struggles in 19th Century England" and similar term paper topics, Paper #006359; 2000-2009, Academic Resources Center Inc. and Essays 411 Retrieved 2009-03-07 19:36:23 The economic prosperity of England has also made it a destination for economic migrants from Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. This was particularly true during the Industrial Revolution. Since the fall of the British Empire, many denizens of former colonies have migrated to Britain including the Indian sub-continent and the British Caribbean. A BBC-published report of the 2001 census, by the Institute for Public Policy Research stated that the vast majority of immigrants settled in London and the South East of England. The largest groups of residents born in other countries were from the Republic of Ireland, India, Pakistan, Germany, and the Caribbean. Although Germany was high on the list, this was mainly the result of children being born to British forces personnel stationed in that country. BBC – "British Immigration Map Revealed". Retrieved 16 May 2007. Ridley Road Market in Dalston, London. As of 2008, 40% of London's total population was from an ethnic minority group. London’s black and minority communities helped to have a greater voice. Londoncouncils.gov.uk. About half the population increase between 1991 and 2001 was due to foreign-born immigration. In 2004 the number of people who became British citizens rose to a record 140,795—a rise of 12% on the previous year. The number had risen dramatically since 2000. The overwhelming majority of new citizens come from Africa (32%) and Asia (40%), the largest three groups being people from India, Pakistan and Somalia. One in five babies in the UK are born to immigrant mothers according to official statistics released in 2007. 21.9% of births in the UK in 2006 were to mothers born outside the United Kingdom compared with just 12.8% in 1995. As of 2007, 22% of primary school children and 17.7% of children at secondary school in England were from ethnic minority families. In 2006, an estimated 591,000 migrants arrived to live in the UK for at least a year, while 400,000 people emigrated from the UK for a year or more, with Australia, Spain, France, New Zealand and the U.S. most popular destinations. Largest group of arrivals were people from the Indian subcontinent who accounted for two-thirds of net immigration, mainly fueled by family reunion. One in six were from Eastern European countries. They were outnumbered by immigrants from New Commonwealth countries. The European Union allows free movement between the member states. 'Why I left UK to return to Poland', BBC News While France and Germany put in place controls to curb Eastern European migration, the UK and Ireland did not impose restrictions in 2004. EU free movement of labour map, BBC News, July 28, 2008 The Home Office publishes quarterly statistics on the number of applications to the Worker Registration Scheme. Figures published in August 2007 indicate that 656,395 people were accepted on to the scheme between 1 May 2004 and 30 June 2007, of whom 430,395 were Polish nationals. Home Office, Department for Work and Pensions, HM Revenue & Customs and Communities and Local Government, Accession Monitoring Report: A8 Countries, May 2004-June 2007, 21 August 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2007. Many Poles work in seasonal occupations and a large number is likely to move back and forth including between Ireland and other EU Western nations. A quarter of Eastern European migrants, often young and well-educated, planned to stay in Britain permanently. Most of them originally intended to go home but changed their minds later. 750,000 and rising: how Polish workers have built a home in Britain. The 2008 economic crisis in the UK and the growing economy in Poland reduced the economic incentive for Poles to migrate to the UK. By the last quarter of 2008, approximately half of those that had come to the UK to work had returned home. Packing up for home: Poles hit by UK's economic downturn, This is London, October 20, 2008 Culture The British Museum, London. England has a vast and influential culture that encompasses elements both old and new. The modern culture of England is sometimes difficult to identify and separate clearly from the culture of the wider United Kingdom, so intertwined are its composite nations. However the English traditional and historic culture remains distinct albeit with substantial regional differences. Christopher, David. British Culture: An Introduction, 1999. English Heritage is a governmental body with a broad remit of managing the historic sites, artefacts and environments of England. London's British Museum, British Library and National Gallery contain the finest collections in the world. Easthope, Anthony. Englishness and National Culture, 1999. The English have played a significant role in the development of the arts and sciences. Many of the most important figures in the history of modern western scientific and philosophical thought were either born in, or at one time or other resided in, England. Major English thinkers of international significance include scientists such as Sir Isaac Newton, Francis Bacon, Michael Faraday, Charles Darwin and New Zealand-born Ernest Rutherford, philosophers such as John Locke, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Bertrand Russell and Thomas Hobbes, and economists such as David Ricardo, and John Maynard Keynes. Karl Marx wrote most of his important works, including Das Kapital, while in exile in London, and the team that developed the first atomic bomb began their work in England, under the wartime codename Tube Alloys. Architecture The Broadway Tower is a folly, or mock tower in Worcestershire. England has played a significant part in the advancement of Western architecture. It is home to the most notable medieval castles and forts in the world, including Warwick Castle, the Tower of London and Windsor Castle (the largest inhabited castle in the world and the oldest in continuous occupation). It is known for its numerous grand country houses, and for its many medieval and later churches and cathedrals, such as York Minster. Samuel, Raphael. Theatres of Memory: Volume I, Past and Present in Contemporary Culture, 1994. English architects have contributed to many styles over the centuries, including Tudor architecture, English Baroque, the Georgian style and Victorian movements such as Gothic Revival. Among the best-known contemporary English architects are Norman Foster and Richard Rogers. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. "England Rural Development Programme, 2000–2006," http://www.maff.gov.uk/erdp/docs/national/programmecontentshome.htm, October 2000 Cuisine Although highly regarded in the Middle Ages, English cuisine later became a source of fun among Britain's French and European neighbours, being viewed until the late 20th century as crude and unsophisticated by comparison with continental tastes. However, with the influx of non-European immigrants (particularly those of south and east Asian origins) from the 1950s onwards, the English diet was transformed. Indian and Chinese cuisine in particular were absorbed into British culinary life, with restaurants and takeaways appearing in almost every town in Britain, and 'going for an Indian' becoming a regular part of British social life. A distinct hybrid food style composed of dishes of Asian origin, but adapted to British tastes, emerged and was subsequently exported to other parts of the world. Many of the well-known Indian dishes in the western world, such as Tikka Masala and Balti, are in fact dishes of this sort. http://www.anglobilia.com/culture.html; Retrieved March 7, 2009 Englands Culture Dishes forming part of the old tradition of English food include: Engineering and innovation Isaac Newton, promulgator of universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics and infinitesimal calculus. Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol, designed by Brunel and completed in 1864. As birthplace of the Industrial Revolution, England was home to many significant inventors during the late 18th and early 19th century. Famous English engineers include Isambard Kingdom Brunel, best known for the creation of the Great Western Railway, a series of famous steamships, and numerous important bridges, hence revolutionising public transport and modern-day engineering. In addition, England produced numerous scientists and inventors such as Richard Arkwright, who invented the first industrial spinning machine, while Charles Babbage was the 19th century inventor of the first computer; Alan Turing and Tommy Flowers invented the modern computer, and many of its associated concepts and initial technologies. Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web, and much of the technologies on which it is based (HTTP, HTML). James Blundell performed the first blood transfusion. Hubert Cecil Booth invented the vacuum cleaner, and James Dyson invented the Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner. Edwin Beard Budding invented the lawnmower. George Cayley invented the seat belt. Christopher Cockerell invented the hovercraft, while John Dalton was a pioneer of atomic theory. Michael Faraday, best known for his revolutionary electric motor, also came from England. Thomas Fowler invented the thermosiphon, while Robert Hooke discovered Hooke's law of elasticity. Turn of the 20th century inventor E. Purnell Hooley invented tarmac. Thomas Newcomen and Thomas Savery were both inventors of the first steam engines. Perhaps the most famous is Isaac Newton, who promulgated universal gravitation, Newtonian mechanics and infinitesimal calculus. Other inventors include Stephen Perry, inventor of the rubber band; Percy Shaw, inventor of the "cat's eye" road safety device; George Stephenson and son Robert Stephenson, railway pioneers; Joseph Swan, joint inventor and developer (with American Thomas Edison) of the light bulb; Richard Trevithick, builder of the earliest steam locomotives; Jethro Tull, inventor of the seed drill; Frank Whittle, inventor of the jet engine; and Joseph Whitworth, inventor of many of the modern techniques and technologies used in precision engineering. Folklore The Robin Hood Memorial, by Nottingham Castle. English folklore is rich and diverse. Many of the land's oldest legends share themes and sources with the Celtic folklore of Wales, Scotland and Ireland, a typical example being the legend of Herne the Hunter, which shares many similarities with the traditional Welsh legend of Gwyn ap Nudd. Successive waves of pre-Norman invaders and settlers, from the Romans onwards, via Saxons, Jutes, Angles, Norse to the Norman Conquest have influenced the myth and legend of England. Some tales, such as that of The Lambton Worm show a distinct Norse influence, while others, particularly the events and characters associated with the Arthurian legends show a distinct Romano-Gaulic slant. B. Branston The Lost Gods of England. Among the most famous English folk-tales are the legends of King Arthur, although it would be wrong to regard these stories as purely English in origin as they also concern Wales and, to a lesser extent, Ireland and Scotland. They should therefore be considered as part of the folklore of the British Isles as a whole. Post-Norman stories include the tales of Robin Hood, which exists in many forms, and stories of other folk heroes such as Hereward the Wake and Fulk FitzWarin who, although being based on historical characters, have grown to become legends in their own right. Literature William Shakespeare, the English poet and playwright widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and one of the greatest in Western literature. Encyclopedia Britannica article on Shakespeare. Retrieved 26 February 2006. The English language has a rich and prominent literary heritage. England has produced a wealth of significant literary figures including playwrights William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Ben Jonson, John Webster, as well as writers Daniel Defoe, Henry Fielding, Jane Austen, William Makepeace Thackeray, Charlotte Brontë, Emily Brontë, Charles Dickens, Mary Shelley, H. G. Wells, George Eliot, Rudyard Kipling, D. H. Lawrence, E. M. Forster, Virginia Woolf, George Orwell and Harold Pinter. Others, such as J. R. R. Tolkien, C. S. Lewis, J. K. Rowling, Enid Blyton and Agatha Christie have been among the best-selling novelists of the last century. Among the poets, Geoffrey Chaucer, Edmund Spenser, Sir Philip Sydney, Thomas Kyd, John Donne, Andrew Marvell, Alexander Pope, William Wordsworth, Lord Byron, John Keats, John Milton, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, T. S. Eliot (American-born, but a British subject from 1927) and many others remain read and studied around the world. Among men of letters, Samuel Johnson, William Hazlitt and George Orwell are some of the most famous. England continues to produce writers working in branches of literature, and in a wide range of styles; contemporary English literary writers attracting international attention include Martin Amis, Julian Barnes and Zadie Smith. Music The Beatles as they arrive at JFK Airport, New York City on 7 February 1964 Composers from England have not achieved recognition as broad as that earned by their literary counterparts, and, particularly during the 19th century, were overshadowed in international reputation by other European composers; however, many works of earlier composers such as Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, and Henry Purcell are still frequently performed throughout the world today. A revival of England's musical status began during the 20th century with the prominence of composers such as Edward Elgar, Gustav Holst, William Walton, Eric Coates, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Frederick Delius and Benjamin Britten. In popular music, however, English bands and solo artists have been cited as the most influential and best-selling musicians of all time. Acts such as The Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Elton John, Queen, and The Rolling Stones are among the highest selling in the world. England is also credited with being the birthplace of many musical genres and movements such as hard rock, British invasion, heavy metal, britpop, glam rock, drum and bass, progressive rock, punk rock, gothic rock, shoegazing, acid house, UK garage, trip hop and dubstep. Science and philosophy Charles Darwin. Prominent English figures from the field of science and mathematics include Sir Isaac Newton, Michael Faraday, Robert Hooke, Robert Boyle, Joseph Priestley, J. J. Thomson, Charles Babbage, Charles Darwin, Stephen Hawking, Christopher Wren, Alan Turing, Francis Crick, Joseph Lister, Tim Berners-Lee, Andrew Wiles and Richard Dawkins. Some experts claim that the earliest concept of a Metric system was invented by John Wilkins, first secretary of the Royal Society in 1668. England played a major role in the development of Western philosophy, particularly during the Enlightenment. Jeremy Bentham, leader of the Philosophical Radicals influenced the development of English Law and of socialism. although the Levellers and other radical movements of the Civil War were significant. Major English philosophers include William of Ockham, Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Bertrand Russell and Bernard Williams. Sport England's new Wembley Stadium. It is the most expensive stadium ever built. The Wimbledon Championships, a Grand Slam tournament, is held in Wimbledon, London every June/July. Modern sports were codified in England during the 19th century, among them cricket, rugby union and rugby league, football, tennis and badminton. Of these, association football, cricket and rugby remain the country's most popular spectator sports. Daily Mirror newspaper (UK), article by Billy Bragg, 17 September, 2005 - Accessed November 2006. "Watching the crowd in Trafalgar Square celebrating the Ashes win, I couldn't help but be amazed at how quickly the flag of St George has replaced the Union Jack in the affections of England fans. A generation ago, England games looked a lot like Last Night of the Proms, with the red, white and blue firmly to the fore. Now, it seems, the English have begun to remember who they are." England contains more UEFA Elite stadia than any other country, and is home to some of the sport's top clubs. Among these, Aston Villa, Liverpool, Manchester United and Nottingham Forest have won the European Cup. The England national football team are currently ranked 15th by FIFA and 8th by Elo) and won the World Cup in 1966 when it was hosted in England. Since then, they have failed to reach a final of a major international tournament, although they reached the semi-finals of the World Cup in 1990 and the quarter-finals in 2002 and 2006 and Euro 2004. More recently, England failed to qualify for the Euro 2008 championships when it lost 2–3 to Croatia on 21 November 2007 in its final qualifying match. England, playing at home at Wembley Stadium, needed just a draw to ensure qualification. This is the first time since the 1994 World Cup that England has failed to qualify for a major football championship and first time since 1984 that the team will miss the UEFA European Championship. On 22 November 2007, the day after the defeat to Croatia, England fired its football coach, Steve McClaren and his assistant Terry Venables, ostensibly as a direct consequence of its failure to qualify for Euro 2008. The England national rugby union team won the 2003 Rugby World Cup (and finishing as runners-up in 2007). Rugby union clubs such as Leicester Tigers, London Wasps and the Northampton Saints have had success in the Europe-wide Heineken Cup. At rugby league, the England national rugby league team are ranked third in the world and first in Europe. They have taken part in three World Cup's finishing second in 1975 and 1995, hosting the competition in the latter. In 2008 the team will once again contest the World Cup in Australia. From 2008 England will become a full test nation in lieu of the Great Britain national rugby league team, when that team is retired. At a domestic level, England is host to large clubs like Leeds Rhinos, St Helens and Wigan Warriors, all of whom have won the World Club Challenge and have produced some of the world's greats. It is in Huddersfield in 1895 that the game was born. The England cricket team is a composite England and Wales Cricket Team. It has seen mixed fortunes in recent years but won The Ashes in 2005, and is currently ranked the fourth best Test nation in the world. The 2009 ICC World T20 will be hosted in England and Wales, and the 2018 Cricket World Cup may also be hosted in England. Sport England is the governing body responsible for distributing funds and providing strategic guidance for sporting activity in England. The 2012 Summer Olympics are to be hosted by London, England. It will run from 26 July to 12 August 2012. London will become the first city to have hosted the modern Olympic Games three times, having previously done so in 1908 and 1948. Language English Places in the world where English is spoken. Countries where it is the majority language are dark blue; countries where it is an official but not majority language are light blue. Beowulf is one of the oldest surviving epic poems in what is identifiable as a form of the English language. As its name suggests, the English language, today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue today (although not officially designated as such). An Indo-European language in the Anglo-Frisian branch of the Germanic family, it is closely related to Scots and the Frisian languages. As the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms merged into England, "Old English" emerged; some of its literature and poetry has survived. Used by aristocracy and commoners alike before the Norman Conquest (1066), English was displaced in cultured contexts under the new regime by the Norman French language of the new Anglo-Norman aristocracy. Its use was confined primarily to the lower social classes while official business was conducted in a mixture of Latin and French. Over the following centuries, however, English gradually came back into fashion among classes and for official business except certain traditional ceremonies, some of which survive to this day. Middle English, as it had by now become, showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the Renaissance, many words were coined from Latin and Greek origins; and more recent years, Modern English has extended this custom, willing to incorporate foreign-influenced words. It is most commonly accepted that—thanks in large part to the British Empire, and now the United States—the English language is now the world's unofficial lingua franca. English: Not America's Language? by Mauro E. Mujica - The Globalist > > Global Culture. URL retrieved 6 June 2007. English language learning and teaching is an important economic sector, including language schools, tourism spending, and publishing houses. Other languages There is no UK legislation in respect of language use within England, Yaelf. Retrieved 15 November 2006. but English is the only language used in England for general official business. The only non-Anglic native spoken language in England is the Cornish language, a Celtic language spoken in Cornwall, which became extinct in the 19th century but has been revived and is spoken in various degrees of fluency, currently by about 2,000 people. Whole Earth magazine. Retrieved 13 November 2006. This has no official status (unlike Welsh) and is not required for official use, but is nonetheless supported by national and local government under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. Cornwall County Council has produced a draft strategy to develop these plans. There is, however, no programme as yet for public bodies to actively promote the language. Scots is spoken by some adjacent to the Anglo-Scottish Border, and there are over 100,000 Welsh speakers in London and areas such as Oswestry on the Welsh border. Most deaf people within England use British sign language (BSL), a sign language native to Britain. The British Deaf Association estimates that 250,000 people throughout the UK use BSL as their first or preferred language, British Sign Language (BSL). Sign Community Online, 2006. Retrieved 12 September 2006. but does not give statistics specific to England. BSL is not an official language of the UK and most British government departments and hospitals have limited facilities for deaf sign language users. The Disability Discrimination Act gives sign language users the right to request 'reasonable adjustment', which is generally interpreted to mean that interpreters should be provided wherever practical. The BBC broadcasts several of its programmes with BSL interpreters. Different languages from around the world, especially from the former British Empire and the Commonwealth of Nations, have been brought to England by immigrants. Many of these are widely spoken within ethnic minority communities, with Bengali, Hindi, Sinhala, Tamil, Punjabi, Urdu, Gujarati, Polish, Greek, Turkish and Cantonese being the most common languages that people living in Britain consider their first language. These are often used by official bodies to communicate with the relevant sections of the community, particularly in large cities, but this occurs on an "as needed" basis rather than as the result of specific legislative ordinances. Other languages have also traditionally been spoken by minority populations in England, including Romany. The use of Yiddish by the Jewish population has dwindled, although an increasing number are able to speak Hebrew. Despite the relatively small size of the nation, there are many distinct English regional accents. Those with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood elsewhere in the country. Use of foreign non-standard varieties of English (such as Caribbean English) is also increasingly widespread, mainly because of the effects of immigration. Religion Due to immigration in the past decades, there is an enormous diversity of religious belief in England, as well as a growing percentage that have no religious affiliation. Levels of attendance in various denominations have begun to decline. England is classed largely as a secular country even allowing for the following affiliation percentages : Christianity: 71.6%, Islam: 3.1%, Hindu: 1.1%, Sikh: 0.7%, Jewish: 0.5%, and Buddhist: 0.3%, No religion: 14.6%. The EU Eurobarometer poll of 2005 found that 38% of people in the UK believed in a god, 40% believed in "some sort of spirit or life force" and 20% did not believe in either. . Page 11. European Commission. Retrieved on 7 December 2006. Christianity Canterbury Cathedral in Kent, the centre of the Church of England and the worldwide Anglican Communion. Christianity reached England through missionaries from Scotland and from Continental Europe; the era of St. Augustine (the first Archbishop of Canterbury) and the Celtic Christian missionaries in the north (notably St. Aidan and St. Cuthbert). The Synod of Whitby in 664 ultimately led to the English Church being fully part of Roman Catholicism. Early English Christian documents surviving from this time include the 7th century illuminated Lindisfarne Gospels and the historical accounts written by the Venerable Bede. England has many early cathedrals, most notably York Minster (1080), Durham Cathedral (1093) and Salisbury Cathedral (1220), In 1536, the Church was split from Rome over the issue of the divorce of King Henry VIII from Catherine of Aragon. The split led to the emergence of a separate ecclesiastical authority, and later the influence of the Reformation, resulting in the Church of England and Anglicanism. Unlike the other three constituent countries of the UK, the Church of England is an established church (although the Church of Scotland is a 'national church' recognised in law). The 16th century break with Rome under the reign of King Henry VIII and the Dissolution of the Monasteries had major consequences for the Church (as well as for politics). The Church of England remains the largest Christian church in England; it is part of the Anglican Communion. Many of the Church of England's cathedrals and parish churches are historic buildings of significant architectural importance. Other major Christian Protestant denominations in England include the Methodist Church, the Baptist Church and the United Reformed Church. Smaller denominations, but not insignificant, include the Religious Society of Friends (the "Quakers") and the Salvation Army—both founded in England. There are also Afro-Caribbean Churches, especially in the London area. The Roman Catholic Church re-established a hierarchy in England in the 19th century. Attendances were considerably boosted by immigration, especially from Ireland and more recently Poland. The Church of England remains the official established church of England. Other religions Throughout the second half of the 20th century, immigration from many colonial countries, often from South Asia and the Middle East have resulted in a considerable growth in Islam, Sikhism and Hinduism in England. Cities and towns with large Muslim communities include Birmingham, Blackburn, Coventry, Bolton, Bradford, Leicester, London, Luton, Manchester, Oldham and Sheffield. Cities and towns with large Sikh communities include London, Slough, Staines, Hounslow, Southall, Reading, Ilford, Barking, Dagenham, Leicester, Leeds, Birmingham, Wolverhampton and others. The Jewish community in England is mainly in the Greater London area, particularly the north west suburbs such as Golders Green; Jewish Virtual Library – England by Shira Schonenburg. URL retrieved 6 June 2007. although Manchester, Leeds and Gateshead also have significant Jewish communities. Manchester Jewish Synagogues, Judaism, Hebrew Congregations and Jewish Organisations in Greater Manchester. URL retrieved 6 June 2007. Rabbi Bezalel Rakow – Guardian Unlimited. URL retrieved 6 June 2007. England was also the founding place for many Neopagan religions, notably Wicca. Many people in England identify themselves as Atheists or Agnostics, while many others are apathetic and do not have specific religious beliefs or disbeliefs. Education Christ Church, University of Oxford. The chapel of King's College, Cambridge University. There is a long history of the promotion of education in England in schools, colleges and universities. England is home to the oldest existing schools in the English speaking world: The King's School, Canterbury and The King's School, Rochester, believed to be founded in the 6th and 7th century respectively. At least eight existing schools in England were founded in the first millennium. Sherborne School was granted a royal charter in 1550, but may have been the site of a school since the 8th century. http://www.nndb.com/edu/846/000111513/ 2002 Soylent Communications; Retrieved 2009, March 08 Most of these ancient institutions are now fee-paying schools; however, some state schools are also very old, most notably Beverley Grammar School founded in 700. The oldest surviving girls' school in England is Red Maids' School founded in 1634. The most famous schools in England are now fee-paying institutions, including Winchester College (founded 1382), Eton College (1440), St Paul's School (1509), Rugby School (1567) and Harrow School (1572). England is also home to the two oldest universities in the English speaking world: Oxford University (12th century) and Cambridge University (early 13th century). There are now more than 90 universities in England. Primary and secondary education in England is administered by the Department for Children, Schools and Families. Schools are of two main types: state schools funded through taxation and free to all, and private schools (also known as "public" or "independent" schools) funded through fees. Standards are monitored by regular inspections of state-funded schools by the Office for Standards in Education, and of private schools by the Independent Schools Inspectorate. University education is the responsibility of the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills. Students attending English Universities now have to pay tuition fees towards the cost of their education, as do English students who choose to attend a Scottish university (though Scottish students attending Scottish universities get their fees paid for them by the Scottish Government.) Healthcare Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital. The NHS is England's publicly funded healthcare system. The National Health Service (NHS) is the publicly funded healthcare system in England responsible for provided the majority of healthcare in the country. The NHS provides most services at no cost to the patient though there are charges associated with eye tests, dental care, prescriptions, and many aspects of personal care. The NHS began on 5 July 1948, putting into effect the provisions of the National Health Service Act 1946. Private health care has continued parallel to the NHS, paid for largely by private insurance, but it is used by less than 8% of the population, and generally as a top-up to NHS services. Recently the private sector has been increasingly used to increase NHS capacity despite a large proportion of the public opposing such involvement. The NHS is largely funded from general taxation (including a proportion from National Insurance payments). The UK government department responsible for the NHS is the Department of Health, headed by the Secretary of State for Health (Health Secretary), who sits in the British Cabinet. Most of the expenditure of The Department of Health (£98.6 billion in 2008–9) is spent on the NHS. Transport Heathrow Terminal 5. London Heathrow Airport has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world. A Eurostar high speed train. The government department overseeing transport is the Department for Transport. The growth in private car ownership in the latter half of the 20th century led to major road-building programmes. Important trunk roads built include the A1 Great North Road from London to Newcastle and Edinburgh, and the A580 "East Lancs." road between Liverpool and Manchester. The M6 motorway is the country's longest motorway running from Rugby through North West England to the Scottish border. Other major roads include the M1 motorway from London to Leeds up the east of the country, the M25 motorway which encircles London, the M60 motorway which encircles Manchester, the M4 motorway from London to South Wales, the M62 motorway from Liverpool to Manchester and Yorkshire, and the M5 motorway from Birmingham to Bristol and the South West. Most of the British National Rail network of lies in England. Urban rail networks are also well developed in London and other cities, including the Manchester Metrolink and the London Underground. The London Underground is the oldest and most extensive underground railway in the world, and as of 2007 consists of of line BBC. Retrieved 20 November 2006. and serves 275 stations. There are around of navigable waterways in England, of which roughly half is owned by British Waterways. An estimated 165 million journeys are made by people on Britain's waterways annually. The Thames is the major waterway in England, with imports and exports focused at the Port of Tilbury, one of the three major ports in the UK. Ports in the UK handled over 560 million tonnes of domestic and international freight in 2005. Department for Transport, Transport Trends 2006 (PDF). Retrieved 17 February 2007. London Heathrow Airport is England's largest airport, the largest airport by passenger volume in Europe and one of the world's busiest airports. London Gatwick Airport is England's second largest airport, followed by Manchester Airport. Other major airports include London Stansted Airport in Essex, about north of London, Luton Airport and Birmingham International Airport. People Statue of Alfred the Great in Winchester The ancestry of the English, considered as an ethnic group, is mixed; it can be traced to the mostly Celtic Romano-Britons, Roman Britons after 410 by Martin Henig: British Archaeology. Retrieved 22 October 2006. to the eponymous Anglo-Saxons, Anglo-Saxon Origins: The Reality of the Myth by Malcolm Todd. Retrieved 22 October 2006. the Danish-Vikings Legacy of the Vikings By Elaine Treharne, BBC History. Retrieved 22 October 2006. that formed the Danelaw during the time of Alfred the Great and the Normans, What Did the Normans Do for Us? By Dr John Hudson, BBC History. Retrieved 22 October 2006. The Adventure of the English, Melvyn Bragg, 2003. Pg 21 among others. The 19th and 20th centuries, furthermore, brought much new immigration to England. Ethnicity aside, the simplest view is that an English person is someone who was born or lives in England, holds British nationality and regards themselves as English, regardless of his or her racial origin. It has, however, been a notoriously complicated, emotive and controversial identity to delimit. Centuries of English dominance within the United Kingdom has created a situation where to be English is, as a linguist would put it, an "unmarked" state. The English frequently include themselves and their neighbours in the wider term of "British" or even use English when they should use British. Over the last five years, celebrations of St George's Day, England's national day, have increased year on year. St George's events 'not enough'. BBC News, 23 April 2005. Retrieved 12 September 2006. Modern celebration of English identity is often found around its sports, one field in which the British Home Nations often compete individually. The English football team, rugby union team and cricket team often cause increases in the popularity of celebrating Englishness. Substantial populations descended from English colonists and immigrants exist in the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. In the 1980 U.S. Census 50 million Americans claimed English ancestry. Shifting Identities - statistical data on ethnic identities in the US, American Demographics, December 1, 2001 About 70% of Australia's population in 1999 were of Anglo-Celtic origins. Nomenclature The country is named after the Angles, one of several Germanic tribes who settled the country in the fifth and sixth centuries. There are two distinct linguistic patterns for the name of the country. Most Celtic languages use names referring to the Saxons, another family of Germanic tribes that arrived at about the same time as the Angles. "Bro-Saoz" (Breton) "Pow Sows" (Cornish) "Sasana" (Irish) "Sostyn" (Manx) "Sasainn" (Scottish Gaelic) "Lloegr" (Welsh), an ancient geographic term and not Saxon-related; but the inhabitants are referred to as "Saeson". Most other European languages use names similar to "England": "Anglaterra" (Catalan) "Angleterre" (French) "Αγγλία" ("Anglía") (Greek) "Anglia" (Latin, Polish, Romanian, Albanian, Hungarian) "Anglicko" (Slovak) "Anglie" (Czech) "Anglija" (Slovene, Lithuanian, Latvian, Ukrainian) "Англия" (Angliya) (Russian, Bulgarian) "Engeland" (Dutch) "England" (Danish, German, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Luxembourgish) "Englanti" (Finnish) "Ingalaterra" (Basque) "Inghilterra" (Italian) "Ingiltera" (Maltese, Egyptian) "Inglaterra" (Spanish, Portuguese, Galician) "Engleska" (Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian) "Inglismaa" (Estonian) "Inlaterra" (Leonese) Names in African languages: "እንግሊዝኛ" (ənglizña) (Amharic) "Ingriis" (Somali) "Tinglizt" (Berber) "Uingereza" (Ou-I-ng'e-re-za) (Swahili) Names in Asian languages: "İngiltere" (Turkish) "ინგლისი" ("inglisi") (Georgian) "אנגליה" (Anglia) (Hebrew) "إنجلترا" (Ingiltra) or "إنكلترا" (Inkiltra) (Arabic) "इंग्लिस्तान / اِنگلِستان" (Inglistan) (Hindi, Urdu, Persian) "eng-ge-re-ji" (Punjabi) "එංගලන්තෙ" (Engalanthe) (Sri Lankans (Sinhalese)) "ইংল্যান্ড" (Ingland) (Bengali) "இங்கிலாந்து" (In-gi-laan-dhu) (Tamil) "อังกฤษ" (Ang-grit) (Thai) "Anh Quôc" (Vietnamese) "Inggris" (Indonesian) "英倫" (Ying-lun) (Cantonese) "英格蘭"/"英格兰" (Yīnggélán) (Standard Mandarin Chinese) "잉글랜드" (Ing-geul-laen-deu) (Korean) "イングランド" or "英国" (Ingurando/Eikoku) (Japanese) Alternative names include: The slang "Blighty", from the Hindustani bila yati meaning "foreign". The ancient name "Albion", supposedly referring to the white () cliffs of Dover. Although it refers to the whole island of Great Britain, it is occasionally, and incorrectly, used for England. Following the Roman conquest of Britain, the term contracted to mean only the area north of Roman control and is today a relative of Alba, the Celtic languages name for Scotland. More poetically, England has been called "this sceptred isle... this other Eden" and "this green and pleasant land", quotations from the poetry of William Shakespeare (in Richard II) and William Blake (And did those feet in ancient time) respectively. Slang terms sometimes used for the people of England include "Sassenachs" or "Sasanachs" (from the Scots Gaelic and Irish Gaelic respectively, both originally meaning "Saxon", and originally a Scottish Highland term for Lowland Scots), "Limeys" (in reference to the citrus fruits carried aboard English sailing vessels to prevent scurvy) and "Pom/Pommy" (used in Australian English and New Zealand English), but these may be perceived as offensive. Also see alternative words for British. National symbols, insignia and anthems Saint George slaying the dragon, by Paolo Uccello, c. 1470. The two main symbols of England are the St George's Cross (the English flag), and the Three Lions coat of arms of England. Other national symbols exist, but have varying degrees of official usage, such as the oak tree and the rose. England's National Day is St George's Day (Saint George being the patron saint), which is on 23 April. St. George's Cross The flag of England is the St George's Cross. The red cross appeared as an emblem of England during the Middle Ages and the Crusades and is one of the earliest known emblems representing England. The St. George's Cross is a red cross on a white background and is the flag of England. It is believed to have been adopted for the uniform of English soldiers during the Crusades of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries. From about 1277 it became the national flag of England. St. George's Cross was originally the flag of Genoa and was adopted by England and the City of London in 1190 for their ships entering the Mediterranean to benefit from the protection of the powerful Genoese fleet. The maritime Republic of Genoa was rising and going to become, with its rival Venice, one of the most important powers in the world. The English Monarch paid an annual tribute to the Doge of Genoa for this privilege. The cross of St George would become the official Flag of England. A red cross acted as a symbol for many Crusaders in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with St. George and England, along with other countries and cities (such as Georgia, Milan and the Republic of Genoa), which claimed him as their patron saint and used his cross as a banner. It remained in national use until 1707, when the Union Flag (also known as the Union Jack, especially at sea) which English and Scottish ships had used at sea since 1606, was adopted for purposes to unite the whole of Great Britain under a common flag. The flag of England no longer has much of an official role, but it is widely flown by Church of England properties and at sporting events. Until recently, the flag was not commonly flown in England with the British Union Flag being used instead. This was certainly evident at the 1966 football World Cup when English fans predominantly flew the latter. However, since devolution in the United Kingdom, the St George Cross has experienced a growth in popularity and is now the predominant flag used in English sporting events. Three Lions Coat of arms of England Royal Standard of England The coat of arms of England are described as gules, three lions passant guardant or armed and langued Azure. Brooke-Little, J.P., FSA (1978) [1950]. Boutell's Heraldry (Revised Edition ed.). London: Frederick Warne LTD. pp. 205–222. ISBN 0-7232-2096-4 The earliest surviving record of their use was by Richard I ("Richard the Lionheart") in the late 12th century. Since union with Scotland and Northern Ireland, the arms of England are no longer used on their own; instead they form a part of the conjoined Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. However, both the Football Association and the England and Wales Cricket Board use logos based on the three lions. In recent years, it has been common to see banners of the arms flown at English football matches, in the same way the Lion Rampant is flown in Scotland. Royal Standard of England is based on the Royal coat of arms of England. In 1996, Three Lions was the official song of the England football team for the 1996 European Football Championship, which were held in England. Rose Tudor rose The Tudor rose is the national floral emblem of England, and was adopted as a national emblem of England around the time of the Wars of the Roses. National Flowers of the UK, 10 Downing Street. Retrieved 14 September 2006. The rose is used in a variety of contexts in its use for England's representation. The Rose of England is a Royal Badge, and is a Tudor, or half-red-half-white rose, England's Rose – The Official History, Sport Network. Museum of Rugby, 3 June 2005. Retrieved 18 September 2006. symbolising the end of the Wars of the Roses and the subsequent marriage between the House of Lancaster and the House of York. This symbolism is reflected in the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom and the crest of the FA. However, the rose of England is often displayed as a red rose (which also symbolises Lancashire), such as the badge of the England national rugby union team. A white rose (which also symbolises Yorkshire) is also used on different occasions. Anthem England does not have an official designated national anthem, as the United Kingdom as a whole has "God Save the Queen". However, the following are often considered unofficial English national anthems: "I Vow to Thee, My Country" "Land of Hope and Glory" "Nimrod" "Jerusalem" "Heart of Oak" "God Save the Queen" is usually played for English sporting events, such as football matches, against teams from outside the UK, although "Land of Hope and Glory" was used as the English anthem for the 2002 Commonwealth Games. Since 2004, "Jerusalem" has been sung before England cricket matches, and "Rule Britannia" ("Britannia" being the Roman name for Great Britain, a personification of the United Kingdom) was often used in the past for the English national football team when they played against another of the home nations. More recently, however, "God Save the Queen" has been used by the rugby union and football teams. References External links Official website of the United Kingdom Government Office for National Statistics English Heritage – national body protecting and promoting English history and heritage. English Nature – wildlife and the natural world of England. England-related pages from the BBC Enjoy England – The official website of the English Tourist Board ''Enjoy England'''s Travel Blog – Discover England's best hidden gems UK & Ireland Genealogy be-x-old:Ангельшчына	England \|@lemmatized england:258 country:33 part:23 united:29 kingdom:41 uk:46 statistic:10 gov:5 access:2 october:7 inhabitant:5 account:3 total:4 population:29 national:35 online:4 estimate:5 retrieve:43 june:11 mainland:6 territory:1 occupy:2 southern:3 two:11 third:7 island:8 great:32 britain:34 border:7 scotland:21 north:17 wale:33 west:9 sea:6 irish:4 celtic:11 bristol:3 channel:6 english:118 capital:1 london:56 large:48 urban:13 area:21 zone:3 european:24 union:37 many:30 measure:1 official:21 definition:3 luz:2 use:38 statistical:2 agency:1 eurostat:1 describe:3 conurbation:3 high:13 rank:6 paris:2 see:9 ranking:1 within:12 municipal:1 boundary:2 also:29 put:7 top:4 city:26 limit:3 however:21 research:3 university:24 avignon:1 france:9 first:22 second:5 include:36 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6,428	Otto_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor	Otto IV and Pope Innocent III shake hands Otto IV of Brunswick (1175 or 1176 – May 19, 1218) was one of two rival kings of the Holy Roman Empire from 1198 on, sole king from 1208 on, and emperor from 1209 on. The only king of the Welf dynasty, he was deposed in 1215. Biography Otto was born in Normandy, the son of Henry the Lion, Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, and Matilda Plantagenet. He grew up in England in the care of his grandfather King Henry II. Otto became a friend of Richard I of England, who attempted to make him Earl of York, and, through marriage, king of Scotland. Both attempts failed, and so in 1196, he was made count of Poitou. He participated in the war against France on the side of Richard. After the death of Emperor Henry VI, some of the princes of the Empire elected his brother, Philip, Duke of Swabia, king in March 1198. The papacy, under Innocent III, seized the opportunity to extend its sway at the expense of the vulnerable empire and proceeded to move heaven and earth on behalf of Otto, whose family had always been opposed to the house of Hohenstaufen. Otto himself also seemed willing to grant any demands that Innocent would make. Those princes opposed to the Staufen dynasty also decided, on the initiative of Richard of England, to elect instead a member of the House of Welf. Otto's elder brother, Henry, was on a crusade at the time, and so the choice fell to Otto. The papal favorite, soon recognized over the whole empire, was elected king by the princes of northern Germany in Cologne on June 9, 1198. Otto took control of Aachen, the place of coronation, and was crowned by Adolf, Archbishop of Cologne, on July 12, 1198. The coronation was done with fake regalia, because the actual materials were in the hands of the Staufen. Otto's election pulled the empire into the conflict between England and France, since Philip allied himself with France, and Otto was being supported by England. In 1200-01, Innocent announced that he recognized Otto as the only legitimate king. In return, Otto promised to support the pope's interests in Italy. In the following years, Otto's situation worsened because after England's defeat by France he lost England's financial support. Many of his allies changed sides to Philip, including his brother Henry. Otto was defeated and wounded in battle by Philip on July 27, 1206, near Wassenberg, and as a consequence also lost the support of the pope. Otto was forced to retire to his possessions near Braunschweig. However, Philip was murdered two years later, on June 8, 1208. After Philip's death, Otto made amends with the Staufen party and became engaged to Philip's daughter Beatrix. In an election in Frankfurt on November 11, 1208, he gained the support of all the electoral princes. He was crowned emperor by Pope Innocent on October 4, 1209. Contradicting his earlier promises, Otto worked to restore imperial power in Italy and was excommunicated by the pope for this in 1210. In 1211, he tried to conquer Sicily, which was held by the Staufen king Frederick Roger. While Otto was in southern Italy, several princes of the empire, at the instigation of King Philip II of France and with the consent of the pope, elected Frederick Roger king at the Diet of Nuremberg. Otto returned to Germany to deal with the situation. After Beatrix died in the summer of 1212, and Frederick arrived in Germany with his army in September 1212, most of the former Staufen supporters deserted Otto for Frederick. On December 5, 1212, Frederick was elected king for a second time by a majority of the princes. However, Frederick did not manage to defeat Otto until 1214, when Otto, who was allied with King John of England, decisively lost the Battle of Bouvines (July 27, 1214) to the forces of Philip II of France. Otto was forced again to withdraw to his private possessions around Brunswick. His death, at Harzburg castle on May 19, 1218, was described by historian Kantorowicz as gruesome: "deposed, dethroned, he was flung full length on the ground by the Abbot, confessing his sins, while the reluctant priests beat him bloodily to death. Such was the end of the first and last Welf Emperor." Kantorowicz, Ernst, Frederick II, p.66 He is entombed in Brunswick Cathedral. Ancestors +Otto's ancestors in three generations Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor Father:Henry the Lion Paternal Grandfather:Henry X, Duke of Bavaria Paternal Great-grandfather:Henry IX, Duke of Bavaria Paternal Great-grandmother:Wulfhild of Saxony Paternal Grandmother:Gertrude of Süpplingenburg Paternal Great-grandfather:Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor Paternal Great-grandmother:Richenza of Northeim Mother:Matilda, Duchess of Saxony Maternal Grandfather:Henry II of England Maternal Great-grandfather:Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou Maternal Great-grandmother:Empress Matilda Maternal Grandmother:Eleanor of Aquitaine Maternal Great-grandfather:William X of Aquitaine Maternal Great-grandmother:Aenor de Châtellerault Family Otto married twice and had no children. 1209 or 1212 to Beatrix (1198–1212), daughter of King Philip of the Holy Roman Empire and Irene Angelina. May 19, 1214, in Aachen to Mary (died 1260), daughter of Henry I, Duke of Brabant and Maud of Boulogne. See also Kings of Germany family tree. He was related to every other king of Germany. References External links	Otto_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor \|@lemmatized otto:27 iv:3 pope:6 innocent:5 iii:3 shake:1 hand:2 brunswick:3 may:3 one:1 two:2 rival:1 king:16 holy:4 roman:4 empire:7 sole:1 emperor:6 welf:3 dynasty:2 depose:2 biography:1 bear:1 normandy:1 son:1 henry:10 lion:2 duke:5 bavaria:3 saxony:3 matilda:3 plantagenet:1 grow:1 england:9 care:1 grandfather:7 ii:5 become:2 friend:1 richard:3 attempt:2 make:4 earl:1 york:1 marriage:1 scotland:1 fail:1 count:2 poitou:1 participate:1 war:1 france:6 side:2 death:4 vi:1 prince:6 elect:5 brother:3 philip:10 swabia:1 march:1 papacy:1 seize:1 opportunity:1 extend:1 sway:1 expense:1 vulnerable:1 proceed:1 move:1 heaven:1 earth:1 behalf:1 whose:1 family:3 always:1 oppose:2 house:2 hohenstaufen:1 also:4 seem:1 willing:1 grant:1 demand:1 would:1 staufen:5 decide:1 initiative:1 instead:1 member:1 elder:1 crusade:1 time:2 choice:1 fell:1 papal:1 favorite:1 soon:1 recognize:2 whole:1 northern:1 germany:5 cologne:2 june:2 take:1 control:1 aachen:2 place:1 coronation:2 crown:2 adolf:1 archbishop:1 july:3 fake:1 regalia:1 actual:1 material:1 election:2 pull:1 conflict:1 since:1 ally:3 support:5 announce:1 legitimate:1 return:2 promise:2 interest:1 italy:3 following:1 year:2 situation:2 worsen:1 defeat:3 lose:3 financial:1 many:1 change:1 include:1 wound:1 battle:2 near:2 wassenberg:1 consequence:1 force:3 retire:1 possession:2 braunschweig:1 however:2 murder:1 later:1 amends:1 party:1 engage:1 daughter:3 beatrix:3 frankfurt:1 november:1 gain:1 electoral:1 october:1 contradict:1 early:1 work:1 restore:1 imperial:1 power:1 excommunicate:1 try:1 conquer:1 sicily:1 hold:1 frederick:7 roger:2 southern:1 several:1 instigation:1 consent:1 diet:1 nuremberg:1 deal:1 die:1 summer:1 arrive:1 army:1 september:1 former:1 supporter:1 desert:1 december:1 second:1 majority:1 manage:1 john:1 decisively:1 bouvines:1 withdraw:1 private:1 around:1 harzburg:1 castle:1 describe:1 historian:1 kantorowicz:2 gruesome:1 dethrone:1 flung:1 full:1 length:1 ground:1 abbot:1 confess:1 sin:1 reluctant:1 priest:1 beat:1 bloodily:1 end:1 first:1 last:1 ernst:1 p:1 entomb:1 cathedral:1 ancestor:2 three:1 generation:1 father:1 paternal:6 x:2 great:8 ix:1 grandmother:6 wulfhild:1 gertrude:1 süpplingenburg:1 lothair:1 richenza:1 northeim:1 mother:1 duchess:1 maternal:6 geoffrey:1 v:1 anjou:1 empress:1 eleanor:1 aquitaine:2 william:1 aenor:1 de:1 châtellerault:1 marry:1 twice:1 child:1 irene:1 angelina:1 mary:1 died:1 brabant:1 maud:1 boulogne:1 see:1 tree:1 relate:1 every:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram pope_innocent:2 duke_swabia:1 archbishop_cologne:1 battle_bouvines:1 confess_sin:1 paternal_grandfather:1 paternal_grandmother:1 maternal_grandfather:1 empress_matilda:1 maternal_grandmother:1 eleanor_aquitaine:1 duke_brabant:1 external_link:1
6,429	Eurocard_(printed_circuit_board)	Eurocard is a European standard format for printed circuit boards, which can be plugged together into a standardized subrack. The subrack consists of a series of slotted card guides on the top and bottom, into which the cards are slid so they stand on end, like books on a shelf. At the "back" of each card is one or more connectors, which plug into mating connectors on a backplane which closes the rear of the subrack. Sizing and dimensions The Eurocard packaging system is a complex mixture of English and metric dimensions. Although this may seem confusing, widespread conformance to the standard dimensions means that users are not troubled by these issues. Standard pitch Eurocard subracks have standardized sizes in all three dimensions. Height is specified by the unit 'U' (which stands for 'Unit'), with 1 U being 1.75 inches. Width is specified by the unit 'HP' (which stands for 'Horizontal Pitch')or 'T' with 1 HP being 0.20 inches. The smallest height is 3U. The height of a eurocard is less than the height of rack by 33.35 mm to allow space for panels and card guides. The height of the card in a 3U rack is therefore 100 mm. As two stacked 3U cards are about the same height as a 6U card (see Notes) this scheme allows racks to be constructed which mix 3U and 6U cards. Front panels are also slightly smaller than the rack size, and the typical panel height for a 133.35 mm 3U rack is 130 mm. Eurocards come in modular depths that start at 100 mm and then increase in 60 mm increments. Popular sizes The standard allows for a vast number of permutations, but in practice there are only comparatively few sizes in use. Single size eurocard is 100mm x 160mm and double size eurocard is 233,4mm x 160mm. Heights are commonly 3U or 6U, and only occasionally 9U. The 160 mm depth is the most common today, followed by 220mm. However standard hardware is also available to accommodate depths of 100 mm, 280 mm, 340 mm, and 400 mm. Notes A 3U high subrack is 133.35 mm (5.25 inches) high and accepts a 3U Eurocard which is 100 mm high. A 6U high subrack is 266.7 mm (10.5 inches) high and accepts 6U Eurocards which are 233.35 mm high. Standards and architecture The Eurocard mechanical architecture was defined originally under IEC-60297-3. Today, the most widely recognized standards for this mechanical structure are IEEE 1101.1, IEEE 1101.10 (also known commonly as "dot ten") and IEEE 1101.11. IEEE 1101.10 covers the additional mechanical and EMI features required for VITA 1.1-1997(R2002) which is the VME64 Extensions standard as well as PICMG 2.0 (R3.0) which is the CompactPCI specification. The IEEE 1101.11 standard covers rear plug-in units that are also called rear transition modules or RTMs. The Eurocard is a mechanical system and does not define the specific connector to be used or the signals that are assigned to connector contacts. The connector systems that are commonly used with Eurocard architectures include the original DIN 41612 connector that is also standardized as IEC 60603.2. This is the connector that is used for the VMEbus standard which was IEEE 1014. The connector known as the 5-row DIN which is used for the VME64 Extensions standard is IEC 61076-4-113. The VME64 Extension architecture defined by VITA 1.1-1997 (R2002). Another popular computer architecture that utilizes the 6U-160 Eurocard is CompactPCI and CompactPCI Express. These are defined by PICMG 2.0R3 and PICMG Exp0 R1 respectively. Other computer architectures that utilize the Eurocard system are VXI, PXI, and PXI Express. A computer architecture that used the 6U-220 Eurocard format was Multibus-II which was IEEE 1296, and IEEE 896 Futurebus used the 9U-280 format. Sun Microsystems used the 9U-400 format for their VMEbus based systems. Because the Eurocard system provided for so many modular card sizes and because connector manufacturers have continued to create new connectors which are compatible with this system, it is a popular mechanical standard which is also used for innumerable "one-off" applications. Conduction-cooled Eurocards are used in military and aerospace applications. They are defined by the IEEE 1101.2-1992(2001) standard.	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6,430	Hellbender	The hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis) is a giant salamander, native to North America. which inhabits large, swiftly flowing streams with rocky bottoms. It is the monotypic species within Cryptobranchus, with two subspecies. Etymology The origin of the name "hellbender" is unclear. The Missouri Department of Conservation says: "The name 'hellbender' probably comes from the animal’s odd look. Perhaps it was named by settlers who thought "it was a creature from hell where it’s bent on returning". Another rendition says the undulating skin of a hellbender reminded observers of 'horrible tortures of the infernal regions'. In reality, it’s a harmless aquatic salamander." [http://mdc.mo.gov/documents/nathis/herpetol/amphibian/hellbend.pdf The Hellbender Vernacular names include "snot otter", "devil dog", "mud-devil", "grampus", "Allegheny alligator", "leverian water newt", and "vulgo". Nickerson, M.A. and C.E. Mays. 1973. The hellbenders: North American giant salamanders. Milwaukee Public Museum Publications in Biology and Geology 1, 106pp. The genus name is derived from the Ancient Greek, "kryptos" (hidden http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=crypt ) and "branch" (lung); a reference to oxygen absorption primarily through side-frills and not lungs. http://mdc.mo.gov/documents/nathis/herpetol/amphibian/hellbend.pdf Physical description Hellbenders exhibit no sexual dimorphism, and both males and females grow to an adult length of to from snout to vent, with a total length of to making it the third largest aquatic salamander species in the world (next to the Chinese Giant Salamander and the Japanese Giant Salamander) and largest in the North America AmphibiaWeb - Cryptobranchus alleganiensis . An adult weighs to . Hellbenders reach sexual maturity at about five years of age, and may live thirty years in captivity. They have powerful jaws that can inflict a painful bite. C. alleganiensis have flat bodies and heads, with beady dorsal eyes and slimy skin. Like most salamanders, they have short legs with four toes on the front legs and five on their back appendages, and their tails are keeled to propel them through water. The hellbender has working lungs, but gill slits are often retained although only immature specimens have true gills; the hellbender absorbs oxygen from the water through capillaries of its side-frills. They are blotchy brown or red-brown in color, with a paler underbelly. Hellbenders are completely aquatic, and although active on cloudy days, they are primarily nocturnal. Range The range of the eastern hellbender (C. a. alleganiensis) in North America extends from southwestern and south central New York, west to southern Illinois, and south to extreme northeastern Mississippi and with a heavy population in Eastern Tennessee the northern parts of Alabama and Georgia. A disjunct population occurs in east-central Missouri. The Ozark hellbender (C. a. bishopi) subspecies exists as a disjunctive population in southeastern Missouri and adjacent northeast Arkansas. They also live in Western Virginia Habitat Hellbenders inhabit large, fast-flowing, rocky streams below in elevation. They can usually be found beneath large rocks in shallow rapids. They are less abundant in deeper areas of a stream, or areas which do not have flat piled rocks that offer them cover. By day C. alleganiensis stay under rocks or fallen logs, occasionally sticking their heads out. They may come out during breeding season or on overcast days to move about the stream. Most remain within a range of a few hundred square meters, although journeys of by adults have been observed. They defend the rocks they live under from other hellbenders, and rarely share homes. Reproduction The hellbenders' breeding season begins in late August or early- to mid-September and can continue as late as the end of November, depending on region. During this time the male develops swollen cloacal glands. Unlike most salamanders, the hellbender performs external fertilization. Before mating, each male excavates a brood site, a saucer-shaped depression under a rock or log with its entrance positioned out of the direct current, usually pointing downstream. The male remains in the brood site awaiting a female. When a female approaches, the male guides or drives her into his burrow and prevents her from leaving until she oviposits. Question regarding solitary-pair brood nests, is contradicted by some of the reference sites and requires further checking. Female hellbenders lay 150-200 eggs over a 2- to 3-day period; the eggs are 18-20 mm in diameter, connected by 5-10 mm cords. As the female lays eggs the male positions himself alongside or slightly above them, spraying the eggs with seminal fluid while swaying his tail and moving his hind limbs, which disperses the sperm uniformly. Cannibalism leads to a much lower number of eggs in hellbender nests than would be predicted by ovarian counts. After oviposition the male drives the female away from the nest and guards the eggs. Incubating males rock back and forth and undulate their lateral skin folds, which circulates the water, increasing oxygen supply to both eggs and adult. Incubation lasts from 45-75 days, depending on region. It is not surprising if the male or other Hellbenders eat the eggs before they are hatched. Hatchling hellbenders are to long, have a yolk sac as a source of energy for the first few months of life, and lack functional limbs. Diet Crayfish and small fish are the main food items consumed by Hellbenders. This diet changes little seasonally. They also eat mollusks, worms, and insects. Specimens have been found containing lamprey, tadpoles, aquatic reptiles, and even one containing a toad and another with a small mammal. Adults will eat their shed outer skin, their own eggs, the eggs of others, and even hatchlings of their own species, along with other adults smaller than them. Predation Immature hellbenders are preyed upon by large fish, turtles, and water snakes. Native Americans used them as a food source in the past. Often they are inadvertently caught by fishermen with baited hooks. Young Hellbenders are sometimes preyed upon by larger Hellbenders. Conservation status Hellbenders have been classified an endangered species in Illinois, Indiana, Maryland, Missouri and Ohio, and "rare" or "of special concern" in Georgia, Kentucky, New York, North Carolina and Virginia. Since the 1970's U.S. populations have declined an average of 77%. Globally, the species was "Near threatened" according to the 2004 IUCN Red List This decline in population is due to: an increase in the number of dams; reduced water quality (through pollution and siltation); removal for use as exotic pets (a growing trade in China and Japan, where the animal can be sold for up to $1700); persecution by anglers, who erroneously believe the Hellbenders to be destroying trout fisheries; Increased Chytridiomycosis infestions especially in the Western parts of the United States. Notes Reason they suffer: No place to hide from the current of the waters. Cure: place many man made or natural shelters in the waters. The more shelters, the more they will come back in great numbers. References Database entry includes a range map and justification for why this species is threatened. Petranka, James W. (1998) Salamanders of the United States and Canada, Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press. External links http://www.hellbenders.org http://www.ozarkhellbender.com Cryptobranchid Interest Group Eastern hellbender information at Commonwealth of Virginia Eastern Hellbender Fact Sheet at New York State Ozark Hellbender at U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Amiphibiaweb Entry for the Hellbender Official Arkansas State University mascot comment page Arkansas Business article on the Hellbender grass roots effort Media only Cryptobranchus at CalPhotos http://www.hellbenders.org/photos.html	Hellbender \|@lemmatized hellbender:34 cryptobranchus:4 alleganiensis:5 giant:4 salamander:9 native:2 north:5 america:3 inhabit:2 large:7 swiftly:1 flow:1 stream:4 rocky:2 bottom:1 monotypic:1 specie:5 within:2 two:1 subspecies:2 etymology:1 origin:1 name:5 unclear:1 missouri:4 department:1 conservation:2 say:2 probably:1 come:3 animal:2 odd:1 look:1 perhaps:1 settler:1 think:1 creature:1 hell:1 bent:1 return:1 another:2 rendition:1 undulating:1 skin:4 remind:1 observer:1 horrible:1 torture:1 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6,431	Chipmunk	Chipmunk is the common name for any small squirrel-like rodent species of the genus Tamias. Etymology and taxonomy Tamias is Greek for "storer," a reference to the animals' habit of collecting and storing food for winter use. The genus includes twenty-five recognized species, with one species in northeastern Asia, one in eastern North America, and the rest native to western North America. Some authors have recently suggested that Tamias should be subdivided into three genera, corresponding to currently recognized subgenera Tamias, Eutamias, and Neotamias. Piaggio, A. J. and Spicer, G. S. 2001. Molecular phylogeny of the chipmunks inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome b and cytochrome oxidase II gene sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 20: 335-350. This usage, however, has not been widely adopted. The common name originally may have been spelled "chitmunk" (from the Odawa word jidmoonh, meaning "red squirrel"; (c.f. Ojibwe, ajidamoo). However, the earliest form cited in the Oxford English Dictionary (from 1842) is "chipmonk". Other early forms include "chipmuck" and "chipminck", and in the 1830s they were also referred to as "chip squirrels," possibly in reference to the sound they make. They are also called "striped squirrels", "chippers", "munks", "timber tigers", or "ground squirrels", though the name "ground squirrel" usually refers to members of the genus Spermophilus. Tamias and Spermophilus are only two of the 13 genera of ground-living sciurids.Chipmunks are usually very small,usually only about the length of your hand. Ecology and life history Eastern chipmunks mate in early spring and again in early summer, producing litters of four or five young twice each year. Western chipmunks only breed once a year. The young emerge from the burrow after about six weeks and strike out on their own within the next two weeks. Chipmunks have an omnivorous diet consisting of grain, nuts, birds' eggs, small frogs, fungi, worms, and insects. At the beginning of autumn, many species of chipmunk begin to stockpile these goods in their burrows, for winter. Other species make multiple small caches of food. These two kinds of behavior are called larder hoarding and scatter hoarding. Larder hoarders usually live in their nests until spring. A member of genus Tamias with a human hand for size comparison Chipmunk in the Capitol Reef National Park, USA (39 sec.) These small squirrels fulfill several important functions in forest ecosystems. Their activities harvesting and hoarding tree seeds play a crucial role in seedling establishment. They consume many different kinds of fungi, including those involved in symbiotic mycorrhizal associations with trees, and are an important vector for dispersal of the spores of subterranean sporocarps (truffles) which have co-evolved with these and other mycophagous mammals and thus lost the ability to disperse their spores through the air. Chipmunks play an important role as prey for various predatory mammals and birds, but are also opportunistic predators themselves, particularly with regard to bird eggs and nestlings. In Oregon, Mountain Bluebirds (Siala currucoides) have been observed energetically mobbing chipmunks that they see near their nest trees. Chipmunks construct expansive burrows which can be more than 3.5 m in length with several well-concealed entrances. The sleeping quarters are kept extremely clean as shells and feces are stored in refuse tunnels. Species Alpine Chipmunk, Tamias alpinus Yellow-pine Chipmunk, Tamias amoenus Buller's Chipmunk Tamias bulleri Gray-footed Chipmunk, Tamias canipes Gray-collared Chipmunk, Tamias cinereicollis Cliff Chipmunk, Tamias dorsalis Durango Chipmunk, Tamias durangae Merriam's Chipmunk, Tamias merriami Least Chipmunk, Tamias minimus California Chipmunk, Tamias obscurus Yellow-cheeked Chipmunk, Tamias ochrogenys Palmer's Chipmunk, Tamias palmeri Panamint Chipmunk, Tamias panamintinus Long-eared Chipmunk, Tamias quadrimaculatus Colorado Chipmunk, Tamias quadrivittatus Red-tailed Chipmunk, Tamias ruficaudus Hopi Chipmunk, Tamias rufus Allen's Chipmunk, Tamias senex Siberian Chipmunk, Tamias sibiricus Siskiyou Chipmunk, Tamias siskiyou Sonoma Chipmunk, Tamias sonomae Lodgepole Chipmunk, Tamias speciosus Eastern Chipmunk, Tamias striatus Townsend's Chipmunk, Tamias townsendii Uinta Chipmunk, Tamias umbrinus Notes References Nichols, John D. and Earl Nyholm (1995). A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. External links Etymology Online: Chipmunk Wildlife and Nature - Chipmunk Chipmunk Photographs showing food-carrying habit	Chipmunk \|@lemmatized chipmunk:39 common:2 name:3 small:5 squirrel:7 like:1 rodent:1 specie:6 genus:6 tamias:31 etymology:2 taxonomy:1 greek:1 storer:1 reference:3 animal:1 habit:2 collect:1 store:2 food:3 winter:2 use:1 include:3 twenty:1 five:2 recognize:2 one:2 northeastern:1 asia:1 eastern:3 north:2 america:2 rest:1 native:1 western:2 author:1 recently:1 suggest:1 subdivide:1 three:1 correspond:1 currently:1 subgenus:1 eutamias:1 neotamias:1 piaggio:1 j:1 spicer:1 g:1 molecular:2 phylogeny:1 infer:1 mitochondrial:1 cytochrome:2 b:1 oxidase:1 ii:1 gene:1 sequence:1 phylogenetics:1 evolution:1 usage:1 however:2 widely:1 adopt:1 originally:1 may:1 spell:1 chitmunk:1 odawa:1 word:1 jidmoonh:1 mean:1 red:2 c:1 f:1 ojibwe:2 ajidamoo:1 early:4 form:2 cite:1 oxford:1 english:1 dictionary:2 chipmonk:1 chipmuck:1 chipminck:1 also:3 refer:2 chip:1 possibly:1 sound:1 make:2 call:2 strip:1 chippers:1 munks:1 timber:1 tiger:1 ground:3 though:1 usually:4 member:2 spermophilus:2 two:3 living:1 sciurids:1 length:2 hand:2 ecology:1 life:1 history:1 mate:1 spring:2 summer:1 produce:1 litter:1 four:1 young:2 twice:1 year:2 breed:1 emerge:1 burrow:3 six:1 week:2 strike:1 within:1 next:1 omnivorous:1 diet:1 consisting:1 grain:1 nut:1 bird:3 egg:2 frog:1 fungi:2 worm:1 insect:1 beginning:1 autumn:1 many:2 begin:1 stockpile:1 good:1 multiple:1 cache:1 kind:2 behavior:1 larder:2 hoarding:2 scatter:1 hoarder:1 live:1 nest:2 human:1 size:1 comparison:1 capitol:1 reef:1 national:1 park:1 usa:1 sec:1 fulfill:1 several:2 important:3 function:1 forest:1 ecosystem:1 activity:1 harvest:1 hoard:1 tree:3 seed:1 play:2 crucial:1 role:2 seedling:1 establishment:1 consume:1 different:1 involve:1 symbiotic:1 mycorrhizal:1 association:1 vector:1 dispersal:1 spore:2 subterranean:1 sporocarp:1 truffle:1 co:1 evolve:1 mycophagous:1 mammal:2 thus:1 lose:1 ability:1 disperse:1 air:1 prey:1 various:1 predatory:1 opportunistic:1 predator:1 particularly:1 regard:1 nestling:1 oregon:1 mountain:1 bluebird:1 siala:1 currucoides:1 observe:1 energetically:1 mob:1 see:1 near:1 construct:1 expansive:1 well:1 conceal:1 entrance:1 sleeping:1 quarter:1 keep:1 extremely:1 clean:1 shell:1 feces:1 refuse:1 tunnel:1 alpine:1 alpinus:1 yellow:2 pine:1 amoenus:1 buller:1 bulleri:1 gray:2 foot:1 canipes:1 collared:1 cinereicollis:1 cliff:1 dorsalis:1 durango:1 durangae:1 merriam:1 merriami:1 least:1 minimus:1 california:1 obscurus:1 cheeked:1 ochrogenys:1 palmer:1 palmeri:1 panamint:1 panamintinus:1 long:1 eared:1 quadrimaculatus:1 colorado:1 quadrivittatus:1 tail:1 ruficaudus:1 hopi:1 rufus:1 allen:1 senex:1 siberian:1 sibiricus:1 siskiyou:2 sonoma:1 sonomae:1 lodgepole:1 speciosus:1 striatus:1 townsend:1 townsendii:1 uinta:1 umbrinus:1 note:1 nichols:1 john:1 earl:1 nyholm:1 concise:1 minnesota:2 minneapolis:1 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 wildlife:1 nature:1 photograph:1 show:1 carrying:1 \|@bigram molecular_phylogeny:1 mitochondrial_cytochrome:1 cytochrome_oxidase:1 molecular_phylogenetics:1 phylogenetics_evolution:1 chipmunk_tamias:25 external_link:1
6,432	Information_security	Information Security Components: or qualities, i.e., Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability (CIA). Information Systems are decomposed in three main portions, hardware, software and communications with the purpose to identify and apply information security industry standards, as mechanisms of protection and prevention, at three levels or layers: Physical, personal and organizational. Essentially, procedures or policies are implemented to tell people (administrators, users and operators)how to use products to ensure information security within the organizations. Information security means protecting information and information systems from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification or destruction. 44 U.S.C § 3542 (b)(1) (2006) The terms information security, computer security and information assurance are frequently incorrectly used interchangeably. These fields are interrelated often and share the common goals of protecting the confidentiality, integrity and availability of information; however, there are some subtle differences between them. These differences lie primarily in the approach to the subject, the methodologies used, and the areas of concentration. Information security is concerned with the confidentiality, integrity and availability of data regardless of the form the data may take: electronic, print, or other forms. Computer security can focus on ensuring the availability and correct operation of a computer system without concern for the information stored or processed by the computer. Governments, military, corporates, financial institutions, hospitals, and private businesses amass a great deal of confidential information about their employees, customers, products, research, and financial status. Most of this information is now collected, processed and stored on electronic computers and transmitted across networks to other computers. Should confidential information about a businesses customers or finances or new product line fall into the hands of a competitor, such a breach of security could lead to lost business, law suits or even bankruptcy of the business. Protecting confidential information is a business requirement, and in many cases also an ethical and legal requirement. For the individual, information security has a significant effect on privacy, which is viewed very differently in different cultures. The field of information security has grown and evolved significantly in recent years. As a career choice there are many ways of gaining entry into the field. It offers many areas for specialization including, securing network(s) and allied infrastructure, securing applications and databases, security testing, information systems auditing, business continuity planning and digital forensics science, to name a few. This article presents a general overview of information security and its core concepts. History Since the early days of writing, heads of state and military commanders understood that it was necessary to provide some mechanism to protect the confidentiality of written correspondence and to have some means of detecting tampering. Julius Caesar is credited with the invention of the Caesar cipher c50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret messages from being read should a message fall into the wrong hands. World War II brought about many advancements in information security and mark the beginning of the professional field of information security. The end of the 20th century and early years of the 21st century saw rapid advancements in telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption. The availability of smaller, more powerful and less expensive computing equipment made electronic data processing within the reach of small business and the home user. These computers quickly became interconnected through a network generically called the Internet or World Wide Web. The rapid growth and widespread use of electronic data processing and electronic business conducted through the Internet, along with numerous occurrences of international terrorism, fueled the need for better methods of protecting the computers and the information they store, process and transmit. The academic disciplines of computer security, information security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations - all sharing the common goals of ensuring the security and reliability of information systems. Basic principles Key concepts For over twenty years information security has held that confidentiality, integrity and availability (known as the CIA triad) as the core principles of information security. Confidentiality Confidentiality is the property of preventing disclosure of information to unauthorized individuals or systems. For example, a credit card transaction on the Internet requires the credit card number to be transmitted from the buyer to the merchant and from the merchant to a transaction processing network. The system attempts to enforce confidentiality by encrypting the card number during transmission, by limiting the places where it might appear (in databases, log files, backups, printed receipts, and so on), and by restricting access to the places where it is stored. If an unauthorized party obtains the card number in any way, a breach of confidentiality has occurred. Breaches of confidentiality take many forms. Permitting someone to look over your shoulder at your computer screen while you have confidential data displayed on it could be a breach of confidentiality. If a laptop computer containing sensitive information about a company's employees is stolen or sold, it could result in a breach of confidentiality. Giving out confidential information over the telephone is a breach of confidentiality if the caller is not authorized to have the information. Confidentiality is necessary (but not sufficient) for maintaining the privacy of the people whose personal information a system holds. Integrity In information security, integrity means that data cannot be modified without authorization. This is not the same thing as referential integrity in databases. Integrity is violated when an employee accidentally or with malicious intent deletes important data files, when a computer virus infects a computer, when an employee is able to modify his own salary in a payroll database, when an unauthorized user vandalizes a web site, when someone is able to cast a very large number of votes in an online poll, and so on. There are many ways in which integrity could be violated without malicious intent. In the simplest case, a user on a system could mis-type someone's address. On a larger scale, if an automated process is not written and tested correctly, bulk updates to a database could alter data in an incorrect way, leaving the integrity of the data compromised. Information security professionals are tasked with finding ways to implement controls that prevent errors of integrity. Availability For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when it is needed. This means that the computing systems used to store and process the information, the security controls used to protect it, and the communication channels used to access it must be functioning correctly. High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades. Ensuring availability also involves preventing denial-of-service attacks. In 2002, Donn Parker proposed an alternative model for the classic CIA triad that he called the six atomic elements of information. The elements are confidentiality, possession, integrity, authenticity, availability, and utility. The merits of the Parkerian hexad are a subject of debate amongst security professionals. Authenticity In computing, e-Business and information security it is necessary to ensure that the data, transactions, communications or documents (electronic or physical) are genuine. It is also important for authenticity to validate that both parties involved are who they claim they are. Non-repudiation In law, non-repudiation implies one's intention to fulfill their obligations to a contract. It also implies that one party of a transaction cannot deny having received a transaction nor can the other party deny having sent a transaction. Electronic commerce uses technology such as digital signatures and encryption to establish authenticity and non-repudiation. Risk management Security is everyone’s responsibility. Security awareness poster. U.S. Department of Commerce/Office of Security. A comprehensive treatment of the topic of risk management is beyond the scope of this article. We will however, provide a useful definition of risk management, outline a commonly used process for risk management, and define some basic terminology. The CISA Review Manual 2006 provides the following definition of risk management: "Risk management is the process of identifying vulnerabilities and threats to the information resources used by an organization in achieving business objectives, and deciding what countermeasures, if any, to take in reducing risk to an acceptable level, based on the value of the information resource to the organization." There are two things in this definition that may need some clarification. First, the process of risk management is an ongoing iterative process. It must be repeated indefinitely. The business environment is constantly changing and new threats and vulnerability emerge every day. Second, the choice of countermeasures (controls) used to manage risks must strike a balance between productivity, cost, effectiveness of the countermeasure, and the value of the informational asset being protected. Risk is the likelihood that something bad will happen that causes harm to an informational asset (or the loss of the asset). A vulnerability is a weakness that could be used to endanger or cause harm to an informational asset. A threat is anything (man made or act of nature) that has the potential to cause harm. The likelihood that a threat will use a vulnerability to cause harm creates a risk. When a threat does use a vulnerability to inflict harm, it has an impact. In the context of information security, the impact is a loss of availability, integrity, and confidentiality, and possibly other losses (lost income, loss of life, loss of real property). It should be pointed out that it is not possible to identify all risks, nor is it possible to eliminate all risk. The remaining risk is called residual risk. A risk assessment is carried out by a team of people who have knowledge of specific areas of the business. Membership of the team may vary over time as different parts of the business are assessed. The assessment may use a subjective qualitative analysis based on informed opinion, or where reliable dollar figures and historical information is available, the analysis may use quantitative analysis. The ISO/IEC 27002:2005 Code of practice for information security management recommends the following be examined during a risk assessment: security policy, organization of information security, asset management, human resources security, physical and environmental security, communications and operations management, access control, information systems acquisition, development and maintenance, information security incident management, business continuity management, and regulatory compliance. In broad terms the risk management process consists of: Identification of assets and estimating their value. Include: people, buildings, hardware, software, data (electronic, print, other), supplies. Conduct a threat assessment. Include: Acts of nature, acts of war, accidents, malicious acts originating from inside or outside the organization. Conduct a vulnerability assessment, and for each vulnerability, calculate the probability that it will be exploited. Evaluate policies, procedures, standards, training, physical security, quality control, technical security. Calculate the impact that each threat would have on each asset. Use qualitative analysis or quantitative analysis. Identify, select and implement appropriate controls. Provide a proportional response. Consider productivity, cost effectiveness, and value of the asset. Evaluate the effectiveness of the control measures. Ensure the controls provide the required cost effective protection without discernible loss of productivity. For any given risk, Executive Management can choose to accept the risk based upon the relative low value of the asset, the relative low frequency of occurrence, and the relative low impact on the business. Or, leadership may choose to mitigate the risk by selecting and implementing appropriate control measures to reduce the risk. In some cases, the risk can be transferred to another business by buying insurance or out-sourcing to another business. The reality of some risks may be disputed. In such cases leadership may choose to deny the risk. This is itself a potential risk. Controls When Management chooses to mitigate a risk, they will do so by implementing one or more of three different types of controls. Administrative Administrative controls (also called procedural controls) consist of approved written policies, procedures, standards and guidelines. Administrative controls form the framework for running the business and managing people. They inform people on how the business is to be run and how day to day operations are to be conducted. Laws and regulations created by government bodies are also a type of administrative control because they inform the business. Some industry sectors have policies, procedures, standards and guidelines that must be followed - the Payment Card Industry (PCI) Data Security Standard required by Visa and Master Card is such an example. Other examples of administrative controls include the corporate security policy, password policy, hiring policies, and disciplinary policies. Administrative controls form the basis for the selection and implementation of logical and physical controls. Logical and physical controls are manifestations of administrative controls. Administrative controls are of paramount importance. Logical Logical controls (also called technical controls) use software and data to monitor and control access to information and computing systems. For example: passwords, network and host based firewalls, network intrusion detection systems, access control lists, and data encryption are logical controls. An important logical control that is frequently overlooked is the principle of least privilege. The principle of least privilege requires that an individual, program or system process is not granted any more access privileges than are necessary to perform the task. A blatant example of the failure to adhere to the principle of least privilege is logging into Windows as user Administrator to read Email and surf the Web. Violations of this principle can also occur when an individual collects additional access privileges over time. This happens when employees' job duties change, or they are promoted to a new position, or they transfer to another department. The access privileges required by their new duties are frequently added onto their already existing access privileges which may no longer be necessary or appropriate. Physical Physical controls monitor and control the environment of the work place and computing facilities. They also monitor and control access to and from such facilities. For example: doors, locks, heating and air conditioning, smoke and fire alarms, fire suppression systems, cameras, barricades, fencing, security guards, cable locks, etc. Separating the network and work place into functional areas are also physical controls. An important physical control that is frequently overlooked is the separation of duties. Separation of duties ensures that an individual can not complete a critical task by himself. For example: an employee who submits a request for reimbursement should not also be able to authorize payment or print the check. An applications programmer should not also be the server administrator or the database administrator - these roles and responsibilities must be separated from one another. Security classification for information An important aspect of information security and risk management is recognizing the value of information and defining appropriate procedures and protection requirements for the information. Not all information is equal and so not all information requires the same degree of protection. This requires information to be assigned a security classification. The first step in information classification is to identify a member of senior management as the owner of the particular information to be classified. Next, develop a classification policy. The policy should describe the different classification labels, define the criteria for information to be assigned a particular label, and list the required security controls for each classification. Some factors that influence which classification information should be assigned include how much value that information has to the organization, how old the information is and whether or not the information has become obsolete. Laws and other regulatory requirements are also important considerations when classifying information. Common information security classification labels used by the business sector are: public, sensitive, private, confidential. Common information security classification labels used by government are: Unclassified, Sensitive But Unclassified, Restricted, Confidential, Secret, Top Secret and their non-English equivalents. All employees in the organization, as well as business partners, must be trained on the classification schema and understand the required security controls and handling procedures for each classification. The classification a particular information asset has been assigned should be reviewed periodically to ensure the classification is still appropriate for the information and to ensure the security controls required by the classification are in place. Access control Access to protected information must be restricted to people who are authorized to access the information. The computer programs, and in many cases the computers that process the information, must also be authorized. This requires that mechanisms be in place to control the access to protected information. The sophistication of the access control mechanisms should be in parity with the value of the information being protected - the more sensitive or valuable the information the stronger the control mechanisms need to be. The foundation on which access control mechanisms are built start with identification and authentication. Identification is an assertion of who someone is or what something is. If a person makes the statement "Hello, my name is John Doe." they are making a claim of who they are. However, their claim may or may not be true. Before John Doe can be granted access to protected information it will be necessary to verify that the person claiming to be John Doe really is John Doe. Authentication is the act of verifying a claim of identity. When John Doe goes into a bank to make a withdrawal, he tells the bank teller he is John Doe (a claim of identity). The bank teller asks to see a photo ID, so he hands the teller his driver's license. The bank teller checks the license to make sure it has John Doe printed on it and compares the photograph on the license against the person claiming to be John Doe. If the photo and name match the person, then the teller has authenticated that John Doe is who he claimed to be. There are three different types of information that can be used for authentication: something you know, something you have, or something you are. Examples of something you know include such things as a PIN, a password, or your mother's maiden name. Examples of something you have include a driver's license or a magnetic swipe card. Something you are refers to biometrics. Examples of biometrics include palm prints, finger prints, voice prints and retina (eye) scans. Strong authentication requires providing information from two of the three different types of authentication information. For example, something you know plus something you have. This is called two factor authentication. On computer systems in use today, the Username is the most common form of identification and the Password is the most common form of authentication. Usernames and passwords have served their purpose but in our modern world they are no longer adequate. Usernames and passwords are slowly being replaced with more sophisticated authentication mechanisms. After a person, program or computer has successfully been identified and authenticated then it must be determined what informational resources they are permitted to access and what actions they will be allowed to perform (run, view, create, delete, or change). This is called authorization. Authorization to access information and other computing services begins with administrative policies and procedures. The policies prescribe what information and computing services can be accessed, by whom, and under what conditions. The access control mechanisms are then configured to enforce these policies. Different computing systems are equipped with different kinds of access control mechanisms - some may even offer a choice of different access control mechanisms. The access control mechanism a system offers will be based upon one of three approaches to access control or it may be derived from a combination of the three approaches. The non-discretionary approach consolidates all access control under a centralized administration. The access to information and other resources is usually based on the individuals function (role) in the organization or the tasks the individual must perform. The discretionary approach gives the creator or owner of the information resource the ability to control access to those resources. In the Mandatory access control approach, access is granted or denied basing upon the security classification assigned to the information resource. Examples of common access control mechanisms in use today include Role-based access control available in many advanced Database Management Systems, simple file permissions provided in the UNIX and Windows operating systems, Group Policy Objects provided in Windows network systems, Kerberos, RADIUS, TACACS, and the simple access lists used in many firewalls and routers. To be effective, policies and other security controls must be enforceable and upheld. Effective policies ensure that people are held accountable for their actions. All failed and successful authentication attempts must be logged, and all access to information must leave some type of audit trail. Cryptography Information security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption. Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user, who possesses the cryptographic key, through the process of decryption. Cryptography is used in information security to protect information from unauthorized or accidental discloser while the information is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage. Cryptography provides information security with other useful applications as well including improved authentication methods, message digests, digital signatures, non-repudiation, and encrypted network communications. Older less secure application such as telnet and ftp are slowly being replaced with more secure applications such as ssh that use encrypted network communications. Wireless communications can be encrypted using the WPA or WEP protocols. Wired communications (such as ITU-T G.hn) are secured using AES for encryption and X.1035 for authentication and key exchange. Software applications such as GNUPG or PGP can be used to encrypt data files and Email. Cryptography can introduce security problems when it is not implemented correctly. Cryptographic solutions need to be implemented using industry accepted solutions that have undergone rigorous peer review by independent experts in cryptography. The length and strength of the encryption key is also an important consideration. A key that is weak or too short will produce weak encryption. The keys used for encryption and decryption must be protected with the same degree of rigor as any other confidential information. They must be protected from unauthorized disclosure and destruction and they must be available when needed. PKI solutions address many of the problems that surround key management. Defense in depth Information security must protect information throughout the life span of the information, from the initial creation of the information on through to the final disposal of the information. The information must be protected while in motion and while at rest. During its life time, information may pass through many different information processing systems and through many different parts of information processing systems. There are many different ways the information and information systems can be threatened. To fully protect the information during its lifetime, each component of the information processing system must have its own protection mechanisms. The building up, layering on and overlapping of security measures is called defense in depth. The strength of any system is no greater than its weakest link. Using a defence in depth strategy, should one defensive measure fail there are other defensive measures in place that continue to provide protection. Recall the earlier discussion about administrative controls, logical controls, and physical controls. The three types of controls can be used to form the basis upon which to build a defense-in-depth strategy. With this approach, defense-in-depth can be conceptualized as three distinct layers or planes laid one on top of the other. Additional insight into defense-in- depth can be gained by thinking of it as forming the layers of an onion, with data at the core of the onion, people as the outer layer of the onion, and network security, host-based security and application security forming the inner layers of the onion. Both perspectives are equally valid and each provides valuable insight into the implementation of a good defense-in-depth strategy. Process The terms reasonable and prudent person, due care and due diligence have been used in the fields of Finance, Securities, and Law for many years. In recent years these terms have found their way into the fields of computing and information security. U.S.A. Federal Sentencing Guidelines now make it possible to hold corporate officers liable for failing to exercise due care and due diligence in the management of their information systems. In the business world, stockholders, customers, business partners and governments have the expectation that corporate officers will run the business in accordance with accepted business practices and in compliance with laws and other regulatory requirements. This is often described as the "reasonable and prudent person" rule. A prudent person takes due care to ensure that everything necessary is done to operate the business by sound business principles and in a legal ethical manner. A prudent person is also diligent (mindful, attentive, and ongoing) in their due care of the business. In the field of Information Security, Harris offers the following definitions of due care and due diligence: "Due care are steps that are taken to show that a company has taken responsibility for the activities that take place within the corporation and has taken the necessary steps to help protect the company, its resources, and employees." And, [Due diligence are the] "continual activities that make sure the protection mechanisms are continually maintained and operational." Attention should be made to two important points in these definitions. First, in due care, steps are taken to show - this means that the steps can be verified, measured, or even produce tangible artifacts. Second, in due diligence, there are continual activities - this means that people are actually doing things to monitor and maintain the protection mechanisms, and these activities are ongoing. Security governance The Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University, in a publication titled "Governing for Enterprise Security (GES)", defines characteristics of effective security governance. These include: An enterprise-wide issue Leaders are accountable Viewed as a business requirement Risk-based Roles, responsibilities, and segregation of duties defined Addressed and enforced in policy Adequate resources committed Staff aware and trained A development life cycle requirement Planned, managed, measurable, and measured Reviewed and audited Incident response plans 1 to 3 paragraphs (non technical) that discuss: Selecting team members Define roles, responsibilities and lines of authority Define a security incident Define a reportable incident Training Detection Classification Escalation Containment Eradication Documentation Change management Change management is a formal process for directing and controlling alterations to the information processing environment. This includes alterations to desktop computers, the network, servers and software. The objectives of change management are to reduce the risks posed by changes to the information processing environment and improve the stability and reliability of the processing environment as changes are made. It is not the objective of change management to prevent or hinder necessary changes from being implemented. Any change to the information processing environment introduces an element of risk. Even apparently simple changes can have unexpected effects. One of Managements many responsibilities is the management of risk. Change management is a tool for managing the risks introduced by changes to the information processing environment. Part of the change management process ensures that changes are not implemented at inopportune times when they may disrupt critical business processes or interfere with other changes being implemented. Not every change needs to be managed. Some kinds of changes are a part of the everyday routine of information processing and adhere to a predefined procedure, which reduces the overall level of risk to the processing environment. Creating a new user account or deploying a new desktop computer are examples of changes that do not generally require change management. However, relocating user file shares, or upgrading the Email server pose a much higher level of risk to the processing environment and are not a normal everyday activity. The critical first steps in change management are (a) defining change (and communicating that definition) and (b) defining the scope of the change system. Change management is usually overseen by a Change Review Board comprised of representatives from key business areas, security, networking, systems administrators, Database administration, applications development, desktop support and the help desk. The tasks of the Change Review Board can be facilitated with the use of automated work flow application. The responsibility of the Change Review Board is to ensure the organizations documented change management procedures are followed. The change management process is as follows: Requested: Anyone can request a change. The person making the change request may or may not be the same person that performs the analysis or implements the change. When a request for change is received, it may undergo a preliminary review to determine if the requested change is compatible with the organizations business model and practices, and to determine the amount of resources needed to implement the change. Approved: Management runs the business and controls the allocation of resources therefore, Management must approve requests for changes and assign a priority for every change. Management might choose to reject a change request if the change is not compatible with the business model, industry standards or best practices. Management might also choose to reject a change request if the change requires more resources than can be allocated for the change. Planned Planning a change involves discovering the scope and impact of the proposed change; analyzing the complexity of the change; allocation of resources and, developing, testing and documenting both implementation and backout plans. Need to define the criteria on which a decision to back out will be made. Tested: Every change must be tested in a safe test environment, which closely reflects the actual production environment, before the change is applied to the production environment. The backout plan must also be tested. Scheduled: Part of the change review board's responsibility is to assist in the scheduling of changes by reviewing the proposed implementation date for potential conflicts with other scheduled changes or critical business activities. Communicated: Once a change has been scheduled it must be communicated. The communication is to give others the opportunity to remind the change review board about other changes or critical business activities that might have been overlooked when scheduling the change. The communication also serves to make the Help Desk and users aware that a change is about to occur. Another responsibility of the change review board is to ensure that scheduled changes have been properly communicated to those who will be affected by the change or otherwise have an interest in the change. Implemented: At the appointed date and time, the changes must be implemented. Part of the planning process was to develop an implementation plan, testing plan and, a back out plan. If the implementation of the change should fail or, the post implementation testing fails or, other "drop dead" criteria have been met, the back out plan should be implemented. Documented: All changes must be documented. The documentation includes the initial request for change, its approval, the priority assigned to it, the implementation, testing and back out plans, the results of the change review board critique, the date/time the change was implemented, who implemented it, and whether the change was implemented successfully, failed or postponed. Post change review: The change review board should hold a post implementation review of changes. It is particularly important to review failed and backed out changes. The review board should try to understand the problems that were encountered, and look for areas for improvement. Change management procedures that are simple to follow and easy to use can greatly reduce the overall risks created when changes are made to the information processing environment. Good change management procedures improve the over all quality and success of changes as they are implemented. This is accomplished through planning, peer review, documentation and communication. ISO/IEC 20000, Visible Ops, and Information Technology Infrastructure Library all provide valuable guidance on implementing an efficient and effective change management program. Business Continuity Business Continuity is the mechanism by which an organization continues to operate its critical business units, during planned or unplanned disruptions that affect normal business operations, by invoking planned and managed procedures. Unlike what most people think Business Continuity is not necessarily an IT system or process, simply because it is about the business. Today disasters or disruptions to business are a reality. Whether the disaster is natural or man-made (the TIME magazine has a website on the top 10), it affects normal life and so business. So why is planning so important? Let us face reality that "all businesses recover", whether they planned for recovery or not, simply because business is about earning money for survival. The planning is merely getting better prepared to face it, knowing fully well that the best plans may fail. Planning helps to reduce cost of recovery, operational overheads and most importantly sail through some smaller ones effortlessly. For businesses to create effective plans they need to focus upon the following key questions. Most of these are common knowledge, and anyone can do a BCP. 1. Should a disaster strike, what are the first few things that I should do? Should I call people to find if they are OK or call up the bank to figure out my money is safe? This is Emergencey Response. Emergency Response services help take the first hit when the disaster strikes and if the disaster is serious enough the Emergency Response teams need to quickly get a Crisis Management team in place. 2. What parts of my business should I recover first? The one that brings me most money or the one where I spend the most, or the one that will ensure I shall be able to get sustained future growth? The identified sections are the critical business units. There is no magic bullet here, no one answer satisfies all. Businesses need to find answers that meet business requirements. 3. How soon should I target to recover my critical business units? In BCP technical jargon this is called Recovery Time Objective, or RTO. This objective will define what costs the business will need to spend to recover from a disruption. For example, it is cheaper to recover a business in 1 day than in 1 hour. 4. What all do I need to recover the business? IT, machinery, records...food, water, people...So many aspects to dwell upon. The cost factor becomes clearer now...Business leaders need to drive business continuity. Hold on. My IT manager spent $200000 last month and created a DRP (Disaster Recovery Plan), whatever happened to that? a DRP is about continuing an IT system, and is one of the sections of a comprehensive Business Continuity Plan. Look below for more on this. 5. And where do I recover my business from... Will the business center give me space to work, or would it be flooded by many people queuing up for the same reasons that I am. 6. But once I do recover from the disaster and work in reduced production capacity, since my main operational sites are unavailable, how long can this go on. How long can I do without my original sites, systems, people? this defines the amount of business resilience a business may have. 7. Now that I know how to recover my business. How do I make sure my plan works? Most BCP pundits would recommend testing the plan at least once a year, reviewing it for adequacy and rewriting or updating the plans either annually or when businesses change. Disaster recovery planning While a business continuity plan (BCP) takes a broad approach to dealing with organizational-wide effects of a disaster, a disaster recovery plan (DRP), which is a subset of the business continuity plan, is instead focused on taking the necessary steps to resume normal business operations as quickly as possible. A disaster recovery plan is executed immediately after the disaster occurs and details what steps are to be taken in order to recover critical information technology infrastructure. Laws and regulations Below is a partial listing of European, United Kingdom, Canadian and USA governmental laws and regulations that have, or will have, a significant effect on data processing and information security. Important industry sector regulations have also been included when they have a significant impact on information security. UK Data Protection Act 1998 makes new provisions for the regulation of the processing of information relating to individuals, including the obtaining, holding, use or disclosure of such information. The European Union Data Protection Directive (EUDPD) requires that all EU member must adopt national regulations to standardize the protection of data privacy for citizens throughout the EU. The Computer Misuse Act 1990 is an Act of the UK Parliament making computer crime (e.g. cracking - sometimes incorrectly referred to as hacking) a criminal offence. The Act has become a model upon which several other countries including Canada and the Republic of Ireland have drawn inspiration when subsequently drafting their own information security laws. EU Data Retention laws requires Internet service providers and phone companies to keep data on every electronic message sent and phone call made for between six months and two years. The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) (20 U.S.C. § 1232 g; 34 CFR Part 99) is a USA Federal law that protects the privacy of student education records. The law applies to all schools that receive funds under an applicable program of the U.S. Department of Education. Generally, schools must have written permission from the parent or eligible student in order to release any information from a student's education record. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) requires the adoption of national standards for electronic health care transactions and national identifiers for providers, health insurance plans, and employers. And, it requires health care providers, insurance providers and employers to safeguard the security and privacy of health data. Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act of 1999 (GLBA), also known as the Financial Services Modernization Act of 1999, protects the privacy and security of private financial information that financial institutions collect, hold, and process. Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX). Section 404 of the act requires publicly traded companies to assess the effectiveness of their internal controls for financial reporting in annual reports they submit at the end of each fiscal year. Chief information officers are responsible for the security, accuracy and the reliability of the systems that manage and report the financial data. The act also requires publicly traded companies to engage independent auditors who must attest to, and report on, the validity of their assessments. Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard (PCI DSS) establishes comprehensive requirements for enhancing payment account data security. It was developed by the founding payment brands of the PCI Security Standards Council, including American Express, Discover Financial Services, JCB, MasterCard Worldwide and Visa International, to help facilitate the broad adoption of consistent data security measures on a global basis. The PCI DSS is a multifaceted security standard that includes requirements for security management, policies, procedures, network architecture, software design and other critical protective measures. State Security Breach Notification Laws (California and many others) require businesses, nonprofits, and state institutions to notify consumers when unencrypted "personal information" may have been compromised, lost, or stolen. Personal Information Protection and Electronics Document Act (PIPEDA) - An Act to support and promote electronic commerce by protecting personal information that is collected, used or disclosed in certain circumstances, by providing for the use of electronic means to communicate or record information or transactions and by amending the Canada Evidence Act, the Statutory Instruments Act and the Statute Revision ActThant is in fact the case. Sources of standards International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a consortium of national standards institutes from 157 countries with a Central Secretariat in Geneva Switzerland that coordinates the system. The ISO is the world's largest developer of standards. The ISO-15443: "Information technology - Security techniques - A framework for IT security assurance", ISO-17799: "Information technology - Security techniques - Code of practice for information security management", ISO-20000: "Information technology - Service management", and ISO-27001: "Information technology - Security techniques - Information security management systems" are of particular interest to information security professionals. The USA National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is a non-regulatory federal agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce. The NIST Computer Security Division develops standards, metrics, tests and validation programs as well as publishes standards and guidelines to increase secure IT planning, implementation, management and operation. NIST is also the custodian of the USA Federal Information Processing Standardpublications (FIPS)]. The Internet Society is a professional membership society with more than 100 organization and over 20,000 individual members in over 180 countries. It provides leadership in addressing issues that confront the future of the Internet, and is the organization home for the groups responsible for Internet infrastructure standards, including the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the Internet Architecture Board (IAB). The ISOC hosts the Requests for Comments (RFCs) which includes the Official Internet Protocol Standards and the RFC-2196 Site Security Handbook. The Information Security Forum is a global nonprofit organization of several hundred leading organizations in financial services, manufacturing, telecommunications, consumer goods, government, and other areas. It provides research into best practice and practice advice summarized in its biannual Standard of Good Practice, incorporating detail specifications across many areas. The IT Baseline Protection Catalogs, or IT-Grundschutz Catalogs, ("IT Baseline Protection Manual" before 2005) are a collection of documents from the German Federal Office for Security in Information Technology (FSI), useful for detecting and combating security-relevant weak points in the IT environment (IT cluster). The collection encompasses over 3000 pages with the introduction and catalogs. Professionalism In 1989, Carnegie Mellon University established the Information Networking Institute, the United States' first research and education center devoted to information networking. The academic disciplines of computer security, information security and information assurance emerged along with numerous professional organizations during the later years of the 20th century and early years of the 21st century. Entry into the field can be accomplished through self-study, college or university schooling in the field, or through week long focused training camps. Many colleges, universities and training companies offer many of their programs on- line. The GIAC-GSEC and Security+ certifications are both entry level security certifications. Membership of the Institute of Information Security Professionals (IISP) is gaining traction in the U.K. as the professional standard for Information Security Professionals. The Certified Information Systems Security Professional (CISSP) is a mid- to senior-level information security certification. The Information Systems Security Architecture Professional (ISSAP), Information Systems Security Engineering Professional (ISSEP), Information Systems Security Management Professional (ISSMP), and Certified Information Security Manager (CISM) certifications are well-respected advanced certifications in information-security architecture, engineering, and management respectively. The profession of information security has seen an increased demand for security professionals who are experienced in network security auditing, penetration testing, and digital forensics investigation. In addition, many smaller companies have cropped up as the result of this increased demand in information security training and consulting. Conclusion Information security is the ongoing process of exercising due care and due diligence to protect information, and information systems, from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, destruction, modification, or disruption or distribution. The never ending process of information security involves ongoing training, assessment, protection, monitoring & detection, incident response & repair, documentation, and review. See also Computer insecurity Computer security Enterprise information security architecture Data erasure Disk encryption Information assurance Information security audit Information Security Forum Information security governance Information security management Information security management system Information security policies Information security standards Information technology security audit ITIL security management Network Security Services Physical information security Privacy enhancing technologies Security-as-a-service Security breach notification laws Security information management Security of Information Act Security level management Security bug Single sign-on Standard of Good Practice Verification and validation Scholars working in the field Stefan Brands Adam Back Lance Cottrell Ian Goldberg Peter Gutmann Bruce Schneier Further reading Anderson, K., "IT Security Professionals Must Evolve for Changing Market", SC Magazine, October 12 2006. Aceituno, V., "On Information Security Paradigms",ISSA Journal, September, 2005. Dhillon, G., "Principles of Information Systems Security: text and cases", John Wiley & Sons, 2007. Lambo, T."ISO/IEC 27001: The future of infosec certification",ISSA Journal, November, 2006. Notes and references External links patterns & practices Security Engineering Explained Open Security Architecture- Controls and patterns to secure IT systems Introduction to Security Governance COE Security - Information Security Articles An Introduction to Information Security Example Security Policy IWS - Information Security Chapter Bibliography	Information_security \|@lemmatized information:176 security:141 component:2 quality:3 e:3 confidentiality:16 integrity:13 availability:11 cia:3 system:46 decompose:1 three:9 main:2 portion:1 hardware:4 software:8 communication:11 purpose:3 identify:6 apply:3 industry:7 standard:22 mechanism:15 protection:15 prevention:1 level:7 layer:6 physical:12 personal:5 organizational:2 essentially:1 procedure:13 policy:21 implement:20 tell:2 people:15 administrator:5 user:10 operator:1 use:41 product:3 ensure:15 within:4 organization:18 mean:7 protect:22 unauthorized:7 access:36 disclosure:5 disruption:6 modification:2 destruction:3 u:8 c:3 b:3 term:4 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6,433	Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister	Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, OM, FRS (5 April 1827 – 10 February 1912) was an English surgeon who promoted the idea of sterile surgery while working at the Glasgow Royal Infirmary. He successfully introduced carbolic acid (phenol) to sterilize surgical instruments and to clean wounds, which led to reduced post-operative infections and made surgery safer for patients. Biography Early life Joseph Lister came from a prosperous Quaker home in Upton, Essex, a son of Joseph Jackson Lister, the pioneer of the compound microscope. At Quaker schools he became fluent in French and German which were, serendipitously, also the leading languages of medical research. Doctors - The History of Medicine through Biography by Sherwin B. Nuland He attended the University of London, one of only a few institutions which was open to Quakers at that time. He initially studied the Arts but at the age of 25 he graduated with honours as Bachelor of Medicine and entered the Royal College of Surgeons. In 1854, Lister became both first assistant to and friend of surgeon James Syme at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland. In 1867 Joseph discovered the use of carbolic acid as an antiseptic, such that it became the first widely used antiseptic in surgery. He subsequently left the Quakers, joined the Scottish Episcopal Church and eventually married Syme's daughter Agnes. answersingenesis.org: "Lister married Syme’s daughter Agnes and became a member of the Episcopal church." For their honeymoon they spent 3 months visiting leading medical centres (Hospitals and Universities) in France and Germany, by this time Agnes was enamoured of medical research and partnered him in the laboratory for the rest of her life. Career Antiseptics After six years he earned a professorship of surgery at the University of Glasgow. At the time the usual explanation for wound infection was that the exposed tissues were damaged by chemicals in the air or via a stinking "miasma" in the air. The sick wards actually smelled bad, not due to a "miasma" but due to the rotting of wounds. Hospital wards were occasionally aired out at midday, but Florence Nightingale's doctrine of fresh air was still seen as science fiction. Facilities for washing hands or the patient's wounds did not exist and it was even considered unnecessary for the surgeon to wash his hands before he saw a patient. The work of Ignaz Semmelweis and Oliver Wendell Holmes were not heeded. Lister became aware of a paper published (in French) by the French chemist Louis Pasteur which showed that rotting and fermentation could occur without any oxygen if micro-organisms were present. Lister confirmed this with his own experiments. If micro-organisms were causing gangrene, the problem was how to get rid of them. Pasteur suggested three methods: filter, heat, or expose them to chemical solutions. The first two were inappropriate in a human wound, so Lister experimented with the third. Lister at age 69 in 1896 Carbolic acid (phenol) had been in use as a means of deodorizing sewage, so Lister tested the results of spraying instruments, the surgical incisions, and dressings with a solution of it. Lister found that carbolic acid solution swabbed on wounds markedly reduced the incidence of gangrene and subsequently published a series of articles on the Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery describing this procedure in Volume 90, Issue 2299 of The Lancet published on 21 September 1867. He also made surgeons wear clean gloves and wash their hands before and after operations with 5% carbolic acid solutions. Instruments were also washed in the same solution and assistants sprayed the solution in the operating theatre. One of his conclusions was to stop using porous natural materials in manufacturing the handles of medical instruments. Lister left Glasgow in 1869, returning to Edinburgh as successor to Syme as Professor of Surgery at the University of Edinburgh, and continued to develop improved methods of antisepsis and asepsis. His fame had spread by then and audiences of 400 often came to hear him lecture. As the germ theory of disease became more widely accepted, it was realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of sterile surgery. Some consider Lister "the father of modern antisepsis." In 1879 Listerine mouthwash was named after him for his work in antisepsis. Also named in his honour is the bacterial genus Listeria, typified by the food-borne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. Surgical technique Lister moved from Scotland to King's College Hospital, in London, and became the second man in England to operate on a brain tumor. He also developed a method of repairing kneecaps with metal wire and improved the technique of mastectomy. His discoveries were greatly praised and he was made Baron Lister of Lyme Regis in 1897 The Times, Friday, Jan 01, 1897; Issue 35089; pg. 8; col A and became one of the twelve original members of the Order of Merit and a Privy Councillor in the Coronation Honours in 1902. Coronation Honours. The Times, Thursday, Jun 26, 1902; Issue 36804; pg. 5; col B Among his students at King's College London was Robert Hamilton Russell who later moved to Australia. In life Lister was said to be a shy, unassuming man, deeply religious in his beliefs, and uninterested in social success or financial gain. Later life Lister retired from practice after his wife, who had long helped him in research, died in 1893 in Italy, during one of the few holidays they allowed themselves. Studying and writing lost appeal for him and he sank into religious melancholy. Despite suffering a stroke, he still came into the public light from time to time. Edward VII came down with appendicitis two days before his coronation. The surgeons did not dare operate without consulting Britain's leading surgical authority. The king later told Lister "I know that if it had not been for you and your work, I wouldn't be sitting here today". Lister died on 10 February 1912 at his country home in Walmer, Kent at the age of 84. After a funeral service at Westminster Abbey, he was buried at Hampstead Cemetery, Fortune Green, London in a plot to the south-west of central chapel. Legacy and honors Lister was president of the Royal Society between 1895 and 1900. Following his death, a Memorial Fund was set up in his name to honour his memory. Several lectures and statues were funded or established in this way. Eventually, in 1924, the Memorial Fund was used to establish the Lister Medal, which became the most prestigious prize that could be awarded to a surgeon. A British Institution of Preventive Medicine, previously named after Edward Jenner was renamed in 1899 in honour of Lister. Two postage stamps were issued in September 1965 to honour Lister for his contributions to antiseptic surgery. Lister is one of the two surgeons in the United Kingdom who have the honour of having a public monument in London, Lister's stands in Portland Place (the other surgeon is John Hunter). There is a statue of Lister in Kelvingrove Park, Glasgow, celebrating his links with the city. Bibliography Lister Ward by Martin Goldman. Contains black and plates of activities at the Royal Infirmary Edinburgh From a copy of Lister Ward First published by Adam Hilger UK in 1987 with an ISBN 0 85274 562 1 Lord Lister by Sir Rickman Godlee. Macmillan & Co, London, 2003 - reissued by The Heirs of Hippocrates, Gryphon Editions, 1993 Lister as I knew him by John Ruud Leeson. London, Baillière, Tindall and Cox, 1927. Joseph, Baron Lister, Centenary Volume. 1827-1927, by A. Logan Turner. Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh, 2009 Joseph Lister – Father of Modern Surgery, by Rhoda Truax. Bobbs Merrill, Indianapolis and New York, 1996 Joseph Lister (the friend of man), by Hector Charles Cameron. W. Heinemann, 1948 Joseph Lister, by Kenneth Walker. Hutchinson, London, 1956 Master Surgeon - A Biography of Joseph Lister, by Laurence Farmer, M.D. Harper & Brothers Publishers, New York, 1962 Joseph Lister, 1827 - 1912, by Richard B Fisher. Stein and Day, New York, 1977 Joseph Lister and Antiseptics, by A J Harding Rains. Wayland, East Sussex, 1978 (2nd impression). The Collected Papers of Joseph Lister (Vols 1 and 2) by Joseph Lister. Classics of Medicine Library, Birmingham, 1979 (a facsimile edition of the Collected Papers first published in 1909). Joseph Lister and the Story of Antiseptics, by John Bankston. Mitchell Lane Publishing Inc, 2004 (hardcover) Joseph Lister – The Father of Antiseptics, by Peggy J. Parkes. Blackbirch Pr Inc, 2005 Pioneers of Science- Joseph Lister, by Douglas McTavish, New York, 1992 See also Joseph Sampson Gamgee Discoveries of anti-bacterial effects of penicillium moulds before Fleming Ignaz Semmelweis References External links The Lister Institute Collection of portraits of Lister at the National Portrait Gallery, London Statue of Sir Joseph Lister by Louis Linck at The International Museum of Surgical Science in Chicago Commemorative plaque to Lord Lister at the Edinburgh Medical School	Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister \|@lemmatized joseph:18 lister:47 baron:3 om:1 fr:1 april:1 february:2 english:1 surgeon:10 promote:1 idea:1 sterile:2 surgery:9 work:4 glasgow:4 royal:4 infirmary:2 successfully:1 introduce:1 carbolic:5 acid:5 phenol:2 sterilize:1 surgical:5 instrument:4 clean:2 wound:7 lead:5 reduce:2 post:1 operative:1 infection:3 make:3 safer:1 patient:3 biography:3 early:1 life:4 come:4 prosperous:1 quaker:4 home:2 upton:1 essex:1 son:1 jackson:1 pioneer:2 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6,434	Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer_(film)	Buffy the Vampire Slayer is a 1992 action-comedy-horror film about "valley girl" cheerleader Buffy (Kristy Swanson) guided by fate to fight and kill vampires. The movie is a light parody which plays on the clichés of typical horror films. The film also led to the darker and much more popular TV series of the same name, which starred Sarah Michelle Gellar and was created and executive produced by screenwriter Joss Whedon. Whedon often detailed how the TV series was a much closer rendering of his vision than the movie, which was compromised by commercial concerns and differences in interpretation. The film is now considered a relatively minor chapter in the broader Buffy legacy. When the film was first released, it was moderately successful and received mixed reviews from critics. Plot Buffy (Kristy Swanson) is a popular cheerleader at Hemery High School in Los Angeles. She is a care-free popular girl whose main concerns are shopping and spending time with her friends. She is soon approached by a man named Merrick Jamison-Smythe (Donald Sutherland). He informs her that she is The Slayer and he is a Watcher that has been sent to train and guide her. At first she refuses to accept her duties, but eventually sees there is no other way. She admits that she has dreams of past Slayers and reluctantly acknowledges that she is the Chosen One. She runs into Pike (Luke Perry), who is seen as a loser in her school. He becomes the male version of the stereotypical "damsel in distress", being rescued by Buffy many times. After brief training, she is drawn into conflict with a local vampire king called Lothos (Rutger Hauer), who has killed a number of past Slayers. Lothos kills Merrick, giving Buffy the motivation she needs. In a climactic battle set at the senior dance in her high school, Buffy defeats Lothos and his minions by being true to her own contemporary style and ignoring the conventions and limitations of previous Slayers. Cast Kristy Swanson as Buffy Summers Donald Sutherland as Merrick Jamison-Smythe Paul Reubens as Amilyn Rutger Hauer as Lothos Luke Perry as Oliver Pike Hilary Swank as Kimberly Hannah David Arquette as Benny Jacks Stephen Root as Gary Murray Natasha Gregson Wagner as Cassandra Tom Jane as Zeph Candy Clark as Mrs. Summers Randall Batinkoff as Jeffrey Ben Affleck (uncredited) as Basketball Player #10 Ricki Lake (uncredited) as Charlotte Continuity Many of the details given in the film differ from the continuity of the later television series. For example, Buffy's history is dissimilar, and both vampires' and the Slayer's abilities are depicted differently. Joss Whedon has also expressed disapproval with the movie's interpretation of the script Bronze VIP Archive - January 17, 1999 , stating "I finally sat down and had written it and somebody had made it into a movie, and I felt like -- well, that's not quite her. It's a start, but it's not quite the girl." Ervin-Gore, Shawna, "Dark Horse; Joss Whedon" darkhorse.com (2001). VHS and DVD releases The movie was released on VHS in the U.S. in 1993 from Fox Video and re-released in 1995 under the "Twentieth Century Fox Selections" banner from 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. The movie was released on DVD in the U.S. in 2001. Soundtrack The cover of the soundtrack of Buffy the Vampire Slayer. The soundtrack was released on July 28, 1992. Track listing C+C Music Factory featuring Deborah Cooper and Q-Unique – "Keep It Comin' (Dance Till You Can't Dance No More)" Dream Warriors – "Man Smart (Woman Smarter)" Matthew Sweet – "Silent City" Susanna Hoffs – "We Close Our Eyes" (originally by Oingo Boingo) Toad the Wet Sprocket – "Little Heaven" The Divinyls – "Ain't Gonna Eat Out My Heart Anymore" Ozzy Osbourne – "Party with the Animals" The Cult – "Zap City" Mary's Danish – "I Fought the Law" Rob Halford and Pantera – "Light Comes Out of Black" The soundtrack does not include every song played in the film. Lothos plays the theme from the 2nd part of Schumann's Piano Quintet Es-dur op. 44, and Buffy sings "Feelings", whilst slaying. Other songs not on the soundtrack album include: "In The Wind" by War Babies "Inner Mind" by Eon Remake On May 25, 2009, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Roy Lee and Doug Davison of Vertigo Entertainment were working with Fran Rubel Kuzui and Kazi Kuzui on a re-envisioning or relaunch of the Buffy movie for the big screen. The movie would not be a sequel or prequel to the existing movie or television franchise and Joss Whedon would have no involvement in the project. None of the cast or characters from the television series would be featured. http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/film/news/e3i666afabc28491e6a2f12dfb80c0f7098 See also List of American films of 1992 The Origin, a comic book reinterpretation of the movie script References External links	Buffy_the_Vampire_Slayer_(film) \|@lemmatized buffy:12 vampire:5 slayer:7 action:1 comedy:1 horror:2 film:9 valley:1 girl:3 cheerleader:2 kristy:3 swanson:3 guide:2 fate:1 fight:2 kill:3 movie:10 light:2 parody:1 play:3 clichés:1 typical:1 also:3 lead:1 darker:1 much:2 popular:3 tv:2 series:4 name:2 star:1 sarah:1 michelle:1 gellar:1 create:1 executive:1 produce:1 screenwriter:1 joss:4 whedon:5 often:1 detail:2 closer:1 rendering:1 vision:1 compromise:1 commercial:1 concern:2 difference:1 interpretation:2 consider:1 relatively:1 minor:1 chapter:1 broad:1 legacy:1 first:2 release:6 moderately:1 successful:1 receive:1 mixed:1 review:1 critic:1 plot:1 hemery:1 high:2 school:3 los:1 angeles:1 care:1 free:1 whose:1 main:1 shop:1 spending:1 time:2 friend:1 soon:1 approach:1 man:2 merrick:3 jamison:2 smythe:2 donald:2 sutherland:2 inform:1 watcher:1 send:1 train:1 refuse:1 accept:1 duty:1 eventually:1 see:3 way:1 admit:1 dream:2 past:2 reluctantly:1 acknowledge:1 chosen:1 one:1 run:1 pike:2 luke:2 perry:2 loser:1 become:1 male:1 version:1 stereotypical:1 damsel:1 distress:1 rescue:1 many:2 brief:1 training:1 draw:1 conflict:1 local:1 king:1 call:1 lothos:5 rutger:2 hauer:2 number:1 give:2 motivation:1 need:1 climactic:1 battle:1 set:1 senior:1 dance:3 defeat:1 minion:1 true:1 contemporary:1 style:1 ignore:1 convention:1 limitation:1 previous:1 cast:2 summer:2 paul:1 reubens:1 amilyn:1 oliver:1 hilary:1 swank:1 kimberly:1 hannah:1 david:1 arquette:1 benny:1 jack:1 stephen:1 root:1 gary:1 murray:1 natasha:1 gregson:1 wagner:1 cassandra:1 tom:1 jane:1 zeph:1 candy:1 clark:1 mr:1 randall:1 batinkoff:1 jeffrey:1 ben:1 affleck:1 uncredited:2 basketball:1 player:1 ricki:1 lake:1 charlotte:1 continuity:2 differ:1 late:1 television:3 example:1 history:1 dissimilar:1 ability:1 depict:1 differently:1 express:1 disapproval:1 script:2 bronze:1 vip:1 archive:1 january:1 state:1 finally:1 sit:1 write:1 somebody:1 make:1 felt:1 like:1 well:1 quite:2 start:1 ervin:1 gore:1 shawna:1 dark:1 horse:1 darkhorse:1 com:2 vhs:2 dvd:2 u:2 fox:3 video:1 twentieth:1 century:2 selection:1 banner:1 home:1 entertainment:2 soundtrack:5 cover:1 july:1 track:1 list:2 c:2 music:1 factory:1 feature:2 deborah:1 cooper:1 q:1 unique:1 keep:1 comin:1 till:1 warrior:1 smart:1 woman:1 smarter:1 matthew:1 sweet:1 silent:1 city:2 susanna:1 hoffs:1 close:1 eye:1 originally:1 oingo:1 boingo:1 toad:1 wet:1 sprocket:1 little:1 heaven:1 divinyls:1 gonna:1 eat:1 heart:1 anymore:1 ozzy:1 osbourne:1 party:1 animal:1 cult:1 zap:1 mary:1 danish:1 law:1 rob:1 halford:1 pantera:1 come:1 black:1 include:2 every:1 song:2 theme:1 part:1 schumann:1 piano:1 quintet:1 e:1 dur:1 op:1 sings:1 feeling:1 whilst:1 slaying:1 album:1 wind:1 war:1 baby:1 inner:1 mind:1 eon:1 remake:1 may:1 hollywood:1 reporter:1 report:1 roy:1 lee:1 doug:1 davison:1 vertigo:1 work:1 fran:1 rubel:1 kuzui:2 kazi:1 envisioning:1 relaunch:1 big:1 screen:1 would:3 sequel:1 prequel:1 exist:1 franchise:1 involvement:1 project:1 none:1 character:1 http:1 www:1 hollywoodreporter:1 hr:1 news:1 american:1 origin:1 comic:1 book:1 reinterpretation:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 \|@bigram buffy_vampire:2 vampire_slayer:3 joss_whedon:4 los_angeles:1 donald_sutherland:2 damsel_distress:1 rutger_hauer:2 ben_affleck:1 express_disapproval:1 vhs_dvd:1 twentieth_century:1 keep_comin:1 oingo_boingo:1 ozzy_osbourne:1 piano_quintet:1 http_www:1 external_link:1
6,435	Grits	Grits is a Native American corn-based food common in the Southern United States, consisting of coarsely ground corn. Grits is similar to other thick maize-based porridges from around the world such as polenta. It also has a resemblance to farina, a thinner porridge. Grits can be served hot or cold and as a base for a multitude of dishes from breakfast to dessert, depending on the additives. Additives can range from salt and butter, meats (especially shrimp on the east or gulf coast), cheese, rarely (but in nouvelle Southern cuisine) vegetables and sugar. Hominy grits is grits made from nixtamalized corn, or hominy. It is sometimes called sofkee or sofkey from the Creek word. Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History & Culture, entry "Sofkey", retrieved 18 August 2008. Origins Traditionally the corn for grits is ground by a stone mill. The results are passed through screens, with the finer part being corn meal, and the coarser being grits. Many communities in the U.S. used a gristmill up until the mid-20th century, with families bringing their own corn to be ground, and the miller retaining a portion of the corn for his fee. In South Carolina, state law requires grits and corn meal to be enriched, similar to the requirements for flour, unless the grits is ground from corn where the miller keeps part of the product for his fee. South Carolina Code of Laws, Title 39 - Trade and Commerce, Chapter 29, retrieved on December 14 2007. Three-quarters of grits sold in the United States is sold in "the South" stretching from Texas to Virginia, also known as the "grits belt". The state of Georgia declared grits its official prepared food in 2002. Georgia Secretary of State, State Prepared Food, retrieved on December 14 2007. Similar bills have been introduced in South Carolina, with one declaring, "Whereas, throughout its history, the South has relished its grits, making them a symbol of its diet, its customs, its humour, and its hospitality, and whereas, every community in the State of South Carolina used to be the site of a grits mill and every local economy in the State used to be dependent on its product; and whereas, grits has been a part of the life of every South Carolinian of whatever race, background, gender, and income; and whereas, grits could very well play a vital role in the future of not only this State, but also the world", if as Charleston's The Post and Courier proclaimed in 1952, "An inexpensive, simple, and thoroughly digestible food, [grits] should be made popular throughout the world. Given enough of it, the inhabitants of planet Earth would have nothing to fight about. A man full of [grits] is a man of peace." South Carolina General Assembly 113th Session, 1999-2000, Bill Number: 4806, retrieved on December 14 2007. Yellow grits include the whole kernel, while white grits use hulled kernels. Grits is prepared by simply boiling the ground kernels into a porridge; normally it is boiled until enough water evaporates to leave it semi-solid. See also Cuisine of the Southern United States Cuisine of the United States External links Grist Mills, Grits Festivals, Recipes, and Photos - SCIway.net, South Carolina Information Highway References	Grits \|@lemmatized grit:22 native:1 american:1 corn:9 base:3 food:4 common:1 southern:3 united:4 state:11 consist:1 coarsely:1 ground:4 similar:3 thick:1 maize:1 porridge:3 around:1 world:3 polenta:1 also:4 resemblance:1 farina:1 thinner:1 serve:1 hot:1 cold:1 multitude:1 dish:1 breakfast:1 dessert:1 depend:1 additive:2 range:1 salt:1 butter:1 meat:1 especially:1 shrimp:1 east:1 gulf:1 coast:1 cheese:1 rarely:1 nouvelle:1 cuisine:3 vegetable:1 sugar:1 hominy:2 make:3 nixtamalized:1 sometimes:1 call:1 sofkee:1 sofkey:2 creek:1 word:1 encyclopedia:1 oklahoma:1 history:2 culture:1 entry:1 retrieve:4 august:1 origin:1 traditionally:1 grind:1 stone:1 mill:3 result:1 pass:1 screen:1 finer:1 part:3 meal:2 coarser:1 many:1 community:2 u:1 use:4 gristmill:1 mid:1 century:1 family:1 bring:1 miller:2 retain:1 portion:1 fee:2 south:9 carolina:6 law:2 require:1 enrich:1 requirement:1 flour:1 unless:1 keep:1 product:2 code:1 title:1 trade:1 commerce:1 chapter:1 december:3 three:1 quarter:1 sell:2 stretch:1 texas:1 virginia:1 know:1 belt:1 georgia:2 declare:1 official:1 prepare:3 secretary:1 bill:2 introduce:1 one:1 declaring:1 whereas:4 throughout:2 relish:1 symbol:1 diet:1 custom:1 humour:1 hospitality:1 every:3 site:1 local:1 economy:1 dependent:1 life:1 carolinian:1 whatever:1 race:1 background:1 gender:1 income:1 could:1 well:1 play:1 vital:1 role:1 future:1 charleston:1 post:1 courier:1 proclaim:1 inexpensive:1 simple:1 thoroughly:1 digestible:1 popular:1 give:1 enough:2 inhabitant:1 planet:1 earth:1 would:1 nothing:1 fight:1 man:2 full:1 peace:1 general:1 assembly:1 session:1 number:1 yellow:1 include:1 whole:1 kernel:2 white:1 hull:1 simply:1 boil:2 kernels:1 normally:1 water:1 evaporates:1 leave:1 semi:1 solid:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 grist:1 festival:1 recipe:1 photo:1 sciway:1 net:1 information:1 highway:1 reference:1 \|@bigram external_link:1
6,436	Nanotechnology	Nanotechnology, shortened to "Nanotech", is the study of the control of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100 nanometers or smaller, and involves developing materials or devices within that size. Nanotechnology is very diverse, ranging from novel extensions of conventional device physics, to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, to developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale, even to speculation on whether we can directly control matter on the atomic scale. There has been much debate on the future of implications of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has the potential to create many new materials and devices with wide-ranging applications, such as in medicine, electronics, and energy production. On the other hand, nanotechnology raises many of the same issues as with any introduction of new technology, including concerns about the toxicity and environmental impact of nanomaterials Cristina Buzea, Ivan Pacheco, and Kevin Robbie "Nanomaterials and Nanoparticles: Sources and Toxicity" Biointerphases 2 (1007) MR17-MR71. , and their potential effects on global economics, as well as speculation about various doomsday scenarios. These concerns have led to a debate among advocacy groups and governments on whether special regulation of nanotechnology is warranted. Origins Buckminsterfullerene C60, also known as the buckyball, is the simplest of the carbon structures known as fullerenes. Members of the fullerene family are a major subject of research falling under the nanotechnology umbrella. The first use of the concepts in 'nano-technology' (but pre-dating use of that name) was in "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom," a talk given by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at Caltech on December 29, 1959. Feynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale. In the course of this, he noted, scaling issues would arise from the changing magnitude of various physical phenomena: gravity would become less important, surface tension and Van der Waals attraction would become more important, etc. This basic idea appears plausible, and exponential assembly enhances it with parallelism to produce a useful quantity of end products. The term "nanotechnology" was defined by Tokyo Science University Professor Norio Taniguchi in a 1974 paper N. Taniguchi, "On the Basic Concept of 'Nano-Technology'," Proc. Intl. Conf. Prod. London, Part II, British Society of Precision Engineering, 1974. as follows: "'Nano-technology' mainly consists of the processing of, separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or by one molecule." In the 1980s the basic idea of this definition was explored in much more depth by Dr. K. Eric Drexler, who promoted the technological significance of nano-scale phenomena and devices through speeches and the books Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology (1986) and Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation, Nanosystems: Molecular Machinery, Manufacturing, and Computation. 2006, ISBN 0-471-57518-6 and so the term acquired its current sense. Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology is considered the first book on the topic of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology and nanoscience got started in the early 1980s with two major developments; the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). This development led to the discovery of fullerenes in 1985 and carbon nanotubes a few years later. In another development, the synthesis and properties of semiconductor nanocrystals was studied; this led to a fast increasing number of metal oxide nanoparticles of quantum dots. The atomic force microscope was invented six years after the STM was invented. In 2000, the United States National Nanotechnology Initiative was founded to coordinate Federal nanotechnology research and development. Fundamental concepts One nanometer (nm) is one billionth, or 10-9, of a meter. By comparison, typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range , and a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular life-forms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length. To put that scale in another context, the comparative size of a nanometer to a meter is the same as that of a marble to the size of the earth. Or another way of putting it: a nanometer is the amount a man's beard grows in the time it takes him to raise the razor to his face. Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control. Rodgers, P. (29 June 2006) “Nanoelectronics: Single file” Journal of Nature Nanotechnology (online) Larger to smaller: a materials perspective Image of reconstruction on a clean Gold(100) surface, as visualized using scanning tunneling microscopy. The positions of the individual atoms composing the surface are visible. A number of physical phomomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, it becomes dominant when the nanometer size range is reached. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One example is the increase in surface area to volume ratio altering mechanical, thermal and catalytic properties of materials. Diffusion and reactions at nanoscale, nanostructures materials and nanodevices with fast ion transport are generally referred to nanoionics. Novel mechanical properties of nanosystems are of interest in the nanomechanics research. The catalytic activity of nanomaterials also opens potential risks in their interaction with biomaterials. 22 For example, if you take aluminum and cut it in half, it is still aluminum. But if you keep cutting aluminum in half until it has dimensions on the nano scale, it becomes highly reactive. This is because the molecular structure was changed. Materials reduced to the nanoscale can show different properties compared to what they exhibit on a macroscale, enabling unique applications. For instance, opaque substances become transparent (copper); stable materials turn combustible (aluminum); solids turn into liquids at room temperature (gold); insulators become conductors (silicon). A material such as gold, which is chemically inert at normal scales, can serve as a potent chemical catalyst at nanoscales. Much of the fascination with nanotechnology stems from these quantum and surface phenomena that matter exhibits at the nanoscale. Lubick, N. (2008). Silver socks have cloudy lining. Environ Sci Technol. 42(11):3910 Simple to complex: a molecular perspective Modern synthetic chemistry has reached the point where it is possible to prepare small molecules to almost any structure. These methods are used today to produce a wide variety of useful chemicals such as pharmaceuticals or commercial polymers. This ability raises the question of extending this kind of control to the next-larger level, seeking methods to assemble these single molecules into supramolecular assemblies consisting of many molecules arranged in a well defined manner. These approaches utilize the concepts of molecular self-assembly and/or supramolecular chemistry to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation through a bottom-up approach. The concept of molecular recognition is especially important: molecules can be designed so that a specific conformation or arrangement is favored due to non-covalent intermolecular forces. The Watson-Crick basepairing rules are a direct result of this, as is the specificity of an enzyme being targeted to a single substrate, or the specific folding of the protein itself. Thus, two or more components can be designed to be complementary and mutually attractive so that they make a more complex and useful whole. Such bottom-up approaches should be able to produce devices in parallel and much cheaper than top-down methods, but could potentially be overwhelmed as the size and complexity of the desired assembly increases. Most useful structures require complex and thermodynamically unlikely arrangements of atoms. Nevertheless, there are many examples of self-assembly based on molecular recognition in biology, most notably Watson-Crick basepairing and enzyme-substrate interactions. The challenge for nanotechnology is whether these principles can be used to engineer novel constructs in addition to natural ones. Molecular nanotechnology: a long-term view Molecular nanotechnology, sometimes called molecular manufacturing, is a term given to the concept of engineered nanosystems (nanoscale machines) operating on the molecular scale. It is especially associated with the concept of a molecular assembler, a machine that can produce a desired structure or device atom-by-atom using the principles of mechanosynthesis. Manufacturing in the context of productive nanosystems is not related to, and should be clearly distinguished from, the conventional technologies used to manufacture nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes and nanoparticles. When the term "nanotechnology" was independently coined and popularized by Eric Drexler (who at the time was unaware of an earlier usage by Norio Taniguchi) it referred to a future manufacturing technology based on molecular machine systems. The premise was that molecular scale biological analogies of traditional machine components demonstrated molecular machines were possible: by the countless examples found in biology, it is known that sophisticated, stochastically optimised biological machines can be produced.. It is hoped that developments in nanotechnology will make possible their construction by some other means, perhaps using biomimetic principles. However, Drexler and other researchers Nanotechnology: Developing Molecular Manufacturing have proposed that advanced nanotechnology, although perhaps initially implemented by biomimetic means, ultimately could be based on mechanical engineering principles, namely, a manufacturing technology based on the mechanical functionality of these components (such as gears, bearings, motors, and structural members) that would enable programmable, positional assembly to atomic specification (PNAS-1981). The physics and engineering performance of exemplar designs were analyzed in Drexler's book Nanosystems. In general it is very difficult to assemble devices on the atomic scale, as all one has to position atoms are other atoms of comparable size and stickiness. Another view, put forth by Carlo Montemagno, California NanoSystems Institute is that future nanosystems will be hybrids of silicon technology and biological molecular machines. Yet another view, put forward by the late Richard Smalley, is that mechanosynthesis is impossible due to the difficulties in mechanically manipulating individual molecules. This led to an exchange of letters in the ACS publication Chemical & Engineering News in 2003. C&En: Cover Story - Nanotechnology Though biology clearly demonstrates that molecular machine systems are possible, non-biological molecular machines are today only in their infancy. Leaders in research on non-biological molecular machines are Dr. Alex Zettl and his colleagues at Lawrence Berkeley Laboratories and UC Berkeley. They have constructed at least three distinct molecular devices whose motion is controlled from the desktop with changing voltage: a nanotube nanomotor, a molecular actuator, and a nanoelectromechanical relaxation oscillator. An experiment indicating that positional molecular assembly is possible was performed by Ho and Lee at Cornell University in 1999. They used a scanning tunneling microscope to move an individual carbon monoxide molecule (CO) to an individual iron atom (Fe) sitting on a flat silver crystal, and chemically bound the CO to the Fe by applying a voltage. Current research Graphical representation of a rotaxane, useful as a molecular switch. This device transfers energy from nano-thin layers of quantum wells to nanocrystals above them, causing the nanocrystals to emit visible light. Wireless nanocrystals efficiently radiate visible light Nanomaterials This includes subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions. Interface and Colloid Science has given rise to many materials which may be useful in nanotechnology, such as carbon nanotubes and other fullerenes, and various nanoparticles and nanorods. Nanoscale materials can also be used for bulk applications; most present commercial applications of nanotechnology are of this flavor. Progress has been made in using these materials for medical applications; see Nanomedicine. Nanoscale materials are sometimes used in solar cells which combats the cost of traditional Silicon solar cells Bottom-up approaches These seek to arrange smaller components into more complex assemblies. DNA nanotechnology utilizes the specificity of Watson-Crick basepairing to construct well-defined structures out of DNA and other nucleic acids. Approaches from the field of "classical" chemical synthesis also aim at designing molecules with well-defined shape (e.g. bis-peptides Levins CG, Schafmeister CE. The synthesis of curved and linear structures from a minimal set of monomers. Journal of Organic Chemistry, 70, p. 9002, 2005. ). More generally, molecular self-assembly seeks to use concepts of supramolecular chemistry, and molecular recognition in particular, to cause single-molecule components to automatically arrange themselves into some useful conformation. Top-down approaches These seek to create smaller devices by using larger ones to direct their assembly. Many technologies descended from conventional solid-state silicon methods for fabricating microprocessors are now capable of creating features smaller than 100 nm, falling under the definition of nanotechnology. Giant magnetoresistance-based hard drives already on the market fit this description, as do atomic layer deposition (ALD) techniques. Peter Grünberg and Albert Fert received the Nobel Prize in Physics for their discovery of Giant magnetoresistance and contributions to the field of spintronics in 2007. Solid-state techniques can also be used to create devices known as nanoelectromechanical systems or NEMS, which are related to microelectromechanical systems or MEMS. Atomic force microscope tips can be used as a nanoscale "write head" to deposit a chemical upon a surface in a desired pattern in a process called dip pen nanolithography. This fits into the larger subfield of nanolithography. Focused ion beams can directly remove material, or even deposit material when suitable pre-cursor gasses are applied at the same time. For example, this technique is used routinely to create sub-100 nm sections of material for analysis in Transmission electron microscopy. Functional approaches These seek to develop components of a desired functionality without regard to how they might be assembled. Molecular electronics seeks to develop molecules with useful electronic properties. These could then be used as single-molecule components in a nanoelectronic device. For an example see rotaxane. Synthetic chemical methods can also be used to create what forensics call synthetic molecular motors, such as in a so-called nanocar. Speculative These subfields seek to anticipate what inventions nanotechnology might yield, or attempt to propose an agenda along which inquiry might progress. These often take a big-picture view of nanotechnology, with more emphasis on its societal implications than the details of how such inventions could actually be created. Molecular nanotechnology is a proposed approach which involves manipulating single molecules in finely controlled, deterministic ways. This is more theoretical than the other subfields and is beyond current capabilities. Nanorobotics centers on self-sufficient machines of some functionality operating at the nanoscale. There are hopes for applying nanorobots in medicine , but it may not be easy to do such a thing because of several drawbacks of such devices. Nevertheless, progress on innovative materials and methodologies has been demonstrated with some patents granted about new nanomanufacturing devices for future commercial applications, which also progressively helps in the development towards nanorobots with the use of embedded nanobioelectronics concept. Programmable matter based on artificial atoms seeks to design materials whose properties can be easily, reversibly and externally controlled. Due to the popularity and media exposure of the term nanotechnology, the words picotechnology and femtotechnology have been coined in analogy to it, although these are only used rarely and informally. Tools and techniques Typical AFM setup. A microfabricated cantilever with a sharp tip is deflected by features on a sample surface, much like in a phonograph but on a much smaller scale. A laser beam reflects off the backside of the cantilever into a set of photodetectors, allowing the deflection to be measured and assembled into an image of the surface. The first observations and size measurements of nano-particles were made during the first decade of the 20th century. They are mostly associated with the name of Zsigmondy who made detailed studies of gold sols and other nanomaterials with sizes down to 10 nm and less. He published a book in 1914. Zsigmondy, R. "Colloids and the Ultramicroscope", J.Wiley and Sons, NY, (1914) He used ultramicroscope that employs a dark field method for seeing particles with sizes much less than light wavelength. There are traditional techniques developed during 20th century in Interface and Colloid Science for characterizing nanomaterials. These are widely used for first generation passive nanomaterials specified in the next section. These methods include several different techniques for characterizing particle size distribution. This characterization is imperative because many materials that are expected to be nano-sized are actually aggregated in solutions. Some of methods are based on light scattering. Other apply ultrasound, such as ultrasound attenuation spectroscopy for testing concentrated nano-dispersions and microemulsions. Dukhin, A.S. and Goetz, P.J. "Ultrasound for characterizing colloids", Elsevier, 2002 There is also a group of traditional techniques for characterizing surface charge or zeta potential of nano-particles in solutions. This information is required for proper system stabilzation, preventing its aggregation or flocculation. These methods include microelectrophoresis, electrophoretic light scattering and electroacoustics. The last one, for instance colloid vibration current method is suitable for characterizing concentrated systems. Next group of nanotechnological techniques include those used for fabrication of nanowires, those used in semiconductor fabrication such as deep ultraviolet lithography, electron beam lithography, focused ion beam machining, nanoimprint lithography, atomic layer deposition, and molecular vapor deposition, and further including molecular self-assembly techniques such as those employing di-block copolymers. However, all of these techniques preceded the nanotech era, and are extensions in the development of scientific advancements rather than techniques which were devised with the sole purpose of creating nanotechnology and which were results of nanotechnology research. There are several important modern developments. The atomic force microscope (AFM) and the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) are two early versions of scanning probes that launched nanotechnology. There are other types of scanning probe microscopy, all flowing from the ideas of the scanning confocal microscope developed by Marvin Minsky in 1961 and the scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) developed by Calvin Quate and coworkers in the 1970s, that made it possible to see structures at the nanoscale. The tip of a scanning probe can also be used to manipulate nanostructures (a process called positional assembly). Feature-oriented scanning-positioning methodology suggested by Rostislav Lapshin appears to be a promising way to implement these nanomanipulations in automatic mode. However, this is still a slow process because of low scanning velocity of the microscope. Various techniques of nanolithography such as dip pen nanolithography, electron beam lithography or nanoimprint lithography were also developed. Lithography is a top-down fabrication technique where a bulk material is reduced in size to nanoscale pattern. The top-down approach anticipates nanodevices that must be built piece by piece in stages, much as manufactured items are made. Scanning probe microscopy is an important technique both for characterization and synthesis of nanomaterials. Atomic force microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes can be used to look at surfaces and to move atoms around. By designing different tips for these microscopes, they can be used for carving out structures on surfaces and to help guide self-assembling structures. By using, for example, feature-oriented scanning-positioning approach, atoms can be moved around on a surface with scanning probe microscopy techniques. At present, it is expensive and time-consuming for mass production but very suitable for laboratory experimentation. In contrast, bottom-up techniques build or grow larger structures atom by atom or molecule by molecule. These techniques include chemical synthesis, self-assembly and positional assembly. Another variation of the bottom-up approach is molecular beam epitaxy or MBE. Researchers at Bell Telephone Laboratories like John R. Arthur. Alfred Y. Cho, and Art C. Gossard developed and implemented MBE as a research tool in the late 1960s and 1970s. Samples made by MBE were key to the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect for which the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded. MBE allows scientists to lay down atomically-precise layers of atoms and, in the process, build up complex structures. Important for research on semiconductors, MBE is also widely used to make samples and devices for the newly emerging field of spintronics. 21 Newer techniques such as Dual Polarisation Interferometry are enabling scientists to measure quantitatively the molecular interactions that take place at the nano-scale. However, new therapeutic products, based on responsive nanomaterials, such as the ultradeformable, stress-sensitive Transfersome vesicles, are under development and already approved for human use in some countries. Applications As of August 21, 2008, the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies estimates that over 800 manufacturer-identified nanotech products are publicly available, with new ones hitting the market at a pace of 3-4 per week. Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies. (2008). Analysis: This is the first publicly available on-line inventory of nanotechnology-based consumer products. The project lists all of the products in a publicly accessible online inventory. Most applications are limited to the use of "first generation" passive nanomaterials which includes titanium dioxide in sunscreen, cosmetics and some food products; Carbon allotropes used to produce gecko tape; silver in food packaging, clothing, disinfectants and household appliances; zinc oxide in sunscreens and cosmetics, surface coatings, paints and outdoor furniture varnishes; and cerium oxide as a fuel catalyst. Applications for Nanotechnology The National Science Foundation (a major distributor for nanotechnology research in the United States) funded researcher David Berube to study the field of nanotechnology. His findings are published in the monograph Nano-Hype: The Truth Behind the Nanotechnology Buzz. This published study (with a foreword by [Anwar Mikhail], Senior Advisor for Nanotechnology at the National Science Foundation) concludes that much of what is sold as “nanotechnology” is in fact a recasting of straightforward materials science, which is leading to a “nanotech industry built solely on selling nanotubes, nanowires, and the like” which will “end up with a few suppliers selling low margin products in huge volumes." Further applications which require actual manipulation or arrangement of nanoscale components await further research. Though technologies branded with the term 'nano' are sometimes little related to and fall far short of the most ambitious and transformative technological goals of the sort in molecular manufacturing proposals, the term still connotes such ideas. According to Berube, there may be a danger that a "nano bubble" will form, or is forming already, from the use of the term by scientists and entrepreneurs to garner funding, regardless of interest in the transformative possibilities of more ambitious and far-sighted work. Nano-membranes have been produced that are portable and easily-cleaned systems that purify, detoxify and desalinate water meaning that third-world countries could get clean water, solving many water related health issues. Implications Due to the far-ranging claims that have been made about potential applications of nanotechnology, a number of serious concerns have been raised about what effects these will have on our society if realized, and what action if any is appropriate to mitigate these risks. There are possible dangers that arise with the development of nanotechnology. The Center for Responsible Nanotechnology suggests that new developments could result, among other things, in untraceable weapons of mass destruction, networked cameras for use by the government, and weapons developments fast enough to destabilize arms races ("Nanotechnology Basics"). One area of concern is the effect that industrial-scale manufacturing and use of nanomaterials would have on human health and the environment, as suggested by nanotoxicology research. Groups such as the Center for Responsible Nanotechnology have advocated that nanotechnology should be specially regulated by governments for these reasons. Others counter that overregulation would stifle scientific research and the development of innovations which could greatly benefit mankind. Other experts, including director of the Woodrow Wilson Center's Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies David Rejeski, have testified Testimony of David Rejeski for U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies. Retrieved on 2008-3-7. that successful commercialization depends on adequate oversight, risk research strategy, and public engagement. Berkeley, California is currently the only city in the United States to regulate nanotechnology; Berkeley considering need for nano safety (Rick DelVecchio, Chronicle Staff Writer) Friday, November 24, 2006 Cambridge, Massachusetts in 2008 considered enacting a similar law, Cambridge considers nanotech curbs - City may mimic Berkeley bylaws (By Hiawatha Bray, Boston Globe Staff)January 26, 2007 but ultimately rejected this. [http://www.nanolawreport.com/Cambridge.pdf Recommendations for a Municipal Health & Safety Policy for Nanomaterials: A Report to the Cambridge City Manager. July 2008. Health and environmental concerns Some of the recently developed nanoparticle products may have unintended consequences. Researchers have discovered that silver nanoparticles used in socks to reduce foot odor are being released in the wash with possible negative consequences. Lubick, N. (2008). Silver socks have cloudy lining. Silver nanoparticles, which are bacteriostatic, may then destroy beneficial bacteria which are important for breaking down organic matter in waste treatment plants or farms. Murray R.G.E., Advances in Bacterial Paracrystalline Surface Layers (Eds.: T. J. Beveridge, S. F. Koval). Plenum pp. 3 ± 9. [9] A study at the University of Rochester found that when rats breathed in nanoparticles, the particles settled in the brain and lungs, which led to significant increases in biomarkers for inflammation and stress response. Elder, A. (2006). Tiny Inhaled Particles Take Easy Route from Nose to Brain. A major study published more recently in Nature Nanotechnology suggests some forms of carbon nanotubes – a poster child for the “nanotechnology revolution” – could be as harmful as asbestos if inhaled in sufficient quantities. Anthony Seaton of the Institute of Occupational Medicine in Edinburgh, Scotland, who contributed to the article on carbon nanotubes said "We know that some of them probably have the potential to cause mesothelioma. So those sorts of materials need to be handled very carefully." Weiss, R. (2008). Effects of Nanotubes May Lead to Cancer, Study Says. . In the absence of specific nano-regulation forthcoming from governments, Paull and Lyons (2008) have called for an exclusion of engineered nanoparticles from organic food. Paull, J. & Lyons, K. (2008) , Nanotechnology: The Next Challenge for Organics, Journal of Organic Systems, 3(1) 3-22 Regulation Calls for tighter regulation of nanotechnology have occurred alongside a growing debate related to the human health and safety risks associated with nanotechnology. Furthermore, there is significant debate about who is responsible for the regulation of nanotechnology. While some non-nanotechnology specific regulatory agencies currently cover some products and processes (to varying degrees) – by “bolting on” nanotechnology to existing regulations – there are clear gaps in these regimes. In "Nanotechnology Oversight: An Agenda for the Next Administration," Davies, JC. (2008). Nanotechnology Oversight: An Agenda for the Next Administration. former EPA deputy administrator J. Clarence (Terry) Davies lays out a clear regulatory roadmap for the next presidential administration and describes the immediate and longer term steps necessary to deal with the current shortcomings of nanotechnology oversight. Stake holders concerned by the lack of a meats to cook and eat with a side of nanoparticles and nanotubes have drawn diagrams with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (‘mad cow’s disease), thalidomide, genetically modified food, nuclear energy, reproductive technologies, biotechnology, and asbestosis. Dr. Andrew Maynard, chief science advisor to the Woodrow Wilson Center’s Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, concludes (among others) that there is insufficient funding for human health and safety research, and as a result there is currently limited understanding of the human health and safety risks associated with nanotechnology. Maynard, A. Testimony by Dr. Andrew Maynard for the U.S. House Committee on Science and Technology. (2008-4-16). Retrieved on 2008-11-24. The Royal Society report identified a risk of nanoparticles or nanotubes being released during disposal, destruction and recycling, and recommended that “manufacturers of products that fall under extended producer responsibility regimes such as end-of-life regulations publish procedures outlining how these materials will be managed to minimize possible human and environmental exposure” (p.xiii). Reflecting the challenges for ensuring responsible life cycle regulation, the Institute for Food and Agricultural Standards has proposed standards for nanotechnology research and development should be integrated across consumer, worker and environmental standards. They also propose that NGOs and other citizen groups play a meaningful role in the development of these standards. See also Ambient intelligence Energy applications of nanotechnology Ion track technology List of emerging technologies Materiomics Mesoporous silicates Molecular Design software Nanoengineering Nanobiotechnology Nanothermite Bionanoscience Nanofluidics Nanoscale iron particles Nanotechnology education Plug-in hybrid Software for molecular mechanics modeling Supramolecular chemistry Top-down and bottom-up Nanowiki References "Nanotechnology Basics: For Students and Other Learners." Center for Responsible Nanotechnology. World Care. 11 Nov. 2008. Ecopolis Further reading "Basic Concepts of Nanotechnology" History of Nano-Technology, News, Materials, Potential Risks and Important People. "Nanotechnology 101" from the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies. Maynard, Andrew, The Twinkie Guide to Nanotechnology Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. 2007. - "..a friendly, funny, 25-minute travel guide to the technology" "Nanotechnology Basics: For Students and Other Learners." Center for Responsible Nanotechnology. World Care. 11 Nov. 2008 <http://www.crnano.org/basics.htm>. Fritz Allhoff and Patrick Lin (eds.), Nanotechnology & Society: Current and Emerging Ethical Issues (Dordrecht: Springer, 2008). Fritz Allhoff, Patrick Lin, James Moor, and John Weckert (eds.), Nanoethics: The Ethical and Societal Implications of Nanotechnology (Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2007). J. Clarence Davies, EPA and Nanotechnology: Oversight for the 21st Century, Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies, PEN 9, May 2007. William Sims Bainbridge: Nanoconvergence: The Unity of Nanoscience, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science, June 27 2007, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-244643-X Lynn E. Foster: Nanotechnology: Science, Innovation, and Opportunity, December 21 2005, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-192756-6 Impact of Nanotechnology on Biomedical Sciences: Review of Current Concepts on Convergence of Nanotechnology With Biology by Herbert Ernest and Rahul Shetty, from AZojono, May 2005. Hunt, G & Mehta, M (eds)(2008) Nanotechnology: Risk, Ethics & Law, Earthscan, London. Hari Singh Nalwa (2004), Encyclopedia of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (10-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers. ISBN 1-58883-001-2 Michael Rieth and Wolfram Schommers (2006), Handbook of Theoretical and Computational Nanotechnology (10-Volume Set), American Scientific Publishers. ISBN 1-58883-042-X Jumana Boussey, Georges Kamarinos, Laurent Montès (editors) (2003), Towards Nanotechnology, "Nano et Micro Technologies", Hermes Sciences Publ., Paris, ISBN 2-7462-0858-X. The Silicon Valley Toxics Coalition (April, 2008), Regulating Emerging Technologies in Silicon Valley and Beyond Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News (January, 2008), Getting a Handle on Nanobiotech Products Regulators and Companies Are Laying the Groundwork for a Predicted Bright Future External links What is Nanotechnology? (A Vega/BBC/OU Video Discussion). 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6,437	Charles_Baudelaire	Charles Pierre Baudelaire (; French ) (9 April 1821 - 31 August 1867) was a nineteenth century French poet, critic, and translator. A controversial figure in his lifetime, Baudelaire's name has become a byword for literary and artistic decadence. At the same time his works, in particular his book of poetry Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil), have been acknowledged as classics of French literature. Biography Early life Baudelaire was born in Paris, France in 1821. His father, a senior civil servant and amateur artist, died during Baudelaire's childhood in 1827. The following year, his mother, Caroline, thirty-four years younger than his father, married Lieutenant Colonel Jacques Aupick, who later became a French ambassador to various noble courts. Baudelaire's relationship with his mother was a close and complex one, and it dominated his life. Joanna Richardson, Baudelaire, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1994, pp. 13-14, ISBN 0-312-11476-1. He later stated "I loved my mother for her elegance. I was a precocious dandy". He later wrote to her "There was in my childhood a period of passionate love for you". Richardson 1994, p.16 Aupick, a rigid disciplinarian, though concerned for Baudelaire's upbringing and future, quickly came to odds with his stepson's artistic temperament. Richardson 1994, p.23 Baudelaire was educated in Lyon, where he was forced to board away from his mother (even during holidays) and accept his stepfather's rigid methods, which included depriving him of visits home when his grades slipped. He wrote when recalling those times: "A shudder at the grim years of claustration... the unease of wretched and abandoned childhood, the hatred of tyrannical schoolfellows, and the solitude of the heart". Richardson 1994, p.30, 32 At fourteen, Baudelaire was described by a classmate: "He was much more refined and distinguished than any of our fellow pupils... we are bound to one another... by shared tastes and sympathies, the precocious love of fine works of literature". Richardson 1994, p.35 Later, he attended the Lycée Louis-le-Grand in Paris. Baudelaire was erratic in his studies, at times diligent, at other times prone to "idleness". At eighteen, Baudelaire was described as "an exalted character, sometimes full of mysticism, and sometimes full of immorality and cynicism (which were excessive but only verbal)". Richardson 1994, p.42 Upon gaining his degree in 1839, he was undecided about his future. He told his brother "I don't feel I have a vocation for anything". His stepfather had in mind a career in law or diplomacy, but instead Baudelaire decided to embark upon a literary career, and for the next two years led an irregular life, socializing with other bohemian artists and writers. Richardson 1994, p.46 Baudelaire began to frequent prostitutes and may have contracted gonorrhea and syphilis during this period. He went to a pharmacist known for venereal disease treatments, upon the recommendation of his older brother Alphonse, a magistrate. Richardson 1994, p.52 For a while, he took on a prostitute named Sara as his mistress and lived with his brother when his funds were low. His stepfather kept him on a tight allowance which he spent as quickly as he received it. Baudelaire began to run up debts, mostly for clothes. His stepfather demanded an accounting and wrote to Alphonse: "The moment has come when something must be done to save your brother from absolute perdition". Richardson 1994, pp. 55-57 In the hope of reforming him and making a man of him, his stepfather sent him on a voyage to Calcutta, India in 1841, under the care of a former naval captain. Baudelaire's mother was distressed both by his poor behavior and by the proposed solution. Richardson 1994, p.60 The arduous trip, however, did nothing to turn Baudelaire's mind away from a literary career or from his casual attitude toward life, so the naval captain agreed to let Baudelaire return home. Though Baudelaire later exaggerated his aborted trip to create a legend about his youthful travels and experiences, including "riding on elephants", the trip did provide strong impressions of the sea, sailing, and exotic ports, that he later employed in his poetry. Richardson 1994, pp. 67-68 Baudelaire returned to Paris after less than a year's absence. Much to his parents' chagrin, he was more determined than ever to continue with his literary career. His mother later recalled: "Oh, what grief! If Charles had let himself be guided by his stepfather, his career would have been very different... He would not have left a name in literature, it is true, but we should have been happier, all three of us". Richardson 1994, p.70 Soon, Baudelaire returned to the taverns to philosophize and to recite his unpublished poems, and to enjoy the adulation of his artistic peers. At twenty-one, he received a good-sized inheritance of over 100,000 francs, plus four parcels of land, but squandered much of it within a few years, including borrowing heavily against his mortgages. He quickly piled up debts far exceeding his annual income and, out of desperation, his family obtained a decree to place his property in trust. Richardson 1994, p.71 During this time he met Jeanne Duval, the illegitimate daughter of a prostitute from Nantes, who was to become his longest romantic association. She had been the mistress of the caricaturist and photographer Nadar. His mother thought Duval a "Black Venus" who "tortured him in every way" and drained him of money at every opportunity. Richardson 1994, p.75 Career While still unpublished in 1843, Baudelaire became known in artistic circles as a dandy and free-spender, buying up books, art and antiques he couldn't afford. By 1844, he was eating on credit and half his inheritance was gone. Baudelaire regularly implored his mother for money while he tried to advance his career. He met Balzac around this time and began to write many of the poems which would appear in Les Fleurs du mal. Richardson 1994, p.83 His first published work was his art review "Salon of 1845", which attracted immediate attention for its boldness. Many of his critical opinions were novel in their time, including his championing of Delacroix, but have since been generally accepted. Baudelaire proved himself to be a well-informed and passionate critic and he gained the attention of the greater art community. Richardson 1994, p.95 That summer, however, despondent about his meager income, rising debts, loneliness and doubtful future, because "the fatigue of falling asleep and the fatigue of waking are unbearable", he decided to commit suicide and leave the remainder of his inheritance to his mistress. However, he lost his resolve and wounded himself with a knife only superficially. He implored his mother to visit him as he recovered but she ignored his pleas, perhaps under orders from her husband. Richardson 1994, pp. 101-102 For a time, Baudelaire was homeless and completely estranged from his parents, until they relented due to his poor condition. In 1846, Baudelaire wrote his second Salon review, gaining additional credibility as an advocate and critic of Romanticism. His support of Delacroix as the foremost Romantic artist gained widespread notice. Richardson 1994, p.110. The following year Baudelaire's novella La Fanfarlo was published. Baudelaire took part in the Revolutions of 1848. Richardson 1994, p.127. For some years, he was interested in republican politics; but his political tendencies were more emotional positions than steadfast convictions, spanning the Blanqui, the history of the Raison d'Ėtat of Giuseppe Ferrari and ultramontane critique of liberalism of Joseph de Maistre. His stepfather, also caught up in the Revolution, survived the mob and was appointed envoy extraordinary to Turkey by the new government despite his ties to the deposed royal family. Richardson 1994, p.125. In the early 1850s, Baudelaire struggled with poor health, pressing debts, and irregular literary output. He often moved from one lodging to another and maintained an uneasy relationship with his mother, frequently imploring her by letter for money. (Her letters to him have not been found.) Richardson 1994, p.160. He received many projects that he was unable to complete, though he did finish translations of stories by Edgar Allan Poe which were published in Le Pays. Richardson 1994, p.181. Baudelaire had learned English in his childhood, and Gothic novels, such as Lewis's The Monk, and Poe's short stories, became some of his favorite reading matter, and major influences. Upon the death of his stepfather in 1857, Baudelaire received no mention in the will but he was heartened nonetheless that the division with his mother might now be mended. Still strongly tied to her emotionally, at thirty-six he wrote her: "believe that I belong to you absolutely, and that I belong only to you". Richardson 1994, p.219. The Flowers of Evil The first edition of Les Fleurs du mal with authors notes. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker, often sidetracked by indolence, emotional distress and illness, and it was not until 1857 that he published his first and most famous volume of poems, Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil), originally titled Les Limbes. Richardson 1994, p.191. Some of these poems had already appeared in the Revue des deux mondes (Review of Two Worlds), when they were published by Baudelaire's friend Auguste Poulet Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at Alençon. The poems found a small, appreciative audience, but greater public attention was given to their subject matter. The effect on fellow artists was, as Théodore de Banville stated, "immense, prodigious, unexpected, mingled with admiration and with some indefinable anxious fear". Richardson 1994, p.236. Flaubert, recently attacked in a similar fashion for Madame Bovary (and acquitted), was impressed and wrote to Baudelaire: "You have found a way to rejuvenate Romanticism... You are as unyielding as marble, and as penetrating as an English mist". Richardson 1994, p.241. The principal themes of sex and death were considered scandalous. He also touched on lesbianism, sacred and profane love, metamorphosis, melancholy, the corruption of the city, lost innocence, the oppressiveness of living and wine. Notable in some poems is Baudelaire's use of imagery of the sense of smell and of fragrances, which is used to evoke feelings of nostalgia and past intimacy. Richardson 1994, p.231. The book, however, quickly became a byword for unwholesomeness among mainstream critics of the day. Some critics called a few of the poems "masterpieces of passion, art and poetry" but other poems were deemed to merit no less than legal action to suppress them. Richardson 1994, pp. 232-237 J. Habas writing in Le Figaro, led the charge against Baudelaire, writing: "Everything in it which is not hideous is incomprehensible, everything one understands is putrid". Then Baudelaire responded to the outcry, in a prophetic letter to his mother: "You know that I have always considered that literature and the arts pursue an aim independent of morality. Beauty of conception and style is enough for me. But this book, whose title (Fleurs du mal) says everything, is clad, as you will see, in a cold and sinister beauty. It was created with rage and patience. Besides, the proof of its positive worth is in all the ill that they speak of it. The book enrages people. Moreover, since I was terrified myself of the horror that I should inspire, I cut out a third from the proofs. They deny me everything, the spirit of invention and even the knowledge of the French language. I don't care a rap about all these imbeciles, and I know that this book, with its virtues and its faults, will make its way in the memory of the lettered public, beside the best poems of V. Hugo, Th. Gautier and even Byron." Richardson 1994, p.238. Baudelaire, his publisher and the printer were successfully prosecuted for creating an offense against public morals. They were fined but Baudelaire was not imprisoned. Richardson 1994, p.248 Six of the poems were suppressed, but printed later as Les Épaves (The Wrecks) (Brussels, 1866). Another edition of Les Fleurs du mal, without these poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in 1861. Many notables rallied behind Baudelaire and condemned the sentence. Victor Hugo wrote to him: "Your fleurs du mal shine and dazzle like stars... I applaud your vigorous spirit with all my might". Richardson 1994, p.250. Baudelaire did not appeal the judgment but his fine was reduced. Nearly 100 years later, on 11 May 1949, Baudelaire was vindicated, the judgment officially reversed, and the six banned poems reinstated in France. In the poem "Au lecteur" ("To the Reader") that prefaces Les Fleurs du mal, Baudelaire accuses his readers of hypocrisy and of being as guilty of sins and lies as the poet: ...If rape or arson, poison or the knife Has wove no pleasing patterns in the stuff Of this drab canvas we accept as life - It is because we are not bold enough! (Roy Campbell's translation) Final years Baudelaire next worked on a translation and adaptation of Thomas de Quincey's Confessions of an English Opium Eater. Richardson 1994, p.311. Other works in the years that followed included Petits Poèmes en prose (Small Prose poems); a series of art reviews published in the Pays, Exposition universelle (Country, World Fair); studies on Gustave Flaubert (in L'Artiste, 18 October 1857); on Théophile Gautier (Revue contemporaine, September, 1858); various articles contributed to Eugene Crepet's Poètes francais; Les Paradis artificiels: opium et haschisch (French poets; Artificial Paradises: opium and hashish) (1860); and Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac (A Final Chapter of the history of works of Balzac) (1880), originally an article "Comment on paye ses dettes quand on a du génie" ("How one pays one's debts when one has genius"), in which his criticism turns against his friends Honoré de Balzac, Théophile Gautier, and Gérard de Nerval. Jeanne Duval, in a painting by Édouard Manet By 1859, his illnesses, his long-term use of laudanum, his life of stress and poverty had taken a toll and Baudelaire had aged noticeably. But at last, his mother relented and agreed to let him live with her for a while at Honfleur. Baudelaire was productive and at peace in the seaside town, his poem Le Voyage being one example of his efforts during that time. Richardson 1994, p.281. In 1860, he became an ardent supporter of Richard Wagner. His financial difficulties increased again, however, particularly after his publisher Poulet Malassis went bankrupt in 1861. In 1864, he left Paris for Belgium, partly in the hope of selling the rights to his works and also to give lectures. Richardson 1994, p. 400 His long-standing relationship with Jeanne Duval continued on-and-off, and he helped her to the end of his life. Baudelaire's relationships with actress Marie Daubrun and with courtesan Apollonie Sabatier, though the source of much inspiration, never produced any lasting satisfaction. He smoked opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess. Baudelaire suffered a massive stroke in 1866 and paralysis followed. The last two years of his life were spent, in a semi-paralyzed state, in "maisons de santé" in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on 31 August 1867. Baudelaire is buried in the Cimetière du Montparnasse, Paris. Many of Baudelaire's works were published posthumously. After his death, his mother paid off his substantial debts, and at last she found some comfort in Baudelaire's emerging fame. "I see that my son, for all his faults, has his place in literature". She lived another four years. Richardson 1994, p.497. Critiques Baudelaire was an active participant in the artistic life of his times. As critic and essayist, he wrote extensively and perceptively about the luminaries and themes of French culture. He was frank with friends and enemies, rarely took the diplomatic approach and sometimes responded violently verbally, which often undermined his cause. Richardson 1994, p.268. His associations were numerous and included: Gustave Courbet, Honoré Daumier, Franz Liszt, Champfleury, Victor Hugo, Gustave Flaubert, Balzac and the artists and writers that follow. Edgar Allan Poe In 1846 and 1847, Baudelaire became acquainted with the works of Poe, in which he found tales and poems that had, he claimed, long existed in his own brain but never taken shape. Baudelaire had much in common with Poe (who died in 1849 at age forty). Both had a similar sensibility and macabre and supernatural turn of mind; both struggled with illness, poverty, and melancholy. Baudelaire saw in Poe a precursor and tried to be his French contemporary counterpart. Richardson 1994, p.140. From this time until 1865, he was largely occupied with translating Poe's works; his translations were widely praised. Baudelaire was not the first French translator of Poe, but his "scrupulous translations" were considered among the best. These were published as Histoires extraordinaires (Extraordinary stories) (1852), Nouvelles histoires extraordinaires (New extraordinary stories) (1857), Aventures d'Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka, and Histoires grotesques et sérieuses (Grotesque and serious stories) (1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his Oeuvres complètes (Complete works) (vols. v. and vi.). Eugène Delacroix A strong supporter of the Romantic painter Delacroix, Baudelaire called him "a poet in painting". Baudelaire also absorbed much of Delacroix's aesthetic ideas as expressed in his journals. As Baudelaire elaborated in his "Salon of 1846", "As one contemplates his series of pictures, one seems to be attending the celebration of some grievous mystery... This grave and lofty melancholy shines with a dull light... plaintive and profound like a melody by Weber". Delacroix, though appreciative, kept his distance from Baudelaire, particularly after the scandal of Les Fleurs du mal. In private correspondence, Delacroix stated that Baudelaire "really gets on my nerves" and he expressed his unhappiness with Baudelaire's persistent comments about "melancholy" and "feverishness". Lois Boe Hyslop, Baudelaire, Man Of His Time, Yale University Press, 1980, p.14, ISBN 0-300-02513-0. Richard Wagner Baudelaire had no formal musical training, and knew little of composers beyond Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber. Weber was in some ways Wagner's precursor, using the leitmotif and conceiving the idea of the "total art work" ("Gesamtkunstwerk"), both of which found Baudelaire's admiration. Before even hearing Wagner's music, Baudelaire studied reviews and essays about him, and formulated his impressions. Later, Baudelaire put them into his non-technical analysis of Wagner, which was highly regarded, particularly his essay "Richard Wagner et Tannhäuser a Pàris". Hyslop (1980), p. 68. Baudelaire's reaction to music was passionate and psychological. "Music engulfs (possesses) me like the sea". After attending three Wagner concerts in Paris in 1860, Baudelaire wrote to the composer: "I had a feeling of pride and joy in understanding, in being possessed, in being overwhelmed, a truly sensual pleasure like that of rising in the air". Hyslop (1980), p. 69 Baudelaire's writings contributed to the elevation of Wagner and to the cult of Wagnerism that swept Europe in the following decades. Théophile Gautier Gautier, writer and poet, earned Baudelaire's respect for his perfection of form and his mastery of language, though Baudelaire thought he lacked deeper emotion and spirituality. Both strove to express the artist's inner vision, which Heinrich Heine had earlier stated: "In artistic matters, I am a supernaturalist. I believe that the artist can not find all his forms in nature, but that the most remarkable are revealed to him in his soul". Hyslop (1980), p. 131. Gautier's frequent meditations on death and the horror of life are themes which influenced Baudelaire writings. In gratitude for their friendship and commonality of vision, Baudelaire dedicated Les Fleurs du mal to Gautier. Édouard Manet Manet and Baudelaire became constant companions from around 1855. In the early 1860s, Baudelaire accompanied Manet on daily sketching trips and often met him socially. He also lent Baudelaire money and looked after his affairs, particularly when Baudelaire went to Belgium. Baudelaire encouraged Manet to strike his own path and not succumb to criticism. "Manet has great talent, a talent which will stand the test of time. But he has a weak character. He seems to me crushed and stunned by shock". Hyslop (1980), p. 55. In his painting Music in the Tuileries, Manet includes portraits of his friends Théophile Gautier, Jacques Offenbach, and Baudelaire. While it's difficult to differentiate who influenced whom, both Manet and Baudelaire discussed and expressed some common themes through their respective arts. Baudelaire praised the modernity of Manet's subject matter: "almost all our originality comes from the stamp that 'time' imprints upon our feelings". Hyslop (1980), p. 53. When Manet's famous Olympia (1865), a portrait of a nude prostitute, provoked a scandal for its blatant realism mixed with an imitation of Renaissance motifs, Baudelaire worked privately to support his friend, though he offered no public defense (he was, however, ill at the time). When Baudelaire returned from Belgium after his stroke, Manet and his wife were frequent visitors at the nursing home and she would play passages from Wagner for Baudelaire on the piano. Hyslop (1980), p. 51. Nadar Nadar (Félix Tournachon) was a noted caricaturist, scientist and important early photographer. Baudelaire admired Nadar, one of his closest friends, and wrote: "Nadar is the most amazing manifestation of vitality". Hyslop (1980), p. 65. They moved in similar circles and Baudelaire made many social connections through him. Nadar's ex-mistress Jeanne Duval became Baudelaire's mistress around 1842. Baudelaire became interested in photography in the 1850s and denounced it as an art form and advocated for its return to "its real purpose, which is that of being the servant to the sciences and arts". Photography should not, according to Baudelaire, encroach upon "the domain of the impalpable and the imaginary". Hyslop (1980), p. 63. Nadar remained a stalwart friend right to Baudelaire's last days and wrote his obituary notice in Le Figaro. Philosophy Many of Baudelaire's philosophical proclamations were considered scandalous and intentionally provocative in his time. He wrote on a wide range of subjects, drawing criticism and outrage from many quarters. Love "There is an invincible taste for prostitution in the heart of man, from which comes his horror of solitude. He wants to be 'two'. The man of genius wants to be 'one'... It is this horror of solitude, the need to lose oneself in the external flesh, that man nobly calls 'the need to love'." Richardson 1994, p.50 Marriage "Unable to suppress love, the Church wanted at least to disinfect it, and it created marriage." The artist "The more a man cultivates the arts, the less randy he becomes... Only the brute is good at coupling, and copulation is the lyricism of the masses. To copulate is to enter into another -- and the artist never emerges from himself." "Style is character" Pleasure "Personally, I think that the unique and supreme delight lies in the certainty of doing 'evil' -- and men and women know from birth that all pleasure lies in evil." Politics "I have no convictions, as they are understood by the men of my century, because I have no ambition... However, I have some convictions, in a nobler sense, which cannot be understood by the men of my time". Influence Portrait by Gustave Courbet, 1848. Baudelaire's influence on the direction of modern French (and English) language literature was considerable. The most significant French writers to come after him were generous with tributes; four years after his death, Arthur Rimbaud praised him in a letter as 'the king of poets, a true God'. Rimbaud, Arthur: Oeuvres complètes, p. 253, NRF/Gallimard, 1972. In 1895, Stéphane Mallarmé published a sonnet in Baudelaire's memory, 'Le Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire'. Marcel Proust, in an essay published in 1922, stated that along with Alfred de Vigny, Baudelaire was 'the greatest poet of the nineteenth century'. 'Concerning Baudelaire' in Proust, Marcel: Against Sainte-Beuve and Other Essays, p. 286, trans. John Sturrock, Penguin, 1994. In the English-speaking world, Edmund Wilson credited Baudelaire as providing an initial impetus for the Symbolist movement, by virtue of his translations of Poe. Wilson, Edmund: Axel's Castle, p. 20, Fontana, 1962 (originally published 1931). In 1930, T. S. Eliot, while asserting that Baudelaire had not yet received a "just appreciation" even in France, claimed that the poet had "great genius" and asserted that his "technical mastery which can hardly be overpraised... has made his verse an inexhaustible study for later poets, not only in his own language". 'Baudelaire', in Eliot, T. S.: Selected Essays, pp. 422 and 425, Faber & Faber, 1961. At the same time that Eliot was affirming Baudelaire's importance from a broadly conservative and explicitly Christian viewpoint, cf. Eliot, 'Religion in Literature', in Eliot, op. cit., p.388. left-wing critics such as Wilson and Walter Benjamin were able to do so from a dramatically different perspective. Benjamin translated Baudelaire's Tableaux Parisiens into German and published a major essay on translation 'The Task of the Translator', in Benjamin, Walter: Selected Writings Vol. 1: 1913-1926, pp. 253-263, Belknap/Harvard, 1996. as the foreword. In the late 1930s, Benjamin used Baudelaire as a starting point and focus for his monumental attempt at a materialist assessment of 19th century culture, Das Passagenwerk. Benjamin, Walter: The Arcades Project, trans. Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin, Belknap/Harvard, 1999. For Benjamin, Baudelaire's importance lay in his anatomies of the crowd, of the city and of modernity. 'The Paris of the Second Empire in Baudelaire' in Benjamin, Walter: Selected Writings Vol. 4 1938-1940, pp. 3-92, Belknap/Harvard, 2003. Baudelaire was also an influence on H. P. Lovecraft, serving as a model for Lovecraft's decadent and evil characters in both "The Hound" and "Hypnos". In 1982, avant-garde performance artist and vocalist Diamanda Galás recorded an adaptation of his poem The Litanies of Satan (Les Litanies de Satan). Currently, Vanderbilt University has "assembled one of the world’s most comprehensive research collections on...Baudelaire." In Popular Culture In the popular Warner Bros television series Angel, it was indicated that Le Vampire was truly inspired by Baudelaire being stalked and toyed with by the notorious vampire Angelus. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/She_(Angel_episode) See also Épater la bourgeoisie A Series Of Unfortunate Events The main character's last names were supposedly taken from Charles. Bibliography Tomb of Baudelaire Salon de 1845, 1845 Salon de 1846, 1846 La Fanfarlo, 1847 Les Fleurs du mal, 1857 Les paradis artificiels, 1860 Réflexions sur Quelques-uns de mes Contemporains, 1861 Le Peintre de la Vie Moderne, 1863 Curiosités Esthétiques, 1868 L'art romantique, 1868 Le Spleen de Paris/Petits Poèmes en Prose, 1869 Oeuvres Posthumes et Correspondance Générale, 1887–1907 Fusées, 1897 Mon Coeur Mis à Nu, 1897 Oeuvres Complètes, 1922-53 (19 vols.) Mirror of Art, 1955 The Essence of Laughter, 1956 Curiosités Esthétiques, 1962 The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays, 1964 Baudelaire as a Literary Critic, 1964 Arts in Paris 1845-1862, 1965 Selected Writings on Art and Artist, 1972 Selected Letters of Charles Baudelaire, 1986 Twenty Prose Poems, 1988 Critique d'art; Critique musicale, 1992 Online texts Charles Baudelaire Largest site dedicated to Baudelaire's poems and prose, containing Fleurs du mal, Petit poemes et prose, Fanfarlo and more in French together with various English and Czech translations of his works. FleursDuMal.org Definitive online presentation of Fleurs du mal, featuring the original French alongside multiple English translations Selected works at Poetry Archive Another selection The Rebel poem by Baudelaire Les Foules (The Crowds) - English Translation Sean Bonney's experimental translations of Baudelaire (Humor) An illustrated version (8 Mb) of Les Fleurs du Mal, 1.861 edition (Charles Baudelaire / une édition illustrée par http://www.inkwatercolor.com) References External links Charles Baudelaire Largest site dedicated to Baudelaire's poems and prose, containing Fleurs du mal, Petit poemes et prose, Fanfarlo and more together with various English and Czech translations of his works. Charles Baudelaire Info – Information magazine about Charles Baudelaire Charles Baudelaire International Association (French only ) A large site in English A comprehensive website Baudelaire's Paris, An ebook literary tour with suggested poems in English and French at each location Poetes.com A large site in italian Works by Baudelaire: text, concordances and frequency list Podcast: Audio reading of the poem «Albatros» 20 different English translations of Baudelaire's "The Balcony" La Nouvelle Décadence - Extensive online library of Baudelaire translations and biographies	Charles_Baudelaire \|@lemmatized charles:11 pierre:1 baudelaire:124 french:15 april:1 august:2 nineteenth:2 century:4 poet:9 critic:8 translator:3 controversial:1 figure:1 lifetime:1 name:4 become:12 byword:2 literary:7 artistic:6 decadence:1 time:18 work:17 particular:1 book:6 poetry:4 le:22 fleurs:15 du:17 mal:15 flower:3 evil:6 acknowledge:1 classic:1 literature:7 biography:2 early:4 life:11 bear:1 paris:11 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6,438	Bauxite	Bauxite with a US Cent Bauxite with core of unweathered rock Bauxite is the most important aluminium ore. It consists largely of the minerals gibbsite Al(OH)3, boehmite γ-AlO(OH), and diaspore α-AlO(OH), together with the iron oxides goethite and hematite, the clay mineral kaolinite and small amounts of anatase TiO2. It was named after the village Les Baux in southern France, where it was first discovered in 1821 by the geologist Pierre Berthier. Bauxite formation Lateritic bauxites (silicate bauxites) are distinguished from karst bauxites (carbonate bauxites). The early discovered carbonate bauxites occur predominantly in Europe and Jamaica above carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite), where they were formed by lateritic weathering and residual accumulation of intercalated clays or of clayey dissolution residues of the limestone. The lateritic bauxites occur in many countries of the tropical belt. They were formed by lateritization (see laterite) of various silicate rocks such as granite, gneiss, basalt, syenite and shale. Compared with iron-rich laterites, the formation of bauxites demands even more intense weathering conditions with a very good drainage. This enables dissolution of kaolinite and precipitation of gibbsite. Zones with highest aluminium content are frequently located below a ferruginous surface layer. The aluminium hydroxide in the lateritic bauxite deposits is almost exclusively gibbsite. Production trends Bauxite output in 2005 In 2007, Australia was one of the top producers of bauxite with almost one-third world share, followed by China, Brazil, Guinea, and Jamaica. Although aluminium demand is rapidly increasing, known reserves are sufficient to meet the needs for a considerable length of time. Increased aluminium recycling, which has the advantage of lowering the energy costs of production, will help extend bauxite reserves. The following table is ranked by total proven bauxite reserves. + (x1000 tonne, Numbers for 2008 estimated) Country Mine production Reserves Reserve base 2007 2008 18,000 18,000 7,400,000 8,600,000 62,400 63,000 5,800,000 7,900,000 30 30 2,100,000 5,400,000 14,600 15,000 2,000,000 2,500,000 24,800 25,000 1,900,000 2,500,000 1,600 1,600 700,000 900,000 19,200 20,000 770,000 1,400,000 30,000 32,000 700,000 2,300,000 2,220 2,200 600,000 650,000 4,900 4,500 580,000 600,000 4,800 4,800 360,000 450,000 5,900 5,900 320,000 350,000 6,400 6,400 200,000 250,000 NA NA 20,000 40,000Other countries 7,150 6,800 3,200,000 3,800,000World total (rounded) 202,000 205,000 27,000,000 38,000,000 Source: U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2009 Processing Bauxite being loaded at Cabo Rojo, Dominican Republic, to be shipped elsewhere for processing; 2007. Bauxite is strip mined (surface mining) because it is found at the surface, with little or no overburden. Approximately 95% of the world's bauxite production is processed into aluminium. Bauxites are typically classified according to their intended commercial application: metallurgical, abrasive, cement, chemical and refractory. Bauxites are heated in pressure vessels with sodium hydroxide solution at 150–200 °C through which aluminium is dissolved as aluminate (Bayer process). After separation of ferruginous residue (red mud) by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquor is cooled and seeded with fine grained aluminium hydroxide. Gibbsite is converted into aluminium oxide by heating. This is molten at approx. 1000 °C by addition of cryolite as a flux and reduced to metallic aluminium by a highly energy-consumptive electrolytic process (the Hall-Héroult process). References Bardossy, G. (1982): Karst Bauxites. Bauxite deposits on carbonate rocks. Elsevier Sci. Publ. 441 p. Bardossy, G. and Aleva, G.J.J. (1990): Lateritic Bauxites. Developments in Economic Geology 27, Elsevier Sci. Publ. 624 p. ISBN 0-444-988 External links USGS Minerals Information: Bauxite Mineral Information Institute	Bauxite \|@lemmatized bauxite:24 u:2 cent:1 core:1 unweathered:1 rock:4 important:1 aluminium:10 ore:1 consist:1 largely:1 mineral:5 gibbsite:5 al:1 oh:3 boehmite:1 γ:1 alo:2 diaspore:1 α:1 together:1 iron:2 oxides:1 goethite:1 hematite:1 clay:2 kaolinite:2 small:1 amount:1 anatase:1 name:1 village:1 les:1 baux:1 southern:1 france:1 first:1 discover:1 geologist:1 pierre:1 berthier:1 formation:2 lateritic:5 silicate:2 distinguish:1 karst:2 carbonate:4 early:1 discovered:1 occur:2 predominantly:1 europe:1 jamaica:2 limestone:2 dolomite:1 form:2 weathering:1 residual:1 accumulation:1 intercalated:1 clayey:1 dissolution:2 residue:2 many:1 country:3 tropical:1 belt:1 lateritization:1 see:1 laterite:2 various:1 granite:1 gneiss:1 basalt:1 syenite:1 shale:1 compare:1 rich:1 demand:2 even:1 intense:1 weather:1 condition:1 good:1 drainage:1 enable:1 precipitation:1 zone:1 high:1 content:1 frequently:1 locate:1 ferruginous:2 surface:3 layer:1 hydroxide:3 deposit:2 almost:2 exclusively:1 production:4 trend:1 output:1 australia:1 one:2 top:1 producer:1 third:1 world:2 share:1 follow:1 china:1 brazil:1 guinea:1 although:1 rapidly:1 increasing:1 know:1 reserve:5 sufficient:1 meet:1 need:1 considerable:1 length:1 time:1 increased:1 recycling:1 advantage:1 lower:1 energy:2 cost:1 help:1 extend:1 following:1 table:1 rank:1 total:2 proven:1 tonne:1 number:1 estimate:1 mine:2 base:1 na:2 round:1 source:1 geological:1 survey:1 commodity:1 summary:1 january:1 process:5 load:1 cabo:1 rojo:1 dominican:1 republic:1 ship:1 elsewhere:1 processing:1 strip:1 mining:1 find:1 little:1 overburden:1 approximately:1 typically:1 classified:1 accord:1 intend:1 commercial:1 application:1 metallurgical:1 abrasive:1 cement:1 chemical:1 refractory:1 heat:2 pressure:1 vessel:1 sodium:1 solution:1 c:2 dissolve:1 aluminate:1 bayer:1 separation:1 red:1 mud:1 filter:1 pure:1 precipitate:1 liquor:1 cool:1 seed:1 fine:1 grain:1 convert:1 oxide:1 melt:1 approx:1 addition:1 cryolite:1 flux:1 reduce:1 metallic:1 highly:1 consumptive:1 electrolytic:1 hall:1 héroult:1 reference:1 bardossy:2 g:3 bauxites:1 elsevier:2 sci:2 publ:2 p:2 aleva:1 j:2 development:1 economic:1 geology:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 usgs:1 information:2 institute:1 \|@bigram aluminium_hydroxide:2 almost_exclusively:1 geological_survey:1 dominican_republic:1 sodium_hydroxide:1 aluminium_oxide:1 external_link:1 usgs_mineral:1
6,439	Humus	Humus has a characteristic black or dark brown color, which is due to an abundance of organic carbon. "Humus" (Origin: 1790–1800; < Latin: earth, ground "humus". Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Random House, Inc. 23 Sep. 2008. <Dictionary.com http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/humus>. ) is degraded organic material in soil, which causes some soil layers to be dark brown or black. In soil science, humus refers to any organic matter that has reached a point of stability, where it will break down no further and might, if conditions do not change, remain essentially as it is for centuries, if not millennia Whitehead, D.C., Tinsley, J., 2006. The biochemistry of humus formation. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 14:849–857. . In agriculture, humus is sometimes also used to describe mature compost, or natural compost extracted from a forest or other spontaneous source for use to amend soil. It is also used to describe a topsoil horizon that contains organic matter (humus type Chertov, O.G., Kornarov, A.S., Crocker, G., Grace, P., Klir, J., Körschens, M., Poulton, P.R., Richter, D., 1997. Simulating trends of soil organic carbon in seven long-term experiments using the SOMM model of the humus types. Geoderma 81:121–135. , humus form Baritz, R., 2003. Humus forms in forests of the northern German lowlands. Schweizerbart, Stuttgart, Germany, 145 pp. , humus profile Bunting, B.T., Lundberg, J., 1995. The humus profile-concept, class and reality. Geoderma 40:17–36. .) Humification Transformation of organic matter into humus The process of "humification" can occur naturally in soil, or in the production of compost. The importance of chemically stable humus is thought by some to be the fertility it provides to soils in both a physical and chemical sense Hargitai, L., 1993. The role of organic matter content and humus quality in the maintenance of soil fertility and in environmental protection. Landscape and Urban Planning 27:161–167. , though some agricultural experts put a greater focus on other features of it, such as disease suppressiveness Hoitink, H.A., Fahy, P.C., 1986. Basis for the control of soilborne plant pathogens with composts. Annual Review of Phytopathology 24:93–114 . Physically, it helps the soil retain moisture by increasing microporosity De Macedo, J.R., Do Amaral Meneguelli, N., Ottoni, T.B., Araujo de Sousa Lima, J., 2002. Estimation of field capacity and moisture retention based on regression analysis involving chemical and physical properties in Alfisols and Ultisols of the state of Rio de Janeiro. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 33: 2037 - 2055. , and encourages the formation of good soil structure Hempfling, R., Schulten, H.R., Horn, R., 1990. Relevance of humus composition to the physical/mechanical stability of agricultural soils: a study by direct pyrolysis-mass spectrometry. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 17:275–281. . Chemically, the incorporation of oxygen into large organic molecular assemblages generates many active, negatively charged sites that bind to positively charged ions (cations) of plant nutrients, making them more available by ion exchange Szalay, A., 1964. Cation exchange properties of humic acids and their importance in the geochemical enrichment of UO2++ and other cations. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 28:1605-1614. . Biologically, it allows soil organisms (microbes and animals) to feed and reproduce Elo, S., Maunuksela, L., Salkinoja-Salonen, M., Smolander,A., Haahtela, K., 2006. Humus bacteria of Norway spruce stands: plant growth promoting properties and birch, red fescue and alder colonizing capacity. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 31:143 - 152 Vreeken-Buijs, M.J., Hassink, J., Brussaard, L., 1998. Relationships of soil microarthropod biomass with organic matter and pore size distribution in soils under different land use. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 30:97–106 . Humus is often described as the 'life-force' of the soil. Yet it is difficult to define humus in precise terms; it is a highly complex substance, the full nature of which is still not fully understood. Physically, humus can be differentiated from organic matter in that the latter is rough looking material, with coarse plant remains still visible, while once fully humified organic matter becomes more uniform in appearance (a dark, spongy, jelly-like substance) and amorphous in structure, and may remain such for millennia or more di Giovanni1, C., Disnar, J.R., Bichet, V., Campy, M., 1998. Sur la présence de matières organiques mésocénozoïques dans des humus actuels (bassin de Chaillexon, Doubs, France). Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris, Series IIA, Earth and Planetary Science 326:553–559 . That is, it has no determinate shape, structure or character. However, humified organic matter, when examined under the microscope without any chemical treatment, may reveal tiny but clearly identifiable plant, animal or microbial remains which have been mechanically, but not chemically degraded Bernier, N., Ponge, J.F., 1994. Humus form dynamics during the sylvogenetic cycle in a mountain spruce forest. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 26:183-220 . This points to a fuzzy limit between humus and organic matter. In most recent literature, humus is clearly considered as an integral part of soil organic matter (SOM). Plant remains (including those that passed through an animal gut and were excreted as faeces) contain organic compounds: sugars, starches, proteins, carbohydrates, lignins, waxes, resins and organic acids. The process of organic matter decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from carbohydrates, which break down easily as saprotrophs initially invade the dead plant organs, while the remaining cellulose and lignin break down more slowly Berg, B., McClaugherty, C., 2007. Plant litter: decomposition, humus formation, carbon sequestration, 2nd ed. Springer, 338 pp., ISBN-10: 3540749225 . Simple proteins, organic acids, starches and sugars break down rapidly, while crude proteins, fats, waxes and resins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time. Lignin, which is slowly transformed by white-rot fungi Levin, L., Forchiassin, F., Ramos, A.M., 2002. Copper induction of lignin-modifying enzymes in the white-rot fungus Trametes trogii. Mycologia 94:377-383 , is one of the main precursors of humus González-Pérez, M., Vidal Torrado, P., Colnago, L.A., Martin-Neto, L., Otero, X.L., Milori, D.M.B.P., Haenel Gomes, F., 2008. 13C NMR and FTIR spectroscopy characterization of humic acids in spodosols under tropical rain forest in southeastern Brazil. Geoderma 146:425-433 , together with by-products of microbial Knicker, H., Almendros,G., González-Vila, F.J., Lüdemann, H.D., Martin, F., 1995. 13C and 15N NMR analysis of some fungal melanins in comparison with soil organic matter. Organic Geochemistry 23:1023-1028 and animal Muscoloa, A., Bovalob, F., Gionfriddob, F., Nardi, S., 1999. Earthworm humic matter produces auxin-like effects on Daucus carota cell growth and nitrate metabolism. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 31:1303-1311 activity. The humus, that is the end product of this manifold process, is thus a mixture of compounds and complex life chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin, which has many functions and benefits in the soil. Most humus in the soil is included in animal faeces of more or less dark color according to their content in organic matter Ponge, J.F., 1991. Food resources and diets of soil animals in a small area of Scots pine litter. Geoderma, 49:33–62. . Earthworm humus (vermicompost) is considered by some to be the best organic manure there is. Stability of humus Compost that is readily capable of further decomposition is sometimes referred to as effective or active humus, though again scientists would say that if it is not stable, it's not humus at all. This kind of compost, rich in plant remains and fulvic acids, is an excellent source of plant nutrients, but of little value regarding long-term soil structure and tilth. Stable (or passive) humus consisting of humic acids and humins, on the other hand, are so highly insoluble (or so tightly bound to clay particles and hydroxides) that they cannot be penetrated by microbes and therefore are greatly resistant to further decomposition. Thus stable humus adds few readily available nutrients to the soil, but plays an essential part in providing its physical structure. Some very stable humus complexes have survived for thousands of years di Giovanni1, C., Disnar, J.R., Bichet, V., Campy, M., 1998. Sur la présence de matières organiques mésocénozoïques dans des humus actuels (bassin de Chaillexon, Doubs, France). Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de Paris, Series IIA, Earth and Planetary Science 326:553–559 . The most stable humus is that formed from the slow oxidation of black carbon, after the incorporation of finely powdered charcoal into the topsoil. This process is at the origin of the formation of the fertile Amazonian Dark Earths or Terra preta de Indio Lehmann, J., Kern, D.C., Glaser, B., Woods, W.I., 2004. Amazonian Dark Earths: origin, properties, management. Springer, 523 pp. ISBN-13: 978-1402018398 . Humus is transformed by soil organisms, which may contribute to increase or decrease its stability according to their enzyme equipment Wolters, V., 2000. Invertebrate control of soil organic matter stability. Biology and Fertility of Soils 31:1–19 . The disappearance of humus is hastened by warm and moist climate, which explains why most tropical soils are so poor in organic matter and suffer from both lack of good structure and available nutrients Tiessen, H., Cuevas†, E., Chacon, P., 2002. The role of soil organic matter in sustaining soil fertility. Nature 371:783-785 . In boreal countries and at high altitudes, the lack of active transformation of organic matter into humus, because of harsh climate conditions, leads to a similar decrease in soil fertility, although for opposite reasons Jerabkova, L., Prescott, C.E., Kishchuk, B.E., 2006. Nitrogen availability in soil and forest floor of contrasting types of boreal mixedwood forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 36:112–122 . Among other factors, this explains why temperate climates were most favourable to the development of sedentary agriculture in the past millennia, before the advent of mineral fertilizers. Benefits of soil organic matter and humus The mineralization process that converts raw organic matter to the relatively stable substance that is humus feeds the soil population of micro-organisms and other creatures, thus maintaining high and healthy levels of soil life Elo, S., Maunuksela, L., Salkinoja-Salonen, M., Smolander,A., Haahtela, K., 2006. Humus bacteria of Norway spruce stands: plant growth promoting properties and birch, red fescue and alder colonizing capacity. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 31:143 - 152 Vreeken-Buijs, M.J., Hassink, J., Brussaard, L., 1998. Relationships of soil microarthropod biomass with organic matter and pore size distribution in soils under different land use. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 30:97–106 . The rate at which raw organic matter is converted into humus promotes (when fast) or limits (when slow) the coexistence of plants, animals and microbes in terrestrial ecosystems Ponge, J.F., 2003. Humus forms in terrestrial ecosystems: a framework to biodiversity. Soil Biology and Biochemistry 35:935–945 . Effective and stable humus (see below) are further sources of nutrients to microbes, the former providing a readily available supply while the latter acts as a more long-term storage reservoir. Decomposition of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to be slowly oxidized (lignin-like humus) or to break down into simpler forms (sugars and amino-sugars, aliphatic and phenolic organic acids) which are further transformed into microbial biomass (microbial humus) or are reorganized (and still oxidized) in humic assemblages (fulvic and humic acids, humins) which bind to clay minerals and metal hydroxides. There has been a long debate about the ability of plants to uptake humic substances from their root systems and to metabolize them. There is now a consensus about humus as playing a hormonal role rather than a nutritional role in plant physiology Eyheraguibel, B., Silvestrea, J. Morard, P., 2008. Effects of humic substances derived from organic waste enhancement on the growth and mineral nutrition of maize. Bioresource Technology 99:4206-4212 . Humus is a colloidal substance, and increases the soil's cation exchange capacity, hence its ability to store nutrients by chelation as can clay particles; thus while these nutrient cations are accessible to plants, they are held in the soil safe from leaching away by rain or irrigation Szalay, A., 1964. Cation exchange properties of humic acids and their importance in the geochemical enrichment of UO2++ and other cations. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 28:1605-1614. . Humus can hold the equivalent of 80–90% of its weight in moisture, and therefore increases the soil's capacity to withstand drought conditions Olness, A., Archer, D., 2005. Effect of organic carbon on available water in soil. Soil Science 170:90-101 . The biochemical structure of humus enables it to moderate — or buffer — excessive acid or alkaline soil conditions Kikuchi, R., 2004. Deacidification effect of the litter layer on forest soil during snowmelt runoff: laboratory experiment and its basic formularization for simulation modeling. Chemosphere 54:1163-1169 . During the humification process, microbes (bacteria and fungi) secrete sticky gums and mucilages; these contribute to the crumb structure of the soil by holding particles together, allowing greater aeration of the soil Caesar-Tonthat, T.C., 2002. Soil binding properties of mucilage produced by a basidiomycete fungus in a model system. Mycological Research 106:930-937 . Toxic substances such as heavy metals, as well as excess nutrients, can be chelated (that is, bound to the complex organic molecules of humus) and prevented from entering the wider ecosystem, thereby detoxifying it Huang, D.L., Zeng, G.M., Feng, C.L., Hu, S., Jiang, X.Y., Tang, L., Su, F.F., Zhang, Y., Zeng, W., Liu, H.L., 2008. Degradation of lead-contaminated lignocellulosic waste by Phanerochaete chrysosporium and the reduction of lead toxicity. Environmental Science and Technology 42:4946-4951 . The dark color of humus (usually black or dark brown) helps to warm up cold soils in the spring. 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6,440	Hellas_Verona_F.C.	Hellas Verona Football Club S.p.A (commonly known simply as Verona, or Hellas within the city of Verona itself) is an Italian professional football team, based in Verona, Veneto. The team's colours are yellow and blue and gialloblu (literally, "yellow-blue" in Italian) is the team's most widely used nickname. The colours represent the city itself and Verona's emblem (a yellow cross on a blue shield) appears on most team apparel. Two more team nicknames are Mastini (the mastiffs) and Scaligeri, both references to Mastino I della Scala of the Della Scala princes that ruled the city during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Scala family coat of arms is depicted on the team's jersey and on its trademark logo as a stylized image of two large, powerful mastiffs facing opposite directions. In essence, the term "scaligeri" is synonymous with Veronese, and therefore can describe anything or anyone from Verona (eg., Chievo Verona, a different team that also links itself to the Scala family - specifically to Cangrande della Scala). Origins and early history Founded in 1903 by a group of high school students, the club was named Hellas (the Greek word for Greece), at the request of a professor of Classics. At a time in which football was played seriously only in the larger cities of the Northwest of Italy, most of Verona was indifferent to the growing sport. However, when in 1906 two city teams chose the city's Roman amphitheatre as a venue to showcase the game, crowd enthusiasm and media interest began to rise. During these first few years Hellas was one of three or four area teams playing mainly at a municipal level while fighting against city rivals Bentegodi to become the city's premier football outfit. By the 1907-1908 season, Hellas was playing against regional teams and an intense rivalry with Vicenza Calcio that lasts to this day was born. From 1898 to 1926 Italian football was organised into regional groups. In this period Hellas was one of the founding teams of the early league and often among its top final contenders. In 1911, the city helped Hellas replace the early, gritty football fields with a proper venue. This allowed the team to take part in its first regional tournament, which until 1926, was the qualifying stage for the national title. In 1919, following a return to activity after a four year suspension of all football competition in Italy during World War I the team merged with city rival Verona and changed its name to Hellas Verona. Between 1926 and 1929 the elite "Campionato Nazionale" assimilated the top sides from the various regional groups and Hellas Verona joined the privileged teams, yet struggled to remain competitive. Serie A, as it is structured today, began in 1929, when the Campionato Nazionale turned into a professional league. Still an amateur team, Hellas merged with two city rivals, Bentegodi and Scaligera, to form AC Verona. Hoping to build a first class contender for future years the new team debuted in Serie B in 1929. It would take the gialloblu 28 years to finally achieve their goal. After first being promoted to Serie A for one season in 1957-58, in 1959 the team merged with another city rival (called Hellas) and commemorated its beginnings by changing its name to Hellas Verona AC. Success in the 1970s and 1980s Return to Serie A Coached by Nils Liedholm, the team returned to Serie A in 1968 and remained in the elite league almost without interruption until 1990. Along the way it scored a famous 5-3 win in the 1972-1973 season that cost AC Milan the scudetto (the Serie A title). The fact that the result came late during the last matchday of the season makes the sudden and unexpected end to the rossoneris title ambitions all the more memorable. In 1973-1974 Hellas finished the season in 4th last place thus avoiding relegation, but were sent down to Serie B during the summer months as a result of a scandal involving team president Saverio Garonzi. After a year in Serie B Hellas Verona returned to Serie A. Three Coppa Italia finals In the 1975-1976 season the team had a successful run in the Coppa Italia, eliminating highly rated teams such as AC Torino, Cagliari Calcio, and Internazionale from the tournament. However, in their first ever final in the competition Hellas Verona were trounced 4-0 by SSC Napoli. Under the leadership of legendary coach Osvaldo Bagnoli, in 1982-1983 the team secured 4th place in Serie A (its highest finish at the time) and even lead the Serie A standings for a few weeks. The same season Hellas again reached the Coppa Italia final. After a 2-0 home victory Hellas Verona travelled to Turin to play Juventus F.C. where the team lost the Cup in extra-time (3-0 defeat). Heartbreak would follow in the 1983-1984 season when the team again reached the Coppa Italia final only to lose the Cup in the final minutes of the return match against defending Serie A champions AS Roma. 1984-1985 Scudetto Hellas Verona AC is certainly most famous for going on to win the scudetto the following season (1984-85) and for its regular presence in European club football in the mid 1980s. Although the 1984-1985 squad was made up of a healthy mix of emerging players and mature stars, at the beginning of the season no one would have regarded the team as having the necessary ingredients to make it to the end. Certainly the additions of Hans-Peter Briegel in midfield and of Danish striker Preben Elkjær to an attack that already featured the wing play of Pietro Fanna, the creative abilities of Antonio Di Gennaro and the scoring touch of Giuseppe Galderisi were to prove crucial. To mention a few of the memorable milestones on the road to the scudetto: a decisive win against Juventus (2-0), with a goal scored by Elkjær after having lost a boot in a tackle just outside the box, set the stage early in the championship; an away win over Udinese (5-3) ended any speculation that the team was losing energy at the midway point; three straight wins (including a hard fought 1-0 victory against a strong AS Roma side) served notice that the team had kept its polish and focus intact during their rival's final surge; and a 1-1 draw in Bergamo against Atalanta secured the title with a game in hand. Hellas Verona finished the year with a 15-13-2 record and 43 points, 4 points ahead of Torino with Inter and Sampdoria rounding out the top four spots. This unusual final table of the Serie A (with the most successful Italan teams of the time, Juventus and AS Roma, ending up much lower than expected) has led to many speculations. The 1984/1985 season was the only season when referees were assigned to matches by way of a random draw. Before then each referee had always been assigned to a specific match by a special commission of referees (designatori arbitrali). After the betting scandal of the early 1980 (the Calcio Scommesse scandal) it was decided to clean up the image of Italian football by assigning referees randomly instead of picking them, in order to clear up all the suspicions and accusations always accompanying Italy's football life. This resulted in a quieter championship and in a completely unexpected final table. In the following season, won again by Juventus, the choice of the referees went back in the hands of the designatori arbitrali. In 2006 a major scandal in Italian football revealed that certain clubs had been illegally influencing the referee selection process, in an attempt to ensure that certain referees were assigned to their matches. On the European stage The team made its first European appearance in 1983-1984 in the UEFA Cup and were knocked out in the second round of the tournament by Sturm Graz. In 1986 Hellas Verona AC were eliminated from the European Cup by fellow Serie A side Juventus F.C. (the title holders after their victory the previous year over Liverpool). In 1988 the team had its best international result when it reached the UEFA Cup quarter-finals with four victories and three draws. The decisive defeat came from German side Werder Bremen. Recent years Between Serie A and Serie B These were more than mere modest achievements for a mid-size city with a limited appeal to fans across the nation. But soon enough financial difficulties caught up with team managers. In 1991 the team folded and was reborn as Verona FC, regularly moving to and fro between Serie A and Serie B for several seasons. In 1995 the name was officially changed back to Hellas Verona FC. After a three year stay, their last stint in Serie A ended in grief in 2002. That season emerging international talents such as Adrian Mutu, Mauro Camoranesi, Alberto Gilardino, Martin Laursen, Massimo Oddo, Marco Cassetti and coach Alberto Malesani failed to capitalize on an excellent start and eventually dropped into fourth-to-last place for the first time all season on the very last matchday, enforcing relegation into Serie B. Derby with Chievo Verona In their last Serie A season, with city rivals Chievo Verona also in the country's premier football league, Verona joined Milan, Rome, Turin and Genoa to become only the fifth Italian city to host a Serie A derby (known as il derby della Scala). The first ever Verona derby came on matchday 11 and saw the city's teams both ranked among the top four in Serie A. The match was won by the Hellas side, 3-2. Chievo gained revenge in the return match in the spring, winning 2-1. During these derby games the Chievo supporters have to watch from the away end of the stadium, even at their home fixture, due to a lack of support in the city in comparison to the Brigate. Even today with Chievo in serie A and Hellas in Serie C, Hellas have more than double the support of Chievo. Present Serie B Following the 2002 relegation to Serie B, team fortunes continued to slip throughout the decade. In the 2003-04 season Hellas Verona struggled in Serie B and spent most of the season fighting off the unthinkable: a disconcerting relegation to Serie C1. Undeterred, the fans supported their team and a string of late season wins eventually warded off the danger. Over 5000 of them followed Hellas to Como on the final day of the season to celebrate. In 2004-05 things looked much brighter for the team. After a rocky start Hellas put together a string of results and climbed to third spot. The gialloblù held on to the position until January 2005, when transfers weakened the team, yet they managed to take the battle for Serie A to the last day of the season. The Serie B 2006-07 seemed to start with good premises due to the club takeover by Pietro Arvedi D'Emilei which ended nine years of controversial rule by chairman Gianbattista Pastorello, heavily contested by the supporters in his late years at Verona. However, Verona was immediately involved in the relegation battle, and Massimo Ficcadenti was replaced in December 2006 by Giampiero Ventura. Despite a recovery in the results, Verona ended in an 18th place, thus being forced to play a two-legged playoff against 19th-placed Spezia in order to avert relegation. A 2-1 away loss in the first leg at La Spezia was followed by a 0-0 home tie, and Verona were relegated to Serie C1 after 64 years of playing between the two highest divisions. Serie C1 and Lega Pro Prima Divisione Verona appointed experienced coach Franco Colomba for the new season with the aim to return back to Serie B as soon as possible. However, despite being widely considered the division favourite, the gialloblù spent almost the entire season in last place. After 7 matches club management sacked Colomba in early October and replaced him with youth team coach (and former Verona player) Davide Pellegrini. A new property acquired the club in late 2007, appointing in December Giovanni Galli as new director of football and Maurizio Sarri as new head coach. Halfway through the 2007-2008 season the team remained at the bottom of Serie C1, on the brink of relegation to the fourth level (Serie C2). League table at betstudy.com Club management thus sacked Sarri and brought back Pellegrini. Thanks to a late-season surge the scaligeri managed to avoid direct relegation by qualifying for the relegation playoff, and narrowly averted dropping to Lega Pro Seconda Divisione only in the final game, beating Pro Patria by 2-1 on aggregate. However, despite the decline in results, fan support remained strong in terms of attendance and season ticket sales. For the 2008–09 season Verona appointed former Sassuolo and Piacenza manager Gian Marco Remondina, with the aim to win promotion to Serie B. However the season did not start impressively, with Verona being out of the playoff zone by mid-season, and club chairman Pietro Arvedi D'Emilei entering into a coma after being involved in a car crash on his way back from a league match in December 2008. Arvedi died in March 2009, two months after the club was bought by new chairman Giovanni Martinelli. Honours Serie A / Italian Football Championship:Champions (1)''': 1984–85 Supporters Apart from the many local fan clubs whose main role is (for example) to provide a meeting place for fans and friends and organize away trips, since the late 60s many Italian fans rely on organized stadium groups known as Ultras. The main goal is to choreograph fan support with flags, banners, coloured smoke screens, drums, and chanting in unison. The best-known organized fan group of the team was called Brigate Gialloblù or "BG" (the "yellowblue brigades"). It came together in 1971 and no longer exists as such. Although to this day virtually all fans call themselves BG members when at the Bentegodi, today's hardcore BG group numbers about a few thousand members, mostly grouped under the name "Curva Sud". From producing flags large enough to cover the entire Curva Sud section (about a third of the stadium) to singing Giuseppe Verdi's Aida, the BG (and Hellas fans in general) are one of Italy's most dedicated, imaginative and respected supporters. They were responsible for introducing the British supporting style in Italy, putting aside drums and concentrating on catchy and powerful chants. The Brigate is made up of a collective of smaller supporters groups that have their own flags and position on the "Curva Sud", each with their own name. Some commemorate events, many are a play on words of the local Veneto dialect. The only officially recognised of these smaller groups, outside of Verona is based in London known as "Londra Sressata". Their 'songbook' is Italy's largest, and increases every season with new songs (although at a slower pace than in the eighties, when new songs were appearing at nearly every home game). These songs are not only meant to support the club, but also to attack and insult the opponents. The BG are known to make themselves no limitations in this task. Everything, from physical defects to family tragedies, is used to make ironic songs meant to abuse an opponent player on the pitch or a rival crowd. Racist abuse of any kind has been largely used since the early eighties, resulting in the last games in several seasons played behind closed doors. However, only a small minority of Hellas supporters are militant fascist or openly racist. The majority use this kind of imagery and attitude only as a way to provoke, to mark their diversity from the rest of the crowds, and, for some, from the rest of the country. The fact that the same chants are also used against white players who are as well despised by the BG has not helped to prevent sanctions by the authorities, and the crowd is deeply divided nowadays about the opportunity to go on with this sort things. Apart from racism, Verona chants can display a great amount of irony, also about themselves and their team. Nonsense and church songs are also among the crowd favorites when the game starts getting boring or worse than usual. The main guideline of the BG has been since the beginning "first the Brigate, then the Club". This made so that a relatively big crowd had formed over the years, following the club everywhere without being particularly influenced by the often disappointing results of the team. After the relegation in the Serie C1 in the 2006/2007 season a stunning 10,000 season tickets were sold, almost 4000 more than in the previous season, when Piero Arvedi bought the club in September 2006 from Gianbattista Pastorello, ending the supporters' boycott campaign of the season tickets sales within just a few days from its end. Most Hellas fans have always kept football and politics apart, however right wing (Verona Front, Hellas Army) and left wing (Rude Boys) groups have existed within the BG, as they do still among today's Hellas fans. Then and now, the wide majority of the fans are joyous and well behaved. However, small groups - among which also include right wing fascist extremists - aim to provoke trouble, cause public outrage and attract attention, regardless of the impact this has on the team. Repeated incidents throughout the 1970s, and crowd violence in the late 1980s, drew plenty of media attention and Verona was singled out as amongst the worst perpetrators. Unfortunately similar events occur in many (but not all) Italian stadiums. The founders and "hard-core" groups within the BG did what they could to keep younger members from emulating or even joining the fascist extremists, yet decisive action clearly needed to be taken. After 20 years, in late 1991 the various BG groups unanimously decided to disband themselves completely in order to avoid the attempt of some judges who wanted to put the BG on trial for being a 'criminal organization'. Today acts of violence are extremely rare and fans attend games to display their affection for Hellas Verona. The large scale police repression of the Ultras movement following the murder of the police officer Filippo Raciti in Catania in February 2007 led to the disband of the organised 'Curva Sud' firm, along with the disappearance of the chant-launching supporters placed at the lower end of the Curva Sud. Chants are now started by the spontaneous initiative of every supporter. Hellas Verona fans are twinned with the supporters of Fiorentina. The friendship dates back to the mid 80s, when several old viola crowd favourites (Antonio Di Gennaro, Luigi Sacchetti and Luciano Bruni) left Florence and won the scudetto with Hellas Verona. This long lasting relationship is remarkable of the 'unorthodox' attitude of the Hellas fans: Fiorentina supporters are largely left wing oriented, but this doesn't seem to bother both sides. In decades there have never been any tensions related to this difference in political views. They also have 'amicizie' (friendships) with Lazio, Triestina and Sampdoria. On international level the most important friendship is that with the Chelsea Headhunters, one of the oldest football friendships in the world, dating back to the second half of the seventies, when the visiting members of the Brigate were even allowed to show their away banner in the notorious Shed End of Chelsea's Stamford Bridge. A large number of the BG songs are taken from the Headhunters' repertoire, with translated and adapted lyrics, often in dialect. When Chelsea played Verona's archrivals Vicenza in the Cup Winners' Cup in 1997, a large number of Hellas Verona supporters was present in the away section of the Stadio Romeo Menti in Vicenza together with the Chelsea fans. Other international friendships are with the Ultras Sur of Real Madrid, the Brigadas Blanquiazules of Espanyol, the Aberdeen supporters in Scotland and the now disbanded Boulogne Boys of Paris Saint Germain. The gialloblu are bitter rivals of their neighbors Vicenza, Brescia and Atalanta, of the traditional 'big three' Juventus - by them sarcastically nicknamed 'Rubentus' ('Thieventus')-, A.C. Milan (who lost two titles, in 1973 and 1990, by being beaten in the since then so-called 'Fatal Verona' in the last matches of that seasons) and Inter (a long lasting friendship has been broken in the year 2000), and furthermore AS Roma, Genoa C.F.C. and several teams from the South of Italy, most notably Napoli. Virtually all the matches between Verona and Napoli held at the Bentegodi in the eighties and nineties reached the national headlines because of the heavy abuse of the Verona supporters against the Neapolitans, expressed in banners and choruses of racist content, and even the wearing of gasmasks all over the Curva Sud (South Stand). Current squad As of 2008-10-13 Notable former players Italy Osvaldo Bagnoli Cristian Brocchi Paolo Cannavaro Marco Cassetti Aimo Diana Antonio Di Gennaro Marco Di Vaio Pietro Fanna Giuseppe Galderisi Alberto Gilardino Filippo Inzaghi Vincenzo Italiano Virgilio Levratto Massimo Oddo Aldo Olivieri Felice Centofanti Angelo Peruzzi Gianluca Pessotto Paolo Rossi Roberto Tricella Damiano Tommasi Paolo Vanoli Renato Zaccarelli Mauro Camoranesi Albania Erjon Bogdani Argentina Claudio Caniggia Pedro Troglio Brazil Adaílton Sergio Clerici Dirceu Croatia Anthony Šerić Denmark Preben Elkjær Larsen Martin Laursen France Sebastien Frey Germany Thomas Berthold Hans-Peter Briegel Liechtenstein Mario Frick Poland Władysław Żmuda Romania Adrian Mihalcea Adrian Mutu Florin Răducioiu Scotland Joe Jordan Serbia Dragan Stojković Sweden Robert Prytz Switzerland Valon Behrami Wales Craig Davies Notable coaches Osvaldo Bagnoli Giancarlo Cadè Nils Liedholm Sergio Maddè Alberto Malesani Attilio Perotti Angelo Piccioli Cesare Prandelli Ferruccio Valcareggi References Further reading A Season with Verona: Travels Around Italy in Search of Illusion, National Character, and...Goals! by Tim Parks. ISBN 0-09-942267-0 External links Official website Hellastory.net with a complete database, daily updates, thoughtful editorials, and a guestbook''	Hellas_Verona_F.C. \|@lemmatized hellas:37 verona:47 football:16 club:15 p:1 commonly:1 know:6 simply:1 within:4 city:17 italian:9 professional:2 team:44 base:2 veneto:2 colour:3 yellow:3 blue:3 gialloblu:3 literally:1 widely:2 use:5 nickname:3 represent:1 emblem:1 cross:1 shield:1 appear:2 apparel:1 two:8 mastini:1 mastiff:2 scaligeri:3 reference:2 mastino:1 della:4 scala:6 prince:1 rule:2 thirteenth:1 fourteenth:1 century:1 family:3 coat:1 arm:1 depict:1 jersey:1 trademark:1 logo:1 stylized:1 image:2 large:7 powerful:2 face:1 opposite:1 direction:1 essence:1 term:2 synonymous:1 veronese:1 therefore:1 describe:1 anything:1 anyone:1 eg:1 chievo:7 different:1 also:8 link:2 specifically:1 cangrande:1 origin:1 early:7 history:1 found:1 group:13 high:3 school:1 student:1 name:6 greek:1 word:2 greece:1 request:1 professor:1 classic:1 time:5 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6,441	ASCII	The 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered from 32 to 126 (decimal) American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), Audio pronunciation for ASCII. Merriam Webster. Accessed 2008-04-14. is a coding standard that can be used for interchanging information, if the information is expressed mainly by the written form of English words. It is implemented as a character-encoding scheme based on the ordering of the English alphabet. ASCII codes represent text in computers, communications equipment, and other devices that work with text. Most modern character-encoding schemes—which support many more characters than did the original—have a historical basis in ASCII. Historically, ASCII developed from telegraphic codes. Its first commercial use was as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by Bell data services. Work on ASCII formally began October 6, 1960, with the first meeting of the American Standards Association's (ASA) X3.2 subcommittee. The first edition of the standard was published in 1963, Mary Brandel (July 6, 1999). 1963: The Debut of ASCII: CNN. Accessed 2008-04-14. American Standard Code for Information Interchange, ASA X3.4-1963, American Standards Association, June 17, 1963 a major revision in 1967, USA Standard Code for Information Interchange, USAS X3.4-1967, United States of America Standards Institute, July 7, 1967 and the most recent update in 1986. American National Standard for Information Systems — Coded Character Sets — 7-Bit American National Standard Code for Information Interchange (7-Bit ASCII), ANSI X3.4-1986, American National Standards Institute, Inc., March 26, 1986 Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII were both ordered for more convenient sorting (i.e., alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing, mostly obsolete control characters that affect how text is processed; International Organization for Standardization (December 1, 1975). "The set of control characters for ISO 646". Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Registry. Alternate U.S. version: . Accessed 2008-04-14. 94 are printable characters, and the space is considered an invisible graphic. The most commonly used character encoding on the World Wide Web was US-ASCII until 2008, when it was surpassed by UTF-8. "utf-8 Growth On The Web" History US ASCII 1968 Code Chart was structured with two columns of control characters, a column with special characters, a column with numbers, and four columns of letters The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed under the auspices of a committee of the American Standards Association, called the X3 committee, by its X3.2 (later X3L2) subcommittee, and later by that subcommittee's X3.2.4 working group. The ASA became the United States of America Standards Institute or USASI Mackenzie, p.211. and ultimately the American National Standards Institute. The X3.2 subcommittee designed ASCII based on earlier teleprinter encoding systems. Like other character encodings, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and character symbols (i.e. graphemes and control characters). This allows digital devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information such as written language. Before ASCII was developed, the encodings in use included 26 alphabetic characters, 10 numerical digits, and from 11 to 25 special graphic symbols. To include all these, and control characters compatible with the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique standard, Fieldata, and early EBCDIC, more than 64 codes were required in ASCII. The committee debated the possibility of a shift key function (like the Baudot code), which would allow more than 64 codes to be represented by six bits. In a shifted code, some character codes determine choices between options for the following character codes. It allows compact encoding, but is less reliable for data transmission; an error in transmitting the shift code typically makes a long part of the transmission unreadable. The standards committee decided against shifting, and so ASCII required at least a seven-bit code. Decision 4. Mackenzie, p.215. The committee considered an eight-bit code, since eight bits would allow two four-bit patterns to efficiently encode two digits with binary coded decimal. (However it would require all data transmission to send eight bits when seven could suffice.) The committee voted to use a seven-bit code to minimize costs associated with data transmission. Since perforated tape at the time could record eight bits in one position, it also allowed for a parity bit for error checking if desired. Decision 5. Mackenzie, p.217. Machines with octets as the native data type that did not use parity checking typically set the eighth bit to 0. Sawyer A. Sawyer and Steven George Krantz (January 1, 1995). A Tex Primer for Scientists. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-7159-7. p.13. The code itself was structured so that most control codes were together, and all graphic codes were together. The first two columns (32 positions) were reserved for control characters. Decision 8,9. Mackenzie, p.220. The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting algorithms easy, so it became position 0x20. Decision 10. Mackenzie, p.237. The committee decided it was important to support upper case 64-character alphabets, and chose to structure ASCII so it could easily be reduced to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes. Decision 14. Mackenzie, p.228. Lower case letters were therefore not interleaved with upper case. To keep options open for lower case letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were placed before the letters, and the letter 'A' was placed in position 0x41 to match the draft of the corresponding British standard. Decision 18. Mackenzie, p.238. The digits 0–9 were placed so they correspond to values in binary prefixed with 011, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward. Many of the non-alphanumeric characters were positioned to correspond to their shifted position on typewriters. Thus #, $ and % were placed to correspond to 3, 4, and 5 in the adjacent column. The parentheses could not correspond to 9 and 0, however, because the place corresponding to 0 was taken by the space character. Since many European typewriters placed the parentheses with 8 and 9, those corresponding positions were chosen for the parentheses. The @ symbol was not used in continental Europe and the committee expected it would be replaced by an accented À in the French variation, so the @ was placed in position 0x40 next to the letter A. Mackenzie, p.243. The control codes felt essential for data transmission were the start of message (SOM), end of address (EOA), end of message (EOM), end of transmission (EOT), "who are you?" (WRU), "are you?" (RU), a reserved device control (DC0), synchronous idle (SYNC), and acknowledge (ACK). These were positioned to maximize the Hamming distance between their bit patterns. Mackenzie, p.243-245. With the other special characters and control codes filled in, ASCII was published as ASA X3.4-1963, leaving 28 code positions without any assigned meaning, reserved for future standardization, and one unassigned control code. Mackenzie, p.66, 245. It now seems obvious that these positions should have been assigned to the lower case alphabet, but there was some debate at the time whether there should be more control characters instead. Mackenzie, p.435. The indecision did not last long: in May 1963 the CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet proposed to assign lower case characters to columns 6 and 7, Brief Report: Meeting of CCITT Working Party on the New Telegraph Alphabet, May 13-15, 1963. and International Organization for Standardization TC 97 SC 2 voted in October to incorporate the change into its draft standard. Report of ISO/TC/97/SC 2 - Meeting of October 29-31, 1963. The X3.2.4 task group voted its approval for the change to ASCII at its May 1963 meeting. Report on Task Group X3.2.4, June 11, 1963, Pentagon Building, Washington, DC. Locating the lowercase letters in columns 6 and 7 caused the characters to differ in bit pattern from the upper case by a single bit, which simplified case-insensitive character matching and the construction of keyboards and printers. The X3 committee made other changes, including other new characters (the brace and vertical line characters), Report of Meeting No. 8, Task Group X3.2.4, December 17 and 18, 1963 renaming some control characters (SOM became start of header (SOH)) and moving or removing others (RU was removed). Mackenzie, p.247-8. ASCII was subsequently updated as USASI X3.4-1967, then USASI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986 (the first two are occasionally retronamed ANSI X3.4-1967, and ANSI X3.4-1968). The X3 committee also addressed how ASCII should be transmitted (least significant bit first), and how it should be recorded on perforated tape. They proposed a 9-track standard for magnetic tape, and attempted to deal with some forms of punched card formats. ASCII itself first entered commercial use in 1963 as a seven-bit teleprinter code for American Telephone & Telegraph's TWX (Teletype Wide-area eXchange) network. TWX originally used the earlier five-bit Baudot code, which was also used by the competing Telex teleprinter system. Bob Bemer introduced features such as the escape sequence. His British colleague Hugh McGregor Ross helped to popularize this work—according to Bemer, "so much so that the code that was to become ASCII was first called the Bemer-Ross Code in Europe". Bob Bemer (n.d.). Bemer meets Europe. Trailing-edge.com. Accessed 2008-04-14. Employed at IBM at that time On March 11, 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson mandated that all computers purchased by the United States federal government support ASCII, stating: I have also approved recommendations of the Secretary of Commerce regarding standards for recording the Standard Code for Information Interchange on magnetic tapes and paper tapes when they are used in computer operations. All computers and related equipment configurations brought into the Federal Government inventory on and after July 1, 1969, must have the capability to use the Standard Code for Information Interchange and the formats prescribed by the magnetic tape and paper tape standards when these media are used. Lyndon B. Johnson (March 11, 1968). Memorandum Approving the Adoption by the Federal Government of a Standard Code for Information Interchange. The American Presidency Project. Accessed 2008-04-14. Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings such as ISO/IEC 646 that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII, with extensions for characters outside the English alphabet and symbols used outside the United States, such as the symbol for the United Kingdom's pound sterling (£). Almost every country needed an adapted version of ASCII since ASCII only suited the needs of the USA and a few other countries. For example, Canada had its own version that supported French characters. Other adapted encodings include ISCII (India), VISCII (Vietnam), and YUSCII (Yugoslavia). Although these encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, true ASCII is strictly defined only by ANSI standard. ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode character set as the first 128 symbols, so the ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with ASCII, a significant advantage. Asteroid 3568 ASCII is named after the character encoding. ASCII control characters ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for control characters: codes originally intended not to carry printable information, but rather to control devices (such as printers) that make use of ASCII, or to provide meta-information about data streams such as those stored on magnetic tape. For example, character 10 represents the "line feed" function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 8 represents "backspace". RFC 2822 refers to control characters that do not include carriage return, line feed or white space as non-whitespace control characters. RFC 2822 (April 2001). "NO-WS-CTL". Except for the control characters that prescribe elementary line-oriented formatting, ASCII does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Other schemes, such as markup languages, address page and document layout and formatting. The original ASCII standard used only short descriptive phrases for each control character. The ambiguity this left was sometimes intentional (where a character would be used slightly differently on a terminal link than on a data stream) and sometimes more accidental (such as what "delete" means). Probably the most influential single device on the interpretation of these characters was the ASR-33 Teletype series, which was a printing terminal with an available paper tape reader/punch option. Paper tape was a very popular medium for long-term program storage up through the 1980s, lower cost and in some ways less fragile than magnetic tape. In particular, the Teletype 33 machine assignments for codes 17 (Control-Q, DC1, also known as XON), 19 (Control-S, DC3, also known as XOFF), and 127 (DELete) became de facto standards. Because the keytop for the O key also showed a left-arrow symbol (from ASCII-1963, which had this character instead of underscore), a noncompliant use of code 15 (Control-O, Shift In) interpreted as "delete previous character" was also adopted by many early timesharing systems but eventually faded out. The use of Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off) as a handshaking signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow, and Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") to resume sending, persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. Code 127 is officially named "delete" but the Teletype label was "rubout". Since the original standard gave no detailed interpretation for most control codes, interpretations of this code varied. The original Teletype meaning, and the intent of the standard, was to make it an ignored character, the same as NUL (all zeroes). This was specifically useful for paper tape, because punching the all-ones bit pattern on top of an existing mark would obliterate it. Tapes designed to be "hand edited" could even be produced with spaces of extra NULs (blank tape) so that a block of characters could be "rubbed out" and then replacements put into the empty space. As video terminals began to replace printing ones, the value of the "rubout" character was lost. DEC systems, for example, interpreted "Delete" to mean "remove the character before the cursor," and this interpretation also became common in Unix systems. Most other systems used "Backspace" for that meaning and used "Delete" to mean "remove the character at the cursor". That latter interpretation is the most common today. Many more of the control codes have taken on meanings quite different from their original ones. The "escape" character (code 27), for example, was originally intended to allow sending other control characters as literals instead of invoking their meaning. This is the same meaning of "escape" encountered in URL encodings, C language strings, and other systems where certain characters have a reserved meaning. Over time this meaning has been co-opted and has eventually drifted. In modern use, an ESC sent to the terminal usually indicates the start of a command sequence, usually in the form of a so-called "ANSI escape code" (or, more properly, a "Control Sequence Introducer") beginning with ESC followed by a "[" (left-bracket) character. An ESC sent from the terminal is most often used as an out-of-band character used to terminate an operation, as in the TECO and text editors. The inherent ambiguity of many control characters, combined with their historical usage, created problems when transferring "plain text" files between systems. The clearest example of this is the newline problem on various operating systems. On printing terminals there is no question that you terminate a line of text with both "Carriage Return" and "Linefeed". The first returns the printing carriage to the beginning of the line and the second advances to the next line without moving the carriage. However, requiring two characters to mark the end of a line introduced unnecessary complexity and questions as to how to interpret each character when encountered alone. To simplify matters, plain text files on Unix and Amiga systems use line feeds alone to separate lines. Similarly, older Macintosh systems, among others, use only carriage returns in plain text files. Various DEC operating systems used both characters to mark the end of a line, perhaps for compatibility with teletypes. This de facto standard was copied into CP/M and then into MS-DOS and eventually into Microsoft Windows. Transmission of text over the Internet, for protocols as E-mail and the World Wide Web, uses both characters. The DEC operating systems, along with CP/M, tracked file length only in units of disk blocks and used Control-Z (SUB) to mark the end of the actual text in the file (also done for CP/M compatibility in some cases in MS-DOS, though MS-DOS has always recorded exact file-lengths). Text strings ending with the null character are known as ASCIZ or C strings. Binary Oct Dec Hex Abbr PR Printable Representation, the Unicode characters from the area U+2400 to U+2421 reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function. Some browsers may not display these properly. CS Control key Sequence/caret notation, the traditional key sequences for inputting control characters. The caret (^) that begins these sequences is not meant to signify the literal ^ character; rather, it represents the "Control" or "Ctrl" key that must be held down while pressing the second key in the sequence. Note that ^^ means Control-Caret (pressing the "Ctrl" and "^" keys), not Control-Control. The caret-key representation is also used by some software to represent control characters. CEC Character Escape Codes in C programming language and many other languages influenced by it, such as Java and Perl (though not all implementations necessarily support all escape codes). Description000 0000 000 0 00NUL ^@ \0 Null character000 0001 001 1 01SOH ^A Start of Header000 0010 002 2 02STX ^B Start of Text000 0011 003 3 03ETX ^C End of Text000 0100 004 4 04EOT ^D End of Transmission000 0101 005 5 05ENQ ^E Enquiry000 0110 006 6 06ACK ^F Acknowledgment000 0111 007 7 07BEL^G \a Bell000 1000 010 8 08BS^H \b Backspace The Backspace character can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems. The ambiguity surrounding Backspace comes from mismatches between the intent of the human or software transmitting the Backspace and the interpretation by the software receiving it. If the transmitter expects Backspace to erase the previous character and the receiver expects Delete to be used to erase the previous character, many receivers will echo the Backspace as "^H", just as they would echo any other uninterpreted control character. (A similar mismatch in the other direction may yield Delete displayed as "^?".) 000 1001 011 9 09HT^I \t Horizontal Tab000 1010 012 10 0ALF^J \n Line feed000 1011 013 11 0BVT^K \v Vertical Tab000 1100 014 12 0CFF^L \f Form feed000 1101 015 13 0DCR^M \r Carriage return The Carriage Return character can also be entered by pressing the "Return", "Ret", "Enter", or key on most systems. 000 1110 016 14 0ESO^N Shift Out000 1111 017 15 0FSI^O Shift In001 0000 020 16 10DLE^P Data Link Escape001 0001 021 17 11DC1^Q Device Control 1 (oft. XON)001 0010 022 18 12DC2^R Device Control 2001 0011 023 19 13DC3^S Device Control 3 (oft. XOFF)001 0100 024 20 14DC4^T Device Control 4001 0101 025 21 15NAK^U Negative Acknowledgement001 0110 026 22 16SYN^V Synchronous Idle001 0111 027 23 17ETB^W End of Trans. Block001 1000 030 24 18CAN^X Cancel001 1001 031 25 19EM^Y End of Medium001 1010 032 26 1ASUB^Z Substitute001 1011 033 27 1BESC^[ \e The '\e' escape sequence is not part of ISO C and many other language specifications. However, it is understood by several compilers. Escape The Escape character can also be entered by pressing the "Escape" or "Esc" key on some systems. 001 1100 034 28 1CFS^\ File Separator001 1101 035 29 1DGS^] Group Separator001 1110 036 30 1ERS^^ Record Separator001 1111 037 31 1FUS^_ Unit Separator111 1111 177 127 7FDEL^? Delete The Delete character can also be entered by pressing the "Delete" or "Del" key. It can also be entered by pressing the "Backspace", "Bksp", or ← key on some systems. ASCII printable characters Code 0x20, the "space" character, denotes the space between words, as produced by the space-bar of a keyboard. The "space" character is considered an invisible graphic rather than a control character. Mackenzie, p.223. Codes 0x21 to 0x7E, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols. Seven-bit ASCII provided seven "national" characters and, if the combined hardware and software permit, can use overstrikes to simulate some additional international characters: in such a scenario a backspace can precede a grave accent (which the American and British standards, but only those standards, also call "opening single quotation mark"), a backtick, or a breath mark (inverted vel). Binary Oct Dec Hex Glyph010 0000 040 32 20 010 0001 041 33 21 !010 0010 042 34 22 "010 0011 043 35 23 #010 0100 044 36 24 $010 0101 045 37 25 %010 0110 046 38 26 &010 0111 047 39 27 '010 1000 050 40 28 (010 1001 051 41 29 )010 1010 052 42 2A *010 1011 053 43 2B +010 1100 054 44 2C ,010 1101 055 45 2D -010 1110 056 46 2E .010 1111 057 47 2F /011 0000 060 48 30 0011 0001 061 49 31 1011 0010 062 50 32 2011 0011 063 51 33 3011 0100 064 52 34 4011 0101 065 53 35 5011 0110 066 54 36 6011 0111 067 55 37 7011 1000 070 56 38 8011 1001 071 57 39 9011 1010 072 58 3A :011 1011 073 59 3B ;011 1100 074 60 3C <011 1101 075 61 3D =011 1110 076 62 3E >011 1111 077 63 3F ? Binary Oct Dec Hex Glyph100 0000 100 64 40 @100 0001 101 65 41 A100 0010 102 66 42 B100 0011 103 67 43 C100 0100 104 68 44 D100 0101 105 69 45 E100 0110 106 70 46 F100 0111 107 71 47 G100 1000 110 72 48 H100 1001 111 73 49 I100 1010 112 74 4A J100 1011 113 75 4B K100 1100 114 76 4C L100 1101 115 77 4D M100 1110 116 78 4E N100 1111 117 79 4F O101 0000 120 80 50 P101 0001 121 81 51 Q101 0010 122 82 52 R101 0011 123 83 53 S101 0100 124 84 54 T101 0101 125 85 55 U101 0110 126 86 56 V101 0111 127 87 57 W101 1000 130 88 58 X101 1001 131 89 59 Y101 1010 132 90 5A Z101 1011 133 91 5B [101 1100 134 92 5C \101 1101 135 93 5D ]101 1110 136 94 5E ^101 1111 137 95 5F _ Binary Oct Dec Hex Glyph110 0000 140 96 60 `110 0001 141 97 61 a110 0010 142 98 62 b110 0011 143 99 63 c110 0100 144 100 64 d110 0101 145 101 65 e110 0110 146 102 66 f110 0111 147 103 67 g110 1000 150 104 68 h110 1001 151 105 69 i110 1010 152 106 6A j110 1011 153 107 6B k110 1100 154 108 6C l110 1101 155 109 6D m110 1110 156 110 6E n110 1111 157 111 6F o111 0000 160 112 70 p111 0001 161 113 71 q111 0010 162 114 72 r111 0011 163 115 73 s111 0100 164 116 74 t111 0101 165 117 75 u111 0110 166 118 76 v111 0111 167 119 77 w111 1000 170 120 78 x111 1001 171 121 79 y111 1010 172 122 7A z111 1011 173 123 7B {111 1100 174 124 7C \|111 1101 175 125 7D }111 1110 176 126 7E ~ Aliases A June 1992 RFC RFC 1345 (June 1992). and the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority registry of character sets recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet: ANSI_X3.4-1968 (canonical name) iso-ir-6 ANSI_X3.4-1986 ISO_646.irv:1991 ASCII (with ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 variants) ISO646-US US-ASCII (preferred MIME name Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (May 14, 2007). "Character Sets". Accessed 2008-04-14. ) us IBM367 cp367 csASCII Of these, the IANA encourages use of the name "US-ASCII" for Internet uses of ASCII. One often finds this in the optional "charset" parameter in the Content-Type header of some MIME messages, in the equivalent "meta" element of some HTML documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prologue of some XML documents. Variants As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII in order to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as "ASCII extensions", although some misuse that term to cover all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range. The PETSCII Code used by Commodore International for their 8-bit systems is probably unique among post-1970 codes in being based on ASCII-1963 instead of the far more common ASCII-1967, such as found on the ZX Spectrum computer. Atari and Galaksija computers also used ASCII variants. Incompatibility vs interoperability From early in its development, "Specific Criteria," attachment to memo from R. W. Reach, "X3-2 Meeting -- September 14 and 15," September 18, 1961 ASCII was intended to be just one of several national variants of an international character code standard, ultimately published as ISO/IEC 646 (1972), which would share most characters in common but assign other locally-useful characters to several code points reserved for "national use." However, the four years that elapsed between the publication of ASCII-1963 and ISO's first acceptance of an international recommendation in 1967 R. Maréchal, ISO/TC 97 - Computers and Information Processing: Acceptance of Draft ISO Recommendation No. 1052, December 22, 1967 caused ASCII's choices for the national use characters to appear to be de facto standards for the world, leading to confusion and incompatibility once other countries did begin to make their own assignments to these code points. ISO/IEC 646, like ASCII, was a 7-bit character set. It made no additional codes available, so the same code points encoded different characters in different countries. Escape codes were defined to indicate which national variant applied to a piece of text, but they were rarely used, so it was often impossible to know what variant to work with and therefore which character a code represented, and text-processing systems could generally cope with only one variant anyway. Because the bracket and brace characters of ASCII were assigned to "national use" code points that were used for accented letters in other national variants of ISO/IEC 646, a German, French, or Swedish, etc., programmer had to get used to reading and writing ä aÄiÜ='Ön'; ü instead of { a[i]='\n'; } C trigraphs were created to solve this issue in ANSI C, although their late introduction and inconsistent implementation in compilers limited their use. Eventually, as 8-, 16-, and 32-bit computers began to replace 18- and 36-bit computers as the norm, it became common to use an 8-bit byte to store each character in memory, providing an opportunity for extended, 8-bit, relatives of ASCII, with the 128 additional characters providing room to avoid most of the ambiguity that had been necessary in 7-bit codes. For example, IBM developed 8-bit code pages, such as code page 437, which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as smiley faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 positions. Operating systems such as DOS supported these code-pages, and manufacturers of IBM PCs supported them in hardware. Digital Equipment Corporation developed the Multinational Character Set (DEC-MCS) for use in the popular VT220 terminal. Eight-bit standards such as ISO/IEC 8859 (derived from the DEC-MCS) and Mac OS Roman developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact, but adding additional character definitions after the first 128 (i.e., 7-bit) characters. This enabled representation of characters used in a broader range of languages. Because there were several competing 8-bit code standards, they continued to suffer from incompatibilities and limitations. Still, ISO-8859-1 (Latin 1), its variant Windows-1252 (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1), and the original 7-bit ASCII remain the most common character encodings in use today. Unicode Unicode and the ISO/IEC 10646 Universal Character Set (UCS) have a much wider array of characters, and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII is limited to 128 characters, Unicode and the UCS support more characters by separating the concepts of unique identification (using natural numbers called code points) and encoding (to 8-, 16- or 32-bit binary formats, called UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32). To permit backward compatibility, the 128 ASCII and 256 ISO-8859-1 (Latin 1) characters are assigned Unicode/UCS code points that are the same as their codes in the earlier standards. Therefore, ASCII can be considered a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode/UCS, and, conversely, the UTF-8 encoding forms are binary-compatible with ASCII for code points below 128, meaning all ASCII is valid UTF-8. The other encoding forms resemble ASCII in how they represent the first 128 characters of Unicode, but use 16 or 32 bits per character, so they require conversion for compatibility. (similarly UCS-2 is upwards compatible with UTF-16) Order Collation of data is sometimes done in ASCII-code order rather than "standard" alphabetical order. The main deviations in ASCII are: capitals come before lowercase letters, i.e. "Z" before "a" characters in extended character sets such as "é" come after "z" The slang expression ASCIIbetical is sometimes used for this order. ASCIIbetical definition. PC Magazine. Accessed 2008-04-14. This ordering can be refined by converting uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values, or for more sophisticated purposes, applying a collation map to bring accented characters into the correct positions. See Also ASCII art References Further reading R.W. Bemer, "A Proposal for Character Code Compatibility," Communications of the ACM, Vol. 3. No. 2, February, 1960, pp. 71–72 R.W. Bemer, "The Babel of Codes Prior to ASCII: The 1960 Survey of Coded Character Sets: The Reasons for ASCII", May 23, 2003 (from H.J. Smith, Jr., F.A. Williams, "Survey of punched card codes", Communications of the ACM 3, 639 & 642, December 1960) External links A history of ASCII, its roots and predecessors by Tom Jennings (October 29, 2004) (accessed 2005-12-17) The ASCII subset of Unicode The Evolution of Character Codes, 1874-1968	ASCII \|@lemmatized printable:6 ascii:80 character:122 number:7 decimal:4 american:13 standard:41 code:74 information:15 interchange:9 audio:1 pronunciation:1 merriam:1 webster:1 accessed:8 cod:6 use:50 express:1 mainly:1 write:3 form:7 english:4 word:2 implement:1 encode:11 scheme:4 base:4 ordering:2 alphabet:7 represent:10 text:14 computer:10 communication:3 equipment:3 device:10 work:7 modern:2 support:8 many:12 original:7 historical:2 basis:1 historically:1 develop:7 telegraphic:1 first:14 commercial:2 seven:7 bit:38 teleprinter:5 promote:1 bell:2 data:10 service:1 formally:1 begin:7 october:4 meeting:5 association:3 asa:4 subcommittee:4 edition:1 publish:3 mary:1 brandel:1 july:3 debut:1 cnn:1 june:4 major:1 revision:1 usa:2 usas:1 united:5 state:5 america:2 institute:4 recent:1 update:2 national:11 system:23 set:13 ansi:8 inc:1 march:3 compare:2 earlier:2 telegraph:4 propose:3 order:6 convenient:1 sorting:1 e:8 alphabetization:1 list:1 add:2 feature:2 include:7 definition:3 non:4 printing:5 mostly:1 obsolete:1 control:50 affect:1 process:2 international:8 organization:2 standardization:3 december:4 iso:17 internet:6 assign:8 authority:3 registry:2 alternate:1 u:11 version:3 space:10 consider:4 invisible:2 graphic:9 commonly:1 used:1 world:4 wide:4 web:3 surpass:1 utf:9 growth:1 history:2 chart:1 structure:4 two:6 column:7 special:4 four:3 letter:11 auspex:1 committee:10 call:6 later:2 group:5 become:7 usasi:3 mackenzie:13 p:15 ultimately:2 design:2 early:5 like:3 encoding:10 specifies:1 correspondence:1 digital:3 pattern:5 symbol:9 grapheme:1 allow:7 communicate:2 store:3 orient:2 language:8 alphabetic:1 numerical:1 digit:4 compatible:4 comité:1 consultatif:1 téléphonique:1 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parenthesis:3 take:2 european:1 continental:1 europe:3 expect:3 replace:5 accented:3 à:1 french:3 variation:3 next:2 felt:1 essential:1 start:5 message:3 som:2 end:11 address:3 eoa:1 eom:1 eot:1 wru:1 ru:2 reserved:1 synchronous:2 idle:1 sync:1 acknowledge:1 ack:1 maximize:1 ham:1 distance:1 fill:1 leave:3 without:2 assigned:1 meaning:9 future:1 unassigned:1 seem:1 obvious:1 whether:1 instead:5 indecision:1 last:1 may:7 ccitt:2 party:2 new:3 columns:1 brief:1 report:4 tc:3 sc:2 incorporate:2 change:3 task:3 approval:1 pentagon:1 building:1 washington:1 dc:1 locate:1 lowercase:3 cause:3 differ:1 single:3 simplify:2 insensitive:2 matching:1 construction:1 keyboard:2 printer:3 brace:2 vertical:2 line:12 meet:2 rename:1 header:2 soh:1 moving:1 remove:4 others:2 subsequently:1 finally:1 occasionally:1 retronamed:1 significant:2 track:2 magnetic:5 attempt:1 deal:1 punched:2 card:2 format:3 enter:7 telephone:1 twx:2 teletype:5 area:2 exchange:1 network:1 originally:3 five:1 compete:2 telex:1 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6,442	Kennellyâ%80%93Heaviside_layer	The Kennelly-Heaviside layer, also known as the E region or simply the Heaviside layer, is a layer of ionised gas occurring between roughly 90-150 km (56-93 mi) above the ground — one of several layers in the Earth's ionosphere. It reflects medium-frequency radio waves, and because of this reflection radio waves can be propagated beyond the horizon. Propagation is affected by time of day. During the daytime the solar wind presses this layer closer to the Earth, thereby limiting how far it can reflect radio waves. On the night side of the Earth, the solar wind drags the ionosphere further away, thereby greatly increasing the range which radio waves can travel by reflection, called skywave. The extent of the effect is further influenced by the season (because of the differing distance between Earth and the Sun), and the amount of sunspot activity.. History Its existence was predicted in 1902 independently and almost simultaneously by the American electrical engineer Arthur Edwin Kennelly (1861-1939) and the British physicist Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925). However, it was not until 1924 that its existence was detected by Edward V. Appleton. In 1899, Nikola Tesla, in his Colorado Springs experiments, transmitted extremely low frequency electromagnetic waves between the earth and ionosphere, up to the Kennelly-Heaviside layer (Grotz, 1997). Based on these experiments, he calculated a value for the resonant frequency of the layer that was within 15% of modern accepted value. (Corum, 1986) In the 1950s, researchers confirmed the resonance frequency was at the low range 6.8 Hz. Cultural impact The "Heaviside layer" is used as a symbol for heaven (in the afterlife sense) in Andrew Lloyd Webber's musical Cats. This reference is based on a quote found in a letter written by T. S. Eliot, whose book Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats forms the basis of the musical. In the musical, one cat is chosen each year by Old Deuteronomy to go to the Heaviside Layer and begin a new life. In the song "The Journey to the Heaviside Layer", it is stated that the Heaviside Layer is "past the Russell Hotel" and "past the Jellicle moon", indicating that it is very far away and difficult to access. T. S. Eliot also refers to the "Heaviside Layer" in his play "The Family Reunion" which explores issues around the the afterlife, heaven and hell. In the end of the musical, Grizabella is chosen to go the Heaviside Layer. She does so by ascending on a flying tire until she reaches a structure resembling clouds, into which she disappears. The "Heaviside Layer" is another name for the ionosphere. There are two kinds of ions, anions and cations. This reference may be a scientific pun by T. S. Eliot. Another theory is that "Heaviside" can stand for "heaven", seeing as how they are similar in beginning spelling. References Corum, J. F., and Corum, K. L., "A Physical Interpretation of the Colorado Springs Data". Proceedings of the Second International Tesla Symposium. Colorado Springs, Colorado, 1986. Grotz, Toby, "The True Meaning of Wireless Transmission of power". Tesla : A Journal of Modern Science, 1997.	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6,443	Fridtjof_Nansen	Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen (10 October 1861 – 13 May 1930) was a Norwegian explorer, scientist and diplomat. Nansen was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922 for his work as a League of Nations High Commissioner. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest personalities in the history of Norway. Nansen initially started out as pioneer sports skier, and soon became interested in Arctic exploration. He led the first crossing of Greenland by ski, and achieved great success with his Arctic expedition aboard Fram. He later became noted as a zoologist and oceanographer, and was a pioneer of the neuron theory. He was also a distinguished diplomat, eventually becoming Commissioner of refugees for the League of Nations. He was married to Eva Nansen (died 1907) and was the father of noted architect and humanist Odd Nansen and the grandfather of Eigil Nansen. First crossing of Greenland Nansen made his first voyage to Greenland waters in a sealing ship in 1882. In 1883 he became inspired to attempt a crossing of Greenland by ski after hearing of Nordenskiöld's expedition of the same year. Mowat, Farley (1967). The Polar Passion: The Quest for the North Pole. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Ltd, p. 199. Nansen's plan was to cross the island from east to west, which would require navigating through an almost impenetrable barrier of pack ice to land a ship on the east coast. Financed by State Councillor Augustinus Gamel, a Danish businessman, and Eigil Knuth's grandfather, Nansen assembled a team in 1888 consisting of Otto Sverdrup, Olaf Dietrichson, Kristian Kristiansen Trana, Samuel Balto and Ole Nielsen Ravna. They hired the Norwegian sealing ship Jason and set sail from Iceland on 5 June 1888. On 17 June, the Jason dropped them off in two boats, 35 miles from land opposite Sermilikfjord. Mowat, Farley (1967). The Polar Passion: The Quest for the North Pole. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Ltd, p. 206. From this point until 10 August, the men sailed and rowed approximately 150 miles up the east coast in order to locate a suitable landing place. Mowat, Farley (1967). The Polar Passion: The Quest for the North Pole. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Ltd, p. 205. The crossing by ski took 41 days, ending near Godhan Fjord on the west coast. Mowat, Farley (1967). The Polar Passion: The Quest for the North Pole. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart Ltd, p. 222. Fram expedition to the Arctic In 1893, Nansen sailed to the Arctic in the Fram (a purpose-built, round-hulled ship later used by Roald Amundsen to transport his expedition to Antarctica) which was deliberately allowed to drift north through the sea ice, a journey that took more than three years. Nansen's theory was premised on an article written by a Professor Mohn, in which the professor conjectured that articles determined to be from the Jeannette which foundered northeast of the New Siberian Islands and found on the southwest coast of Greenland must have drifted across the Polar Sea. In the introduction to Farthest North, Nansen said "It immediately occurred to me that here lay the route ready at hand" across the Polar Sea. Nansen conjectured the Polar current's warm water "could hardly have been other than the Gulf Stream"<ref>"></ pg 235</ref> and was the agent behind the movement of the ice. During this first crossing of the Arctic Ocean the expedition became the first to discover the existence of a deep polar basin. Nansen (left) and Johansen at Cape Flora after their trek across the pack ice. When, after more than one year in the ice it became apparent that Fram would not reach the North Pole, Nansen, accompanied by Hjalmar Johansen (1867–1913), continued north on foot when the Fram reached 84° 4´ N. This was a daring decision, as it meant leaving the ship not to return, and a return journey over drifting ice to the nearest known land some five hundred miles south of the point where they started. Nansen and Johansen started north on 14 March 1895 with three sledges, two kayaks and twenty-eight dogs. On 8 April 1895, they reached 86° 14´ N, the highest latitude then attained. The two men then turned around and started back, and did not find the land they expected at 83°N (it did not exist). In June 1895, they had to use their kayaks to cross open leads of water and on 24 July they came across a series of islands. Here they built a hut of moss, stones, and snow, and wintered, surviving on walrus blubber and polar bear meat. In May of the following year (1896), they started off again for Spitsbergen. After travelling for a month, not knowing where they were, they happened upon the British Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition (led by Frederick George Jackson) whose party were wintering on the island. Jackson informed them that they were in fact on Franz Josef Land. Finally, Nansen and Johansen made it back to Vardø in the north of Norway. Apsley Cherry-Garrard, The Worst Journey in the World, Carroll & Graf Publishers, 1922, p. xx-xxiii The BBC made a documentary of Nansen's arctic expedition, entitled "The Ice King", which was first shown in autumn 2008. He was the first to note and describe dead water. Fridtjof Nansen Dr. Nansen in 1914 during a trip to Siberia to write Gjennem Sibirien. Academic career and scientific works Nansen was a professor of zoology and later oceanography at the Royal Frederick University in Oslo and contributed with groundbreaking works in the fields of neurology and fluid dynamics. Nansen was one of the founders of the neuron theory stating that the neural network consists of individual cells communicating with each other. He set out to study the nervous system of invertebrates and soon he became preoccupied with the question of how nerve cells communicated with each other. At that time, there was a major discussion whether the nervous system was a continuous structure of interconnected cells like the circulatory system (reticular theory) or if it consisted of separate neurons as key elements (the neuron doctrine). It was a clever choice to look at this basic features of the nervous system in model organisms with a lucid nervous system, however his microscope could not tell him the answers without utilizing the newest technology developed by the nobel laureate Camillo Golgi. In February 1886 he took off to Italy, to Pavia, to work with Golgi. After mastering the technique during his short stay, he continued his explorations of the nervous system at the Dohrn's marine biological station in Naples, where he examinined seaborne life forms. Some believe Nansen was the first investigator to apply the Golgi technique to invertebrate chordates. His work developed in line with and supported the work of contemporary scientists such as His and Forel, in showing that nerve cells all were enclosed by membranes, implying that nerve cells are discontinuous. He published these major contributions to the currently well accepted neuronal theory of the brain in German and English in established international journals, but it was not until he translated these papers into Norwegian that he received his doctorate degree in 1887 in Oslo. In this, he not only became the godfather of Norwegian (Scandic) neuroscience, he also became an early proponent of the neuronal theory, originally put forth by Ramón y Cajal, who shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Golgi in 1906. Nansen did extensive research into the behavior and origin of ocean currents, following his experiences from the Fram expedition. He was, together with the Swedish mathematician V. Walfrid Ekman, deeply involved in the discovery of how currents are generated from the interaction between planetary rotation (Coriolis acceleration) and frictional forces and the formulation of the theory of the Ekman spiral that explains the phenomenon. He also invented a bottle for collection of water samples from various depths known as the Nansen bottle that, further developed by Shale Niskin, is still in use. Diplomatic and political career Before the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden on 7 June 1905, Nansen had been a devoted republican, along with other prominent Norwegians like the authors Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson and Arne Garborg. However, after hearing compelling arguments from Sigurd Ibsen and others, Nansen changed his position (as did Bjørnson and Garborg) and was thereafter influential in convincing Prince Carl of Denmark that he should accept the position as king of Norway. In a referendum where the Norwegian electorate chose between a monarchy and a republic, Nansen campaigned for monarchy, certain it was the right thing for Norway, although the general view was that Nansen would be elected President if Norwegians chose republican rule. Carl was crowned as King Haakon VII after the referendum results indicated Norwegians' strong preference for monarchy. Following Norway's independence, Nansen was appointed as the Norwegian ambassador in London (1906-08), becoming a close friend of King Edward VII and assuring support from Britain in the campaign for an international guarantee of Norwegian territorial integrity. In the period between the wars, Nansen's admirers made an unsuccessful effort to make him Prime Minister in a broad government based on all the non-socialist parties. This was proposed to counter the growth of the Norwegian Labour Party. The rejection of this attempt to establish a Nansen government also marked Norway's final transition into the parlamentary system. In 1925 Nansen was willingly put forward, along with Christian Michelsen, as co-founder of Fedrelandslaget (The Fatherland Society), an anti-socialist political organisation that folded at the outbreak of the Second World War. At this time Nansen was clearly sceptical towards the party system. In a 1928 speech he attacked the political parties in general. Nansen told the listeners; "It's my conviction that the party system has become a real danger to the norwegian society. [...] The Party-fences are putrefied. Try them and they will break at the first try". In this speech he was also sceptical towards the established full-time politicans as well. He said "The people will get the government they deserve, and if the government is weak, it is because the people are weak. But the politicians will understand when they see what the voters wants. [...] And if they don't, well, then we just throw them away". Nansens speech in Tønsberg 1928. From the university of Bergen League of Nations Nansen in 1930 After World War I, Nansen became involved in the League of Nations as High Commissioner for several initiatives, including the organization of war prisoner exchanges and help for Russian refugees, during which campaign he created the Nansen passport for refugees. In his work to help the Russian peasants he was aided by Vidkun Quisling. In 1917 and 1918, Nansen was in Washington D.C., where he convinced the allies to allow essential food supplies to be brought through their blockade. In 1920, the League of Nations asked Nansen to aid the return of prisoners of war, most of whom were in Russia. With limited funds Nansen brought 450,000 prisoners of war home within a year and a half. In 1921, he was asked by the League of Nations to administer the newly-formed High Commission for Refugees. Nansen created the “Nansen passport” for refugees, which eventually became recognised by fifty-two governments. In December 1920, together with Lord Robert Cecil, Nansen lobbied, unsuccessfully, for Georgia’s admission to the League of Nations. Nichol, James P. (1995), Diplomacy in the former Soviet Republics, p. 138. Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 0275951928 In 1921 the Red Cross asked Nansen, to organize a relief program for the millions of Russians dying in the Russian Famine of 1921-1922. Western nations suspected that the Russian famine was created by government mismanagement of the economy and it was hard to obtain funding, but Nansen found enough supplies to help between 7,000,000 and 22,000,000 Russians. For the next few years, Nansen undertook further humanitarian work, and in 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. He was involved in the negotiations between the Greek and Turkish governments that lead to the Treaty of Lausanne. Clark, B. (2006). "Twice a Stranger". London: Granta Books. In the latter half of the 1920s he worked to solve the crisis starting as the Armenian Genocide of 1915 and involving the Armenians in Turkey. In present Armenia he is regarded as both a true humanitarian and a hero. The Nobel institute on Nansen In 1896, he was awarded the Grand Cross of The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav and in 1925, he received the Order's Collar. The Nansen Academy was founded in Lillehammer, Norway, in 1938. It was given the Nansen name by his family to work for democracy and the human ideals in a time of dictatorships in Europe. Its work to increase dialogue in war zones and for peace education continues today. Posthumous honours Nansen Refugee Award formerly known as the Nansen Medal has (since 1955) been given out yearly to a person or group for outstanding services in supporting refugee causes by the UNHCR. Nansen International Office for Refugees, that existed from 1931 to 1939 and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1938, was named after Nansen and was created to continue his work as a High Commissioner. Royal Norwegian Navy has named several ships after Nansen, beginning with Offshore Patrol Vessel (OPV) HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen in 1930, and today the Fridtjof Nansen class of frigates, and the lead ship, HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen is named after him. Norwegian Humanist Academy, Nansenskolen, Nansen Academy named after Fridtjof Nansen. Crater on the Moon and another on Mars are named Nansen. Asteroid 853 Nansenia, named after Fridtjof Nansen. Fridtjof Nansen Institute, named after Nansen, and located in his old home Polhøgda, in Lysaker, Norway. School house at the Anglican Church Grammar School School house at the Island School, Hong Kong European Geophysical Society has, since 1996, awarded a Fridtjof Nansen Medal for distinguished research in Oceanography. EGS on their Nansen medal Nansen Environmental and Remote Sensing Center, non-profit research institute affiliated with the University of Bergen NERSC home page on Nansen Nansen Programme, Norwegian programme supporting developing countries in fisheries research and management. Its research vessel is named Dr. Fridtjof Nansen. Centre for Development Co-operation in Fisheries page on the Nansen Programme Nansen Village, London-based accommodation for post-graduate international student families Nansen Lodge and Nansen Park, Staten Island, New York, facilities of the Sons of Norway fraternal organization. Several geographical features and streets in different parts of the world are named after Fridtjof Nansen. Natural features Mount Nansen and Mount Fridtjof Nansen in Antarctica Mount Nansen, Kyrgizstan Nansen Island (Antarctica) Nansen Island (Kara Sea) Nansen Island (Franz Josef Land) Eva Island (Franz Josef Land) named after Eva Nansen, Fridtjof's wife. Streets Fridtjof Nansens vei (street), Narvik, Norway Fridtjof Nansens gate (street), Hamar, Norway Nansens gate (street), Kongsberg, Norway Kongsberg municipality on naming Nansen street (Norwegian) Fridtjof Nansen Street, Kosovo Press release on street in Kosovo Fridtjof Nansens gate (street), Namsos, Norway Fridjof Nansens plass (square), Oslo, Norway Oslo municipality on the square (Norwegian) Fridtjof Nansen plass (square), Tromsø, Norway Fridtjof Nansens Vej (street), Århus Nord, Denmark Fridtjof Nansens Plads (place), København Øst, Denmark Fridtjof Nansen Strasse, Spittal an der Drau, Austria Fridtjof-Nansen-Strasse, Frechen, Germany Nansensgade, København, Denmark Nansensgade, Odense, Denmark Nansen Street, Salford, United Kingdom Fridtjof Nansen Street, Sofia, Bulgaria Nansen Lodge, Staten Island, New York, U.S. Nansen Ave., Poole, Dorset, England Nansenstraat, Gouda, The Netherlands Fridtjof-Nansen-Straße, Essen, Germany Nansen walk, Corby, England Nansen Ct. New City Park, New York, U.S. Nansen St., Yerevan, Armenia Nansenstrasse, Zürich, Switzerland Rue Fridtjof Nansen, Amnéville-les-Thermes, France See also Franz Josef Land History of Arctic haze Roald Amundsen Valerian Albanov References Further reading by Nansen Nansen, F. (1999). Farthest North. New York: Modern Library. (English translation of Nansen's own account of the Fram journey.) Nansen, Fridtjof (1911). In Northern Mists. Arctic Exploration in Early Times . London: Heinemann. 2 vols. Nansen, Fridtjof (1895). The First Crossing of Greenland.Longmans Green. by others Huntford, Roland. (1997). Nansen. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. (26pp pamphlet); Sides, Hampton (2009) Polar Saga Part One 1893-1896: 1,000 Days In The Ice, National Geographic, p.108, January 2009; Miller, Peter (2009) Polar Saga Part Two 2007: Chasing Nansen's Ghost, National Geographic, p.120, January 2009 External links Nobel Prize biography Nansen page w/pictures Fridtjof Nansen Nobel Peace Prize laureate Fridtjof Nansen The Fram Museum (Frammuseet) Fridtjof Nansen Picture Database Map of the Fram voyage and Nansen's journey at the Fram Museum (Frammuseet).	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6,444	Genetic_engineering	Elements of genetic engineering Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's genes. Genetic engineering is different from traditional breeding, where the organism's genes are manipulated indirectly. Genetic engineering uses the techniques of molecular cloning and transformation to alter the structure and characteristics of genes directly. Genetic engineering techniques have found some successes in numerous applications. Some examples are in improving crop technology, the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the oncomouse (cancer mouse) for research. The term "genetic engineering" was coined in Jack Williamson's science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951, two years before James Watson and Francis Crick showed that DNA could be the medium of transmission of genetic information. Engineering Kenyans examining insect-resistant transgenic Bt corn. There are a number of ways through which genetic engineering is accomplished. Essentially, the process has five main steps Isolation of the genes of interest Insertion of the genes into a transfer vector Transfer of the vector to the organism to be modified Transformation of the cells of the organism Selection of the genetically modified organism (GMO) from those that have not been successfully modified Isolation is achieved by identifying the gene of interest that the scientist wishes to insert into the organism, usually using existing knowledge of the various functions of genes. DNA information can be obtained from cDNA or gDNA libraries, and amplified using PCR techniques. If necessary, i.e. for insertion of eukaryotic genomic DNA into prokaryotes, further modification may be carried out such as removal of introns or ligating prokaryotic promoters. Insertion of a gene into a vector such as a plasmid can be done once the gene of interest is isolated. Other vectors can also be used, such as viral vectors, bacterial conjugation, liposomes, or even direct insertion using a gene gun. Restriction enzymes and ligases are of great use in this crucial step if it is being inserted into prokaryotic or viral vectors. Daniel Nathans and Hamilton Smith received the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their isolation of restriction endonucleases. Once the vector is obtained, it can be used to transform the target organism. Depending on the vector used, it can be complex or simple. For example, using raw DNA with gene guns is a fairly straightforward process but with low success rates, where the DNA is coated with molecules such as gold and fired directly into a cell. Other more complex methods, such as bacterial transformation or using viruses as vectors have higher success rates. After transformation, the GMO can be selected from those that have failed to take up the vector in various ways. One method is screening with DNA probes that can stick to the gene of interest that was supposed to have been transplanted. Another is to package genes conferring resistance to certain chemicals such as antibiotics or herbicides into the vector. This chemical is then applied ensuring that only those cells that have taken up the vector will survive. Applications The first genetically engineered medicine was synthetic human insulin, approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration in 1982. Another early application of genetic engineering was to create human growth hormone as replacement for a compound that was previously extracted from human cadavers. In 1987 the FDA approved the first genetically engineered vaccine for humans, for hepatitis B. Since these early uses of the technology in medicine, the use of GM has gradually expanded to supply a number of other drugs and vaccines. One of the best-known applications of genetic engineering is the creation of GMOs for food use (genetically modified foods); such foods resist insect pests, bacterial or fungal infection, resist herbicides to improve yield, have longer freshness than otherwise, or have superior nutritional value. In materials science, a genetically modified virus has been used to construct a more environmentally friendly lithium-ion battery. http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2009/virus-battery-0402.html New virus-built battery could power cars, electronic devices Hidden Ingredient In New, Greener Battery: A Virus Genetic engineering and research Although there has been a revolution in the biological sciences in the past twenty years, there is still a great deal that remains to be discovered. The completion of the sequencing of the human genome, as well as the genomes of most agriculturally and scientifically important animals and plants, has increased the possibilities of genetic research immeasurably. Expedient and inexpensive access to comprehensive genetic data has become a reality with billions of sequenced nucleotides already online and annotated. Knockout mice Loss of function experiments, such as in a gene knockout experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes. This allows the experimenter to analyze the defects caused by this mutation, and can be considerably useful in unearthing the function of a gene. It is used especially frequently in developmental biology. A knockout experiment involves the creation and manipulation of a DNA construct in vitro, which, in a simple knockout, consists of a copy of the desired gene, which has been slightly altered such as to cripple its function. The construct is then taken up by embryonic stem cells, wherein the engineered copy of the gene replaces the organism's own gene. These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers. Another method, useful in organisms such as Drosophila (fruitfly), is to induce mutations in a large population and then screen the progeny for the desired mutation. A similar process can be used in both plants and prokaryotes. Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently. Tracking experiments, which seek to gain information about the localization and interaction of the desired protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) that will allow easy visualization of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment. More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences that will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies. Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced. In these experiments, the DNA sequence before the DNA that codes for a protein, known as a gene's promoter, is reintroduced into an organism with the protein coding region replaced by a reporter gene such as GFP or an enzyme that catalyzes the production of a dye. Thus the time and place where a particular protein is produced can be observed. Expression studies can be taken a step further by altering the promoter to find which pieces are crucial for the proper expression of the gene and are actually bound by transcription factor proteins; this process is known as promoter bashing. Human genetic engineering Human genetic engineering can be used to treat genetic disease, but there is a difference between treating the disease in an individual and changing the genome that gets passed down to that person's descendants (germ-line genetic engineering). Human genetic engineering is already being used on a small scale to allow infertile women with genetic defects in their mitochondria to have children. Healthy human eggs from a second mother are used. The child produced this way has genetic information from two mothers and one father. The changes made are germ line changes and will probably be passed down from generation to generation, and, thus, are a permanent change to the human genome. Human genetic engineering has the potential to change human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character, and behaviour. It may potentially be used in creating more dramatic changes in humans. There are many unresolved ethical issues and concerns surrounding this technology, and it remains a controversial topic. Forms Genetic engineering can either transfer genes between organisms that are unrelated (transgenesis) and could therefore not occur naturally or between organisms that are related (cisgenesis) and so could occur naturally. References Reading list See also Bioethics Biotechnology Biotechnology High School-- a high school in New Jersey focusing mostly on Biotechnology. Biological engineering Canola Cloning DuPont Ethics of technology Eugenics Experimental evolution Genetic erosion Gene flow Genetic pollution Gene pool Genetically modified food Genetically modified organisms Transgene Human genetic engineering Ice-minus bacteria List of emerging technologies Marker assisted selection Monsanto Recombinant DNA Research ethics Stem cell Synthetic biology Transgenic bacteria Paratransgenesis External links General Ministry for the Environment NZ - Report of the Royal Commission on Genetic Modification GMO Safety - Information about research projects on the biological safety of genetically modified plants. Genetic Engineering A UK site for students, with case studies and ethical responses Introduction to Genetic Engineering Covers general information on Genetic Engineering including cloning, stem cells and DNA. The 8th International Transgenic Technology Conference News Genetically altered babies born, BBC News, Friday, 4 May, 2001 DEFRA - Genetic Modification (GM) BBC News - GM potato trials given go-ahead - 01/12/06 Brightsurf Science News - New study finds genetically engineered crops could play a role in sustainable agriculture - 06/08/07 Research highlights on reporter genes used in genetic engineering	Genetic_engineering \|@lemmatized element:2 genetic:33 engineering:24 recombinant:2 dna:12 technology:7 modification:5 manipulation:4 gm:4 gene:34 splice:1 term:2 apply:2 direct:2 organism:13 different:1 traditional:1 breeding:1 manipulate:1 indirectly:1 use:21 technique:5 molecular:1 cloning:2 transformation:4 alter:4 structure:1 characteristic:1 directly:2 find:3 success:3 numerous:1 application:4 example:2 improve:2 crop:2 manufacture:2 synthetic:3 human:15 insulin:2 modified:1 bacteria:3 erythropoietin:1 hamster:1 ovary:1 cell:8 production:2 new:5 type:3 experimental:2 mouse:2 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6,445	Philology	Philology, derived from the Greek (philologia Philologia, Liddell and Scott, "A Greek-English Lexicon", at Perseus , from the terms philos meaning "loved, beloved, dear, friend" and logos "word, articulation, reason"), considers both form and meaning in linguistic expression, combining linguistics and literary studies. Classical philology is the philology of the Greek, Latin and Sanskrit languages University of Costa Rica (link in Spanish) has a career in Classical philology that includes Sanskrit, Latin and Greek. . Classical philology is historically primary, originating in European Renaissance Humanism, but was soon joined by philologies of other languages both European (Germanic, Celtic, Slavic etc.) and non-European (Sanskrit, Oriental languages such as Persian or Arabic, Chinese etc.). Indo-European studies involves the philology of all Indo-European languages as comparative studies. Any classical language can be studied philologically, and indeed describing a language as "classical" is to imply the existence of a philological tradition associated with it. Because of its focus on historical development (diachronic analysis), philology came to be used as a term contrasting with linguistics. This is due to a 20th century development triggered by Ferdinand de Saussure's insistence on the importance of synchronic analysis, and the later emergence of structuralism and Chomskian linguistics with its heavy emphasis on spoken language (performance) and syntax. The term The term philology itself enters the English language in the 16th century, from the Middle French philologie, in the sense of "love of literature". The Latin term philologia could mean "love of learning", like the original Greek term, , which described love of learning, of literature as well as of argument and reasoning, reflecting the range of activities included under the notion of . The adjective meant "fond of discussion or argument, talkative", in Hellenistic Greek also implying an excessive ("sophistic") preference of argument over the love of true wisdom, . As an allegory of literary erudition, Philologia appears in 5th century post-classical literature (Martianus Capella, De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii), an idea revived in Late Medieval literature (Chaucer, Lydgate). The meaning of "love of learning and literature" was narrowed to "the study of the historical development of languages" (historical linguistics) in 19th century usage of the term due to the rapid progresses made in understanding sound laws and language change, the "golden age of philology", taken to last throughout the 19th century, or "from Friedrich Schlegel to Nietzsche". so Nikolaus Wegmann, Princeton University Department of German In British English usage, and in British academia, "philology" remains largely synonymous with "historical linguistics", while in US English, and US academia, the wider meaning of "study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition" remains more widespread. A. Morpurgo Davies Hist. Linguistics (1998) 4 I. 22. Branches of philology Comparative philology One branch of philology is comparative linguistics, which studies the relationship between languages. Similarities between Sanskrit and European languages were first noted in the early 16th century This fact is noted in Juan Mascaro's introduction to his translation of the Bhagavad Gita, in which he dates the first Gita translation to 1785 (by Charles Williams). Mascaro claims Alexander Hamilton stopped in Paris in 1802 after returning from India, and taught Sanskrit to the German critic Friedrich von Schlegel. Mascaro says this is the beginning of modern study of the roots of the Indo-European languages. and led to the speculation of a common ancestor language from which all of these descended — now named Proto-Indo-European. Philology's interest in ancient languages led to the study of what were in the 18th century "exotic" languages for the light they could cast on problems in understanding and deciphering the origins of older texts. Textual philology and text editing Philology also includes the close study of texts and their history. It includes elements of textual criticism, trying to reconstruct an author's original text based on variant manuscript copies. This branch of research arose in Biblical studies and has a long tradition, dating back to the Reformation. Scholars have tried to reconstruct the original readings of the Bible from the manuscript variants that have come down to us. This method was then applied to Classical Studies and to medieval texts for the reconstruction of the author's original. This method produced so-called critical editions which provided a reconstructed text accompanied by a critical apparatus, i.e. footnotes listing the various manuscript variants available, thus enabling scholars to gain insight into the entire manuscript tradition and argue about variants. A related study method, known as higher criticism, which studies the authorship, date, and provenance of texts, places a text in a historical context. These philological issues are often inseparable from issues of interpretation, and thus there is no clear-cut boundary between philology and hermeneutics. As such, when the content of the text has a significant political or religious influence (such as the reconstruction of Biblical texts), it is difficult to find 'objective' conclusions. As a result, some scholars avoid all critical methods of textual philology. Especially in historical linguistics it is important to study the actually recorded materials. The movement known as New Philology has rejected textual criticism because it injects editorial interpretations into the text and destroys the integrity of the individual manuscript readings, hence damaging the reliability of the data. Supporters of New Philology insist on a strict diplomatic, that is, faithful rendering of the text exactly as it is found in the manuscript, without emendations. Cognitive philology Another branch of philology, cognitive philology studies written and oral texts, considering them as results of human mental processes. This science, therefore, compares the results of textual science with those results of experimental research of both psychology and artificial intelligence production systems. Decipherment In the case of Bronze Age literature, philology includes the prior decipherment of the language in question. This has notably been the case with the Egyptian, Sumerian and Assyrian, Hittite and Luwian languages. Beginning with the sensational decipherment and translation of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion in 1822, a number of individuals attempted to decipher the writing systems of the Ancient Near East and Aegean. In the case of Old Persian and Mycenean Greek, decipherment of writing systems yielded records of languages already known from slightly younger traditions (Middle Persian, Alphabetic Greek). Work on the ancient languages of the Near East progressed rapidly. In the mid-19th century, Henry Rawlinson and others deciphered the Behistun Inscription, which records the same text in Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian, using a variation of cuneiform for each language. The understanding of cuneiform script led to the decipherment of Sumerian. Hittite was deciphered in 1915 by Bedřich Hrozný. Linear B, a language used in the ancient Aegean, was deciphered in 1952 by Michael Ventris, who demonstrated that the script recorded an early form of Greek, now known as Mycenaean Greek. Linear A, the writing system which records the still unknown language of the Minoans, resists deciphering, despite many attempts. Work still continues on scripts such as Maya script, with great progress made since the 1950s initial breakthroughs of the phonetic approach, championed by Yuri Knorozov and others. See also American Journal of Philology Codicology Cognitive philology Elocution Etymology Palaeography Western canon Notes External links A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology (ed. José Ángel García Landa, University of Zaragoza, Spain) Philology in Runet -(A special web search through the philological sites of Runet) Asociación de Jóvenes Investigadores Filólogos de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid (AJIF-UCM) Wikiversity: Topic:German philology Rivista di Filologia Cognitiva CogLit: Literature and Cognitive Linguistics Institute for Psychological Study of the Arts	Philology \|@lemmatized philology:30 derive:1 greek:10 philologia:4 liddell:1 scott:1 english:4 lexicon:1 perseus:1 term:7 philos:1 mean:2 love:6 beloved:1 dear:1 friend:1 logos:1 word:1 articulation:1 reason:1 considers:1 form:2 meaning:3 linguistic:1 expression:1 combine:1 linguistics:9 literary:4 study:17 classical:7 latin:3 sanskrit:5 language:24 university:3 costa:1 rica:1 link:2 spanish:1 career:1 include:5 historically:1 primary:1 originate:1 european:8 renaissance:1 humanism:1 soon:1 join:1 germanic:1 celtic:1 slavic:1 etc:2 non:1 oriental:1 persian:4 arabic:1 chinese:1 indo:4 involve:1 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6,446	History_of_Wikipedia	Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia that can be edited by anyone and that aims to provide free encyclopedic information to its readers. The pioneering concept and technology of Wiki comes from Ward Cunningham, the concept of a free online encyclopedia from Richard Stallman. It was formally launched on . Initially it was created as a complement and 'feeder' to the expert-written English-language encyclopedia project 'Nupedia', in order to provide an additional source of draft articles and ideas. It quickly overtook Nupedia, growing to become a large global project, and originating a wide range of additional reference projects. Today Wikipedia includes several million freely usable articles and pages in hundreds of languages worldwide, and content from millions of contributors. History overview Background The concept of gathering all of the world's knowledge in a single place goes back to the ancient Library of Alexandria and Pergamon, but the modern concept of a general purpose, widely distributed, printed encyclopedia dates from shortly before Denis Diderot and the 18th century encyclopedists. The idea of using automated machinery beyond the printing press to build a more useful encyclopedia can be traced to librarian Charles Ammi Cutter's article "The Buffalo Public Library in 1983" (Library Journal, 1883, p. 211–217), Paul Otlet's book Traité de documentation (1934; Otlet also founded the Mundaneum institution, 1910), H. G. Wells' book of essays World Brain (1938) and Vannevar Bush's future vision of the microfilm based Memex in As We May Think (1945). Another milestone was Ted Nelson's Project Xanadu in 1973. With the development of the web, many people attempted to develop Internet encyclopedia projects. One little-acknowledged predecessor was the Interpedia (initiated in 1993), which Robert McHenry has linked conceptually to Wikipedia. Free software exponent Richard Stallman described the usefulness of a "Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource" in 1999. His published document "aims to lay out what the free encyclopedia needs to do, what sort of freedoms it needs to give the public, and how we can get started on developing it." On , two days after the start of Wikipedia, the Free Software Foundation's GNUPedia project went online, competing with Nupedia , but today the FSF encourages people "to visit and contribute to [Wikipedia]". Formulation of the concept Wikipedia was initially conceived as a feeder project for Nupedia, an earlier (now defunct) project to produce a free online encyclopedia, founded by Bomis, a web-advertising-selling firm owned by Jimmy Wales, Tim Shell and Michael Davis. Nupedia was founded upon the use of highly qualified volunteer contributors and an elaborate multi-step peer review process. Despite its mailing-list of interested editors, and the presence of a full-time editor-in-chief, Larry Sanger, a graduate philosophy student hired by Wales, My resignation: Larry Sanger (meta.wikimedia.com) - "I was more or less offered the job of editing Nupedia when I was, as an ABD philosophy graduate student, soliciting Jimbo's (and other friends') advice on a website I was thinking of starting. It was the first I had heard of Jimbo's idea of an open content encyclopedia, and I was delighted to take the job." the writing of content was extremely slow with only 12 articles written during the first year.The Wikipedia logo used until late 2001 The logo used from late 2001 until 2003 Wales and Sanger discussed various ways to create content more rapidly. The idea of a wiki-based complement originated from a conversation between Larry Sanger and Ben Kovitz. -- While casting around for a way to speed up article production, Sanger met with Ben Kovitz, an old friend, in January 2001. Kovitz introduced Sanger to the idea of the wiki, invented in 1995 by Ward Cunningham: web pages that anyone could write and edit. "My first reaction was that this really could be what would solve the problem," Sanger explains, "because the software was already written, and this community of people on WikiWikiWeb" - the first wiki - "had created something like 14,000 pages". Nupedia, by contrast, had produced barely two dozen articles. Sanger took up the idea immediately: "I wrote up a proposal and sent it [to Wales] that evening, and the wiki was then set up for me to work on." But this was not Wikipedia as we know it. "Originally it was the Nupedia Wiki - our idea was to use it as an article incubator for Nupedia. Articles could begin life on this wiki, be developed collaboratively and, when they got to a certain stage of development, be put it into the Nupedia system." Ben Kovitz was a computer programmer and regular on Ward Cunningham's revolutionary wiki "the WikiWikiWeb". He explained to Sanger what wikis were, at that time a difficult concept to understand, over a dinner on . -- Over tacos that night, Sanger explained his concerns about Nupedia’s lack of progress, the root cause of which was its serial editorial system. As Nupedia was then structured, no stage of the editorial process could proceed before the previous stage was completed. Kovitz brought up the wiki and sketched out “wiki magic,” the mysterious process by which communities with common interests work to improve wiki pages by incremental contributions. If it worked for the rambunctious hacker culture of programming, Kovitz said, it could work for any online collaborative project. The wiki could break the Nupedia bottleneck by permitting volunteers to work simultaneously all over the project. With Kovitz in tow, Sanger rushed back to his apartment and called Wales to share the idea. Over the next few days he wrote a formal proposal for Wales and started a page on Cunningham’s wiki called “WikiPedia.” Wales first stated, in October 2001, that "Larry had the idea to use Wiki software", though he later claimed in December 2005 that Jeremy Rosenfeld, a Bomis employee, introduced him to the concept. Wired.com states: "Wales offered the following on-the-record comment in an e-mail to NewAssignment.net editor [and NYU Professor] Jay Rosen ...'Larry Sanger was my employee working under my direct supervision during the entire process of launching Wikipedia. He was not the originator of the proposal to use a wiki for the encyclopedia project -- that was Jeremy Rosenfeld'." Also stated on Wikipedia, on December 2, 2005 permanent reference Sanger thought a wiki would be a good platform to use, and proposed on the Nupedia mailing list that a wiki based upon UseModWiki (then v. 0.90) be set up as a "feeder" project for Nupedia. Under the subject "Let's make a wiki", he wrote: Wales set one up and put it online on . Founding of Wikipedia There was considerable resistance on the part of Nupedia's editors and reviewers to the idea of associating Nupedia with a wiki-style website. Sanger suggested giving the new project its own name, Wikipedia, and Wikipedia was soon launched on its own domain, wikipedia.com, on . The bandwidth and server (located in San Diego) used for these projects were donated by Bomis. Many current and past Bomis employees have contributed some content to the encyclopedia: notably Tim Shell, co-founder and current CEO of Bomis, and programmer Jason Richey. The first edits ever made on Wikipedia are believed to be test edits by Wales. However, the oldest article still preserved is the article UuU, created on , at 21:08 UTC. "Wikipedia:Wikipedia's oldest articles", Wikipedia. Retrieved on . The UuU edit, the first edit that is still preserved on Wikipedia to this day, as it appears using the Nostalgia skin. The project received many new participants after being mentioned three times on the Slashdot website, with two minor mentions in March 2001. Nupedia and Project Gutenberg Directors Answer Everything2 Hits One Million Nodes It then received a prominent pointer to a story on the community-edited technologies and culture website Kuro5hin on . Britannica or Nupedia? The Future of Free Encyclopedias Between these relatively rapid influxes of traffic, there had been a steady stream of traffic from other sources, especially Google, which alone sent hundreds of new visitors to the site every day. Its first major mainstream media coverage was in the New York Times on . "Fact driven? Collegial? This site wants you", New York Times, The project passed 1,000 articles around , and 10,000 articles around . In the first year of its existence, over 20,000 encyclopedia entries were created—a rate of over 1,500 articles per month. On , the article count reached 40,000. The rate of growth has more or less steadily increased since the inception of the project, except for a few software- and hardware-induced slow-downs. Namespaces and internationalization Early in Wikipedia's development, it began to expand internationally, with the creation of new namespaces, each with a distinct set of usernames. The first domain created for a non-English Wikipedia was deutsche.wikipedia.com (created on , 01:38 UTC), Alternative language wikipedias followed after a few hours by Catalan.wikipedia.com (at 13:07 UTC). History of the Catalan Homepage The Japanese Wikipedia, started as nihongo.wikipedia.com, was created around that period, The Wayback Machine: An early Japanese Wikipedia HomePage (revision #3), dated 23:00. Accessed . An Internet Archive's snapshot of English Wikipedia HomePage, dated , showing links to the three first sister projects, "Deutsch (German)", "Catalan", and "Nihongo (Japanese)". and initially used only Romanized Japanese. For about two months Catalan was the one with the most articles in a non-English language, Multilingual monthly statistics First edition in the Catalan Wikipedia although statistics of that early period are imprecise. This table, for instance, misses Japanese and German articles such as this one and this one, both dated . The French Wikipedia was created on or around , The Documentation on the French Wikipedia mentions the date of , but this date is not supported by Wikipedia snapshots on the Internet Archive, nor by Jason Richney's letter, which was dated (see below). in a wave of new language versions that included also Chinese, Dutch, Esperanto, Hebrew, Italian, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, and Swedish. Letter of Jason Richey to wikipedia-l mailing list These languages were soon joined by Arabic HomePage from the Internet Archive and Hungarian. Wikipedia:Announcements May 2001 International_Wikipedia In September 2001, an announcement pledged commitment to the multilingual provision of Wikipedia, Wikipedia: Announcements 2001 notifying users of an upcoming roll-out of Wikipedias for all major languages, the establishment of core standards, and a push for the translation of core pages for the new wikis. At the end of that year, when international statistics first began to be logged, Afrikaans, Norwegian, and Serbian versions were announced. International wikipedias statistics In January 2002, 90% of all Wikipedia articles were in English. By January 2004, less than 50% were English, and this internationalization has continued to increase. As of 2007, around 75% of all Wikipedia articles are contained within non-English Wikipedia versions. Development In March 2002, following the withdrawal of funding by Bomis, Larry Sanger left both Nupedia and Wikipedia. Initially amicable, by 2004 differences between Sanger and Wales had driven a wedge between them, centering upon Sanger's criticism of Wikipedia's approach, his role in Wikipedia's success, and their views on how best to manage open encyclopedias (see Early roles of Wales and Sanger). Both still supported the open-collaboration concept, but the two differed on how best to handle disruptive editors, specific roles for experts, and the best way to guide the project to success.A Screenshot from the main page, . Wales, a believer in communal governance and "hands off" executive management, went on to establish self-governance and bottom-up self-direction by editors on Wikipedia. He made it clear that he would not be involved in the community's day to day management, but would encourage it to learn to self-manage and find its own best approaches. As of 2007, Wales mostly restricts his own role to occasional input on serious matters, executive activity, advocacy of knowledge, and encouragement of similar reference projects. Sanger advocated a "two tier" expert-led culture and more "hands on" executive management, with final editorial control by chief editors closer to the traditional model. He returned briefly to academia, then after joining the Digital Universe Foundation, went on to found Citizendium, an alternative open encyclopedia which uses real names for contributors in order to reduce disruptive editing, supports the specific recognition of experts, and is governed by a system of top-down management, including himself or agreed-upon editors or committees. He has stated that he intends to leave in a few years, when the project and its management are established. Organization The Wikipedia project has grown rapidly in the course of its life, at several levels. Individual wikis have grown organically through the addition of new articles, new wikis have been added in English and non-English languages, and entire new projects replicating these growth methods in other related areas (news, quotations, reference books and so on) have been founded as well. Respectively, Wikipedia itself has grown, with the creation of the Wikimedia Foundation to act as an umbrella body and the growth of software and policies to address the needs of the editorial community. These are documented below. Historical overview by year Articles summarizing each year are held within the Wikipedia project namespace and are linked to below. Additional resources for research are available within the Wikipedia records and archives, and are listed at the end of this article. 2000 The Nupedia project is started with Larry Sanger running the daily operations and formulating many of the initial policies. 2001 The Wikipedia.com and Wikipedia.org domain names are registered on Network Solutions (2007) WHOIS domain registration information results for wikipedia.com from Network Solutions Accessed . and , Network Solutions (2007) WHOIS domain registration information results for wikipedia.org from Network Solutions Accessed . respectively, with the latter being brought online on , according to Alexa; project formally opens ('Wikipedia Day'); the first international Wikipedias are created (March-May: French, German, Catalan, Swedish); "Neutral point of view" (NPOV) policy is formally formulated; first slashdotter wave arrives . The first media report about Wikipedia appears in August 2001 coincidentally by the newspaper Wales on Sunday. Wales on Sunday () Knowledge at your fingertips. Game On : Internet Chat.(writing, "Both Encarta and Britannica are official publications with well-deserved reputations. But there are other options, such as the homemade encyclopaedias. One is Wikipedia (www. wikipedia. com) which uses clever software to build an encyclopaedia from scratch. Wiki is software installed on a web server that allows anyone to edit any of the pages. At the Wikipedia, anyone can write about any subject they know about. The idea is that over time, enough experts will offer their knowledge for free and build up the world's ultimate hand-built database of knowledge. The disadvantage is that it's still an ongoing project. So far about 8,000 articles have been written and the editors are aiming for 100,000.") The September 11, 2001 attacks spur the appearance of breaking news stories on the homepage, as well as information boxes linking related articles. October, 2001 snapshot of the homepage shows the "Breaking News" header up top as well as the September 11, 2001 block of articles under "Current events"; the 9/11 page shows the activist nature of the page, as well as the large number of subtopics created to cover the event. 2002 Year 2002 sees: the end of funding from Bomis and the departure of Larry Sanger; the forking of the Spanish Wikipedia to establish the Enciclopedia Libre; and the creation of the first portable Mediawiki software (went live ). Bots are introduced, Jimmy Wales confirms Wikipedia would never run commercial advertising, and the first sister project (Wiktionary) and first formal Manual of Style are launched. A separate board of directors to supervise the project is proposed and initially discussed at Meta-Wikipedia. 2003 Mathematical formulae using TeX are introduced; English Wikipedia passes 100,000 articles (the next largest, German, passes 10,000); the Wikimedia Foundation is established; Wikipedia adopts its jigsaw world logo; and the first Wikipedian social meeting is organized. The basic principles of Wikipedia's Arbitration system and committee (known colloquially as "Arbcom") are developed mostly by Florence Devouard, Fred Bauder and other key early Wikipedians. 2004 The worldwide Wikipedia article pool continues to grow rapidly, doubling in size in 12 months, from under 500,000 articles to over 1 million (English Wikipedia was just less than half of these) in over 100 languages. The server farms are moved from California to Florida; Categories and CSS style configuration sheets are introduced; and the first attempt to block Wikipedia occurs (China, June 2004, duration 2 weeks). Formal election of a board and ArbCom begin - Devouard is the only person elected who was instrumental in ArbCom. She and others begin to criticize balance and focus problems and lead efforts to fill in articles in neglected areas. The first formal projects are proposed to deliberately balance content and seek out systemic bias arising from Wikipedia's community structure. 2005 Multilingual and subject portals are established; the first quarter's formal fundraiser raises almost US $ 100,000 for system upgrades to handle growing demand; Wikipedia becomes the most popular reference website on the Internet according to Hitwise; China again blocks Wikipedia (October); English Wikipedia passes 750,000 articles. The first Wikipedia scandal occurs, when a well known figure is found to have a vandalized biography which had gone unnoticed for months (the "Seigenthaler incident"). In the wake of this and other concerns, WP:BLP started with narrative "I started this due to the Daniel Brandt situation". the first policy and system changes specifically designed to counter this form of abuse are established. These include a new Checkuser privilege policy update (checkuser is a Mediawiki tool that assists in sock puppetry investigations), a new feature called semi-protection, a more strict policy on biographies of living people and tagging of such articles for stricter review, and restriction of new article creation to registered users only. 2006 English Wikipedia gains its 1½ millionth article; the first approved Wikipedia article selection is made freely available to download; "Wikipedia" becomes registered as a trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation; The congressional aides biography scandals come to public attention: multiple incidents in which congressional staffers and a campaign manager are caught trying to covertly alter Wikipedia biographies, the campaign manager resigns. Jimmy Wales indicates, at Wikimania 2006, that Wikipedia has achieved sufficient volume and calls for an emphasis on quality, perhaps best expressed in the call for 100,000 feature-quality articles; A new privilege "oversight" is created allowing specific versions of archived pages with unacceptable content to be marked as non-viewable; Semi-protection against anonymous vandalism, introduced in 2005, proves more popular than anticipated, with over 1,000 pages semi-protected at any given time; Wikipedia is rated as one of the top 2006 global brands. Similar Search Results: Google Wins 2007 Wikipedia continues to grow, with some 5 million registered editor accounts; See the special page: Special:Statistics: 5,078,036 registered user accounts as at , excluding anonymous editors who have not created accounts. the combined Wikipedias in all languages together contain 1.74 billion words in 7.5 million articles in approximately 250 languages; Source: Wikipedia:Size comparisons as at the English Wikipedia gains a steady 1,700 articles a day, From around Q3 2006 Wikipedia's growth rate has been approximately linear, source: Wikipedia:Statistics - new article count by month 2006-2007. with the wikipedia.org domain name ranked at around the 10th busiest on the Internet (See Wikipedia Statistics); Wikipedia continues to garner visibility in the press and to slowly but steadily gain traction as a tertiary source both in serious legal decision-making and as a source of collated information on current events; the Essjay controversy breaks when a prominent member of Wikipedia is found to have lied about his credentials; Citizendium launches publicly; a trend develops that the encyclopedia addresses people whose notability stems from being a participant in a news story by adding a redirect from their name to the larger story, rather than creation of a distinct biographical article. E.g., cases such as Crystal Gail Mangum and Daniel Brandt. 2008 Various WikiProjects in many areas continue to expand and refine article contents within their scope. In April, the 10 millionth Wikipedia article was created, an article within the Hungarian Wikipedia, and, only several months later, the English Wikipedia exceeds 2.5 million articles. 2009 On March 20, 2009, English Wikipedia reached 2,800,000 articles. There are English articles as of . History by subject area Hardware and softwareThe software that runs Wikipedia, and the hardware, server farms and other systems upon which Wikipedia relies. In January 2001, Wikipedia ran on UseModWiki, written in Perl by Clifford Adams. The server has run on Linux to this day, although the original text was stored in files rather than in a database. Articles were named with the CamelCase convention. In January 2002, "Phase II" of the wiki software powering Wikipedia was introduced, replacing the older UseModWiki. Written specifically for the project by Magnus Manske, it included a PHP wiki engine. In July 2002, a major rewrite of the software powering Wikipedia went live; dubbed "Phase III", it replaced the older "Phase II" version, and became MediaWiki. It was written by Lee Daniel Crocker in response to the increasing demands of the growing project. In October 2002, Derek Ramsey started to use a "bot", or program, to add a large number of articles about United States towns; these articles were automatically generated from U.S. census data. Occasionally, similar bots had been used before for other topics. These articles were generally well received, but some users criticized them for their initial uniformity and writing style (for example, see this version of an original bot-generated town article, and compare to current version). In January 2003, support for mathematical formulas in TeX was added. The code was contributed by Tomasz Wegrzanowski. - ISBNs in articles now link to Special:Booksources, which fetches its contents from the user-editable page Wikipedia:Book sources. Before this, ISBN link targets were coded into the software and new ones were suggested on the Wikipedia:ISBN page. See the edit that changed this. After , various system messages shown to Wikipedia users were no longer hard coded, allowing Wikipedia administrators to modify certain parts of MediaWiki's interface, such as the message shown to blocked users. On , server operations were moved from San Diego, California to Tampa, Florida. On , all the various websites were updated to a new version of the MediaWiki software. On , the first instances of "categorization" entries appeared. Category schemes, like Recent Changes and Edit This Page, had existed from the founding of Wikipedia. However, Larry Sanger had viewed the schemes as lists, and even hand-entered articles, whereas the categorization effort centered on individual categorization entries in each article of the encyclopedia, as part of a larger automatic categorization of the articles of the encyclopedia. "Wikipedia:Categorization", Wikipedia. Retrieved on . After , administrators could edit the style of the interface by changing the CSS in the monobook stylesheet at MediaWiki:Monobook.css. Also on , with MediaWiki 1.3, the Template namespace was created, allowing transclusion of standard texts. "Wikipedia:Template namespace", Wikipedia. Retrieved on . On at 3:00AM Eastern Standard Time the bulk of the Wikimedia servers were moved to a new facility across the street. All Wikimedia projects were down during this time. Look and feelThe external face of Wikipedia, its look and feel, and the Wikipedia branding, as presented to users On Brilliant Prose, since renamed to Featured Articles, "Wikipedia:Featured articles", Wikipedia. Retrieved on . was moved to the Wikipedia Namespace from the article namespace. Around , the current Wikipedia logo was installed. The logo concept was selected by a voting process, which was followed by a revision process to select the best variant. The final selection was created by David Friedland based on a logo design and concept created by Paul Stansifer. On DYK made its first Main Page appearance. On a coordinated new look for the Main Page appeared at 19:46 UTC. Hand-chosen entries for the Daily Featured Article, Anniversaries, In the News, and Did You Know rounded out the new look. On , the multilingual portal at www.wikipedia.org was set up, replacing a redirect to the English-language Wikipedia. On , the Portal:Biology was created, first "portal" on the English Wikipedia. "Portal:Biology", English Wikipedia. Retrieved on . However, the concept was pioneered on the German Wikipedia where Portal:Recht (law studies) was set up in October 2003. Portals on German Wikipedia ordered by date of creation. On , the English Wikipedia began the practice of including the day's "featured pictures" on the Main Page. On , following a vote, the Main Page of the English language Wikipedia featured its first redesign in nearly two years. Internal structuresLandmarks in the Wikipedia community, and the development of its organization, internal structures, and policies. April 2001, Wales formally defines the "neutral point of view", NeutralPointOfView Wikipedia's core non-negotiable editorial policy, "A few things are absolute and non-negotiable, though. NPOV for example." in statement by Jimbo Wales in November 2003 and, in this thread reconfirmed by Jimbo Wales in April 2006 in the context of lawsuits. a reformulation of the "Lack of Bias" policy outlined by Sanger for Nupedia Nupedia.com editorial policy guidelines. Version 3.31 (). Retrieved . in spring or summer 2000, which covered many of the same core principles. "Nupedia articles are, in terms of their content, to be unbiased. There may be respectable reference works that permit authors to take recognizable stands on controversial issues, but this is not one of them ... "On every issue ... is it very difficult or impossible for the reader to determine what the view is to which the author adheres?" ... for each controversial view discussed, the author of an article (at a bare minimum) mention various opposing views that are taken seriously by any significant minority of experts (or concerned parties) on the subject ... In a final version of the article, every party to the controversy in question must be able to judge that its views have been fairly presented, or as fairly as is possible in a context in which other, opposing views must also be presented as fairly as possible." In September 2001, collaboration by subject matter in is introduced. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_proposal In February 2002, concerns over the risk of future censorship and commercialization by Bomis Inc (Wikipedia's original host) combined with a lack of guarantee this would not happen, led most participants of the Spanish Wikipedia to break away and establish it independently as the Enciclopedia Libre. 'Why we are here and not in Wikipedia (in Spanish, under GFDL)</ref> Following clarification of Wikipedia's status and non-commercial nature later that year, re-merger talks between Enciclopedia Libre and the re-founded Spanish Wikipedia occasionally took place in 2002 and 2003, but no conclusion was reached. As of July 2007, the two continue to coexist as substantial Spanish language reference sources, with around 36,700 articles (EL) and 248,800 articles (Sp.W) http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Especial:Statistics respectively. Also in 2002, policy and style issues were clarified with the creation of the Manual of Style, along with a number of other policies and guidelines. First substantial edit to Wikipedia:Manual of Style, Wikipedia (). Retrieved on . November 2002 - new mailing lists for WikiEN and Announce are set up, as well as other language mailing lists (eg Polish), to reduce the volume of traffic on mailing lists. In July 2003, the rule against editing your autobiography is introduced. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Autobiography&oldid=1220207 On , the first "real" meeting of Wikipedians happened in Munich. Many cities followed suit, and soon a number of regular Wikipedian get-togethers were established around the world. Several Internet communities, including one on the popular blog website LiveJournal, have also sprung up since. From to the and formerly on the Main Page were replaced by links to overviews. On the Community Portal was started, "Wikipedia:Community Portal", Wikipedia. Retrieved on . to serve as a focus for community efforts. These were previously accomplished on an informal basis, by individual queries of the Recent Changes, in wiki style, as ad-hoc collaborations between like-minded editors. During September to December 2005 following the Seigenthaler controversy and other similar concerns, several anti-abuse features and policies were added to Wikipedia. These were: The policy for "Checkuser" (a MediaWiki extension to assist detection of abuse via internet sock-puppetry) was established in November 2005. "CheckUser policy", Meta-Wiki. Retrieved on 2007-01-25. Checkuser function had previously existed, but was known as Espionage -- for example, in the Arbitration Committee case of JarlaxleArtemis. but was viewed more as a system tool at the time, as a result of which there had been no need for a policy covering use on a more routine basis. Checkuser proposal Creation of new pages on the English Wikipedia was restricted to editors who had created a user account. "Page creation restrictions", Wikipedia Signpost / English Wikipedia. Retrieved on . The introduction and rapid adoption of the policy Wikipedia:Biographies of living people, giving a far tighter quality control and fact-check system to biographical articles related to living people. The "semi-protection" function and policy, "Semi-protection policy", Wikipedia Signpost / English Wikipedia. Retrieved on . allowing pages to be protected so that only those with an account could edit. In May 2006, a new "oversight" feature was introduced on the English Wikipedia, allowing a handful of highly trusted users to permanently erase page revisions containing copyright infringements or libelous or personal information from a page's history. Previous to this, page version deletion was laborious, and also deleted versions remained visible to other administrators and could be un-deleted by them. On , the subcommunity named Esperanza was disbanded by communal consent. Esperanza had begun as an effort to promote "wikilove" and a social support network, but had developed its own subculture and private structures. Esperanza organization disbanded after deletion discussion http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP:MFD/EA Its disbanding was described as the painful but necessary remedy for a project that had allowed editors to "see themselves as Esperanzans first and foremost". A number of Esperanza's subprojects were integrated back into Wikipedia as free-standing projects, but most of them are now inactive. When the group was founded in September 2005, there had been concerns expressed that it would eventually be condemned as such. New group aims to promote Wiki-Love In April 2007 the results of 4 months policy review by a working group of several hundred editors seeking to merge the core Wikipedia policies into one core policy (See: Wikipedia:Attribution) was polled for community support. The proposal did not gain consensus; a significant view became evident that the existing structure of three strong focused policies covering the respective areas of policy, was frequently seen as more helpful to quality control than one more general merged proposal. The Wikimedia Foundation and legal structuresLegal and organizational structure of the Wikimedia Foundation, its executive, and its activities as a foundation. In August 2002, shortly after Jimmy Wales announced that he would never run commercial advertisements on Wikipedia, the URL of Wikipedia was changed from wikipedia.com to wikipedia.org (see: .com and .org). On , the Wikimedia Foundation was founded. Communications committee was formed in January 2006 to handle media inquiries and emails received for the foundation and Wikipedia via the newly implemented OTRS (a ticket handling system). Angela Beesley and Florence Nibart-Devouard were elected to the Board of Trustees of the Wikimedia Foundation. During this time, Angela was active in editing content and setting policy, such as privacy policy, within the Foundation. Riehle, Dirk. "How and Why Wikipedia Works: An Interview with Angela Beesley, Elisabeth Bauer, and Kizu Naoko", www.riehle.org, 2006. On , Wikipedia became a registered trademark of Wikimedia Foundation. In July 2006, Angela Beesley resigned from the board of the Wikimedia Foundation. "Angela Beesley resigns from Wikimedia Foundation board", Wikimedia Foundation press release, . In June 2006, Brad Patrick was hired to be the first executive director of the Foundation. He resigned in January 2007, and was later replaced by Sue Gardner (June 2007). In October 2006, Florence Nibart-Devouard became chair of the board of Wikimedia Foundation. Projects and landmarksSister projects, and landmarks related to articles, user base, and other statistics. , the first recorded edit of Wikipedia at UuU, although it is suspected there were earlier edits. In December 2002, the first sister project, Wiktionary, was created; aiming to produce a dictionary and thesaurus of the words in all languages. It uses the same software as Wikipedia. On , the English Wikipedia was again slashdotted after having reached the 100,000 article milestone with the Hastings, New Zealand article. Two days later, the German language Wikipedia, the largest non-English version, passed the 10,000 article mark. On , the same day that the Wikimedia Foundation was founded, "Wikiquote" was created. A month later, "Wikibooks" was launched. "Wikisource" was set up towards the end of the year. In January 2004, Wikipedia passed the 200,000 article milestone in English with the article on Neil Warnock, and reached 450,000 articles for both English and non-English wikis. The next month, the combined article count of the English and non-English wikis reached 500,000. On , the article count of the English wiki reached 250,000. On , the article count of the English wiki reached 300,000. On , Wikipedia reached one million articles in over 105 languages, and received a flurry of related attention in the press. One million Wikipedia articles The one millionth article was published in the Hebrew language Wikipedia, and discusses the flag of Kazakhstan. On , the article count of the English Wikipedia reached 400,000. On , Wikipedia passed the 500,000 article milestone in English, with Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union being announced in a press release as the landmark article. Wikipedia Publishes 500,000th English Article In May 2005, Wikipedia became the most popular reference website on the Internet according to traffic monitoring company Hitwise, relegating Dictionary.com to second place. On , the English Wikipedia passed the 750,000 article mark. On , the English language Wikipedia passed the 1,000,000 article mark, with Jordanhill railway station being announced on the Main Page as the milestone article While this article was announced as the milestone on the Main Page, multiple articles qualified due to the continuous creation and deletion of pages on the site. On , the English language Wikipedia passed the 1,000 featured article mark, with Iranian peoples. Wikimedia Foundation: English Wikipedia Announces Thousandth Featured Article On the Wikimedia Foundation launches Wikiversity. Welcome speech, Jimbo Wales, Wikimania 2006 (audio) On , the English language Wikipedia passed the 1,500,000 article mark, with Kanab ambersnail being announced on the Main Page as the milestone article. On , the first CD selection in English was published as a free download (see 2006 Wikipedia CD Selection). A Schools Global Citizen Resource from SOS Children On , the English language Wikipedia passed the 2,000,000 article mark. El Hormiguero, an article which covers a Spanish TV comedy show, is accepted by consensus as the 2,000,000th article. On , the English language Wikipedia passed the 2,500,000 article mark. Funding One of the first fundraisers was held from to , raising $94,000, which was $21,000 more than expected. "Fund drives/2005/Q1", Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved on . On , the Q4 2005 fundraiser concluded, raising a total of just over $390,000. "Fund drives/2005/Q4", Wikimedia Foundation. Retrieved on . In June 2007 it was announced that the German Wikipedia will be receiving state funding. German Wikipedia receives state funding External impact In 2007, Wikipedia is deemed fit to be used as a major source by the UK Intellectual Property Office in the Formula One trademark case ruling. In deciding the trademark of F1 racing, the UK Intellectual Property Office considered both the reliability of Wikipedia, and its usefulness as a reliable source of evidence: "Wikipedia has sometimes suffered from the self-editing that is intrinsic to it, giving rise at times to potentially libellous statements. However, inherently, I cannot see that what is in Wikipedia is any less likely to be true than what is published in a book or on the websites of news organisations. [Formula One's lawyer] did not express any concerns about the Wikipedia evidence [presented by the plaintiff]. I consider that the evidence from Wikipedia can be taken at face value." The case turned substantively upon evidence cited from Wikipedia in 2006 as to the usage and interpretation of the term "F1". Over time Wikipedia gains recognition amongst other traditional media as a "key source" for some current new events such as the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and related tsunami, the biographies of 2008 Presidential election candidates, On Wikipedia, Debating 2008 Hopefuls' Every Facet, Washington Post, ; Page A01 -- "...at the same time, it's hard to find a more up-to-date, detailed, thorough article on Obama than Wikipedia's. As of Friday, Obama's article -- more than 22 pages long, with 15 sections covering his personal and professional life -- had a reference list of 167 sources." and the 2007 Virginia Tech massacre. The latter article is accessed 750,000 times in two days, with newspapers published local to the shootings adding that "Wikipedia has emerged as the clearinghouse for detailed information on the event." Source: Wikipedia emerges as key source for Virginia Tech shootings - cyberjournalist.net citing the New York Times , stating: "Even The Roanoke Times, which is published near Blacksburg, Va., where the university is located, noted on Thursday that Wikipedia 'has emerged as the clearinghouse for detailed information on the event'." On , Noam Cohen of the New York Times publishes A History Department Bans Citing Wikipedia as a Research Source On , An article in The Harvard Crimson newspaper reported that some of the professors at Harvard University do include Wikipedia in their syllabi, but that there is a split in their perception of using Wikipedia. Child, Maxwell L.,"Professors Split on Wiki Debate", The Harvard Crimson, by: Maxwell L. Child, Monday, . Effect of biographical articles Because Wikipedia biographies are often updated as soon as new information comes to light, they are often used as a reference source on the lives of notable people. This has led to attempts to manipulate and falsify Wikipedia articles for promotional or defamatory purposes (see Controversies). It has also led to novel uses of the biographical material provided. Some notable people's lives are being affected by their Wikipedia biography. November 2005: The Seigenthaler controversy. Someone, who later admitted that he wanted to make a joke, wrote into the article that journalist John Seigenthaler had been involved in the Kennedy murder of 1963. December 2006: German comedian "Atze Schröder", who does not want his real name published, sued Arne Klempert, secretary of Wikimedia Deutschland, because of the Wikipedia article. Then the artist drew back his complaint, but wanted his attorney's costs to be paid by Klempert. Trial decided that the artist had to cover those costs by himself. "Atze muss zahlen", Klemperts blog "recent changes" on : http://recentchanges.de/blog/2007/06/atze-muss-zahlen/. : Turkish historian Taner Akçam was briefly detained upon arrival at Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport because of false information on his biography that he was a terrorist. "Caught in the deadly web of the internet", Robert Fisk, The Independent, . Retrieved . "A question of authority", by Paul Jay, , CBC News. Retrieved . September 2008: Changes or "manipulations" at the Sarah Palin article in English Wikipedia have been noticed by the media. November 2008: Germany's Left Party politician Lutz Heilmann believed that some remarks in "his" article caused damage to his reputation. He succeeded in getting a court order to make Wikimedia Deutschland stop linking from its page www.wikipedia.de to German Wikipedia de.wikipedia.org. The result was a huge national support for Wikipedia, more donations to Wikimedia Deutschland, a rise from several dozen page views of "Lutz Heilmann" daily to half a million the two days after, and after a couple of days Heilmann asked the court to withdraw the court order. December 2008: Wikimedia Nederland, the Dutch chapter, won a preliminary injunction. An entrepreneur was linked in "his" article with the criminal Willem Holleeder and wanted the article deleted. The judge in Utrecht did not follow him but believed the chapter that it has no influence on the content of Dutch Wikipedia. News release of Vereniging Wikimedia Nederland, retrieved . Controversies January 2005: The fake charity QuakeAID, in the month following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, attempted to promote itself on its Wikipedia page. October 2005: Alan Mcilwraith was exposed as a fake war hero with a Wikipedia page. November 2005: The Seigenthaler controversy caused Brian Chase to resign from his employment, after his identity was ascertained by Daniel Brandt of Wikipedia Watch. Following this, the scientific journal Nature undertook a peer reviewed study to test articles in Wikipedia against their equivalents in Encyclopædia Britannica, and concluded they are comparable in terms of accuracy. Internet encyclopaedias go head to head The (Nature) peer review Britannica rejected their methodology and their conclusion. Britannica: Fatally Flawed. Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature (PDF) Nature refused to make any apologies, asserting instead the reliability of its study and a rejection of the criticisms. Nature's responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica, Nature (). Retrieved on . (For studies like this, see Reliability of Wikipedia. For traffic impact see Wikipedia history in images) Early-to-mid 2006: The congressional aides biography scandals came to public attention, in which several political aides were caught trying to influence the Wikipedia biographies of several politicians to remove undesirable information (including pejorative statements quoted, or broken campaign promises), add favorable information or "glowing" tributes, or replace the article in part or whole by staff authored biographies. The staff of at least five politicians were implicated: Marty Meehan, Norm Coleman, Conrad Burns, Joe Biden, Gil Gutknecht. See for example: this article on the scandal. The activities documented were: Politician Editing undertaken Sources Marty Meehan Replacement with staff-written biography Congressional staffers edit boss's bio on Wikipedia Norm Coleman Rewrite to make more favorable, claimed to be "correcting errors") Conrad BurnsMontana Removal of quoted pejorative statements the Senator had made, and replacing them with "glowing tributes" as "the voice of the farmer") Joe Biden Removal of unfavorable information Congressional staffers edit boss's bio on Wikipedia Gil Gutknecht Staff rewrite and removal of information evidencing broken campaign promise. (Multiple attempts) On August 16 2006, the Minneapolis-St. Paul Star Tribune reported that the office of Representative Gil Gutknecht tried twice — on and — to remove a 128-word section in the Wikipedia article on him, replacing it with a more flattering 315-word entry taken from his official congressional biography. Most of the removed text was about the 12-year term-limit Gutknecht imposed on himself in 1995 (Gutknecht ran for re-election in 2006, breaking his promise). A spokesman for Gutknecht did not dispute that his office tried to change his Wikipedia entry, but questioned the reliability of the encyclopedia. ("Gutknecht joins Wikipedia tweakers", Minneapolis-St. Paul Star Tribune, , accessed ) . Multiple attempts, first using a named account, then an anonymous IP account. In a separate but similar incident the campaign manager for Cathy Cox, Morton Brilliant, resigned after being found to have added negative information to the Wikipedia entries of political opponents. Information included the mention of an opponent's son's arrest in a fatal drunk driving accident, and the allegation of questionable business practices of another . See article Morton Brilliant for detailed citations. Following media publicity, the incidents tapered off around August 2006. July 2006: Joshua Gardner was exposed as a fake Duke of Cleveland with a Wikipedia page. January 2007: English-language Wikipedians in Qatar were briefly blocked from editing, following a spate of vandalism, by an administrator who did not realize that the country's internet traffic is routed through a single IP address. Multiple media sources promptly declared that Wikipedia was banning Qatar from the site.<ref>"Wikipedia Founder Refutes Claims That It Banned Qatar" by Thomas Claburn, InformationWeek, On , a Microsoft employee offered to pay Rick Jelliffe to review and change certain Wikipedia articles regarding an open-source document standard which was rival to a Microsoft format. In February 2007, The New Yorker magazine issued a rare editorial correction that a prominent English Wikipedia editor and administrator known as "Essjay", had invented a persona using fictitious credentials. The editor, Ryan Jordan, became a Wikia employee in January 2007 and divulged his real name; this was noticed by Daniel Brandt of Wikipedia Watch, and communicated to the original article author. (See: Essjay controversy) February 2007: Fuzzy Zoeller sued a Miami firm because defamatory information was added to his Wikipedia biography in an anonymous edit that came from their network. : Turkish historian Taner Akçam was briefly detained upon arrival at a Canadian airport because of false information on his biography indicating that he was a terrorist. In June 2007, an anonymous user posted hoax information that, by coincidence, foreshadowed the Chris Benoit murder-suicide, hours before the bodies were found by investigators. The discovery of the edit attracted widespread media attention and was first covered in sister site Wikinews. In October 2007, in their obituaries of recently-deceased TV theme composer Ronnie Hazlehurst, many British media organisations reported that he had co-written the S Club 7 song "Reach". In fact, he hadn't, and it was discovered that this information had been sourced from a hoax edit to Hazlehurst's Wikipedia article. Braindead obituarists hoaxed by Wikipedia Andrew Orlowski, The Register, In February 2007, Docket number L-001169-07 in Monmouth Court, New Jersey. Records may be searched here. Barbara Bauer, a literary agent, sued Wikimedia for defamation and causing harm to her business, the Barbara Bauer Literary Agency. Bauer v. Wikimedia et al. \| Electronic Frontier Foundation In Bauer v. Glatzer, Bauer claimed that information on Wikipedia critical of her abilities as a literary agent caused this harm. The Electronic Frontier Foundation defended Wikipedia EFF and Sheppard Mullin Defend Wikipedia in Defamation Case \| Electronic Frontier Foundation and moved to dismiss the case on May 2, 2008. http://www.eff.org/files/filenode/wikimedia/motiontoquashmemo-wikimedia.pdf The case against the Wikimedia Foundation was dismissed on . http://www.citmedialaw.org/threats/bauer-v-wikimedia Notable forks and derivatives See Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks for a partial list of Wikipedia mirrors and forks. No list of sites utilizing the software is maintained. A significant number of sites utilize the MediaWiki software and concept, popularized by Wikipedia. Specialized foreign language forks using the Wikipedia concept include Enciclopedia Libre (Spanish), Wikiweise (German), WikiZnanie (Russian), Susning.nu (Swedish), and Baidu Baike (Chinese). Some of these (such as Enciclopedia Libre) use GFDL or compatible licenses as used by Wikipedia, leading to exchange of material with their respective language Wikipedias. In 2006, Larry Sanger founds Citizendium, based upon a modified version of MediaWiki. It has expert-led top-down culture, the absence of which in Wikipedia he views as a major concern. Wikipedia founder forks Wikipedia Publication on other media The German Wikipedia was the first to be partly published also using other media (rather than online on the internet), including releases on CD in November 2004 and more extended versions on CDs or DVD in April 2005 and December 2006. In December 2005, the publisher Zenodot Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, a sister company of Directmedia, published a 139 page book explaining Wikipedia, its history and policies, which was accompanied by a 7.5 GB DVD containing 300,000 articles and 100,000 images from the German Wikipedia. Originally, Directmedia also announced plans to print the German Wikipedia in its entirety, in 100 volumes of 800 pages each. Publication was due to begin in October 2006, and finish in 2010. In March 2006, however, this project was called off. In September 2008, Bertelsmann published a 1000 pages volume with a selection of popular German Wikipedia articles. Bertelsmann paid voluntarily 1 Euro per sold copy to Wikimedia Deutschland. Titelinformationen, Bertelsmann site. Retrieved . The first CD version containing a selection of articles from the English Wikipedia was published in April 2006 by SOS Children as the 2006 Wikipedia CD Selection. In April 2007, "Wikipedia Version 0.5", a CD containing around 2000 articles selected from the online encyclopedia was published by the Wikimedia Foundation and Linterweb. The selection of articles included was based on both the quality of the online version and the importance of the topic to be included. This CD version was created as a test-case in preparation for a DVD version including far more articles. The CD version can be purchased online, downloaded as a DVD image file or Torrent file, or accessed online at the project's website. A free software project has also been launched to make a static version of Wikipedia available for use on iPods. The "Encyclopodia" project was started around March 2006 and can currently be used on 1st to 4th generation iPods. Lawsuits In limited ways, the Wikimedia Foundation is protected by Section 230 of the Communications Decency Act. In the defamation action Bauer et al. v. Glatzer et al., it was held that Wikimedia had no case to answer due to the provisions of this section. Judge tosses Matawan literary agent's defamation lawsuit against Wikipedia - Asbury Park Press A similar law in France caused a lawsuit to be dismissed in October 2007. Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2007-11-05/French lawsuit Other notable occurrences Early roles of Wales and Sanger Both Wales and Sanger played important roles in the early stages of Wikipedia. Sanger initially brought the wiki concept to Wales and suggested it be applied to Nupedia and then, after some initial skepticism, Wales agreed to try it. To Wales is ascribed the broader idea of an encyclopedia to which non-experts could contribute, i.e. Wikipedia; Sanger wrote, "To be clear, the idea of an open source, collaborative encyclopedia, open to contribution by ordinary people, was entirely Jimmy's, not mine" (emphasis in original text). He also wrote, "Jimmy, of course, deserves enormous credit for investing in and guiding Wikipedia." "The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir - Part I" and "Part II", Slashdot, April 2005. Retrieved on . "The actual development of this encyclopedia was the task he gave me to work on. So I arrived in San Diego in early February, 2000, to get to work. One of the first things I asked Jimmy is how free a rein I had in designing the project. What were my constraints, and in what areas was I free to exercise my own creativity? He replied, as I clearly recall, that most of the decisions should be mine; and in most respects, as a manager, Jimmy was indeed very hands-off. Nevertheless, I always did consult with him about important decisions, and moreover, I wanted his advice. Now, Jimmy was quite clear that he wanted the project to be in principle open to everyone to develop, just as open source software is (to an extent). Beyond this, however, I believe I was given a pretty free rein. So I spent the first month or so thinking very broadly about different possibilities." —Larry Sanger. Wales stated in October 2001 that "Larry had the idea to use Wiki software." Sanger coined the portmanteau "Wikipedia" as the project name. In review, Larry Sanger conceived of a wiki-based encyclopedia as a strategic solution to Nupedia's inefficiency problems. In terms of project roles, Sanger spearheaded and pursued the project as its leader in its first year, and did most of the early work in formulating policies (including "Ignore all rules" and "Neutral point of view" ) and building up the community. Upon departure in March 2002, Sanger emphasized the main issue was purely the cessation of Bomis' funding for his role, which was not viable part-time, and his changing personal priorities, however by 2004 the two had drifted apart and Sanger became more critical. Two weeks after the launch of Citizendium, Sanger criticized Wikipedia, describing the latter as "broken beyond repair." Wales claims to be the founder of Wikipedia, however, as explained by Brian Bergstein of the Associated Press, "Sanger has long been cited as a co-founder." There is evidence that Sanger was called co-founder, along with Wales, as early as 2001, and he is referred to as such in early Wikipedia press releases and Wikipedia articles, and in a September 2001 The New York Times article for which both were interviewed. Wales later disputed this, stating, "He used to work for me [...] I don't agree with calling him a co-founder, but he likes the title." James Niccolai, Wikipedia taking on the vandals in Germany, PC Advisor, . There is no evidence from before January 2004 of Wales disputing Sanger's status as co-founder, Bishop, Todd. (January 26, 2004) Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Microsoft Notebook: Wiki pioneer planted the seed and watched it grow. Section: Business; Page D1. indeed, Wales identified himself as "co-founder" as late as August 2002. Today, Wales emphasizes this employer-employee relation and the fact that he was therefore the ultimate authority, to assert that this makes him the "sole founder," and Sanger cites earlier versions of Wikipedia pages (2004, 2006) and press releases (2002–2004), to demonstrate that media coverage articles from the time of his involvement routinely represent them as co-founders. — Brian Bergstein. Blocking of Wikipedia Wikipedia has been blocked on some occasions by national authorities. To date these have related to the People's Republic of China, Iran, Tunisia, Uzbekistan and Syria. Mainland China (multiple occasions) The People's Republic of China and internet service providers in Mainland China have adopted a practice of blocking contentious Web sites in mainland China, and Wikimedia sites have been blocked multiple times in its history, sometimes all articles, and sometimes selectively by topic, region, language version, or ISP. Notable blocks include: June 2004: Access to the Chinese Wikipedia from Beijing blocked on the fifteenth anniversary of the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. Possibly related to this, on May 31 an article from the IDG News Service was published, discussing the Chinese Wikipedia's treatment of the protests. Chinese Build Free Net Encyclopedia September 2004: A second and less serious outage. Access to Wikipedia was erratic or unavailable to some users in mainland China — this block was not comprehensive and some users in mainland China were never affected. The exact reason for the block is unknown, but it may have been linked with the closing down of YTHT BBS, a popular Peking University-based BBS that was shut down a few weeks earlier for hosting overtly radical political discussions. October 2005 to around mid October 2006: For the first few days the English Wikipedia seems to have been unblocked in most provinces in China, while users were still unable to access the Chinese version in certain provinces, varying by ISP. By November, both versions seemed to be accessible in all provinces and by all ISPs. The end of the block coincided with the Chinese Wikipedia's 100,000th article milestone. Chart: Wikipedia access in China Chinese Wikipedia now fully unblocked? Friend in high place unblocks Wikipedia, Fortune Magazine The first block had an effect on the vitality of Chinese Wikipedia, which suffered sharp dips in various indicators such as the number of new users, the number of new articles, and the number of edits. In some cases, it took anywhere from six to twelve months in order to recover to the levels of May 2004. On , the BBC reported that the Chinese Wikipedia had been unblocked that day in China; it had still been blocked the previous day. This came within the context of foreign journalists arriving in Beijing to report on the upcoming Olympic Games, and websites such as the Chinese edition of the BBC were being unblocked following talks between the International Olympic Committee and the Games' Chinese organisers. "Beijing unblocks BBC Chinese site", BBC, Syria Access to Arabic Wikipedia was blocked between and February 13, 2009 . (Other languages were accessible). Tunisia Wikimedia website was blocked for a few days in Tunisia ( - ). United Kingdom On , users in the United Kingdom were affected by a block of a page (Virgin Killer) and associated picture (:Image:Virgin Killer.jpg), following a claim that the image was "potentially illegal" under the Protection of Children Act 1978. An estimated 95% of British users were affected by the block, which was put in place on the recommendation of the Internet Watch Foundation. The IWF's recommendation was rescinded on . Uzbekistan Access to Uzbek Wikipedia was blocked in Uzbekistan on ; Oʻzbekcha wikipedia yana yopildimi?(Uzbek) the block was lifted . This was the second time Wikipedia had been blocked in Uzbekistan; the first case was in 2007. See also History of wikisThe Wikipedia RevolutionReferences External links Wikipedia records and archivesWikipedia's project files contain a large quantity of reference and archive material. Useful resources on Wikipedia history within Wikipedia are: Historical summaries Size and statistics Discussion and debate archives Other Third party The Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource — Free Software Foundation endorsement of Nupedia (later updated to include Wikipedia) 1999. Even older Wikipedia snapshot - Early Wikipedia snapshot - New York Times on Wikipedia, September 2001 Larry Sanger, The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir and Part II Slashdot ( - ) Giles, Jim, Internet encyclopaedias go head to head, Nature comparison between Wikipedia and Britannica, Fatally Flawed: Refuting the recent study on encyclopedic accuracy by the journal Nature, Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., March 2006 Nature's responses to Encyclopaedia Britannica, Nature, be-x-old:Гісторыя Вікіпэдыі	History_of_Wikipedia \|@lemmatized wikipedia:282 online:12 encyclopedia:28 edit:22 anyone:4 aim:5 provide:3 free:18 encyclopedic:3 information:21 reader:2 pioneering:1 concept:14 technology:2 wiki:35 come:6 ward:3 cunningham:4 richard:2 stallman:2 formally:4 launch:9 initially:6 create:22 complement:2 feeder:3 expert:8 write:18 english:51 language:29 project:49 nupedia:29 order:6 additional:3 source:22 draft:1 article:127 idea:14 quickly:1 overtake:1 grow:9 become:9 large:8 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6,447	Iceman_(comics)	Iceman (Robert "Bobby" Louis Drake) is a fictional Marvel Comics superhero, a member of the X-Men. Created by writer Stan Lee and artist/co-writer Jack Kirby, he first appeared in X-Men (vol. 1) #1, (September 1963). A mutant, Iceman has the ability of cryokinesis where he can freeze anything around him and can also turn his body into ice. Although he is an Omega-level mutant, Drake has yet to tap his full mutant potential. He has, however, begun to take more interest over the years in developing his abilities. One of the original X-Men, Iceman has had a frequent presence in X-Men (and Spider-Man)-related comics, video games, animated series, and movies. Shawn Ashmore portrayed Iceman in the X-Men films. Publication history Iceman has been featured in two self-titled limited comic book miniseries, one in the 1980s by J. M. DeMatteis and another in the 2000s by Andy Lanning and Dan Abnett, art by Skottie Young. A mainstay in most X-Men titles, Iceman has been a main character in both Uncanny X-Men and the second volume of X-Men and was also featured in the Champions and New Defenders as a member. He also was a main character in the first volume of X-Factor. He was also a star in flashback stories when he was a teenager in X-Men: The Hidden Years and X-Men: First Class. Fictional character biography Early life Robert Drake was born in Floral Park, New York, Long Island, New York, to William Robert Drake and Madeline Beatrice Bass-Drake. He is Jewish on his mother's side and Irish Catholic on his father's. The religion of Iceman (Bobby Drake) of the X-Men Bobby's powers first manifest when he is on a date with Judy Harmon, and a local bully by the name of Rocky Beasely tries to take Judy away for himself. Knowing Judy cannot put up a good fight, Bobby points his hand at Beasely and encases him in a block of ice. Later, the local townspeople, having heard of the incident, come looking for him in the form of an angry mob. The local sheriff has no choice but to put Bobby in jail for his own "protection". While Bobby sits in his cell at the sheriff station, the outer wall is blown open, and a man named Scott Summers (Cyclops) walks in and offers to take Bobby with him. After Bobby turns him down, the two mutants get into a short battle, which is soon ended by Professor Charles Xavier. After Xavier has sat down and talked with Bobby and his parents, Bobby's parents suggest that he go with Professor Xavier to his "school for gifted youngsters". Bobby takes the suggestion and leaves with Professor Xavier and Cyclops to become the second member of the X-Men. He is later joined by Henry "Hank" McCoy, Jean Grey, and Warren Worthington III as the charter members of the X-Men. Iceman quickly befriends Hank McCoy (Beast), and the two serve as comic relief for the team. Drake, however, remains self-conscious regarding the fact that he is the youngest member of the group. Appearing in his original snow covered form, he first battles Magneto along with the rest of the team, X-Men (vol. 1) #1 and later the Brotherhood of Evil Mutants. X-Men (vol. 1) #4 Not long after, he takes on a new ice-covered form. X-Men (vol. 1) #8 He then teams with the Human Torch for the first time. Strange Tales (vol. 1) #120 With the X-Men, he visits the Savage Land and meets Ka-Zar for the first time. X-Men (vol. 1) #10 He then battles the Juggernaut, X-Men (vol. 1) #13 and is badly injured in his first battle against the Sentinels. X-Men (vol. 1) #14-17 He next battles Magneto by himself. X-Men (vol. 1) #18 Later, he visits Subterranea for the first time. X-Men (vol. 1) #34 Then, he and Beast battle the Maha Yogi. X-Men (vol. 1) #47 During his original stint with the X-Men, Drake pursues a relationship with Lorna Dane, although the relationship does not last. Iceman is among the original X-Men captured by Krakoa, leading to a new incarnation of X-Men of which he is not a member. With most of the original team, he quits the X-Men. X-Men (vol. 1) #94 Champions and Defenders Iceman moves to the American west coast to attend UCLA and becomes a founding member of The Champions of Los Angeles. Champions #1, October 1975 However, the Champions soon dissolve. Spectacular Spider-Man (vol. 1) #17 Iceman is then abducted by Master Mold, and alongside Angel, he encounters the Hulk. The Incredible Hulk (vol. 2) #7 Iceman next aids the Thing in battling the Circus of Crime. Marvel Two-in-One #76 Drake retires from life as a superhero to earn a college degree in accounting - but apparently at a college on the east coast, not UCLA. Uncanny X-Men #145, page 10, panel 1 While in college, he briefly rejoins the X-Men to rescue the captives of Arcade's henchman Miss Locke. Uncanny X-Men #145-146 Iceman is reunited with Beast, and encounters Cloud, and then returns as a full-time superhero in an incarnation of the Defenders alongside his former teammates, Angel and Beast. Defenders #122-123, 125 He also battles Professor Power's Secret Empire while with the Defenders. Defenders #127-129 After the Defenders disband, Drake embarks on his career as an accountant. Some time later, Iceman encounters Mirage, the "daughter" of Oblivion. Iceman journeys back in time and meets his parents before he was born, and battles Oblivion and Mirage. He then achieves reconciliation with his parents. Iceman #1-4 X-Factor The original X-Men, including Iceman, reunite to form the superhero team X-Factor. X-Factor (vol. 1) #1 (February 1986) With this new team, he encounters Apocalypse for the first time. X-Factor (vol. 1) #6 During his time with the team, the Asgardian trickster god Loki captures Bobby, hoping to use him to gain control over the Frost Giants. Loki enhances Bobby's powers and then extracts them to restore the size of the Frost Giants. Iceman is rescued by Thor. Thor (vol. 1) #377-378 Loki's tampering increases Bobby's powers to such an extent that he begins to lose control of his abilities. During a later battle with the Right, he is fitted with a power-dampening belt which actually helps him control his abilities. Once able only to sheathe his own body in a protective coating of ice, Bobby finds he can encase the entirety of the Empire State Building. With time, Bobby gains sufficient control over his augmented powers that he is able to stop using the inhibitor belt. Believing he has achieved his full potential, Bobby does not attempt to develop his abilities further. With X-Factor, Bobby then defeats Apocalypse's Horsemen. X-Factor (vol. 1) #19 Iceman helps watch over many of the younger superheroes, something he once was. Most notably, he and Beast help Boom Boom gain a more normal life. For a brief while, he also helps supervise the New Mutants and their sister team, the X-Terminators. They, in turn, save him from the deadly kiss of Infectia. X-Factor (vol. 1) #29-31 Bobby also develops a romantic relationship with Opal Tanaka. After a session of ice sledding, she discovers threatening mail in her mailbox, a precursor to harassment by her cybernetically-enhanced relatives of the Tatsu Clan of the Yakuza, something Bobby helps her out with. X-Factor (vol. 1) #63-64 After the Muir Island Saga, Iceman rejoins the X-Men along with the rest of X-Factor. Uncanny X-Men #281; X-Men (vol. 2) #1 Back with the X-Men Upon rejoining the X-Men, Iceman becomes a member of the Gold Squadron, under the leadership of Storm. For much of his time, he continues his role as the team's practical joker and comic relief. However, when Emma Frost, the former White Queen of the Hellfire Club, takes over his body and uses his powers at levels which he has previously been unable to reach, Iceman begins to suffer from depression and starts to reassess his life. The White Queen subsequently believes that Iceman has the potential to be one of the most powerful mutants on Earth. At one point, Iceman confronts Emma, demanding that she show him how she was able to use his powers in such a manner. Although she first tells him to "figure it out yourself," she later goads him into accessing the power all by himself. Around this time, Iceman takes a road-trip with fellow X-Man Rogue. She becomes a danger to herself and others, forcing Iceman into the role of protector. Iceman leaves the X-Men shortly after the incident with the White Queen, only to take an uncharacteristic turn as a leader during Operation: Zero Tolerance. Not long after the Twelve incident against Apocalypse, Iceman, Jean Grey, Mystique, Toad, and Juggernaut are summoned by the sentient spaceship Prosh who sends the make-shift team on a journey through time to uncover the keys to preserving human evolution. Their mission: save the human race from a threat that might not manifest itself for millions of years. During their trips through time, Iceman is allowed to experience his abilities at far greater levels than he has ever attempted before. These experiences force Iceman to come to the realization that he no longer needs to fear the evolution of his abilities, and he returns to the X-Men intent on exploring his mutant powers to the fullest. Secondary Mutation While working with a team of X-Men some time later, Drake undergoes a secondary mutation that prevents him from transforming a damaged portion of his chest back to flesh. Upon encountering Azazel and his followers, Iceman's body is shattered from the neck down. Afterward, he regains his entire ice form, but cannot change back to his human appearance. As a result, Bobby becomes both bitter and despondent because of this drastic change. After Polaris breaks up with Havok, Iceman admits that he still has feelings for her. The two engage in mild flirtation, and a relationship between the two develops. Decimation After the events of the House of M, Iceman finds himself to be flesh and blood again and believes himself to have lost his powers. Shortly after, while being held at gunpoint by the Leper Queen, Emma Frost "pushes" something in Bobby's mind that forces him to turn to ice. Further examination reveals that Drake had not lost his powers, but rather had unconsciously repressed them on his own. After this, Bobby is once again able to revert from ice to flesh. Rogue's Team Iceman joins Rogue's team after she tells him that she wants him as a member. Their first mission as a team is to fight a new threat, a powerful group known as the Children of the Vault. X-Men (vol. 2) #188, July, 2006 The team is successful and during this time, Bobby learns that he can be completely destroyed but then pull himself back together again. It was shown several times during the arc. Also during this arc, Mystique kisses Bobby and he responds, but it is unknown whether it was an actual kiss or if she was performing mouth-to-mouth. The next mission for the team was to locate a man called Pandemic and defeat him. The team was again successful, but Rogue was infected with a virus called Strain 88. Cable took the team, including Bobby, to his island so Rogue could get treatment. While on Cable's island, the team and Iceman began working to defeat the Shi'ar weapon known as the Hecatomb. During the chaos, he shared a passionate kiss with Mystique. Even as he did so, he saved many lives by containing the explosion of the Conquistador, and, later, the Hecatomb itself. Blinded by the Light As the team recovers from Hecatomb attack in Rogue's childhood home, it appears that Mystique and Iceman begin a romantic relationship. X-Men (vol. 2) #200 This was a front, however, as Mystique was using Iceman and the X-Men as a Marauder spy for Mister Sinister. Marauders soon infiltrated the house; they attempt to gain access to Destiny's Diaries on the order of Mr. Sinister (who has been gathering information about the future from anybody and anything that could foretell the future). Bobby and Cannonball escape from the Marauders in the X-Jet, with help from Emma Frost. They are pursued by Sunfire; they manage to get the better of him and take him prisoner, but not before he manages to cripple the jet. While Sunfire is unconscious, Iceman and Sam discuss the Mauraders' plan to eliminate all precognitive mutants and anyone with knowledge of the future as well as retrieving Destiny's Diaries before the Marauders can. During this time, Bobby displayed sub-atomic control of energy transfers when he prevented Sunfire from using his fire-based powers. Cannonball and Bobby, telepathically prompted by Emma Frost, attempt to recover the diaries which are hidden in a dilapidated brewery. X-Men (vol. 2) 203 Mr. Sinister uses the reverse-engineered version of Xavier's Cerebro to track the pair of X-Men to the brewery. The Marauders attack Cannonball and Iceman and overtake them. Bobby, while in his ice form, suffers a gunshot wound from Mystique, which severs one of his arms above the elbow. Mister Sinister, who takes Cannonball prisoner, attempts to telepathically erase his mind so that the X-Men will find him as an empty shell. Iceman attacks Sinister, distracting him, which allows both of the X-Men to escape. Messiah Complex The New X-Men team decided to raid the headquarters of the Purifiers in Washington, D.C., but were forced to retreat. Pixie teleported them back to the mansion in a rush, but the entire team was scattered between D.C. and Westchester. Iceman, after recovering from his injuries, volunteered to go look for them and was given telepathic directions by Emma Frost. New X-Men #45 Iceman was successful in finding the New X-Men, most of them injured. On the way back, they found that the ONE* Sentinels guarding the Xavier Institute became infected by nano-Sentinels and attacked the school. Iceman and New X-Man X-23 helped out in the battle with the ONE* Sentinels. With the help of Dust and X-23, the X-Men were able to survive this battle but the nano-Sentinel infected human escaped. Uncanny X-Men #493 Soon, Iceman participated in the final battle against the Marauders, the Acolytes, and Predator X. He was one of the X-Men who came running in to fight Predator X after it swallowed Wolverine whole. Unfortunately, he also witnessed his mentor, Professor Xavier, "killed" by Bishop's bullet that wasn't meant for him. X-Men #207 Manifest Destiny According to writer Mike Carey, "the events leading up to Messiah Complex, [when Iceman] got blindsided by Mystique" are "still preying on [Iceman] to a large extent" and "some of those events [will be revisited]. Bobby is questioning his role as a member of the X-Men and contemplating his trip west to San Francisco, but he's not entirely sure what his next move is going to be." "Carey's Iceman story in Manifest Destiny takes place before the recent "Uncanny X-Men" arc that saw Iceman arrive in San Francisco, and follows Iceman as he travels west on a cross-country trip to the X-Men's new home." He meets up with his ex-girlfriend Opal and discusses the rapid change his relationship with his powers with Beast. When he entered a plane with Opal to get some tests run a bomb detonates, and Opal reveals herself as Mystique. Iceman subsequently asked if she did so to mess with his head and she replies "No lover, your melting point." She then shoots him out of the plane. X-Men: Manifest Destiny #1 Divided We Stand Iceman arrives in San Francisco, where he was set to meet Hepzibah, Warpath, and Angel. All four are caught in the effects of a city-wide illusion created by Martinique Jason, who used her powers to transform the city into a hippie paradise. Now calling himself "Frosty", he and the others are sent by Martinique to confront Scott Summers and Emma Frost. Emma Frost is able to break up the illusion and free everyone. They eventually set up their base of operations in San Francisco as X-Men. Uncanny X-Men #499 Secret Invasion Iceman is one of the X-Men that assists in fighting the Skrull invasion in San Francisco. X-Men: Secret Invasion #1 Powers and abilities Iceman creates an ice slide on the cover of X-Factor (vol. 1) #27 (1988). Art by Walt Simonson. Iceman possesses the power to radically decrease the temperature of ambient water vapor in his immediate environment, thereby freezing it into ice. In this manner he is able to quickly form a great variety of ice structures, including projectiles, shields, ladders, baseball bats, etc. He often makes ice slides which form rapidly beneath and behind his feet, pushing him along the slick surface at high speeds. Originally, Iceman's own body temperature would lower dramatically when his powers were active, reaching within a few tenths of a second (now his body usually converts to organic ice; see below). Iceman is immune to sub-zero temperatures; he is also able to perceive the thermal energy level of objects around him. Because cold is the absence of heat, Iceman does not actually 'emanate' cold; rather, he decreases thermal energy. As mentioned by writer Mike Carey, Iceman is "an Omega level mutant...[and] has powers that can influence the ecosystem of the entire world." In his early appearances, Iceman generally covered his body in a thick layer of what appeared to be snow; hence he looked more like a traditional snowman than an ice-man. Upon further training in the use of his powers, he was able to fashion an armor of solid ice around his body when using his powers, which afforded him some degree of protection against concussive force and projectiles; he apparently became slightly transparent when doing this, as Cyclops jokingly compared him to Susan Storm. Later on, he manifested the ability to convert the tissue of his body into organic ice. He sometimes augments his organic ice form with razor sharp adornments to his shoulders, elbows, knees, and fists. Iceman has also been able to move rapidly to another distant location while in his organic ice form, being able to deposit his bodily mass into a river and reconstitute his entire mass a great distance away in a matter of minutes (by temporarily merging his molecules with those of the river). On one occasion, Iceman suffered a severe chest injury while in his ice form and was able to heal himself by converting back into his normal human form. Iceman is also able to reconstitute his organic ice form if any part of it is damaged, or even if it is completely shattered, without permanently harming himself. He can temporarily add the mass of a body of water to his own, increasing his mass, size, and strength. He can survive not only as ice, but as liquid water and water vapor. He can also transform his body from a gaseous state back to a solid, although it is physically and mentally taxing. X-Men (vol. 2) #190 X-Men (vol. 2) #193 Iceman can also freeze sea water, as seen during the "Operation Zero Tolerance" story arc. Aside from his superhuman powers, Iceman is also a fair hand-to-hand combatant, and received combat training at Xavier's School as well as coaching from the Black Widow and Hercules while serving with the Champions of Los Angeles. Iceman has as much combat training as Cyclops or Beast. Interview with writer Mike Carey Personality According to writer Mike Carey "one of Iceman's best personality traits is that emotionally Bobby Drake is like the ice he manipulates -- not cold but transparent. 'He's devastatingly honest. He is very up-front with his emotions and his thoughts all the time.'" "Also, he's obviously incredibly brave both in terms of facing external, physical danger as well as facing up to unpleasant situations and admitting his own mistakes." This emotional honesty can often complicate matters for Bobby, especially in matters of love. Sometimes Bobby is looked down upon as being immature, but this is just a guise for his insecurities and well noted fear of change, he is easily made emotionally uncomfortable by his own short-comings and this often alters Bobby's child-like joviality into sullen moodiness (which does not help in the perception that he is immature). Friendships & Relationships Iceman is often the center point in dealing with the non-romantic friendships among the X-Men. While Bobby is often well-liked by his teammates, his moodiness and occasional insecurities sometimes push them away. Currently, Bobby's best friends among the X-Men include Angel, Cannonball, and Rogue. Outside of the X-Men, he is good friends with Spider-Man for their shared sense of humor. Originally, the Iceman/Beast friendship was one of the cornerstones of the X-Universe, but has recently been ignored by writers. With the other two original X-Men, Cyclops and Phoenix, Bobby has a little brother-big brother/sister relationship, with the latter being much more pleasant. Bobby is fiercely protective of those he considers friends, going as far as to threaten to kill his teammate Northstar for leaving Angel in a potentially dangerous situation, keeping constant vigil by Cannonball's bedside while Sam recovered from his injury from Sinister, and engaging in physical confrontation with Cyclops for questioning Rogue's judgment as a team leader. Despite Iceman's often well-liked personality, he has always seemed unable to maintain any sort of long-time relationships, with one exception being Opal, although that too ended. Iceman also had strong feelings for his fellow X-Man Polaris, but she did not return those feelings, due to her feelings towards Havok instead. Northstar formed an unrequited crush for Iceman during their time on the same team, though Iceman did not return his feelings. Uncanny X-Men #415 Iceman also began a brief relationship with the Xavier School's nurse, Annie, however she ended up leaving him for Havok, who had just left Polaris at the altar. Uncanny X-Men #426 When Iceman attempted to rekindle his relationship with Polaris, that too ended abruptly and Polaris returned to Havok. Uncanny X-Men #429 Iceman's latest attempt at romance was with the X-Men's enemy Mystique, who later betrayed him. Oddly enough however, she still seemed fixated on him, stating that she will either kill him or cure him of his personal uncertainty. X-Men: Manifest Destiny #3 Physical appearance Iceman's appearance while in ice form has changed significantly over the years. In the early X-Men stories, his appearance is more reminiscent of a snowman. The explanation given is that frost formed on his skin when he used his abilities. At the prompting of team leader Cyclops, Drake learns to cover his body with hardened-but-flexible ice and adopts the hard crystalline appearance familiar to modern readers. X-Men (vol. 1) #8 (1964) After being kidnapped by the Norse God Loki and used as a pawn against Loki's half brother Thor, Iceman's powers are augmented to uncontrollable levels, through a cryo-condenser. The process nearly kills him; however Loki is defeated, and Iceman is teleported back to his place of origin. Thor (vol. 1) #377 Thor (vol. 1) #378 With his powers greatly increased, Iceman temporarily loses control of his powers and is required to wear a bulky, metallic belt designed to keep his powers in control. Iceman later learns to control his augmented powers without the aid of his power dampening belt. Eventually, Iceman develops the ability to actually become organic ice, appearing almost translucent. He is virtually indestructible in this form, as he can reform his shattered body even if part of him is completely destroyed. For a time, Iceman became stuck in this ice form, due to a secondary mutation. However, after the events of M-Day, Bobby feared losing his powers and reverts back to his human appearance. In an attempt on his life by the Leper Queen, believing him to be a mutant, Bobby is seconds away from death. Mentally alerting Scott and the others to come to Bobby's aid, Emma reaches out to Bobby through Cerebro to try and help him as quickly as she can. By reaching into his mind, Emma reactivates Bobby's powers through opening a series of mental blocks he has placed on himself, and saves him from near death. As a result of Emma "hacking" into Bobby's mind, Iceman donned a more grotesque transparent appearance, with organic bubbles, large veins, and spiky hair. Since this experience, Iceman has regained control over his powers and refined his appearance with jagged spikes on his limbs, back, and hair. On several more recent occasions, Iceman has also undergone another transformation due to his defeat in battle, or by extreme circumstances involving heat. While under attack by his fellow comrades Northstar and Aurora - under mind control, Bobby was essentially blown up in his human form. Unbeknownst to him, his body reacted by instantly disintegrating into snow, which in turn melted and he existed in a gaseous state for a short period of time. In an attempt gone wrong by his teammate Mystique to prevent Aurora from killing the others, Iceman was able to stop Aurora by putting her into a cryo sleep while still in his gaseous state. Iceman was then able to reconstitute his solid form by coalescing from steam to ice to flesh. This transformation left him weak, but he survived the experience to fight another day. Other versions 1602 - Roberto Trefusis Iceman is Roberto Trefusis in the miniseries Marvel 1602, a member of the group of "witchbreeds" founded by Carlos Javier and led by Scotius Summerisle. He is the nephew of naval commander Sir Francis Drake. As in the Marvel Universe, he generates ice and can assume a physical ice form. Age of Apocalypse In the Age of Apocalypse crossover event, Bobby, along with the rest of the X-Men, is trained by Magneto. Because Magneto is harder on his students than Professor X, Bobby lacks his 616-counterpart's sense of humor. Instead, Bobby becomes very cold and inhuman, making his teammates feel uncomfortable. In addition to his normal abilities, Bobby is capable of breaking down his body and merging it with another body of water to travel great distances in a matter of seconds. He can bring others along through a process that he calls "moisture molecular inversion", though it is a painful process for the passengers. Bobby is also able to reconstitute his body from broken pieces. Just before Apocalypse's defeat, Colossus stormed right through Iceman, causing him to fall into pieces in an attempt to reach his sister. A couple of months later, Iceman, Exodus, Wild Child, and Morph were sent on a secret mission by Magneto; only Wild Child's fate was revealed. Earth X During the series Earth X, Bobby had become trapped in his ice form, making him vulnerable to melting. He moves to the Arctic regions of Earth, and made an ice city for himself and the Inuit. Due to a series of events where Earth's orbital path moves, Bobby is able to return to the United States to aid in the battle against the demon Mephisto. House of M In the House of M reality, Iceman was seen in Magneto's army during his rise to power. Civil War: House of M #1 Bobby later appears as one of the Horsemen of Apocalypse. Magneto sends Apocalypse to dispose of his rival Black Panther; when Apocalypse is attacked en route by Black Panther's allies, Iceman aids him by freezing Namor solid and attempting to attack Storm, but he is severely injured by Sunfire. Black Panther Vol 4 #7 Mutant X When Havok was transported to the Mutant X universe, he found Robert Drake the victim of misfortune. The Asgardian god Loki amplified Bobby's powers to a dangerous level, leaving him unable to make contact with any organic thing for fear of killing it. Unfortunately, Tony Stark did not invent the power dampening device that was invented in the main Marvel Universe, so Ice-Man's powers remained permanently affected. Now going by Bob and calling himself Ice-Man, he becomes very bitter from his circumstances. When Havok had a disagreement with Magneto and decided to leave the X-Men, Ice-Man was one of those who followed him, being a founding member of the Six. Not much is known of the early years of the team, but when Havok began to have an affair with Sue Storm of the Fantastic Four, Havok's wife Madelyne came running to Ice-Man. Consumed with jealousy at their intimate friendship, Havok sabotaged the Brute's experiment to cure Ice-Man, permanently damaging his brain and reducing Brute to a child-like state. When the mental degeneration occurred, Ice-Man made it his duty to protect Brute, especially from the insensitive actions of The Fallen. In a freak accident where Brute jumped in front of a psychic blast from a deranged Charles Xavier to protect Havok, Brute regained his intellect as a bizarre side-effect. Brute endeavored to help his friends instead of attempting to stabilize his own condition, leaving Ice-Man to once more feel responsible for his friend's well-being when he reverted to his former mental state. In the final epic showdown between all the heroes of Earth and the combined might of the resurrected Goblyn Force, Dracula, and the Beyonder, Ice-Man was one of the few to survive. New Exiles After the New Exiles land on the world of warring empires, they encounter Dame Emma Frost, head of Britain's Department X and founder of Force-X. This team includes Roberta "Bobby" Drake, a female version of Bobby who is codenamed Aurion and displays ice-based abilities. New Exiles #9 Ronin In the alternate reality of X-Men: Ronin Iceman is a murderous ninja in the employ of the Hellfire Club. He works with Pyro and Avalanche as part of the 'Shadowcat Clan' and battles the X-Men. Shadow-X New Excalibur battles an evil counterpart of Iceman, who is a member of the Shadow-X, the X-Men of an alternate reality in which Professor X was possessed by the Shadow King. They are brought to Earth-616 as a result of M-Day. He appeared to be mute and died during the final battle against Albion. Marvel Noir Iceman appears in X-Men Noir as one of the X-Men, a crew of talented criminals. He is depicted as being very short-tempered and paranoid. He is dubbed "Iceman", and angrily insists others to refer to him that way, due to his custom of using an icepick as a weapon. Ultimate Iceman Ultimate Iceman. Art by David Finch. In the Ultimate Marvel continuity, Bobby Drake is the youngest founding member of the X-Men. He ran away from his family at the peak of government-supported Sentinel attacks, fearing his family would be killed in such an attack. Ultimate Iceman never had the snowman look of his counterpart, instead generating a flexible ice armor from the beginning. Bobby establishes himself as a valuable asset, singlehandedly taking out the Ultimates once with a gigantic ice wall (see Ultimate War), as well as singlehandedly halting an invasion by Colonel Wraith and Weapon X. He was only able to be stopped by Rogue, who was in temporary possession of Marvel Girl's telepathy. Professor X has stated that Bobby is one of the three most powerful X-Men. During the World Tour arc, after enlarging his armor to form a gigantic ice troll, Bobby is greatly injured by Proteus, which resulted in a lawsuit issued by his parents against Xavier. Bobby eventually rebels against his parents, and later returns to the X-Men. While Bobby was away from the X-Men on a vacation, he had a girlfriend, but Professor Xavier erased all memories of her from Bobby's mind when he told her too much about the X-Men (he presumably also erased the girl's memories). Upon her acceptance into the X-Men, Bobby begins to date Rogue. The pair date for a considerable amount of time, but eventually break up due to Bobby's growing feelings for Shadowcat and Rogue's feelings for Gambit. Eventually Rogue leaves, and Bobby starts to date Kitty until she dumps him after finding Bobby was still emailing Rogue. When Rogue returned to the X-Men, her original powers had been replaced with those of Gambit's. During the Date Night arc, Bobby and Rogue have sex with one another (the first time for both of them), due to her being able to touch him now. After this, the two rekindle their relationship, but recently problems have erupted due to the return of Rogue's old powers. Though Ultimate Iceman is still somewhat clumsy at present, the Ultimate version of Hammer, who hailed from the future, exclaimed upon meeting and subsequently battling him: "Bobby Drake, huh? The Legend! I can't believe you're so inept at this point in your life! It's been an honor to kick your..." only for Wolverine to interrupt him. Bishop also hinted to Bobby that he has a lot of potential, but Iceman shrugs off the acknowledgment. In Ultimate X-Men #80, Bishop talks to Bobby about his potential and comments "With minimal effort, you are taking moisture out of the air and slowing water molecules down to make them cold. What else can you slow down?" While this description is different in wording than that of his 616 counterpart, thermal energy is fundamentally the vibration speed of molecules. Faster vibrations equate to higher temperatures, so Bishop's explanation is essentially no different from the classic Iceman's mutant abilities. He also asks Bobby about exploring the possibilities with his powers, but Bobby merely shrugs him off and continues to play his video game. Cyclops disbanded the X-Men in Ultimate X-Men #81 and Bishop and Storm created a new team. Iceman stayed at the Institute as a student only until Xavier returned and reformed his X-Men. X-Men Fairy Tales In X-Men Fairy Tales (issue #1), Iceman appears as a white wolf with icy breath named Kori (Japanese for ice). Before he is reached by Cyclops, he appears to have lost faith in friendship. X-Men: The End In X-Men: The End, Iceman appears as one of the instrumental characters in the defeat of Cassandra Nova and Khan and one of the few surviving X-Men. Other media Television Iceman with Lightwave Iceman's first television appearance was in the 1966 The Sub-Mariner episode Dr. Dooms Day. The Sub-Mariner was part of The Marvel Super Heroes animated series. Iceman was one of the three main characters in the animated series Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends voiced by Frank Welker. In a few episodes, he appears with his and Firestar's former teammates, the X-Men. In the episode Vengeance Of Loki, he's revealed to be a government agent; his codename is "Windchill Factor Zero." In the episode Mission: Save The Guardstar his half-sister, Aurora Dante (Lightwave), was introduced. One entire episode was devoted to Iceman's origin story. Throughout the series, Iceman has a romantic infatuation with Firestar. He appeared as a former member of the team, who quit due to disagreements with Xavier, in the X-Men animated series voiced by Dennis Akayama. He appears in the episode "Cold Comfort." Iceman also appears in many flashbacks which include "Sanctuary Part 1" and "Xavier Remembers". He appeared in the X-Men: Evolution animated series voiced by Andrew Francis. Iceman was meant to be the 8th X-Man of the show, but rejected in favor of Spyke. Not surprisingly, Iceman appeared more often when Spyke left. In the series, Iceman was a New Mutant and often acted as the unofficial leader of the New Mutants, as he was the most adept of the group. Iceman made a brief appearance in the Family Guy episode "Hell Comes to Quahog". Iceman appears in Wolverine and the X-Men as a member of the X-Men who left after Professor X went M.I.A after the Insititute was destroyed. Wolverine and Beast went to re-recruit him back on to the X-Men but his parents refused to allow him to return to the team after what happened. Bobby, being 18, had the choice to either stay at home or return to the X-Men, and he made the choice to rejoin the team. He is voiced by Yuri Lowenthal. Wolverine and the X-Men - Episode 1: "Foresight" Film Bobby Drake as portrayed by Shawn Ashmore in X-Men: The Last Stand Iceman's ice form in X-Men: The Last Stand In the movies X-Men, X2, and X-Men: The Last Stand he is played by Shawn Ashmore. Bobby is one of the first students to reach out to Rogue and begins a romantic relationship with her. In X2, he has an uneasy friendship/rivalry with Pyro. His relationship with his family is also strained, and his brother actually turns Bobby in to the police out of jealousy. In X3, his relationship with Rogue appears to be deteriorating, strained by their inability to have physical contact and by his close friendship with Kitty Pryde. Seeing them both almost 'kiss' prompts Rogue to seek out "the cure" so she can finally touch Bobby without fear of hurting him. He takes part in the X-Men's final confrontation with Magneto's army and shows his true power by fighting Pyro one-on-one. During this battle, Iceman's ability to transform his body into ice is finally shown, giving him the form of Iceman from the comics, being first implied in a previous confrontation between the two former best friends in which Bobby's fist ices over. After the battle, he finds Rogue in her room, having taken the cure. Unlike his mainstream counterpart, Bobby Drake is more of an everyman and not a cynical underachiever. Video games Iceman's loading screen, featured in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse Iceman makes an appearance as a bonus level boss in the 1997 Fantastic Four game. Iceman has appeared in various video game adaptations, such as X-Men: Children of the Atom and the subsequent Marvel vs. Capcom 2. He is somewhat infamous in the game for being invulnerable to beam and fireball based attacks and supers while blocking. He also has appeared as a playable character in X-Men Legends, where he was voiced by Darren Scott. His skills could be improved in either ranged combat (ice beam, ice shards) or melee combat (improved ice armor, ice fists). He can "fly" for short distances as his double-jump move allows him to use his ice slides. Iceman appears as a playable character in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse voiced by James Arnold Taylor. He has special dialogue with Grizzly. His powers include damaging frost attacks, ice fists, and strong melee combat. Iceman is one of the three playable characters in X-Men: The Official Game which fills in the gap between X2: X-Men United and X-Men: The Last Stand. He was voiced by Shawn Ashmore, the same actor who played him in the films. Iceman appears in Marvel: Ultimate Alliance as a playable character, retaining many of his moves from the Legends games and voiced again by James Arnold Taylor. His Age of Apocalypse appearance (referred to as Spikey), classic costume (his standard look), original costume (his first comic appearances, with his face completely frosted over), and Bobby Drake (the look he adopts in the New X-Men series and his subsequent solo series: he appears in his human form, wearing a leather trenchcoat, with only his hands appearing frozen) are alternate costumes for Iceman. In this game, he retains his X-Men Legends abilities, like that of creating ice slides instead of double-jumping. He has special dialogue with Black Widow, Namor, Namorita, Professor X, Gladiator, and Ymir. A simulation disk has Iceman fighting Mysterio in Mephisto's Realm and another one has Storm defending him and Wolverine from Hussar in Murderworld. References External links Iceman at Marvel.com writer Mike Carey's interview dealing with Iceman	Iceman_(comics) \|@lemmatized iceman:129 robert:4 bobby:82 louis:1 drake:22 fictional:2 marvel:12 comic:7 superhero:4 member:16 x:156 men:120 create:5 writer:8 stan:1 lee:1 artist:1 co:1 jack:1 kirby:1 first:17 appear:25 vol:31 september:1 mutant:16 ability:16 cryokinesis:1 freeze:4 anything:2 around:4 also:26 turn:7 body:18 ice:55 although:5 omega:2 level:8 yet:1 tap:1 full:4 potential:5 however:9 begin:9 take:16 interest:1 year:5 develop:4 one:27 original:9 frequent:1 presence:1 spider:4 man:19 related:1 video:4 game:9 animated:2 series:12 movie:2 shawn:4 ashmore:4 portrayed:1 film:3 publication:1 history:1 feature:3 two:9 self:2 title:2 limited:1 book:1 miniseries:2 j:1 dematteis:1 another:7 andy:1 lanning:1 dan:1 abnett:1 art:3 skottie:1 young:4 mainstay:1 main:4 character:9 uncanny:10 second:5 volume:2 champion:6 new:21 defender:7 factor:12 star:1 flashback:2 story:5 teenager:1 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6,448	City_University_of_New_York	Not to be confused with New York University, formerly known as the University of the City of New York. For similar uses, see University of New York. The City University of New York (CUNY; acronym ), is the public university system of New York City. It comprises 23 institutions: 11 senior colleges, six community colleges, the William E. Macaulay Honors College at CUNY, the Graduate School and University Center, the City University School of Law at Queens College, the CUNY Graduate School of Journalism, the Sophie Davis School of Biomedical Education, and the CUNY School of Professional Studies. Serving more than 243,000 degree-credit students and 273,000 continuing and professional education students, the University confers 35,000 degrees each year — more than 1.1 million associate, baccalaureate, masters and doctoral degrees since 1967. CUNY plays a crucial role in the life and economy of the city and state. As of 2007, 54 percent of undergraduates and 46 percent of all college students in New York City were attending CUNY. College Now, CUNY’s academic enrichment program for 46,000 high school students, is offered at CUNY campuses and at more than 343 high schools. Online baccalaureate degrees are offered by the School of Professional Studies. Academics From certificate courses to the Ph.D., CUNY provides post-secondary learning at every level, in every field of interest: 1,750 programs, more than 230 majors leading to associate and baccalaureate degrees, and more than 160 graduate-degree majors. Mission CUNY traces its beginnings to the founding in 1847 of The Free Academy, which became The City College of New York. According to New York State Education Law, CUNY is “supported as an independent and integrated system of higher education on the assumption that the University will continue to maintain and expand its commitment to academic excellence and to the provision of equal access and opportunity for students, faculty and staff from all ethnic and racial groups and from both sexes.” World-class Faculty CUNY’s 6,700 full-time teaching faculty includes prominent experts in virtually every field of human endeavor. Guggenheim Fellows, winners of Pulitzer Prizes and two U.S. Poet Laureates have all taught at CUNY, and more than 80 percent of full-time professors hold the highest degrees in their fields. Expanding the ranks of full-time faculty is CUNY’s highest priority. Cutting-edge Research With more than 100 nationally recognized research centers, CUNY is one of the nation’s premier research institutions, promoting discovery in the sciences and engineering as well as in the arts, education and humanities. The state-of-the-art, 200,000-square-foot Advanced Science Research Center (ASRC), to open in 2012 on the grounds of The City College, will be the University’s hub of groundbreaking research in photonics, nanotechnology, water and environmental sensing, structural biology and neuroscience, important work that is already underway at CUNY. The William E. Macaulay Honors College at CUNY The William E. Macaulay Honors College at CUNY provides an enhanced undergraduate education to academically gifted students, drawing on the University’s resources and New York’s cultural, scientific, government and business communities to provide a broad, challenging liberal arts education. David Bauer, first-place winner of the national Intel Science Prize while attending Hunter College High School, chose Macaulay over other top U.S. colleges. As a CUNY student he has won Goldwater, Truman and Rhodes scholarships. William E. Macaulay is a City College alumnus whose record $30 million gift in 2006 established a home and endowment for the college. Private funding helps provide full tuition, scholarships, laptops and academic expense accounts. The Student Body CUNY students are remarkably diverse, tracing their ancestries to 205 countries. African-American, white and Hispanic undergraduates each comprise more than a quarter of the student body, and Asians more than 15 percent. Forty-seven percent of undergraduates have a native language other than English, 41 percent work more than 20 hours a week, 63 percent attend school full time, and 15 percent support children. Nearly 60 percent are female and 29 percent are 25 or older. Of first-time freshmen, 37 percent are born outside the U.S. mainland and nearly 70 percent attended New York City public high schools. 21st Century Facilities From the traditional to the architecturally innovative, 300 buildings with almost 26 million square feet of space comprise CUNY’s physical plant, with campuses ranging from The City College’s neo-Gothic buildings on St. Nicholas Heights to Baruch College’s Newman Vertical Campus in midtown Manhattan, to the bucolic College of Staten Island. The University’s buildings house state-of-the-art computer centers, science and language laboratories, gymnasiums, theaters, greenhouses and astronomy observatories. Financial Aid New York City Council Peter F. Vallone Academic Scholarships and individual scholarships offered by CUNY colleges complement federal and state grants and loans. Graduates of New York City high schools with a B or better average who are accepted to CUNY, may be eligible for Vallone Scholarships. Of full-time undergraduate CUNY degree students, 70 percent receive financial aid, from federal Pell grants and state TAP awards, to federal work-study. Annually, students receive more than $600 million from a variety of sources to help meet the cost of attending CUNY. Colleges CUNY consists of three different types of institutions: senior colleges, which grant bachelor's degrees and occasionally master's and associates degrees; community colleges, which grant associate's degrees; and graduate/professional schools. CUNY's Law School grants Juris Doctor (J.D.) degrees, and Ph.D. degrees are awarded only by the CUNY Graduate Center. The colleges are listed below, with establishment dates in parentheses. Senior colleges (1847) City College (1870) Hunter College (1919) Baruch College (as City College’s School of Business and Civic Administration, renamed in 1953 to honor Bernard M. Baruch) (1930) Brooklyn College (1937) Queens College (formed by the merger of Hunter and City Colleges' Queens campuses) (1946) New York City College of Technology (1955) College of Staten Island (1964) John Jay College of Criminal Justice (1966) York College (1968) Lehman College (from (1931) Lehman was the Bronx branch of Hunter College, known as Hunter-in-the-Bronx) (1970) Medgar Evers College Community colleges (1957) Bronx Community College (1958) Queensborough Community College (1963) Borough of Manhattan Community College (1963) Kingsborough Community College (1968) LaGuardia Community College (1970) Hostos Community College Graduate and professional schools (1961) CUNY Graduate Center (1973) Sophie Davis School of Biomedical Education (1983) CUNY School of Law (2005) William E. Macaulay Honors College (2006) CUNY Graduate School of Journalism (2006) CUNY School of Professional Studies (2008) CUNY School of Public Health Public Safety CUNY has its own police force whose duties are to protect and serve all students and faculty members, and enforce all state and city laws at all of CUNY's universities. The force currently has more than 600 officers, making it one of the largest police forces in New York City. City University Television (CUNY TV) CUNY also has a cable TV service, CUNY TV (channel 75 on Time Warner) which airs telecourses which show tapes of freshman level survey courses in psychology, physics, statistics, and geography, among others. CUNY TV also has an extensive schedule of foreign language shows in Spanish, German and French. It also shows many old films and foreign films, especially from Poland in Prof. Jerry Carlson's and City College film studies program's City Cinematheque. In addition, CUNY's flagship magazine-style series Study With the Best highlights University's students, faculty and alumni. They also cablecast public affairs shows like the Baruch College's forums as well as Prof. Doug Muzzio's City Talk and former councilwoman Ronnie Eldridge's show Eldridge & Co.. Also Brian Lehrer Live by Brian Lehrer is shown live on Wednesdays at 7:30 PM. Michael Stoler's the Stoler Report also airs a lively panel discussion on the state of the Tri-State Real Estate Market. Stoler also does the show Building NY. Reception The Economist wrote positively about Chancellor Goldstein's reforms in an article, Rebuilding the American dream machine, dated January 19, 2006. In a 2007 New York Times article, it was reported that CUNY was raising its academic admission standards once again. Arenson, Karen W., "CUNY Plans to Raise Its Admissions Standards", New York Times, July 28, 2007 Queens College is ranked as one of the "25 Hottest Universities" in the Newsweek/Kaplan 2008 College Guide. Alumni The City University of New York boasts some very prominent alumni, whose professions range from politics to medicine. City College Herman Badillo (1951), Civil rights activist and the first Puerto Rican elected to the U.S. Congress Michele Forsten (1976), Co-founder, New York City Lesbian Cancer Support Consortium Abraham Foxman, National director, Anti-Defamation League Felix Frankfurter (1902), U.S. Supreme Court Justice William Hallett Greene (1884)), First black graduate of City College and first black member of the U.S. Army Signal Corps Guillermo Linares (1975), New York City Council member, first Dominican-American City Council member and Commissioner of the Mayor's Office of Immigrant Affairs Colin Powell (1958), Former Chairman Joint Chiefs of Staff and Secretary of State Faith Ringgold (1955), Feminist, writer and artist A. M. Rosenthal (1949), former executive editor of the New York Times who championed the publication of the Pentagon Papers; Pulitzer prize winning journalist expelled from Poland in 1959 for his reporting on the nation’s government and society Jonas Salk (1934), Developed the first polio vaccine Daniel Schorr, Emmy award winning broadcast journalist for CBS-TV and National Public Radio Baruch College William Newman ('47) - Founder and chairman of New Plan Excel Realty Trust, Inc Irwin Engelman ('55) - Director of New Plan Excel Realty Trust, Inc. Director at various other companies Lawrence N. Field ('52) - Founder and principal of NSB Associates Eris Field (’52) - Wife of Lawrence N. Field Marvin Antonowsky (B.B.A. '49, MBA '52) - Media executive Lawrence Zicklin (1957) - Managing principal and chairman of Neuberger Berman (Now part of Lehman Brothers) Fernando Ferrer - New York City mayoral candidate in 2001 and 2005 William F. Aldinger III ('69) - Chairman and CEO of HSBC North America Holdings Abraham Briloff (’37, MS, ’41) - Professor of Accounting Robin Byrd, host of public access program The Robin Byrd Show. Morris, Bob. "Cable's First Lady Of Explicit", The New York Times, June 23, 1996. Accessed December 3, 2007. "At 17, Ms. Byrd got her graduate equivalency diploma and then pursued advertising design at Baruch College but dropped out in her senior year. Nora McAniff - Co-chief operating officer of Time Inc Nick Kamenoff - Senior Analyst at Barclays Capital, Lehman Brothers, Salomon Smith Barney Bill Mccreary - Broadcaster Michael L. Royce - Executive Director, New York Foundation for the Arts Arthur Ainsberg ('68, MBA ‘72) - Director of Independent Research, Morgan Stanley Larry Quinlan - Chief Information Officer, Deloitte & Touche USA LLP Bert Mitchell - Chairman and CEO of Mitchell & Titus, LLP JoAnn F. Ryan ('79, MS '83) - President & CEO, ConEdison Solutions Michael I. Roth ('67) - Chairman & CEO, The Interpublic Group of Companies, Inc Jaslyn Choo('07)- Chairman & CEO, Centre for Behavioral Science Rahim Alom ('08) - C.E.O. Bad Boy Entertainment Po Sit ('85) - Partner at Davis Polk & Wardwell Craig A. Stanley - member of New Jersey General Assembly since 1996. Assemblyman Stanley's Legislative Website. Accessed August 27, 2007. Marcia A. Karrow - member of New Jersey General Assembly Dennis Levine - a prominent player in the Wall Street insider trading scandals of the mid-1980s Ralph Lauren - Chairman and CEO of Polo Ralph Lauren (dropped out) Dolly Lenz - New York City real estate agent Immortal Technique - hip-hop emcee Jennifer Lopez - actress, singer, dancer (dropped out) Tarkan - Turkish language singer Burton Kossoff ('46) - Pioneer in packaging, founder of Burton Packaging Company Sidney Harman ('39) - Founder and executive chairman of Harman Kardon James Lam ('83) - Author and first CRO (Chief Risk Officer) Abraham Beame ('28) - Mayor of New York City Hunter College Bella Abzug (1942), Feminist; political activist; U.S. Representative, 1971–1977 Carmen Beauchamp Ciparick (1963), First Hispanic woman named to the New York State Court of Appeals Robert R. Davila (1965), President of Gallaudet University and advocate for the rights of the hearing impaired Ruby Dee (1945), Emmy-nominated actress and civil rights activist Debra Fraser-Howze, President/CEO, National Black Leadership Commission on AIDS Martin Garbus (1955), First amendment attorney Florence Howe (1950), founder of women's studies and founder/publisher of the Feminist Press/CUNY Audre Lorde (1959), African-American lesbian poet, essayist, educator and activist Soia Mentschikoff (1934), first woman partner of a major law firm; first woman elected president of the American Association of Law Schools Pauli Murray (1933), first African-American woman named an Episcopal priest; human rights activist; lawyer and co-founder of N.O.W Brooklyn College Bill Baird (1955), reproductive rights activist and co-director of the Pro Choice League Barbara Levy Boxer (1962), anti-war activist, environmentalist, U.S. Representative, 1982–1993, and U.S. Senator Shirley Chisholm (1946), first African- American U.S. Congresswoman, 1968–1982. Candidate for president, 1972 Bruce Chizen (B.S. 1978), President & CEO, Adobe Systems Stanley Cohen (B.A. 1943), biochemist and Nobel laureate (Physiology or Medicine, 1986) Alan M. Dershowitz (B.A. 1959), Harvard Law School professor and author Jerry Della Femina (A.A. 1957), Chairman & CEO, Della Femina, Jeary and Partners Benjamin Eisenstadt (B.A. 1954), creator of Sweet'N Low and the founder of Cumberland Packing Corporation Dan DiDio (B.A. 1983), American comic book editor and executive for DC Comics Sandra Feldman (B.A 1960), President, American Federation of Teachers Gata Kamsky (B.A 1999), Chess Grandmaster and former US Champion Don Lemon (B.A. 1996), reporter, CNN Leonard Lopate (B.A. 1967), host of the public radio talk show The Leonard Lopate Show, broadcast on WNYC Frank McCourt (M.A. 1967), Pulitzer Prize-winning author of Angela's Ashes and 'Tis Marty Markowitz (B.A. 1970), Former New York State Senator; Brooklyn Borough President (2001– present) Paul Mazursky (B.A. 1951), film director, writer, producer; actor Jerry Moss (B.A. 1957), co-founder of A&M Records Gloria Naylor (B.A. 1981), novelist; Winner National Book Award Harvey Pitt (B.A. 1965), former Chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission Steve Riggio (B.A. 1974), CEO of Barnes & Noble, Inc. Steve Schirripa (B.A. 1980), American actor known for his role as Bobby Baccalieri on the HBO TV series, The Sopranos Jimmy Smits (B.A. 1980), Emmy Award-winning actor; NYPD Blue and L.A. Law Benjamin Ward (B.A. 1960), first black New York City Police Commissioner, 1983–1989 Iris Weinshall (B.A. 1975), vice chancellor at the City University of New York and a former commissioner of the New York City Department of Transportation Jack Weinstein (B.A. 1943), Senior Judge, United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York Notes See also Education in New York City City University of New York Athletic Conference The William E. Macaualay Honors College External links Official website: City University of New York CUNY Baccalaureate for Unique and Interdisciplinary Studies The William E. Macaulay Honors College (formerly CUNY Honors College) Website Official website: Professional Staff Congress (faculty labor union) Site on 1980s Chancellor Joseph S. Murphy From the Free Academy to Cuny: Illustrating Public Higher Education in New York City, 1847-1997, by Sandra S. Roff, et al.	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6,449	Jack_L._Chalker	Jack Laurence Chalker (December 17, 1944 – February 11, 2005) was an American science fiction author. Chalker was also a Baltimore City Schools history teacher in Maryland for a time. He also was a member of the Washington Science Fiction Association and was involved in the founding of the Baltimore Science Fiction Society. Career and family life He was born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland. Some of his books said that he was born in Norfolk, Virginia although he later claimed that was a mistake; he attended high school at the Baltimore City College. He earned a BA degree in English from Towson University, where he was a theater critic on the school newspaper The Towerlight and earned a bachelor's degree in history. In 2003 Towson University named him their Liberal Arts Alumni of the Year. He received a MLA from Johns Hopkins University. He intended to become a lawyer, but financial problems led to him teaching instead; he taught history and geography in Baltimore public schools from 1966 to 1978. He was also a lecturer at the Smithsonian Institution, the National Institutes of Health, and numerous colleges and universities, mostly on science fiction and technology. He joined the Washington Science Fiction Association in 1958, and in 1963 Chalker and two friends founded the Baltimore Science Fiction Society. He attended every World Science Fiction Convention, bar one, from 1965 until 2004. He published an amateur SF journal, Mirage, from 1960 to 1971, producing ten issues another journal, Interjection, ran 1968-1987 in association with the Fantasy Amateur Press Association. Also, He founded a publishing house, Mirage Press, Ltd., for releasing nonfiction and bibliographic works on science fiction and fantasy. Chalker married Eva C. Whitley in 1978; they had two sons, David W. Chalker (born December 19, 1981) and Steven L. Chalker (born September 4, 1991). His stated hobbies included esoteric audio, travel, and working on science-fiction convention committees. He also had a great interest in ferryboats, at his wife's suggestion, their marriage was performed on the Roaring Bull, part of the Millersburg Ferry, in midriver. Jack Chalker auctioneering when he was younger. Chalker and science fiction The writers he liked to read included Eric Frank Russell, James White, some Philip José Farmer, the early work of Raymond F. Jones and Robert A. Heinlein, Jack Vance, and others too numerous to mention. From January 1965 to November 2004, he missed only one World Science Fiction Convention. Chalker's awards included the Daedalus Award (1983), The Gold Medal of the West Coast Review of Books (1984), Skylark Award (1985), Hamilton-Brackett Memorial Award (1979), as well as others of varying prestige. He was a nominee for the John W. Campbell Award twice and for the Hugo Award twice. He was posthumously awarded the Phoenix Award by the Southern Fandom Confederation on April 9, 2005. In 1967 Chalker founded the Baltimore Science Fiction Society and he was a 3-term treasurer of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America. Chalker was also the co-author (with Mark Owings) of The Science Fantasy Publishers (third edition in 1991, updated annually), published by Mirage Press, Ltd, , a bibliographic guide to genre small press publishers which was a Hugo Award nominee in 1992. The Maryland young writers contest sponsored by the Baltimore Science Fiction Society was renamed "'The Jack L. Chalker Young Writers Contest" effective April 8, 2006. He is perhaps best known for his Well World series of novels, but he also wrote many other novels (most, but not all, part of series), and at least nine short stories. Many of his works involve some physical transformation of the main characters. For instance, in the Well World novels, immigrants to the Well World are transformed from their original form to become a member of one of the thousands of sentient species that inhabit that artificial planet. Another example would be that the Wonderland Gambit series resembles traditional Buddhist jataka-type reincarnation stories set in an SF environment. Steven Chalker announced that Wonderland Gambit might be made into a movie, but supposedly its close resemblance to The Matrix resulted in the project being shelved. At the time of his death, Chalker left behind one unfinished novel, Chameleon, and was planning to write Ripsaw following Chameleon. Jack at a Bookstore in October 1998, chatting with a couple of people before his session began. Illness and death On September 18 2003, during Hurricane Isabel, Chalker passed out and was rushed to the hospital with a diagnosis of a heart attack. He was later released, but was severely weakened. On December 6 2004, he was again rushed to hospital with breathing problems and disorientation, and was diagnosed with congestive heart failure and a collapsed lung. Chalker was hospitalized in critical condition, then upgraded to stable on December 9, though he didn't regain consciousness until December 15. After several more weeks in deteriorating condition and in a persistent vegetative state, with several transfers to different hospitals, he died on February 11, 2005 of kidney failure and sepsis in Bon Secours of Baltimore, Maryland. Some of his remains are interred in the family plot at Loudon Park Cemetery, with the remainder distributed afterwards off a ferry near Hong Kong, a final ride on White's Ferry on Father's Day 2007, and on H. P. Lovecraft's grave (on December 17, 2005). Bibliography The Saga of the Well World series Midnight at the Well of Souls, Del Rey, 1977 (ISBN 0-7434-3522-2) Exiles at the Well of Souls, Del Rey, 1978 (ISBN 0-7434-3603-2) Quest for the Well of Souls, Del Rey, 1978 (ISBN 0-7434-7153-9) The Return of Nathan Brazil, Del Rey, 1980 (ISBN 0-345-28367-8) Twilight at the Well of Souls, Del Rey, 1980 (ISBN 0-345-28368-6) The Sea is Full of Stars, December, 1999 (ISBN 0-345-39486-0) Ghost of the Well of Souls, 2000 (ISBN 0-345-39485-2) The Watchers at the Well series Echoes of the Well of Souls, Del Rey, trade paperback, May, 1993 (ISBN 0-345-38686-8) Shadow of the Well of Souls, Del Rey Feb. 1994 (ISBN 0-345-36202-0) Gods of the Well of Souls, Del Rey, 1994 (ISBN 0-345-38850-X) The Four Lords of the Diamond series Lilith: A Snake in the Grass, Del Rey, 1981 (ISBN 0-345-29369-X) Cerberus: A Wolf in the Fold, Del Rey, 1982 (ISBN 0-345-31122-1) Charon: A Dragon at the Gate, Del Rey, 1982 (ISBN 0-345-29370-3) Medusa: A Tiger by the Tail, Del Rey, 1983 (ISBN 0-345-29372-X) The Four Lords of the Diamond, The Science Fiction Book Club (omnibus edition), 1983 The Dancing Gods series The River of Dancing Gods, Del Rey, 1984 (ISBN 0-345-30892-1) Demons of the Dancing Gods, Del Rey, 1984 (ISBN 0-345-30893-X) Vengeance of the Dancing Gods, Del Rey, July, 1985 (ISBN 0-345-31549-9) Songs of the Dancing Gods, Del Rey, August, 1990 (ISBN 0-345-34799-4) Horrors of the Dancing Gods, 1994 (ISBN 0-345-37692-7) The Dancing Gods: Part One, Del Rey, November, 1995 (ISBN 0-345-40246-4) The Dancing Gods II, Del Rey, September, 1996 (ISBN 0-345-40771-7) The Soul Rider series Spirits of Flux and Anchor, Tor Books, 1984 (ISBN 0-8125-3320-8) Empires of Flux and Anchor, Tor Books, 1984 (ISBN 0-8125-3329-1) Masters of Flux and Anchor, Tor Books, January, 1985 (ISBN 0-8125-3281-3) The Birth of Flux and Anchor, Tor Books, 1985 (ISBN 0-8125-2292-3) Children of Flux and Anchor, Tor Books, September, 1986 (ISBN 0-8125-2340-7) The Rings of the Master series Lords of the Middle Dark Del Rey Books, May, 1986 (ISBN 0-345-32560-5) Pirates of the Thunder, Del Rey Books, March, 1987 (ISBN 0-345-32561-3) Warriors of the Storm, Del Rey Books, August, 1987 (ISBN 0-345-32562-1) Masks of the Martyrs, Del Rey, February, 1988 (ISBN 0-345-34309-3) The G.O.D. Inc series The Labyrinth of Dreams. Tor Books, March, 1987 (ISBN 0-8125-3306-2) The Shadow Dancers, Tor Books, July, 1987 The Maze in the Mirror, Tor Books, January, 1989 (ISBN 0-8125-2069-6) The Changewinds series When the Changewinds Blow, Ace - Putnams, September, 1987 Riders of the Winds, Ace Books, May, 1988 War of the Maelstrom, Ace - Putnams, October, 1988 (ISBN 0-441-10268-9) The Quintara Marathon series The Demons at Rainbow Bridge, Ace-Putnam's, hardcover, September, 1989 (ISBN 0-441-69992-8) The Run to Chaos Keep, Ace - Putnams, May, 1991 (ISBN 0-441-69348-2) The Ninety Trillion Fausts (a.k.a. 90 Trillion Fausts), Ace - Putnams, October 1991 (ISBN 0-441-58103-X) The Wonderland Gambit series The Cybernetic Walrus, Del Rey, trade pb in November, 1995 The March Hare Network, 1996 The Hot-Wired Dodo, Del Rey, Feb. 1997 The Three Kings series Balshazzar's Serpent, Baen Books 1999 Melchior's Fire, Baen Books, 2001. Kaspar's Box, 2003 Stand-alone novels A Jungle of Stars, Ballantine, Del Rey, 1976 (ISBN 0-345-28960-9) The Web of the Chozen, Del Rey, 1978 (ISBN 0-345-27376-1) And the Devil Will Drag You Under, Del Rey, 1979 (ISBN 0-345-30504-3) A War of Shadows, Ace: An Analog Book, 1979 Dancers in the Afterglow, Del Rey, 1979, 1982 (ISBN 0-345-30493-4) The Devil's Voyage, Doubleday, 1980 The Identity Matrix, Timescape: Pocket Books, 1982 (ISBN 0-671-65547-7) Downtiming the Night Side, Tor Books, May, 1985 (ISBN 0-8125-3288-0) The Messiah Choice, St. Martins - Blue Jay, May, 1985 The Red Tape War (with Mike Resnick and George Alec Effinger). Tor hardcover, April, 1991 Priam's Lens, Del Rey 1997 (ISBN 0-345-40294-4) The Moreau Factor, Del Rey Feb., 2000 Chameleon (partially completed at time of death) Collection and anthology Dance Band on the Titanic, Del Rey Books, July, 1988 (short stories) Hotel Andromeda [edited by], Ace, 1994 (ISBN 0-441-00010-X) Besides the short stories included in Dance Band on the Titanic, Chalker wrote at least one other short story: "And Now Falls the Cold, Cold Night". Alternate Presidents, ed. Mike Resnick, Tor 1992. Omnibus collections of novels The Watchers at the Well, Science Fiction Book Club, 1994 Changewinds, Baen, August, 1996 The Four Lords of the Diamond (Book Club Edition - 1983) References External links Chalker's own website Jack's wife's website (LiveJournal) Steven L. Chalker's weblog David W. Chalker's website Jack L. Chalker Young Writers' Contest	Jack_L._Chalker \|@lemmatized jack:7 laurence:1 chalker:21 december:7 february:3 american:1 science:17 fiction:16 author:2 also:7 baltimore:9 city:2 school:4 history:3 teacher:1 maryland:4 time:3 member:2 washington:2 association:4 involve:2 founding:1 society:4 career:1 family:2 life:1 bear:2 raise:1 book:23 say:1 norfolk:1 virginia:1 although:1 later:2 claim:1 mistake:1 attend:2 high:1 college:2 earn:2 ba:1 degree:2 english:1 towson:2 university:4 theater:1 critic:1 newspaper:1 towerlight:1 bachelor:1 name:1 liberal:1 art:1 alumnus:1 year:1 receive:1 mla:1 john:2 hopkins:1 intend:1 become:2 lawyer:1 financial:1 problem:2 lead:1 teach:2 instead:1 geography:1 public:1 lecturer:1 smithsonian:1 institution:1 national:1 institute:1 health:1 numerous:2 mostly:1 technology:1 join:1 two:2 friend:1 found:3 every:1 world:6 convention:3 bar:1 one:6 publish:2 amateur:2 sf:2 journal:2 mirage:3 produce:1 ten:1 issue:1 another:2 interjection:1 ran:1 fantasy:4 press:4 publishing:1 house:1 ltd:2 release:2 nonfiction:1 bibliographic:2 work:4 marry:1 eva:1 c:1 whitley:1 son:1 david:2 w:3 born:2 steven:3 l:4 september:6 stated:1 hobby:1 include:3 esoteric:1 audio:1 travel:1 committee:1 great:1 interest:1 ferryboat:1 wife:2 suggestion:1 marriage:1 perform:1 roaring:1 bull:1 part:3 millersburg:1 ferry:3 midriver:1 auctioneer:1 young:4 writer:5 like:1 read:1 included:1 eric:1 frank:1 russell:1 jam:1 white:2 philip:1 josé:1 farmer:1 early:1 raymond:1 f:1 jones:1 robert:1 heinlein:1 vance:1 others:2 mention:1 january:3 november:3 miss:1 award:9 daedalus:1 gold:1 medal:1 west:1 coast:1 review:1 skylark:1 hamilton:1 brackett:1 memorial:1 well:15 vary:1 prestige:1 nominee:2 campbell:1 twice:2 hugo:2 posthumously:1 phoenix:1 southern:1 fandom:1 confederation:1 april:3 term:1 treasurer:1 america:1 co:1 mark:1 owings:1 publisher:2 third:1 edition:3 update:1 annually:1 guide:1 genre:1 small:1 contest:3 sponsor:1 rename:1 effective:1 perhaps:1 best:1 know:1 series:14 novel:5 write:3 many:2 least:2 nine:1 short:4 story:5 physical:1 transformation:1 main:1 character:1 instance:1 immigrant:1 transform:1 original:1 form:1 thousand:1 sentient:1 specie:1 inhabit:1 artificial:1 planet:1 example:1 would:1 wonderland:3 gambit:3 resemble:1 traditional:1 buddhist:1 jataka:1 type:1 reincarnation:1 set:1 environment:1 announce:1 might:1 make:1 movie:1 supposedly:1 close:1 resemblance:1 matrix:2 result:1 project:1 shelve:1 death:3 leave:1 behind:1 unfinished:1 chameleon:3 plan:1 ripsaw:1 follow:1 bookstore:1 october:3 chat:1 couple:1 people:1 session:1 begin:1 illness:1 hurricane:1 isabel:1 pass:1 rush:2 hospital:3 diagnosis:1 heart:2 attack:1 severely:1 weaken:1 breathing:1 disorientation:1 diagnose:1 congestive:1 failure:2 collapsed:1 lung:1 hospitalize:1 critical:1 condition:2 upgrade:1 stable:1 though:1 regain:1 consciousness:1 several:2 week:1 deteriorate:1 persistent:1 vegetative:1 state:1 transfer:1 different:1 die:1 kidney:1 sepsis:1 bon:1 secours:1 remains:1 inter:1 plot:1 loudon:1 park:1 cemetery:1 remainder:1 distribute:1 afterwards:1 near:1 hong:1 kong:1 final:1 ride:1 father:1 day:1 h:1 p:1 lovecraft:1 grave:1 bibliography:1 saga:1 midnight:1 soul:9 del:31 rey:31 isbn:44 exile:1 quest:1 return:1 nathan:1 brazil:1 twilight:1 sea:1 full:1 star:2 ghost:1 watcher:2 echo:1 trade:2 paperback:1 may:6 shadow:3 feb:3 god:9 x:6 four:3 lord:4 diamond:3 lilith:1 snake:1 grass:1 cerberus:1 wolf:1 fold:1 charon:1 dragon:1 gate:1 medusa:1 tiger:1 tail:1 club:3 omnibus:2 dance:10 river:1 demon:2 vengeance:1 july:3 song:1 august:3 horror:1 ii:1 rider:2 spirit:1 flux:5 anchor:5 tor:11 empire:1 master:2 birth:1 child:1 ring:1 middle:1 dark:1 pirate:1 thunder:1 march:3 warrior:1 storm:1 mask:1 martyr:1 g:1 inc:1 labyrinth:1 dream:1 dancer:2 maze:1 mirror:1 changewinds:3 blow:1 ace:8 putnams:4 wind:1 war:3 maelstrom:1 quintara:1 marathon:1 rainbow:1 bridge:1 putnam:1 hardcover:2 run:1 chaos:1 keep:1 ninety:1 trillion:2 faust:2 k:1 cybernetic:1 walrus:1 pb:1 hare:1 network:1 hot:1 wired:1 dodo:1 three:1 king:1 balshazzar:1 serpent:1 baen:3 melchior:1 fire:1 kaspar:1 box:1 stand:1 alone:1 novels:1 jungle:1 ballantine:1 web:1 chozen:1 devil:2 drag:1 analog:1 afterglow:1 voyage:1 doubleday:1 identity:1 timescape:1 pocket:1 downtiming:1 night:2 side:1 messiah:1 choice:1 st:1 martins:1 blue:1 jay:1 red:1 tape:1 mike:2 resnick:2 george:1 alec:1 effinger:1 priam:1 lens:1 moreau:1 factor:1 partially:1 complete:1 collection:2 anthology:1 band:2 titanic:2 hotel:1 andromeda:1 edit:1 besides:1 fall:1 cold:2 alternate:1 president:1 ed:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 website:3 livejournal:1 weblog:1 \|@bigram science_fiction:16 baltimore_maryland:2 towson_university:2 earn_bachelor:1 bachelor_degree:1 smithsonian_institution:1 robert_heinlein:1 jack_vance:1 gold_medal:1 severely_weaken:1 congestive_heart:1 persistent_vegetative:1 hong_kong:1 del_rey:31 anchor_tor:5 alec_effinger:1 external_link:1
6,450	Telecommunications_in_Mozambique	Telephones - main lines in use: 69,700 (2004) Telephones - mobile cellular: 2,360,000(2007) Telephone system: general assessment: fair system but not available generally (less than 1 main line per 100 persons) domestic: the system consists of open-wire lines and trunk connection by microwave radio relay and tropospheric scatter international: country code - 258; satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (2 Atlantic Ocean and 3 Indian Ocean) Radio broadcast stations: AM 13, FM 17, shortwave 11 (2001) Radios: 730,000 (1997) Television broadcast stations: 1 (2001) Televisions: 90,000 (1997) Internet TDM, Mozambique's national supplier, offers the following options: Mozambique's national supplier, TDM, offers the following: 128/64 kbit/s with 1 GB cap for R276 (~40 US$) 128/64 kbit/s with 3 GB cap for R414 (~60 US$) 128/64 kbit/s with 4 GB cap for R525 (~75 US$) 256/128 kbit/s with 7 GB cap for R663 (~95 US$) 512/256 kbit/s with 10 GB cap for R829 (119 US$) 1024/512 kbit/s with 14 GB cap for R1160 (165 US$) 2048/1024 kbit/s with 20 GB cap for R1492 (214 US$) An additional 1 GB is available, usable only between midnight and 6am. Installation fees come to R166 (~24 US$) and additional bandwidth costs R18 (~2.60 US$) per additional 100 MB. Mozambique was the first African country to offer broadband wireless services through WiMax. Internet hosts: 6,985 (2006) Internet users: 138,000 (2005) Country code (Top level domain): MZ	Telecommunications_in_Mozambique \|@lemmatized telephone:3 main:2 line:3 use:1 mobile:1 cellular:1 system:3 general:1 assessment:1 fair:1 available:2 generally:1 less:1 per:2 person:1 domestic:1 consist:1 open:1 wire:1 trunk:1 connection:1 microwave:1 radio:3 relay:1 tropospheric:1 scatter:1 international:1 country:3 code:2 satellite:1 earth:1 station:3 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:2 indian:1 broadcast:2 fm:1 shortwave:1 television:2 internet:3 tdm:2 mozambique:3 national:2 supplier:2 offer:3 following:2 option:1 kbit:7 gb:8 cap:7 u:9 additional:3 usable:1 midnight:1 installation:1 fee:1 come:1 bandwidth:1 cost:1 mb:1 first:1 african:1 broadband:1 wireless:1 service:1 wimax:1 host:1 user:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 mz:1 \|@bigram mobile_cellular:1 tropospheric_scatter:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 kbit_gb:7 gb_cap:7 broadband_wireless:1
6,451	Ardal_O'Hanlon	Ardal O'Hanlon (born 8 October 1965) is an Irish comedian and actor, best known for his roles in television sitcoms as Father Dougal McGuire in Father Ted and George Sunday in My Hero. Biography Early life O'Hanlon was born in 1965 at Carrickmacross, Monaghan, Ireland, the son of Rory O'Hanlon, an Irish politician and doctor, and has five siblings. RTÉ's Who do you think you are? programme on Monday 6 October 2008 examined Ardal's family tree. He discovered that his paternal grandfather, Michael O'Hanlon, a UCD medicine student, had joined the Irish Republican Army during the Irish War of Independence and was a member of Michael Collins's squad which assassinated British secret service agents on the morning of Bloody Sunday. Details of his grandfather's activities survive in UCD Archives, as well as Blackrock College. It also transpired that on his mother's side he was a close relative of Peter Fenelon Collier, the founder of Collier's Weekly and Collier's Encyclopedia. O'Hanlon was schooled in Blackrock College in Dublin and graduated, in 1987, from the National Institute for Higher Education, Dublin (now Dublin City University) with a degree in Communications Studies. Career As Dublin had no real stand-up comedy scene, together with Kevin Gildea and Barry Murphy, Ardal O'Hanlon founded the International Comedy Cellar, upstairs in the International Bar on Dublin's South Wicklow Street. O'Hanlon first found fame as a stand-up comedian, winning the Hackney Empire New Act of the Year competition in 1994. For a period he was the presenter of The Stand Up Show. He was spotted by Graham Linehan, who was to cast him as Father Dougal Maguire in Father Ted, which ran between 1995 and 1998. In 1995, he appeared (as Father Dougal) in a Channel 4 ident ("Hello, you're watching.... television"), and during Comic Relief on BBC1. This was followed by the more serious Big Bad World and the award winning short comedy film Flying Saucer Rock'n'Roll. He was in an episode of the original Whose Line is it Anyway?. In 2000, O'Hanlon starred in the comedy series My Hero, in which he played a very naive superhero from the planet Ultron. His character juggled world-saving heroics with life in suburbia. He stayed in the role until early 2005 and was replaced by James Dreyfus for series 6 in 2006. He also provided the voice of the lead character in two Christmas television cartoon specials of Robbie the Reindeer. He appeared in the 2005 BBC One sitcom Blessed, written by Ben Elton; at the 2005 British Comedy Awards, it was publicly slated by Jonathan Ross, albeit in jest. Towards the end of 2005, he played an eccentric Scottish character, Coconut Tam, in the family-based film, The Adventures of Greyfriars Bobby. He later appeared in the Doctor Who episode "Gridlock", broadcast on April 14 2007, in which he played a feline alien named Thomas Kincade Brannigan. He was the host of So You Want To Be Taoiseach? on RTÉ One. It was a political show in which he gave advice to follow if you wanted to be Taoiseach, (the Prime Minister of Ireland). He also played a minor role in The Butcher Boy as Joe's (Francie's best friend) father. O'Hanlon has written a novel, The Talk of the Town (known in the United States as Knick Knack Paddy Whack), which was published in 1998. The novel is about a teenage boy, Patrick Scully, and his friends. O'Hanlon appears in series 3 of the tv show Skins, playing Naomi Campbell's Politics teacher named Kieran, who attempted to kiss her. He then went on to form a relationship with Naomi's mother. Personal life O'Hanlon is married to Melanie, whom he met as a teenager, and with whom he has three children. He is a fan of Celtic F.C and Leeds United. References External links Ardal O'Hanlon's official website Ardal O'Hanlon on comedycv.co.uk Ardal O'Hanlon in Melbourne at The Australian Ireland Fund charity event	Ardal_O'Hanlon \|@lemmatized ardal:6 hanlon:14 born:1 october:2 irish:4 comedian:2 actor:1 best:2 know:2 role:3 television:3 sitcom:2 father:6 dougal:3 mcguire:1 ted:2 george:1 sunday:2 hero:2 biography:1 early:2 life:3 bear:1 carrickmacross:1 monaghan:1 ireland:3 son:1 rory:1 politician:1 doctor:2 five:1 sibling:1 rté:2 think:1 programme:1 monday:1 examine:1 family:2 tree:1 discover:1 paternal:1 grandfather:2 michael:2 ucd:2 medicine:1 student:1 join:1 republican:1 army:1 war:1 independence:1 member:1 collins:1 squad:1 assassinate:1 british:2 secret:1 service:1 agent:1 morning:1 bloody:1 detail:1 activity:1 survive:1 archive:1 well:1 blackrock:2 college:2 also:3 transpire:1 mother:2 side:1 close:1 relative:1 peter:1 fenelon:1 collier:3 founder:1 weekly:1 encyclopedia:1 school:1 dublin:5 graduate:1 national:1 institute:1 high:1 education:1 city:1 university:1 degree:1 communication:1 study:1 career:1 real:1 stand:3 comedy:5 scene:1 together:1 kevin:1 gildea:1 barry:1 murphy:1 found:1 international:2 cellar:1 upstairs:1 bar:1 south:1 wicklow:1 street:1 first:1 find:1 fame:1 win:2 hackney:1 empire:1 new:1 act:1 year:1 competition:1 period:1 presenter:1 show:3 spot:1 graham:1 linehan:1 cast:1 maguire:1 run:1 appear:4 channel:1 ident:1 hello:1 watch:1 comic:1 relief:1 follow:2 serious:1 big:1 bad:1 world:2 award:2 short:1 film:2 fly:1 saucer:1 rock:1 n:1 roll:1 episode:2 original:1 whose:1 line:1 anyway:1 star:1 series:3 play:5 naive:1 superhero:1 planet:1 ultron:1 character:3 juggle:1 save:1 heroic:1 suburbia:1 stay:1 replace:1 james:1 dreyfus:1 provide:1 voice:1 lead:1 two:1 christmas:1 cartoon:1 special:1 robbie:1 reindeer:1 bbc:1 one:2 bless:1 write:2 ben:1 elton:1 publicly:1 slat:1 jonathan:1 ross:1 albeit:1 jest:1 towards:1 end:1 eccentric:1 scottish:1 coconut:1 tam:1 base:1 adventure:1 greyfriars:1 bobby:1 later:1 gridlock:1 broadcast:1 april:1 feline:1 alien:1 name:2 thomas:1 kincade:1 brannigan:1 host:1 want:2 taoiseach:2 political:1 give:1 advice:1 prime:1 minister:1 minor:1 butcher:1 boy:2 joe:1 francie:1 friend:2 novel:2 talk:1 town:1 united:1 state:1 knick:1 knack:1 paddy:1 whack:1 publish:1 teenage:1 patrick:1 scully:1 tv:1 skin:1 naomi:2 campbell:1 politics:1 teacher:1 kieran:1 attempt:1 kiss:1 go:1 form:1 relationship:1 personal:1 marry:1 melanie:1 meet:1 teenager:1 three:1 child:1 fan:1 celtic:1 f:1 c:1 leeds:1 unite:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 comedycv:1 co:1 uk:1 melbourne:1 australian:1 fund:1 charity:1 event:1 \|@bigram ardal_hanlon:5 father_dougal:3 paternal_grandfather:1 bloody_sunday:1 graham_linehan:1 fly_saucer:1 ben_elton:1 taoiseach_prime:1 prime_minister:1 leeds_unite:1 external_link:1
6,452	Chrominance	Chrominance (chroma for short), is the signal used in video systems to convey the color information of the picture, separately from the accompanying luma signal. Chrominance is usually represented as two color-difference components: U = B'–Y' (blue – luma) and V = R'–Y' (red – luma). Each of these difference components may have scale factors and offsets applied to them, as specified by the applicable video standard. In composite video signals, the U and V signals modulate a color carrier signal, and the result is referred to as the chrominance signal; the phase and amplitude of this modulated chrominance signal correspond approximately to the hue and saturation of the color. In digital-video and still-image colorspaces such as Y'CbCr, the luma and chrominance components are digital sample values. Separating RGB color signals into luma and chrominance allows the bandwidth of each to be determined separately. Typically, the chrominance bandwidth is reduced in analog composite video by reducing the bandwidth of a modulated color subcarrier, and in digital systems by chroma subsampling. History The idea of transmitting a color television signal with distinct luma and chrominance components originated with Georges Valensi, who patented the idea in 1938. French patent 841335, issued Feb. 6, 1939; cited in U.S. Patent 2375966 "System of Television in Colors", issued May 15, 1945. Valensi's patent application described: (t)he use of two channels, one transmitting the predominating color (signal T), and the other the mean brilliance (signal t) output from a single television transmitter to be received not only by color television receivers provided with the necessary more expensive equipment, but also by the ordinary type of television receiver which is more numerous and less expensive and which reproduces the pictures in black and white only. Previous schemes for color television systems, which were incompatible with existing monochrome receivers, transmitted RGB signals in various ways. Television standards In analog television, chrominance is encoded into a video signal using a subcarrier frequency. Depending on the video standard, the chrominance subcarrier may be either quadrature-amplitude-modulated (NTSC and PAL) or frequency-modulated (SECAM). In the PAL system, the color subcarrier is 4.43 MHz above the video carrier, while in the NTSC system it is 3.58 MHz above the video carrier. The NTSC and PAL standards are the most commonly used, although there are other video standards that employ different subcarrier frequencies. For example, PAL-M (Brazil) uses a 3.58 MHz subcarrier, and SECAM uses two different frequencies, 4.250 MHz and 4.40625 MHz above the video carrier. The presence of chrominance in a video signal is indicated by a color burst signal transmitted on the back porch, just after horizontal synchronization and before each line of video starts. If the color burst signal were visible on a television screen, it would appear as a vertical strip of a very dark olive color. In NTSC and PAL, hue is represented by a phase shift of the chrominance signal relative to the color burst, while saturation is determined by the amplitude of the subcarrier. In SECAM (R'-Y') and (B'-Y') signals are transmitted alternately and phase does not matter. Chrominance is represented by the U-V color plane in PAL and SECAM video signals, and by the I-Q color plane in NTSC. Digital systems Digital video and digital still photography systems sometimes use a luma/chroma decomposition for improved compression. For example, when an ordinary RGB digital image is compressed via the JPEG standard, the RGB colorspace is first converted (by a rotation matrix) to a YCbCr colorspace, because the three components in that space have less correlation redundancy and because the chrominance components can then be subsampled by a factor of 2 or 4 to further compress the image. On decompression, the Y'CbCr space is rotated back to RGB. See also Luma (video) Chroma subsampling References	Chrominance \|@lemmatized chrominance:14 chroma:4 short:1 signal:19 use:6 video:16 system:8 convey:1 color:18 information:1 picture:2 separately:2 accompany:1 luma:8 usually:1 represent:3 two:3 difference:2 component:6 u:4 b:2 blue:1 v:3 r:2 red:1 may:3 scale:1 factor:2 offset:1 apply:1 specify:1 applicable:1 standard:6 composite:2 modulate:4 carrier:4 result:1 refer:1 phase:3 amplitude:3 correspond:1 approximately:1 hue:2 saturation:2 digital:7 still:2 image:3 colorspaces:1 cbcr:2 sample:1 value:1 separate:1 rgb:5 allow:1 bandwidth:3 determine:2 typically:1 reduce:2 analog:2 modulated:1 subcarrier:7 subsampling:2 history:1 idea:2 transmit:5 television:9 distinct:1 originate:1 george:1 valensi:2 patent:4 french:1 issue:2 feb:1 cite:1 application:1 describe:1 channel:1 one:1 predominating:1 mean:1 brilliance:1 output:1 single:1 transmitter:1 receive:1 receiver:3 provide:1 necessary:1 expensive:2 equipment:1 also:2 ordinary:2 type:1 numerous:1 less:2 reproduce:1 black:1 white:1 previous:1 scheme:1 incompatible:1 exist:1 monochrome:1 various:1 way:1 encode:1 frequency:4 depend:1 either:1 quadrature:1 ntsc:5 pal:6 secam:4 mhz:5 commonly:1 although:1 employ:1 different:2 example:2 brazil:1 us:1 presence:1 indicate:1 burst:3 back:2 porch:1 horizontal:1 synchronization:1 line:1 start:1 visible:1 screen:1 would:1 appear:1 vertical:1 strip:1 dark:1 olive:1 shift:1 relative:1 alternately:1 matter:1 plane:2 q:1 photography:1 sometimes:1 decomposition:1 improved:1 compression:1 compress:2 via:1 jpeg:1 colorspace:2 first:1 convert:1 rotation:1 matrix:1 ycbcr:1 three:1 space:2 correlation:1 redundancy:1 subsampled:1 decompression:1 rotate:1 see:1 reference:1 \|@bigram chrominance_signal:3 amplitude_modulate:2 hue_saturation:1 color_subcarrier:2 chroma_subsampling:2 subcarrier_frequency:2 quadrature_amplitude:1 ntsc_pal:3 mhz_mhz:1 pal_secam:1
6,453	Detroit_Lions	The Detroit Lions are an American football team based in Detroit, Michigan. They are members of the North Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL), and play their home games at Ford Field in downtown Detroit. Originally based in Portsmouth, Ohio and called the Portsmouth Spartans, the team began play in 1929 as an independent professional team, Footballresearch one of many such teams in the Ohio and Scioto River valleys. For the 1930 season, the Spartans formally joined the National Football League (NFL) as the other area independents folded because of the Great Depression. Despite success within the NFL, they could not survive in Portsmouth, then the NFL's smallest city. The team was purchased and moved to Detroit for the 1934 season. The Lions have won four NFL Championships, the last in 1957, giving the club the second-longest NFL championship drought behind the Arizona Cardinals, who last won in 1947 (as the Chicago Cardinals). The Lions have yet to qualify for the Super Bowl. The team has qualified for the playoffs only nine times in the 50-plus years since winning the 1957 championship and has won only one playoff game in that span. The 2008 Detroit Lions became the only team in NFL history to lose all 16 regular-season games, going 0-16 in the 2008 season; they had won all four pre-season games. They are only the second team to go winless without a tie (next to the 0-14 1976 Tampa Bay Buccaneers) since the NFL-AFL merger in 1970. Early football in Detroit before the Lions, 1920–1928 Detroit had four early teams in the NFL before the Lions: 1920–1921: The Detroit Heralds (renamed Tigers for 1921) were the first NFL team in Detroit from 1920–1921 before folding. 1925–1926: From 1925–1926, the Detroit Panthers played in the league before folding in much the same way. In 1928, the Detroit Wolverines were a city owned NFL franchise that lasted only a single season before folding. Meanwhile, the Ohio-Kentucky-West Virginia tri-state area was becoming well known as a center of football excellence. The Ironton Tanks played NFL member teams annually throughout the 1920s Ironton Tanks history with considerable success. Early Thanksgiving Day games While the Lions are well known for playing on Thanksgiving Day, the other Detroit teams had a history of playing on Thanksgiving Day as well: 1920 Heralds at Dayton Triangles (lost 28-0). 1921 Tigers, merged with the Buffalo All-Americans, at Chicago Staleys (won 7-6). 1925 Panthers vs Rock Island Independents (lost 6-3). 1926 Panthers vs Los Angeles Buccaneers (lost 9-6). 1928 Wolverines vs Dayton Triangles (won 33-0). Pro Football Hall of Famers Detroit Panthers Jimmy Conzelman Detroit Wolverines Benny Friedman Season-by-season Year W L T Finish Coach Heralds 1920 2 3 3 9th Bill Marshall Tigers 1921 1 5 1 16th Bill Marshall Panthers 1925 8 2 2 3rd Jimmy Conzelman 1926 4 6 2 12th Jimmy Conzelman Wolverines 1928 7 2 1 3rd Roy Andrews Current franchise history 1929-1933: Portsmouth Spartans The Portsmouth Spartans formed in 1929, drawing players from defunct independent professional and semi-pro teams in the local Ohio-Kentucky-West Virginia tri-state area. They immediately made an impact by twice defeating the heralded Ironton Tanks, a nearby independent professional team who had regularly played NFL member teams since the early 1920s with considerable success. Footballresearch The successful 1929 season behind them, the Spartans gained full NFL membership for the 1930 season, managing a respectable 5-6-3 in league contests, while the rival Tanks became yet another casualty of the Great Depression. Early highlights as the Portsmouth Spartans include the "iron man" game against Green Bay in 1932. In that game, Spartan coach Potsy Clark refused to make even a single substitution against the defending NFL champion Packers. Portsmouth won 19-0 and used only 11 players all game. Also as the Portsmouth Spartans, the franchise played in an unscheduled NFL championship game against the Chicago Bears in 1932. The Spartans-Bears game was played because both teams ended the regular season with the same number of victories (the Spartans finished at 6-1-4 while the Bears were 6-1-6; ties were not recognized as part of the percentage in the NFL until 1972). Because of blizzard conditions in Chicago, the game was moved from Wrigley Field indoors to Chicago Stadium, which allowed for only an 80-yard field; some have called the contest the first arena football game. The Bears won, 9–0, and the resulting interest led to the establishment of Eastern and Western conferences and a regular championship game beginning in 1933. 1934: The Lions are born Despite great success on the field, poor revenues and the Great Depression threatened the Spartans' survival. In 1934, a group led by Detroit radio executive George Richards (owner of Detroit's powerful WJR) bought the Spartans and moved them to Detroit. Richards renamed the team the Lions, as a nod to the Detroit Tigers. He also said that the lion was the monarch of the jungle, and he intended for his team to be the monarch of the NFL. Through Richards' radio connections, the Lions were able to play a Thanksgiving Day game in their first season in Detroit, a tradition continued to this day. Under quarterback Dutch Clark, Detroit won its first NFL championship in 1935. 1940s The 1940s were not a high point of the Lions history. They won a total of 35 games, for an average of 3.5 a season, including going 0–11 in 1942. The 1942 team's offense was so bad it scored only 5 touchdowns all season and never scored more than 7 points in a single game. In the middle of the decade they had some success finishing 6–3–1 in 1944 and 7–3 in 1945. The Lions were less successful in the latter half of the decade: from 1946 to 1949 the Lions won a total of 10 games. In 1943, the Lions and the New York Giants played to a 0–0 tie at Detroit - the last time an NFL game has ended with a scoreless tie. 1950s Primary Logo, 1952-1960. Detroit enjoyed its greatest success in the 1950s. Led by quarterback Bobby Layne, they won the league championship in 1952, 1953, and 1957. They defeated the Cleveland Browns in each of those NFL Championship Games, but also lost to the Browns in the 1954 Championship Game. In 1958, after he had led the Lions to three NFL they are 5-0 and provided Detroit nearly a decade of Hall of Fame play, the Lions traded Bobby Layne. Bobby was injured during the last championship season, and the Lions thought he was through and wanted to get what they could for him. According to legend, as he was leaving for Pittsburgh, Bobby said that Detroit "would not win for 50 years." Since this time, the Lions have not won another championship and have only a single playoff game win. Some have attributed the Lions' subsequent 49 years of futility to the "The Curse of Bobby Layne." Notably, the Lions succeeded in one of the greatest comeback victories in NFL postseason history. Trailing the San Francisco 49ers 27-7 in the 3rd quarter of the 1957 Western Conference Playoff game, Lions quarterback Tobin Rote rallied the team back with 24 unanswered points to beat the 49ers 31-27 at Kezar Stadium in San Francisco. The following week, Rote led the Lions to a decisive win over the Browns for the 1957 title. The Lions have only one playoff win since then, against the Dallas Cowboys in the 1991 season. Minority owner Ralph Wilson split off from the team in 1959 to take an American Football League franchise; initially planning to place it in Miami, he instead placed it in Buffalo, New York, where it would become the Buffalo Bills. For the first three years of its existence, the AFL's Bills and NFL's Lions had identical blue and silver colors, possibly second-hand from old Lions equipment. 1960s Primary logo, 1961-1969. On January 7, 1961, the Lions defeated the Browns 17-16 in the first-ever Playoff Bowl matching the runners-up from the two conferences into which the NFL was divided at the time (the Lions also appeared in the game in both of the next two years pursuant to their having finished second to the Green Bay Packers in the Western Conference in all three seasons; the Playoff Bowl was abolished in 1970 when the merger of the NFL and AFL went into full effect). In the mid-1960s, the Lions served as the backdrop for the sports literature of George Plimpton, who spent time in the Lions training camp masquerading as a player. This was the basic material for his book Paper Lion, later made into a movie. On November 22, 1963 William Clay Ford, Sr. purchased a controlling interest in the team for $4.5 million. Yahoo! Sports December 21, 2008 Lions not only embarrassment in Detroit This began a 43-year period that continues today, during which the Lions have won just one playoff game. 1970s Tiger Stadium with football configuration. Motown soul singer Marvin Gaye made plans, after the death of duet partner Tammi Terrell, to join the Lions and go into football. He gained weight and trained for his tryout in 1970, but was cut early on. He remained friends with a number of the players, particularly Mel Farr and Lem Barney, who appear as background vocalists on his 1971 classic single "What's Going On." On Thanksgiving Day, November 28, 1974, after over 35 years, the Lions played their final game in Tiger Stadium, where they lost to the Denver Broncos 31–27 in front of 51,157, amidst snow flurries and a 21 point Broncos 3rd quarter. The Lions moved to the newly constructed Silverdome and have played their home games indoors ever since. The Lions made the playoffs only once in the '70s, losing a defensive struggle to the Dallas Cowboys, 5–0, in 1970. The team went through a string of average seasons, finishing 2nd or 3rd in the division in every season from 1970 through 1978. Finally, in 1979, the team finished with a 2–14 record, and thus earned the first pick in the following draft. 1980s In 1980, the Lions drafted running back Billy Sims with the first overall pick in the NFL Draft. The Lions made the playoffs in 1982 and 1983, winning the division in the latter season. However, Sims suffered a career-ending knee injury in 1984, and the team would not finish with a record above .500 for the rest of the decade. 1990s Lions logo (1970-2002). During his first season after being drafted in 1989, Barry Sanders missed the NFL rushing title by 10 yards because he chose not to go back into the game when the Lions already had the game won. According to Wayne Fontes, when he offered Sanders the chance to gain the yardage and the rushing title, Sanders declined, reportedly saying, "Coach, let's just win it (the game) and go home. CNN/SI - SI Online - This Week's Issue of Sports Illustrated - SI Flashback: A Lamb Among Lions - Monday December 06, 1999 05:32 PM " In 1991, the Lions started the season by being shut out on national television, 45–0, by the Washington Redskins. The Lions then rebounded, winning their next 4 games. They went 12–4 for the season, They won their first division title in eight years, capping the regular season with a win over the then-defending AFC Champion Buffalo Bills. They were inspired late in the season by the loss of guard Mike Utley, who sustained a career-ending paralysis injury against the Los Angeles Rams on November 17, 1991. As Utley was carted off the field in that game he flashed a "thumbs up" to his teammates and the Silverdome crowd. It became a rallying symbol for the remainder of the season. In the playoffs, the Lions got their only postseason victory since 1957, when they defeated the Dallas Cowboys 38–6 at the Silverdome. They lost to the Redskins in the NFC Championship Game, 41–10. This was the first time a team that had been shut out in its opener had reached the conference title round. Two teams have since matched this feat: The Philadelphia Eagles and the New England Patriots did it in 2003. The Lions also made the playoffs in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997 and 1999, making the 1990s one of the most successful decades in team history. In 1993, they went 10–6, first in the NFC Central Division, but lost to the Green Bay Packers. In 1994, they lost to the Packers in the playoffs again. In 1995, they lost to the Philadelphia Eagles, in an embarrassing fashion, 58–37 (entering the fourth quarter, they were down 51–21). In 1997, Detroit lost to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the first round. In 1999, The Lions closed out the decade reaching the playoffs for the sixth time in a ten-year span, which is a franchise record for playoff appearances during a decade. However, they lost yet again in the first round, this time to the Washington Redskins. Detroit's 1999 playoff berth also marked the second time in Bobby Ross's first three years as head coach that he led the Lions into the postseason. The last Lions head coach to accomplish that feat was Buddy Parker, in 1952–53 during his second and third seasons at the helm. In 1997, Barry Sanders ran for 2,053 rushing yards. At the time, his career total rushing 15,269 yards was second only to Walter Payton's 16,726 yards and he joined Jim Brown as the only players among the NFL's 50 all-time rushing leaders to average 5 yards a carry, but he retired abruptly after the 1998 season. Emmitt Smith has since broken Payton's record, accumulating 18,355 career rushing yards, which bumped down Sanders to the #3 spot on the list of total career rushing yards. 2000-2008 After finishing the 2000-2001 season at 9-7, and missing the playoffs by a field goal in the season's last game, Lions owner William Clay Ford, Sr. hired Matt Millen, a former player and broadcaster, as president and CEO. The Lions went the entire 2001 (their last season at the Silverdome), 2002 (their first season at Ford Field), and 2003 seasons without a road victory, thus becoming the only team in NFL history not to win on the road for three consecutive seasons. The streak, encompassing 24 games (also an NFL record) came to an end on September 12, 2004, when the Lions defeated the Bears 20–16 at Soldier Field in Chicago. Over seven seasons under Millen's leadership as team president, the Detroit Lions owned the NFL's worst winning percentage (31–81, .277), never had a winning season, never finished higher than third place in the NFC North, and did not play in any post-season games. Millen received a five-year contract extension at the start of the 2005 season. In 2007, the Lions began the season with a promising 6–2 record. The optimism was short-lived, however, as the team recorded only a single victory in the next eight games, for a final record of 7–9. 2008: The historic 0–16 season The beginning of the 2008 season was a continuation of the 2007 losing slump, as the Lions were defeated in their first three games. On September 24, Millen was fired. During the 2008 season, the Lions were winless (0-16), becoming the first team in NFL history to lose 16 games in a single season, and thereby winning the right to the first overall pick in the 2009 NFL Draft. On December 29, head coach Rod Marinelli was also fired. Detroit Lions official site - William Clay Ford, Sr. announces several coaching staff changes His record with the Lions was 10-38 in three seasons. Vice president Tom Lewand replaced Millen as president, while assistant general manager Martin Mayhew took over Millen's former duties as general manager. 2009 - present On January 15, 2009, the Lions hired Jim Schwartz as head coach. Schwartz spent 10 seasons with the Tennessee Titans, eight of them as defensive coordinator, helping them compile a 13–3 record and first place in the AFC South in 2008. The Detroit News January 16, 2009 Lions Pick Schwartz The Lions also hired a new offensive coordinator (Scott Linehan), and a new defensive coordinator (Gunther Cunningham) soon after. The Lions selected University of Georgia quarterback Matthew Stafford for the #1 overall pick. The six-year contract reportedly contains $41.7 million in guaranteed money (the most guaranteed to any player in NFL history) and carries a total value of up to $78 million. Detroit negotiated a deal with Stafford on April 24, 2008, less than 24 hours before the draft. Logos and uniforms Detroit Lions uniform: 1999-2002 Detroit Lions uniform: 1991-1998blue pants were worn with away jersey in 1998 Detroit Lions uniform: 2003-200875th anniversary jersey was worn during the 2008 season Aside from a brief change to maroon in 1948 instituted by then head coach Bo McMillin (influenced by his years as coach at Indiana), the Lions uniforms have basically remained the same since the team debuted in 1930. The design consists of silver helmets, silver pants, and either blue or white jerseys. There have been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the silver stripe patterns on the jersey sleeves, and changing the colors of the jersey numbers. White trim was added to the logo in 1970. In 1998, the team wore blue pants with their white jerseys along with grey socks but dropped that combination after the season. In 1999, the 'TV numbers' on the sleeves were moved to the shoulders. The shade of blue used for Lions uniforms and logos is officially known as "Honolulu blue," which is supposedly inspired by the color of the waves off the coast of Hawaii. The shade was chosen by Cy Huston, the Lions first vice president and general manager, and of the choice, he said: "They had me looking at so many blues I am blue in the face," Huston said about the selection. "But anyway, it's the kind of blue, I am told, that will match with silver." Detroit Lions Site: Ask The Lions In 1994, every NFL team wore 'throwback' jerseys, and the Lions' were similar to the jerseys used during their 1935 championship season. The helmets and pants were solid silver, the jerseys Honolulu blue with silver numbers and the jersey did not have 'TV numbers' on the sleeves. The team wore solid blue socks along with black shoes. The helmets also did not have a logo as helmets were simple leather back then. The Lions also wore '50s-style jerseys during their traditional Thanksgiving Day games from 2001 to 2004 as the NFL encouraged teams to wear throwback jerseys on Thanksgiving Day. In 2003, the team added black trim to their logo and the jerseys. The face masks on the helmet changed from blue to black with the introduction of the new color. Additionally, an alternate home field jersey which makes black the dominant color (in place of Honolulu Blue) was introduced in 2005. For 2008, the team dropped the black alternate jerseys in favor of a throwback uniform to commemorate the franchise's 75th anniversary. Lions to wear throwback jerseys for 75th anniversary \| Freep.com \| Detroit Free Press The throwback uniform became the team's permanent alternate jersey in 2009, replacing the former black alternate. The Lions officially unveiled new logo designs and uniforms on April 20, 2009. The Lion on the helmet now has a flowing mane and fangs, and the font of "Lions" is more modern. Detroit News April 20, 2009 Lions' new logo has fangs, flowing mane Notable players Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers 20 Lem Barney, DB (1992) 76 Lou Creekmur, G/T (1996) 14 Jack Christiansen, DB (1970) 7 Dutch Clark, QB (1963) 35 Bill Dudley, HB (1966) Frank Gatski, C (1985) John Henry Johnson, FB (1987) 81 Dick "Night Train" Lane, DB (1974) 28 Yale Lary, DB, P (1979) 22 Bobby Layne, QB (1967) 20 Barry Sanders, RB (2004) 88 Charlie Sanders, TE (2007) 56 Joe Schmidt, LB (1973) 37 Doak Walker, HB (1986) 50 Alex Wojciechowicz, C, LB (1968) Retired numbers Dutch Clark (7) Barry Sanders (20) Note: The #20 was retired specifically for Sanders, even though the retired number was also worn by RB Billy Sims and DB Lem Barney, both of whom are also among the top all-time Lions at their positions. Bobby Layne (22) Doak Walker (37) Joe Schmidt (56) Note: The #56 was unretired with Schmidt's blessing when the Lions acquired linebacker Pat Swilling from the Saints. No player has worn it since Swilling left. Chuck Hughes (85) Note: Hughes died of a heart attack during a game on October 24, 1971, and his #85 was withdrawn from circulation. However, WR Kevin Johnson wore #85 during his stint in Detroit after asking permission from the Hughes family as he had worn that number throughout his professional career. Corey Smith (93) Note: The Lions are to retire #93 for the 2009 season after Smith went missing, presumed dead, when a boat he was fishing in with friends capsized off the Florida coast. (see 2009 Detroit Lions season#Corey Smith disappearance for further details). Lions Legends The Lions have a special "program" called Lions Legends that honors noteworthy former players. The current list of legends includes not only the hall of famers listed above, but also the following players, who according to the Lions, "...Created special moments and added to the lore of football in the Motor City." Quote from the Lions site about Lions Legends. : Charley Ane, C/T Al Baker, DE Jerry Ball, DT Terry Barr, WR/DB Les Bingaman, DT Cloyce Box, RB/TE/QB Lomas Brown, T Dexter Bussey, RB Gail Cogdill, E James David, DB Keith Dorney, T/G Doug English, DT Jim Gibbons, TE Kevin Glover, C/G Mel Gray, WR/KR Robert Hoernschemeyer, RB Alex Karras, DT Greg Landry, QB Dick LeBeau, DB Mike Lucci, LB Darris McCord, DE Scott Mitchell, QB Herman Moore, WR Eddie Murray, K Brett Perriman, WR Rodney Peete, QB Tobin Rote, QB Barry Sanders, RB Harley Sewell, G Billy Sims, RB Chris Spielman, LB Wayne Walker, LB Coaches Current staff Radio and television Radio The Lions' flagship radio stations are WXYT-FM, 97.1 FM, and WXYT-AM, 1270 AM. Dan Miller does play-by-play, Jim Brandstatter does color commentary, and Tony Ortiz provides sideline reports. If a conflict with Detroit Tigers or Detroit Red Wings coverage arises, only WXYT-FM serves as the Lions' flagship. TV Since 2008, WWJ-TV has been the flagship television station for Lions pre-season games. Detroit News August 6, 2008 Lions will debut on new home station, WWJ-TV The announcers are Gus Johnson on play-by-play and Desmond Howard with color commentary. Matt Shepard and Lions Hall of Famer Charlie Sanders host the pre-game show and halftime show and provide sideline reports. Regular season games are broadcasted regionally on FOX, except when the Lions play an AFC team in Detroit, in which case the game airs regionally on CBS. The Thanksgiving Classic game in Detroit is always televised nationally on either FOX or CBS, depending on who the visiting team is. Blackouts The Lions' winless performance in 2008 led to several local broadcast blackouts, as local fans did not purchase enough tickets by the 72 hour blackout deadline. In 2008, five of the Lions' final six home games of the season did not sell out, with the Thanksgiving game being the exception. The first blackout in the 7 year history of Ford Field was the October 26, 2008 game vs the Washington Redskins. The previous 50 regular season home games had been sellouts. The Detroit News - No Wins, No TV for Lions Games were also often blacked out at the Lions' previous home the 80,000 seat Pontiac Silverdome, despite the success and popularity of Barry Sanders. Notable Lions fans Michigan raised actor/comedian Tim Allen is a huge Lions fan. On several occasions, Allen has appeared on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and defended the Lions, who Leno often makes fun of. In one appearance, Allen wore a full Lions uniform, including pads and helmet. An entire Season 7 episode of Allen's 1990s ABC TV series Home Improvement, which took place in Detroit, centered around the family attending the Lions' Thanksgiving Classic game in a luxury suite at their then home the Pontiac Silverdome. In the episode, Tim gets a V.I.P. tour, in which he causes a power outage in the stadium. Tim was also often seen wearing Lions shirts throughout the series and watching Lions games on television. Notes and references External links Detroit Lions official web site	Detroit_Lions \|@lemmatized detroit:47 lion:105 american:3 football:13 team:42 base:2 michigan:2 member:3 north:2 division:5 national:4 conference:6 nfc:4 league:6 nfl:37 play:20 home:10 game:52 ford:6 field:10 downtown:1 originally:1 portsmouth:8 ohio:4 call:3 spartan:11 begin:4 independent:5 professional:4 footballresearch:2 one:7 many:2 scioto:1 river:1 valley:1 season:55 formally:1 join:3 area:3 fold:4 great:6 depression:3 despite:3 success:7 within:1 could:2 survive:1 small:1 city:3 purchase:3 move:5 win:29 four:3 championship:13 last:8 give:1 club:1 second:7 long:1 drought:1 behind:2 arizona:1 cardinal:2 chicago:6 yet:3 qualify:2 super:1 bowl:3 playoff:17 nine:1 time:12 plus:1 year:16 since:12 span:2 become:8 history:11 lose:15 regular:6 go:13 pre:3 winless:3 without:2 tie:4 next:4 tampa:2 bay:5 buccaneer:3 afl:3 merger:2 early:6 herald:3 renamed:1 tiger:7 first:22 panther:5 much:1 way:1 wolverine:3 franchise:6 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6,454	Pointing_device_gesture	The mouse gesture for "back" in Opera – the user holds down the right mouse button, moves the mouse left, and releases the right mouse button. In computing, a mouse gesture is a way of combining computer mouse movements and clicks which the software recognizes as a specific command. Mouse gestures can provide quick access to common functions of a program. They can also be useful for people who have difficulties typing on a keyboard. For example, in a web browser, the user could navigate to the previously viewed page by pressing the right mouse button, moving the mouse briefly to the left, then releasing the button. History The first mouse gesture, the "drag," was introduced by Apple to replace a dedicated "move" button on mice shipped with its Macintosh and Lisa computers. Dragging involves holding down a mouse button while moving the mouse; the software interprets this as an action distinct from separate clicking and moving behaviors. Although this behavior has been adopted in a huge variety of software packages, few other gestures have been as successful. Current use , most programs do not support gestures other than the drag operation. Each program that recognizes mouse gestures does so in its own way, sometimes allowing for very short mouse movement distances to be recognized as gestures, and sometimes requiring very precise emulation of a certain movement pattern (e.g. circle). Some implementations allow users to customize these factors. Some video games have used mouse gestures. For example, in the Myth real-time tactics series, originally created by Bungie Software, players use them to order battlefield units to move in a desired direction. Another game using mouse gestures is Lionhead's Black & White. The game Arx Fatalis uses mouse gestures for drawing runes in the air to cast spells. Several Nintendo Wii games take advantage of such a system. Ōkami for the Playstation 2 system uses a system similar to mouse gestures; the player can enter a certain mode, by holding a face button and moving the analog stick to create a shape (circle, half-circle, line, etc) that performs a function in the game such as creating a bomb, or changing the world from night to day. The Opera web browser has recognized mouse gestures since version 5.10 (April 2001). Several mouse gesture extensions are also available for the Mozilla Firefox browser. These extensions use almost identical gestures as Opera. Some tools provide mouse gestures support in any application, such as gMote, Sensiva, StrokeIt and Mojo Gesture for Microsoft Windows. KDE includes universal mouse gesture support since version 3.2. With the Advent of Multi-Touch (brought into the mainstream by Apple Inc. with its iPhone), Many of Apple Inc.'s products support Multi-Touch gestures. The iPhone and iPod Touch sport identical gestures, as do the MacBook Air and MacBook Pro. The standard MacBook has identical Gesture support to the other MacBooks, but only allows for a maximum of 2 fingers to be used in any one gesture. RealWorld Icon Editor can recognize 26 mouse gestures while images are being modified in its raster editor and it then performs either standard or custom actions. The action can by an execution of an image filter, change of the active drawing tool, or commands like Apply, Undo, Redo, etc. Drawbacks A major drawback of current gesture interaction solutions is the lack of support for two necessary user interface design principles, feedback and visibility. Feedback notification is required to indicate whether the gesture has been entered correctly by indicating the gesture recognized and the corresponding command activated, although Sensiva does approach this to some extent in providing voice notification. Mojo Sidekick provides an alternative solution with a pop-up click-through notification. The other principal is visibility of gestures, providing the user some means of learning the necessary gestures and the contexts they can be used in. Mojo gesture does this to some extent by providing pop-up cheat-sheets, that show a list of gestures, when the mouse pointer is held down. Both Mouse Gestures for Internet Explorer and ALToolbar Mouse Gestures display colored tracers that indicate the current motion that the user is taking to facilitate visual clues for the user. One limitation with gesture interaction is the scope context in which the gestures can be used. For example each gesture has only one corresponding command for each application window. Mojo gesture has an interesting solution to this, which addresses this to some extent, by using floating click-through controls called charms, which allow an additional gesture context for each Charm control. Note that holding down buttons while moving the mouse can be awkward and requires some practice, since the downwards action increases friction for the horizontal motion. An optical mouse would be less susceptible to changes in behavior than a ball mouse with increased friction because the sensor does not rely on mechanical contact to sense movement; a touchpad provides no added friction with all its buttons held down with a thumb. However, it was also argued that muscular tension resulting from holding down buttons could be exploited in user interface design as it gives constant feedback that the user is in a temporary state, or mode (Buxton, 1995). Software These applications add gestures to any software running on system: Windows Mouse Gesture Desktop Tools (shareware) Brass via Mime plugin (shareware) Gesture Magic (free/open source application launcher) gMote (freeware) Mojo Sidekick (shareware) StrokeIt (free for non-profit use) PowerPro (Freeware - Has a gesture plugin) High Sign (Freeware/Open Source - Currently in development, Supports plugins) LiveEdge (freeware) Mac OS X CocoaGestures FlyGesture, a freeware application Mojo Sidekick Quicksilver has a feature for recognizing mouse gestures Sapiens xGestures X11 Easystroke has packages for Ubuntu 8 and can be compiled on other Linux distributions Gestikk Freehand Gestures for KDE Configuring native strokes in FVWM KHotkeys provides native gestures support in KDE wayV xgestures xstroke SkyOS SkyOS Mouse Gestures SkyOS has native support of mouse gestures Applications These apps support gestures on their own: Mouse Gesture Task Switcher for Windows. Use mouse gestures to switch between application windows. By Encsoft. Mouse Gesture Application Launcher for Windows. Use mouse gestures to launch applications, files. Mouse Gesture Window Controller for Windows. Use mouse gestures to close, maximize, minimize the active window directly. Documentation of mouse gestures in Maxthon. Documentation of mouse gestures in Opera. Avant Browser Opera (web browser) Mouse Gestures for Internet Explorer 7 by IE7pro Mouse Gestures in ALToolbar for Internet Explorer. Reference of gestures in Motion. Mouse gestures in raster editor of applications based on RealWorld Designer framework. There are many add-ons which add the ability to Firefox Software libraries iGesture Open Source Java framework for pen and mouse-based gesture recognition. Java Swing Mouse Gestures Open source pure Java library for recognition and processing mouse gestures. Lipi Toolkit Open source toolkit that supports recognition of arbitrary pen and mouse-based gestures as well as handwritten characters. LibStroke is a stroke translation library in C/Java Mouse Gestures for .NET Open source .NET component for mouse gestures recognition See also Computer accessibility Drag-and-drop Pie menu Pen computing References Buxton, W. A. (1995). "Chunking and phrasing and the design of human-computer dialogues" in Human-Computer interaction: Toward the Year 2000, R. M. Baecker, J. Grudin, W. A. Buxton, and S. Greenberg, Eds. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, CA, 494-499. 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6,455	Bayezid_I	Bayezid I (Ottoman: بايزيد الأول, Turkish: Beyazıt, nicknamed Yıldırım (Ottoman: ییلدیرم), "the Thunderbolt"; 1354/1357/1360, Edirne or Bursa March 8/9, 1403, Akşehir, Turkey) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, then Rûm, from 1389 to 1402. He was the son of Murad I The Nature of the Early Ottoman State, Heath W. Lowry, 2003 SUNY Press, p. 153 The Fall of Constantinople, Steven Runciman, Cambridge University Press, p. 36 and Valide Sultan Gülçiçek Hatun who was of ethnic Greek descent. The Nature of the Early Ottoman State, Heath W. Lowry, State University of New York Press (SUNY Press), p. 153 History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford Jay Shaw, Cambridge University Press, p. 28 Consolidation of power Bayezid ascended to the throne following the death of his father Murad I in the first Battle of Kosovo, who was killed by Serbian Noblemen Miloš Obilić on June 29 1389. One year later, faced with a Hungarian threat from the North, the Serbs agreed to become his vassals and he took as a wife Olivera Despina, the daughter of Prince Lazar of Serbia, allying himself with Serbs, and enabling his offspring to claim Serbia as a dynastic privilege. He recognized Stefan Lazarević, the son of Lazar, as the new Serbian leader, with considerable autonomy. See also: Battle of Kosovo Danubian campaign In 1394 Bayezid crossed the Danube river attacking Wallachia, ruled at that time by Mircea the Elder. The Ottomans were superior in number, but on October 10, 1394 (17 May 1395 ?), in the Battle of Rovine, which featured a forested and swampy terrain, the Wallachians won the fierce battle and prevented Bayezid from conquering the country. See also: Battle of Rovine The Crusade of Nicopolis In 1394, Bayezid laid siege to Constantinople Mango, Cyril. The Oxford History of Byzantium. 1st ed. New York: Oxford UP, 2002. p. 273-4 , the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Anadoluhisarı fortress was built between 1393 and 1394 as part of preparations for the Second Ottoman Siege of Constantinople, which took place in 1395. On the urgings of the Byzantine emperor John V Palaeologus a new crusade was organized to defeat him. This proved unsuccessful: in 1396 the Christian allies, under the leadership of the King of Hungary and future Holy Roman Emperor (in 1410) Sigismund, were defeated in the Battle of Nicopolis. Bayezid built the magnificent Ulu Camii in Bursa, to celebrate this victory. Thus, the siege of Constantinople continued, lasting until 1401. The Emperor left the city to seek aid. The beleaguered Byzantines had their reprieve when Bayezid fought the Timurid Turks in the East. See also: Battle of Nicopolis Tamerlane and the Battle of Ankara Stanisław Chlebowski, Bayezid prisoned by Timur, 1878 In 1400, the Central Asian warlord Timur Lenk (or Tamerlane) had succeeded in rousing the local Turkic beyliks that had been vassals of the Ottomans to join him in his attack on Bayezid. In the fateful Battle of Ankara, on 20 July 1402, Bayezid was captured by Timur. His sons, however, escaped, and later they would start civil war (see also Ottoman Interregnum). Some contemporary reports claimed that Timur kept Bayezid chained in a cage as a trophy. Likewise, there are many stories about Bayezid's captivity, including one that describes how Timur used him as a footstool. However, writers from Timur's court reported that Bayezid was treated well, and that Timur even mourned his death. One year later, Bayezid died — some accounts claim that he committed suicide by smashing his head against the iron bars of his cage (the version given by Marlowe; see below). Other accounts claimed that he committed suicide by taking the poison concealed in his ring. See also: Battle of Ankara In Fiction The defeat of Bayezid became a popular subject for later western writers, composers and painters. They revelled in the legend that he was taken by Tamerlane to Samarkand, and embellished it with a cast of characters to create an oriental fantasy that has maintained its appeal. Christopher Marlowe's play Tamburlane the Great was first performed in London in 1587, three years after the formal opening of the English-Ottoman trade relations when William Harborne sailed for Istanbul as agent of the Levant Company. In 1648 there appeared the play Le Gran Tamerlan et Bejezet by Jean Magnon, and in 1725 Handel's Tamerlano was first performed in London; Vivaldi's version of the story, Bayezid, was written in 1735. Magnon had given Bayezid an intriguing wife and daughter; the Handel and Vivaldi renditions included, as well as Tamerlane and Bayezid and his daughter, a prince of Byzantium and a princess of Trebizond (Trabzon) in a passionate and incredible love story. A cycle of paintings in Schloss Eggenberg, near Graz in Austria, translated the theme to a different medium; this was completed in the 1670s shortly before the Ottoman army attacked the Habsburgs in central Europe. C. Finkel, The History of the Ottoman Empire: Osman's Dream, pp.30, 2006, Basic Books Marriages and Progeny Marriages of Bayezid I: (m. 1372) - Angelina, Princess of Byzantium, whose second husband was Diego González de Contreras, son of Fernán González de Contreras and wife María García de Segovia http://www.geneall.net/W/per_page.php?id=533064 (m. 1381) - Daughter of Süleyman Shah of Germiyan Valide Sultan (1403) Devlet Hatun or Devlet Shah Hatun - Daughter of Yakub Shah of Germiyan. Descendant of Mevlana Celaleddin-i Rumi through his son Sultan Veled's daughter Mutahhara Hatun who was an ancestor of Yakub Shah Hafsa Hatun - Daughter of Isa Bey of Aydınoğlu Sultan Hatun - Daughter of Süleyman Shah of Dulkadir Olivera Despina or Mileva - Daughter of Prince Lazar of Serbia Maria, Princess of Greece, daughter of János, Count of Hungary, whose second husband was Payo Gómez de Sotomayor http://www.geneall.net/W/per_page.php?id=533080 Issue of Bayezid I: Ertuğrul - son Musa - son of Angelina Süleyman, Sultan of Rumelia 1410-1413, murdered - son of Angelina Emir Süleyman (d. 1411) Musa Çelebi, Sultan of Rumelia 1410-1413 (d. 1413) - son of Devlet Shah Hatun Sultan Mehmed I Çelebi (1389-1421)- son of Devlet Hatun Kasım - son Isa, Governor of Anatolia - son of Devlet Shah Hatun Mustafa, Sultan of Rumelia (d. 1401) - son of Devlet Shah Hatun Erhondu - daughter Hundi - daughter Fatma - daughter Notes References Goodwin, Jason - Lords of the Horizons (book) See also Tamerlano (1724) an opera by Handel Bajazet (1735) an opera by Vivaldi on the story of Bayezid I and Timur Lenk The only complete recording of this opera was released by Virgin Classics on May 10, 2005. 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6,456	Asphalt	Base layer of asphalt concrete in a road under construction. Asphalt () is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude petroleums and in some natural deposits sometimes termed asphaltum. It is most commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase and maltenes as the continuous phase (though there is some disagreement amongst chemists regarding its structure). In U.S. terminology, asphalt (or asphalt cement) is the carefully refined residue from the distillation process of selected crude oils. Outside North America, the product is called bitumen. The primary use of asphalt is in road construction, where it is used as the glue or binder for the aggregate particles. The road surfacing material is usually called 'asphaltic concrete' or simply AC in North America, or simply 'asphalt' elsewhere. Within North America the apparent interchangeability of the words 'asphalt' and 'bitumen' causes confusion outside the road construction industry despite quite clear definitions within industry circles. Etymology The word asphalt is derived from the late Middle English : from French asphalte, based on late Latin asphalton, asphaltum, from the Greek ásphalton, ásphaltos (άσφαλτος), a word of uncertain origin meaning "asphalt/bitumen/pitch" which some derive from α- "without" and σφάλλω "to make fall". Background Asphalt or bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a similar black thermo-plastic material produced by the destructive distillation of coal. During the early- and mid-twentieth century when town gas was produced, tar was a readily available product and extensively used as the binder for road aggregates. The addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, asphalt (bitumen) has completely overtaken the use of tar in these applications. Asphalt can be separated from the other components in crude oil (such as naphtha, gasoline and diesel) by the process of fractional distillation, usually under vacuum conditions. A better separation can be achieved by further processing of the heavier fractions of the crude oil in a de-asphalting unit, which uses either propane or butane in a supercritical phase to dissolve the lighter molecules which are then separated. Further processing is possible by "blowing" the product: namely reacting it with oxygen. This makes the product harder and more viscous. Natural deposits of asphalt include lake asphalts (primarily from the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago and Bermudez Lake in Venezuela), Gilsonite, the Dead Sea, and Tar Sands. Asphalt was mined at Ritchie Mines in Macfarlan in Ritchie County, West Virginia in the United States from 1852 to 1873. Asphalt is typically stored and transported at temperatures around 300 degrees Fahrenheit (150°C). Sometimes diesel oil or kerosene are mixed in before shipping to retain liquidity; upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called bitumen feedstock, or BFS. Some dump trucks route the hot engine exhaust through pipes in the dump body to keep the material warm. The backs of tippers carrying asphalt, as well as some handling equipment, are also commonly sprayed with a releasing agent before filling to aid release. Diesel oil is sometimes used as a release agent, although it can mix with and thereby reduce the quality of the asphalt. Known uses Ancient times In the ancient Middle East, natural asphalt deposits were used for mortar between bricks and stones, ship caulking, and waterproofing. The Persian word for asphalt is mumiya, which is related to the English word mummy. Asphalt was also used by ancient Egyptians to embalm mummies. In the ancient Far East, natural asphalt was slowly boiled to get rid of the higher fractions, leaving a material of higher molecular weight which is thermoplastic and when layered on objects, became quite hard upon cooling. This was used to cover scabbards and other objects that needed water-proofing. Statuettes of household deities were also cast with this type of material in Japan, and probably also in China. In North America, archaeological recovery has indicated that asphaltum was sometimes used to apply stone projectile points to a wooden shaft. C.Michael Hogan (2008) Morro Creek, ed. by A. Burnham Poured bitumen has also been used as a damp-proof course in building. Rolled asphalt concrete The largest use of asphalt is for making asphalt concrete for road surfaces and accounts for approximately 80% of the asphalt consumed in the United States. Due to its highly viscous nature, asphalt is commonly heated for road construction to make it soft and easy to work. Special heated tanker trucks are employed in road building to apply hot asphalt to the road bed. An early 1919 hot asphalt tanker truck used for road repair in France after World War 1 -- How Yankee Ingenuity Built Roads in Devasted France, Popular Science monthly, January 1919, page 58, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=HykDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA58 Asphalt road surface is the most widely recycled material in the US, both by gross tonnage and by percentage. According to a report issued by the Federal Highway Administration and the United States Environmental Protection Agency, 80% of the asphalt from road surfaces' that is removed each year during widening and resurfacing projects is reused as part of new roads, roadbeds, shoulders and embankments. Roofing shingles account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption. Other uses include cattle sprays, fence post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics. In areas of the world with winter climates, asphalt must be protected from cracking with a procedure called sealcoating. The freezing and thawing process that occurs causes small cracks in the asphalt. As more freezing water gets into these small cracks, the expansion causes further damage to the asphalt. Sealcoat is applied in an effort to prevent additional damage. The use of sealcoat can lengthen the life of asphalt driveways or parking lots significantly. Mastic asphalt Mastic asphalt is a type of asphalt which differs from dense graded asphalt (asphalt concrete) in that it has a higher bitumen (binder) content, usually around 7–10% of the whole aggregate mix, as opposed to roller asphalt, which has only around 5% added bitumen. Another asphalt which is fast gaining global popularity is stone mastic asphalt (SMA). SMA's advantages over rolled asphalt is its high anti-skid qualities due to its high aggregate density and the lack of void content (air pockets). Another advantage of SMA is its longer durability over alternative road asphalt surfaces, but its manufacture and application, if not controlled closely, can result in slippery road surfaces due to excess bitumen pooling (bleeding) onto the surface. Asphalt is widely used in airports around the world. Due to the sturdiness, it is widely used for runways dedicated to aircraft landing and taking off. Asphalt emulsion A number of technologies allow asphalt to be mixed at much lower temperatures. These involve mixing the asphalt with petroleum solvents to form "cutbacks" with reduced melting point or mixtures with water to turn the asphalt into an emulsion. Asphalt emulsions contain up to 70% asphalt and typically less than 1.5% chemical additives. There are two main types of emulsions with different affinity for aggregates, cationic and anionic. Asphalt emulsions are used in a wide variety of applications. Chipseal involves spraying the road surface with asphalt emulsion followed by a layer of crushed rock or gravel. Slurry Seal involves the creation of a mixture of asphalt emulsion and fine crushed aggregate that is spread on the surface of a road. Cold mixed asphalt can also be made from asphalt emulsion to create pavements similar to hot-mixed asphalt, several inches in depth and asphalt emulsions are also blended into recycled hot-mix asphalt to create low cost pavements. Mixing with petroleum-contaminated soil Sometimes asphalt can be mixed with the output from low-temperature thermal desorption. Alternatives and bioasphalt The world has become increasingly concerned over the global peak oil and climate change problem in recent years due to the pollution that is released into the atmosphere. Most of the emissions are derived primarily from burning fossil fuels. This has led to the introduction of petroleum bitumen alternatives that are more environmentally friendly and non-toxic. References Barth, Edwin J., Asphalt: Science and Technology Gordon and Breach (1962). ISBN 0-677-00040-5. See also Blacktop External links Pavement Interactive - Asphalt U.S EPA Asphalt Magazine CSU Sacramento, The World Famous Asphalt Museum! National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Asphalt Fumes	Asphalt \|@lemmatized base:2 layer:3 asphalt:68 concrete:5 road:20 construction:4 sticky:1 black:2 highly:2 viscous:3 liquid:1 semi:1 solid:1 present:1 crude:4 petroleum:4 natural:5 deposit:3 sometimes:6 term:1 asphaltum:3 commonly:3 model:1 colloid:1 asphaltenes:1 dispersed:1 phase:3 maltenes:1 continuous:1 though:1 disagreement:1 amongst:1 chemist:1 regard:1 structure:1 u:3 terminology:1 cement:1 carefully:1 refine:1 residue:1 distillation:3 process:3 select:1 oil:6 outside:2 north:4 america:4 product:4 call:4 bitumen:11 primary:1 use:19 glue:1 binder:3 aggregate:6 particle:1 surface:9 material:8 usually:3 asphaltic:1 simply:2 ac:1 elsewhere:1 within:2 apparent:1 interchangeability:1 word:6 cause:3 confusion:1 industry:2 despite:1 quite:2 clear:1 definition:1 circle:1 etymology:1 derive:3 late:2 middle:2 english:2 french:1 asphalte:1 latin:1 asphalton:1 greek:1 ásphalton:1 ásphaltos:1 άσφαλτος:1 uncertain:1 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6,457	Crux	Crux (, genitive Crucis ) is the smallest of the 88 modern constellations, but is one of the most distinctive. Its name is Latin for cross, and it is dominated by a cross-shaped asterism that is commonly known as the Southern Cross because throughout this Common Era it has been easily visible from the southern hemisphere, at practically any time of year, although it is also visible near the horizon from tropical latitudes of the northern hemisphere, for a few hours every night, during the spring months; for instance, from Cancun -- or any other place al latitude 25º N or less, with unobstructed view to the South—at around 10 pm, at the end of April. Crux is bordered by the constellations Centaurus, which surrounds it on three sides, and Musca. Location and identification The five brightest stars in Crux are clearly visible in this picture. The red giant Gacrux and orange giant Juxta Crucem are distinctly different from the three other major stars of the constellation, which are Blue-white in colour Contrary to popular belief, Crux is not opposite to Ursa Major. In fact, in tropical regions both Crux (low in the south) and Ursa Major (low in the north) can be seen in the sky from April to June. Crux is exactly opposite to Cassiopeia on the celestial sphere, and therefore it cannot be in the sky with the latter at the same time. For locations south of 34°S, Crux is circumpolar and thus always visible in the night sky. Crux is sometimes confused with the nearby False Cross by stargazers. Crux is somewhat kite-shaped, and it has a fifth star (ε Crucis). Crux may also resemble the shape of an inverted U.S. space shuttle, as if flying upside down through the sky. The False Cross is diamond-shaped, somewhat dimmer on average, does not have a fifth star and lacks two "Pointer Stars". Notable features Stars A CTX image of crux. Three of the five main Crux stars—–Acrux, Mimosa, and Delta Crucis—–are co-moving B-type members of the Scorpius-Centaurus Association, the nearest OB association to the Sun . They are among the highest-mass stellar members of the Lower Centaurus-Crux subgroup of the association, with ages of roughly 10 to 20 million years . Markers Since the southern sky lacks an easily visible pole star, Alpha and Gamma (known as Acrux and Gacrux respectively) are commonly used to mark south. Following the line defined by the two stars for approximately 4.5 times the distance between them leads to a point close to the Southern Celestial Pole. Alternatively, if a line is constructed perpendicularly between Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri, the point where the above line and this line intersect marks the Southern Celestial Pole. The two stars are often referred to as the "Pointer Stars" or "White Pointers", allowing people to easily find the top of Crux Named stars α is named Acrux, a concatenation of "Alpha" and "Crux" β is named Becrux a concatenation of "Beta" and "Crux" and is also named after the Mimosa plant γ is named Gacrux, a concatenation of "Gamma" and "Crux" Deep sky objects The Coalsack Nebula is the most prominent dark nebula in the skies, easily visible to the naked eye as a big dark patch in the southern Milky Way. Another deep sky object within Crux is the Open Cluster NGC 4755, better known as the Jewel Box or Kappa Crucis Cluster, that was discovered by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille in 1751-1752. It lies at a distance of about 7,500 light years and consists of approximately 100 stars spread across an area of about 20 light-years square. History Crux was visible to the Ancient Greeks, who regarded it as part of the constellation Centaurus. At the latitude of Athens in 1000 BC, Crux was clearly visible, though low in the sky. However, the precession of the equinoxes gradually lowered its stars below the European horizon, and they were eventually forgotten by the inhabitants of northern latitudes. By AD 400, most of the constellation never rose above the horizon for Athenians. Crux was rediscovered by Europeans during the Age of Discovery. Amerigo Vespucci mapped Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri as well as the stars of modern Crux on his expedition to South America in 1501. The separation of Crux from Centaurus is generally attributed to the French astronomer Augustin Royer in 1679. Other historians attribute the invention of Crux to Petrus Plancius in 1613, noting that the constellation was later published by Jakob Bartsch in 1624. Cultural significance As a highly distinctive asterism, Crux has great significance in the cultures of the southern hemisphere. In Australian Aboriginal astronomy, Crux and the Coalsack, mark the head of the 'Emu in the Sky' in several Aboriginal cultures, while Crux itself is said to be a possum sitting in a tree. A stone image of the constellation has been found at the archaeological site of Machu Picchu, Peru. In Mapudungun, the language of Patagonian Mapuches, the name of Crux is Melipal, which means "four stars". In Quechua, the language of the Inca civilization, Crux is known as "Chakana", which means literally "stair" (chaka, bridge, link; hanan, high, above), but carries a deep symbolism within Quechua mysticism. Chakana: Inca Cross . The Māori name for Crux is "Te Punga" - "the anchor". It is thought of as the anchor of Tama-rereti's waka (the Milky Way), where the Pointers are its rope. In Tonga it is known as Toloa — duck; it is a duck flying over, heading south, and one of his wings (δ) is wounded because Ongo tangata — 2 men — α and Β Centauri threw a stone at it. The Coalsack is known as Humu — triggerfish, because of its shape. Kik Velt; Stars over Tonga In Indonesia and Malaysia, it is known as Buruj Pari (The Stingray). In ancient Hindu astrology, the modern Crux is referred to as "Trishanku". Among Tuaregs, the 4 most visible stars of Crux are considered iggaren, i.e. four Maerua crassifolia trees. Southern Cross is also a song by the classic rock group Crosby, Stills and Nash, written by Rick Curtis, Michael Curtis, and Stephen Stills. Flags and symbols that incorporate Crux Beginning in the colonial age, Crux became used as a national symbol by several southern nations. The brightest stars of Crux appear on the flags of Australia, Brazil, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, and Samoa. They also appear on the Australian States and Territories of Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, the Northern Territory, as well as the flag of Magallanes Region of Chile, and several Argentine provincial flags and emblems (e.g., Tierra del Fuego and Santa Cruz). The flag of the Mercosur trading zone displays the four brightest stars. Crux also appears on the Brazilian coat of arms. Crux, appearing on a number of flags and insignia. In 1893, Australian poet Banjo Paterson wrote: The English flag may flutter and wave, where the world wide oceans toss,but the flag the Australian dies to save,is the flag of the Southern Cross. The five stars are also in the logo of an Brazilian soccer team called Cruzeiro Esporte Clube. A stylized version of Crux appears on the Eureka Flag. The constellation was also used on the dark blue, shield-like patch worn by personnel of the U.S. Army's Americal Division, which was organized in the Southern Hemisphere, on the island of New Caledonia, and also the blue diamond of the U.S. 1st Marine Division, which fought on the Southern Hemisphere islands of Guadalcanal and New Britain. References External links Letter of Andrea Corsali 1516-1989: with additional material ("the first description and illustration of the Southern Cross, with speculations about Australia ...") digitised by the National Library of Australia. The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Crux. The Cambridge Guide to the Constellations, Michael E. Bakich, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pg. 85. Universe: The Definitive Visual Dictionary, Robert Dinwiddie et al., DK Adult Publishing, (2005), pg. 396. The Sign of the Southern Cross Black Sabbath Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. Southern Cross Starry Night Photography. Star Tales – Crux Finding the South Pole in the sky Southern Cross in Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand	Crux \|@lemmatized crux:40 genitive:1 crucis:4 small:1 modern:3 constellation:10 one:2 distinctive:2 name:8 latin:1 cross:12 dominate:1 shape:5 asterism:2 commonly:2 know:7 southern:16 throughout:1 common:1 era:1 easily:4 visible:9 hemisphere:5 practically:1 time:3 year:4 although:1 also:9 near:2 horizon:3 tropical:2 latitude:4 northern:3 hour:1 every:1 night:3 spring:1 month:1 instance:1 cancun:1 place:1 al:2 n:1 less:1 unobstructed:1 view:1 south:7 around:1 pm:1 end:1 april:2 border:1 centaurus:5 surround:1 three:3 side:1 musca:1 location:2 identification:1 five:3 bright:3 star:23 clearly:2 picture:1 red:1 giant:2 gacrux:3 orange:1 juxta:1 crucem:1 distinctly:1 different:1 major:3 blue:3 white:2 colour:1 contrary:1 popular:1 belief:1 opposite:2 ursa:2 fact:1 region:2 low:4 north:1 see:1 sky:11 june:1 exactly:1 cassiopeia:1 celestial:3 sphere:1 therefore:1 cannot:1 latter:1 circumpolar:1 thus:1 always:1 sometimes:1 confuse:1 nearby:1 false:2 stargazer:1 somewhat:2 kite:1 fifth:2 ε:1 may:2 resemble:1 inverted:1 u:3 space:1 shuttle:1 fly:2 upside:1 diamond:2 dimmer:1 average:1 lack:2 two:3 pointer:4 notable:1 feature:1 ctx:1 image:2 main:1 acrux:3 mimosa:2 delta:1 co:1 moving:1 b:1 type:1 member:2 scorpius:1 association:3 ob:1 sun:1 among:2 high:2 mass:1 stellar:1 subgroup:1 age:3 roughly:1 million:1 marker:1 since:1 pole:4 alpha:4 gamma:2 respectively:1 use:3 mark:3 follow:1 line:4 define:1 approximately:2 distance:2 lead:1 point:2 close:1 alternatively:1 construct:1 perpendicularly:1 centauri:5 beta:3 intersect:1 often:1 refer:2 allow:1 people:1 find:3 top:1 α:2 concatenation:3 β:2 becrux:1 plant:1 γ:1 deep:4 object:2 coalsack:3 nebula:2 prominent:1 dark:3 naked:1 eye:1 big:1 patch:2 milky:2 way:2 another:1 within:2 open:1 cluster:2 ngc:1 good:1 jewel:1 box:1 kappa:1 discover:1 nicolas:1 louis:1 de:1 lacaille:1 lie:1 light:2 consist:1 spread:1 across:1 area:1 square:1 history:1 ancient:2 greek:1 regard:1 part:1 athens:1 bc:1 though:1 however:1 precession:1 equinox:1 gradually:1 lower:1 european:2 eventually:1 forget:1 inhabitant:1 ad:1 never:1 rise:1 athenian:1 rediscover:1 discovery:1 amerigo:1 vespucci:1 map:1 well:2 expedition:1 america:1 separation:1 generally:1 attribute:2 french:1 astronomer:1 augustin:1 royer:1 historian:1 invention:1 petrus:1 plancius:1 note:1 later:1 publish:1 jakob:1 bartsch:1 cultural:1 significance:2 highly:1 great:1 culture:2 australian:5 aboriginal:2 astronomy:1 head:2 emu:1 several:3 say:1 possum:1 sitting:1 tree:2 stone:2 archaeological:1 site:1 machu:1 picchu:1 peru:1 mapudungun:1 language:2 patagonian:1 mapuches:1 melipal:1 mean:2 four:3 quechua:2 inca:2 civilization:1 chakana:2 literally:1 stair:1 chaka:1 bridge:1 link:2 hanan:1 carry:1 symbolism:1 mysticism:1 māori:1 te:2 punga:1 anchor:2 think:1 tama:1 rereti:1 waka:1 rope:1 tonga:2 toloa:1 duck:2 wing:1 δ:1 wound:1 ongo:1 tangata:1 men:1 throw:1 humu:1 triggerfish:1 kik:1 velt:1 indonesia:1 malaysia:1 buruj:1 pari:1 stingray:1 hindu:1 astrology:1 trishanku:1 tuareg:1 consider:1 iggaren:1 e:3 maerua:1 crassifolia:1 song:1 classic:1 rock:1 group:1 crosby:1 still:2 nash:1 write:2 rick:1 curtis:2 michael:2 stephen:1 flag:10 symbol:2 incorporate:1 begin:1 colonial:1 become:1 national:2 nation:1 appear:5 australia:3 brazil:1 new:5 zealand:2 papua:1 guinea:1 samoa:1 state:1 territory:3 victoria:1 capital:1 magallanes:1 chile:1 argentine:1 provincial:1 emblem:1 g:1 tierra:1 del:1 fuego:1 santa:1 cruz:1 mercosur:1 trading:1 zone:1 display:1 brazilian:2 coat:1 arm:1 number:1 insignia:1 poet:1 banjo:1 paterson:1 english:1 flutter:1 wave:1 world:1 wide:1 ocean:1 toss:1 dy:1 save:1 logo:1 soccer:1 team:1 call:1 cruzeiro:1 esporte:1 clube:1 stylized:1 version:1 eureka:1 shield:1 like:1 wear:1 personnel:1 army:1 americal:1 division:2 organize:1 island:2 caledonia:1 marine:1 fight:1 guadalcanal:1 britain:1 reference:1 external:1 letter:1 andrea:1 corsali:1 additional:1 material:1 first:1 description:1 illustration:1 speculation:1 digitise:1 library:1 photographic:1 guide:3 cambridge:2 bakich:1 university:2 press:2 pg:2 universe:1 definitive:1 visual:1 dictionary:1 robert:1 dinwiddie:1 et:1 dk:1 adult:1 publishing:1 sign:1 black:1 sabbath:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 collins:1 london:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 starry:1 photography:1 tale:1 ara:1 encyclopedia:1 \|@bigram southern_hemisphere:4 northern_hemisphere:1 constellation_centaurus:2 ursa_major:2 celestial_sphere:1 space_shuttle:1 alpha_centauri:2 beta_centauri:2 visible_naked:1 naked_eye:1 milky_way:2 cluster_ngc:1 precession_equinox:1 amerigo_vespucci:1 australian_aboriginal:1 machu_picchu:1 α_β:1 indonesia_malaysia:1 tierra_del:1 del_fuego:1 santa_cruz:1 coat_arm:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 et_al:1 black_sabbath:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 starry_night:1 te_ara:1
6,458	Oaths_of_Strasbourg	Text of the Oaths The Oaths of Strasbourg were several historical documents which included mutual pledges of allegiance between Louis the German, ruler of East Francia, and his (half) brother Charles the Bald, ruler of West Francia. The several pledges were spoken at a strategic meeting in 842 at Strasbourg --with the brothers' assembled armies in attendance and participating in the the ceremonies. In addition to their promised allegiance to the other, Louis and Charles pledged their solidarity to oppose their eldest brother Lothair, ruler of Middle Francia and, nominally, emperor of all the Frankish kingdoms as well as Holy Roman Emperor. (The "Oaths" are also known as, in Modern French, les serments de Strasbourg; in Modern German, die Straßburger Eide; in Latin, Sacramenta Argentariae.) The historical nature of the meeting is made more remarkable by the additional, separate pledges that were scripted for the monarchs' armies --in their respective vernaculars-- to the effect that, for each "soldier": should their own lord-king unilaterally break the oath just pledged (to the other king), then, each "soldier of the oath" promises not to help his master against the abused other monarch. According to a chief source for the meeting --Nithard's De dissensionibus filiorum Ludovici pii (On the Dissensions of the Sons of Louis the Pious)-- after both kings made the same preamble speech, a detailed complaint against Lothair, each king then swore his individual oath, not in Latin nor in his own language, but in the vernacular of the other's kingdom, all in front of their assembled armies; which armies then swore separate pledges in their respective languages. One version of the pledges was written in Old High German. The second version is in a variety of old Gallo-Romance, the ancestor of Old French; it is one of the first extant texts Le Serment de Strasbourg written in a Romance language clearly distinct from Latin. The preamble was also written in Latin, as were sections to report the ceremonies. While linguists are interested in the texts of the oaths themselves, historians have long used the coexistence of these bilingual documents to illustrate their theory that, by 842, the Carolingian-Frankish empire had begun splitting into separate proto-countries and developing with different languages and customs. However, others of late have come to favor a different hypothesis: that the Frankish Kingdom comprised several regna (loosely translated as kingdoms) that since ancient times had maintained different customs and dialects. Supporting this theory they note that both Charlemagne and Louis the Pious sent their sons to be raised in the respective regna which they were designated to inherit, in order to better enlist the support of the local populus by becoming familiar with them and their customs. Nithard's work is preserved in a single manuscript from the 10th or 11th century (Cod. Lat. 9768 in the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris), and text of the oaths is on folios 12b2-13b1. The text The full text with English translation Colour-coding Below, the text in Latin is marked in red; the Romance text in blue; the Old High German text in green. English is in the default black. The transcriptions are slightly corrected, with abbreviations written out. The image to the right is a scan of the original text. In the transcription below, two asterisks mark the beginning and end of the text visible in this scan. Original textEnglish translationErgo xvi kal. marcii Lodhuvicus et Karolus in civitate que olim Argentaria vocabatur, nunc autem Strazburg vulgo dicitur, convenerunt et sacramenta que subter notata sunt, Lodhuvicus romana, Karolus vero teudisca lingua, juraverunt. Ac sic, ante sacramentum circumfusam plebem, alter teudisca, alter romana lingua, alloquuti sunt. Lodhuvicus autem, quia major natu, prior exorsus sic coepit:So, Louis and Charles met on 16th day of the kalends of March (14 February) in the town that used to be called Argentaria but which is commonly now known as Strazburg, and they swore the oaths given below, Louis in Romance and Charles in German. But before swearing the oaths, they made speeches in German and Romance. Being the elder, Louis began, as follows:“Quotiens Lodharius me et hunc fratrum meum, post obitum patris nostri, insectando usque ad internecionem delere conatus sit nostis. Cum autem nec fraternitas nec christianitas nec quodlibet ingenium, salva justicia, ut pax inter nos esset, adjuvare posset, tandem coacti rem ad juditium omnipotentis Dei detulimus, ut suo nutu quid cuique deberetur contenti essemus. “In quo nos, sicut nostis, per misericordiam Dei victores extitimus, is autem victus una cum suis quo valuit secessit. Hinc vero, fraterno amore correpti nec non et super populum christianum conpassi, persequi atque delere illos noluimus, sed hactenus, sicut et antea, ut saltem deinde cuique sua justicia cederetur mandavimus. “At ille post haec non contentus judicio divino, sed hostili manu iterum et me et hunc fratrem meum persequi non cessat, insuper et populum nostrum incendiis, rapinis cedibusque devastat. Quamobrem nunc, necessitate coacti, convenimus et, quoniam vos de nostra stabili fide ac firma fraternitate dubitare credimus, hoc sacramentum inter nos in conspectu vestro jurare decrevimus. “Non qualibet iniqua cupiditate illecti hoc agimus, sed ut certiores, si Deus nobis vestro adjutorio quietem dederit, de communi profectu simus. Si autem, quod absit, sacramentum quod fratri meo juravero violare praesumpsero, a subditione mea necnon et a juramento quod mihi jurastis unumquemque vestrum absolvo”“Let it be known how many times Lothair has — since our father died — attempted to destroy me and this brother of mine, committing massacres in his pursuit of us. But since neither brotherhood nor Christianity nor any natural inclination, save justice, has been able to bring peace between us, we have been forced to take the matter to the judgement of almighty God, so that we may accept whatever His will is. “The result was, as you all know, that by the Grace of God we came out as victors, and that he, defeated, went back to his people where he was stronger. But then, motivated by brotherly love and compassion for Christendom, we decided not to pursue and destroy them; instead, until now, we have asked him to at least submit to justice as in the past. “But he, despite this, not content with God's judgement, does not cease to come after me and this brother of mine with his armies. Moreover, he is devastating our people by burning, pillaging and murdering. That is why we now, driven by necessity, are having this meeting, and, since we believe that you doubt our firm faith and brotherhood, we shall swear this oath between us before all of you. “This act is not in bad faith, but simply so that, if God gives us peace thanks to your help, we may be certain that a common benefit will come of it. Should I — God forbid — break the oath which I am about to swear to my brother, I release you from my sovereignty over you and from the oath that you have all sworn to me.”Cumque Karolus haec eadem verba romana lingua perorasset, Lodhuvicus, quoniam major natu erat, prior haec deinde se servaturum testatus est:Once Charles had finished off the speech with the same words in Romance, Louis, since he was the elder, then swore allegiance first:“Pro Deo amur et pro Christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, d'ist di in avant, in quant Deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo et in ajudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dift, in o quid il me altresi fazet, et ab Ludher nul plaid numquam prindrai, qui, meon vol, cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit.”“For the love of God and for Christendom and our common salvation, from this day onwards, as God will give me the wisdom and power, I shall protect this brother of mine Charles, with aid or anything else, as one ought to protect one's brother, so that he may do the same for me, and I shall never knowingly make any covenant with Lothair that would harm this brother of mine Charles.”Quod cum Lodhuvicus explesset, Karolus teudisca lingua sic hec eadem verba testatus est:When Louis had finished, Charles swore with the very same words in the German vernacular:“In godes minna ind in thes christiânes folches ind unsêr bêdhero gehaltnissî, fon thesemo dage frammordes, sô fram sô mir got gewizci indi mahd furgibit, sô haldih thesan mînan bruodher, sôso man mit rehtu sînan bruodher scal, in thiu thaz er mig sô sama duo, indi mit Ludheren in nohheiniu thing ne gegango, the mînan willon imo ce scadhen werdhên.”“For the love of God and Christendom and the salvation of us both, from this day on, as God will give me the wisdom and power, I shall protect this brother of mine, as one ought to protect one's brother, so that he may do the same for me, and I shall never go along with Lothair in anything that, by my will, would harm him [Louis].”Sacramentum autem quod utrorumque populus, quique propria lingua, testatus est, romana lingua sic se habet:The oath that each of the two peoples (i.e. the assembled armies) then swore in their respective languages is, in Romance, as follows:“Si Lodhwigs sagrament que son fradre Karlo jurat conservat et Karlus, meos sendra, de suo part n lostanit, si io returnar non l'int pois, ne io ne neuls cui eo returnar int pois, in nulla ajudha contra Lodhuwig nun li iu er.”“If Louis keeps the oath that he has sworn to his brother Charles, and Charles, my lord, on the other hand breaks it, and if I cannot dissuade him from it — neither I nor anyone that I can dissuade from it — then I shall not help him in any way against Louis.”Teudisca autem lingua:And in the German vernacular:“Oba Karl then eid, then er sînemo bruodher Ludhuwîge gesuor, geleistit, indi Ludhuwîg mîn hêrro then er imo gesuor forbrihchit, ob ih inan es irwenden ne mag: noh ih noh thero nohhein, then ih es irwenden mag, widhar Karlo imo ce follusti ne wirdhit.”“If Charles keeps the oath that he has sworn to his brother Louis, and Louis, my lord, on the other hand breaks the oath he has sworn, and if I cannot dissuade him from it — neither I nor anyone that I can dissuade from it — then I shall not follow him against Charles.”Quibus peractis Lodhuwicus Reno tenus per Spiram et Karolus iuxta Vuasagum per Vuîzzûnburg Vuarmatiam iter direxit.With this completed, Louis left for Worms along the Rhine via Spire; and Charles, along the Vosges via Wissembourg. The following is the Romance vernacular part in its original manuscript form and a raw transcription: Scan of the textUncorrected transcriptionShort extractPro dõ amur et p xpian poblo & nrõ cõmun saluament, dist di e/in auant, inquantdeus savir & podir me dunat: si salvaraieo cist meonfradre karlo, & inaiudha & in cad huna cosa, sicú om p dreit son fradra saluar dift. Ino quid il mi altre si fazet. Et ab ludher nul plaid nu qua prindrai qui meon uol cist meon fradre karle in damnosit See also Treaty of Verdun Notes	Oaths_of_Strasbourg \|@lemmatized text:11 oath:16 strasbourg:4 several:3 historical:2 document:2 include:1 mutual:1 pledge:7 allegiance:3 louis:15 german:8 ruler:3 east:1 francia:3 half:1 brother:13 charles:13 bald:1 west:1 speak:1 strategic:1 meeting:4 assembled:3 army:5 attendance:1 participate:1 ceremony:2 addition:1 promise:2 solidarity:1 oppose:1 eldest:1 lothair:5 middle:1 nominally:1 emperor:2 frankish:3 kingdom:4 well:2 holy:1 roman:1 also:3 know:4 modern:2 french:2 les:1 serments:1 de:6 die:2 straßburger:1 eide:1 latin:5 sacramenta:2 argentariae:1 nature:1 make:4 remarkable:1 additional:1 separate:3 script:1 monarch:2 respective:4 vernacular:5 effect:1 soldier:2 lord:3 king:4 unilaterally:1 break:4 help:3 master:1 abused:1 accord:1 chief:1 source:1 nithard:2 dissensionibus:1 filiorum:1 ludovici:1 pii:1 dissension:1 son:5 pious:2 preamble:2 speech:3 detailed:1 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6,459	Corporate_title	Publicly and privately held for-profit corporations confer corporate titles or business titles on company officials as a means of identifying their function in the organization. In addition, many non-profit organizations, educational institutions, partnerships, and sole proprietorships also confer corporate titles. The following is a list of common titles for corporate executives. Variations Note that there are considerable variations in the responsibilities of the titles. Some companies have a Chairman and CEO, while the number two is the President and COO; other companies have a President and CEO but no official deputy. Corporate titles are sometimes given more for prestige than out of any differentiation in job function. For example, at CIBC and BMO Financial Group, the position of Chief Operating Officer (COO) was created solely to facilitate the transition, as a means of grooming the future CEO before the current CEO retired. The division head (perhaps Executive Vice President or CEO of a division) is promoted to COO and takes over day-to-day and strategic planning, while the outgoing CEO is relegated to advisory duties. Once the new CEO formally takes power, the COO position is not replaced. Executive Vice President is most frequently used to refer to a division head, however this position can also be known as Vice Chairman, or even President and CEO of the division, depending upon corporation structure, especially in the latter case when it is operated as a wholly-owned subsidiary instead of an internal division. Corporate Titles Executive or Non-Executive Chairperson, Chairman or Chairman of the Board – presiding officer of the corporate Board of Directors. The Chairman influences the board of directors, which in turn elects and removes the officers of a corporation and oversees the human, financial, environmental and technical operations of a corporation. The CEO also takes on the role of Executive Chairman. Recently, though, many companies have separated the roles of Chairman and CEO, resulting in a non-executive chairman, in order to improve corporate governance. Chief accounting officer Chief administrative officer Chief Analytics Officer or CAO – high level corporate manager with overall responsibility for the analysis and interpretation of data relevant to a company's activities; generally reports to the CEO, or COO. Chief Business Officer Chief Business Development Officer or CBDO. Chief Communications Officer or CCO. Chief Compliance Officer - in charge of regulatory compliance, especially Sarbanes-Oxley. Chief Creative Officer Chief Credit Officer or CCO. Chief Data Officer or CDO Chief Executive Officer or CEO (United States), Chief Executive or Managing director (United Kingdom, Commonwealth and some other English speaking countries) – The CEO of a corporation is the highest ranking management officer of a corporation and has final decisions over human, financial, environmental, technical operations of the corporation. The CEO is also a visionary, often leaving day-to-day operations to the President, COO or division heads. Other corporate officers such as the COO, CFO, CIO, and division heads report to the CEO. The CEO is also often the Chairman of the Board, especially in closely held corporations and also often in public corporations. Recently, though, many public companies have separated the roles of Chairman and CEO, resulting in a non-executive chairman, in order to improve corporate governance. President and CEO is a popular combination if there is a non-executive chairman. Chief Financial Officer or CFO – high level corporate officer with oversight of corporate finances; reports to the CEO. May concurrently hold the title of Treasurer or oversee such a position; it must be noted that Finance deals with accounting and audits, while Treasurer deals with company funds. Chief Information Officer or CIO – high level corporate manager with overall responsibility for the company's information resources and processing environment; generally reports to the CEO or COO. Chief Information Security Officer or CISO. Chief Intellectual Property Officer or CIPO - responsible for the management of the IP assets and potential IP-related liabilities of the enterprise. Chief Investment Officer or CIO – high level corporate officer responsible for the assets of an investment vehicle or investment management company and/or responsible for the asset-liability management (ALM) of typical large financial institutions such as insurers, banks and/or pension funds; generally reports to the CEO or CFO. Chief Knowledge Officer or CKO – high level corporate officer responsible for ensuring that the organization maximizes the value it achieves through "knowledge". Chief Legal Officer or CLO, the CLO is traditionally referred to as the General Counsel, of GC; Chief Learning Officer or CLO, the CLO is commonly responsible for all Learning/Training Operations. Chief Marketing Officer or CMO. Chief Medical Officer or CMO; especially in a pharmaceutical company, the person responsible for scientific and medical excellence of the company's research, development and products. Chief Networking Officer or CNO – responsible for the social capital within the company and between the company and its partners Chief Operating Officer or COO – high level corporate officer with responsibility for the daily operation of the company; reports to the CEO. The COO often also carries the title of President, especially if the number one is the Chairman and CEO. Chief Performance Officer Chief Privacy Officer Chief Process Officer or CPO. Chief Risk Officer (Chief Risk Management Officer) or CRO. Common in financial institutions. Chief Science Officer responsible for research, development and new technologies. Chief Security Officer or CSO. Chief Strategy Officer (Chief Strategic Planning Officer) or CSO (CSPO). Chief Technical Officer or CTO – (sometimes Chief Technology Officer) high level corporate officer responsible for the company's technical direction; in non-technology companies usually reports to the CIO but in technology companies, may report directly to the CEO. Chief visionary officer Chief International officer or CIO Responsible for development and implementation of overseas markets Director or Member of the Board of Directors - a high level official with a fiduciary responsibility of overseeing the operation of a corporation and elects or removes officers of a corporation; nominally, Directors, other than the Chairman are usually not considered to be employees of the company per se, although they may receive compensation, often including benefits; in publicly held companies. A Board of Directors is normally made up of members (Directors) who are a mixture of corporate officials who are also management employees of the company (inside directors) and persons who are not employed by the company in any capacity (outside directors or non-executive directors). In privately held companies, the Board of Directors often only consists of the statuatory corporate officials, and in sole proprietorships and partnerships, the board is entirely optional, and if it does exist, only operates in an advisory capacity to the owner or partners. Non-profit corporations are governed by a Board of Trustees instead of a Board of Directors Director - manager of managers within an organization who is often responsible for a major business function and often reports to a Vice President. Often used with name of a functional area; Finance Director, Director of Finance, Marketing Director, etc. Not to be confused with a Member of the Board of Directors who is also referred to as a Director. Alternatively, a manager of managers is often referred to as a senior manager or associate vice president, depending upon levels of management. President - legally recognized highest "titled" corporate officer outside of the CEO (who ranks highest). The President works directly for the Board of Directors and usually a member of the Board of Directors. The office of President can be limited by the Chairman/CEO to represent only one division within a corporation, such as the President of Sales. In the event there is no CEO, the President is the highest ranking officer but is not normally the Chairperson. There is much variation; often the CEO also holds the title of President, while a Chairman and CEO's deputy is often the President and COO. The President is often considered to be more focused upon daily operations compared to the CEO which is supposed to be the visionary. Secretary or Company secretary - legally recognized "titled" corporate officer who reports to the Board of Directors and is responsible for keeping the records of the Board and the company. This title is often concurrently held by the treasurer in a dual position called secretary-treasurer; both positions may be concurrently held by the CFO. Note, however, that the Secretary has a reporting line to the Board of Directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles. Secretary-Treasurer - in many cases, the offices of Secretary and Treasurer are held by the same person. In this case, the position is commonly referred to by the combined title Secretary-Treasurer Treasurer - legally recognized corporate officer entrusted with the fiduciary responsibility of caring for company funds. Often this title is held concurrently with that of Secretary in a dual role called secretary-treasurer. It can also be held concurrently with the title of CFO or fall under the jurisdiction of one, though the CFO tends to oversee the Finance Department instead, which deals with accounting and audits, while the Treasurer deals directly with company funds. Note, however, that the Treasurer has a reporting line to the Board of Directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles. Statutory agent Superintendent Supervisor Foreman General manager or GM Manager Owner (sometimes Proprietor or Sole Proprietor, for sole proprietorships) Partner Vice Chair or Vice Chairman - officer of the Board of Directors who stands in for the Chairman in his/her absence. An unrelated definition of Vice Chair describes an executive who is higher ranking or has more seniority than Executive Vice President. Sometimes, EVPs report to the Vice Chair who in turn reports directly to the CEO (so Vice Chairs in effect constitute an additional layer of management), other Vice Chairs have more responsibilities but are otherwise on an equal tier with EVPs. Executive vice chairman may not necessarily be on the board of directors. Vice President - Middle or upper manager in a corporation. Depending on the corporate structure Vice Presidents report to the President, who will in turn report to the Chief Officer of their respective division, who will then report to the CEO. They often appear in various hierarchical layers such as Executive Vice President, Senior Vice President, Associate Vice President, or Assistant Vice President, with EVP usually considered the highest. Many times, corporate officers such as the CFO, COO, CIO, CTO, Secretary, or Treasurer will concurrently hold Vice President titles, commonly EVP or SVP. Vice Presidents in small companies are also referred to as chiefs of a certain division, such as VP of Finance, or VP of Administration. These titles are the same as CFO and such titles. It is not necessary to have a Vice President in most corporations. Other corporate employee classifications include: Exempt - Meaning that they're exempt from the FLSA. In a corporation, this generally applies to salaried professional staff, and executives, earning in excess of $23,660 annually. Non-exempt - Generally an employee paid by the hour who is entitled to a minimum wage, overtime pay at the rate of time and one-half the regular rate for all hours worked in excess of 40 hours per week, as well as other protections under child labor and equal pay laws. Most modern corporations also have non-employee workers. These are usually 'temps' (temporary workers) or consultants who, depending on the project and their experience, might be brought on to lead a task for which the skill-set did not exist within the company, or in the case of a temp, in the vernacular sense, to perform busy-work or an otherwise low-skilled repetitive task for which an employee is deemed too valuable to perform. Non-employees generally are employed by outside agencies or firms, but perform their duties within a corporation or similar entity. They do not have the same benefits as employees of that company, such as pay-grades, health insurance, or sick days. Some high-skilled consultants, however, may garner some benefits such as a bonus, sick leave, or food and travel expenses, since they usually charge a high flat-fee for their services, or otherwise garner high hourly wages. An example of high-skilled consultants include lawyers and accountants who may not be employed by a corporation, but have their own firms or practices. Most temps, however, are compensated strictly for the hours they work, and are generally non-exempt. See also Corporate governance Corporate liability Identification with corporation	Corporate_title \|@lemmatized publicly:2 privately:2 hold:12 profit:3 corporation:20 confer:4 corporate:27 title:21 business:4 company:29 official:5 mean:2 identify:1 function:3 organization:4 addition:1 many:5 non:12 educational:1 institution:3 partnership:2 sole:4 proprietorship:3 also:14 following:1 list:1 common:2 executive:17 variation:3 note:4 considerable:1 responsibility:7 chairman:19 ceo:32 number:2 two:1 president:29 coo:12 deputy:2 sometimes:4 give:1 prestige:1 differentiation:1 job:1 example:2 cibc:1 bmo:1 financial:6 group:1 position:7 chief:40 operate:4 officer:54 create:1 solely:1 facilitate:1 transition:1 groom:1 future:1 current:1 retire:1 division:10 head:4 perhaps:1 vice:22 promote:1 take:3 day:5 strategic:2 planning:1 outgo:1 relegate:1 advisory:2 duty:2 new:2 formally:1 power:1 replace:1 frequently:1 use:2 refer:6 however:5 know:1 even:1 depend:4 upon:3 structure:2 especially:5 latter:1 case:4 wholly:1 subsidiary:1 instead:3 internal:1 chairperson:2 board:19 preside:1 director:26 influence:1 turn:3 elect:2 remove:2 oversee:4 human:2 environmental:2 technical:4 operation:7 role:4 recently:2 though:3 separate:2 result:2 order:2 improve:2 governance:3 account:1 administrative:1 analytics:1 cao:1 high:18 level:9 manager:10 overall:2 analysis:1 interpretation:1 data:2 relevant:1 activity:1 generally:7 report:15 development:4 cbdo:1 communication:1 cco:2 compliance:2 charge:2 regulatory:1 sarbanes:1 oxley:1 creative:1 credit:1 cdo:1 united:2 state:1 manage:1 kingdom:1 commonwealth:1 english:1 speaking:1 country:1 ranking:3 management:8 final:1 decision:1 visionary:3 often:16 leave:2 cfo:8 cio:6 closely:1 public:2 popular:1 combination:1 oversight:1 finance:6 may:7 concurrently:6 treasurer:12 must:1 deal:4 accounting:2 audit:2 fund:4 information:3 resource:1 process:2 environment:1 security:2 ciso:1 intellectual:1 property:1 cipo:1 responsible:12 ip:2 asset:3 potential:1 related:1 liability:3 enterprise:1 investment:3 vehicle:1 alm:1 typical:1 large:1 insurer:1 bank:1 pension:1 knowledge:2 cko:1 ensure:1 maximize:1 value:1 achieve:1 legal:1 clo:4 traditionally:1 general:2 counsel:1 gc:1 learn:1 commonly:3 learning:1 training:1 market:2 cmo:2 medical:2 pharmaceutical:1 person:3 scientific:1 excellence:1 research:2 product:1 networking:1 cno:1 social:1 capital:1 within:5 partner:3 daily:2 carry:1 one:4 performance:1 privacy:1 cpo:1 risk:2 cro:1 science:1 technology:4 cso:2 strategy:1 plan:1 cspo:1 cto:2 direction:1 usually:6 directly:4 international:1 implementation:1 overseas:1 member:4 fiduciary:2 nominally:1 consider:3 employee:8 per:2 se:1 although:1 receive:1 compensation:1 include:3 benefit:3 normally:2 make:1 mixture:1 inside:1 employ:3 capacity:2 outside:3 consist:1 statuatory:1 entirely:1 optional:1 exist:2 owner:2 govern:1 trustee:1 major:1 name:1 functional:1 area:1 marketing:1 etc:1 confuse:1 alternatively:1 senior:2 associate:2 legally:3 recognize:3 rank:1 work:4 office:2 limit:1 represent:1 sale:1 event:1 much:1 focused:1 compare:1 suppose:1 secretary:10 keep:1 record:1 dual:2 call:2 reporting:4 line:4 regardless:2 concurrent:2 combined:1 entrust:1 care:1 fall:1 jurisdiction:1 tend:1 department:1 statutory:1 agent:1 superintendent:1 supervisor:1 foreman:1 gm:1 proprietor:2 chair:5 stand:1 absence:1 unrelated:1 definition:1 describe:1 seniority:1 evps:2 effect:1 constitute:1 additional:1 layer:2 otherwise:3 equal:2 tier:1 necessarily:1 middle:1 upper:1 respective:1 appear:1 various:1 hierarchical:1 assistant:1 evp:2 time:2 svp:1 small:1 certain:1 vp:2 administration:1 necessary:1 classification:1 exempt:4 meaning:1 flsa:1 apply:1 salaried:1 professional:1 staff:1 earn:1 excess:2 annually:1 pay:4 hour:4 entitle:1 minimum:1 wage:2 overtime:1 rate:2 half:1 regular:1 week:1 well:1 protection:1 child:1 labor:1 law:1 modern:1 worker:2 temp:3 temporary:1 consultant:3 project:1 experience:1 might:1 bring:1 lead:1 task:2 skill:1 set:1 vernacular:1 sense:1 perform:3 busy:1 low:1 skilled:3 repetitive:1 deem:1 valuable:1 agency:1 firm:2 similar:1 entity:1 grade:1 health:1 insurance:1 sick:2 garner:2 bonus:1 food:1 travel:1 expense:1 since:1 flat:1 fee:1 service:1 hourly:1 lawyer:1 accountant:1 practice:1 compensate:1 strictly:1 see:1 identification:1 \|@bigram sole_proprietorship:3 chairman_ceo:6 vice_president:14 wholly_subsidiary:1 corporate_governance:3 regulatory_compliance:1 sarbanes_oxley:1 asset_liability:1 pension_fund:1 per_se:1 board_trustee:1 minimum_wage:1 lawyer_accountant:1
6,460	Christmas_Island	The Territory of Christmas Island is a territory of Australia in the Indian Ocean. It is located northwest of the Western Australian city of Perth, south of the Indonesian capital, Jakarta, and ENE of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands. It has a population of approximately 1,600 residents who live in a number of "settlement areas" on the northern tip of the island: Flying Fish Cove (also known as Kampong), Silver City, Poon Saan, and Drumsite. The island’s geographic isolation and history of minimal human disturbance has led to a high level of endemism amongst its flora and fauna, which is of significant interest to scientists and naturalists. Phosphate, deposited as Guano, has been mined on the island for many years. 63% of its is National Park and there are large areas of primary rainforest. History British and Dutch navigators first included the island on their charts in the early seventeenth century, and Captain William Mynors of the British East India Company vessel, the Royal Mary, named the island when he arrived on Christmas Day, 25 December 1643. The island first appears on a map produced by Pieter Goos and published in 1666. Goos had labelled the island Mony. The earliest recorded visit was in March 1688 by William Dampier of the British ship Cygnet, who found it uninhabited. An account of the visit can be found in Dampier's Voyages, which describes how, when trying to reach Cocos from New Holland, his ship was pulled off course in an easterly direction and after 28 days arrived at Christmas Island. Dampier landed at the Dales (on the West Coast) and two of his crewmen were the first recorded people to set foot on Christmas Island. The next visit was by Daniel Beekman, who described it in his 1718 book, A Voyage to and from the Island of Borneo, in the East Indies. Exploration and annexation The first attempt at exploring the island was in 1857 by the crew of the Amethyst. They tried to reach the summit of the island, but found the cliffs impassable. During the 1872-76 Challenger expedition to Indonesia, naturalist Dr John Murray carried out extensive surveys. In 1887, Captain Maclear of HMS Flying Fish, having discovered an anchorage in a bay that he named Flying Fish Cove, landed a party and made a small but interesting collection of the flora and fauna. In the next year, Pelham Aldrich, on board HMS Egeria, visited it for ten days, accompanied by J. J. Lister, who gathered a larger biological and mineralogical collection. Among the rocks then obtained and submitted to Sir John Murray for examination were many of nearly pure phosphate of lime, a discovery which led to annexation of the island by the British Crown on 6 June 1888. Settlement and exploitation Soon afterwards, a small settlement was established in Flying Fish Cove by G. Clunies Ross, the owner of the Keeling Islands (some 900 kilometres to the south west) to collect timber and supplies for the growing industry on Cocos. Phosphate mining began in the 1890s using indentured workers from Singapore, China, and Malaysia. The island was administered jointly by the British Phosphate Commissioners and District Officers from the United Kingdom Colonial Office through the Straits Settlements, and later the Crown Colony of Singapore. Japanese invasion From the outbreak of war in South East Asia in December 1941, Christmas Island was a target for Japanese occupation because of its rich phosphate deposits. A naval gun was installed under a British officer and four NCOs supported by Indian soldiers. The first attack was by a Japanese submarine that torpedoed a Norwegian vessel, the Eidsvold, loading phosphate in Flying Fish Cove. This was on 21 January 1942. The vessel drifted and eventually sank off West White Beach. 50 European and Asian staff and their families were evacuated to Perth. In late February and early March 1942, two aerial bombing raids and shelling from the sea led the District Officer to hoist the white flag. After the Japanese naval group sailed away the British officer raised the Union Jack once more. During the night of 10-11 March a mutiny of the Indian troops, abetted by the Sikh policemen, led to the murder of the five British soldiers and the imprisonment of the remaining 21 Europeans. On 31 March a Japanese fleet of 9 vessels arrived and the Island was surrendered. A naval brigade, phosphate engineers, and 700 marines came ashore and rounded up the workforce, most of whom had fled to the jungle. Sabotaged equipment was repaired and preparations were made to resume the mining and export of phosphate. Isolated acts of sabotage and the torpedoing of the Nissei Maru at the wharf on 17 November 1942 meant that only small amounts of phosphate were exported to Japan during the occupation. In November 1943, over 60% of the Island's population was evacuated to Surabayan prison camps, leaving of total population of just under 500 Chinese and Malays and 15 Japanese to survive as best they could. In October 1945 HMS Rother reoccupied Christmas Island. Sources: Public Record Office, England War Office and Colonial Office Correspondence/Straits Settlements J. Pettigrew: 'Christmas Island in World War II ' Australian Territories January 1962 Interviews conduced by J G Hunt with Island residents, 1973-77 Correspondence J G Hunt with former Island residents, 1973-79 Transfer to Australia At Australia's request, the United Kingdom transferred sovereignty to Australia; in 1957, the Australian government paid the government of Singapore £2.9 million in compensation, a figure based mainly on an estimated value of the phosphate forgone by Singapore. The first Australian Official Representative arrived in 1958 and was replaced by an Administrator in 1968. Christmas Island and the Cocos (Keeling) Islands together are called the Australian Indian Ocean Territories and since 1997 share a single Administrator resident on Christmas Island. Refugee and immigration detention From the late 1980s and early 1990s, boats carrying asylum seekers and mainly departing from Indonesia landed on the island. During 2001, a large number of mostly Middle Eastern persons landed with the intent to apply for asylum in Australia. In 2001, Christmas Island was the site of the so-called "Tampa" controversy, in which the Australian government stopped a Norwegian ship, MV Tampa, from disembarking 438 rescued asylum seekers at Christmas Island. The ensuing standoff and the associated political reactions in Australia were a major issue in the 2001 Australian federal election. Another boatload of asylum seekers was taken from Christmas Island to Papua New Guinea for processing, after it was claimed that many of the adult asylum seekers threw their children into the water, apparently in protest at being turned away. This was later proven to be false. Many of the refugees were subsequently accepted by New Zealand. The former Howard Government later secured the passage of legislation through the Australian Parliament which excised Christmas Island from Australia's migration zone, meaning that asylum seekers arriving on Christmas Island could not automatically apply to the Australian government for refugee status. This allowed the Royal Australian Navy to relocate them to other countries (Papua New Guinea's Manus Island, and Nauru) as part of the so-called Pacific Solution. In 2007 the Department of Immigration finished construction of an "Immigration Detention Centre", containing approximately 800 beds. Originally estimated to cost $210 million, the final cost was over $400 million. In 2007, the Rudd Government announced plans to decommission the Manus Island and Nauru centres; processing would then occur on Christmas Island itself. People As of 2006, the estimated population is 1,493. (The Australian Bureau of Statistics reports a population of 1,508 as of the 2001 Census.) The ethnic composition is 70% Chinese (mainly Cantonese), 20% European and 10% Malay. Religions practised on Christmas Island include Buddhism 75%, Christianity 12%, Islam 10% and others 3%. English is the official language, but Cantonese and Malay are also spoken. Both English and Cantonese are lingua franca. Postage stamps A postal agency was opened on the island in 1901 and sold stamps of the Strait Settlements. Richard Breckon, "Christmas Island's Stamps and Postal History: 50 Years of Australian Administration", Gibbons Stamp Monthly, October 2008, pp. 81–85. After the Japanese Occupation (1942–1945), postage stamps of the British Military Administration in Malaya were in use, then stamps of Singapore. Commonwealth Stamp Catalogue Australia, Stanley Gibbons, 4th edition, 2007, pp. 104–112. In 1958, the island received its own postage stamps after being put under Australian custody. It had a large philatelic and postal independence, managed first by the Phosphate Commission (1958–1969) and then by the Island's Administration (1969–1993). This ended on 2 March 1993 when Australia Post became the island's postal operator: stamps of Christmas Island can be used in Australia and Australian stamps in the island. Government Christmas Island is a non-self governing territory of Australia, administered by the Attorney-General's Department (before November 29, 2007 administration was carried out by the Department of Transport and Regional Services). The legal system is under the authority of the Governor-General of Australia and Australian law. An Administrator (Neil Lucas, since 28 January 2006) appointed by the Governor-General represents the monarch and Australia. The Australian Government provides Commonwealth-level government services through the Christmas Island Administration and the Department of Infrastructure. There is no state government; instead, state government type services are provided by contractors, including departments of the Western Australian Government, with the costs met by the Australian (Commonwealth) Government. A unicameral Shire of Christmas Island with 9 seats provides local government services and is elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. Elections are held every two years, with half the members standing for election. Christmas Island residents who are Australian citizens also vote in Commonwealth (federal) elections. Christmas Island residents are represented in the House of Representatives through the Northern Territory Division of Lingiari and in the Senate by Northern Territory Senators. In early 1986, the Christmas Island Assembly held a design competition for an island flag; the winning design was adopted as the informal flag of the territory for over a decade, and in 2002 it was made the official flag of Christmas Island. Economy Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the Australian Government closed the mine. In 1991, the mine was reopened by a consortium which included many of the former mine workers as shareholders. With the support of the government, a $34 million casino opened in 1993, but was closed in 1998 and has not re-opened. The Australian Government in 2001 agreed to support the creation of a commercial spaceport on the island, however this has not yet been constructed, and appears that it will not proceed in the future. The Howard Government built a temporary immigration detention centre on the island in 2001 and planned to replace it with a larger, modern facility located at North West Point until Howard's defeat in the 2007 elections. Geography Located at , the island is a quadrilateral with hollowed sides, about in greatest length and in extreme breadth. The total land area is , with of coastline. The island is the flat summit of a submarine mountain more than , the depth of the platform from which it rises being about and its height above the sea being upwards of . The mountain was originally a volcano, and some basalt is exposed in places such as The Dales and Dolly Beach, but most of the surface rock is limestone accumulated from the growth of coral over millions of years. Physical Characteristics, Christmas Island National Park, Parks Australia. Accessed 2007-05-13. The climate is tropical, with heat and humidity moderated by trade winds. Steep cliffs along much of the coast rise abruptly to a central plateau. Elevation ranges from sea level to at Murray Hill. The island is mainly tropical rainforest, of which 63% is National Park. The narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard. Christmas Island is south of Indonesia and about northwest of Perth. Flora and fauna Christmas Island is of immense scientific value as it was uninhabited until the late nineteenth century, so many unique species of fauna and flora exist which have evolved independently of human interference. Two species of native rats, the Maclear's and Bulldog Rat have gone extinct since the island was settled, the species of shrew has not been seen since the mid 1980s and may be already extinct, and the Christmas Island Pipistrelle, a small bat is critically endangered. Two-thirds of the island has been declared a National Park which is managed by the Australian Department of Environment and Heritage through Parks Australia. The dense rainforest has evolved in the deep soils of the plateau and on the terraces. The forests are dominated by twenty-five tree species. Ferns, orchids and vines grow on the branches in the humid atmosphere beneath the canopy. The 135 plant species include sixteen which are found only on Christmas Island. The annual red crab mass migration (around 100 million animals) to the sea to spawn has been called one of the wonders of the natural world Geoscience Australia on Christmas Island and takes place each year around November; after the start of the wet season and in synchronisation with the cycle of the moon. The land crabs and sea birds are the most noticeable animals on the island. Twenty terrestrial and intertidal species of crab (of which thirteen are regarded as true land crabs, only dependent on the ocean for larval development) have been described. Robber crabs, known elsewhere as coconut crabs, also exist in large numbers on the island. Christmas Island is a focal point for sea birds of various species. Eight species or subspecies of sea birds nest on the island. The most numerous is the Red-footed Booby that nests in colonies, in trees, on many parts of the shore terrace. The widespread Brown Booby nests on the ground near the edge of the seacliff and inland cliffs. Abbott's Booby (listed as endangered) nests on tall emergent trees of the western, northern and southern plateau rainforest. The Christmas Island forest is the only nesting habitat of the Abbott's Booby left in the world. The endemic Christmas Island Frigatebird (listed as endangered) has nesting areas on the north-eastern shore terraces and the more widespread. Great Frigatebirds nest in semi-deciduous trees on the shore terrace with the greatest concentrations being in the North West and South Point areas. The Common Noddy and two species of bosuns or tropicbirds, with their brilliant gold or silver plumage and distinctive streamer tail feathers, also nest on the island. Of the ten native land birds and shorebirds, seven are endemic species or subspecies. Some 86 migrant bird species have been recorded. Communications and transportation Telephone services are provided by Telstra and are a part of the Australian network with the same prefix as Western Australia (08). A GSM mobile telephone system replaced the old analogue network in February 2005. Four free-to-air television stations from Australia are broadcast (ABC, SBS, GWN and WIN) in the same time-zone as Perth. Radio broadcasts from Australia include ABC Radio National, ABC Regional radio and Red FM. All services are provided by satellite links from the mainland. Broadband internet became available to subscribers in urban areas in mid 2005 through the local internet service provider, CIIA (formerly dotCX). Christmas Island, due to its close proximity to Australia's northern neighbours, falls within many of the more 'interesting' satellite footprints throughout the region. This results in ideal conditions for receiving various Asian broadcasts which locals sometimes prefer to the West Australian provided content. Additionally, ionospheric conditions usually bode well for many of the more terrestrial radio transmissions - HF right up through VHF and sometimes in to UHF. The island plays home to a small array of radio equipment that, evidently, spans a good chunk of the usable spectrum. A variety of government owned and operated antenna systems are employed on the island to take advantage of this. A container port exists at Flying Fish Cove with an alternative container unloading point to the south of the island at Norris Point for use during the December to March 'swell season" of seasonal rough seas. An 18 km standard gauge railway from Flying Fish Cove to the phosphate mine was constructed in 1914. It was closed in December 1987 when the Australian Government closed the mine but remains largely intact. There are three weekly flights into Christmas Island Airport from Perth, Western Australia (via RAAF Learmonth) and a weekly charter flight from Malaysia operated by Malaysia Airlines on Saturdays. There is a new recreation centre at Phosphate Hill operated by the Shire of Christmas Island. There is also a taxi service. The road network covers most of the island and is generally good quality, although four wheel drive vehicles are needed to access some more distant parts of the rain forest or the more isolated beaches, which are only accessible by rough dirt roads. Tourism There is a rise in tourism for Christmas Island as of late. Education Christmas Island District High School is located on the island. The island-operated crèche is located in the Recreation Centre. http://shire.gov.cx/Recreation%20Centre/crechemain.html The island includes one public library. http://shire.gov.cx/Community%20Svs/lib.html See also Easter Island References Further reading CIA World Factbook 2002 Charles. W. Andrews, A Description of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean). Geographical Journal, 13(1), 17–35 (1899). Charles W. Andrews, A Monograph of Christmas Island, London,1900. National Library of Australia, The Indian Ocean: a select bibliography. 1979 ISBN 0-642-99150-2 W. J. L. Wharton, Account of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography, 10 (10), 613–624 (1888). External links Christmas Island Shire – official government website Christmas Island Tourism Association – official tourism website Christmas Island Act 1958 Christmas Island Travel Guide from Unearth Travel a creative commons travel wiki	Christmas_Island \|@lemmatized territory:8 christmas:46 island:92 australia:22 indian:7 ocean:6 locate:5 northwest:2 western:5 australian:25 city:2 perth:5 south:6 indonesian:1 capital:1 jakarta:1 ene:1 coco:4 keel:2 population:5 approximately:2 resident:6 live:1 number:3 settlement:6 area:6 northern:5 tip:1 fly:7 fish:7 cove:6 also:7 know:2 kampong:1 silver:2 poon:1 saan:1 drumsite:1 geographic:1 isolation:1 history:3 minimal:1 human:2 disturbance:1 lead:4 high:2 level:3 endemism:1 amongst:1 flora:4 fauna:4 significant:2 interest:2 scientist:1 naturalist:2 phosphate:14 deposit:2 guano:1 mine:6 many:9 year:7 national:6 park:6 large:6 primary:1 rainforest:4 british:9 dutch:1 navigator:1 first:7 include:7 chart:1 early:5 seventeenth:1 century:2 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6,461	Military_of_Guatemala	An officer cadet from Guatemala's military academy, Escuela Politécnica. In the rear, a platoon of Military Police (Policía Militar Ambulante) from Guardia de Honor garrison. Kaibil unit patrolling in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Guatemala is a signatory to the Rio Pact and was a member of the Central American Defense Council (CONDECA). The President of the Republic is commander in chief. The Minister of Defense is responsible for policy. Day-to-day operations are the responsibility of the military chief of staff and the national defense staff. An agreement signed in September 1996, which is one of the substantive peace accords, mandated that the mission of the armed forces change to focus exclusively on external threats. http://www.usip.org/library/pa/guatemala/guat_960919.html However, both former president Álvaro Enrique Arzú Irigoyen and his successor president Alfonso Portillo have used a constitutional clause to order the army on a temporary basis to support the police in response to a nationwide wave of violent crime. The accord calls for a one-third reduction in the army's authorized strength and budget — already achieved — and for a constitutional amendment to permit the appointment of a civilian minister of defense. A constitutional amendment to this end was defeated as part of a May 1999 plebiscite, but discussions between the executive and legislative branches continue on how to achieve this objective. The army has met its accord-mandated target of 28,000 troops, including subordinate air force (1,000) and navy (1,000) elements. It is equipped with armaments and material from the United States, Israel, Taiwan, Argentina, Spain, and France. As part of the army downsizing, the operational structure of 19 military zones and three strategic brigades are being recast as several military zones are eliminated and their area of operations absorbed by others. The air force operates three air bases; the navy has two port bases. Equipment Individual equipment IMI Galil FN MAG Light tanks M-41A3 Walker Bulldog. 23.5 tons, 76 mm cannon, one 7.62 mm (coaxial) machine gun, one 12.7 mm (AA) heavy machine gun, armour of 31.75 mm maximum. 10 tanks in service. Armored Vehicles RBY Mk 1. Purshed to Israel in 1975. Light armoured reconnaissance vehicle. 10 to 25 vehicles in service. Armadillo. National production. 4x4 APC. Similar to LAV-150 Commando. 50 to 70 vehicles in service. M-113. Tracked APC. 1o Vehicles in service. Artillery M101 howitzer. 12. M116 75 mm howitzer. 12. Special Forces The Guatemalan army has a special forces unit (specializing in anti-insurgent jungle warfare) known as the Kaibiles. Military branches Army, Navy (includes Marines) and Air Force Military manpower Military age: 18 years of age Males aged 15 to 49: 3,186,894 (2002 est.) Males fit for military service aged 15 to 49: 2,080,504 (2002 est.) Males reaching military age annually: 140,358 (2002 est.) Military expenditures Total: USD $120 million (FY99) As a percent of GDP: 0.6% (FY99) References Official Website of Guatemala's Military Raul Sohr. Centroamérica en guerra. Alianza Editorial. México. 1988. Christopher F. Foss. Jane's tank and combat vehicles recognition guide. Harper Collins Publishers. UK. 2000.	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6,462	AOL_Instant_Messenger	AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) is an instant messaging and presence computer program which uses the proprietary OSCAR instant messaging protocol and the TOC protocol to allow registered users to communicate in real time. It was released by AOL in May 1997. Stand-alone official AIM client software includes advertisements and is available for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, Mac OS X, and Linux. The software, maintained by AOL, LLC, has a large share of the instant messaging market, especially in the United States (with 52% of the total reported as of 2006). IM Market Share - BigBlueBall Forums History In September 1995, the "Buddy List" precursor to AIM was launched internally to AOL employees. Despite being dubbed "the stalker feature" since many employees were uncomfortable having their co-workers know when they were online, it was released to AOL subscribers in March 1996. The standalone AIM became available to non-subscribers May 1997. The Wall Street Journal Since version 2.0, AIM has included person-to-person instant messaging, chatroom messaging, and the ability to share files Peer-to-peer with one's buddies. Version 4.3 introduced the storing of one's contact list on AOL's servers and allowed for a maximum of 200 buddies to be stored. In addition, somewhere in the 4.x versions, the AIM client for Microsoft Windows added the ability to play games against one another using the Wild Tangent engine. The first version released with WildTangent did not warn the user that it was going to be installed. Newer versions do, due to the fact that many spyware scanners flag the WildTangent software as spyware. Spyware or Slyware? AIM version 5.5 allowed Windows users to video conference with each other and with users of Apple, Inc.'s previously released iChat. Later updates led the version of AIM to version 5.9. Apple's iChat is now running on far more Macs than the older AIM 5.9. The successor to AIM version 5.9 was originally named AIM Triton. Compared with version 5.9, Triton's programming code was rewritten and featured a brand new UI engine called Boxely. The first beta version of Triton (0.1.12) supported only Windows XP AIM Triton Beta Test upon its release. For the first time in the development of a new version of AIM, these preliminary versions were made publicly available on the AIM home page for any user to test and provide feedback. On September 29, 2006, Triton was renamed to AIM 6.0 and a new beta version was made available. This version again changed the UI (albeit slightly). The final stable version of AIM 6.0 was released on December 15; new features included connection to AIM Pages, additional customization, and compatibility with address book programs and sites through a "Universal Address Book" powered by Plaxo. Additionally, the upgrade unified away messages and general user updates into RSS feeds and added the ability to send messages to offline users. Certain features that were missing from the previous version were also re-added, such as global font customization and a smaller cache usage, although the Get File function has yet to return. Also new in this release was the opening of AIM to developers, which allowed anyone to create plug-ins or custom AIM clients for Windows, Macintosh, or Linux. The next version, 6.1, added Buddy List docking, support for inserting images into Buddy Info, the ability to change the highlight colors of the UI, improvements to the displaying of Linked Screen Names, several bug fixes, and improved Windows Vista support. Version 6.5.11.1 supports status messages (similar to away messages), and has improved cell phone integration. AIM Download 6.5 - AIM Protocol The standard protocol that AIM clients use to communicate is called OSCAR. Most AOL-produced versions of AIM and popular third party AIM clients use this protocol. However, AOL also created a simpler protocol called TOC that lacks many of OSCAR's features but is sometimes used for clients that only require basic chat functionality. The TOC/TOC2 protocol specifications were made available by AOL, while OSCAR is a closed protocol that third parties have had to reverse-engineer. In January 2008, AOL introduced XMPP support for AIM, allowing AIM users to communicate using the standardized, open-source Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol. However, in March 2008 this service was discontinued. Terminology AIM and AOL use several terms for elements of their instant messaging, which are different from other messengers. These include: Away message: A function of some instant messaging applications whereby a user may post a message that appears automatically to other users if they attempt to make contact when the user is unavailable. It is analogous to the voice message on an answering machine or voice mail system. Block: An AIM user may block a specific screen name on their buddy list. The blocked user cannot contact or see the status of the blocker. Both users in this case will always see each other as offline until the blocker "unblocks" them. Buddy Info: Information about the user that may be edited by the user. The user's buddies are able to view the information as a pop-up. There is a character limit that cannot be exceeded. Buddy List: The centerpiece of AIM, a list containing the status of up to 1000 buddies stored on an AIM server so the user can access this list from any instance of AIM. The status of the buddies can be seen as 'online', 'away', 'idle', 'mobile', or 'offline'. Direct connection: AIM users can, instead of relaying messages through the AIM server, connect to each other's computers directly via this method and send various forms of media. Screen name: Term for user name with AOL origins. These are available for free with registration at the AIM website. Rate limiting, which prevents a user from sending too many messages in a short amount of time. Once a user is rate limited, they are unable to send messages for 20– 30 seconds, but may still receive messages during this time period. Warning: If a user feels a received instant message is inappropriate, the recipient can "warn" the sender, which increases the sender's warning level. Warning levels reduce the rate at which users can send messages and can eventually cause a given screen name to be unable to sign-on for a period of time. Since it was often abused, the feature is no longer supported in AIM Triton or AIM 6, although warnings have not been disabled serverside, meaning that older AIM clients, third-party clients, or user-written add-ons may still allow users to bypass the "soft" removal of warning capabilities. An AIM Closed List, Allow Only, Buddies Only, or Privacy refers to the option on the AOL Instant Messenger client to allow only users on a user's buddy list to contact them. This is to prevent harassment or spamming and is also a secure way to chat. Icon: A small, personalized picture that a user can set up to appear whenever they message another user. Also referred to as an avatar. Privacy Bots AOL and various other companies supply robots on AIM that can receive messages and send a response based on the bot's purpose. For example, bots can help with studying, like StudyBuddy. Some are made to relate to children and teenagers, like Spleak, others give advice, and others are for more general purposes, such as SmarterChild. Prior to the inclusions of such bots, the bots DoorManBot and AIMOffline provided features that are provided today by AOL for those who needed it. ZolaOnAOL and ZoeOnAOL were short lived bots that ultimately retired their features in favor of SmarterChild. URI scheme AOL Instant Messenger's installation process automatically installs an extra URI scheme ("protocol") handler into some web browsers, so URIs beginning "aim:" can open a new AIM window with specified parameters. This is similar in function to the mailto: URI scheme, which creates a new e-mail message using the system's default mail program. For instance, a web page might include a link like the following in its HTML source to open a window for sending a message to the AIM user notarealuser: Send Message To specify a message body, the message parameter is used, so the link location might look like this: aim:goim?screenname=notarealuser&message=This+is+my+message To specify an away message, the message parameter is used, so the link location might look like this: aim:goaway?message=Hello,+my+name+is+Bill When placing this inside a URL link, an AIM user could click on the URL link and the away message "Hello, my name is Bill" would instantly become their away message. To add a buddy, the addbuddy message is used, with the screenname parameter aim:addbuddy?screenname=notarealuser This type of link is commonly found on forum profiles, for easy adding of contacts Vulnerabilities AIM is known for security weaknesses that have enabled exploits to be created that use third-party software to perform malicious acts on users' computers. Although most are relatively harmless, such as being kicked off the AIM service, others perform potentially dangerous actions such as harvesting IP Addresses and the sending of viruses. Some of these exploits rely on social engineering to spread by automatically sending instant messages that contain a URL accompanied by text suggesting the receiving user click on it, an action which leads to infection. These messages can easily be mistaken as coming from a friend and contain a link to a web address that installs software on the user's computer to restart the cycle. Miscellaneous iPhone application On March 6, 2008, during Apple Inc.'s iPhone SDK event, AOL announced that they would be releasing an AIM application for iPhone and iPod Touch users. As of July 10, 2008, this application is available through the App Store in iTunes and the older version is free. Apple Releases iPhone SDK, Demos Spore, Instant Messaging - Mac Rumors AIM Express AIM Express runs in a pop-up browser window. It is intended for use by people who are unwilling or unable to install a standalone application or those at computers that lack the AIM application. AIM Express supports many of the standard features included in the stand-alone client, but does not provide advanced features like file transfer, audio chat, video conferencing, or buddy info. It is implemented in DHTML. It is an upgrade to the previous AOL Quick Buddy, which was later available for older systems that cannot handle Express before being discontinued. Express and Quick Buddy are similar to MSN Web Messenger and Yahoo! Web Messenger. AIM Pages AIM Pages was released in May 2006, allowing the 63 million AIM users to create an online, dynamic profile. The buddy list serves as the basis for the AIM Page social network. An AIM Page is built using modules following the ModuleT microformat. AIM for Mac AOL released an all-new AIM for the Macintosh on September 29, 2008 and the final build on December 15, 2008. The redesigned AIM for Mac is a full universal binary Cocoa API application that supports both Tiger and Leopard - Mac OS X 10.4.8 (and above) or Mac OS X 10.5.3 (and above). http://www.aim.com/get_aim/mac/latest_macosx.adp Merge with Bebo On February 25, 2009, AOL Instant Messenger merged with Bebo, another Instant Messager Community. A note appeared for all users stating "Changes are coming to your profile experience!" See also AIM Call Out Comparison of instant messaging clients Comparison of instant messaging protocols Comparison of IRC clients References External links Official AIM site AIM Express 7 AIM Express Original AIM Lite AIM Bots program AIM Developer AIM pages AIM for Mac Beta AIM Plugins	AOL_Instant_Messenger \|@lemmatized aol:20 instant:16 messenger:7 aim:72 messaging:9 presence:2 computer:5 program:4 use:14 proprietary:1 oscar:4 message:32 protocol:11 toc:3 allow:9 registered:1 user:38 communicate:3 real:1 time:5 release:11 may:8 stand:2 alone:2 official:2 client:12 software:5 include:6 advertisement:1 available:8 microsoft:2 window:8 mac:9 x:4 linux:2 maintain:1 llc:1 large:1 share:3 market:2 especially:1 united:1 state:2 total:1 report:1 im:1 bigblueball:1 forum:2 history:1 september:3 buddy:18 list:10 precursor:1 launch:1 internally:1 employee:2 despite:1 dub:1 stalker:1 feature:10 since:3 many:5 uncomfortable:1 co:1 worker:1 know:2 online:3 subscriber:2 march:3 standalone:2 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6,463	Namespace	In general, a namespace is an abstract container providing context for the items (names, or technical terms, or words) it holds and allowing disambiguation of items having the same name (residing in different namespaces). As a rule, names in a namespace cannot have more than one meaning, that is, two or more things cannot share the same name. A namespace is also called a context, as the valid meaning of a name can change depending on what namespace applies. Names in it can represent objects as well as concept, whether it is a natural or ethnic language, a constructed language, the technical terminology of a profession, a dialect, a sociolect, or an artificial language (e.g., a programming language). For many programming languages, a namespace is a context for identifiers. In an operating system, an example of namespace is a directory. It contains items which must have unique names. In the Java programming language, items that appear in namespaces have a short (local) name and unique long "qualified" names for use outside the name space. Also, some languages (such as C++) combine namespace and names in a process called name mangling in order to eradicate ambiguity. See also Binomial nomenclature (genus-species in biology) Chemical nomenclature Dewey Decimal Classification Digital object identifier Domain name system (DNS) names (Internet addresses) IP address Library of Congress Classification :Category:National identification numbers Star catalogues and astronomical naming conventions XML Namespaces 11-Digit Delivery point ZIP code	Namespace \|@lemmatized general:1 namespace:7 abstract:1 container:1 provide:1 context:3 item:4 name:13 technical:2 term:1 word:1 hold:1 allow:1 disambiguation:1 reside:1 different:1 namespaces:3 rule:1 names:1 cannot:2 one:1 meaning:2 two:1 thing:1 share:1 also:3 call:2 valid:1 change:1 depend:1 applies:1 represent:1 object:2 well:1 concept:1 whether:1 natural:1 ethnic:1 language:7 constructed:1 terminology:1 profession:1 dialect:1 sociolect:1 artificial:1 e:1 g:1 programming:3 many:1 identifier:2 operating:1 system:2 example:1 directory:1 contain:1 must:1 unique:2 java:1 appear:1 short:1 local:1 long:1 qualify:1 use:1 outside:1 space:1 c:1 combine:1 process:1 mangling:1 order:1 eradicate:1 ambiguity:1 see:1 binomial:1 nomenclature:2 genus:1 specie:1 biology:1 chemical:1 dewey:1 decimal:1 classification:2 digital:1 domain:1 dns:1 internet:1 address:2 ip:1 library:1 congress:1 category:1 national:1 identification:1 number:1 star:1 catalogue:1 astronomical:1 naming:1 convention:1 xml:1 digit:1 delivery:1 point:1 zip:1 code:1 \|@bigram dewey_decimal:1 ip_address:1 naming_convention:1 zip_code:1
6,464	Konrad_Zuse	Konrad Zuse (; June 22, 1910 Berlin - December 18, 1995 Hünfeld) was a German civil engineer and computer pioneer. His greatest achievement was the world's first functional program-controlled Turing-complete computer, the Z3, in 1941 (the program was stored on a punched tape). He received the Werner-von-Siemens-Ring in 1964 for the Z3. Konrad Zuse: Biography Zuse also designed the first high-level programming language, Plankalkül, first published in 1948, although this was a theoretical contribution, since the language was not implemented in his lifetime and did not directly influence early languages. One of the inventors of ALGOL (Rutishauser) wrote: "The very first attempt to devise an algorithmic language was undertaken in 1948 by K. Zuse. His notation was quite general, but the proposal never attained the consideration it deserved." In addition to his technical work, Zuse founded one of the earliest computer businesses in 1946. This company built the Z4, which became the second commercial computer leased to ETH Zürich in 1950. Due to World War II, however, Zuse's work went largely unnoticed in the UK and the USA; possibly his first documented influence on a US company was IBM's option on his patents in 1946. In the late 1960s, Zuse suggested the concept of a Calculating Space (a computation-based universe). There is a replica of the Z3, as well as the Z4, in the Deutsches Museum in Munich. The Deutsches Technikmuseum Berlin in Berlin has an exhibition devoted to Zuse, displaying twelve of his machines, including a replica of the Z1, some original documents, including the specifications of Plankalkül, and several of Zuse's paintings. Pre-WWII work and the Z1 Born in Berlin, Germany, his parents moved to Braunsberg, East Prussia in 1912, where his father worked as a postal clerk. Zuse attended the Collegium Hosianum in Braunsberg and after his family moved to Hoyerswerda, he passed his Abitur in 1928. Zuse graduated in civil engineering from the Technische Hochschule Berlin-Charlottenburg in 1935. In his engineering studies, Zuse had to perform many routine calculations by hand, which he found mind-numbingly boring. This led him to dream about performing calculations by machine. He started as a design engineer at the Henschel aircraft factory in Berlin-Schönefeld but resigned a year later to build a program driven/programmable machine. Working in his parents' apartment in 1936, his first attempt, called the Z1, was a binary electrically driven mechanical calculator with limited programmability, reading instructions from a punched tape. In 1937 Zuse submitted two patents that anticipated a von-Neumann architecture. He finshed the Z1 in 1938. The Z1 never worked well, though, due to the lack of sufficiently precise mechanical parts. The Z1 and its original blueprints were destroyed during World War II. Between 1987 and 1989, Zuse recreated the Z1, suffering a heart-attack midway through the project. It had 30,000 components, cost 800,000 DM, and required four individuals (including Zuse) to assemble it. Funding for this retrocomputing project was provided by Siemens and a consortium of five companies. The WWII years; the Z2, Z3, and Z4 Statue in Bad Hersfeld World War II made it impossible for Zuse and other German computer scientists to work with scientists in the UK and the USA, or even to stay in contact with them. In 1939, Zuse was called for military service but was able to convince the army to let him return to his computers. In 1940, he gained support from the Aerodynamische Versuchsanstalt (AVA, Aerodynamic Research Institute), which used his work for the production of glide bombs. Zuse built the Z2, a revised version of the Z1, from telephone relays. The same year, he started a company, Zuse Apparatebau (Zuse Apparatus Engineering), to manufacture his machines. Improving on the basic Z2 machine, he built the Z3 in 1941. It was a binary 22 bit floating point calculator featuring programmability with loops but without conditional jumps, with memory and a calculation unit based on telephone relays. The telephone relays used in his machines were largely collected from discarded stock. Despite the absence of conditional jumps, the Z3 was a Turing complete computer (ignoring the fact that no physical computer can be truly Turing complete because of limited storage size). However, Turing-completeness was never considered by Zuse (who had practical applications in mind) and only demonstrated in 1998 (see History of computing hardware). Zuse never received the support that computer pioneers in Allied countries, such as Alan Turing, got. The Z3 was financed only partly by the DVL (Deutsche Versuchsanstalt für Luftfahrt, the German Institute for Experimantal Aviation), which wanted their extensive calculations automated. A request by his co-worker Helmut Schreyer for government funding for an electronic successor to the Z3 was denied as "strategically unimportant". In 1937 Schreyer had advised Zuse to use vacuum tubes as switching elements, who at this time considered it a crazy idea ("Schnapsidee" in his own words). Zuse's company (with the Z3) was destroyed in 1945 by an Allied attack. Fortunately, the partially finished, relay-based Z4 had been moved to a safe place earlier. Zuse designed the first high-level programming language, Plankalkül, from 1941 to 1945, although he did not publish it in its entirety until 1972. No compiler or interpreter was available for Plankalkül until a team from the Free University of Berlin implemented it in 2000. Konrad Zuse married Gisela Brandes in January 1945 - employing a carriage, himself dressed in tailcoat and top hat and with Gisela in wedding veil, for Zuse attached importance to a noble ceremony. Their son Horst was born in November 1945. Zuse the entrepreneur Inside of a Z31 (which was first displayed in 1963). In 1946 Zuse founded one of the earliest computer companies: the Zuse-Ingenieurbüro Hopferau. Capital was raised through ETH Zürich and an IBM option on Zuse's patents. Zuse founded another company, Zuse KG, in 1949. The Z4 was finished and delivered to the ETH Zürich, Switzerland in September 1950. At that time, it was the only working computer in continental Europe, and the second computer in the world to be sold, only beaten by the BINAC. Other computers, all numbered with a leading Z, up to Z43 Z43 , were built by Zuse and his company. Notable are the Z11, which was sold to the optics industry and to universities, and the Z22, the first computer with a memory based on magnetic storage. Biography of Konrad Zuse, by Prof. Horst Zuse - epemag.com By 1967, the Zuse KG had built a total of 251 computers. Due to financial problems, it was then sold to Siemens. Calculating Space In 1967 Zuse also suggested that the universe itself is running on a grid of computers (digital physics); in 1969 he published the book Rechnender Raum (translated into English as Calculating Space). This idea has attracted a lot of attention, since there is no physical evidence against Zuse's thesis. Edward Fredkin (1980s), Juergen Schmidhuber (1990s), Stephen Wolfram (A New Kind of Science) and others have expanded on it. Zuse received several awards for his work. After he retired, he focused on his hobby, painting. Zuse died on December 18 1995 in Hünfeld, Germany, near Fulda. Awards Werner-von-Siemens-Ring in 1964 (together with Fritz Leonhardt and Walter Schottky) Harry H. Goode Memorial Award in 1965 (together with George Stibitz) Bundesverdienstkreuz in 1972 - Great Cross of Merit Computer History Museum Fellow Award in 1999 - weblink Quotations "The belief in a certain idea gives to the researcher the support for his work. Without this belief he would be lost in a sea of doubts and insufficiently verified proofs." "The rattling of the Z4 is the only interesting thing about the Zürich nightlife." See also List of pioneers in computer science Z1, Z2, Z3, Z4, Z5, Z11, Z22 Digital philosophy German inventors and discoverers References Zuse, Konrad (1993). The Computer – My Life. Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-56453-5. (translated from the original German edition (1984): Der Computer – Mein Lebenswerk. Springer. ISBN 3-540-56292-3.) Zuse, Konrad (1969). Rechnender Raum Braunschweig: Vieweg & Sohn. ISBN 3-528-09609-8 Rechnender Raum (PDF document), Elektronische Datenverarbeitung, 8: 336–344, 1967. Calculating Space English translation as PDF document Further reading Jürgen Alex, Hermann Flessner, Wilhelm Mons, Horst Zuse: Konrad Zuse: Der Vater des Computers. Parzeller, Fulda 2000, ISBN 3-7900-0317-4 Raul Rojas (Hrsg.): Die Rechenmaschinen von Konrad Zuse. Springer, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-540-63461-4. Jürgen Alex: Wege und Irrwege des Konrad Zuse. In: Spektrum der Wissenschaft (dt. Ausgabe von Scientific American) 1/1997, ISSN 0170-2971. Hadwig Dorsch: Der erste Computer. Konrad Zuses Z1 - Berlin 1936. Beginn und Entwicklung einer technischen Revolution. Mit Beiträgen von Konrad Zuse und Otto Lührs. Museum für Verkehr und Technik, Berlin 1989. Clemens Kieser: „Ich bin zu faul zum Rechnen“ - Konrad Zuses Computer Z22 im Zentrum für Kunst und Medientechnologie Karlsruhe. In: Denkmalpflege in Baden-Württemberg, 4/34/2005, Esslingen am Neckar, S. 180-184, ISSN 0342-0027. Arno Peters: Was ist und wie verwirklicht sich Computer-Sozialismus: Gespräche mit Konrad Zuse. Verlag Neues Leben, Berlin 2000, ISBN 3-355-01510-5. Paul Janositz: Informatik und Konrad Zuse: Der Pionier des Computerbaus in Europa – Das verkannte Genie aus Adlershof. In: Der Tagesspiegel Nr. 19127, Berlin, 9. März 2006, Beilage Seite B3. Jürgen Alex: Zum Einfluß elementarer Sätze der mathematischen Logik bei Alfred Tarski auf die drei Computerkonzepte des Konrad Zuse. TU Chemnitz 2006. Jürgen Alex: Zur Entstehung des Computers - von Alfred Tarski zu Konrad Zuse. VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf 2007, ISBN 978-3-18-150051-4, ISSN 0082-2361. External links The Life and Work of Konrad Zuse – By Prof. Horst Zuse (K. Zuse's son); an extensive and well-written historical account MacTutor biography Konrad Zuse Internet Archive Konrad Zuse and his computers, from Technische Universität Berlin Konrad Zuse Konrad Zuse, inventor of first working programmable computer Zuse's thesis of digital physics and the computable universe	Konrad_Zuse \|@lemmatized konrad:21 zuse:60 june:1 berlin:14 december:2 hünfeld:2 german:5 civil:2 engineer:2 computer:27 pioneer:3 great:2 achievement:1 world:5 first:10 functional:1 program:3 control:1 turing:5 complete:3 store:1 punched:2 tape:2 receive:3 werner:2 von:7 siemens:4 ring:2 biography:3 also:3 design:3 high:2 level:2 programming:2 language:5 plankalkül:4 publish:3 although:2 theoretical:1 contribution:1 since:2 implement:2 lifetime:1 directly:1 influence:2 early:3 one:3 inventor:3 algol:1 rutishauser:1 write:2 attempt:2 devise:1 algorithmic:1 undertake:1 k:2 notation:1 quite:1 general:1 proposal:1 never:4 attain:1 consideration:1 deserve:1 addition:1 technical:1 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6,465	Original_Chip_Set	The Original Chip Set (OCS) was a chipset used in the earliest Commodore Amiga computers and defined the Amiga's graphics and sound capabilities. It was succeeded by the slightly improved Enhanced Chip Set (ECS) and greatly improved Advanced Graphics Architecture (AGA). The original chipset appeared in Amiga models created between 1985 and 1990: the Amiga 1000, Amiga 2000 and Amiga 500. Overview of chips The chipset which gave the Amiga its unique graphics features consists of three main "custom" chips; Agnus, Denise, and Paula. Both the original chipset and the enhanced chipset were manufactured using NMOS logic technology by Commodore's chip manufacturing subsidiary, MOS Technology. All three custom chips were originally packaged in 48-pin DIPs; later versions of Agnus, known as Fat Agnus, were packaged in an 84-pin PLCC. Agnus is the central chip in the design. It controls all access to chip RAM from both the central 68000 processor and the other custom chips, using a complicated priority system. Agnus includes sub-components known as the blitter and the copper. The original Agnus and subsequent Fat Agnus can address 512 KB of chip RAM. Later revisions of Fat Agnus, known as Fatter Agnus can address 1 MB of chip RAM. Denise is the main video processor. Without using overscan, the Amiga's graphics display is 320 or 640 pixels wide by 200 (NTSC) or 256 (PAL) pixels tall. Denise also supports interlacing, which doubles the vertical resolution. Planar bitmap graphics are used, which splits the individual bits per pixel into separate areas of memory, called bitplanes. In normal operation, Denise allows between 1 and 5 bitplanes, giving 2 to 32 unique colours. These colours are selected from palette of 4096 colours. A 6th bitplane is available for two special video modes: Halfbrite mode and Hold And Modify mode. Denise also supports eight sprites, sub-pixel scrolling, and a "dual playfield" mode. Denise also handles mouse and digital joystick input. Paula is primarily the audio chip, with 4 independent hardware-mixed 8-bit PCM sound channels, each of which supports 65 volume levels and any sample rate from roughly 20 Hz to 29 kHz. Paula also handles interrupts and various I/O functions including the floppy disk drive, the serial port, and analog joysticks. There are many similarities - both in overall functionality and in the division of functionality into the three component chips - between the OCS chipset and the much earlier and simpler chipset of the Atari 8-bit family of home computers, consisting of the ANTIC, TIA and POKEY chips; both chipsets were conceptually designed by Jay Miner, which explains the similarity. Agnus The Agnus chip is in overall control of the entire chipset's operation. All operations are synchronised with the output of the video beam. This includes access to the built-in RAM, known as chip RAM because the chipset has access to it. Both the central 68000 processor and other members of the chipset have to arbitrate for access to RAM via Agnus. In computing architecture terms, this is Direct Memory Access (DMA), where Agnus is the DMA Controller (DMAC). Agnus has a complex priority-based memory access policy. For example, bitplane data fetches are more important than blitter transfers. As the original 68000 processor in Amigas could only access memory on every second clock cycle, Agnus operated a system where the time-critical custom chips access got the "odd" clock cycle and the CPU got the "even" cycle, thus the CPU did not get locked out of memory access and did not appear to slow down. However, non-time-critical custom chip access, such as blitter transfers, can use up any spare odd or even cycles and, if the "BLITHOG" (blitter hog) flag is set, Agnus can lock out the even cycles from the CPU in deference to the blitter. Agnus's timings are measured in "colour clocks" of 280 ns. This is equivalent to two low resolution (140 ns) pixels or four high resolution (70 ns) pixels. Like Denise, these timings were designed for display on household TVs, and can be synchronised to an external clock source. Blitter The blitter is a sub-component of Agnus. "Blit" is shorthand for "block image transfer" or bit blit. The blitter is a highly parallel memory transfer and logic operation unit. It has three modes of operation: copying blocks of memory, filling blocks (e.g. polygon filling) and line drawing. The blitter allows the rapid copying of video memory, meaning that the CPU can be freed for other tasks. The blitter was primarily used for drawing and redrawing graphics images on the screen, called "bobs", short for "blitter objects". The blitter's block copying mode takes zero to three data sources in memory, called A, B and C, performs a programmable boolean function on the data sources and writes the result to a destination area, D. Any of these four areas can overlap. The blitter runs either from the start of the block to the end, known as "ascending" mode, or in reverse, "descending" mode. Blocks are "rectangular"; they have a "width" in multiples of 16 bits, a height measured in "lines", and a "stride" distance to move from the end of one line to the next. This allows the blitter to operate on any conceivable video resolution. The copy automatically performs a per-pixel logical operation. These operations are described generically using minterms. This is most commonly used to do direct copies (D = A), or apply a pixel mask around blitted objects (D = (C AND B) + A). The copy can also barrel shift each line by 0 to 15 pixels. This allows the blitter to draw at pixel offsets that are not exactly multiples of 16. These functions allow the Amiga to move GUI windows around the screen rapidly as each is represented in graphical memory space as a rectangular bock of memory which may be shifted to any required screen memory location at will. The blitter's line mode draws single-pixel thick lines using the Bresenham's line algorithm. It can also apply a 16-bit repeating pattern to the line. The blitter's filling mode is used to fill per-line horizontal spans. On each span, it reads each pixel in turn from right to left. Whenever it reads a set pixel, it toggles filling mode on or off. When filling mode is on, it sets every pixel until filling mode is turned off or the line ends. Together, these modes allow the blitter to draw individual flat-shaded polygons, albeit very slowly in comparison to modern 3D graphics chipsets or the CPU of a moderately fast Amiga. Copper The copper is another sub-component of Agnus; The name is short for "co-processor". The copper is a programmable finite state machine that executes a programmed instruction stream, synchronized with the video hardware. When it is turned on, the copper has three states; either reading an instruction, executing it, or waiting for a specific video beam position. The copper runs a program called the copper list in parallel with the main CPU. The copper runs in sync with the video beam, and it can be used to perform various operations which require video synchronization. Most commonly it is used to control video output, but it can write to most of the chipset registers and thus can be used to set audio registers or interrupt the CPU. The copper list has three kinds of instructions, each one being a pair of two bytes, four bytes in total: The MOVE instruction writes a 16-bit value into one of the chipset's hardware registers. The WAIT instruction halts copper execution until a given beam position is reached, thus making possible to synchronize other instructions with respect to screen drawing. It can also wait for a blitter operation to finish. The SKIP instruction will skip the following copper instruction if a given beam position has already been reached. This can be used to create copper list loops. The length of the copper list program is limited by execution time. The copper restarts executing the copper list at the start of each new video frame. There is no explicit "end" instruction, instead the WAIT instruction is used to wait for a location which is never reached. Uses of the copper The copper is most commonly used to set and reset the video hardware registers at the beginning of each frame. It can be used to change video hardware mid-frame. This allows the Amiga to change video configuration, including resolution, between scanlines. This allows the Amiga to display different horizontal resolutions, different colour depths, and entirely different frame buffers on the same screen. The AmigaOS graphical user interface allows two programs to operate at different resolutions in different buffers, while both are visible on the screen simultaneously. A paint program might use this feature to allow users to draw directly on a low resolution Hold And Modify screen, while offering a high resolution toolbar at the top or bottom of the screen. The copper can also change colour registers once per scanline, creating the "raster bars" effect seen commonly in Amiga games. The copper can go further than this and change the background colour often enough to make a blocky graphics display without using any bitmap graphics at all. The copper allows "re-use" of sprites; after a sprite has been drawn at its programmed location, the copper can then immediately move it to a new location and it will be drawn again, even on the same scanline. The copper can also be used to program and operate the blitter. This is useful for doing several blitter operations in sequence, as the copper can wait for the blitter to finish and then immediately reprogram it for the next operation. The copper can be used to produce "sliced HAM", or S-HAM Invented in 1989 by Rhett Anderson http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/amigahis/amig1989.htm , this consists of building a copper list that switches the palette on every scanline, improving the choice of base colours in Hold And Modify mode graphics. Denise Denise controls the video timings, but can also synchronise to an external video signal. Denise is programmed to fetch planar video data from 1 to 5 bitplanes and translate that into a colour lookup. The number of bitplanes is arbitrary, thus if 32 colours are not needed, 2, 4, 8 or 16 can be used instead. The number of bitplanes (and resolution) can be changed on the fly, usually by the copper. This allows for very economical use of RAM. There is also a sixth bitplane, which can be used in three special graphics modes: In Extra-HalfBrite (EHB), if a pixel is set on the sixth bitplane, the brightness of the regular 32 colour pixel is halved. Early versions of the Amiga 1000 sold in the United States did not have the Extra-HalfBrite mode OLD-COMPUTERS.COM : The Museum . In Hold-and-Modify mode (HAM), each 6-bit pixel is interpreted as 2 control bits and 4 data bits. The 4 possible permutations of control bits are "set", "modify red", "modify green" and "modify blue". With "set", the 4 data bits act like a regular 16-colour display look up. With one of the "modify"s, the red, green or blue component of the previous pixel is modified to the data value, and the other two components are held from the previous pixel. This allows all 4096 colours on screen at once. In Dual Playfield mode, instead of acting as a single screen, two "playfields" of 8 colours each (3 bitplanes each) are drawn on top of each other. They are independently scrollable and the background colour of the top playfield "shines through" to the underlying playfield. There are two horizontal graphics resolutions, "lowres" with 140 ns pixels and "hires" with 70 ns pixels. This makes the display 320 or 640 pixels wide without using overscan. Denise supports very wide overscan; there is no need for a border around the graphics as other computers suffered from. Vertical resolution, without overscan, is 200 pixels for an 60 Hz NTSC Amiga or 256 for a 50 Hz PAL Amiga. This can be doubled using an interlaced display. Denise can also lay up to 8 sprites on top of the graphics, and detect collisions between sprites and the background, or between sprites. These sprites have 3 visible colours and one transparent colour, however two sprites can be "attached" to make a single 15 colour sprite. External video timing Under normal circumstances, the Amiga generates its own video timings, but the chipset also supports synchronising itself to an external signal so as to achieve genlocking with external video hardware. There is also an 1 bit output on this connector that indicates whether the Amiga is outputting background colour or not, permitting easy overlaying of Amiga video onto external video. This made the Amiga particularly attractive as a character generator for titling videos and broadcast work, as it avoided the use and expense of AB roll and chromakey units that would be required without the genlock support. The support of overscan, interlacing and genlocking capabilities, and the fact that the display timing was very close to broadcast standards (NTSC or PAL), made the Amiga the first ideal computer for video purposes, and indeed, it was used in many studios for digitizing video data (sometimes called frame-grabbing), subtitling and interactive video news. Paula The Paula chip is mainly used to produce audio output. The chip has 4 DMA-driven 8-bit PCM sample sound channels. Two sound channels are mixed into the left audio output, and the other two are mixed into the right output, producing stereo audio output. The only supported hardware sample format is signed linear 8-bit two's complement. Each sound channel has an independent volume and frequency. Internally, the audio hardware is implemented by four state machines each having eight different states. Additionally the hardware allows one channel in a channel pair to modulate the other channel's period or amplitude. It is rarely used on the Amiga due to both frequency and volume being controllable in better ways, but could be used to achieve different kinds of tremolo and vibrato, and even rudimentary FM synthesis effects. With some special programming tricks it is possible to produce 14-bit audio by combining two channels set at different volumes, giving two 14-bit channels instead of four 8-bit channels. On a regular NTSC or PAL screen display, audio playback is limited to a maximum sampling rate of 28867 Hz, due to the amount of data that can be fetched from memory in the time allocated to Paula. As explained in the discussion of Agnus, memory access is prioritised and only a few slots for memory access are available to Paula's sound channels. This limit can be overcome in the Enhanced Chip Set by using a higher frequency screen mode, or by using the CPU directly to drive audio output. The Amiga contains an analog low-pass filter (reconstruction filter) which is external to Paula. The filter is a 12 dB/oct Butterworth low-pass filter at approximately 3.3 kHz. The filter can only be applied globally to all 4 channels. In models after the Amiga 1000, the brightness of the power LED is used to indicate the status of the filter. The filter is active when the LED is at normal brightness, and deactivated when dimmed (on early Amiga 500 models the LED went completely off). Models released before Amiga 1200 also have a static "tone knob" type lowpass filter that is enabled regardless of the optional "LED filter". This filter is a 6 dB/oct lowpass filter with cutoff frequency at 4.5 or 5 kHz. Floppy disk controller The floppy controller is unusually flexible. It can read and write raw MFM or GCR data in any format via DMA or programmed I/O. It also provides a number of convenient features, such as sync-on-word (in MFM coding, $4489 is usually used as the sync word). MFM encoding/decoding is usually done with the blitter — one pass for decode, three passes for encode. Normally the entire track is read or written in one shot, rather than sector-by-sector. In addition to the native 880 KB 3.5-inch disk format, the controller can handle many foreign formats, such as: IBM PC Apple II Mac 800 kB (requires a Mac drive) AMAX Mac emulator (A special floppy of only 200 kB to exchange data between Amiga and Macintosh could be formatted by Amiga, and it could be read and written by floppy drivers of both systems) Commodore 1541 (requires 5.25 inch drive slowed to 280 rpm) Commodore 1581 formatted 3.5" floppy for C64 and C128 Serial port The serial port is rudimentary; programmed I/O only and lacking a FIFO buffer. It does have one positive attribute, which is that virtually any bit rate can be selected, including all the standard rates, MIDI rate, as well as extremely high custom rates. Origin of the chip names The name Agnus is derived from 'Address GeNerator UnitS' since it houses all address registers and controls memory access of the custom chips. Paula was named after the girlfriend of the chip designer. Amiga graphics chipset roadmap Released Acronym Models that used it 1985 OCS A1000, A2000, A500 1989 Ranger 1990 ECS A3000, A500+, A600, A2000 1992 AGA A1200, A4000, CD32 1993 AAA 1993 Hombre See also Amiga Ranger Chipset Enhanced Chip Set Advanced Graphics Architecture AAA chipset Hombre chipset List of home computers by video hardware References Miner, Jay et al. (1991). Amiga Hardware Reference Manual: Third Edition. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. ISBN 0-201-56776-8. 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6,466	Hang_gliding	Hang gliding is an air sport in which a pilot flies a light and unmotorized foot-launchable aircraft called a hang glider. Most modern hang gliders are made of an aluminum or composite frame with a fabric wing. Pilots usually control the aircraft by shifting body weight, but other devices, including modern aircraft flight control systems, may be used. The pilot wears a harness and is hung beneath a lifting wing by flexible straps. In the sport's early days, pilots were restricted to gliding down small hills on low-performance hang gliders. However, modern technology gives pilots the ability to soar for hours, gain thousands of feet of altitude in thermal updrafts, perform aerobatics, and fly cross-country for hundreds of miles. The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale and national airspace governing organizations control some aspects of hang gliding. History Early forms of gliding had existed in China perhaps by the 4th century AD according to the writing of the Daoist Ge Hong, and certainly by the time of Emperor Wenxuan of Northern Qi (r. 550–559 AD) who used men sentenced to death as test pilots for his man-flying kites launched from a tower. Temple, Robert. (1986). The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention. With a forward by Joseph Needham. New York: Simon and Schuster, Inc. ISBN 0671620282. Page 175–176. Some hang glider flights have been recorded in 875 AD, when Abbas Ibn Firnas attempted a flight in Al-Andalus. Abbas Ibn Firnas' flights in year 875 near Cordoba, Spain (Ibn Firnas crater on the Moon is named in his honor). In 1010 the monk Eilmer of Malmesbury constructed a rudimentary form of glider, and flew from the tower of Malmesbury Abbey for 200 metres before landing, breaking both his legs. He was going to make another attempt at flying, adding a tail for great control in flight, but the Abbot forbade him risking his life in any further experiments. Most early glider designs did not ensure safe flight; the problem was that early flight pioneers did not understand the underlying principles that made a bird's wing work. Starting in the 1880s technical and scientific advancements were made that led to the first truly practical gliders. Otto Lilienthal of Germany duplicated some of his contemporaries' work and greatly expanded on it from 1874. He rigorously documented his work, strongly influencing later designers; for this reason, Lilienthal is one of the best known and most influential early aviation pioneers. His type of aircraft is now known as a hang glider. In 1951 Francis Rogallo and Gertrude Rogallo applied for a patent for a fully flexible wing with approved claims for its stiffenings and gliding uses, the flexible wing or Rogallo wing, which in 1957 the American space agency NASA began testing in various flexible and semi-rigid configurations in order to use it as a recovery system for the Gemini space capsules. The various stiffening formats and the wing's simplicity of design and ease of construction, along with its capability of slow flight and its gentle landing characteristics, did not go unnoticed by hang glider enthusiasts. In 1960-1962 Barry Hill Palmer adapted the flexible wing concept to make foot-launched hang gliders with four different control arrangements. In 1963 Mike Burns adapted the flexible wing to build a kite-hang glider he called Skiplane. In 1963, John W. Dickenson adapted the flexible wing airfoil concept to create the most popular hang glider format to date. For this, the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale vested Dickenson with the Hang Gliding Diploma (2006) for the invention of the modern hang glider. FAI Award: The FAI Hang Gliding Diploma Training and safety Learning to hang glide. Since its inception, hang gliding has traditionally been considered an unsafe sport. Modern hang gliders are very sturdy when constructed by HGMA, BHPA, DHV or other certified standards and using modern materials, though they remain lightweight craft that can be easily damaged, either through misuse or by continued operation in unsafe wind/weather conditions. All modern gliders have built-in dive recovery mechanisms such as luff lines in kingposted gliders. Nevertheless, the inherent danger of gliding at the mercy of thermal and wind currents, has resulted in numerous fatal accidents and many serious injuries over the years, even to experienced pilots, and the resultant adverse publicity has affected the popularity of hang gliding. As a backup, pilots may carry a parachute in the harness. In case of serious problems the parachute is deployed and carries both pilot and glider down to earth. Pilots also wear helmets and generally carry other safety items such as hook knives (for cutting their parachute bridle after impact or cutting their harness lines and straps in case of a tree or water landing), light ropes (for lowering from trees to haul up tools or climbing ropes), radios (for calling for help) and first-aid equipment. The accident rate from hang glider flying has been dramatically decreased by pilot training. Early hang glider pilots learned their sport through trial and error. Training programs have been developed for today's pilot, with emphasis on flight within safe limits, as well as the discipline to cease flying when weather conditions are unfavorable, for example: excess wind or risk cloud suck. Launch Video of a foot-launching from a hill Launch techniques include foot-launching from a hill, tow-launching from a ground-based tow system, aerotowing (behind a powered aircraft), powered harnesses, and being towed up by a boat. Modern winch tows typically utilize hydraulic systems designed to regulate line tension, this reduces scenarios for lock out as strong winds result in additional length of rope spooling out rather than direct tension on the tow line. Other more exotic launch techniques have also been used successfully, such as hot air balloon drops for very high altitude. Flights in non-soarable conditions are referred to as "sled runs". Soaring flight and cross-country flying Good gliding weather. Well formed cumulus clouds, with darker bases, suggest active thermals and light winds. Good gliding weather. Cumulus clouds with dark flat base. A glider is continuously descending through nearby air, yet glider pilots can stay airborne for hours by flying in areas of rising air. Once this skill has been mastered, pilots can glide long distances to fly cross-country (XC). Rising air masses derive from the following sources: Thermals The most commonly used source of lift is created by the sun's energy heating the ground which in turn heats the air above it. This warm air rises in columns known as thermals. Soaring pilots quickly become aware of land features which can generate thermals; and of visual indications of thermals such as soaring birds, cumulus clouds, cloud streets, dust devils, and haze domes. Also, nearly every glider contains an instrument known as a variometer (a very sensitive vertical speed indicator) which shows visually (and often audibly) the presence of lift and sink. Having located a thermal, a glider pilot will circle within the area of rising air to gain height. In the case of a cloud street thermals can line up with the wind creating rows of thermals and sinking air. A pilot can use a cloud street to fly long straight-line distances by remaining in the row of rising air. Ridge lift Ridge lift occurs when the wind meets a mountain, cliff or hill. The air is deflected up the windward face of the mountain, causing lift. Gliders can climb in this rising air by flying along the feature. Another name for flying with ridge lift is slope soaring. Mountain waves The third main type of lift used by glider pilots is the lee waves that occur near mountains. The obstruction to the airflow can generate standing waves with alternating areas of lift and sink. The top of each wave peak is often marked by lenticular cloud formations. Convergence Another form of lift results from the convergence of air masses, as with a sea-breeze front. More exotic forms of lift are the polar vortexes which the Perlan Project hopes to use to soar to great altitudes . A rare phenomenon known as Morning Glory has also been used by glider pilots in Australia. A Guide to the Morning Glory at www.dropbears.com Performance Hang gliding at Hyner, Pennsylvania. With each generation of materials and with the improvements in aerodynamics, the performance of hang gliders has increased. One measure of performance is the glide ratio. For example, a ratio of 12:1 means that in smooth air a glider can travel forward 12 meters while only losing 1 meter of altitude. Some performance figures as of 2006: Topless gliders (no kingpost): glide ratio ~17:1, speed range ~30 to >145 km/h, best glide at ~45 to 60 km/h Rigid wings: glide ratio ~20:1, speed range ~ 35 to > 130 km/h, best glide at ~50 to 60 km/h. Ballast The extra weight provided by ballast is advantageous if the lift is likely to be strong. Although heavier gliders have a slight disadvantage when climbing in rising air, they achieve a higher speed at any given glide angle. This is an advantage in strong conditions when the gliders spend only little time climbing in thermals. Stability and equilibrium High performance flexible wing hang glider. 2006 Because hang gliders are most often used for recreational flying, a premium is placed on gentle behavior especially at the stall and natural pitch stability. The wing loading must be very low in order to allow the pilot to run fast enough to get above stall speed. Unlike a traditional aircraft with an extended fuselage and empennage for maintaining stability, hang gliders rely on the natural stability of their flexible wings to return to equilibrium in yaw and pitch. Roll stability is generally set up to be near neutral. In calm air, a properly designed wing will maintain balanced trimmed flight with little pilot input. The flex wing pilot is suspended beneath the wing by a strap attached to his harness. The pilot lies prone (sometimes supine) within a large, triangular, metal control frame. Controlled flight is achieved by the pilot pushing and pulling on this control frame thus shifting his weight fore or aft, and right or left in coordinated maneuvers. Roll Most flexible wings are set up with near neutral roll due to sideslip (anhedral effect). In the roll axis, the pilot shifts his body mass using the wing control bar, applying a rolling moment directly to the wing. The flexible wing is built to flex differentially across the span in response to the pilot applied roll moment. For example, if the pilot shifts his weight to the right, the right wing trailing edge flexes up more than the left, allowing the right wing to drop and slow down. Yaw The yaw axis is stabilized through the sweep back of the wings. The swept planform, when yawed out of the relative wind, creates more lift on the advancing wing and also more drag, stabilizing the wing in yaw. If one wing advances ahead of the other, it presents more area to the wind and causes more drag on that side. This causes the advancing wing to go slower and to fall back. The wing is at equilibrium when the aircraft is traveling straight and both wings present the same amount of area to the wind. Pitch The pitch control response is direct and very efficient. It is partially stabilized by the sweep of the wings. The wing center of gravity is close to the hang point and at the trim speed, the wing will fly "hands off" and return to trim after being disturbed. The weight-shift control system only works when the wing is positively loaded (right side up); To maintain a minimum safe amount of washout when the wing is unloaded or even negatively loaded (upside down), positive pitching devices such as reflex lines or washout rods are employed. Flying faster than trim speed is accomplished by moving the pilots weight forward in the control frame; flying slower by shifting the pilots weight aft (pushing out). Furthermore, the fact that the wing is designed to bend and flex, provides favorable dynamics analogous to a spring suspension. This allows the wing to be less susceptible to turbulence and provides a gentler flying experience than a similarly sized rigid-winged aircraft. Instruments To maximize a pilot's understanding of how the hang glider is flying, most pilots carry instruments. The most basic being a variometer and altimeter—often combined. Some more advanced pilots also carry airspeed indicators and radios. When flying in competition or cross country, pilots often also carry maps and/or GPS units. Hang gliders do not have instrument panels as such, so all the instruments are mounted to the control frame of the glider or occasionally based on one's watch. Variometer Vario-altimeter Gliding pilots are able to sense the acceleration forces when they first hit a thermal, but have difficulty gauging constant motion. Thus it is difficult to detect the difference between constantly rising air and constantly sinking air. A variometer is a very sensitive vertical speed indicator. In other words, the variometer indicates climb rate or sink rate with audio signals (beeps) and/or a visual display. These units are generally electronic, vary in sophistication, and often include an altimeter and an airspeed indicator. More advanced units often incorporate a barograph for recording flight data and/or a built-in GPS. The main purpose of a variometer is in helping a pilot find and stay in the ‘core’ of a thermal to maximize height gain, and conversely indicating when he or she is in sinking air and needs to find rising air. Variometers are sometimes capable of electronic calculations based on the MacCready Speed Ring to indicate the optimal speed to fly for given conditions. The MacCready theory answers the question on how fast a pilot should cruise between thermals, given both the average lift the pilot expects in the next thermal climb, as well as the amount of lift or sink he encounters in cruise mode. Some electronic variometers make the calculations automatically, after allowing for factors such as the glider's theoretical performance (glide ratio), altitude, hook in weight and wind direction. 2m-band radio Radio Pilots use radio for training purposes, and for communicating with other pilots in the air – particularly when traveling together on cross-country flights. Radios used are PTT (push-to-talk) transceivers, normally operating in or around the FM VHF 2-metre band (144–148 MHz). Usually a microphone is incorporated in the helmet, and the PTT switch is either fixed to the outside of the helmet, or strapped to a finger. It should be emphasized that operating a 2-meter band radio without an appropriate Amateur Radio license is illegal in most countries (such as the United States) that have regulated airwaves. GPS GPS (global positioning system) is a necessary accessory when flying competitions, where it has to be demonstrated that way-points have been correctly passed. It can also be interesting to view a GPS track of a flight when back on the ground, to analyze flying technique. Computer software is available which allows various different analyses of GPS tracks (e.g. CompeGPS). Other uses include being able to determine drift due to the prevailing wind when flying at altitude, providing position information to allow restricted airspace to be avoided, and identifying one’s location for retrieval teams after landing-out in unfamiliar territory. More recently, the use of GPS data, linked to a computer, has enabled pilots to share 3D tracks of their flights on Google Earth. This fascinating insight allows comparisons between competing pilots to be made in a detailed post-flight analysis. Records Records are sanctioned by the FAI. The world record(s) (as of 2005) for "free distance" is held by Manfred Ruhmer with 700.6 km (435.3 miles) in 2001 and Michael Barber flew a distance of 704 km (437 miles) on June 19, 2002 in Zapata Texas. Mike Barber needed to fly 1% further than Ruhmer's 435 miles (700 km) in order to break the official FAI record; Barber needed to fly only 3 more miles for a total of . Barber's flight remains the longest hang glider flight ever. Other records include: Out-and-Return distance - 332.5 km (206.6 mi), July 5, 2007 by George Stebbins, starting and ending just South of Lone Pine, California. Largest triangle - 357.12 km (221.9 mi), December 16, 2000 by Thomas Suchanek, starting and ending from Riverside Australia. Competition Competitions started with "flying as long as possible" and spot landings. With increasing performance, cross-country flying replaced them. Usually two to four waypoints have to be passed with a landing at a goal. In the late 1990s low-power GPS units were introduced and have completely replaced photographs of the goal. Every two years there is a world championship. The Rigid and Women's World Championship in 2006 was hosted by Quest Air in Florida. Big Spring, Texas hosted the 2007 World Championship. Hang gliding is also one of the competition categories in World Air Games organized by Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (World Air Sports Federation - FAI), which maintains a chronology of the FAI World Hang Gliding Championships. Chronology of the FAI World Hang Gliding Championships Classes Modern 'flexible wing' hang glider. For competitive purposes, there are three classes of hang glider: The flexible wing hang glider, having flight controlled by a wing whose shape changes by virtue of the shifted weight of the pilot. This is not a paraglider. The rigid wing hang glider, having flight controlled by spoilers, typically on top of the wing. In both flexible and rigid wings the pilot hangs below the wing without any additional fairing. Class 2 (designated by the FAI as Sub-Class O-2) where the pilot is integrated into the wing by means of a fairing. These offer the best performance and are the most expensive. In addition to typical launch configurations, a hang glider may be so constructed for alternative launching modes other than being foot launched; one practical avenue for this is for people who physically cannot foot-launch. Dan Buchanan: Comparison of gliders, hang gliders and paragliders There is sometimes confusion between gliders, hang gliders and paragliders. In particular paragliders and hang gliders are both foot-launched aircraft. The main differences between the types are: References Related sports Gliding Paragliding Microlift gliding Powered paragliding Powered hang gliding Comparison with gliders and paragliders External links Hang glider "bible" Hang gliding records DMOZ Open Directory category: Hang Gliding Hang Gliding Photos Hang Gliding Photos Horten wing gliders	Hang_gliding \|@lemmatized hang:47 gliding:8 air:24 sport:6 pilot:45 fly:28 light:3 unmotorized:1 foot:8 launchable:1 aircraft:9 call:3 glider:52 modern:9 make:7 aluminum:1 composite:1 frame:5 fabric:1 wing:47 usually:3 control:15 shift:6 body:2 weight:9 device:2 include:5 flight:22 system:6 may:3 use:15 wear:2 harness:5 hung:1 beneath:2 lift:15 flexible:14 strap:4 early:6 day:1 restrict:1 glide:25 small:1 hill:5 low:3 performance:9 however:1 technology:1 give:4 ability:1 soar:6 hour:2 gain:3 thousand:1 altitude:6 thermal:15 updraft:1 perform:1 aerobatics:1 cross:6 country:7 hundred:1 mile:5 fédération:3 aéronautique:3 internationale:3 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photograph:1 championship:5 woman:1 host:2 quest:1 florida:1 big:1 category:2 game:1 organize:1 federation:1 chronology:2 class:4 competitive:1 three:1 whose:1 shape:1 change:1 virtue:1 shifted:1 paraglider:1 spoiler:1 fairing:2 designate:1 sub:1 integrate:1 offer:1 expensive:1 addition:1 typical:1 alternative:1 modes:1 avenue:1 people:1 physically:1 cannot:1 dan:1 buchanan:1 paragliders:4 confusion:1 particular:1 reference:1 related:1 paragliding:2 microlift:1 external:1 bible:1 dmoz:1 open:1 directory:1 photo:2 horten:1 \|@bigram hang_gliding:5 hang_glider:29 fédération_aéronautique:3 aéronautique_internationale:3 joseph_needham:1 simon_schuster:1 abbas_ibn:2 ibn_firnas:3 al_andalus:1 go_unnoticed:1 hang_glide:11 fatal_accident:1 parachute_deploy:1 strap_attach:1 fore_aft:1 global_positioning:1 prevailing_wind:1 mile_km:1 lone_pine:1 external_link:1
6,467	Abae	Abae (Ancient Greek: Ἄβαι, Abai), is an ancient town in the northeastern corner of Phocis, in Greece. It was famous in antiquity for its oracle of Apollo Abaeus, one of those consulted by Croesus, king of Lydia, Herodotus i.46 Hesychius of Alexandria. s.v. ; Pausanias, Description of Greece x. 35. § 1, &c. and Mardonius, among others. It was rich in treasures Herodotus. viii.33 , but was destroyed by the Persians in the invasion of Xerxes in 480 BCE, and a second time by the Boeotians and remained in a ruined state.It was rebuilt by Hadrian. The oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. by the Thebans before Leuctra in 371 BCE. Pausanias iv. 32.5 The temple seems to have been burnt again during the Third Sacred War (355–346 BCE), and was in a very dilapidated state when seen by Pausanias in the second century CE, Pausanias, x. 35 though some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, was undertaken by Emperor Hadrian. The sanctity of the shrine ensured certain privileges to the people of Abae, Bulletin Corresp. Hell. 6 171. and these were confirmed by the Romans. The polygonal walls of the acropolis may still be seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill standing about above the little plain of Exarcho; one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls below. The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the town. An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are a stoa and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the British School at Athens in 1894, but little was found. Notes References Hesychius s. v. "Agcu" Herodotus viii. 33 Pausanias x. 35.1ff, etc.)	Abae \|@lemmatized abae:2 ancient:2 greek:1 ἄβαι:1 abai:1 town:3 northeastern:1 corner:1 phocis:1 greece:2 famous:1 antiquity:1 oracle:2 apollo:1 abaeus:1 one:2 consult:2 croesus:1 king:1 lydia:1 herodotus:3 hesychius:2 alexandria:1 v:2 pausanias:5 description:1 x:3 c:1 mardonius:1 among:1 others:1 rich:1 treasure:1 viii:2 destroy:1 persian:1 invasion:1 xerxes:1 bce:3 second:2 time:1 boeotians:1 remain:2 ruined:1 state:3 rebuild:1 hadrian:2 however:1 still:2 e:1 g:1 theban:1 leuctra:1 iv:1 temple:4 seem:1 burnt:1 third:1 sacred:1 war:1 dilapidated:1 see:2 century:1 ce:1 though:1 restoration:1 well:1 building:1 new:1 undertake:1 emperor:1 sanctity:1 shrine:1 ensure:1 certain:1 privilege:1 people:1 bulletin:1 corresp:1 hell:1 confirm:1 roman:1 polygonal:1 wall:3 acropolis:1 may:1 fair:1 preservation:1 circular:1 hill:2 stand:1 little:2 plain:1 exarcho:1 gateway:1 also:1 trace:1 site:1 low:1 spur:1 early:1 terrace:1 support:1 precinct:1 stoa:1 remains:1 excavate:1 british:1 school:1 athens:1 find:1 note:1 reference:1 agcu:1 etc:1 \|@bigram pausanias_description:1
6,468	Kahlúa	A bottle of Kahlúa Kahlúa is a well known Mexican coffee-flavored liqueur. It is heavy and sweet, with a distinct taste of coffee, from which it is made. Kahlua also contains sugar, corn syrup and vanilla bean. History Allied Domecq, which was created in 1994 as the result of a merger between Allied Lyons and Pedro Domecq, had produced Kahlúa since 1936 Kahlúa Revitalizes Iconic Packaging. Pernod Ricard USA, September 14 2007. Retrieved 2008-02-17. until the company was partially acquired in 2005 by Pernod Ricard, the first largest spirits distributor in the world since the merger with the Swedish "Vin & Sprit" in March 2008. Varieties Kahlua Kahlua Mocha Kahlua French Vanilla Kahlua Hazelnut Kahlua Especial Kahlua White Russian Kahlua Mudslide Kahlúa for sale at a liquor store in Fukushima City, Japan The alcohol content of Kahlúa varies between 20.0% and 35% depending on individual markets. In 2002, a more expensive, high-end product called "Kahlúa Especial" became available in the United States, Canada and Australia after previously being offered only in duty-free markets. Made with premium Arabica coffee beans grown in Veracruz, Mexico, Kahlua 'Unleashes' Major Holiday Marketing Push, Including New Television and Radio Advertising. Business Wire, November 10 2003. Retrieved 2008-02-17. Kahlúa Especial has an alcohol content of 36% and has a lower viscosity and is less sweet than the regular version. Name As the original producer Domecq tried to preserve a Veracruzan identity to its product, the name Kahlúa was chosen as a feature of its originality. Kahlúa means "House of the Acolhua people" in the Veracruz Nahuatl language spoken before the Spanish Conquest; then it was Hispanicized as Ulúa, forming the name of modern San Juan de Ulúa fortress. Uses Kahlúa is used to make cocktails and as a topping or ingredient in several desserts, including ice cream, cakes, and cheesecakes. A few notable cocktails made with Kahlúa include the B-52, Baby Guinness, Mudslide, and the White Russian and Black Russian. It can also be enjoyed in cold cream, milk, or mixed with hot coffee. See also List of cocktails List of coffee liqueurs Milk and Alcohol References External links Kahlúa Official Website	Kahlúa \|@lemmatized bottle:1 kahlúa:13 well:1 know:1 mexican:1 coffee:5 flavored:1 liqueur:2 heavy:1 sweet:2 distinct:1 taste:1 make:4 kahlua:9 also:3 contain:1 sugar:1 corn:1 syrup:1 vanilla:2 bean:2 history:1 ally:1 domecq:3 create:1 result:1 merger:2 allied:1 lyon:1 pedro:1 produce:1 since:2 revitalize:1 iconic:1 packaging:1 pernod:2 ricard:2 usa:1 september:1 retrieve:2 company:1 partially:1 acquire:1 first:1 large:1 spirit:1 distributor:1 world:1 swedish:1 vin:1 sprit:1 march:1 variety:1 mocha:1 french:1 hazelnut:1 especial:3 white:2 russian:3 mudslide:2 sale:1 liquor:1 store:1 fukushima:1 city:1 japan:1 alcohol:3 content:2 varies:1 depend:1 individual:1 market:2 expensive:1 high:1 end:1 product:2 call:1 become:1 available:1 united:1 state:1 canada:1 australia:1 previously:1 offer:1 duty:1 free:1 premium:1 arabica:1 grow:1 veracruz:2 mexico:1 unleashes:1 major:1 holiday:1 marketing:1 push:1 include:3 new:1 television:1 radio:1 advertising:1 business:1 wire:1 november:1 low:1 viscosity:1 less:1 regular:1 version:1 name:3 original:1 producer:1 try:1 preserve:1 veracruzan:1 identity:1 choose:1 feature:1 originality:1 mean:1 house:1 acolhua:1 people:1 nahuatl:1 language:1 speak:1 spanish:1 conquest:1 hispanicized:1 ulúa:2 form:1 modern:1 san:1 juan:1 de:1 fortress:1 us:1 use:1 cocktail:3 topping:1 ingredient:1 several:1 dessert:1 ice:1 cream:2 cake:1 cheesecake:1 notable:1 b:1 baby:1 guinness:1 black:1 enjoy:1 cold:1 milk:2 mixed:1 hot:1 see:1 list:2 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 \|@bigram corn_syrup:1 liquor_store:1 arabica_coffee:1 coffee_bean:1 veracruz_mexico:1 san_juan:1 ice_cream:1 external_link:1
6,469	Doonesbury	Doonesbury is a comic strip by Garry Trudeau that chronicles the adventures and lives of a vast array of different characters of different ages, professions, and backgrounds—from the President of the United States to the title character, Michael Doonesbury, now a middle-aged, remarried father. Frequently political in nature, Doonesbury features characters professing a range of affiliations, but the cartoon’s editorial slant is noted for a liberal outlook. The name "Doonesbury" is a combination of the word doone (1960s prep school slang for "someone unafraid to appear foolish") and the surname of Charles Pillsbury, Trudeau's roommate at Yale University. History The first Doonesbury cartoon, from October 26, 1970. Doonesbury began as a continuation of Bull Tales, which appeared in the Yale University student newspaper, the Yale Daily News, beginning September, 1968. It focused on local campus events at Yale. The executive editor of the paper in the late 1960s, Reed Hundt, who later served as the chairman of the FCC, noted that the Daily News had a flexible policy about publishing cartoons: “We publish[ed] pretty much anything.” As Doonesbury, the strip debuted as a daily strip in about two dozen newspapers on October 26, 1970 -- the first strip from Universal Press Syndicate. A Sunday strip began on March 21, 1971. Many of the early strips were reprints of the Bull Tales cartoons, with some changes to the drawings and plots. BD’s helmet changed from having a “Y” (for Yale) to a star (for the fictional Walden College). Mike and BD started Doonesbury as roommates; they were not roommates in the original. Doonesbury became well known for its social and political commentary, always timely, and peppered with wry and ironic humor. It is presently syndicated in approximately 1,400 newspapers worldwide. The decision, on September 12, 2005 to drop Doonesbury from The Guardian (United Kingdom) was reversed less than 24 hours later, after the strip’s followers voiced strong discontent. Like Li‘l Abner and Pogo before it, Doonesbury blurred the distinction between editorial cartoon and the funny pages. In May 1975, the strip won Trudeau a Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning, the first strip cartoon to be so honored. That month, Holt, Rinehart & Winston, the publishers of collections of Doonesbury until the mid-1980s took out an ad in the New York Times Book Review, marking the occasion by saying: It’s nice for Trudeau and Doonesbury to be so honored, “but it’s quite another thing when the Establishment clutches all of Walden Commune to its bosom.” That same year, then-U.S. President Gerald Ford acknowledged the stature of the comic strip, telling the Radio and Television Correspondents’ Association at their annual dinner, “There are only three major vehicles to keep us informed as to what is going on in Washington: the electronic media, the print media, and Doonesbury—not necessarily in that order.” A panel from the famous Doonesbury “Stonewall” strip, referring to the Watergate scandal, from August 12, 1974; awarded the Pulitzer Prize. In 1977, Trudeau wrote a script for a twenty-six-minute animated special. A Doonesbury Special was produced and directed by Trudeau, along with John Hubley (who died during the storyboarding stage) Solomon, Charles (1989), p. 251. Enchanted Drawings: The History of Animation. ISBN 0-394-54684-9. Alfred A. Knopf. Accessed February 17, 2008. and Faith Hubley. The Special was first broadcast by NBC on November 27, 1977. It won a Special Jury Award at the Cannes International Film Festival for best short film, and received an Academy Award nomination (for best animated short film), both in 1978. Voice actors for the special included Barbara Harris, William Sloane Coffin, Jr., Jack Gilford and Will Jordan. Also included were two songs “sung” by the character of Jimmy Thudpucker (actually actor/singer/songwriter/producer James Allen "Jimmy" Brewer), entitled “Stop in the Middle” and “I Do Believe,” also part of the "Special." The compositions and performances were credited to “Jimmy Thudpucker,” but were in fact co-written and sung by Brewer, who also co-wrote and provided the vocals for "Ginny's Song," a 1976 single on the Warner Bros. Label, and Jimmy Thudpucker's Greatest Hits, an LP released by Windsong Records, John Denver's subsidiary of RCA Records) The strip underwent a significant change after Trudeau returned to it from a 22 month hiatus (from January 1983 to October 1984). Before the break in the strip, the characters were eternal college students, living in a commune together near “Walden College,” which was modelled after Trudeau’s alma mater. During the break, Trudeau helped create a Broadway musical of the strip, showing the graduation of the main characters. The Broadway adaptation opened at the Biltmore Theatre on November 21, 1983, and played 104 performances. Elizabeth Swados composed the music for Trudeau’s book and lyrics. After the hiatus The strip resumed some time after the events in the musical, with further changes having taken place after the end of the musical’s plot. While Mike, Mark, Zonker, BD and Boopsie were all now graduates, BD and Boopsie were living in Malibu, where BD was a third-string quarterback for the Los Angeles Rams, and Boopsie was making a living from walk-on and cameo roles. Mark was living in Washington, DC, working for National Public Radio. Michael and JJ had gotten married, and Mike had dropped out of business school to start work in an advertising agency in New York City. Zonker, still not ready for the “real world,” was living with Mike and JJ until he was accepted as a medical student at his Uncle Duke’s “Baby Doc College” in Haiti. Prior to the hiatus, the strip’s characters had aged at the tectonically slow rate that is standard for comic strips. But when Trudeau returned to Doonesbury, the characters began to age in something close to real time, as in Gasoline Alley and For Better or for Worse. Since then, the main characters’ age and career development has tracked that of standard media portrayals of baby boomers, with jobs in advertising, law enforcement, and the dot-com boom. Current events are mirrored through the original characters, their offspring (the “second generation”), and occasional new characters. Post-hiatus, Trudeau developed a more sophisticated look for the strip, often varying his angles from frame to frame. The result was more graphically dynamic without sacrificing the deadpan quality that made the punchlines land. Garry Trudeau received the National Cartoonist Society Newspaper Comic Strip Award for 1994, and their Reuben Award for 1995 for his work on the strip. Characteristic style The Doonesbury strip from November 28, 2005, reuniting the characters of Michael Doonesbury and B.D. The unnamed college attended by the main characters was later given the name “Walden College,” revealed to be in Connecticut (the same state as Yale), and depicted as devolving into a third-rate institution under the weight of grade inflation, slipping academic standards, and the end of tenure—issues that Trudeau has consistently revisited since the original characters graduated. Many of the second generation of Doonesbury characters are attending Walden, a venue Trudeau uses to advance his concerns about academic standards in America. With the exception of Walden College, Trudeau has frequently used real-life settings, based on real scenarios, but with fictional results. Due to deadlines, some real-world events have rendered some of Trudeau’s comics unusable, such as a 1973 series featuring John Ehrlichman, a 1989 series set in Tiananmen Square in Beijing, China, a 1993 series involving Zoë Baird, and a 2005 series involving Harriet Miers. Trudeau has also delighted and intrigued readers by displaying fluency in various forms of jargon, including those of real estate agents, flight attendants, computer scientists, journalists, presidential aides, and soldiers in Iraq. Use of real-life politicians as characters Even though Doonesbury frequently features major real-life U.S. politicians, they are rarely depicted with their real faces. Originally, strips featuring the President of the United States would show an external view of the White House, with dialogue emerging from inside. During the Gerald Ford administration, characters would be shown speaking to Ford at press conferences, and fictional dialogue supposedly spoken by Ford would be written as coming “off-panel.” Similarly, while having several characters as students in a class taught by Henry Kissinger, the dialogue made up for Kissinger would also come from “off-panel” (although Kissinger had earlier appeared as a character with his face shown in a 1972 series of strips in which he met Mark Slackemeyer while the latter was on a trip to Washington). Sometimes hands, or in rare cases, the back of heads would also be seen. More recently, personal symbols reflecting some aspect of their character are used. For example, during the 1980s, character 'Ron Headrest' served as a doppelganger for Ronald Reagan and was depicted as a computer-generated artificial-intelligence, an image based on the television character Max Headroom. Members of the Bush family have been depicted as invisible. During his term as Vice President, George H. W. Bush was first depicted as completely invisible, his words emanating from a little “spark” (or a "point of light") in the air. This was originally a reference to the man’s perceived low profile and his denials of knowledge of the Iran-Contra Affair. (In one strip, published March 20, 1988, the vice president almost materialized, but only made it to an outline before reverting to invisibility.) George W. Bush was later symbolized by a Stetson hat atop the same invisible point, because he was Governor of Texas prior to his presidency (Trudeau accused him of being “all hat and no cattle”, reiterating the characterization of Bush by columnist Molly Ivins). The point became a giant asterisk (a la Roger Maris) following the 2000 presidential elections and the controversy over vote-counting. Later, President Bush’s hat was changed to a Roman military helmet (again, atop an asterisk) representing imperialism. Towards the end of his first term, the helmet became battered, with the gilt work starting to come off and with clumps of bristles missing from the top. By late 2008, the helmet had been dented almost beyond recognition. On September 2, 2006, he fantasized about himself wearing a crown. Other notable symbols include a waffle for the indecisive Bill Clinton (chosen by popular vote—the other possibility had been a “flipping coin”), an unexploded (but sometimes lit) bomb for the hot-tempered Newt Gingrich, a feather for the “lightweight” Dan Quayle and a giant groping hand for Arnold Schwarzenegger (who is addressed by other characters as “Herr Gröpenfuhrer,” a reference to accusations of sexual assault against Schwarzenegger). Many minor politicians have also been represented as icons over the years, like a swastika for David Duke, but only for the purposes of a gag strip or two. Trudeau has made his use of icons something of an in joke to readers, where the first appearance of a new one is often a punchline in itself. The long career of the series and continual use of real-life political figures, analysts note, have led to some uncanny cases of the cartoon foreshadowing a national shift in the politicians’ political fortunes. Tina Gianoulis in St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture observes: “In 1971, well before the conservative Reagan years, a forward-looking BD called Ronald Reagan his ‘hero.’ In 1984, almost ten years before Congressman Newt Gingrich became Speaker of the House, another character worried that he would ‘wake up someday in a country run by Newt Gingrich.’ ” Tina Gianoulis, “Doonesbury”, St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture, 2002 In its 2003 series “John Kerry: A Candidate in the Making” on the 2004 presidential race, the Boston Globe reprinted and discussed 1971 Doonesbury cartoons of the young Kerry’s Vietnam War protest speeches. Michael Kranish, Part 3: With Antiwar Role, High Visibility, Boston Globe, June 17, 2003 Characters Doonesbury has a large group of recurring characters, with 24 of them currently listed on the cast list at the strip’s website. The Cast, official list at Doonesbury.com There, it notes that “readers new to Doonesbury sometimes experience a temporary bout of character shock,” as the sheer number of characters—and the historical connections among them—can be overwhelming. The main characters of the strip are a group who attended the fictional Walden College during the strip’s first twelve years, and moved into a commune together in April 1972. Most of the other characters first appeared as family members, friends, or other acquaintances of these. The original “Walden Commune” residents were: Mike Doonesbury, Zonker Harris, Mark Slackmeyer, Nicole, Bernie and DiDi. In September 1972, Joanie Caucus joined the comic, meeting Mike and Mark in Colorado, and eventually moved into the commune. They were later joined by BD and his girlfriend (later wife) Boopsie, upon B.D.'s return from Vietnam. Nicole, DiDi, and Bernie were mostly phased out of the strip in the next few years, and Zonker's Uncle Duke was introduced as the most prominent character outside the Walden group, and the main link to many secondary characters. The Walden students graduated in 1983, after which the strip began to progress in something closer to real time. Their spouses and developing families became more important after this: Joanie's daughter J.J. Caucus married Mike and they had a daughter, Alex Doonesbury. They divorced, Mike remarried to Kim Rosenthal, a Vietnamese refugee (who had appeared in the strip as a baby adopted by a Jewish-American family just after the fall of Saigon), and J.J. married Zeke Brenner, her ex-boyfriend and Uncle Duke's former groundskeeper. Joanie remarried Rick Redfern, and they had a son, Jeff. Uncle Duke and Roland Hedley have also appeared often, frequently in unconnected, more topical settings. In more recent years the second generation of characters have taken prominence as they have grown up to college age: Jeff Redfern, Alex Doonesbury, Zonker's nephew Zipper Harris, and Uncle Duke's son Earl. Milestones Doonesbury delved into a number of political and social issues, causing controversies, and breaking new ground on the comics pages. Among the milestones: A November 1972 strip depicting Zonker telling a little boy in a sandbox a fairy tale ending in the protagonist being awarded “his weight in fine, uncut Turkish hashish” raised an uproar. Jesse Walker, Doonesburied: The Decline of Garry Trudeau—and of Baby Boom Liberalism, Reason Online, July 2002 During the Watergate scandal, one strip showed Mark on the radio with a “Watergate profile” of John Mitchell, declaring him “Guilty! Guilty, guilty, guilty!!” A number of newspapers removed the strip and one, The Washington Post, even ran an editorial criticizing the cartoon. Nat Gertler, in The Biggest Events in Comics History: ‘Doonesbury’ Finds Mitchell ‘Guilty’, Daryl Cagle’s Professional Cartoonists Index, MSNBC Following Nixon's death in 1994, the strip was re-run with all the instances of the word "guilty" crossed out and replaced with "flawed," lampooning the media's apparent glossing-over of his image in the wake of his death. In June 1973, the military newspaper Stars and Stripes dropped Doonesbury for being too political. The strip was quickly reinstated after hundreds of protests by readers who were soldiers in the U.S. Army. September 1973: The Lincoln Journal became the first newspaper to move Doonesbury to its editorial page. Ken Bode (DePauw University professor), ‘Doonesbury’ Belongs on the Editorial Page, Indianapolis Star, August 19, 2005 In February 1976, Andy Lippincott, a classmate of Joanie’s, told her that he was gay. Dozens of papers opted not to publish the storyline, with Miami Herald editor Larry Jinks saying, “We just decided we weren’t ready for homosexuality in a comic strip.” Aaron Glazer, Doonesbury Delivers Satirical Satisfaction, The Johns Hopkins News-Letter, March 16, 2000 In November 1976, when the storyline included the blossoming romance of Rick Redfern and Joanie Caucus, four days of strips were devoted to a transition from one apartment to another, ending with a view of the two together in bed, marking the first time any nationally run comic strip portrayed premarital sex in this fashion. Glazer 2006 Again, the strip was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers, although some newspapers opted to simply repeat the opening frame of that day's strip. In June 1978, one strip included a coupon listing various politicians and dollar amounts allegedly taken from Korean lobbyists, to be clipped and glued to a postcard to be sent to the Speaker of the House Tip O'Neill, resulting in an overflow of mail to the Speaker's office. In August 1979, Trudeau took a three-week vacation from the strip, which was uncommon among comic strip writers and artists. From January 1983 through September 1984, the strip was not published so that Trudeau could bring the strip to Broadway. In June 1985, a series of strips included photos of Frank Sinatra associating with a number of people with mafia connections, one alongside text from President Ronald Reagan’s speech awarding Sinatra the Medal of Freedom. In January 1987, politicians were again declared “Guilty, guilty, guilty.” This time it was Donald Regan, John Poindexter and Oliver North, referring to their roles in the Iran-Contra Affair. In June 1989, several days’ comics (which had already been drawn and written) had to be replaced with repeats, due to the humor of the strips being considered in bad taste in light of the mass murder of democracy demonstrators in Tiananmen Square in Beijing, People’s Republic of China. Trudeau himself asked for the recall. “Trudeau Recalls Doonesbury China Strips” p. 22 in The Comics Journal, no. 130 (July 1989). This was despite an interview published with Universal Press Syndicate’s Editorial Director, Lee Salem, in the May 28, 1989 San Jose Mercury News in which Salem stated his hopes the strips could still be used. In May 1990, the storyline included the death of Andy Lippincott, who succumbed to AIDS. In November 1991, a series of strips appeared to give credibility to a real-life prison inmate who said that former Vice-President Dan Quayle had connections with drug dealers; the strip sequence was dropped by some two dozen newspapers, in part because the allegations had been investigated and dispelled previously. Two Dozen Newspapers Omit ‘Doonesbury’ Quayle Series, The New York Times, November 12, 1991 (Six years later, the reporter who broke the Quayle story some weeks after the Doonesbury cartoons later published a book saying he no longer believed the story had been true. Anthony Marro, The Art of the Con (book review of Mark Singer’s Citizen K: The Deeply Weird American Journey of Brett Kimberlin), Columbia Journalism Review, March/April 1997 ) In December 1992, Working Woman magazine named two characters (Joanie Caucus and Lacey Davenport) as role models for women. In November 1993, a story line dealing with California wildfires was dropped from several California newspapers, including the Los Angeles Times, the Orange County Register and the San Diego Union-Tribune. Astor, David; “Major Southern California Dailies Drop ‘Doonesbury,’ ” Editor & Publisher, November 13, 1993 In June 1994, the Roman Catholic Church took issue with a series of strips dealing with the book Same-Sex Unions in Premodern Europe by John Boswell. A few newspapers dropped single strips from the series, and the Pantagraph from Bloomington, Illinois, refused to run the entire series. In March 1995, John McCain denounced Trudeau on the floor of the Senate: “Suffice it to say that I hold Trudeau in utter contempt.” This was in response to a strip about Bob Dole’s strategy of exploiting his war record in his presidential campaign. The quotation was used on the cover of Trudeau’s book Doonesbury Nation. (McCain and Trudeau later made peace: McCain wrote the foreword to The Long Road Home, Trudeau’s collection of comic strips dealing with BD’s leg amputation during the second Iraq war.) Later in 1995 Mark Slackmeyer, a gay character from the strip, was seen in the final days of Berkeley Breathed’s comic Outland heading off with a main character from that series, Steve Dallas. In February 1998, a strip dealing with Bill Clinton’s sex scandal was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers because it included the phrases “oral sex” and “semen-streaked dress.” In November 2000, a strip was not run in some newspapers when Duke says of then-Presidential candidate George W. Bush: “He’s got a history of alcohol abuse and cocaine.” In September 2001, a strip perpetuated the Internet hoax that claimed George W. Bush had the lowest IQ of any president in the last 50 years, half that of Bill Clinton. Doonesbury Daily Dose as retrieved via web.archive.org When caught repeating the hoax, Trudeau apologized "with a trademark barb - he said he deeply apologised for unsettling anyone who thought the president quite intelligent." Doonesbury Creator Falls for Hoax, September 7, 2001 In 2003 a cartoon that publicized the recent medical research suggesting a connection between masturbation and a reduced risk of prostate cancer, with one character alluding to the practice as “self-dating,” was not run in many papers; pre-publication sources indicated that as many as half of the 700 papers to which it was syndicated were planning not to run the strip. Sheerly Avni, ‘Doonesbury’: Jerked Off the Funny Pages, Salon, September 5, 2003 February 2004: Trudeau used his strip to make the apparently genuine offer of USD$10,000 (to the USO in the winner’s name Bush National Guard Offer at Doonesbury.com ) for anyone who can personally confirm that George W. Bush was actually present during a part of his service in the National Guard. Reuters and CNN reported by the end of that week that despite 1,300 responses, no credible evidence had been offered; No Winner Yet in ‘Doonesbury’ Bush Search, Reuters/CNN.com, February 27, 2004 as of 2006, the offer remains unclaimed. April 2004: On April 21, after nearly 34 years, readers finally saw BD’s head without some sort of helmet. In the same strip, it was revealed that he had lost a leg in the Iraq War. Later that month, after awakening and discovering his situation, BD exclaims “SON OF A BITCH!!!” The single strip was removed from many papers—including the Boston Globe Joseph P. Kahn, ‘Doonesbury’ Language Gets Some Edits, Boston Globe, November 2, 2004 —although in others, such as Newsday, the offending word was replaced by a line. The Dallas Morning News ran the cartoon uncensored, with a footnote that the editor believed profanity was appropriate, given the subject matter. An image of BD with amputated leg also appeared on the cover of Rolling Stone that summer (issue 954). May 2004: two Sunday strips were published containing only the names of soldiers killed in the War in Iraq. Further such lists were printed in May 2005, May/June 2006 and 2007. On March 7, 2005, the series began a sequence memorializing the death by suicide of Hunter S. Thompson, the inspiration for the character of Duke. In the sequence, Duke’s head explodes upon reading the news; no newspapers are known to have refused to print that day’s strip. Trudeau indicated in a news story that one reason for this willingness may have been that the character had a history of similar events: “I’ve been exploding Duke’s head as far back as 1985,” he said. Exploding Head Pays Tribute to Hunter S. Thompson, March 10, 2005 In June 2005, Trudeau came out with The Long Road Home, a book devoted to BD’s recovery from his loss of a leg in Iraq. Although Trudeau opposed the Iraq War, the foreword was written by Sen. John McCain, a supporter of the war. McCain was impressed by Trudeau's desire to highlight the struggle of seriously wounded veterans, and his desire to assist them. Proceeds from the book, and its sequel The War Within, benefit Fisher House, the generic name for homes where families of injured soldiers may stay near where they are recovering, also known as “the military equivalent of Ronald McDonald House.” Fisher House - Helping Military Families July 2005: Several newspapers declined to run two strips in which George W. Bush refers to his adviser Karl Rove as “Turd Blossom,” a nickname Bush has been reported to use for Rove. Papers Pull ‘Doonesbury’ Over Potty Put-Down, CBC, July 26, 2005 In September 2005 when the British newspaper The Guardian relaunched in a smaller format, Doonesbury was dropped due to space considerations. After a flood of complaints the strip was reinstated with an omnibus covering the issues missed and a full apology. The strips scheduled to run from October 31 to November 5, 2005 and a Sunday strip scheduled for November 13 about the nomination of Harriet Miers to the Supreme Court were withdrawn suddenly after her nomination was. The strips have been posted on the official website, and were replaced by re-runs by the syndicate. Trudeau sought input from readers as to where Alex Doonesbury should attend college in a May 15, 2006 straw cyber-poll at Doonesbury.com. Voters chose among MIT, Rensselaer, and Cornell. Students from Rensselaer and then MIT hacked the system, which was designed to limit each computer to one vote. In the end, voters logged 175,000 votes, with MIT grabbing 48% of the total. The Doonesbury Town Hall FAQ stated that given that the rules of the poll had not ruled out such methods, “the will, chutzpah, and bodacious craft of the voting public will be respected,” declaring that Alex will be attending MIT. Before the 2008 presidential election, Trudeau sent out strips to run in the days after the election in which Barack Obama was portrayed as the winner. Trudeau explained that poll analysts saw an Obama victory as a near-certainty and "If he loses, there'll be such a national uproar that a blown call in a comic strip won't be much noticed." Newspapers were also provided with old strips as an alternative. http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/ap/politics/6088604.html In response, McCain spokesman Tucker Bounds said, "We hope the strip proves to be as predictive as it is consistently lame." http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/news/arts/la-et-doonesbury1-2008nov01,0,2244580.story Criticism Charles M. Schulz of Peanuts called Trudeau "unprofessional" for taking a long sabbatical. In 1975, the Editorial Cartoonists' Society passed a resolution condemning the Pulitzer Prize committee's decision to award Trudeau the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning for Doonesbury.. After confirming that the award could not be revoked, Trudeau supported the resolution. Some conservatives have intensely criticized Doonesbury. Several examples are cited in the Milestones section. The strip has also met criticism from its readers almost since it began syndicated publication. For example, when Lacey Davenport’s husband Dick, in the last moments before his death, calls on God, several conservative pundits called the strip blasphemous. The sequence of Dick Davenport’s final bird-watching and fatal heart attack was run in November 1986. Doonesbury has angered, irritated, or been rebuked by many of the political figures that have appeared or been referred to in the strip over the years. Outspoken critics have included members of every US Presidential administration since Richard Nixon’s. A 1984 series of strips showing then Vice President George H.W. Bush placing his manhood in a blind trust—in parody of Bush’s using that financial instrument to fend off concerns that his governmental decisions would be influenced by his investment holdings—brought the politician to complain, “Doonesbury’s carrying water for the opposition. Trudeau is coming out of deep left field.” Doonesbury still feisty after 35 years, Associated Press, November 17, 2005 There have also been other politicians who did not view the way that Doonesbury portrayed them very favorably, including former U.S. House Speaker Tip O'Neill and former California Governor Jerry Brown. The strip has also met controversy over every military conflict it has dealt with, including Vietnam, Grenada, Panama and both Gulf Wars. When Doonesbury ran the names of soldiers who had died in Iraq since the 2003 invasion, conservative commentators accused Trudeau of using the American dead to make a profit for himself, and again demanded that the strip be removed from newspapers. After many letter writing campaigns demanding the removal of the strip were unsuccessful, conservatives changed their tactics, and instead of writing to newspaper editors, they began writing to one of the printers who prints the color Sunday comics. In 2005, Continental Features gave in to their demands, and refused to continue printing the Sunday Doonesbury, causing it to disappear from the 38 Sunday papers that Continental Features printed. Of the 38, only one newspaper The Anniston Star in Anniston, Alabama, continued to carry the Sunday Doonesbury, though of necessity in black and white. Some newspapers have dealt with the criticism by moving the strip from the comics page to the editorial page, because many people believe that a politically based comic strip like Doonesbury does not belong in a traditionally child-friendly comics section. The Lincoln Journal started the trend in 1973. In some papers (such as the Tulsa World) Doonesbury appears on the opinions page alongside Mallard Fillmore, a politically conservative comic strip. On the weekend before the November 4, 2008 presidential election, Trudeau submitted a strip that was scheduled to be published on November 5. That the strip depicted soldiers celebrating a win by Barack Obama brought some criticism that led to Trudeau making a replacement strip available to subscribers who requested one. Yvonne Villarreal, "Comic strip 'Doonesbury' predicts Obama win — Newspapers split over whether to run the strip" Los Angeles Times, November 1, 2008. When asked whether he created the original strip with complete confidence in an Obama victory, Trudeau replied: "'Nope, more like rational risk assessment. Nate Silver at Fivethirtyeight.com is now giving McCain a 3.7% chance of winning – pretty comfortable odds. . . . Here's the way I look at it: If Obama wins, I'm in the flow and commenting on a phenomenon. If he loses, it'll be a massive upset, and the goofy misprediction of a comic strip will be pretty much lost in the uproar. I figure I can survive a little egg on my face'." "Obama Wins? Yes, 'Doonesbury' Calls the Election," Washington Post, October 31, 2008. Awards and honors In 1975, the strip won Trudeau a Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning, the first strip cartoon to be so honored. It was also a Nominated Finalist in 1990, 2004, and 2005. Trudeau received “Certificates of Achievement” from the US Army 4th Battalion 67th Armor Regiment and the Ready First Brigade in 1991 for his comic strips dealing with the first Gulf War. The texts of these citations are quoted on the back of the comic strip collection Welcome to Club Scud! Trudeau won the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in 1995. NCS Awards Trudeau was awarded the US Army’s Commander’s Award for Public Service in 2006 for his series of strips about BD’s recovery following the loss of his leg in Iraq. http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001919927 See also Enzo Baldoni Published collections Notes References Trudeau, Garry, Doonesbury Flashbacks CD-ROM for Microsoft Windows. Published by Mindscape, 1995. NCS Awards External links Doonesbury home page Doonesbury—The Sandbox-Military Blog DOONESBURY: Drawing and Quartering for Fun and Profit—TIME Magazine article from February 9, 1976	Doonesbury \|@lemmatized doonesbury:68 comic:27 strip:97 garry:4 trudeau:52 chronicle:1 adventure:1 life:6 vast:1 array:1 different:2 character:39 age:6 profession:1 background:1 president:11 united:3 state:5 title:1 michael:4 middle:2 remarry:3 father:1 frequently:4 political:7 nature:1 feature:6 profess:1 range:1 affiliation:1 cartoon:13 editorial:11 slant:1 note:5 liberal:1 outlook:1 name:7 combination:1 word:4 doone:1 prep:1 school:2 slang:1 someone:1 unafraid:1 appear:10 foolish:1 surname:1 charles:3 pillsbury:1 roommate:3 yale:6 university:3 history:5 first:14 october:5 begin:8 continuation:1 bull:2 tale:3 student:6 newspaper:24 daily:5 news:8 september:10 focus:1 local:1 campus:1 event:6 executive:1 editor:5 paper:8 late:3 reed:1 hundt:1 later:11 serve:2 chairman:1 fcc:1 flexible:1 policy:1 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6,470	Manifesto	A manifesto is a public declaration of principles and intentions, often political in nature, but may also be life stance related. However, manifestos relating to religious belief are rather referred to as credo. Etymology Manifesto is derived from the Italian word manifesto, itself derived from the Latin manifestum. Its first recorded use in English is from 1620, in Nathaniel Brent's translation of Paolo Sarpi's History of the councel of Trent: "To this citation he made answer by a Manifesto" (p 102). Similarly, "They were so farre surprized with his Manifesto, that they would never suffer it to be published" (p 103) Oxford English Dictionary . Electoral manifestos In some parliamentary democracies, political parties prepare electoral manifestos which set out both their strategic direction and outlines of prospective legislation should they win sufficient support in an election to serve in government. Legislative proposals which are featured in the manifesto of a party which has won an election are often regarded as having superior legitimacy to other measures which a governing party may introduce for consideration by the legislature. Although, in recent decades the status of electoral manifestos has diminished somewhat due to a significant tendency for winning parties to, following the election, either ignore, indefinitely delay, or even outright reject manifesto policies which were popular with the public. An alternative term, used especially in North America, is party platform. Notable manifestos Political Examples of notable manifestos: The United States Declaration of Independence (1776) The declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen during the French Revolution The Cartagena Manifesto (1812), by Simón Bolívar The Tamworth Manifesto issued in 1834 by Sir Robert Peel The Communist Manifesto (1848), by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels The Anarchist Manifesto (1850), by Anselme Bellegarrigue. The Humanist Manifesto I, II and III The 1890 Manifesto dealing with plural marriage, issued by Wilford Woodruff as president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 'The Second Manifesto dealing with plural marriage, issued by Joseph F. Smith as president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The October Manifesto (1905) issued by Nicholas II, in an effort to cease the 1905 Russian Revolution The Manifesto of the Sixteen (1916) The Urmia Manifesto of the United Free Assyria, (1917) by Dr. Freydun Atturaya The Amasya Circular (1919)The Fascist manifesto (1919), by Fasci di CombattimentoThe Manifesto of the Anti-Fascist Intellectuals (1925), by Benedetto CroceMein Kampf (My Struggle) (1925), by Adolf HitlerThe Cannibal Manifesto (1928), by Oswald de AndradeI'll Take my Stand (1930), the manifesto of the Southern Agrarians The Regina Manifesto (1933), by the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation A Christian Manifesto (1934) by Edwin Lewis The PKWN manifesto (1944), by Polish Committee of National Liberation The Oxford Manifesto (1947) describing the basic principles of Liberal International The Objectives Resolution of Pakistan (1949), by Liaquat Ali Khan The Russell-Einstein Manifesto (1955), against nuclear weapons and The Southern Manifesto (1956), opposing the Supreme Court's decision in Brown v. Board of Education Report on the Construction of Situations (1957), by Guy Debord 'The Capitalist Manifesto (1958), proposing the Democratization of Capital, including employee and citizen's ownership by Louis Kelso and Mortimer Adler (see Binary Economics')The Manifesto of the 121 against the Algerian WarThe Sharon Statement (1960), by M. Stanton Evans et al. (Young Americans for Freedom)The Port Huron Statement (1962), by Tom Hayden et al. The SCUM Manifesto (1968), by Valerie SolanasFor a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto (1973), by Murray RothbardNew Libertarian Manifesto (1980), by Samuel Edward Konkin IIIA Christian Manifesto (1982), by Francis SchaefferManifesto against conscription and the military system (1993) by Christian Bartolf (Gandhi Information Center)The Contract with America (1994), by the Republican candidates for the House of RepresentativesIndustrial Society and Its Future a.k.a. The Unabomber's Manifesto (1995) by Unabomber, Theodore KaczynskiThe Hedonistic Imperative by David PearceThe Libre Manifesto, by the Libre Society Life on Earth (2002) by Luke HelderThe Free Culture Manifesto (2004), by FreeCulture.orgManifesto on Freedom and Democracy for Vietnam (2006) by Bloc 8406The Euston Manifesto (2006) by Euston Manifesto Group The Revolution: A Manifesto (2008), by Ron Paul ArtisticThe Futurist Manifesto (1909), by Filippo Tommaso MarinettiThe Art of Noises (1913), by Luigi RussoloThe Surrealist Manifesto (1924), by André BretonThe Symbolist Manifesto (1886), by Jean Moreas Cyberfeminist Manifesto (1991) by VNS MatrixDogma 95 (1995) by Lars von Trier, Thomas Vinterberg, Kristian Levring and Søren Kragh-Jacobsen[Manifesto of Transdisciplinarity] (1996) by Basarab Nicolescu100 Anti-Theses of Cyberfeminism (1997) by Old Boys' NetworkMinnesota declaration: truth and fact in documentary cinema (1999), by Werner HerzogFirst Things First 2000 manifesto: Ethics and social responsibility in graphic design (1999), by Kalle Lasn & Chris Dixon with Ken Garland. Edited by Rick Poynor BLAST the Vorticist manifesto, by Wyndham Lewis The Anti-News Manifesto (2006), by Scott Ryan Technology A Cyborg Manifesto (1985), by Donna Haraway The GNU Manifesto (1985), by Richard Stallman, an explanation and definition of the goals of the GNU Project Industrial Society and Its Future, otherwise known as the Unabomber Manifesto (1995), By Ted Kaczynski The Hacker's Manifesto (1986), By The Mentor aka Loyd Blankenship Pluginmanifesto by Ana Kronschnabl, a Web film statement Cyberfeminist Manifesto (1991) by VNS Matrix 100 Anti-Theses of Cyberfeminism (1997) by Old Boys' Network The Cathedral and the Bazaar (1997), by Eric S. Raymond The Cluetrain Manifesto (1999) by Rick Levine, Christopher Locke, Doc Searls and David Weinberger The Hacktivismo Declaration (2001) by Oxblood Ruffin (Hacktivismo) The Agile Manifesto (2001) by 17 software professionals The Third Manifesto (1995), by Christopher J. Date and Hugh Darwen, a proposal for relational database management system ''Monad Manifesto - The Origin of Windows Powershell (2002) by Jeffrey P. Snover See also Art manifesto External links Manifestos.net An archive of Labour electoral manifestos from 1900-present An archive of Conservative electoral manifestos from 1900-present An archive of Liberal/SDP/Liberal Democrat electoral manifestos from 1900-present References	Manifesto \|@lemmatized manifesto:66 public:2 declaration:5 principle:2 intention:1 often:2 political:3 nature:1 may:2 also:2 life:2 stance:1 relate:2 however:1 religious:1 belief:1 rather:1 refer:1 credo:1 etymology:1 derive:2 italian:1 word:1 latin:1 manifestum:1 first:2 record:1 use:2 english:2 nathaniel:1 brent:1 translation:1 paolo:1 sarpi:1 history:1 councel:1 trent:1 citation:1 make:1 answer:1 p:3 similarly:1 farre:1 surprized:1 would:1 never:1 suffer:1 publish:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 electoral:6 parliamentary:1 democracy:2 party:5 prepare:1 set:1 strategic:1 direction:1 outline:1 prospective:1 legislation:1 win:3 sufficient:1 support:1 election:3 serve:1 government:1 legislative:1 proposal:2 feature:1 regard:1 superior:1 legitimacy:1 measure:1 govern:1 introduce:1 consideration:1 legislature:1 although:1 recent:1 decade:1 status:1 diminish:1 somewhat:1 due:1 significant:1 tendency:1 follow:1 either:1 ignore:1 indefinitely:1 delay:1 even:1 outright:1 reject:1 policy:1 popular:1 alternative:1 term:1 especially:1 north:1 america:2 platform:1 notable:2 manifestos:1 example:1 united:2 state:1 independence:1 right:1 man:1 citizen:2 french:1 revolution:3 cartagena:1 simón:1 bolívar:1 tamworth:1 issue:4 sir:1 robert:1 peel:1 communist:1 karl:1 marx:1 friedrich:1 engels:1 anarchist:1 anselme:1 bellegarrigue:1 humanist:1 ii:2 iii:1 deal:2 plural:2 marriage:2 wilford:1 woodruff:1 president:2 church:2 jesus:2 christ:2 latter:2 day:2 saint:2 second:1 joseph:1 f:1 smith:1 october:1 nicholas:1 effort:1 cease:1 russian:1 sixteen:1 urmia:1 free:2 assyria:1 dr:1 freydun:1 atturaya:1 amasya:1 circular:1 fascist:2 fasci:1 di:1 combattimentothe:1 anti:4 intellectual:1 benedetto:1 crocemein:1 kampf:1 struggle:1 adolf:1 hitlerthe:1 cannibal:1 oswald:1 de:1 andradei:1 take:1 stand:1 southern:2 agrarians:1 regina:1 co:1 operative:1 commonwealth:1 federation:1 christian:3 edwin:1 lewis:2 pkwn:1 polish:1 committee:1 national:1 liberation:1 describe:1 basic:1 liberal:3 international:1 objective:1 resolution:1 pakistan:1 liaquat:1 ali:1 khan:1 russell:1 einstein:1 nuclear:1 weapon:1 oppose:1 supreme:1 court:1 decision:1 brown:1 v:1 board:1 education:1 report:1 construction:1 situation:1 guy:1 debord:1 capitalist:1 propose:1 democratization:1 capital:1 include:1 employee:1 ownership:1 louis:1 kelso:1 mortimer:1 adler:1 see:2 binary:1 economics:1 algerian:1 warthe:1 sharon:1 statement:3 stanton:1 evans:1 et:2 al:2 young:1 american:1 freedom:2 port:1 huron:1 tom:1 hayden:1 scum:1 valerie:1 solanasfor:1 new:1 liberty:1 libertarian:2 murray:1 rothbardnew:1 samuel:1 edward:1 konkin:1 iiia:1 francis:1 schaeffermanifesto:1 conscription:1 military:1 system:2 bartolf:1 gandhi:1 information:1 center:1 contract:1 republican:1 candidate:1 house:1 representativesindustrial:1 society:3 future:2 k:1 unabomber:3 theodore:1 kaczynskithe:1 hedonistic:1 imperative:1 david:2 pearcethe:1 libre:2 earth:1 luke:1 helderthe:1 culture:1 freeculture:1 orgmanifesto:1 vietnam:1 bloc:1 euston:2 group:1 ron:1 paul:1 artisticthe:1 futurist:1 filippo:1 tommaso:1 marinettithe:1 art:2 noise:1 luigi:1 russolothe:1 surrealist:1 andré:1 bretonthe:1 symbolist:1 jean:1 moreas:1 cyberfeminist:2 vns:2 matrixdogma:1 lars:1 von:1 trier:1 thomas:1 vinterberg:1 kristian:1 levring:1 søren:1 kragh:1 jacobsen:1 transdisciplinarity:1 basarab:1 thesis:2 cyberfeminism:2 old:2 boy:2 networkminnesota:1 truth:1 fact:1 documentary:1 cinema:1 werner:1 herzogfirst:1 thing:1 ethic:1 social:1 responsibility:1 graphic:1 design:1 kalle:1 lasn:1 chris:1 dixon:1 ken:1 garland:1 edit:1 rick:2 poynor:1 blast:1 vorticist:1 wyndham:1 news:1 scott:1 ryan:1 technology:1 cyborg:1 donna:1 haraway:1 gnu:2 richard:1 stallman:1 explanation:1 definition:1 goal:1 project:1 industrial:1 otherwise:1 know:1 ted:1 kaczynski:1 hacker:1 mentor:1 aka:1 loyd:1 blankenship:1 pluginmanifesto:1 ana:1 kronschnabl:1 web:1 film:1 matrix:1 network:1 cathedral:1 bazaar:1 eric:1 raymond:1 cluetrain:1 levine:1 christopher:2 locke:1 doc:1 searls:1 weinberger:1 hacktivismo:2 oxblood:1 ruffin:1 agile:1 software:1 professional:1 third:1 j:1 date:1 hugh:1 darwen:1 relational:1 database:1 management:1 monad:1 origin:1 window:1 powershell:1 jeffrey:1 snover:1 external:1 link:1 net:1 archive:3 labour:1 present:3 conservative:1 sdp:1 democrat:1 reference:1 \|@bigram parliamentary_democracy:1 declaration_independence:1 simón_bolívar:1 karl_marx:1 friedrich_engels:1 humanist_manifesto:1 wilford_woodruff:1 jesus_christ:2 co_operative:1 nuclear_weapon:1 supreme_court:1 guy_debord:1 mortimer_adler:1 et_al:2 tom_hayden:1 futurist_manifesto:1 lars_von:1 von_trier:1 thomas_vinterberg:1 wyndham_lewis:1 donna_haraway:1 richard_stallman:1 cathedral_bazaar:1 eric_raymond:1 hugh_darwen:1 relational_database:1 external_link:1 sdp_liberal:1 liberal_democrat:1
6,471	Organic_chemistry	Organic chemistry is a discipline within chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of chemical compounds that contain carbon. These compounds may contain any number of other elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as well as phosphorus, silicon and sulfur. Robert T. Morrison, Robert N. Boyd, and Robert K. Boyd, Organic Chemistry, 6th edition (Benjamin Cummings, 1992, ISBN 0-13-643669-2) - this is "Morrison and Boyd", a classic textbook John D. Roberts, Marjorie C. Caserio, Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry,(W. A. Benjamin,Inc.,1964) - another classic textbook Richard F. and Sally J. Daley, Organic Chemistry, Online organic chemistry textbook. http://www.ochem4free.info The original definition of "organic" chemistry came from the misconception that organic compounds were always related to life processes. However, organic molecules can be produced by processes not involving life. Life as we know it also depends on inorganic chemistry. For example, many enzymes rely on transition metals such as iron and copper; and materials such as shells, teeth and bones are part organic, part inorganic in composition. Apart from elemental carbon, only certain classes of carbon compounds (such as oxides, carbonates, and carbides) are conventionally considered inorganic. Biochemistry deals mainly with the natural chemistry of biomolecules such as proteins, nucleic acids, and sugars. Because of their unique properties, multi-carbon compounds exhibit extremely large variety and the range of application of organic compounds is enormous. They form the basis of, or are important constituents of many products (paints, plastics, food, explosives, drugs, petrochemicals, to name but a few) and (apart from a very few exceptions) they form the basis of all earthly life processes. The different shapes and chemical reactivities of organic molecules provide an astonishing variety of functions, like those of enzyme catalysts in biochemical reactions of live systems. Current (as of 2008) trends in organic chemistry include chiral synthesis, green chemistry, microwave chemistry, fullerenes and microwave spectroscopy. Historical highlights Friedrich Wöhler At the very beginning of the nineteenth century chemists generally thought that compounds from living organisms were too complicated in structure to be capable of artificial synthesis from non-living things, and that a 'vital force' or vitalism conferred the characteristics of living beings on this form of matter. They named these compounds 'organic', and preferred to direct their investigations toward inorganic materials that seemed more promising. Organic chemistry received a boost when it was realized that these compounds could be treated in ways similar to inorganic compounds and could be created in the laboratory by means other than 'vital force'. Around 1816 Michel Chevreul started a study of soaps made from various fats and alkali. He separated the different acids that, in combination with the alkali, produced the soap. Since these were all individual compounds, he demonstrated that it was possible to make a chemical change in various fats (which traditionally come from organic sources), producing new compounds, without 'vital force'. In 1828 Friedrich Wöhler first manufactured the organic chemical urea (carbamide), a constituent of urine, from the inorganic ammonium cyanate NH4OCN, in what is now called the Wöhler synthesis. Although Wöhler was, at this time as well as afterwards, cautious about claiming that he had thereby destroyed the theory of vital force, most have looked to this event as the turning point. A great next step was when in 1856 William Henry Perkin, while trying to manufacture quinine, again accidentally came to manufacture the organic dye now called Perkin's mauve, which by generating a huge amount of money greatly increased interest in organic chemistry. Another step was the laboratory preparation of DDT by Othmer Zeidler in 1874, but the insecticide properties of this compound were not discovered until much later. The crucial breakthrough for the theory of organic chemistry was the concept of chemical structure, developed independently and simultaneously by Friedrich August Kekule and Archibald Scott Couper in 1858. Both men suggested that tetravalent carbon atoms could link to each other to form a carbon lattice, and that the detailed patterns of atomic bonding could be discerned by skillful interpretations of appropriate chemical reactions. The history of organic chemistry continues with the discovery of petroleum and its separation into fractions according to boiling ranges. The conversion of different compound types or individual compounds by various chemical processes created the petroleum chemistry leading to the birth of the petrochemical industry, which successfully manufactured artificial rubbers, the various organic adhesives, the property-modifying petroleum additives, and plastics. The pharmaceutical industry began in the last decade of the 19th century when acetylsalicylic acid (more commonly referred to as aspirin) manufacture was started in Germany by Bayer. The first time a drug was systematically improved was with arsphenamine (Salvarsan). Numerous derivatives of the dangerously toxic atoxyl were systematically synthesized and tested by Paul Ehrlich and his group, and the compound with best effectiveness and toxicity characteristics was selected for production. Early examples of organic reactions and applications were serendipitous, such as Perkin's accidental discovery of Perkin's mauve. However, from the 20th century, the progress of organic chemistry allowed for synthesis of specifically selected compounds or even molecules designed with specific properties, as in drug design. The process of finding new synthesis routes for a given compound is called total synthesis. Total synthesis of complex natural compounds started with urea, increased in complexity to glucose and terpineol, and in 1907, total synthesis was commercialized the first time by Gustaf Komppa with camphor. Pharmaceutical benefits have been substantial, for example cholesterol-related compounds have opened ways to synthesis of complex human hormones and their modified derivatives. Since the start of the 20th century, complexity of total syntheses has been increasing, with examples such as lysergic acid and vitamin B12. Today's targets feature tens of stereogenic centers that must be synthesized correctly with asymmetric synthesis. Biochemistry, the chemistry of living organisms, their structure and interactions in vitro and inside living systems, has only started in the 20th century, opening up a brand new chapter of organic chemistry with enormous scope. Classification of organic substances Description and nomenclature Classification is not possible without having a full description of the individual compounds. In contrast with inorganic chemistry, in which describing a chemical compound can be achieved by simply enumerating the chemical symbols of the elements present in the compound together with the number of these elements in the molecule, in organic chemistry the relative arrangement of the atoms within a molecule must be added for a full description. One way of describing the molecule is by drawing its structural formula. Because of molecular complexity, simplified systems of chemical notation have been developed. The latest version is the line-angle formula, which achieves simplicity without introducing ambiguity. In this system, the endpoints and intersections of each line represent one carbon, and hydrogens can either be notated or assumed to be present by implication. Some disadvantages of chemical notation are that they are not easily described by words and they are not easily printable. These problems have been addressed by describing molecular structures using organic nomenclature . Because of the difficulties arising from the very large number and variety of organic compounds, chemists realized early on that the establishment of an internationally accepted system of naming organic compounds was of paramount importance. The Geneva Nomenclature was born in 1892 as a result of a number of international meetings on the subject. It was also realized that as the family of organic compounds grew, the system would have to be expanded and modified. This task was ultimately taken on by the International Union on Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Recognizing the fact that in the branch of biochemistry the complexity of organic structures increases, the IUPAC organization joined forces with the International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, IUBMB, to produce a list of joint recommendations on nomenclature. Later, as the numbers and complexities of organic molecules grew, new recommendations were made within IUPAC for simplification. The first such recommendation was presented in 1951 when a cyclic benzene structure was named a cyclophane. Later recommendations extended the method to the simplification of other complex cyclic structures, including heterocyclics, and named such structures phanes. For ordinary communication, to spare a tedious description, the official IUPAC naming recommendations are not always followed in practice except when it is necessary to give a concise definition to a compound, or when the IUPAC name is simpler (viz. ethanol versus ethyl alcohol). Otherwise the common or trivial name may be used, often derived from the source of the compound. In summary, organic substances are classified by their molecular structural arrangement and by what other atoms are present along with the chief (carbon) constituent in their makeup, whilst in a structural formula, hydrogen is implicitly assumed to occupy all free valences of an appropriate carbon atom which remain after accounting for branching, other element(s) and/or multiple bonding. Hydrocarbons and functional groups The family of carboxylic acids contains a carboxyl (-COOH) functional group. Acetic acid is an example. Classification normally starts with the hydrocarbons: compounds which contain only carbon and hydrogen. For sub-classes see below. Other elements present themselves in atomic configurations called functional groups which have decisive influence on the chemical and physical characteristics of the compound; thus those containing the same atomic formations have similar characteristics, which may be: miscibility with water, acidity/alkalinity, chemical reactivity, oxidation resistance, and others. Some functional groups are also radicals, similar to those in inorganic chemistry, defined as polar atomic configurations which pass during chemical reactions from one chemical compound into another without change. Some of the elements of the functional groups (O, S, N, halogens) may stand alone and the group name is not strictly appropriate, but because of their decisive effect on the way they modify the characteristics of the hydrocarbons in which they are present they are classed with the functional groups, and their specific effect on the properties lends excellent means for characterisation and classification. Referring to the hydrocarbon types below, many, if not all of the functional groups which are typically present within aliphatic compounds are also represented within the aromatic and alicyclic group of compounds, unless they are dehydrated, which would lead to non-reacting co-optional groups. Reference is made here again to the organic nomenclature, which shows an extensive (if not comprehensive) number of classes of compounds according to the presence of various functional groups, based on the IUPAC recommendations, but also some based on trivial names. Putting compounds in sub-classes becomes more difficult when more than one functional group is present. Two overarching chain type categories exist: open chain aliphatic compounds and closed chain cyclic compounds. Those in which both open chain and cyclic parts are present are normally classed with the latter. Aliphatic compounds The aliphatic hydrocarbons are subdivided into three groups of homologous series according to their state of saturation: paraffins alkanes without any double or triple bonds, olefins alkenes with double bonds, which can be mono-olefins with a single double bond, di-olefins, or di-enes with two, or poly-olefins with more. The third group with a triple bond is named after the name of the shortest member of the homologue series as the acetylenes alkynes. The rest of the group is classed according to the functional groups present. From another aspect aliphatics can be straight chain or branched chain compounds, and the degree of branching also affects characteristics, like octane number or cetane number in petroleum chemistry. Aromatic and alicyclic compounds Benzene is one of the best-known aromatic compounds as it is one of the simplest aromatics. Cyclic compounds can, again, be saturated or unsaturated. Because of the bonding angle of carbon, the most stable configurations contain six carbon atoms, but while rings with five carbon atoms are also frequent, others are rarer. The cyclic hydrocarbons divide into alicyclics and aromatics (also called arenes). Of the alicyclic compounds the cycloalkanes do not contain multiple bonds, whilst the cycloalkenes and the cycloalkynes do. Typically this latter type only exists in the form of large rings, called macrocycles. The simplest member of the cycloalkane family is the three-membered cyclopropane. Aromatic hydrocarbons contain conjugated double bonds. One of the simplest examples of these is benzene, the structure of which was formulated by Kekulé who first proposed the delocalization or resonance principle for explaining its structure. For "conventional" cyclic compounds, aromaticity is conferred by the presence of 4n + 2 delocalized pi electrons, where n is an integer. Particular instability (antiaromaticity) is conferred by the presence of 4n conjugated pi electrons. The characteristics of the cyclic hydrocarbons are again altered if heteroatoms are present, which can exist as either substituents attached externally to the ring (exocyclic) or as a member of the ring itself (endocyclic). In the case of the latter, the ring is termed a heterocycle. Pyridine and furan are examples of aromatic heterocycles while piperidine and tetrahydrofuran are the corresponding alicyclic heterocycles. The heteroatom of heterocyclic molecules is generally oxygen, sulfur, or nitrogen, with the latter being particularly common in biochemical systems. Rings can fuse with other rings on an edge to give polycyclic compounds. The purine nucleoside bases are notable polycyclic aromatic heterocycles. Rings can also fuse on a "corner" such that one atom (almost always carbon) has two bonds going to one ring and two to another. Such compounds are termed spiro and are important in a number of natural products. Polymers This swimming board is made of polystyrene, an example of a polymer One important property of carbon in organic chemistry is that it can form certain compounds, the individual molecules of which are capable of attaching themselves to one another, thereby forming a chain or a network. The process is called polymerization and the chains or networks polymers, while the source compound is a monomer. Two main groups of polymers exist: those artificially manufactured are referred to as industrial polymers "industrial polymers, chemistry of." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006 or synthetic polymers and those naturally occurring as biopolymers. Since the invention of the first artificial polymer, bakelite, the family has quickly grown with the invention of others. Common synthetic organic polymers are polyethylene or polythene, polypropylene, nylon, teflon or PTFE, polystyrene, polyesters, polymethylmethacrylate (commonly known as perspex or plexiglas) polyvinylchloride or PVC, and polyisobutylene an important artificial or synthetic rubber also the polymerised butadiene, a rubber component. The examples are generic terms, and many varieties of each of these may exist, with their physical characteristics fine tuned for a specific use. Changing the conditions of polymerisation changes the chemical composition of the product by altering chain length, or branching, or the tacticity. With a single monomer as a start the product is a homopolymer. Further, secondary component(s) may be added to create a heteropolymer (co-polymer) and the degree of clustering of the different components can also be controlled. Physical characteristics, such as hardness, density, mechanical or tensile strength, abrasion resistance, heat resistance, transparency, colour, etc. will depend on the final composition. Biomolecules Maitotoxin, a complex organic biological toxin. Biomolecular chemistry is a major category within organic chemistry which is frequently studied by biochemists. Many complex multi-functional group molecules are important in living organisms. Some are long-chain biopolymers, and these include proteins, DNA, RNA and the polysaccharides such as starches in animals and celluloses in plants. The other main classes are amino acids (monomer building blocks of proteins), carbohydrates (which includes the polysaccharides), the nucleic acids (which include DNA and RNA as polymers), and the lipids. In addition, animal biochemistry contains many small molecule intermediates which assist in energy production through the Krebs cycle, and produces isoprene, the most common hydrocarbon in animals. Isoprenes in animals form the important steroid structural (cholesterol) and steroid hormone compounds; and in plants form terpenes, terpenoids, some alkaloids, and a unique set of structural hydrocarbons called biopolymer polyisoprenoids present in latex sap which is the basis for making rubber. Small molecules In pharmacology, an important group of organic compounds is small molecules, also referred to as 'small organic compounds'. In this context, a small molecule is a small organic compound that is biologically active, but is not a polymer. In practice, small molecules have a molar mass less than approximately 1000 g/mol. Fullerenes Fullerenes are among the types of compounds engineered by organic chemists that have generated the most interest. The discovery of their unique electronic properties due to their spherical structure has stimulated new research into related fields such as carbon nanotubes. Others Organic compounds containing bonds of carbon to nitrogen, oxygen and the halogens are not normally grouped separately. Others are sometimes put into major groups within organic chemistry and discussed under titles such as organosulfur chemistry, organometallic chemistry, organophosphorus chemistry and organosilicon chemistry. Characteristics of organic substances The structure of methane by pictorial representation of a Lewis diagram showing the sharing of electronpairs between atomic nuclei in a covalent bond. However, in reality, the structure is not two-dimensional. Organic compounds are generally covalently bonded. This allows for unique structures such as long carbon chains and rings. The reason carbon is excellent at forming unique structures and that there are so many carbon compounds is that carbon atoms form very stable covalent bonds with one another (catenation). In contrast to inorganic materials, organic compounds typically melt, boil, sublimate, or decompose below 300 °C. Neutral organic compounds tend to be less soluble in water compared to many inorganic salts, with the exception of certain compounds such as ionic organic compounds and low molecular weight alcohols and carboxylic acids where hydrogen bonding occurs. Organic compounds tend to dissolve in organic solvents which are either pure substances like ether or ethyl alcohol, or mixtures, such as the paraffinic solvents such as the various petroleum ethers and white spirits, or the range of pure or mixed aromatic solvents obtained from petroleum or tar fractions by physical separation or by chemical conversion. Solubility in the different solvents depends upon the solvent type and on the functional groups if present. Solutions are studied by the science of physical chemistry. Like inorganic salts, organic compounds may also form crystals. A unique property of carbon in organic compounds is that its valency does not always have to be taken up by atoms of other elements, and when it is not, a condition termed unsaturation results. In such cases we talk about carbon carbon double bonds or triple bonds. Double bonds alternating with single in a chain are called conjugated double bonds. An aromatic structure is a special case in which the conjugated chain is a closed ring. Molecular structure elucidation Molecular models of caffeine Organic compounds consist of carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms, and functional groups. The valence of carbon is 4, and hydrogen is 1, functional groups are generally 1. From the number of carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms in a molecule the degree of unsaturation can be obtained. Many, but not all structures can be envisioned by the simple valence rule that there will be one bond for each valence number. The knowledge of the chemical formula for an organic compound is not sufficient information because many isomers can exist. Organic compounds often exist as mixtures. Because many organic compounds have relatively low boiling points and/or dissolve easily in organic solvents there exist many methods for separating mixtures into pure constituents that are specific to organic chemistry such as distillation, crystallization and chromatography techniques. There exist several methods for deducing the structure of an organic compound. In general usage are (in alphabetical order): Crystallography: This is the most precise method for determining molecular geometry; however, it is very difficult to grow crystals of sufficient size and high quality to get a clear picture, so it remains a secondary form of analysis. Crystallography has seen especially extensive use in biochemistry (for protein structure determination) and in the characterization of organometallic catalysts, which often possess significant molecular symmetry. Elemental analysis: A destructive method used to determine the elemental composition of a molecule. See also mass spectrometry, below. Infrared spectroscopy: Chiefly used to determine the presence (or absence) of certain functional groups. Mass spectrometry: Used to determine the molecular weight of a compound and from mass spectrum analysis its structure. High resolution mass spectrometry can often identify the precise formula of a compound through knowledge of isotopic masses and abundances; it is thus sometimes used in lieu of elemental analysis. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy identifies different nuclei based on their chemical environment. This is the most important and commonly used spectroscopic technique for organic chemists, often permitting complete assignment of atom connectivity and even stereochemistry given the proper set of spectroscopy experiments (e.g. correlation spectroscopy). Optical rotation: Distinguishes between two enantiomers of a chiral compound based on the sign of rotation of plane polarized light. If the specific rotation of an enantiomer is known, the magnitude of rotation also gives the ratio of enantiomers in a mixed sample, though HPLC with a chiral column also can supply this information. UV/VIS spectroscopy: Used to determine degree of conjugation in the system. While still sometimes used to characterize molecules, UV/VIS is more commonly used to quantitate how much of a known compound is present in a (typically liquid) sample. Additional methods are provided by analytical chemistry. Organic reactions Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. While pure hydrocarbons undergo certain limited classes of reactions, many more reactions which organic compounds undergo are largely determined by functional groups. The general theory of these reactions involves careful analysis of such properties as the electron affinity of key atoms, bond strengths and steric hindrance. These issues can determine the relative stability of short-lived reactive intermediates, which usually directly determine the path of the reaction. An example of a common reaction is a substitution reaction written as: Nu− + C-X → C-Nu + X− where X is some functional group and Nu is a nucleophile. There are many important aspects of a specific reaction. Whether it will occur spontaneously or not is determined by the Gibbs free energy change of the reaction. The heat that is either produced or needed by the reaction is found from the total enthalpy change. Other concerns include whether side reactions occur from the same reaction conditions. Any side reactions which occur typically produce undesired compounds which may be anywhere from very easy or very difficult to separate from the desired compound. Synthetic organic chemistry A synthesis designed by E.J. Corey for oseltamivir (Tamiflu). This synthesis has 11 distinct reactions. Synthetic organic chemistry is an applied science as it borders engineering, the "design, analysis, and/or construction of works for practical purposes". Organic synthesis of a novel compound is a problem solving task, where a synthesis is designed for a target molecule by selecting optimal reactions from optimal starting materials. Complex compounds can have tens of reaction steps that sequentially build the desired molecule. The synthesis proceeds by utilizing the reactivity of the functional groups in the molecule. For example, a carbonyl compound can be used as a nucleophile by converting it into an enolate, or as an electrophile; the combination of the two is called the aldol reaction. Designing practically useful syntheses always requires conducting the actual synthesis in the laboratory. The scientific practice of creating novel synthetic routes for complex molecules is called total synthesis. There are several strategies to design a synthesis. The modern method of retrosynthesis, developed by E.J. Corey, starts with the target molecule and splices it to pieces according to known reactions. The pieces, or the proposed precursors, receive the same treatment, until available and ideally inexpensive starting materials are reached. Then, the retrosynthesis is written in the opposite direction to give the synthesis. A "synthetic tree" can be constructed, because each compound and also each precursor has multiple syntheses. See also Important publications in organic chemistry List of organic reactions References External links MIT OpenCourseWare: Organic Chemistry I Organic Chemistry Lectures, Videos and Text Journal of Organic Chemistry (subscription required) (Table of Contents) Organic Letters (Table of Contents) Synlett Synthesis Organic Chemistry Portal - Recent Abstracts and (Name)Reactions Home of a full, online, peer-reviewed organic chemistry text. Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry Organic Chemistry Resources WorldWide - A collection of Links Organic Families and Their Functional Groups Roger Frost's Organic Chemistry - multimedia teaching tools Organic chemistry help Organic Chemistry Tutor Chemical Freeware on http://www.acdlabs.com Chemical Freeware from ChemAxon. 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6,472	Geography_of_Indonesia	Indonesia is an archipelagic island country in Southeast Asia, lying between the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. It is in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from Indian Ocean to Pacific Ocean. The country's variations in culture have been shaped—although not specifically determined—by centuries of complex interactions with the physical environment. Although Indonesians are now less vulnerable to the of nature as a result of improved technology and social programs, to some extent their social diversity has emerged from traditionally different patterns of adjustment to their physical circumstances. Geographic regions Detailed map of Indonesia Indonesia is an archipelagic country extending 5,120 kilometers from east to west and 1,760 kilometers from north to south. It encompasses and estimated 17,508 islands, only 6,000 of which are inhabited. It comprises five main islands; Sumatra, Java, Borneo (known as "Kalimantan" in Indonesia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea; two major archipelagos (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands); and sixty smaller archipelagos. Four of the islands are shared with other nations; Borneo is shared with Malaysia and Brunei, Sebatik, located eastern coast of Kalimantan, shared with Malaysia, Timor is shared with East Timor, and the newly divided provinces of Papua and West Papua share the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea. Indonesia's total land area is 1,919,317 square kilometers. Included in Indonesia's total territory is another 93,000 square kilometers of inlands seas (straits, bays, and other bodies of water). The additional surrounding sea areas bring Indonesia's generally recognized territory (land and sea) to about 5 million square kilometers. The government, however, also claims an exclusive economic zone, which brings the total to about 7.9 million square kilometers. Geographers have conventionally grouped Sumatra, Java (and Madura), Kalimantan (in Borneo island), and Sulawesi in the Greater Sunda Islands. These islands, except for Sulawesi, lie on the Sunda Shelf—an extension of the Malay Peninsula and the Southeast Asian mainland. At Indonesia's eastern extremity is Papua, which takes up the western half of the world's second largest island--New Guinea--on the Sahul Shelf. Sea depths in the Sunda and Sahul shelves average 200 meters or less. Between these two shelves lie Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara (also known as the Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Maluku Islands (or the Moluccas), which form a second island group where the surrounding seas in some places reach 4,500 meters in depth. The term Outer Islands is used inconsistently by various writers but it is usually taken to mean those islands other than Java and Madura. Volcanoes in Indonesia Tectonically, this region--especially Java--is highly unstable, and although the volcanic ash has resulted in fertile soils, it makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. The country has numerous mountains and some 400 volcanoes, of which approximately 150 are active. Between 1972 and 1991 alone, twenty-nine volcanic eruptions were recorded, mostly on Java. The most violent volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred in Indonesia. In 1815 a volcano at Gunung Tambora on the north coast of Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara Barat Province, claimed 92,000 lives and created "the year without a summer" in various parts of the world. In 1883 Krakatau in the Sunda Strait, between Java and Sumatra, erupted and some 36,000 West Javans died from the resulting tidal wave. The sound of the explosion was reported as far away as Turkey and Japan. For almost a century following that eruption, Krakatau was quiet, until the late 1970s, when it erupted twice. Mountains ranging between 3,000 and 3,800 meters above sea level can be found on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram. The country's tallest mountains are located in the Jayawijaya Mountains and the Sudirman Mountains in Papua. The highest peak, Puncak Jaya, also known as Mount Carstenz, which reaches 4,884 meters, is located in the Sudirman Mountains. Nusa Tenggara consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward Papua. The inner arc of Nusa Tenggara is a continuation of the chain of mountains and volcanoes extending from Sumatra through Java, Bali, and Flores, and trailing off in the Banda Islands. The outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano. This chain resurfaces in Nusa Tenggara in the ruggedly mountainous islands of Sumba and Timor. The Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) are geologically among the most complex of the Indonesian islands. They are located in the northeast sector of the archipelago, bounded by the Philippines to the north, Papua to the east, and Nusa Tenggara to the south. The largest of these islands include Halmahera, Seram and Buru, all of which rise steeply out of very deep seas. This abrupt relief pattern from sea to high mountains means that there are very few level coastal plains. Geomorphologists believe that the island of New Guinea, of which Papua is a part, may once have been part of the Australian continent. The breakup and tectonic action created both towering, snowcapped mountain peaks lining its central east-west spine and hot, humid alluvial plains along the coast of New Guinea. Papua's mountains range some 650 kilometers east to west, dividing the region between north and south. Time zones See also: Time in Indonesia The archipelago stretches across three time zones: Western Indonesian Time--seven hours in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)--includes Sumatra, Java, and eastern Kalimantan; Central Indonesian Time--eight hours head of GMT--includes western Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, and Sulawesi; and Eastern Indonesian Time--nine hours ahead of GMT-- includes the Malukus and Papua. The boundary between the western and central time zones--established in 1988--is a line running north between Java and Bali through the center of Kalimantan. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the eastern tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi. Climate The Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia The main variable of Indonesia's climate is not temperature or air pressure, but rainfall. The almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81 % of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain fairly constant. Split by the equator, the archipelago is almost entirely tropical in climate, with the coastal plains averaging 28 °C, the inland and mountain areas averaging 26 °C, and the higher mountain regions, 23 °C. The area's relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90 %. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June through September and from the northwest in December through March. Typhoons and large scale storms pose little hazard to mariners in Indonesia waters; the major danger comes from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits. Environmental issues For centuries, the geographical resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns. One cultural pattern consists of the formerly Indianized, rice-growing peasants in the valleys and plains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali; another cultural complex is composed of the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector; a third, more marginal sector consists of the upland forest farming communities which exist by means of subsistence swidden agriculture. To some degree, these patterns can be linked to the geographical resources themselves, with abundant shoreline, generally calm seas, and steady winds favoring the use of sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plains--at least in the Greater Sunda Islands--permitting irrigated rice farming. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn agriculture. Each of these patterns of ecological and economic adaptation experienced tremendous pressures during the 1970s and 1980s, with rising population density, soil erosion, river-bed siltation, and water pollution from agricultural pesticides and off-shore oil drilling. In the coastal commercial sector, for instance, the livelihood of fishing people and those engaged in allied activities--roughly 5.6 million people--began to be imperiled in the late 1970s by declining fish stocks brought about by the contamination of coastal waters. Fishermen in northern Java experienced marked declines in certain kinds of fish catches and by the mid-1980s saw the virtual disappearance of the terburuk fish in some areas. Effluent from fertilizer plants in Gresik in northern Java polluted ponds and killed milkfish fry and young shrimp. The pollution of the Strait of Malacca between Malaysia and Sumatra from oil leakage from the Japanese supertanker Showa Maru in January 1975 was a major environmental disaster for the fragile Sumatran coastline. The danger of supertanker accidents also increased in the heavily trafficked strait. National territory: rights and responsibilities The legal responsibility for Indonesia's environment continued to be a matter of controversy in the early 1990s. Among the continuing concerns were those expressed in 1982 during the UN Conference on the Law of the Sea. In this conference, Indonesia sought to defend its March 1980 claim to a 200 nautical mile (370 km) exclusive economic zone. Based on the doctrine of the political and security unity of archipelagic land and sea space (wawasan nusantara), the government asserted its rights to marine and geological resources within this coastal zone. In all, the area claimed by the government, including the exclusive economic zone, was 7.9 million square kilometers. Indonesia also claimed as its territory all sea areas within a maritime belt of twelve nautical miles (22 km) of the outer perimeter of its islands. All straits, bays, and waters within this belt were considered inland seas by the government and amounted to around 93,000 square kilometers. The Strait of Malacca--one of the most heavily traveled sea-lanes in the world--was considered by Indonesia and Malaysia to be their joint possession, and the two countries requested that other nations notify their governments before moving warships through these waters. The United States and several other nations rejected those claims, considering the strait an international waterway. During the 1980s and early 1990s, Indonesia was involved in territorial disputes. One controversy concerned Indonesia's annexation (with blessing from the U.S. and Australia) of the former colony of Portuguese Timor as Timor Timur Province in 1976, an action which came under protest in the UN and among human rights activists. Another dispute involved Indonesia's conflict with Australia over rights to the continental shelf off the coast of Timor. This problem was resolved in 1991 by a bilateral agreement calling for joint economic exploitation of the disputed area in the "Timor Gap." Still other controversies arose regarding overflight rights in Papua (disputed with Papua New Guinea) and conflicting claims to the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea by Brunei, China, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan and Vietnam. Indonesia played the role of mediator in the Spratly Islands controversy. Even as Indonesia extended its claim to territory, international environmental groups were pressing Jakarta to accept environmental responsibility for those territories. Indonesia was encouraged to monitor pollution in its territorial waters and take legal action to prevent the destruction of its rain forests. Since the late 1960s, the government addressed increasing environmental problems by establishing resource management programs, conducting environmental impact analyses, developing better policy enforcement, and enacting appropriate laws to give government officials proper authority. Despite these efforts, overlapping competencies among government departments and legal uncertainties about which department had what authority slowed progress made against environmental degradation. Area and boundaries Area: total: 1,919,440 km² land: 1,826,440 km² water: 93,000 km² Land boundaries: total: 2,830 km border countries: Malaysia 1,782 km, Papua New Guinea 820 km, East Timor 228 km Other nearby countries: India NW of Aceh, Australia, Singapore, Philippines, Brunei. Coastline: 54,716 km Maritime claims: measured from claimed archipelagic baselines exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km) Elevation extremes: lowest point: Indian Ocean 0 m(sea surface level), Wetar Basin in east of Banda Sea at -7,440 m (northwest of Tanimbar Islands & southeast of Ceram Island), where subduction zone is highest point: Puncak Jaya (also known as Carstenz Pyramid) 4 884 m Resources and land use Natural resources: petroleum, tin, natural gas, nickel, timber, bauxite, copper, fertile soils, coal, gold, silver Land use: arable land: 9.9% permanent crops: 7.2% other: 82.9% (1998 est.) Irrigated land: 48,150 km² (1998 est.) See also Indonesia List of cities in Indonesia List of volcanoes in Indonesia Islands of Indonesia References	Geography_of_Indonesia \|@lemmatized indonesia:29 archipelagic:4 island:26 country:8 southeast:3 asia:1 lie:3 indian:3 ocean:5 pacific:2 strategic:1 location:1 astride:1 along:2 major:4 sea:19 lane:2 variation:1 culture:1 shape:1 although:3 specifically:1 determine:1 century:3 complex:3 interaction:1 physical:2 environment:2 indonesian:6 less:4 vulnerable:1 nature:1 result:3 improved:1 technology:1 social:3 program:2 extent:1 diversity:1 emerge:1 traditionally:1 different:1 pattern:6 adjustment:1 circumstance:1 geographic:1 region:4 detail:1 map:1 extend:3 kilometer:9 east:8 west:6 north:6 south:5 encompass:1 estimate:1 inhabit:1 comprise:1 five:1 main:2 sumatra:9 java:13 borneo:3 know:4 kalimantan:6 sulawesi:7 new:8 guinea:8 two:4 archipelago:6 nusa:9 tenggara:9 maluku:3 islands:6 sixty:1 small:1 four:1 share:5 nation:3 malaysia:6 brunei:3 sebatik:1 locate:4 eastern:7 coast:4 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6,473	Infocom	Infocom was a software company, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, that produced numerous works of interactive fiction. They also produced one notable business application, a relational database called Cornerstone. Infocom was founded on June 22 1979 by MIT staff and students led by Dave Lebling, Marc Blank, Albert Vezza, and Joel Berez and lasted as an independent company until 1986 when it was bought by Activision. Activision finally shut down the Infocom division in 1989, although they released some titles in the 1990s under the Infocom Zork brand. Overview Infocom games were written using a roughly LISP-like programming language called ZIL (Zork Implementation Language or Zork Interactive Language--it was referred to as both) that compiled into a byte code able to run on a standardized virtual machine called the Z-machine. As the games were text based and used variants of the same Z-machine interpreter, the interpreter had to be ported to new computer architectures only once per architecture, rather than once per game. Each game file included a sophisticated parser which allowed the user to type complex instructions to the game. Unlike earlier works of interactive fiction, which only understood commands of the form 'verb noun' (e.g. "get apple"), Infocom's parser could understand commands like "get all apples except the green apple from the barrel." With the Z-machine, Infocom was able to release most of their games for most popular home computers of the day simultaneously—the Apple II family, Atari 800, IBM PC compatibles, Amstrad CPC/PCW (one disc worked on both machines), Commodore 64, Commodore Plus/4, Commodore 128, Infocom was actually one of the very few companies to release game software for the C128's native mode, contrary to most software houses' practice of only catering for the combined C64/128 market (as the C128 was compatible with the C64) Kaypro CP/M, Texas Instruments TI-99/4A, the Mac, Atari ST, the Commodore Amiga and the Radio Shack TRS-80. The company was also known for shipping creative props, or "feelies" (and even "smellies"), with its games. History The beginning Zork I was Infocom's first product. This screenshot of Zork I is representative of the sort of interaction a player has with Infocom's interactive fiction titles. Here it is portrayed running on a modern Z-machine interpreter. Inspired by Colossal Cave, Marc Blank and Dave Lebling created what was to become the first Infocom game, Zork, in 1977 at MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science. Despite the development of a revolutionary virtual memory system that allowed games to be much larger than the average personal computer's normal capacity, the enormous mainframe-developed game had to be split into three roughly equal parts. Zork I was released originally for the TRS-80 in 1980 and eventually sold more than a million copies across several platforms. It is notable that although Microsoft released a cheap version of Adventure with its initial version of MS-DOS 1.0 for IBM PCs, Zork I was still a popular seller for the PC, thanks to the superior quality of its writing and packaging. Lebling and Blank each authored several more games and additional game writers (or "Implementors") were hired, notably including Steve Meretzky. Other popular and inventive titles included the rest of the Zork series, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams, and A Mind Forever Voyaging. In its first few years of operation, text adventures proved to be a huge revenue stream for the company. Whereas most computer games of the era would achieve initial success and then suffer a significant drop-off in sales, Infocom titles continued to sell for years and years. Employee Tim Anderson said of their situation, "It was phenomenal—we had a basement that just printed money." (Briceno 2000, p18) Reception Three components proved key to Infocom's success: marketing strategy, rich storytelling and feelies. Whereas most game developers sold their games mainly in software stores, Infocom also distributed their games via bookstores. (Briceno 2000, p23) Since their games were text-based, patrons of bookstores were drawn to the Infocom games as they were already interested in reading. Unlike most computer software, Infocom titles were distributed under a no-returns policy, which allowed them to make money from a single game for a longer period of time. Next, Infocom titles featured strong storytelling and rich descriptions, eschewing the day's primitive graphic capabilities, allowing users to use their own imaginations for the lavish and exotic locations the games described. Infocom's puzzles were unique in that they were usually tightly integrated into the storyline, and rarely did gamers feel like they were being made to jump through one arbitrary hoop after another, as was the case in many of the competitors' games. The puzzles were logical but also required close attention to the clues and hints given in the story, causing most gamers to keep copious notes as they went along. Sometimes, though, Infocom threw in puzzles just for the humor of it—if the user never ran into these, they could still finish the game just fine. But discovering these early Easter Eggs was satisfying for some fans of the games. For example, one popular example was in the Enchanter game, which involved collecting magic spells to use in accomplishing the quest. One of these was a summoning spell, which the player needed to use to summon certain characters at different parts of the game. At one point the game mentions the "Implementers" who were responsible for creating the land of Zork. If the player tried to summon the Implementers, the game would suddenly produce a vision of Dave Lebling and Marc Blank at their computers, surprised at this "bug" in the game and working feverishly to fix it. Third, the inclusion of "feelies"—imaginative props and extras tied to the game's theme—provided some copy protection against pirating. Some games were unsolvable without the extra content provided with the boxed game. And because of the cleverness and uniqueness of the feelies, users rarely felt like they were an intrusion or inconvenience, as was the case with most of the other copy-protection schemes of the time. Although Infocom started out with Zork, and although the Zork world was the centerpiece of their product line throughout the Zork and Enchanter series, the company quickly branched out into a wide variety of story lines: fantasy, science-fiction, mystery, horror, historical adventure, children's stories, and others that defied categories. In an attempt to reach out to females, Infocom also produced Plundered Hearts, which required the gamer to take the part of a heroine in a swashbuckling adventure on the high seas, and which required the heroine to use more feminine tactics to win the game, since hacking-and-slashing was not a very lady-like way to behave. And to compete with the Leisure Suit Larry style games that were also appearing, Infocom also came out with Leather Goddesses of Phobos in 1986, which featured "tame", "suggestive", and "lewd" playing modes, and that was notable for including among its "feelies" a "scratch-and-sniff" card with six odors that corresponded to six cues during the game. Invisiclues Many of the games' puzzles proved too difficult for some players. Since only a few computer users at the time had access to online communities such as CompuServe and the The Source, Infocom was regularly flooded with phone calls from customers pleading for hints to solving game puzzles. Due to this, Mike Dornbrook created the Zork User's Group (ZUG) to handle a typewritten "pay-per-hint" service. He also started Infocom's customer newsletter called The New Zork Times to discuss game hints and preview and showcase new products. (After the threat of a lawsuit by the New York Times, the newsletter's name was later changed to The Status Line, a reference to an informational feature provided the player in every Infocom game.) The pay-per-hint service eventually led to the development of InvisiClues: books with hints, maps, clues and solutions for puzzles in the games. The answers to the puzzles were printed in invisible ink that only became visible with a special marker that was provided with each book. Usually, two or more answers were given for each question that a gamer might have. The first answer would provide a subtle hint, the second a less subtle hint, and so forth until the last one gave an explicit answer. Gamers could thus reveal only the hints that they absolutely needed to have to play the game. After playing the game, a typical player might then uncover the rest of the hints because they were frequently humorous. For example, the original hint book for Enchanter had the following questions: Question: Is Enchanter really Zork IV? Answers: Is the sky green? Does a bear build laser weapons in the woods? No. Question: Will there be a sequel to Enchanter? Answers: Certainly. Zork V. (which turned out to be Sorcerer) To prevent the mere questions (printed in normal ink) from giving away too much information about the game, a certain number of misleading fake questions were included in every InvisiClues book. Because of the clever use of hidden clues and Infocom's trademark humor, the sale of InvisiClues proved incredibly lucrative—even players who didn't need the hints would buy the books for post-game enjoyment. The books' sales consistently filled computer book best seller lists until the list developers were forced to combine all InvisiClues sales into one number, which simply assured that it would almost always occupy the topmost position. (Briceno 2000, p26-27) In the Solid Gold line or re-releases InvisiClues were integrated into the game. By typing "HINT" twice the player would open up a screen of possible topics where they could then reveal one hint at a time for each puzzle, just like the books. Interactive fiction Infocom also released a small number of "interactive fiction paperbacks" (gamebooks), which were based on the games and featured the ability to choose a different path through the story. Every couple of pages the book would give you the chance to make a choice, such as which direction you wanted to go or how you wanted to respond to another character. You would then choose one of the given answers and turn to the appropriate page. These books, however, never did sell particularly well, and quickly disappeared from the bookshelves. Cornerstone In 1984 Infocom started putting resources into a new division to produce business products. In 1985 they released a database product, Cornerstone, aimed at capturing the then booming database market for small business. Though this application was hailed upon its release for ease of use, it sold only 10,000 copies; not enough to cover the development expenses. The program failed because, although it was packaged in a slick hard plastic carrying case and was a very good database for personal and home use, it was originally priced at $495 per copy and used copy-protected disks. Another serious miscalculation was that the program did not include any kind of scripting language, so it was not promoted by any of the database consultants that small businesses typically hired to create and maintain their DB applications. Reviewers were also consistently disappointed that Infocom—noted for the natural language syntax of their games—did not include a natural language query ability, which was the most expected feature for this database. And a final disappointment was that Cornerstone was available only for IBM PCs and not any of the other platforms that Infocom supported for their games; while Cornerstone had been programmed with its own virtual machine for maximum portability, that feature had become essentially irrelevant. Changing marketplace Whereas Infocom's games had benefited significantly from the portability offered by running on top of a virtual machine, this strategy did not prove to be a significant advantage for Cornerstone; in fact, the virtual machine significantly slowed the database's execution speed. Most businesses were moving to the IBM PC platform by that time, so portability was no longer a significant differentiator. Infocom had sunk much of the money from games sales into Cornerstone; this, in addition to a slump in computer game sales, left the company in a very precarious financial position. By the time Infocom removed the copy-protection and reduced the price to less than $100, it was too late, and the market had moved on to other database solutions. And finally, the game market itself was shifting into graphic games. The 1990s, though, were a turbulent time for graphics development, as the computer industry was collapsing, with long-time computer makers such as Tandy/Radio Shack, Atari, and Commodore/Amiga disappearing, and the PC and Macintosh markets were fighting for dominance. Development of graphics technology was very aggressive during this time, which made it very expensive and risky to create cutting-edge, high-performance graphics, and many companies came and went in this period. Many people were buying new, more powerful computers expressly for games, and the days were long-gone when people would be satisfied with simple vectored line drawings, such as those that made the Wizardry games famous, or with the blocky graphics that were used in Sierra Entertainment's King's Quest games. Gamers in particular were most unforgiving when the graphics did not live up to their expectations. In this climate, Infocom's history of text-based adventures and story-centered gaming did not help much in making the transition to graphics. Activision takeover A lack of offers for the company led to a reverse triangular merger with Activision on 13 June 1986. This turned out to be the beginning of the end for Infocom. While relations were cordial between the two companies at first, the departure of Jim Levy from Activision left Bruce Davis in charge. Davis believed that his company had paid too much for Infocom and initiated a lawsuit against them to recoup some of the cost. Furthermore, he made a string of poor, heavy-handed decisions that made Infocom unprofitable. For example: Davis demanded they use Activision's packaging plant instead of their own in-house one, raising the cost of each package from $0.45 to over $0.90. In addition, the Activision plant made numerous mistakes in packaging where the Infocom one almost never did. Infocom had a successful marketing approach that kept all their games in store inventories for years. Because of this, older titles' sales often kept pace with sales of newer games. For example, because Zork was available for years after its initial release in 1980, it continued to top charts in sales well into the mid-1980s. Activision preferred to market Infocom's games the way they marketed their other titles: replacing older titles with newer ones. While this made sense for the graphically intensive games that made up the rest of Activision's catalog, since Infocom games were text based, it didn't make sense - the newer games didn't have improved text. This marketing approach cut off potential revenue for numerous Infocom titles that had consistently brought in money for several years. Davis demanded the struggling developer must produce eight titles a year. Infocom had traditionally produced about four games per year with more staff than they currently had. Davis pushed Infocom to release more graphical games, but the one they did release, Fooblitzky, bombed. This was, in part, due to Infocom's long-standing rule of maximum portability; a game that could display graphics on a number of different systems couldn't take advantage of the strengths of any of them. The cost of acquisition was amortized by deducting it from Infocom's operating revenue during the next several years. Of course this accounting made it difficult for Infocom to show a profit. Epilogue Rising costs and falling profits due to these changes and other botched ventures caused Activision to finally pull the plug on Infocom in 1989. For a few years, Activision continued to market Infocom's classic games in collections (usually by genre, such as the Science Fiction collection); in 1991, they published The Lost Treasures of Infocom, followed in 1992 by The Lost Treasures of Infocom II. These two compilations featured nearly every game produced by Infocom before 1988. (Leather Goddesses of Phobos was not included in either bundle, but could be ordered via a coupon included with Lost Treasures II.) In 1996, these were followed by Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom, a single CD-ROM which contained the works of both collections combined. This release, however, was missing The Hitchiker's Guide to the Galaxy and Shogun because the licenses from Douglas Adams and James Clavell's estate had expired. Titles and authors Interactive Fiction The Zork series: The original Zork Trilogy (Marc Blank & Dave Lebling): Zork I: The Great Underground Empire (1980) Zork II: The Wizard of Frobozz (1981) Zork III: The Dungeon Master (1982) The Enchanter Trilogy: Enchanter (1983, Marc Blank and Dave Lebling) Sorcerer (1984, Steve Meretzky) Spellbreaker (1985, Dave Lebling) Mini Zork I: The Great Underground Empire (1987, Marc Blank & Dave Lebling, free cut-down, single load tape version of game, covermounted on UK's ZZAP!64 magazine) Beyond Zork: The Coconut of Quendor (1987, Brian Moriarty) Zork Zero: The Revenge of Megaboz (1988, Steve Meretzky) Zork: The Undiscovered Underground (1997, Michael Berlyn and Marc Blank) The Planetfall series: Planetfall (1983, Steve Meretzky) Stationfall (1987, Steve Meretzky) Deadline (1982, Marc Blank) Starcross (1982, Dave Lebling) Suspended: A Cryogenic Nightmare (1983, Michael Berlyn) Infidel (1983, Michael Berlyn) The Witness (1983, Stu Galley) Cutthroats (1984, Michael Berlyn & Jerry Wolper) The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1984, Steve Meretzky & Douglas Adams) Seastalker (1984, Stu Galley & Jim Lawrence) Suspect (1984, Dave Lebling) A Mind Forever Voyaging (1985, Steve Meretzky) Wishbringer: The Magick Stone of Dreams (1985, Brian Moriarty) Ballyhoo (1986, Jeff O'Neill) Hollywood Hijinx (1986, "Hollywood" Dave Anderson) Leather Goddesses of Phobos (1986, Steve Meretzky) Moonmist (1986, Stu Galley & Jim Lawrence) Trinity (1986, Brian Moriarty) Border Zone (1987, Marc Blank) Bureaucracy (1987, Infocom & Douglas Adams) The Lurking Horror (1987, Dave Lebling) Nord and Bert Couldn't Make Head or Tail of It (1987, Jeff O'Neill) Plundered Hearts (1987, Amy Briggs) Sherlock: The Riddle of the Crown Jewels (1988, Bob Bates) Arthur: The Quest for Excalibur (1989, Bob Bates) James Clavell's Shogun (1989, Dave Lebling) Journey (1989, Marc Blank) Other titles Graphic Adventures Leather Goddesses of Phobos 2: Gas Pump Girls Meet the Pulsating Inconvenience from Planet X! (1992, Steve Meretzky) Return to Zork (1993, Doug Barnett) Zork: Nemesis (1996) Zork Grand Inquisitor (1997) BattleTech Games BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Inception (1988, developed by Westwood Studios) BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Revenge (1991, developed by Westwood Studios) Other Games Fooblitzky (1985, Marc Blank, Mike Berlyn, Poh Lim & Paula Maxwell) Quarterstaff: The Tomb of Setmoth (1988, Scott Schmitz, Ken Updike & Amy Briggs) Mines of Titan (1988, Louis Castle & Brett Sperry) Tombs & Treasure (1989, developed by Nihon Falcom) Circuit's Edge (1989, developed by Westwood Studios) Infocomics Lane Mastodon vs. the Blubbermen (1988, Steve Meretzky) Gamma Force in Pit of a Thousand Screams (1988, Amy Briggs) ZorkQuest: Assault on Egreth Castle (1988, Elizabeth Langosy) ZorkQuest II: The Crystal of Doom (1988, Elizabeth Langosy) Collections The Zork Trilogy (1986; contained Zork I, Zork II & Zork III) The Enchanter Trilogy (1986; contained Enchanter, Sorcerer & Spellbreaker) The Lost Treasures of Infocom (1991; contained 20 of Infocom's interactive fiction games) The Lost Treasures of Infocom II (1992; contained 11 interactive fiction games) The Zork Anthology (1994; contained Zork I, Zork II, Zork III, Beyond Zork & Zork Zero) The Mystery Collection (1995; contained Deadline, Lurking Horror, Moonmist, Sherlock: The Riddle of the Crown Jewels, Suspect and The Witness. Zork Zero and Planetfall were a bonus in some packages) The Adventure Collection (1995; contained Border Zone, Plundered Hearts, Cutthroats, Trinity and Infidel) The Comedy Collection (1995; contained Bureaucracy, Hollywood Hijinx and Nord and Bert Couldn't Make Head or Tail of It) The Fantasy Collection (1995; contained Spellbreaker, Enchanter, Sorcerer, Seastalker and Wishbringer) The Science Fiction Collection (1995; contained Suspended, A Mind Forever Voyaging, Starcross, Stationfall and Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy) Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom (1996; contained 33 Infocom games plus six winners of the SPAG Interactive Fiction Contest not affiliated with Infocom) Zork Special Edition (1997; contained Zork I, Zork II, Zork III, Beyond Zork, Zork Zero, Return to Zork, Zork: Nemesis, and Planetfall) Zork Classics: Interactive Fiction (2000) The Zork Legacy Collection (2002; contained The Zork Anthology, Return to Zork, and Zork Nemesis) Legacy With the exception of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy and Shogun, the copyrights to the Infocom games are believed to be still held by Activision. Dungeon, the mainframe precursor to the commercial Zork trilogy, is generally assumed to be in the public domain and is available from The Interactive Fiction Archive as original FORTRAN source code, a Z-machine story file and as various native source ports. Many Infocom titles can be downloaded via the Internet, but only in violation of the copyright. There are currently at least four Infocom sampler and demos available from the IF Archive as Z-machine story files which require a Z-machine interpreter to play. Interpreters are available for most computer platforms, the most widely used being the Frotz, Zip, and Nitfol interpreters. Five games (Zork I, Planetfall, The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, Wishbringer and Leather Goddesses of Phobos) were re-released in Solid Gold format. The Solid Gold versions of those games include a built-in InvisiClues hint system. A Mind Forever Voyaging and all subsequent games have the "Oops" feature. If you write a sentence and you accidentally misspell a word and the game does not know the misspelled version of the word, you can type oops (your word) instead of retyping the whole sentence. The feature also appears in the Solid Gold releases. See also 69,105, a number commonly found as an in-joke in many Infocom titles. Footnotes References External links Infocom company profile from MobyGames Infocom Documentation Project - Group working with Activision's permission to recreate manuals for Infocom games in PDF and text formats. "Interactive Text In An Animated Age: Infocom Faces The Challenge" article, an interview with Joel Berez and Marc Blank from Compute! magazine in January 1988. Infocom-IF.org, Infocom history, authors, etc; often updated with any news from Activision Infocom Fact-sheet - Contains extensive information on various releases including different versions and packaging. Also includes a timeline of Infocom. INFOCOM Homepage by Peter Scheyen—An enthusiast's home page, containing, among many other resources, a timeline of Infocom's founding, releases and eventual dissolution. Down From the Top of Its Game: The Story of Infocom, Inc.—A report from MIT which offers a very detailed examination of Infocom's creative successes and marketing failures. The Infocom Gallery with photos of all game boxes, feelies, instruction manuals and extra game contents Covers of the Infocom boxes Online java version of various Infocom games Dungeon source code at The Interactive Fiction Archive ZDungeon Z-machine story file port from the original Dungeon MDL source code, at The Interactive Fiction Archive Infocom Sampler & Demo Z-machine story files, at The Interactive Fiction Archive Milliways: Infocom's Unreleased Sequel to Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Newsgroups rec.arts.int-fiction with discussion of IF design rec.games.int-fiction with discussion of IF reading/playing	Infocom \|@lemmatized infocom:81 software:5 company:12 base:6 cambridge:1 massachusetts:1 produce:8 numerous:3 work:6 interactive:16 fiction:19 also:13 one:15 notable:3 business:5 application:3 relational:1 database:8 call:5 cornerstone:7 found:1 june:2 mit:3 staff:2 student:1 lead:3 dave:12 lebling:12 marc:12 blank:13 albert:1 vezza:1 joel:2 berez:2 last:2 independent:1 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6,474	Chemical_equilibrium	In a chemical process, chemical equilibrium is the state in which the chemical activities or concentrations of the reactants and products have no net change over time. Usually, this would be the state that results when the forward chemical process proceeds at the same rate as their reverse reaction. The reaction rates of the forward and reverse reactions are generally not zero but, being equal, there are no net changes in any of the reactant or product concentrations. This process is called dynamic equilibrium. Atkins & Jones, 2001 Gold Book definition Link A burette, an apparatus for carrying out e.g. acid-base titration, is an important part of equilibrium chemistry. Introduction In a chemical reaction, when reactants are mixed together in a reaction vessel (and heated if needed), the whole of reactants do not get converted into the products. After some time (which may be shorter than millionths of a second or longer than the age of the universe), the opposing reactions will have equal reaction rates, creating a dynamic equilibrium in which the ratio between reactants and products will appear fixed. This is called chemical equilibrium. The concept of chemical equilibrium was developed after Berthollet (1803) found that some chemical reactions are reversible. For any reaction such as to be at equilibrium the rates of the forward and backward (reverse) reactions have to be equal. In this chemical equation with arrows pointing both ways to indicate equilibrium, A and B are reactant chemical species, S and T are product species, and α, β, σ, and τ are the stoichiometric coefficients of the respective reactants and products. The equilibrium position of a reaction is said to lie far to the right if, at equilibrium, nearly all the reactants are used up and far to the left if hardly any product is formed from the reactants. Guldberg and Waage (1865), building on Berthollet’s ideas, proposed the law of mass action: where A, B, S and T are active masses and k+ and k− are rate constants. Since forward and backward rates are equal: and the ratio of the rate constants is also a constant, now known as an equilibrium constant. By convention the products form the numerator. However, the law of mass action is valid only for concerted one-step reactions that proceed through a single transition state and is not valid in general because rate equations do not, in general, follow the stoichiometry of the reaction as Guldberg and Waage had proposed (see, for example, nucleophilic aliphatic substitution by SN1 or reaction of hydrogen and bromine to form hydrogen bromide). Equality of forward and backward reaction rates, however, is a necessary condition for chemical equilibrium, though it is not sufficient to explain why equilibrium occurs. Despite the failure of this derivation, the equilibrium constant for a reaction is indeed a constant, independent of the activities of the various species involved, though it does depend on temperature as observed by the van 't Hoff equation. Adding a catalyst will affect both the forward reaction and the reverse reaction in the same way and will not have an effect on the equilibrium constant. The catalyst will speed up both reactions thereby increasing the speed at which equilibrium is reached. Chemistry: Matter and Its Changes James E. Brady , Fred Senese 4th Ed. ISBN 0471215171 Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight Peter Atkins, Loretta Jones 2nd Ed. ISBN 0716757010 Although the macroscopic equilibrium concentrations are constant in time reactions do occur at the molecular level. For example, in the case of ethanoic acid dissolved in water and forming ethanoate and hydronium ions, CH3CO2H + H2O CH3CO2− + H3O+ a proton may hop from one molecule of ethanoic acid on to a water molecule and then on to an ethanoate ion to form another molecule of ethanoic acid and leaving the number of ethanoic acid molecules unchanged. This is an example of dynamic equilibrium. Equilibria, like the rest of thermodynamics, are statistical phenomena, averages of microscopic behavior. Le Chatelier's principle (1884) is a useful principle that gives a qualitative idea of an equilibrium system's response to changes in reaction conditions. If a dynamic equilibrium is disturbed by changing the conditions, the position of equilibrium moves to counteract the change. For example, adding more S from the outside will cause an excess of products, and the system will try to counteract this by increasing the reverse reaction and pushing the equilibrium point backward (though the equilibrium constant will stay the same). If mineral acid is added to the ethanoic acid mixture, increasing the concentration of hydronium ion, the amount of dissociation must decrease as the reaction is driven to the left in accordance with this principle. This can also be deduced from the equilibrium constant expression for the reaction: if {H3O+} increases {CH3CO2H} must increase and {CH3CO2−} must decrease. The H2O is left out as it is a pure liquid and its concentration is undefined. A quantitative version is given by the reaction quotient. J.W. Gibbs suggested in 1873 that equilibrium is attained when the Gibbs energy of the system is at its minimum value (assuming the reaction is carried out under constant pressure). What this means is that the derivative of the Gibbs energy with respect to reaction coordinate (a measure of the extent of reaction that has occurred, ranging from zero for all reactants to a maximum for all products) vanishes, signalling a stationary point. This derivative is usually called, for certain technical reasons, the Gibbs energy change. Physical Chemistry by Atkins and De Paula, 7th Ed. ISBN 978-0716735397 This criterion is both necessary and sufficient. If a mixture is not at equilibrium, the liberation of the excess Gibbs energy (or Helmholtz energy at constant volume reactions) is the “driving force” for the composition of the mixture to change until equilibrium is reached. The equilibrium constant can be related to the standard Gibbs energy change for the reaction by the equation where R is the universal gas constant and T the temperature. When the reactants are dissolved in a medium of high ionic strength the quotient of activity coefficients may be taken to be constant. In that case the concentration quotient, Kc, where [A] is the concentration of A, etc., is independent of the analytical concentration of the reactants. For this reason, equilibrium constants for solutions are usually determined in media of high ionic strength. Kc varies with ionic strength, temperature and pressure (or volume). Likewise Kp for gases depends on partial pressure. These constants are easier to measure and encountered in high-school chemistry courses. Thermodynamics The relationship between the Gibbs energy and the equilibrium constant can be found by considering chemical potentials P.W. Atkins, Physical Chemistry, third edition, Oxford University Press, 1985. . At constant temperature and pressure the function G Gibbs free energy for the reaction, depends only with the extent of reaction: ξ and can only decrease according to the second law of thermodynamics. It means that the derivative of G with ξ must be negative if the reaction happens; at the equilibrium the derivative being equal to zero. : equilibrium At constant volume, one must consider the Helmholtz free energy for the reaction: A. In this article only the constant pressure case is considered. The constant volume case is important in geochemistry and atmospheric chemistry where pressure variations are significant. Note that, if reactants and products were in standard state (completely pure), then there would be no reversibility and no equilibrium. The mixing of the products and reactants contributes a large entropy (known as entropy of mixing) to states containing equal mixture of products and reactants. The combination of the standard Gibbs energy change and the Gibbs energy of mixing determines the equilibrium state. a) Mary Jane Schultz. Why Equilibrium? Understanding the Role of Entropy of Mixing. Journal of Chemical Education 1999, 76, 1391. b) Clugston, Michael J. A mathematical verification of the second law of thermodynamics from the entropy of mixing. Journal of Chemical Education 1990, 67, 203. In general an equilibrium system is defined by writing an equilibrium equation for the reaction In order to meet the thermodynamic condition for equilibrium, the Gibbs energy must be stationary, meaning that the derivative of G with respect to the extent of reaction : ξ, must be zero. It can be shown that in this case, the sum of chemical potentials of the products is equal to the sum of those corresponding to the reactants. Therefore, the sum of the Gibbs energies of the reactants must be the equal to the sum of the Gibbs energies of the products. where μ is in this case a partial molar Gibbs energy, a chemical potential. The chemical potential of a reagent A is a function of the activity, {A} of that reagent. , ( is the standard chemical potential ). Substituting expressions like this into the Gibbs energy equation: in the case of a closed system. or : ( corresponds to the stoechiometric coefficient and is the differential of the extent of reaction ). at constant pressure and temperature is obtained: which corresponds to the Gibbs free energy change for the reaction . results in: By substituting the chemical potentials: the relationship becomes: : which is the standard Gibbs energy change for the reaction'. It is a constant at a given temperature, which can be calculated, using thermodynamical tables. ( is the reaction quotient when the system is not at equilibrium ). Therefore At equilibrium ; the reaction quotient becomes equal to the equilibrium constant. leading to: and Obtaining the value of the standard Gibbs energy change, allows the calculation of the equilibrium constant Equilibrium change with addition of reactant () or product () For a reactional system at equilibrium: ; . If are modified activities of constituents, the value of the reaction quotient changes and becomes different from the equilibrium constant: and then If activity of a reagent increases , the reaction quotient decreases. then and : The reaction will shift to the right (i.e. in the forward direction, and thus more products will form). If activity of a product increases then and : The reaction will shift to the left (i.e. in the reverse direction, and thus less products will form).Note that activities and equilibrium constants are dimensionless numbers. Treatment of activity The expression for the equilibrium constant can be rewritten as the product of a concentration quotient, Kc and an activity coefficient quotient, Γ. [A] is the concentration of reagent A, etc. It is possible in principle to obtain values of the activity coefficients, γ. For solutions, equations such as the Debye-Hückel equation or extensions such as Davies equation C.W. Davies, Ion Association,Butterworths, 1962 or Pitzer equations I. Grenthe and H. Wanner, Guidelines for the extrapolation to zero ionic strength, http://www.nea.fr/html/dbtdb/guidelines/tdb2.pdf may be used.Software (below). However this is not always possible. It is common practice to assume that Γ is a constant, and to use the concentration quotient in place of the thermodynamic equilibrium constant. It is also general practice to use the term equilibrium constant instead of the more accurate concentration quotient. This practice will be followed here. For reactions in the gas phase partial pressure is used in place of concentration and fugacity coefficient in place of activity coefficient. In the real world, for example, when making ammonia in industry, fugacity coefficients must be taken into account. Fugacity, f, is the product of partial pressure and fugacity coefficient. The chemical potential of a species in the gas phase is given by so the general expression defining an equilibrium constant is valid for both solution and gas phases. Justification for the use of concentration quotients In aqueous solution, equilibrium constants are usually determined in the presence of an "inert" electrolyte such as sodium nitrate NaNO3 or Potassium perchlorate KClO4. The ionic strength, I, of a solution containing a dissolved salt, X+Y-, is given by where c stands for concentration, z stands for ionic charge and the sum is taken over all the species in equilibrium. When the concentration of dissolved salt is much higher than the analytical concentrations of the reagents, the ionic strength is effectively constant. Since activity coefficients depend on ionic strength the activity coefficients of the species are effectively independent of concentration. Thus, the assumption that Γ is constant is justified. The concentration quotient is a simple multiple of the equilibrium constant. F.J,C. Rossotti and H. Rossotti, The Determination of Stability Constants, McGraw-Hill, 1961 However, Kc will vary with ionic strength. If it is measured at a series of different ionic strengths the value can be extrapolated to zero ionic strength. The concentration quotient obtained in this manner is known, paradoxically, as a thermodynamic equilibrium constant. To use a published value of an equilibrium constant in conditions of ionic strength different from the conditions used in its determination, the value should be adjustedSoftware (below). Metastable mixtures A mixture may be appear to have no tendency to change, though it is not at equilibrium. For example, a mixture of SO2 and O2 is metastable as there is a kinetic barrier to formation of the product, SO3. 2SO2 + O2 2SO3 The barrier can be overcome when a catalyst is also present in the mixture as in the contact process, but the catalyst does not affect the equilibrium concentrations. Likewise, the formation of bicarbonate from carbon dioxide and water is very slow under normal conditions CO2 + 2H2O HCO3- +H3O+ but almost instantaneous in the presence of the catalytic enzyme carbonic anhydrase. Pure compounds in equilibria When pure substances (liquids or solids) are involved in equilibria they do not appear in the equilibrium equation Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry 1994 ISBN 0899254578 Applying the general formula for an equilibrium constant to the specific case of ethanoic acid one obtains It may be assumed that the concentration of water is constant. This assumption will be valid for all but very concentrated solutions. The equilibrium constant expression is therefore usually written as where now a constant factor is incorporated into the equilibrium constant. A particular case is the self-ionization of water itself The self-ionization constant of water is defined as It is perfectly legitimate to write [H+] for the hydronium ion concentration, since the state of solvation of the proton is constant (in dilute solutions) and so does not affect the equilibrium concentrations. Kw varies with variation in ionic strength and/or temperature. The concentrations of H+ and OH- are not independent quantities. Most commonly [OH-] is replaced by Kw[H+]-1 in equilibrium constant expressions which would otherwise hydroxide. Solids also do not appear in the equilibrium equation. An example is the Boudouard reaction : for which the equation (without solid carbon) is written as: Multiple equilibria Consider the case of a dibasic acid H2A. When dissolved in water, the mixture will contain H2A, HA- and A2-. This equilibrium can be split into two steps in each of which one proton is liberated.K1 and K2 are examples of stepwise equilibrium constants. The overall equilibrium constant,, is product of the stepwise constants. Note that these constants are dissociation constants because the products on the right hand side of the equilibrium expression are dissociation products. In many systems, it is preferable to use association constants. β1 and β2 are examples of association constants. Clearly β1 = 1/K2 and β2 = 1/βD; lg β1 = pK2 and lg β2 = pK2 + pK1 M.T. Beck, Chemistry of Complex Equilibria, Van Nostrand, 1970. 2nd. Edition by M.T. Beck and I Nagypál, Akadémiai Kaidó, Budapest, 1990. Effect of temperature change on an equilibrium constant The effect of changing temperature on an equilibrium constant is given by the van 't Hoff equation Thus, for exothermic reactions, (ΔH is negative) K decreases with an increase in temperature, but, for endothermic reactions, (ΔH is positive) K increases with an increase temperature. An alternative formulation is At first sight this appears to offer a means of obtaining the standard molar enthalpy of the reaction by studying the variation of K with temperature. In practice, however, the method is unreliable because error propagation almost always gives very large errors on the values calculated in this way. Types of equilibrium and some applications In the gas phase. Rocket engines NASA Reference publication 1311, Computer Program for Calculation of Complex Chemical Equilibrium Compositions and Applications The industrial synthesis such as ammonia in the Haber-Bosch process (depicted right) takes place through a succession of equilibrium steps including adsorbtion processes.Haber-Bosch process atmospheric chemistry Seawater and other natural waters: Chemical oceanography Distribution between two phases LogD-Distribution coefficient: Important for pharmaceuticals where lipophilicity is a significant property of a drug Liquid-liquid extraction, Ion exchange, Chromatography Solubility product Uptake and release of oxygen by haemoglobin in blood Acid/base equilibria: Acid dissociation constant, hydrolysis, buffer solutions, indicators, acid-base homeostasis Metal-ligand complexation: sequestering agents, chelation therapy, MRI contrast reagents, Schlenk equilibrium Adduct formation: Host-guest chemistry, supramolecular chemistry, molecular recognition, dinitrogen tetroxide In certain oscillating reactions, the approach to equilibrium is not asymptotically but in the form of a damped oscillation . The related Nernst equation in electrochemistry gives the difference in electrode potential as a function of redox concentrations. When molecules on each side of the equilibrium are able to further react irreversibly in secondary reactions, the final product ratio is determined according to the Curtin-Hammett principle. In these applications, terms such as stability constant, formation constant, binding constant, affinity constant, association/dissociation constant are used. In biochemistry, it is common to give units for binding constants, which serve to define the concentration units used when the constant’s value was determined. Composition of an equilibrium mixture When the only equilibrium is that of the formation of a 1:1 adduct as the composition of a mixture, there are any number of ways that the composition of a mixture can be calculated. For example, see ICE table for a traditional method of calculating the pH of a solution of a weak acid. There are three approaches to the general calculation of the composition of a mixture at equilibrium. The most basic approach is to manipulate the various equilibrium constants until the desired concentrations are expressed in terms of measured equilibrium constants (equivalent to measuring chemical potentials) and initial conditions. Minimize the Gibbs energy of the system. This approach is described in detail in W. R. Smith and R. W. Missen, Chemical Reaction Equilibrium Analysis: Theory and Algorithms, , Krieger Publishing, Malabar, Fla, 1991 (a reprint, with corrections, of the same title by Wiley-Interscience, 1982). A comprehensive treatment of the theory of chemical reaction equilibria and its computation. Details at http://www.mathtrek.com/ Satisfy the equation of mass balance. The equations of mass balance are simply statements that demonstrate that the total concentration of each reactant must be constant by the law of conservation of mass. Solving the equations of mass-balance In general, the calculations are rather complicated. For instance, in the case of a dibasic acid, H2A dissolved in water the two reactants can be specified as the conjugate base, A2-, and the proton, H+. The following equations of mass-balance could apply equally well to a base such as 1,2-diaminoethane, in which case the base itself is designated as the reactant A: With TA the total concentration of species A. Note that it is customary to omit the ionic charges when writing and using these equations. When the equilibrium constants are known and the total concentrations are specified there are two equations in two unknown "free concentrations" [A] and [H]. This follows from the fact that [HA]= β1[A][H], [H2A]= β2[A][H]2 and [OH] = Kw[H]-1 so the concentrations of the "complexes" are calculated from the free concentrations and the equilibrium constants. General expressions applicable to all systems with two reagents, A and B would be It is easy to see how this can be extended to three or more reagents. Composition for polybasic acids as a function of pH The composition of solutions containing reactants A and H is easy to calculate as a function of p[H]. When [H] is known, the free concentration [A] is calculated from the mass-balance equation in A. Here is an example of the results that can be obtained. Image:AL hydrolysis.png This diagram, for the hydrolysis of the aluminium Lewis acid Al3+aq The diagram was created with the program HySS shows the species concentrations for a 5×10-6M solution of an aluminium salt as a function of pH. Each concentration is shown as a percentage of the total aluminium. Solution equilibria with precipitation The diagram above illustrates the point that a precipitate that is not one of the main species in the solution equilibrium may be formed. At pH just below 5.5 the main species present in a 5μM solution of Al3+ are aluminium hydroxides Al(OH)2+, Al(OH)2+ and Al13(OH)327+, but on raising the pH Al(OH)3 precipitates from the solution. This occurs because Al(OH)3 has a very large lattice energy. As the pH rises more and more Al(OH)3 comes out of solution. This is an example of Le Chatelier's principle in action: Increasing the concentration of the hydroxide ion causes more aluminium hydroxide to precipitate, which removes hydroxide from the solution. When the hydroxide concentration becomes sufficiently high the soluble aluminate, Al(OH)4-, is formed. Another common instance where precipitation occurs is when a metal cation interacts with an anionic ligand to form an electrically-neutral complex. If the complex is hydrophopbic, it will precipitate out of water. This occurs with the nickel ion Ni2+ and dimethylglyoxime, (dmgH2): in this case the lattice energy of the solid is not particularly large, but it greatly exceeds the energy of solvation of the molecule Ni(dmgH)2. Minimization of Gibbs energy At equilibrium, G is at a minimum: For a closed system, no particles may enter or leave, although they may combine in various ways. The total number of atoms of each element will remain constant. This means that the minimization above must be subjected to the constraints: where is the number of atoms of element i in molecule j and bi0 is the total number of atoms of element i, which is a constant, since the system is closed. If there are a total of k types of atoms in the system, then there will be k such equations. This is a standard problem in optimisation, known as constrained minimisation. The most common method of solving it is using the method of Lagrange multipliers, also known as undetermined multipliers (though other methods may be used). Define: where the are the Lagrange multipliers, one for each element. This allows each of the to be treated independently, and it can be shown using the tools of multivariate calculus that the equilibrium condition is given by and (For proof see Lagrange multipliers) This is a set of (m+k) equations in (m+k) unknowns (the and the ) and may, therefore, be solved for the equilibrium concentrations as long as the chemical potentials are known as functions of the concentrations at the given temperature and pressure. (See Thermodynamic databases for pure substances). This method of calculating equilibrium chemical concentrations is useful for systems with a large number of different molecules. The use of k atomic element conservation equations for the mass constraint is straightforward, and replaces the use of the stoichiometric coefficient equations. See also Equilibrium constant Determination of equilibrium constants Henderson-Hasselbalch equation Michaelis-Menten kinetics Redox equilibria Thermodynamic databases for pure substances Autocatalytic reactions and order creation References Further reading F. Van Zeggeren and S.H. Storey, The Computation of Chemical Equilibria, Cambridge University Press, 1970. Mainly concerned with gas-phase equilibria. D. J. Leggett (editor), Computational Methods for the Determination of Formation Constants, Plenum Press, 1985. A.E. Martell and R.J. Motekaitis, The Determination and Use of Stability Constants, Wiley-VCH, 1992. P. Gans, Stability Constants: Determination and Uses, an interactive CD, Protonic Software (Leeds), 2004 External links All about chemical equilibrium Thermodynamics of chemical equilibrium Computer programs for calculating species concentrations There are n mass-balance equations in n'' unknown free concentrations. This constitutes a set of non-linear equations that must be solved by a method of successive approximations. The most commonly-used method is the Newton-Raphson method, which has been the subject of numerous publications. Some general computer programs are listed here. HySS Titration simulation and speciation calculations. EQS4WIN A powerful computer program originally developed for gas-phase equilibria but subsequently extended to general applications. Uses the Gibbs energy minimization approach. CHEMEQLA comprehensive computer program for the calculation of thermodynamic equilibrium concentrations of species in homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. Many geochemical applications. WinSGW A Windows version of the SOLGASWATER computer program. Visual MINTEQ A Windows version of MINTEQA2 (ver 4.0). MINTEQA2 is a chemical equilibrium model for the calculation of metal speciation, solubility equilibria etc. for natural waters. MINEQL+ A chemical equilibrium modeling system for aqueous systems. Handles a wide range of pH, redox, solubility and sorption scenarios. Software for chemical equilibria Aqua solution software A set of six computer programs for Specific Interaction Theory. An editable database of published SIT parameters. Estimation of SIT parameters and adjustment of stability constants for changes in ionic strength. Calculation of electrolyte activity coefficients, ionic activity coefficients, osmotic coefficients Calculation of acid-base equilibria in electrolyte solutions and sea water Calculation of O2 solubility in water, electrolyte solutions, natural fluids, and seawater as a function of temperature, concentration, salinity, altitude, external pressure, humidity Prediction of temperature dependence of lg K values using various thermodynamic models JESS:A powerful research tool for thermodynamic and kinetic modelling of chemical speciation in complex aqueous environments. 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6,475	Fort_William,_Scotland	Fort William (Scottish Gaelic: An Gearasdan, "The Garrison") is the largest town in the highlands of Scotland and second largest settlement behind the city of Inverness. Fort William is a major tourist centre with Glen Coe just to the south, and Glenfinnan to the west, on the Road to the Isles. It is an important centre for hillwalking and climbing due to its proximity to Ben Nevis and many other Munro mountains, marketing itself as the "Outdoor Capital of the UK". http://www.outdoorcapital.co.uk/ It is also well known for its nearby famous Downhill Mountain Bike Track and its connection to the West Highland Way from Glasgow and the Great Glen Way; a walk/cycle way from Inverness to Fort William through the Great Glen. Location Originally based around the still-extant village of Inverlochy, the town lies at the southern end of the Great Glen, on the shores of Loch Linnhe and Loch Eil. It is close to Ben Nevis, the highest mountain in the British Isles, and Glen Nevis. Around 726 (7.33%) of the population can speak Gaelic. History Historically, this area of Lochaber was strongly Clan Cameron country, and there were a number of mainly Cameron settlements in the area (such as Blarmacfoldach). The nearby settlement of Inverlochy was the main settlement in the area before the building of the fort, and was also site of the Battle of Inverlochy. Fort William from Loch Linnhe. However, the town is not of local origin. It grew up as a settlement next to a fort constructed to control the population after Oliver Cromwell's invasion during the English Civil War, and then to suppress the Jacobite uprisings of the 18th century. The fort was named "Fort William"' after William Of Orange, and the settlement that grew around it was called "Maryburgh", after his wife. This settlement was later renamed "Gordonsburgh", and then "Duncansburgh" Faddoch $Ross$, An Fhàdaich before being renamed "Fort William", this time after Prince William, Duke of Cumberland; known to some Scots as "Butcher Cumberland". Given these origins, there have been various suggestions over the years to rename the town (for example, to "Invernevis"). These proposals have led to nothing as of yet. During World War II, Fort William was the home of HMS St Christopher which was a training base for Royal Navy Coastal Forces. Fort William is the northern end of the West Highland Way, a long distance route which runs 95 miles through the Scottish Highlands to Milngavie, on the outskirts of Glasgow, and the start/end point of the Great Glen Way, which runs between Fort William and Inverness. Geography Fort William viewed from Corpach Inverlochy, aluminium plant, Corpach and Loch Eil Fort William lies on the shores of Loch Linnhe (sea water) beside the mouth of the rivers Nevis and Lochy. They join in the tidal zone to briefly become one river before discharging to the sea. The town and its suburbs, surrounded by picturesque mountains, follow the curved contour of the end of the longest sea loch in Scotland. The town is centred on the High Street, which was pedestrianised in the 90s. Off this there are several squares. Monzie Square (named after the Cameron Campbells of Monzie, Perthshire, former landowners in the town), Station Square, where the long-since demolished but often lamented railway station used to be, Gordon Square (named for the Gordons, who owned land where the town now stands in the late 1700s, during which time the town was named Gordonsburgh), and Cameron Square. The main residential areas of the town are unseen from the high street or the A82 main road. Upper Achintore and the Plantation spread steeply uphill from above the high street. Inverlochy, Claggan, Lochyside, Caol, Banavie and Corpach are the other main residential areas. These areas are built on much flatter land than the town. Just outside the town is a large aluminium plant, powered by the Lochaber hydroelectric scheme, Wonders of Water Power - Aluminium Production in its day the biggest tunnelling project in the world. This was formerly served by the Lochaber Narrow Gauge Railway. Transport Arrival at Fort William of the overnight sleeper train from London The West Highland Line passes through Fort William. Owing to the difficult terrain in the area, the line from Glasgow, to the south, enters from the northeast and trains from Glasgow to Mallaig, the terminus of the line, have to reverse at Fort William railway station. RAILSCOT \| West Highland Railway The Caledonian Canal connects the Scottish east coast at Inverness with the west coast at Corpach near Fort William. Famous people Charles Kennedy - Former leader of the Liberal Democrat party was brought up and educated in Fort William. Daniel McLean McDonald - Founder of the BSR company and benefactor of the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research in the University of Cambridge. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research in the University of Cambridge Mountain Biking Just outside the town, parallel to the Nevis Range Gondola there is a large downhill mountain bike track, this attracts thousands every year, from international backgrounds. Alongside this, there are the "Witches Trails", which unusually attract more than the downhill track. Each year since 2002, Fort William has hosted a round of UCI Mountain Bike World Cup, and in 2007 it hosted the UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships ('The Worlds'). Also a trials competition is held, at the various courses at the bottom. The four-cross track is used and the Witches trails get used for the cross-country competition. The 2007 winner of 'The Worlds', in the downhill men's section was Sam Hill, with a time of Four minutes and Fifty-one seconds. Other facts Fort William High Street In a celebration of mountains and the culture that surrounds them, and in recognition of the importance of climbing and walking tourism to the town, the Fort William Mountain Film Festival is held there each year. For a number of years this volunteer led festival has concentrated mostly around film but, starting in the Year of Highland Culture - Highland 2007, its scope was widened, and it dropped the 'film' from its title. Fort William Mountain Festival website Fort William has two major shinty teams, Fort William Shinty Club and Kilmallie Shinty Club. The opening sequence for Warner Bros. 2007 film, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix was shot in Fort William. Fort William is home to an Outward Bound Adventure and Activity centre. On 2 June 2006, a fire destroyed McTavish's Restaurant in Fort William High Street along with the two shops which were part of the building. The restaurant had been open since the 1970s and prior to that the building had been Fraser's Cafe since the 1920s. The site is still empty in 2008 and the adjacent Grand Hotel has now also closed. Lochaber News 9 June 2006 A controversial "Waterfront" development has been proposed by the Council though there is not overwhelming support for this in the town. Lochaber News The development will include a hotel, some shops and some housing but it was discovered early in 2008 that it is unlikely to be completed before 2020. Lochaber News 12 January 2008 Is the home of the Scottish Six Day Motorcycle Trial (SSDT), held annually in the first full week of May. Movies filmed in or near Fort William include Harry Potter, Highlander, Braveheart and Rob Roy. The TV series Rockface was filmed mainly around Fort William and some scenes of Monarch of the Glen were filmed around Fort William though most was done near Newtonmore. References External links Visit Fort William Fort William - Outdoor Capital of the UK Fort William walks and outdoors guide Fort William World Mountain Biking Championships West Highland Railway Fort William Weather Lochaber Jobs Nevis Range Fort William the End of the West Highland Way Map of Ft William and area, dated 1710 History of HMS St Christopher	Fort_William,_Scotland \|@lemmatized fort:37 william:37 scottish:4 gaelic:2 gearasdan:1 garrison:1 large:4 town:15 highland:10 scotland:2 second:2 settlement:7 behind:1 city:1 inverness:4 major:2 tourist:1 centre:4 glen:7 coe:1 south:2 glenfinnan:1 west:8 road:2 isle:2 important:1 hillwalking:1 climb:2 due:1 proximity:1 ben:2 nevis:6 many:1 munro:1 mountain:12 market:1 outdoor:2 capital:2 uk:3 http:1 www:1 outdoorcapital:1 co:1 also:4 well:1 know:2 nearby:2 famous:2 downhill:4 bike:5 track:4 connection:1 way:6 glasgow:4 great:4 walk:3 cycle:1 location:1 originally:1 base:2 around:6 still:2 extant:1 village:1 inverlochy:5 lie:2 southern:1 end:5 shore:2 loch:6 linnhe:3 eil:2 close:2 high:6 british:1 population:2 speak:1 history:2 historically:1 area:8 lochaber:7 strongly:1 clan:1 cameron:4 country:2 number:2 mainly:2 blarmacfoldach:1 main:4 building:3 site:2 battle:1 however:1 local:1 origin:2 grow:2 next:1 construct:1 control:1 oliver:1 cromwell:1 invasion:1 english:1 civil:1 war:2 suppress:1 jacobite:1 uprising:1 century:1 name:4 orange:1 call:1 maryburgh:1 wife:1 later:1 rename:3 gordonsburgh:2 duncansburgh:1 faddoch:1 ross:1 fhàdaich:1 time:3 prince:1 duke:1 cumberland:2 scot:1 butcher:1 give:1 various:2 suggestion:1 year:6 example:1 invernevis:1 proposal:1 lead:2 nothing:1 yet:1 world:7 ii:1 home:3 hms:1 st:2 christopher:2 training:1 royal:1 navy:1 coastal:1 force:1 northern:1 long:3 distance:1 route:1 run:2 mile:1 milngavie:1 outskirt:1 start:2 point:1 geography:1 view:1 corpach:4 aluminium:3 plant:2 sea:3 water:2 beside:1 mouth:1 river:2 lochy:1 join:1 tidal:1 zone:1 briefly:1 become:1 one:2 discharge:1 suburb:1 surround:2 picturesque:1 follow:1 curved:1 contour:1 street:5 pedestrianised:1 several:1 square:5 monzie:2 campbell:1 perthshire:1 former:2 landowner:1 station:3 since:4 demolish:1 often:1 lament:1 railway:5 use:3 gordon:1 gordons:1 land:2 stand:1 late:1 residential:2 unseen:1 upper:1 achintore:1 plantation:1 spread:1 steeply:1 uphill:1 claggan:1 lochyside:1 caol:1 banavie:1 build:1 much:1 flat:1 outside:2 power:2 hydroelectric:1 scheme:1 wonder:1 production:1 day:2 big:1 tunnelling:1 project:1 formerly:1 serve:1 narrow:1 gauge:1 transport:1 arrival:1 overnight:1 sleeper:1 train:2 london:1 line:3 pass:1 owe:1 difficult:1 terrain:1 enters:1 northeast:1 mallaig:1 terminus:1 reverse:1 railscot:1 caledonian:1 canal:1 connect:1 east:1 coast:2 near:3 people:1 charles:1 kennedy:1 leader:1 liberal:1 democrat:1 party:1 bring:1 educate:1 daniel:1 mclean:1 mcdonald:3 founder:1 bsr:1 company:1 benefactor:1 institute:2 archaeological:2 research:2 university:2 cambridge:2 biking:1 parallel:1 range:2 gondola:1 attract:2 thousand:1 every:1 international:1 background:1 alongside:1 witch:2 trail:2 unusually:1 host:2 round:1 uci:2 cup:1 trial:3 championships:1 competition:2 hold:3 course:1 bottom:1 four:2 cross:2 get:1 winner:1 men:1 section:1 sam:1 hill:1 minute:1 fifty:1 fact:1 celebration:1 culture:2 recognition:1 importance:1 tourism:1 film:7 festival:3 volunteer:1 concentrate:1 mostly:1 scope:1 widen:1 drop:1 title:1 website:1 two:2 shinty:3 team:1 club:2 kilmallie:1 opening:1 sequence:1 warner:1 bros:1 harry:2 potter:2 order:1 phoenix:1 shoot:1 outward:1 bound:1 adventure:1 activity:1 june:2 fire:1 destroy:1 mctavish:1 restaurant:2 along:1 shop:2 part:1 open:1 prior:1 fraser:1 cafe:1 empty:1 adjacent:1 grand:1 hotel:2 news:3 controversial:1 waterfront:1 development:2 propose:1 council:1 though:2 overwhelming:1 support:1 include:2 housing:1 discover:1 early:1 unlikely:1 complete:1 january:1 six:1 motorcycle:1 ssdt:1 annually:1 first:1 full:1 week:1 may:1 movie:1 highlander:1 braveheart:1 rob:1 roy:1 tv:1 series:1 rockface:1 scene:1 monarch:1 newtonmore:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 visit:1 outdoors:1 guide:1 championship:1 weather:1 job:1 map:1 ft:1 dated:1 hm:1 \|@bigram scottish_gaelic:1 http_www:1 oliver_cromwell:1 scottish_highland:1 narrow_gauge:1 gauge_railway:1 liberal_democrat:1 mountain_biking:1 warner_bros:1 harry_potter:2 rob_roy:1 external_link:1
6,476	Byte	A byte () is a basic unit of measurement of information storage in computer science. In many computer architectures it is a unit of memory addressing. There is no standard but a byte most often consists of eight bits. A byte is an ordered collection of bits, with each bit denoting a single binary value of 1 or 0. The byte most often consists of 8 bits in modern systems; however, the size of a byte can vary and is generally determined by the underlying computer operating system or hardware. Historically, byte size was determined by the number of bits required to represent a single character from a Western character set. Its size was generally determined by the number of possible characters in the supported character set and was chosen to be a divisor of the computer's word size. The popularity of IBM's System/360 architecture starting in the 1960s and the explosion of microcomputers based on 8-bit microprocessors in the 1980s has made eight bits by far the most common size for a byte. The term octet is widely used as a more precise synonym where ambiguity is undesirable (for example, in protocol definitions). Usage A byte often designates a contiguous sequence of a fixed number of bits (binary digits). The use of a byte to mean 8 bits has become nearly ubiquitous. When used to describe hardware aspects of a binary computer, it is a contiguous sequence of bits that comprises the smallest addressable sub-field of the computer's natural wordsize. That is, the smallest unit of binary data on which meaningful computation can be applied. For example, the CDC 6000 series scientific mainframes divided their 60-bit floating-point words into 10 six-bit bytes. These bytes conveniently held character data from punched Hollerith cards, typically the upper-case alphabet and decimal digits. CDC also often referred to 12-bit quantities as bytes, each holding two 6-bit display code characters, due to the 12-bit I/O architecture of the machine. The PDP-10 used assembly instructions LDB and DPB to load and deposit bytes of any width from 1 to 36 bits — these operations survive today in Common Lisp. Bytes of six, seven, or nine bits were used on some computers, for example within the 36-bit word of the PDP-10. The UNIVAC 1100/2200 series computers (now Unisys) addressed in both 6-bit (Fieldata) and 9-bit (ASCII) modes within its 36-bit word. History The term byte was coined by Dr. Werner Buchholz in July 1956, during the early design phase for the IBM Stretch computer. Origins of the Term "BYTE" Bob Bemer, accessed 2007-08-12 TIMELINE OF THE IBM STRETCH/HARVEST ERA (1956–1961) computerhistory.org, '1956 July ... Werner Buchholz ... Werner's term "Byte" first popularized' byte catb.org, 'coined by Werner Buchholz in 1956' Originally it was defined in instructions by a 4-bit byte-size field, allowing from one to sixteen bits (the production design reduced this to a 3-bit byte-size field, allowing from one to eight bits to be represented by a byte); typical I/O equipment of the period used six-bit bytes. A fixed eight-bit byte size was later adopted and promulgated as a standard by the System/360. The term "byte" comes from "bite," as in the smallest amount of data a computer could "bite" at once. The spelling change not only reduced the chance of a "bite" being mistaken for a "bit," but also was consistent with the penchant of early computer scientists to make up words and change spellings. A byte was also often referred to as "an 8-bit byte", reinforcing the notion that it was a tuple of n bits, and that other sizes were possible. A contiguous sequence of binary bits in a serial data stream, such as in modem or satellite communications, or from a disk-drive head, which is the smallest meaningful unit of data. These bytes might include start bits, stop bits, or parity bits, and thus could vary from 7 to 12 bits to contain a single 7-bit ASCII code. A data type in certain programming languages. The C programming language and C++, for example, define byte as "addressable unit of data large enough to hold any member of the basic character set of the execution environment" (clause 3.6 of the C standard). Since the C char integral data type must contain at least 8 bits (clause 5.2.4.2.1), a byte in C is at least capable of holding 256 different values (signed or unsigned char does not matter). Various implementations of C and C++ define a "byte" as 8, 9, 16, 32, or 36 bits [26] Built-in / intrinsic / primitive data types, C++ FAQ Lite Integer Types In C and C . The actual number of bits in a particular implementation is documented as CHAR_BIT as implemented in the limits.h file. Java's primitive byte data type is always defined as consisting of 8 bits and being a signed data type, holding values from −128 to 127. Early microprocessors, such as Intel 8008 (the direct predecessor of the 8080, and then 8086) could perform a small number of operations on four bits, such as the DAA (decimal adjust) instruction, and the "half carry" flag, that were used to implement decimal arithmetic routines. These four-bit quantities were called "nybbles," in homage to the then-common 8-bit "bytes." Historical IETF documents cite varying examples of byte sizes. RFC 608 mentions byte sizes for FTP hosts (the FTP-BYTE-SIZE attribute in host tables for the ARPANET) to be 36 bits for PDP-10 computers and 32 bits for IBM 360 systems. RFC 608, Host Names On-Line, M.D. Kudlick, SRI-ARC (January 10, 1974) Unit symbol or abbreviation IEEE 1541 and Metric-Interchange-Format specify "B" as the symbol for byte (e.g. MB means megabyte), while IEC 60027 seems silent on the subject. Furthermore, B means bel (see decibel), another (logarithmic) unit used in the same field. The use of B to stand for bel is consistent with the metric system convention that capitalized symbols are for units named after a person (in this case Alexander Graham Bell); usage of a capital B to stand for byte is not consistent with this convention. There is little danger of confusing a byte with a bel because the bel's sub-multiple the decibel (dB) is usually preferred, while use of the decibyte (dB) is extremely rare. The unit symbol "KB" is a commonly used abbreviation for "kilobyte" but is often confused with the use of "kb" to mean "kilobit". IEEE 1541 specifies "b" as the symbol for bit; however the IEC 60027 and Metric-Interchange-Format specify "bit" (e.g. Mbit for megabit) for the symbol, achieving maximum disambiguation from byte. Lowercase "o" for "octet" is a commonly used symbol in several non-English-speaking countries, and is also used with metric prefixes (for example, "ko" and "Mo"). Today the harmonized ISO/IEC IEC 80000-13:2008 - Quantities and units -- Part 13: Information science and technology standard cancels and replaces subclauses 3.8 and 3.9 of IEC 60027-2:2005 (those related to Information theory and Prefixes for binary multiples). See Units of information#Byte for detailed discussion on names for derived units. Unit multiples See also: Binary prefixes Linearly growing percentage of the difference between decimal and binary interpretations of the unit prefixes plotted against the logarithm of storage size. There has been considerable confusion about the meanings of SI (or metric) prefixes used with the word "byte", especially concerning prefixes such as kilo- (k or K) and mega- (M) as shown in the chart Prefixes for bit and byte. Since computer memory is designed with binary logic, multiples are expressed in powers of 2, rather than 10. The software and computer industries often use binary estimates of the SI-prefixed quantities, while producers of computer storage devices prefer the SI values. This is the reason for specifying computer hard drive capacities of, say, "100 GB" when it contains 93 GiB (or 93 GB in traditional units) of addressable storage. Because of the confusion, a contract specifying a quantity of bytes must define the system of unit interpretation used. Uncommon groups of bits Similarly to the terms bit, byte, and nibble, other terms of bit groups of varying sizes have been used over time. nybble reference.com sourced from Jargon File 4.2.0, accessed 2007-08-12 All of these are jargon, are obsolete, or are not very common. 1 bit: sniff 2 bits: lick, crumb, quad, quarter, tayste, tydbit 4 bits: nibble, nybble 5 bits: nickel, nyckle 10 bits: deckle, dyme bag 16 bits: plate, playte, chomp, chawmp (on a 32-bit machine) 18 bits: chomp, chawmp (on a 36-bit machine) 32 bits: dinner, dynner, gawble (on a 32-bit machine) 48 bits: gobble, gawble (under circumstances that remain obscure) See also Bit Octet (computing) Word (computing) Data hierarchy Primitive data type References be-x-old:Байт	Byte \|@lemmatized byte:43 basic:2 unit:16 measurement:1 information:4 storage:4 computer:16 science:2 many:1 architecture:3 memory:2 address:2 standard:4 often:7 consist:2 eight:4 bit:64 ordered:1 collection:1 denote:1 single:3 binary:10 value:4 modern:1 system:7 however:2 size:14 vary:4 generally:2 determine:3 underlie:1 operate:1 hardware:2 historically:1 number:5 require:1 represent:2 character:7 western:1 set:3 possible:2 supported:1 choose:1 divisor:1 word:7 popularity:1 ibm:4 start:2 explosion:1 microcomputer:1 base:1 microprocessor:2 make:2 far:1 common:4 term:7 octet:3 widely:1 use:17 precise:1 synonym:1 ambiguity:1 undesirable:1 example:6 protocol:1 definition:1 usage:2 designate:1 contiguous:3 sequence:3 fixed:2 digit:2 mean:4 become:1 nearly:1 ubiquitous:1 describe:1 aspect:1 comprise:1 small:5 addressable:3 sub:2 field:4 natural:1 wordsize:1 data:13 meaningful:2 computation:1 apply:1 cdc:2 series:2 scientific:1 mainframe:1 divide:1 floating:1 point:1 six:3 conveniently:1 hold:5 punch:1 hollerith:1 card:1 typically:1 upper:1 case:2 alphabet:1 decimal:4 also:6 refer:2 quantity:5 two:1 display:1 code:2 due:1 machine:4 pdp:3 assembly:1 instruction:3 ldb:1 dpb:1 load:1 deposit:1 width:1 operation:2 survive:1 today:2 lisp:1 seven:1 nine:1 within:2 univac:1 unisys:1 fieldata:1 ascii:2 modes:1 history:1 coin:2 dr:1 werner:4 buchholz:3 july:2 early:3 design:3 phase:1 stretch:2 origin:1 bob:1 bemer:1 accessed:1 timeline:1 harvest:1 era:1 computerhistory:1 org:2 first:1 popularize:1 catb:1 originally:1 define:5 allow:2 one:2 sixteen:1 production:1 reduce:2 typical:1 equipment:1 period:1 later:1 adopt:1 promulgate:1 come:1 bite:3 amount:1 could:3 spell:1 change:2 chance:1 mistake:1 consistent:3 penchant:1 scientist:1 spelling:1 reinforce:1 notion:1 tuple:1 n:1 serial:1 stream:1 modem:1 satellite:1 communication:1 disk:1 drive:2 head:1 might:1 include:1 stop:1 parity:1 thus:1 contain:3 type:7 certain:1 programming:2 language:2 c:10 large:1 enough:1 member:1 execution:1 environment:1 clause:2 since:2 char:2 integral:1 must:2 least:2 capable:1 different:1 sign:2 unsigned:1 matter:1 various:1 implementation:2 build:1 intrinsic:1 primitive:3 faq:1 lite:1 integer:1 actual:1 particular:1 document:2 implement:2 limit:1 h:1 file:2 java:1 always:1 consisting:1 intel:1 direct:1 predecessor:1 perform:1 four:2 daa:1 adjust:1 half:1 carry:1 flag:1 arithmetic:1 routine:1 call:1 nybble:3 homage:1 bytes:1 historical:1 ietf:1 cite:1 rfc:2 mention:1 ftp:2 host:3 attribute:1 table:1 arpanet:1 name:3 line:1 kudlick:1 sri:1 arc:1 january:1 symbol:7 abbreviation:2 ieee:2 metric:5 interchange:2 format:2 specify:4 b:5 e:2 g:2 mb:1 megabyte:1 iec:5 seem:1 silent:1 subject:1 furthermore:1 bel:4 see:4 decibel:2 another:1 logarithmic:1 stand:2 convention:2 capitalized:1 person:1 alexander:1 graham:1 bell:1 capital:1 little:1 danger:1 confuse:2 multiple:4 db:2 usually:1 prefer:2 decibyte:1 extremely:1 rare:1 kb:2 commonly:2 kilobyte:1 kilobit:1 specifies:1 mbit:1 megabit:1 achieve:1 maximum:1 disambiguation:1 lowercase:1 used:1 several:1 non:1 english:1 speaking:1 country:1 prefix:7 ko:1 mo:1 harmonize:1 iso:1 part:1 technology:1 cancel:1 replaces:1 subclauses:1 relate:1 theory:1 detailed:1 discussion:1 derive:1 linearly:1 grow:1 percentage:1 difference:1 interpretation:2 plot:1 logarithm:1 considerable:1 confusion:2 meaning:1 si:3 especially:1 concern:1 kilo:1 k:2 mega:1 show:1 chart:1 logic:1 express:1 power:1 rather:1 software:1 industry:1 estimate:1 prefixed:1 producer:1 device:1 reason:1 hard:1 capacity:1 say:1 gb:2 gib:1 traditional:1 contract:1 uncommon:1 group:2 similarly:1 nibble:2 time:1 reference:2 com:1 source:1 jargon:2 access:1 obsolete:1 sniff:1 lick:1 crumb:1 quad:1 quarter:1 tayste:1 tydbit:1 nickel:1 nyckle:1 deckle:1 dyme:1 bag:1 plate:1 playte:1 chomp:2 chawmp:2 dinner:1 dynner:1 gawble:2 gobble:1 circumstance:1 remain:1 obscure:1 compute:2 hierarchy:1 x:1 old:1 байт:1 \|@bigram decimal_digit:1 werner_buchholz:3 interchange_format:2 alexander_graham:1 graham_bell:1 decibel_db:1 commonly_used:1 iso_iec:1 iec_iec:1 prefix_kilo:1
6,477	Precedent	In common law legal systems, a precedent or authority is a legal case establishing a principle or rule that a court or other judicial body utilizes when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts. Description The precedent on an issue is the collective body of judicially announced principles that a court should consider when interpreting the law. When a precedent establishes an important legal principle, or represents a new or changed law on a particular issue, that precedent is often known as a landmark decision. Precedent is central to legal analysis and rulings in countries that follow common law like the United Kingdom (except Scotland which retains its own legal system) and Canada. Even in the civil law system of the Canadian province of Quebec, the precedent is respected and esteemed to various degrees. In some systems precedent is not binding but is taken into account by the courts. Types of precedents Binding precedent Precedent that must be applied or followed is known as binding precedent (alternately mandatory precedent, mandatory or binding authority, etc.). Under the doctrine of stare decisis, a lower court must honor findings of law made by a higher court that is within the appeals path of cases the court hears. In state and federal courts in the United States, jurisdiction is often divided geographically among local trial courts, several of which fall under the territory of a regional appeals court. All appellate courts fall under a supreme court. By definition, decisions of lower courts are not binding on each other or any courts higher in the system, nor are appeals court decisions binding on each other or on local courts that fall under a different appeals court. Further, courts must follow their own proclamations of law made earlier on other cases, and honor rulings made by other courts in disputes among the parties before them pertaining to the same pattern of facts or events, unless they have a strong reason to change these rulings. One law professor has described mandatory precedent as follows: Given a determination as to the governing jurisdiction, a court is "bound" to follow a precedent of that jurisdiction only if it is directly in point. In the strongest sense, "directly in point" means that: (1) the question resolved in the precedent case is the same as the question to be resolved in the pending case, (2) resolution of that question was necessary to disposition of the precedent case; (3) the significant facts of the precedent case are also present in the pending case, and (4) no additional facts appear in the pending case that might be treated as significant. Marjorie D. Rombauer, Legal Problem Solving: Analysis, Research and Writing, pp. 22-23 (West Publishing Co., 3d ed. 1978). (Rombauer was a professor of law at the University of Washington.) In extraordinary circumstances a higher court may overturn or overrule mandatory precedent, but will often attempt to distinguish the precedent before overturning it, thereby limiting the scope of the precedent in any event. Under the U.S. legal system, courts are set up in a sort of hierarchy. At the top is the United States Supreme Court, and underneath are lower federal courts (the Circuit Courts of Appeals, federal district courts, and some courts of specialized jurisdiction, such as bankruptcy courts) and also there are state courts. On questions as to the meaning of federal law, including the U.S. Constitution, the U.S. Supreme Court has the final say. So, when the U.S. Supreme Court says, for example, that the First Amendment applies in a specific way to suits for slander, then every court is bound by that precedent in its interpretation of the First Amendment as it applies to suits for slander. If a lower court judge disagrees with the Supreme Court on what the First Amendment should mean, he cannot rule however he wants; instead, he must rule according to the binding precedent. Until the Supreme Court changes its mind (or, in the case of a federal statute, Congress changes the law), that is what the law means. Although state courts are not part of the federal system, state courts are also bound by Supreme Court rulings as to the meaning and scope of federal law. Lower courts are also bound by precedent (that is, prior decided cases) of higher courts within their region. Thus, a federal district court that falls within the geographic boundaries of the Third Circuit Court of Appeals is bound by rulings of the Third Circuit Court, but not by what was said in the Ninth Circuit, for example. (The Circuit Courts of Appeals have jurisdiction defined by geography.) The Circuit Courts of Appeals can interpret the law how they want, so long as there is no binding Supreme Court precedent. In fact, one of the common reasons the Supreme Court grants certiorari (that is, they agree to hear a case) is if there is a conflict among the circuit courts as to the meaning of a federal law. Persuasive precedent Precedent that is not mandatory but which is useful or relevant is known as persuasive precedent (or persuasive authority or advisory precedent). Persuasive precedent includes cases decided by lower courts, by peer or higher courts from other geographic jurisdictions, cases made in other parallel systems (for example, military courts, administrative courts, indigenous/tribal courts, State courts versus Federal courts in the United States), and in some exceptional circumstances, cases of other nations, treaties, world judicial bodies, etc. In a case of first impression, courts often rely on persuasive precedent from courts in other jurisdictions that have previously dealt with similar issues. Persuasive precedent may become binding through the adoption of the persuasive precedent by a higher court. Critical analysis of precedent Court formulations The United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit has stated: A judicial precedent attaches a specific legal consequence to a detailed set of facts in an adjudged case or judicial decision, which is then considered as furnishing the rule for the determination of a subsequent case involving identical or similar material facts and arising in the same court or a lower court in the judicial hierarchy. Allegheny General Hospital v. NLRB, 608 F.2d 965, 969-970 (3rd Cir. 1979) (footnote omitted), as quoted in United States Internal Revenue Serv. v. Osborne (In re Osborne), 76 F.3d 306, 96-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,185 (9th Cir. 1996). The United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit has stated: Stare decisis is the policy of the court to stand by precedent; the term is but an abbreviation of stare decisis et non quieta movere — "to stand by and adhere to decisions and not disturb what is settled." Consider the word "decisis." The word means, literally and legally, the decision. Under the doctrine of stare decisis a case is important only for what it decides — for the "what," not for the "why," and not for the "how." Insofar as precedent is concerned, stare decisis is important only for the decision, for the detailed legal consequence following a detailed set of facts. United States Internal Revenue Serv. v. Osborne (In re Osborne), 76 F.3d 306, 96-1 U.S. Tax Cas. (CCH) paragr. 50,185 (9th Cir. 1996). Academic study Precedents viewed against passing time can serve to establish trends, thus indicating the next logical step in evolving interpretations of the law. For instance, if immigration has become more and more restricted under the law, then the next legal decision on that subject may serve to restrict it further still. Scholars have recently attempted to apply network theory to precedents in order to establish which precedents are most important or authoritative, and how the court's interpretations and priorities have changed over time. James H. Fowler and Sangick Jeon, "The Authority of Supreme Court Precedent," Social Networks (2007), doi:10.1016/j.socnet.2007.05.001 Super stare decisis Super-stare decisis is a term used for important precedent that is resistant or immune from being overturned, without regard to whether correctly decided in the first place. It may be viewed as one extreme in a range of precedential power, Sinclair, Michael. "Precedent, Super-Precedent", George Mason Law Review (14 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 363) (2007) or alternately, to express a belief, or a critique of that belief, that some decisions should not be overturned. In 1976, Richard Posner and William Landes coined the term "super-precedent," in an article they wrote about testing theories of precedent by counting citations. Landes, William & Posner, Richard. “Legal Precedent: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis”, 19 Journal of Law and Economics 249, 251 (1976). Posner and Landes used this term to describe the influential effect of a cited decision. The term "super-precedent" later became associated with different issue: the difficulty of overturning a decision. Hayward, Allison. The Per Curiam Opinion of Steel: Buckley v. Valeo as Superprecedent?, Cato Supreme Court Review 195, 202, (2005-2006). In 1992, Rutgers professor Earl Maltz criticized the Supreme Court's decision in Planned Parenthood v. Casey for endorsing the idea that if one side can take control of the Court on an issue of major national importance (as in Roe v. Wade), that side can protect its position from being reversed "by a kind of super-stare decisis." Maltz, Earl. "Abortion, Precedent, and the Constitution: A Comment on Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey", 68 Notre Dame L. Rev. 11 (1992), quoted by Rosen, Jeffrey. So, Do You Believe in 'Superprecedent'?, NY Times (2005-10-30). The issue arose anew in the questioning of Chief Justice John G. Roberts and Justice Samuel Alito during their confirmation hearings before the Senate Judiciary Committee. Before the hearings the chair of the committee, Senator Arlen Specter of Pennsylvania, wrote an op/ed in the New York Times referring to Roe as a "super-precedent." He mentioned the concept (and made seemingly humorous references to "super-duper precedent") during the hearings, but neither Roberts nor Alito endorsed the term or the concept. Benac, Nancy. Roberts Repeatedly Dodges Roe v. Wade, Associated Press (2005-09-13): Specter asked, "Would you think that Roe might be a super-duper precedent?" Criticism of Precedent In a controversial 1997 book, attorney Michael Trotter blamed over-reliance by American lawyers on binding and persuasive authority, rather than the merits of the case at hand, as a major factor behind the escalation of legal costs during the 20th century. He argued that courts should ban the citation of persuasive precedent from outside their jurisdiction, with two exceptions: (1) cases where the foreign jurisdiction's law is the subject of the case, or (2) instances where a litigant intends to ask the highest court of the jurisdiction to overturn binding precedent, and therefore needs to cite persuasive precedent to demonstrate a trend in other jurisdictions. Michael H. Trotter, Profit and the Practice of Law: What's Happened to the Legal Profession (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1997), 161-163. See also Binding precedent Case citation Case of first impression Distinguish Persuasive precedent Qiyas Question of fact Ratio decidendi Stare decisis Notes	Precedent \|@lemmatized common:3 law:21 legal:13 system:8 precedent:57 authority:5 case:25 establish:4 principle:3 rule:4 court:70 judicial:5 body:3 utilize:1 decide:5 subsequent:2 similar:3 issue:7 fact:9 description:1 collective:1 judicially:1 announce:1 consider:3 interpret:2 important:5 represent:1 new:2 change:5 particular:1 often:4 know:3 landmark:1 decision:12 central:1 analysis:4 ruling:5 country:1 follow:6 like:1 united:8 kingdom:1 except:1 scotland:1 retain:1 canada:1 even:1 civil:1 canadian:1 province:1 quebec:1 respect:1 esteem:1 various:1 degree:1 bind:14 take:2 account:1 type:1 must:4 apply:3 alternately:2 mandatory:5 etc:2 doctrine:2 stare:9 decisis:10 low:7 honor:2 finding:1 make:5 high:6 within:3 appeal:10 path:1 hear:2 state:14 federal:10 jurisdiction:11 divide:1 geographically:1 among:3 local:2 trial:1 several:1 fall:4 territory:1 regional:1 appellate:1 supreme:12 definition:1 higher:1 different:2 far:2 proclamation:1 earlier:1 dispute:1 party:1 pertain:1 pattern:1 event:2 unless:1 strong:2 reason:2 one:4 professor:3 describe:2 give:1 determination:2 govern:1 bound:1 directly:2 point:2 sense:1 mean:4 question:5 resolve:2 pending:3 resolution:1 necessary:1 disposition:1 significant:2 also:5 present:1 additional:1 appear:1 might:2 treat:1 marjorie:1 rombauer:2 problem:1 solving:1 research:1 writing:1 pp:1 west:1 publish:1 co:1 ed:2 university:2 washington:1 extraordinary:1 circumstance:2 may:4 overturn:6 overrule:1 attempt:2 distinguish:2 thereby:1 limit:1 scope:2 u:6 set:3 sort:1 hierarchy:2 top:1 underneath:1 circuit:9 district:2 specialized:1 bankruptcy:1 meaning:3 include:2 constitution:2 final:1 say:3 example:3 first:6 amendment:3 applies:1 specific:2 way:1 suit:2 slander:2 every:1 interpretation:3 judge:1 disagree:1 cannot:1 however:1 want:2 instead:1 accord:1 binding:2 mind:1 statute:1 congress:1 although:1 part:1 prior:1 region:1 thus:2 geographic:2 boundary:1 third:3 ninth:2 define:1 geography:1 long:1 grant:1 certiorari:1 agree:1 conflict:1 persuasive:11 useful:1 relevant:1 advisory:1 peer:1 parallel:1 military:1 administrative:1 indigenous:1 tribal:1 versus:1 exceptional:1 nation:1 treaty:1 world:1 impression:2 rely:1 previously:1 deal:1 become:3 adoption:1 critical:1 formulations:1 attach:1 consequence:2 detailed:3 adjudged:1 furnish:1 involve:1 identical:1 material:1 arise:2 allegheny:1 general:1 hospital:1 v:8 nlrb:1 f:3 cir:3 footnote:1 omit:1 quote:2 internal:2 revenue:2 serv:2 osborne:4 tax:2 ca:2 cch:2 paragr:2 policy:1 stand:2 term:6 abbreviation:1 et:1 non:1 quieta:1 movere:1 adhere:1 disturb:1 settle:1 word:2 literally:1 legally:1 insofar:1 concern:1 academic:1 study:1 view:2 pass:1 time:4 serve:2 trend:2 indicate:1 next:2 logical:1 step:1 evolve:1 instance:2 immigration:1 restrict:2 subject:2 still:1 scholar:1 recently:1 network:2 theory:2 order:1 authoritative:1 priority:1 james:1 h:2 fowler:1 sangick:1 jeon:1 social:1 doi:1 j:1 socnet:1 super:9 use:2 resistant:1 immune:1 without:1 regard:1 whether:1 correctly:1 place:1 extreme:1 range:1 precedential:1 power:1 sinclair:1 michael:3 george:1 mason:2 review:2 geo:1 l:2 rev:2 express:1 belief:2 critique:1 richard:2 posner:3 william:2 landes:3 coin:1 article:1 write:2 test:1 count:1 citation:3 theoretical:1 empirical:1 journal:1 economics:1 influential:1 effect:1 cited:1 later:1 associate:2 difficulty:1 hayward:1 allison:1 per:1 curiam:1 opinion:1 steel:1 buckley:1 valeo:1 superprecedent:2 cato:1 rutgers:1 earl:2 maltz:2 criticize:1 plan:1 parenthood:2 casey:2 endorse:2 idea:1 side:2 control:1 major:2 national:1 importance:1 roe:4 wade:2 protect:1 position:1 reverse:1 kind:1 abortion:1 comment:1 planned:1 southeastern:1 pennsylvania:2 notre:1 dame:1 rosen:1 jeffrey:1 believe:1 ny:1 anew:1 questioning:1 chief:1 justice:2 john:1 g:1 robert:3 samuel:1 alito:2 confirmation:1 hearing:3 senate:1 judiciary:1 committee:2 chair:1 senator:1 arlen:1 specter:2 op:1 york:1 refer:1 mention:1 concept:2 seemingly:1 humorous:1 reference:1 duper:2 neither:1 benac:1 nancy:1 repeatedly:1 dodge:1 press:2 ask:2 would:1 think:1 criticism:1 controversial:1 book:1 attorney:1 trotter:2 blame:1 reliance:1 american:1 lawyer:1 rather:1 merit:1 hand:1 factor:1 behind:1 escalation:1 cost:1 century:1 argue:1 ban:1 outside:1 two:1 exception:1 foreign:1 litigant:1 intend:1 therefore:1 need:1 cite:1 demonstrate:1 profit:1 practice:1 happen:1 profession:1 athens:1 ga:1 georgia:1 see:1 qiyas:1 ratio:1 decidendi:1 note:1 \|@bigram stare_decisis:9 appellate_court:1 supreme_court:12 problem_solving:1 persuasive_precedent:9 exceptional_circumstance:1 f_cir:1 ca_cch:2 cch_paragr:2 paragr_cir:2 richard_posner:1 plan_parenthood:1 notre_dame:1 samuel_alito:1 confirmation_hearing:1
6,478	Gamemaster	A Gamemaster or Game Master (often abbreviated as GM) is a player in a multiplayer game who acts as organizer, arbitrator, and officiant in rules situations. They are most common in co-operative games where the other players work together and are least seen in competitive games where the other players fight each other. Today, gamemaster is usually associated with role-playing games. In a role-playing game the 'Gamemaster's purpose is to weave the other participants' player-character stories together, control the non-player aspects of the game, and create environments in which the players can interact. The basic roles of Gamemasters - rules help, moderation, and storytelling - are the same in almost all role-playing games, although differing rulesets make the specific duties of the GM unique to that system. History and variants of the term The term gamemaster and the role associated with it could be found in the postal gaming hobby, but was coined by the game company Flying Buffalo in the 1975 game Tunnels and Trolls. In typical play-by-mail games, players control armies or civilizations and mail their chosen actions to the GM. The GM then mails the updated game state to all players on a regular basis. Each gaming system has its own name for the role of the gamemaster, such as "judge", "narrator", "referee", "director", or "storyteller", and these terms not only describe the role of the gamemaster in general but also help define how the game is intended to be run. For example, the Storyteller System used in White Wolf Game Studio's storytelling games calls its GM the "storyteller", while the rules- and setting-focused Marvel Super Heroes Role-Playing Game calls its GM the "judge". The cartoon inspired roleplaying game Toon calls its GM the "animator." A few games apply system- or setting-specific flavorful names to the GM, such as the Hollyhock God (Nobilis, in which the hollyhock represents vanity), or the oldest of such terms, "Dungeon Master" (or "DM") in Dungeons & Dragons. Duties The gamemaster prepares the game session for the players and the characters they play (known as player characters or PCs). The GM describes the events and decides on the outcomes of players' decisions. The gamemaster also keeps track of non-player characters (NPCs) and random encounters, as well as of the general state of the game world. The game session (or "adventure") can be metaphorically described as a play, in which the players are the lead actors, and the GM provides the stage, the scenery, the basic plot on which the improvisational script is built, as well as all the bit parts and supporting characters. Gamemasters can also be in charge of RPG board games making the events and setting challenges. GMs may choose to run a game based on a published game world, with the maps and history already in place; such game worlds often have pre-written adventures. Alternately, the GM may build their own world and script their own adventures. A good gamemaster draws the players into the adventure, making it enjoyable for everyone. Good gamemasters have quick minds, sharp wits, and rich imaginations. Gamemasters must also maintain game balance: hideously overpowered monsters or players are no fun. It was noted back in 1997 that those who favor their left-brain such as skilled code writers usually do not make it in the ethereal gamemaster world of storytelling and verse. Pendleton, Jennifer. (August 18, 1997) Los Angeles Times. Trends:Nice Work If You Can Master It. Section: Business; Page 6. Gamemasters in online games A gamemaster's duties in an online game are less those of a gamemaster in a traditional role-playing game than a moderator or administrator in an online community. A GM in such a game is either an experienced volunteer player or an employee who enforces the game rules, banishing spammers, player killers and hackers. For their task they use special characters with special abilities like teleporting to players, summoning items and browsing the player logs to help them in their moderating tasks. Gamemasters in MUDs are often called "wizards". Gamemasters in MMORPGs are usually employees of the game's host or developers of the game themselves, Perfect World is an example of this type of GM. Often players who feel dissatisfied with the service will blame the GM directly for any errors or glitches. This is a common mistake as most employed GMs are not developers and cannot resolve the problem themselves. The now defunct America Online Online Gaming Forum used to use volunteers selected by application from its user base. These people were simply referred to as OGFs by other members, and their screennames were indicative of their position (i.e., OGF Moose, etc.). While membership in the Online Gaming Forum had only one real requirement (that is, be a member of AOL), OGFs were given powers quite similar to AOL "Guides" and could call them in at will to ToS and/or ban users as they saw appropriate. An MMORPG called World of Warcraft by Blizzard, has employees working as Gamemasters to help users with various problems in gameplay, chat and other things like account and billing issues. These Gamemasters are not allowed to discuss themselves as being a Gamemaster out of their official state for various reasons. These Gamemasters are not allowed to provide items to players but must instead refer to an item specialist. Specifically a Gamemaster in this game will have all chat text appear in blue rather than the default colors and will also have the "GM" tag in front of the character name. While Gamemasters even in their official state use the game's mechanics to chat with players as they would be a normal player, they do not appear in the game unless special circumstances are present. Note that a few games, notably Neverwinter Nights and Vampire: The Masquerade - Redemption, are computer game adaptations of tabletop RPGs that are played online with one player acting as a traditional gamemaster. Gamemasters in online chats Sometimes table top Gamemasters simply can not find players interested in either the same setting, product line, or play style in their local neighborhood. The advent of computers has brought a moderate solution to this in the form of online chat programs. This enables gamemasters to find players online, and for them to meet via chat rooms, forums, or other electronic means. This, in contrast to a normal table top game or a game meant to be played online, creates many more duties for a prospective gamemaster. It is wise to write out descriptive text ahead of time, and since the gamemaster cannot rely on his acting skills to get the personality of NPCs and monsters across, the need for music (often considered a distraction in a normal table top game) becomes much greater, as background music helps to set the mood for other players. The gamemaster must also keep hard copies of all the players' characters himself, since he can not glance at them as he would in a normal game. Moreover, the all players must rely on the honor system when determining the outcome of events through dice rolls, as the die is only visible to the player who most benefits from lying about it. There are also some benefits. The use of Wiki software can allow Gamemasters to easily keep track of notes and characters that appear during play, as well as character sheets and other useful tools for the players. They may evolve into the equivalent of a home made gaming supplement. Scripting software allows complicated mechanics that include many tables or a lot of math to be resolved at a push of the button, while Teleconferencing allows the players and Gamemaster to communicate through voice, video, and a shared whiteboard. The use of technology to enable online play is growing, as can be seen from products like the DnD Insider. References	Gamemaster \|@lemmatized gamemaster:19 game:44 master:3 often:5 abbreviate:1 gm:17 player:32 multiplayer:1 act:2 organizer:1 arbitrator:1 officiant:1 rule:4 situation:1 common:2 co:1 operative:1 work:3 together:2 least:1 see:2 competitive:1 fight:1 today:1 usually:3 associate:2 role:9 playing:5 purpose:1 weave:1 participant:1 character:10 story:1 control:2 non:2 aspect:1 create:2 environment:1 interact:1 basic:2 gamemasters:15 help:5 moderation:1 storytelling:3 almost:1 although:1 differ:1 rulesets:1 make:5 specific:2 duty:4 unique:1 system:5 history:2 variant:1 term:4 could:2 find:3 postal:1 gaming:3 hobby:1 coin:1 company:1 fly:1 buffalo:1 tunnel:1 troll:1 typical:1 play:8 mail:3 army:1 civilization:1 chosen:1 action:1 updated:1 state:4 regular:1 basis:1 name:3 judge:2 narrator:1 referee:1 director:1 storyteller:3 describe:3 general:2 also:7 define:1 intend:1 run:2 example:2 use:7 white:1 wolf:1 studio:1 call:6 set:4 focus:1 marvel:1 super:1 hero:1 cartoon:1 inspire:1 roleplaying:1 toon:1 animator:1 apply:1 flavorful:1 hollyhock:2 god:1 nobilis:1 represent:1 vanity:1 old:1 dungeon:2 dm:1 dragon:1 prepare:1 session:2 know:1 pc:1 event:3 decides:1 outcome:2 decision:1 keep:3 track:2 npc:2 random:1 encounter:1 well:3 world:7 adventure:4 metaphorically:1 lead:1 actor:1 provide:2 stage:1 scenery:1 plot:1 improvisational:1 script:3 build:2 bit:1 part:1 support:1 charge:1 rpg:1 board:1 challenge:1 may:3 choose:1 base:2 publish:1 map:1 already:1 place:1 pre:1 write:2 alternately:1 good:2 draw:1 enjoyable:1 everyone:1 quick:1 mind:1 sharp:1 wit:1 rich:1 imagination:1 must:4 maintain:1 balance:1 hideously:1 overpower:1 monster:2 fun:1 note:3 back:1 favor:1 left:1 brain:1 skilled:1 code:1 writer:1 ethereal:1 verse:1 pendleton:1 jennifer:1 august:1 los:1 angeles:1 time:2 trend:1 nice:1 section:1 business:1 page:1 online:12 less:1 traditional:2 moderator:1 administrator:1 community:1 either:2 experienced:1 volunteer:2 employee:3 enforce:1 banish:1 spammer:1 killer:1 hacker:1 task:2 special:3 ability:1 like:3 teleport:1 summon:1 item:3 browse:1 log:1 moderating:1 mud:1 wizard:1 mmorpgs:1 host:1 developer:2 perfect:1 type:1 feel:1 dissatisfy:1 service:1 blame:1 directly:1 error:1 glitch:1 mistake:1 employed:1 cannot:2 resolve:2 problem:2 defunct:1 america:1 forum:3 select:1 application:1 user:3 people:1 simply:2 refer:2 ogfs:2 member:2 screennames:1 indicative:1 position:1 e:1 ogf:1 moose:1 etc:1 membership:1 one:2 real:1 requirement:1 aol:2 give:1 power:1 quite:1 similar:1 guide:1 tos:1 ban:1 saw:1 appropriate:1 mmorpg:1 warcraft:1 blizzard:1 various:2 gameplay:1 chat:6 thing:1 account:1 billing:1 issue:1 allow:5 discuss:1 official:2 reason:1 instead:1 specialist:1 specifically:1 text:2 appear:3 blue:1 rather:1 default:1 color:1 tag:1 front:1 even:1 mechanic:2 would:2 normal:4 unless:1 circumstance:1 present:1 notably:1 neverwinter:1 night:1 vampire:1 masquerade:1 redemption:1 computer:2 adaptation:1 tabletop:1 rpgs:1 acting:1 sometimes:1 table:4 top:3 interested:1 setting:1 product:2 line:1 style:1 local:1 neighborhood:1 advent:1 bring:1 moderate:1 solution:1 form:1 program:1 enable:2 meet:1 via:1 room:1 electronic:1 mean:1 contrast:1 meant:1 many:2 prospective:1 wise:1 descriptive:1 ahead:1 since:2 rely:2 skill:1 get:1 personality:1 across:1 need:1 music:2 consider:1 distraction:1 become:1 much:1 great:1 background:1 mood:1 hard:1 copy:1 glance:1 moreover:1 honor:1 determine:1 dice:1 roll:1 die:1 visible:1 benefit:2 lie:1 wiki:1 software:2 easily:1 sheet:1 useful:1 tool:1 evolve:1 equivalent:1 home:1 supplement:1 complicate:1 include:1 lot:1 math:1 push:1 button:1 teleconferencing:1 communicate:1 voice:1 video:1 share:1 whiteboard:1 technology:1 grow:1 dnd:1 insider:1 reference:1 \|@bigram co_operative:1 dungeon_dragon:1 los_angeles:1 chat_room:1 dice_roll:1
6,479	Andronicus_of_Rhodes	Andronicus of Rhodes (lived c. 60 BC), was an ancient Greek philosopher from Rhodes who was also the eleventh scholarch of the Peripatetics. Ammonius, In de Int. 5.24 He was at the head of the Peripatetic school at Rome, about 58 BC, and was the teacher of Boethus of Sidon, with whom Strabo studied. Strabo, xiv.; Ammonius, in Aristot. Categ.. We know little more of the life of Andronicus, but he is of special interest in the history of philosophy, from the statement of Plutarch, Plutarch, Sulla c. 26 that he published a new edition of the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus, which formerly belonged to the library of Apellicon, and were brought to Rome by Sulla with the rest of Apellicon's library in 84 BC. Tyrannion commenced this task, but apparently did not do much towards it. Comp. Porphyry, Vit. Plotin. c. 24; Boethius, ad Aristot. de Interpret. The arrangement which Andronicus made of Aristotle's writings seems to be the one which forms the basis of our present editions and we are probably indebted to him for the preservation of a large number of Aristotle's works. Andronicus wrote a work upon Aristotle, the fifth book of which contained a complete list of the philosopher's writings, and he also wrote commentaries upon the Physics, Ethics, and Categories. None of these works is extant. Two treatises are sometimes erroneously attributed to him, one On Emotions, the other a commentary on Aristotle's Ethics (really by Constantine Palaeocappa in the 16th century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica). References Sources	Andronicus_of_Rhodes \|@lemmatized andronicus:4 rhodes:2 lived:1 c:3 bc:3 ancient:1 greek:1 philosopher:2 also:2 eleventh:1 scholarch:1 peripatetic:2 ammonius:2 de:2 int:1 head:1 school:1 rome:2 teacher:1 boethus:1 sidon:1 strabo:2 study:1 xiv:1 aristot:2 categ:1 know:1 little:1 life:1 special:1 interest:1 history:1 philosophy:1 statement:1 plutarch:2 sulla:2 publish:1 new:1 edition:2 work:4 aristotle:5 theophrastus:1 formerly:1 belong:1 library:2 apellicon:2 bring:1 rest:1 tyrannion:1 commence:1 task:1 apparently:1 much:1 towards:1 comp:1 porphyry:1 vit:1 plotin:1 boethius:1 ad:1 interpret:1 arrangement:1 make:1 writing:2 seem:1 one:2 form:1 basis:1 present:1 probably:1 indebted:1 preservation:1 large:1 number:1 write:2 upon:2 fifth:1 book:1 contain:1 complete:1 list:1 commentary:2 physic:1 ethic:2 category:1 none:1 extant:1 two:1 treatise:1 sometimes:1 erroneously:1 attribute:1 emotion:1 really:1 constantine:1 palaeocappa:1 century:1 john:1 callistus:1 thessalonica:1 reference:1 source:1 \|@bigram plutarch_plutarch:1 erroneously_attribute:1
6,480	Dominoes	A game of dominoes Dominoes (or "dominos") generally refers to the collective gaming pieces making up a domino set (sometimes called a deck or pack) or to the subcategory of tile games played with domino pieces. In the area of mathematical tilings and polyominoes, the word domino often refers to any rectangle formed from joining two congruent squares edge to edge. The traditional Sino-European domino set consists of 28 dominoes, colloquially nicknamed bones, cards, tiles, tickets, stones, or spinners. Each domino is a rectangular tile with a line dividing its face into two square ends. Each end is marked with a number of spots (also called pips) or is blank. The backs of the dominoes in a set are indistinguishable, either blank or having some common design. A domino set is a generic gaming device, similar to playing cards or dice, in that a variety of games can be played with a set. Construction and composition of domino sets European-style dominoes are traditionally made of ivory, bone, or a dark hardwood such as ebony, with contrasting black or white pips (inlaid or painted). Alternately, domino sets have been made from many different natural materials: stone (e.g., marble, granite or soapstone); other hardwoods (e.g., ash, oak, redwood and cedar); metals (e.g., brass or pewter); ceramic clay, or even frosted glass or crystal. These sets have a more novel look, and the often heavier weight makes them feel more substantial, but such materials and the resulting products are usually much more expensive than polymer materials. Domino tiles Modern commercial domino sets are usually made of synthetic materials, such as ABS or polystyrene plastics, or Bakelite and other phenolic resins; many sets approximate the look and feel of ivory while others use colored or even translucent plastics to achieve a more contemporary look. Modern sets also commonly use a different color for the dots of each different end value (one-spots might have black pips while two-spots might be green, three red, etc.) to facilitate finding matching ends. Occasionally, one may find a domino set made of card stock like that for playing cards. Such sets are lightweight, compact and inexpensive, but like cards are more susceptible to minor disturbances such as a sudden breeze. The traditional set of dominoes contains one unique piece for each possible combination of two ends with zero to six spots, and is known as a double-six set because the highest-value piece has six pips on each end (the "double six"). The spots from one to six are generally arranged as they are on six-sided dice, but because there are also blank ends having no spots there are seven possible faces, allowing 28 unique pieces in a double-six set. However, this is a relatively small number especially when playing with more than four people, so many domino sets are "extended" by introducing ends with greater numbers of spots, which increases the number of unique combinations of ends and thus of pieces. Each progressively larger set increases the maximum number of pips on an end by three, so the common extended sets are double-nine, double-twelve, double-fifteen and double-eighteen. Larger sets such as double-twenty-one can theoretically exist but are rarely seen in retail stores, as identifying the number of pips on each domino becomes difficult, and a double-twenty-one set would have a staggering 253 pieces, far more than is normally necessary for most domino games even with eight players. History Domino pieces were historically carved from ivory or animal bone with small, round pips of inset ebony. The game's name comes from the pieces' resemblance to Venetian Carnival masks known as domini, which were white with black spots. These masks were so named, in turn, because they resembled French priests' winter hoods, being black on the outside and white on the inside. The name ultimately derives from the Latin dominus, meaning "lord" or "master." The oldest domino sets have been dated from around 1120. Modern dominoes, as most of the Western world knows them, however, appear to be a Chinese invention. They were apparently derived from cubic dice, which had been introduced into China from India some time in the distant past. Each domino originally represented one of the 21 results of throwing two dice. One half of each domino is set with the pips from one die and the other half contains the pips from the second die. Chinese sets also introduce duplicates of some throws and divide the dominoes into two classes: military and civil. Chinese dominoes are also longer than typical European dominoes. Over time Chinese dominoes also evolved into the tile set used to play Mah Jong, a game which swept across the United States in the early to mid 1920s and has enjoyed moderate popularity, especially in its "solitaire" form, since that time. The early 18th century witnessed dominoes making their way to Europe, making their first appearance in Italy. The game changed somewhat in the translation from Chinese to the European culture. European domino sets contain neither class distinctions nor the duplicates that went with them. Instead, European sets contain seven additional dominoes, with six of these representing the values that result from throwing a single die with the other half of the tile left blank, and the seventh domino representing the blank-blank (0-0) combination. Tiles and suits Complete double-six setDomino tiles, also known as bones, are twice as long as they are wide, a line in the middle suggesting a division into two squares. The value of either side is the number of spots or pips. In the most common variant (Double Six) the values range from blank or 0 (no pips) to 6. . Republished 1994 by Wordsworth Editions. The sum of the two values, i.e. the total number of pips, may be referred to as the rank or weight of a tile, and a tile with more pips may be called heavier than a lighter tile with fewer pips. Tiles are generally named after their two values; e.g. 2–5 or 5–2 are alternative ways of describing the tile with the values 2 and 5. Tiles that have the same value on both ends are called doubles, and are typically referred to as double-zero, double-one etc. Tiles with two different values are called singles. Every tile belongs to the two suits of its two values, e.g. 0–3 belongs both to the blank suit (or 0 suit) and to the 3 suit. Naturally the doubles form an exception in that each double belongs to only one suit. In 42, the doubles are treated like an additional suit of doubles, so that e.g. the double-six 6–6 belongs both to the 6 suit and the suit of doubles. Domino Sets There are currently five major domino sets commercially available. They are Double Six, Double Nine, Double Twelve, Double Fifteen, and Double Eighteen, which is the largest commonly-available set. Here are the number of tiles and points (pips or spots) in each set. Double 6: 28 tiles, 168 pips Double 9: 55 tiles, 495 pips Double 12: 91 tiles, 1092 pips Double 15: 136 tiles, 2040 pips Double 18: 190 tiles, 3420 pips These numbers may be computed quite easily using triangular numbers: for Double n dominoes, there are tiles and pips. Generally the most commonly used sets are Double Sixes and Double Nines, though the other three sets are more popular for games involving several players or for players looking for long domino games. Rules Basic rules Most domino games are blocking games, i.e. the objective is to empty one's hand whilst blocking the opponents. In the end, a score may be determined by counting the pips in the losing players' hands. In scoring games the scoring is different and happens mostly during gameplay, making it the principal objective. Block game The most basic domino variant is for two players and requires a double six set. The 28 tiles are shuffled face down and form the stock or boneyard. Each player draws seven tiles; the remainder is not used. One player begins by downing (playing the first tile) one of their tiles. This tile starts the line of play, a series of tiles in which adjacent tiles touch with matching, i.e. equal, values. The players alternately extend the line of play with one tile at one of its two ends. A player who cannot do this passes. The game ends when one player wins by playing their last tile, or when the game is blocked because neither player can play. Draw game In the more interesting Draw game, players are additionally allowed to draw as many tiles as desired from the stock before playing a tile, and they are not allowed to pass before the stock is (nearly) empty. The score of a game is the number of pips in the losing player's hand plus the number of pips in the stock. Most rules prescribe that two tiles need to remain in the stock. The Draw game is often referred to as simply "dominoes". Adaptations of both games can accommodate more than two players, who may play individually or in teams. Line of play Muggins played with multi-colored tiles. The doubles serve as spinners, allowing the line of play to branch.The line of play is the configuration of played tiles on the table. Typically it starts with a single tile, from which it grows in two opposite directions when the players add matching tiles. (In practice the players often play tiles at right angles when the line of play gets too close to the edge of the table.) The rules for the line of play often differ from one variant to another. In many rules the doubles serve as spinners, i.e. they can be played on all four sides, causing the line of play to branch. Sometimes the first tile is required to be a double, and serves as the only spinner. In some games such as Chicken Foot, all sides of a spinner must be occupied before anybody is allowed to play elsewhere. Matador has unusual rules for matching. Bendomino uses curved tiles, so that one side of the line of play (or both) may be blocked for geometrical reasons. In Mexican Train and other Trains games, the game starts with a spinner from which various trains branch off. Most trains are owned by a player, and in most situations players are only allowed to extend their own train. Scoring In blocking games the scoring happens at the end of the game. After a player has emptied their hand, thereby winning the game for their team, the score consists of the total pip count of the losing teams' hands. In some rules the pip count of the remaining stock is added. If a game is blocked because no player can move, the winner can often be determined by counting the pips in all players' hands. In scoring games each individual move potentially adds to the score. E.g. in Bergen, players score 2 points whenever they cause a configuration in which both open ends have the same value and 3 points if additionally one open end is formed by a double. In Muggins, players score by ensuring that the total pip count of the open ends is a multiple of a certain number. In variants of Muggins the line of play may branch due to spinners. Minor details In many versions of the game, the player with the highest double leads with that double, for example "double six". If no one has it the next highest double is called - "double five?", then "double four?", etc. until the highest double in any of the players hands is played. If no player has an "opening" double, the next heaviest domino in the highest suit is called - "six - five?", "six - four?". In some variants the players take turns picking dominoes from the stock until an opening double is picked and played; in other variants the hand is reshuffled and each player picks seven dominoes. After the first hand, the winner or winning team of the previous hand is allowed to pick their dominoes first, and begins by playing any domino in his or her hand. Playing the first bone of a hand is sometimes called setting, leading, downing, or posing the first bone. Dominoes aficionados often call this procedure smacking the bone down. After each hand the bones are shuffled, and each player draws the number of bones required (7). Play generally proceeds "clockwise". The next player, and all players in turn, must play a bone with an end that matches one of the open ends of the layouts. In some versions of the games the pips or points on the end and the section to be played next to it must add up to a given number; [For example in a double six set the "sum" would be six (6), requiring a "blank" to be played next to a "6," a "1" next to a "5", a "2" next to a "4", etc.] The stock of bones left behind, if any, is called the bone yard, and the bones therein are said to be sleeping. In draw games, players take part in the bone selection, typically drawing from the bone yard when they don't have a "match" in their hand. Generally, if a player inadvertently picks up and sees one or more extra dominoes, those dominoes becomes part of his or her hand. A player who can play a tile may or may not be allowed to pass anyway. Passing can be signalled by tapping twice on the table or by saying "go" or "pass". Play continues until one of the players has played all the dominoes in his or her hand, (and calls "out!", "I win", or "domino!") and wins the hand, or until all the players are blocked and no legal plays are left. This is in some areas referred to as a lockdown or "sewed up". In a common version of the game, the next player after the block, picks up all the dominoes in the bone yard, as if trying to find the (non-existent) match. If all the players are blocked, or locked out the player with the lowest hand / pip count wins. In team play, the team with the lowest individual hand wins. In the case of a tie, the first of tied players or the first team in the play rotation wins. In games where points are accrued, the winning player scores a point for each pip on each bone still held by each opponent, or the opposing team. If no player went out, however, the win is determined by the lightest hand; sometimes only the excess points held by opponents. A game is generally played to 100 points, the tally being kept with paper and pencil. In more common games, mainly urban rules, games are played to 150, 200, or 250 points. In some games the tally is kept by creating houses, where the beginning of the house (the first ten points) is a large +, the next ten points are O, and scoring with a 5 is a /, and are placed in the four 'corners' of the house. In some versions, if a lockdown occurs then the first person to call the lockdown will gain the other players bones and add the amount of the pips to their house. Also, the first person to call rocks if they believe or know the person that called "domino" or "lockdown" miscounted the pips will count the pips themselves; if the person that called rocks finds that the number of pips the player called is different, the points become his after proving that he is correct in his counting. Games using more dominoes With bigger domino sets, especially with the Double Fifteens and Double Eighteens, it is possible to have more players. Double 9s is good for 4 to 6 players and each player would start with 7 dominoes in their hand. Double 12s, 15s, and 18s are good for up to 10 to 15 players, each with 7 dominoes. If you have fewer players and more dominoes, start with more dominoes in each player's hand, but leave enough dominoes in the bone pile to draw from. When using the larger sets, make sure you have plenty of playing room as they can spread out considerably. Double 6s = 7 rounds, double 9s = 10 rounds, double 12s = 13 rounds, double 15s = 16 rounds, double 18s = 19 rounds. Card games using domino sets Apart from the usual blocking and scoring games, there are also domino of games of a very different character, such as solitaire or trick-taking games. Most of these are adaptations of card games and were once popular in certain areas to circumvent religious prescriptions against playing cards. A very simple example is a Concentration variant played with a double-six set; two tiles are considered to match if their total pip count is 12. A popular domino game in Texas is 42. The game is similar to the card game spades. It is played with four players paired into teams. Each player draws seven dominoes, and the dominoes are played into tricks. Each trick counts as 1 point, and any domino with a multiple of 5 dots counts toward the total of the hand. 35 points of "five count" + 7 tricks = 42 points, hence the name. Competitive play Dominoes is played at a professional level, similar to poker, and matches and tournaments are often televised in Latin America. Numerous organisations and clubs of amateur domino players exist around the world. Some organisations, including the International Federation of Dominos and the Fédération Internationale de Domino (FIDO), organise international competitions. The 2007 FIDO domino world champion is the Swiss college student Alex Joss. Other uses of dominoes Dominoes in motion. Dominoes waiting to fall Other than playing games of strategy, another common use of dominoes is standing them on edge in long lines then toppling the first tile, which falls on and topples the second, which topples the third, etc., resulting in all of the tiles falling. Arrangements of millions of tiles have been made that have taken many minutes to fall. By analogy, similar phenomena of chains of small events each causing similar events leading to eventual catastrophe are called domino effects. The phenomenon also has some theoretical relevance (amplifier, digital signal, information processing), and this amounts to the theoretical possibility of building domino computers. Dominoes are also commonly used as components in Rube Goldberg machines. The Netherlands has hosted an annual domino toppling exhibition called Domino Day since 1986. The event held on November 18, 2005 knocked over 4 million dominoes by a team from Weijers Domino Productions. Another new record of 4,345,027 stones was set on November 14, 2008. On Domino Day 2008 (November 14, 2008), the Weijers Domino Productions team attempted to set 10 records: 1. Longest domino spiral (200 m) 2. Highest domino climb (12 m) 3. Smallest domino stone (7 mm) 4. Largest domino stone (4.8 m) 5. Longest domino wall (16 m) 6. Largest domino structure (25,000 stone) 7. Fastest topple of 30 meters of domino stones (4.21 sec, time by Churandy Martina: 3.81 sec) 8. Largest number of domino stones resting on a single domino (727 stones) for more than 1 hour 9. Largest rectangular level domino field (1 million stones) 10. A new record of 4,345,027 stones This record attempt was held in the WTC Expo hall in Leeuwarden. The artist who toppled the first stone was the Finnish acrobat Salima Peippo. Also SBS6 has his own record before the attempt, the highest domino tower in 2 minutes by a TV-personality, in the final hostess Tooske Breugem (Wie ben Ik) failed to opponent Evelien de Bruijn hostess of the news program Hart van Nederland. on the last 5 seconds of those 2 minutes the tower of Tooske was going down. The tower of Evelien was 30 stories high. The other hosts were Rob Geus (Smaakpolitie), Alberto Stegeman (Undercover in Nederland), Cilly Dartell (Hart van Nederland), Weathermen Piet Paulusma, Pepijn Bierenbroodspot (Reportage), André van der Toorn (Wegmisbruikers), Sjimmy Bruijninckx (Shownieuws), Sjimmy Bruijninckx (Shownieuws), Natasja Froger (Hart in Aktie). At one time, Pressman Toys manufactured a product called Domino Rally that contained tiles and mechanical devices for setting up toppling exhibits. Another pastime is "domino art" - the art of decorating domino tiles. First the domino is sprayed with an acrylic paint. Once it has dried, it is stamped with a rubber stamp and then various colors of ink are applied. Some artists drill holes before spraying and wire wrap the finished piece. Dominoes in Unicode Since April 2008 Unicode Version 5.1 Released , the universal text encoding standard Unicode includes characters that represent the double-six domino tiles in various orientations. The Unicode range for dominoes is U+1F030 .. U+1F09F. (Grey areas in the table below indicate non-assigned code points.) Historic Domino Competitions Col. Henry T. Titus vs. Capt. Clark Rice for the naming of Titusville, Florida http://www.titusville.com/Page.asp?NavID=216 See also Pub games Board games Triominoes Quad-Ominos Bendomino References Hoyle's Rules of Games 3rd Ed. (2001). Hoyle, Edmond, Mott-Smith, Geoffrey, & Morehead, Philip, & Morehead, A. H. (Eds). Signet. ISBN This article incorporates text from the public domain 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica. External links Domino Plaza Dominoes at the Game Cabinet - includes a short history of dominoes Fédération Internationale de Domino (FIDO) Championship Domino Tournament Includes tournament and game (All Fives) rules. Weijers Domino Productions The creators of the world record show Domino Day. Dominoes Rules at Digital Gamers Rules for 47 games and cross-reference of 39 known game aliases	Dominoes \|@lemmatized game:54 domino:110 dominos:1 generally:7 refer:6 collective:1 gaming:2 piece:10 make:11 set:42 sometimes:4 call:19 deck:1 pack:1 subcategory:1 tile:50 play:49 area:4 mathematical:1 tiling:1 polyominoes:1 word:1 often:8 rectangle:1 form:5 join:1 two:18 congruent:1 square:3 edge:4 traditional:2 sino:1 european:6 consists:1 colloquially:1 nickname:1 bone:19 card:9 ticket:1 stone:12 spinner:7 rectangular:2 line:13 divide:2 face:3 end:21 mark:1 number:18 spot:10 also:13 pip:36 blank:9 back:1 indistinguishable:1 either:2 common:6 design:1 generic:1 device:2 similar:5 dice:4 variety:1 construction:1 composition:1 style:1 traditionally:1 ivory:3 dark:1 hardwood:2 ebony:2 contrast:1 black:4 white:3 inlaid:1 paint:2 alternately:2 many:7 different:7 natural:1 material:4 e:11 g:7 marble:1 granite:1 soapstone:1 ash:1 oak:1 redwood:1 cedar:1 metal:1 brass:1 pewter:1 ceramic:1 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6,481	Domnall_mac_Ailpín	Domnall mac Ailpín (Modern Gaelic: Dòmhnall mac Ailpein), Domnall mac Ailpín is the Mediaeval Gaelic form. anglicised sometimes as Donald MacAlpin, and known in most modern regnal lists as Donald I (born 812 died 13 April, 862), was king of the Picts from 858 to 862. He followed his brother Kenneth MacAlpin (Cináed mac Ailpín) to the Pictish throne. The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba says that Domnall reigned for four years, matching the notices in the Annals of Ulster of his brother's death in February 858 and his own in April 862. Annals of Ulster, s.a. 858 & 862. The Chronicle notes: The laws of Áed Find are entirely lost, but it has been assumed that, like the laws attributed to Giric and Constantine II (Causantín mac Áeda), these related to the church and in particular to granting the privileges and immunities common elsewhere. Smyth, p. 188. The significance of Forteviot as the site of this law-making, along with Kenneth's death there and Constantine's later gathering at nearby Scone, may point to this as being the heartland of the sons of Alpín's support. The Chronicle of Melrose says of Domnall, "in war he was a vigorous soldier ... he is said to have been assassinated at Scone." Anderson, ESSH, p. 291. No other source reports Domnall's death by violence. The Prophecy of Berchán may refer to Domnall in stanzas 123–124: Although Domnall is generally been supposed to have been childless, it has been suggested that Giric was a son of Domnall, reading his patronym as mac Domnaill rather than the commonly supposed mac Dúngail. Smyth, p. 187. This, however, is not widely accepted. Compare Duncan, p. 11ff. Domnall died, either at the palace of Cinnbelachoir (location unknown), or at Rathinveralmond (also unknown, and may be the same place, presumed to be near the junction of the Almond and the Tay, near Scone). Anderson, ESSH, p. 291; Duncan, pp. 10–11. He was buried on Iona. Notes The claims made in recent years by Alex Woolf and others that Cinaed mac Alpin and his brother, Domnall mac Alpin were Pictish rather than Scottish kings, are based largely on readings from the Annals of Ulster which record the deaths of Cinaed, son of Alpin,"King of the Picts", and Domnall, son of Alpin, "King of the Picts". These kings were kings of the Picts by right of conquest. However, the Annals of Innisfallen , whose compilation is about 300 years older than the Annals of Ulster describe Domnall as "King of Scotland", likewise his brother Cinaed (Kenneth). Furthermore, the oldest surviving king list, that contained in the Synchronisms of Flann of Monasterboice" which was compiled by Flann, an Irish Scholar and Lector who died in 1056, lists, Cinaed as a son of Alpin, the son of Echach (i.e. Eochaidh, king of Scots), the son of Aedh Find, king of Scots, etc. However, perhaps the most revealing entries are those found in the Annals of Ulster , , and the Annals of the Four Masters for the years 836, and 837. These record that Guthfrith mac Fergus, a Gaelic-Norse Viking chieftain of the Hebrides, "went to Alba to strengthen Dalriada at the request of Kenneth mac Alpin". This was several years before he became king of the Picts, therefore he must have been a Scottish prince or king, who later became king of the Picts. The Annals also suggest that it was this same Guthfrith who inflicted such slaughter on the Pictish royal family in the Battle of Fortriu in 839 "the men of Fortriu were slain beyond counting", paving the way for Kenneth's occupation of Pictish Caledonia. As John Marsden puts it so eloquently,in his book "the Tombs of the Kings, An Iona Book of the Dead" (1994), "It can have been no accident of history that the slaughter of the Picto-Scottish ruling house in 839 preceded Kenneth's seizure of the kingship of Dalriada the following year, and of Fortriu (Pictland)two years later". Furthermore, as Marsden, and Professor John Mackie point out, all the surviving burial records indicate that Cinaed, and his brother Domnall were buried on Iona, as Kings of the Scots. References Anderson, Alan Orr, Early Sources of Scottish History A.D 500–1286, volume 1. Reprinted with corrections. Paul Watkins, Stamford, 1990. ISBN 1-871615-03-8 Duncan, A. A. M., The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-7486-1626-8 Smyth, Alfred P., Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland AD 80–1000. Edinburgh UP, Edinburgh, 1984. ISBN 0-7486-0100-7 External links Annals of Ulster, part 1, at CELT The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba See also Kingdom of Alba Origins of the Kingdom of Alba	Domnall_mac_Ailpín \|@lemmatized domnall:13 mac:11 ailpín:3 modern:2 gaelic:3 dòmhnall:1 ailpein:1 mediaeval:1 form:1 anglicise:1 sometimes:1 donald:2 macalpin:2 know:1 regnal:1 list:3 born:1 die:3 april:2 king:17 picts:6 follow:1 brother:5 kenneth:6 cináed:1 pictish:4 throne:1 chronicle:4 alba:5 say:3 reign:1 four:2 year:7 match:1 notice:1 annals:9 ulster:6 death:4 february:1 note:2 law:3 áed:1 find:3 entirely:1 lose:1 assume:1 like:1 attribute:1 giric:2 constantine:2 ii:1 causantín:1 áeda:1 relate:1 church:1 particular:1 grant:1 privilege:1 immunity:1 common:1 elsewhere:1 smyth:3 p:6 significance:1 forteviot:1 site:1 making:1 along:1 later:3 gather:1 nearby:1 scone:3 may:3 point:2 heartland:1 son:7 alpín:1 support:1 melrose:1 war:1 vigorous:1 soldier:1 assassinate:1 anderson:3 essh:2 source:2 report:1 violence:1 prophecy:1 berchán:1 refer:1 stanzas:1 although:1 generally:1 suppose:2 childless:1 suggest:2 read:1 patronym:1 domnaill:1 rather:2 commonly:1 dúngail:1 however:3 widely:1 accept:1 compare:1 duncan:3 either:1 palace:1 cinnbelachoir:1 location:1 unknown:2 rathinveralmond:1 also:3 place:1 presume:1 near:2 junction:1 almond:1 tay:1 pp:1 bury:2 iona:3 claim:1 make:1 recent:1 alex:1 woolf:1 others:1 cinaed:5 alpin:6 scottish:4 base:1 largely:1 reading:1 record:3 right:1 conquest:1 innisfallen:1 whose:1 compilation:1 old:2 describe:1 scotland:2 likewise:1 furthermore:2 survive:2 contain:1 synchronism:1 flann:2 monasterboice:1 compile:1 irish:1 scholar:1 lector:1 echach:1 e:1 eochaidh:1 scot:4 aedh:1 etc:1 perhaps:1 revealing:1 entry:1 master:1 guthfrith:2 fergus:1 norse:1 viking:1 chieftain:1 hebrides:1 go:1 strengthen:1 dalriada:2 request:1 several:1 become:2 therefore:1 must:1 prince:1 inflict:1 slaughter:2 royal:1 family:1 battle:1 fortriu:3 men:2 slain:1 beyond:1 count:1 pave:1 way:1 occupation:1 caledonia:1 john:2 marsden:2 put:1 eloquently:1 book:2 tomb:1 dead:1 accident:1 history:2 picto:1 ruling:1 house:1 precede:1 seizure:1 kingship:2 following:1 pictland:1 two:1 professor:1 mackie:1 burial:1 indicate:1 reference:1 alan:1 orr:1 early:1 volume:1 reprint:1 correction:1 paul:1 watkins:1 stamford:1 isbn:3 succession:1 independence:1 edinburgh:4 university:1 press:1 alfred:1 warlord:1 holy:1 ad:1 external:1 link:1 part:1 celt:1 see:1 kingdom:2 origin:1 \|@bigram domnall_mac:3 mac_ailpín:3 mediaeval_gaelic:1 kenneth_macalpin:1 cináed_mac:1 annals_ulster:6 privilege_immunity:1 anderson_essh:2 prophecy_berchán:1 mac_domnaill:1 alex_woolf:1 mac_alpin:3 alan_orr:1 duncan_kingship:1 kingship_scot:1 edinburgh_edinburgh:2 warlord_holy:1 external_link:1
6,482	James_Madison	James Madison http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M000043 http://teachingamericanhistory.org/convention/delegates/madison.html http://etcweb.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/madison_james.html http://www.adherents.com/people/pm/James_Madison.html http://www.dkrause.com/americana/presidents/madison-james/ (March 16, 1751 – June 28, 1836) was an American politician and political philosopher who served as the fourth President of the United States (1809–1817), and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. Considered to be the "Father of the Constitution", he was the principal author of the document. In 1788, he wrote over a third of the Federalist Papers, still the most influential commentary on the Constitution. The first President to have served in the United States Congress, he was a leader in the 1st United States Congress, drafted many basic laws and was responsible for the first ten amendments to the Constitution (said to be based on the Virginia Declaration of Rights), and thus is also known as the "Father of the Bill of Rights". Wood, 2006b. As a political theorist, Madison's most distinctive belief was that the new republic needed checks and balances to protect individual rights from the tyranny of the majority. Madison Debates in Convention - Tuesday June 26, 1787 "There will be particularly the distinction of rich & poor. **....In framing a system which we wish to last for ages, we should not lose sight of the changes which ages will produce. An increase of population will of necessity increase the proportion of those who will labor under all the hardships of life, and secretly sigh for a more equal distribution of its blessings. These may in time outnumber those who are placed above the feelings of indigence. According to the equal laws of suffrage, the power will slide into the hands of the former." Notes of the Secret Debates of the Federal Convention of 1787, TUESDAY JUNE 26TH "The man who is possessed of wealth, who lolls on his sofa, or rolls in his carriage, cannot judge of the wants or feelings of the day laborer. The government we mean to erect is intended to last for ages. The landed interest, at present, is prevalent; but in process of time, when we approximate to the states and kingdoms of Europe; when the number of landholders shall be comparatively small, through the various means of trade and manufactures, will not the landed interest be overbalanced in future elections, and unless wisely provided against, what will become of your government? In England, at this day, if elections were open to all classes of people, the property of the landed proprietors would be insecure. An agrarian law would soon take place. If these observations be just, our government ought to secure the permanent interests of the country against innovation. Landholders ought to have a share in the government, to support these invaluable interests, and to balance and check the other. The checks and balances ought to be so constituted as to protect the [privatized property of the] minority of the opulent against the [will of the] majority." Jerry Fresia, "Toward an American Revolution - Exposing the Constitution and other Illusions" (South End Press, 1988) Fresia (1988) Chapter 3: The Constitution: Resurrection of an Imperial System As leader in the House of Representatives, Madison worked closely with President George Washington to organize the new federal government. Breaking with Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton in 1791, Madison and Thomas Jefferson organized what they called the Republican Party (later called the Democratic-Republican Party) James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 2, 1794.) "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican Party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose." Thomas Jefferson to President Washington, May 23, 1792 "The republican party, who wish to preserve the government in its present form, are fewer in number. They are fewer even when joined by the two, three, or half dozen anti-federalists,..." *Thomas Jefferson to John Melish, January 13, 1813. "The party called republican is steadily for the support of the present constitution" in opposition to key policies of the Federalists, especially the national bank and the Jay Treaty. He secretly co-authored, along with Thomas Jefferson, the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions in 1798 to protest the Alien and Sedition Acts. As Jefferson's Secretary of State (1801–1809), Madison supervised the Louisiana Purchase, doubling the nation's size, and sponsored the ill-fated Embargo Act of 1807. As president, he led the nation into the War of 1812 against Great Britain in order to protect the United States' economic rights. During and after the war, Madison reversed many of his positions. By 1815, he supported the creation of the second National Bank, a strong military, and a high tariff to protect the new factories opened during the war. Early life James Madison was born in Port Conway, Virginia on March 16, 1751, the oldest of seven children to live to maturity. His father, James Madison, Sr. (1723–1801) was a planter who grew up on an estate in Orange County, Virginia, which he inherited on reaching maturity. He later acquired still more property and became the largest landowner and leading citizen of Orange County. His mother, Eleanor "Nelly" Rose Conway (1731–1829), was born at Port Conway, Virginia, the daughter of a prominent planter and tobacco merchant. Madison's parents married in 1743. Both parents had a significant influence over their most famous oldest son. Madison had three brothers and three sisters to live to maturity (by whom he had more than 30 nieces and nephews): Francis Madison (1753–1800) - planter of Orange County, Virginia Ambrose Madison (1755–1793) - planter and captain in the Virginia militia, looked after the family interests in Orange County; named after his paternal grandfather. Catlett Madison (1758–1758) - died in infancy. Nelly Madison Hite (1760–1802) William Madison (1762–1843) - veteran of the Revolution and a lawyer, he served in the Virginia legislature Sarah Catlett Madison Macon (1764–1843) unnamed child (1766–1766) Elizabeth Madison (1768–1775) unnamed child (1770–1770) Reuben Madison (1771–1775) Frances "Fanny" Madison Rose (1774–1823) Education From ages 11–16, Madison studied under Donald Robertson, an instructor at the Innes plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia. From Robertson, Madison learned math, geography, and modern and ancient languages. He became especially proficient in Latin. At age 16, he began a two-year course of study under the Reverend Thomas Martin, who tutored Madison at Montpelier in preparation for college. Unlike most college-bound Virginians of his day, Madison did not choose William and Mary because the lowland climate of Williamsburg might have strained his delicate health. Instead, in 1769 he enrolled at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University). Through diligence and long hours of study that at times robbed him of his sleep, he managed to graduate in two years. His studies there included Latin, Greek, science, geography, math, rhetoric, and philosophy. Great emphasis also was placed on speech and debate. After graduation, Madison remained at Princeton to study Hebrew and philosophy under university president John Witherspoon before returning to Montpelier in the spring of 1772. Madison studied law sporadically but never gained admission to the bar. Marriage and family James Madison married Dolley Madison, a widow with one son on September 15, 1794 in what is now Jefferson County, West Virginia. Dolley Payne Todd Madison was born on May 20, 1768 at the New Garden Quaker settlement in North Carolina, where her parents John Payne and Mary Coles Payne lived briefly. Dolley's sister (Lucy Payne) had married George Steptoe Washington, a nephew of President Washington. As a member of Congress, Madison had doubtless met the widow Todd at social functions in Philadelphia, then the nation's capital. But in May 1794, he took formal notice of her by asking their mutual friend Aaron Burr to arrange a meeting. The encounter apparently went smoothly for a brisk courtship followed, and by August she had accepted his proposal of marriage. For marrying Madison, a non-Quaker, she was expelled from the Society of Friends. The Madisons had no children; thus he has no direct descendants. Early political career As a young lawyer, Madison defended Baptist preachers arrested for preaching without a license from the established Anglican Church. In addition, he worked with the preacher Elijah Craig on constitutional guarantees for religious liberty in Virginia. [http://books.google.com/books?id=hCAjgs4mmQ4C&printsec=copyright&dq=James+Madison+and+Baptist+preachers#PPR5,M1 Ralph Louis Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography, Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press, 1971; paperback, 1990, p. 57, accessed 6 Feb 2009 Working on such cases helped form his ideas about religious freedom. Madison served in the Virginia state legislature (1776–79) and became known as a protégé of Thomas Jefferson. He attained prominence in Virginia politics, helping to draft the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom. It disestablished the Church of England, and disclaimed any power of state compulsion in religious matters. He excluded Patrick Henry's plan to compel citizens to pay for a congregation of their own choice. Madison's cousin, the Right Reverend James Madison (1749–1812), became president of the College of William & Mary in 1777. Working closely with Madison and Jefferson, Reverend Madison helped lead the College through the difficult changes involving separation from both Great Britain and the Church of England. He also led college and state actions that resulted in the formation of the Episcopal Diocese of Virginia after the Revolution. James Madison persuaded Virginia to give up its claims to northwestern territories - consisting of most of modern-day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota - to the Continental Congress, which created the Northwest Territory in 1783. These land claims overlapped partially with other claims by Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and maybe others. All of these states ceded their westernmost lands, with the understanding that new states could be formed from the land, as they were. As a delegate to the Continental Congress (1780–83), Madison was considered a legislative workhorse and a master of parliamentary detail. He was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates for a second time from 1784-1786. Father of the Constitution Madison returned to the Virginia state legislature at the close of the war. He soon grew alarmed at the fragility of the Articles of Confederation, especially in relation to the divisiveness of state governments, and strongly advocated a new constitution. At the Philadelphia Convention in 1787, Madison's draft of the Virginia Plan and his revolutionary three-branch federal system became the basis for the American Constitution of today. Though Madison was a shy man, he was one of the more outspoken members of the Continental Congress. He envisioned a strong federal government that could overrule actions of the states when they were deemed mistaken; later in life he came to admire the US Supreme Court as it started filling that role. Wood, 2006, pp. 163–64. Federalist Papers To encourage ratification of the Constitution, Madison joined Alexander Hamilton and John Jay to write the Federalist Papers in 1787 and 1788. Among other contributions, Madison wrote paper #10, in which he explained how a large country with many different interests and factions could support republican values better than a small country dominated by a few special interests. His interpretation was largely ignored at the time, but in the 20th century became a central part of the pluralist interpretation of American politics. Larry D. Kramer, "Madison's Audience," Harvard Law Review 112,3 (1999), pp. 611+ online version. In Virginia in 1788, Madison led the fight for ratification at the Virginia Ratifying Convention, oratorically dueling with Patrick Henry and others who sought revisions (such as the United States Bill of Rights) before its ratification. Madison is often referred to as the "Father of the Constitution" for his role in its drafting and ratification. However, he protested the title as being "a credit to which I have no claim... The Constitution was not, like the fabled Goddess of Wisdom, the offspring of a single brain. It ought to be regarded as the work of many heads and many hands". Lance Banning, "James Madison: Federalist," note 1, . He wrote Hamilton at the New York ratifying convention, stating his opinion that "ratification was in toto and 'for ever'". The Virginia convention had considered conditional ratification worse than a rejection. Madison to Hamilton Letter, July 20, 1788, American Memory, Library of Congress, accessed 2 Feb 2008 Author of Bill of Rights Initially Madison "adamantly maintained ... that a specific bill of rights remained unnecessary because the Constitution itself was a bill of rights." Matthews, 1995, p. 130. Madison had three main objections to a specific bill of rights: it was unnecessary, since it purported to protect against powers that the federal government had not been granted; it was dangerous, since enumeration of some rights might be taken to imply the absence of other rights; and at the state level, bills of rights had proven to be useless paper barriers against government powers. But the anti-Federalists demanded a bill of rights in exchange for their support for ratification. Patrick Henry persuaded the Virginia legislature not to elect Madison as one of their first Senators; but Madison was directly elected to the new United States House of Representatives and became an important leader from the First Congress (1789) through the Fourth Congress (1797). People submitted more than 200 proposals from across the new nation. Madison ignored proposals that called for structural change to the government and synthesized the remainder into a list for the protection of civil rights, such as free speech, right of the people to bear arms, and habeas corpus. Still ambiguous as late as 1788 in his support for a bill of rights, Matthews, 1995, p. 142. in June 1789 Madison offered a package of twelve proposed amendments to the Constitution. Madison completed his change in position and "hounded his colleagues relentlessly" to accept the proposed amendments. By 1791, the last ten of Madison's proposed amendments were ratified and became the Bill of Rights. Contrary to his wishes, the Bill of Rights was not integrated into the main body of the Constitution, and it did not apply to the states until the passages of Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments restricted the powers of the states. The Second Amendment originally proposed by Madison (but not then ratified: see United States Bill of Rights) was later ratified in 1992 as the Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution. The remaining proposal was intended to accommodate future increase in members of the House of Representatives. Opposition to Hamilton The chief characteristic of Madison's time in Congress was his work to limit the power of the federal government. Wood (2006a) argued that Madison never wanted a national government that took an active role. He was horrified to discover that Hamilton and Washington were creating "a real modern European type of government with a bureaucracy, a standing army, and a powerful independent executive". Wood, 2006a, p. 165. When Britain and France went to war in 1793 the U.S. was caught in the middle. The 1778 treaty of alliance with France was still in effect, yet most of the new country's trade was with Britain. War with Britain seemed imminent in 1794, as the British seized hundreds of American ships that were trading with French colonies. Madison (in collaboration with Jefferson, who had temporarily returned to private life), believed that Britain was weak and America strong, and that a trade war with Britain, although risking retaliation by the British government, probably would succeed, and would allow Americans to assert their independence fully. Great Britain, he charged, "has bound us in commercial manacles, and very nearly defeated the object of our independence." As Varg explains, Madison had no fear of British recriminations for "her interests can be wounded almost mortally, while ours are invulnerable." The British West Indies, he maintained, could not live without American foodstuffs, but Americans could easily do without British manufactures. This same faith led him to the conclusion "that it is in our power, in a very short time, to supply all the tonnage necessary for our own commerce". Paul A. Varg, Foreign Policies of the Founding Fathers (Michigan State Univ. Press, 1963), p. 74. However, George Washington avoided a trade war and instead secured friendly trade relations with Britain through the Jay Treaty of 1794, a treaty that Madison tried but failed to defeat. All across the country, voters divided for and against the Treaty and other key issues, and thus became either Federalists or Democratic-Republicans. Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton built a nationwide network of supporters that became the Federalist Party and promoted a strong central government with a national bank. To oppose the Federalists, Madison and Jefferson organized the Democratic-Republican Party. Madison led the unsuccessful attempt to block Hamilton's proposed Bank of the United States, arguing the new Constitution did not explicitly allow the federal government to form a bank. As early as May 26, 1792, Hamilton complained, "Mr. Madison cooperating with Mr. Jefferson is at the head of a faction decidedly hostile to me and my administration." Hamilton, Writings (Library of America, 2001), p. 738. On May 5, 1792, Madison told Washington, "with respect to the spirit of party that was taking place ...I was sensible of its existence". Madison Letters 1 (1865), p. 554. Many historians argue that Madison changed radically from a nationally-oriented ally of Hamilton in 1787–88 to a states'-rights–oriented opponent of a strong national government by 1795 and then back to his original view while president. Madison started the first transition by opposing Hamilton; by 1793 he was opposing Washington as well. Madison usually lost and Hamilton usually achieved passage of his legislation, including the National Bank, funding of state and national debts, and support of the Jay Treaty. (Madison did block the proposal for high tariffs.) Madison's politics remained closely aligned with Jefferson's until the experience of a weak national government during the War of 1812 caused Madison to appreciate the need for a strong central government to aid national defense. He then began to support a national bank, a stronger navy, and a standing army. However, other historians, led by Lance Banning and Gordon S. Wood, see more continuity in Madison's views and do not see a sharp break in 1792. United States Secretary of State 1801–1809 The main challenge which faced the Jefferson Administration was navigating between the two great empires of Britain and France, which were almost constantly at war. The first great triumph was the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, made possible when Napoleon realized he could not defend that vast territory, and it was to France's advantage that Britain not seize it. Madison and President Jefferson reversed party policy to negotiate for the Purchase and then win Congressional approval. Madison tried to maintain neutrality between Britain and France, but at the same time insisted on the legal rights of the U.S. under international law. Neither London nor Paris showed much respect, however. Madison and Jefferson decided on an embargo to punish Britain and France, forbidding Americans to trade with any foreign nation. The embargo failed as foreign policy, and instead caused massive hardships in the southern seaboard, which depended on foreign trade. During his term as Secretary of State he was a party to the Supreme Court case Marbury v. Madison, in which the doctrine of judicial review was asserted by the high Court. The party's Congressional Caucus chose presidential candidates, and Madison was selected in the election of 1808, easily defeating Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, riding on the coattails of Jefferson's popularity. Congress repealed the failed embargo as Madison took office. Presidency 1809–1817 James Madison engraving from between 1809 and 1817 Bank of the United States The twenty year charter of the first Bank of the United States was scheduled to expire in 1811, the second year of Madison's administration. Madison failed in blocking the Bank in 1791, and waited for its charter to expire. Secretary of the Treasury Gallatin wanted the bank rechartered, and when the War of 1812 broke out, he discovered how difficult it was to finance the war without the Bank. Gallatin's successor as Treasury Secretary Alexander J. Dallas proposed a replacement in 1814, but Madison vetoed the bill in 1815. By late 1815, however, Madison asked Congress for a new bank, which had strong support from the younger, nationalistic republicans such as John C. Calhoun and Henry Clay, as well as Federalist Daniel Webster. Madison signed it into law in 1816 and appointed William Jones as its president. War of 1812 British insults continued, especially the practice of using the Royal Navy to intercept unarmed American merchant ships and "impress" (conscript) all sailors who might be British subjects for service in the British navy. Madison's protests were ignored by the British, so he helped the nationalist Republicans to stir up public opinion in the west and south for war. One argument by the so-called "war hawks" was that an American invasion of British Canada would be easy and would provide a good bargaining chip. Madison carefully prepared public opinion for what everyone at the time called "Mr. Madison's War", but much less time and money was spent building up the army, navy, forts, and state militias. After he convinced Congress to declare war, Madison was re-elected President over DeWitt Clinton but by a smaller margin than in 1808 (see U.S. presidential election, 1812). Some historians in 2006 ranked Madison's failure to avoid war as the sixth worst presidential mistake ever made. In the ensuing War of 1812, the British, Canadians, and First Nations allies won numerous victories, including the capture of Detroit after the American general there surrendered to a smaller force without a fight, and the occupation of Washington, D.C. which forced Madison to flee the city and watch as the White House was set on fire by British troops. The attack was in retaliation for a U.S. invasion of York, Upper Canada (now Toronto, Ontario), in which U.S. forces twice occupied the city, burning the Parliament Buildings of Upper Canada. The British also armed American Indians in the West, most notably followers of Tecumseh who met defeat at the Battle of the Thames. The Americans built warships on the Great Lakes faster than the British and Oliver Hazard Perry defeated the British fleet to avert a major invasion of New York in 1814. At sea, the British blockaded the entire coastline, cutting off both foreign trade and domestic trade between ports. Economic hardship was severe in New England, but entrepreneurs built factories that soon became the basis of the industrial revolution in America. Madison faced formidable obstacles—a divided cabinet, a factious party, a recalcitrant Congress, obstructionist governors, and incompetent generals, together with militia who refused to fight outside their states. Most serious was lack of unified popular support. There were serious threats of disunion from New England, which engaged in massive smuggling to Canada and refused to provide financial support or soldiers. Stagg, 1983. However Andrew Jackson in the South and William Henry Harrison in the West destroyed the main Indian threats by 1813. War-weariness led to the end of conflict after the apparent defeat of Napoleon in 1814. Both the British and American will to continue were exhausted, the causes of the absurd war were forgotten, the Indian issue was resolved for the time being, and it was time for peace. New England Federalists, however, set up a defeatist Hartford Convention that discussed secession. The Treaty of Ghent ended the war in 1815. There were no territorial gains on either side as both sides returned to status quo ante bellum, that is, the previous boundaries. The Battle of New Orleans, in which Andrew Jackson defeated the British regulars, was fought fifteen days after the treaty was signed but before the news of the signing reached New Orleans. Postwar With peace finally established, the U.S. was swept by a sense of euphoria and national achievement in finally securing solid independence from Britain. In Canada, the war and its conclusion was seen as a victory, as it represented a successful defense of the country, and a defining era in the formation of an independent national identity. This, coupled with ongoing suspicion of a U.S. desire to again invade the country, would culminate in creation of the Dominion of Canada in 1867. In the U.S., the Federalist Party collapsed and eventually disappeared from politics, as an Era of Good Feeling emerged with a much lower level of political fear and vituperation, although political contention certainly continued. Although Madison had accepted the necessity of a Hamiltonian national bank, an effective taxation system based on tariffs, a standing professional army and a strong navy, he drew the line at internal improvements as advocated by his Treasury Secretary Albert Gallatin. In his last act before leaving office, Madison vetoed on states' rights grounds a bill for "internal improvements", including roads, bridges, and canals: Madison rejected the view of Congress that the General Welfare provision of the Taxing and Spending Clause justified the bill, stating: Madison urged a variety of measures that he felt were "best executed under the national authority", including federal support for roads and canals that would "bind more closely together the various parts of our extended confederacy". International The Second Barbary War brought to a conclusive end the American practice of paying tribute to the pirate states in the Mediterranean and marked the beginning of the end of the age of piracy in that region. Administration and cabinet Madison is the only president to have had two vice-presidents die while in office. Judicial appointments Supreme Court Madison appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Gabriel Duvall 1811 Joseph Story 1812 Other courts Madison appointed eleven other federal judges, two to the United States Circuit Court of the District of Columbia, and nine to the various United States district courts. One of those judges was appointed twice, to different seats on the same court. States admitted to the Union Louisiana April 30, 1812 Indiana December 11, 1816 Later life James Madison c. 1821 When Madison left office in 1817, he retired to Montpelier, his tobacco plantation in Virginia; not far from Jefferson's Monticello. Madison was then 65 years old. Dolley, who thought they would finally have a chance to travel to Paris, was 49. But as with both Washington and Jefferson, Madison left the presidency a poorer man than when he entered, due to the steady financial collapse of his plantation. Some historians speculate that his mounting debt was one of the chief reasons why he refused to allow his notes on the Constitutional Convention, or its official records which he possessed, to be published in his lifetime "He knew the value of his notes, and wanted them to bring money to his estate for Dolley's use as his plantation failed—he was hoping for one hundred thousand dollars from the sale of his papers, of which the notes were the gem." Garry Wills, James Madison (Times Books, 2002), p. 163. Madison's financial troubles and deteriorating mental and physical health would continue to consume him. In his later years Madison also became extremely concerned about his legacy. He took to modifying letters and other documents in his possessions: changing days and dates, adding and deleting words and sentences, and shifting characters. By the time he had reached his late seventies, this "straightening out" had become almost an obsession. This can be seen by his editing of a letter he had written to Jefferson criticizing Lafayette: Madison not only inked out original passages, but went so far as to imitate Jefferson's handwriting as well. Ibid., p. 162. In Madison's mind, this may have represented an effort to make himself clear, to justify his actions both to history and to himself. In 1826, after the death of Jefferson, Madison followed Jefferson as the second Rector ("President") of the University of Virginia. It would be his last occupation. He retained the position as college chancellor for ten years, until his death in 1836. In 1829, at the age of seventy-eight, Madison was chosen as a representative to the constitutional convention in Richmond for the revising of the Virginia state constitution; this was to be Madison's last appearance as a legislator and constitutional draftsman. The issue of greatest importance at this convention was apportionment. The western districts of Virginia complained that they were under-represented because the state constitution apportioned voting districts by population, and the count included slaves even though slaves could not vote. Westerners had few slaves, while the Eastern planters had many, and thus the vote of a white easterner outweighed the vote of a white westerner. Madison, who in his prime was known as "the Great Legislator", tried to effect a compromise, such as the 3/5 ratio for a slave then used by the U.S. Constitution, but to no avail. Eventually, the eastern planters prevailed. Slaves would continue to be counted toward their masters' districts. Madison was crushed at the failure of Virginians to resolve the issue more equitably. "The Convention of 1829, we might say, pushed Madison steadily to the brink of self-delusion, if not despair. The dilemma of slavery undid him." Ibid., p. 252. Although his health had now almost failed, he managed to produce several memoranda on political subjects, including an essay against the appointment of chaplains for Congress and the armed forces, on the grounds that this produced religious exclusion, but not political harmony. He was tempted to admit chaplains for the navy, which might well have no other opportunity for worship.The text of the memoranda Madison lived on until 1836, increasingly ignored by the new leaders of the American polity. He died at Montpelier on June 28, the last Founding Father to die. He is buried in the Madison Family Cemetery at Montpelier. Legacy Presidential Dollar of James Madison As historian Garry Wills wrote: Many counties, several towns, cities, educational institutions, a mountain range and a river are named after Madison. Madison County - lists counties named for him Cities: e.g. Madison, Wisconsin The James Madison College of public policy at Michigan State University; James Madison University in Harrisonburg, Virginia - its athletic teams are called the James Madison Dukes; the James Madison Institute was named in honor of his contributions to the Constitution. The Madison Range was named in honor of the future President then U.S. Secretary of State by Meriwether Lewis as the Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled through Montana in 1805. The Madison River in southwestern Montana, named in 1805 by Lewis & Clark. Allan H. Keith, Historical Stories: About Greenville and Bond County, IL. Consulted on August 15, 2007. Mount Madison in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains in New Hampshire is named after Madison. Two U.S. Navy ships have been named USS James Madison and three USS Madison. Madison's portrait was on the U.S. $5000 bill. Madison Square Gardens and Madison Cycle Racing "Madison Cottage" on the site of the Fifth Avenue Hotel at Madison Square, NYC, 1852 A lodge was built three years after Madison's death in a critical spot at the then-northernmost departure and arrival point in New York City — and named Madison Cottage in honor of the recently deceased fourth president. The site of Madison Cottage would remain a critical crossroads throughout the city's history — after its demise the site gave rise to a park, in turn named Madison Square, Jackson, Kenneth T. (ed.), The Encyclopedia of New York City (1995) ISBN 0-300-05536-6 which remains today. Madison Square in turn, gave rise to the names of Madison Avenue and Madison Square Gardens, the latter taking the name of its original location: adjacent to Madison Square. Madison Square Gardens, a prominent cycling venue, gave rise to a form of track cycle racing, Madison Racing, which remains an Olympic Sport today. See also Religious affiliations of United States Presidents Report of 1800, produced by Madison to support the Virginia Resolutions Notes Primary sources Secondary sources Biographies Brant, Irving. "James Madison and His Times," American Historical Review. 57,4 (July, 1952), 853–870. Brant, Irving. James Madison, 6 vols., (Bobbs-Merrill, 1941–1961) Brant, Irving. The Fourth President; a Life of James Madison (Bobbs-Merrill, 1970). Single volume condensation of his series. Ketcham, Ralph. James Madison: A Biography (Macmillan, 1971). Rakove, Jack. James Madison and the Creation of the American Republic, 2nd ed., (Longman, 2002). Riemer, Neal. James Madison (Washington Square Press, 1968). Wills, Garry. James Madison (Times Books, 2002). Short bio. Analytic studies Adams, Henry. History of the United States during the Administrations of James Madison (C. Scribners's Sons, 1890–91; Library of America, 1986). ISBN 0940450356 Wills, Garry. Henry Adams and the Making of America (Houghton Mifflin, 2005). a close reading. Banning, Lance. The Sacred Fire of Liberty: James Madison and the Founding of the Federal Republic (Cornell Univ. Press, 1995). online ACLS History e-Book. Available only to subscribing institutions. Brant, Irving. James Madison and American Nationalism. (Van Nostrand Co., 1968). Elkins, Stanley M.; McKitrick, Eric. The Age of Federalism (Oxford Univ. Press, 1995). most detailed analysis of the politics of the 1790s. Kernell, Samuel, ed. James Madison: the Theory and Practice of Republican Government (Stanford Univ. Press, 2003). Matthews, Richard K., If Men Were Angels : James Madison and the Heartless Empire of Reason (Univ. Press of Kansas, 1995). McCoy, Drew R. The Elusive Republic: Political Economy in Jeffersonian America (W.W. Norton, 1980). mostly economic issues. McCoy, The Last of the Fathers: James Madison and the Republican Legacy (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989). JM after 1816. Muñoz, Vincent Phillip. "James Madison's Principle of Religious Liberty," American Political Science Review 97,1(2003), 17–32. in JSTOR. Riemer, Neal. "The Republicanism of James Madison," Political Science Quarterly, 69,1(1954), 45–64 in JSTOR. Riemer, James Madison : Creating the American Constitution (Congressional Quarterly, 1986). Rutland, Robert A. The Presidency of James Madison (Univ. Press of Kansas, 1990). scholarly overview of his two terms. Rutland, ed. James Madison and the American Nation, 1751–1836: An Encyclopedia (Simon & Schuster, 1994). Scarberry, Mark S. "John Leland and James Madison: Religious Influence on the Ratification of the Constitution and on the Proposal of the Bill of Rights," Penn State Law Review, Vol. 113, No. 3 (April 2009), 733-800. Sheehan, Colleen A. "The Politics of Public Opinion: James Madison's 'Notes on Government'," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. 49,3(1992), 609–627. in JSTOR. Sheehan, "Madison and the French Enlightenment," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. 59,4(Oct. 2002), 925–956. in JSTOR. Sheehan, "Madison v. Hamilton: The Battle Over Republicanism and the Role of Public Opinion," American Political Science Review 98,3(2004), 405–424. in JSTOR. Sheehan, "Madison Avenues," Claremont Review of Books (Spring 2004), online. Sheehan, "Public Opinion and the Formation of Civic Character in Madison's Republican Theory," Review of Politics 67,1(Winter 2005), 37–48. Stagg, John C.A., "James Madison and the 'Malcontents': The Political Origins of the War of 1812," William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. 33,4(Oct. 1976), 557–585. Stagg, "James Madison and the Coercion of Great Britain: Canada, the West Indies, and the War of 1812," in William and Mary Quarterly 3rd ser. 38,1(Jan., 1981), 3–34. Stagg, Mr. Madison's War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton, 1983). Wood, Gordon S., "Is There a 'James Madison Problem'?" in Wood, Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (Penguin Press, 2006a), 141–72. Wood, "Without Him, No Bill of Rights : James Madison and the Struggle for the Bill of Rights by Richard Labunski", The New York Review of Books (November 30, 2006b). External links Essay on Madison and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady James Madison: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress James Madison Biography and Fact File Quotations by James Madison at Liberty-Tree.ca The James Madison Papers, 1723–1836 About 12,000 items captured in 72,000 images The Papers of James Madison from the Avalon Project Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments, 1785 Madison's last will and testament, 1835 Official White House page for James Madison James Madison Museum Montpelier-Home of James Madison Alumni who changed America, and the world James Madison Letters James Madison and the Social Utility of Religion: Risks vs. Rewards, James Hutson, Library of Congress Memories of Montpelier: Home of James and Dolley Madison, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan	James_Madison \|@lemmatized james:51 madison:196 http:6 bioguide:1 congress:19 gov:1 script:1 biodisplay:1 pl:1 index:1 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6,483	Lebesgue_measure	In mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a length, area or volume to subsets of Euclidean space. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets which can be assigned a volume are called Lebesgue measurable; the volume or measure of the Lebesgue measurable set A is denoted by λ(A). A Lebesgue measure of ∞ is possible, but even so, assuming the axiom of choice, not all subsets of Rn are Lebesgue measurable. The "strange" behavior of non-measurable sets gives rise to such statements as the Banach-Tarski paradox, a consequence of the axiom of choice. Lebesgue measure is often denoted , but this should not be confused with the distinct notion of a volume form. Examples If A is a closed interval [a, b], then its Lebesgue measure is the length b−a. The open interval (a, b) has the same measure, since the difference between the two sets has measure zero. If A is the Cartesian product of intervals [a, b] and [c, d], then it is a rectangle and its Lebesgue measure is the area (b−a)(d−c). The Cantor set is an example of an uncountable set that has Lebesgue measure zero. Properties The Lebesgue measure on Rn has the following properties: If A is a cartesian product of intervals I1 × I2 × ... × In, then A is Lebesgue measurable and Here, \|I\| denotes the length of the interval I. If A is a disjoint union of countably many disjoint Lebesgue measurable sets, then A is itself Lebesgue measurable and λ(A) is equal to the sum (or infinite series) of the measures of the involved measurable sets. If A is Lebesgue measurable, then so is its complement. λ(A) ≥ 0 for every Lebesgue measurable set A. If A and B are Lebesgue measurable and A is a subset of B, then λ(A) ≤ λ(B). (A consequence of 2, 3 and 4.) Countable unions and intersections of Lebesgue measurable sets are Lebesgue measurable. (Not a consequence of 2 and 3, because a family of sets that is closed under complements and disjoint countable unions need not be closed under countable unions: .) If A is an open or closed subset of Rn (or even Borel set, see metric space), then A is Lebesgue measurable. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set, then it is "approximately open" and "approximately closed" in the sense of Lebesgue measure (see the regularity theorem for Lebesgue measure). Lebesgue measure is both locally finite and inner regular, and so it is a Radon measure. Lebesgue measure is strictly positive on non-empty open sets, and so its support is the whole of Rn. If A is a Lebesgue measurable set with λ(A) = 0 (a null set), then every subset of A is also a null set. A fortiori, every subset of A is measurable. If A is Lebesgue measurable and x is an element of Rn, then the translation of A by x, defined by A + x = {a + x : a ∈ A}, is also Lebesgue measurable and has the same measure as A. If A is Lebesgue measurable and , then the dilation of by defined by is also Lebesgue measurable and has measure . More generally, if T is a linear transformation and A is a measurable subset of Rn, then T(A) is also Lebesgue measurable and has the measure . All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows: The Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ-algebra containing all products of intervals, and λ is the unique complete translation-invariant measure on that σ-algebra with The Lebesgue measure also has the property of being σ-finite. Null sets A subset of Rn is a null set if, for every ε > 0, it can be covered with countably many products of n intervals whose total volume is at most ε. All countable sets are null sets. If a subset of Rn has Hausdorff dimension less than n then it is a null set with respect to n-dimensional Lebesgue measure. Here Hausdorff dimension is relative to the Euclidean metric on Rn (or any metric Lipschitz equivalent to it). On the other hand a set may have topological dimension less than n and have positive n-dimensional Lebesgue measure. An example of this is the Smith–Volterra–Cantor set which has topological dimension 0 yet has positive 1-dimensional Lebesgue measure. In order to show that a given set A is Lebesgue measurable, one usually tries to find a "nicer" set B which differs from A only by a null set (in the sense that the symmetric difference (A − B) (B − A) is a null set) and then show that B can be generated using countable unions and intersections from open or closed sets. Construction of the Lebesgue measure The modern construction of the Lebesgue measure, based on outer measures, is due to Carathéodory. It proceeds as follows. Fix . A box in is a set of the form , where . The volume of this box is defined to be For any subset A of Rn, we can define its outer measure by: We then define the set A to be Lebesgue measurable if for all sets . These Lebesgue measurable sets form a σ-algebra, and the Lebesgue measure is defined by λ(A) = λ*(A) for any Lebesgue measurable set A. According to the Vitali theorem there exists a subset of the real numbers R that is not Lebesgue measurable. Much more is true: if A is any subset of of positive measure, then A has subsets which are not Lebesgue measurable. Relation to other measures The Borel measure agrees with the Lebesgue measure on those sets for which it is defined; however, there are many more Lebesgue-measurable sets than there are Borel measurable sets. The Borel measure is translation-invariant, but not complete. The Haar measure can be defined on any locally compact group and is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure (Rn with addition is a locally compact group). The Hausdorff measure (see Hausdorff dimension) is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure that is useful for measuring the subsets of Rn of lower dimensions than n, like submanifolds, for example, surfaces or curves in R³ and fractal sets. The Hausdorff measure is not to be confused with the notion of Hausdorff dimension. It can be shown that there is no infinite-dimensional analogue of Lebesgue measure. History Henri Lebesgue described his measure in 1901, followed the next year by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902. See also Lebesgue's density theorem References	Lebesgue_measure \|@lemmatized mathematics:1 lebesgue:54 measure:42 name:1 henri:2 standard:1 way:1 assign:2 length:3 area:2 volume:6 subset:14 euclidean:2 space:2 use:2 throughout:1 real:2 analysis:1 particular:1 define:9 integration:1 set:39 call:1 measurable:32 denote:3 λ:9 possible:1 even:2 assume:1 axiom:2 choice:2 rn:12 strange:1 behavior:1 non:2 give:2 rise:1 statement:1 banach:1 tarski:1 paradox:1 consequence:3 often:1 confuse:2 distinct:1 notion:2 form:4 example:4 closed:3 interval:7 b:12 open:5 since:1 difference:2 two:1 zero:2 cartesian:2 product:4 c:2 rectangle:1 cantor:2 uncountable:1 property:3 following:1 disjoint:3 union:5 countably:2 many:3 equal:1 sum:1 infinite:2 series:1 involved:1 complement:2 every:4 countable:5 intersection:2 family:1 close:3 need:1 borel:4 see:4 metric:3 approximately:2 sense:2 regularity:1 theorem:3 locally:3 finite:2 inner:1 regular:1 radon:1 strictly:1 positive:4 empty:1 support:1 whole:1 null:8 also:6 fortiori:1 x:4 element:1 translation:3 dilation:1 generally:1 linear:1 transformation:1 may:2 succinctly:1 summarize:1 follow:3 σ:4 algebra:3 contain:1 unique:1 complete:2 invariant:2 ε:2 cover:1 n:6 whose:1 total:1 hausdorff:6 dimension:7 less:2 respect:1 dimensional:4 relative:1 lipschitz:1 equivalent:1 hand:1 topological:2 smith:1 volterra:1 yet:1 order:1 show:3 one:1 usually:1 try:1 find:1 nicer:1 differs:1 symmetric:1 generate:1 construction:2 modern:1 base:1 outer:2 due:1 carathéodory:1 proceed:1 fix:1 box:2 accord:1 vitali:1 exist:1 number:1 r:1 much:1 true:1 relation:1 agree:1 however:1 haar:1 compact:2 group:2 generalization:2 addition:1 useful:1 low:1 like:1 submanifolds:1 surface:1 curve:1 fractal:1 analogue:1 history:1 describe:1 next:1 year:1 description:1 integral:1 publish:1 part:1 dissertation:1 density:1 reference:1 \|@bigram lebesgue_measure:22 lebesgue_integration:1 lebesgue_measurable:27 axiom_choice:2 subset_rn:7 banach_tarski:1 tarski_paradox:1 closed_interval:1 cartesian_product:2 disjoint_union:1 measurable_subset:2 λ_λ:2 radon_measure:1 σ_algebra:3 hausdorff_dimension:4 borel_measurable:1 haar_measure:1 locally_compact:2 infinite_dimensional:1 lebesgue_integral:1
6,484	Classical_order	A refined canonic version of the Orders engraved for the Encyclopédie, vol. 18 A classical order is one of the ancient styles of building design in the classical tradition, distinguished by their proportions and their characteristic profiles and details, but most quickly recognizable by the type of column and capital employed. Each style also has its proper entablature, consisting of architrave, frieze and cornice. From the sixteenth century onwards, theorists recognized five orders. Ranged in the engraving (illustration, right), from the stockiest and most primitive to the richest and most slender, they are: Tuscan (Roman) and Doric (Greek and Roman, illustrated here in its Roman version); Ionic (Greek version) and Ionic (Roman version); Corinthian (Greek and Roman) and composite (Roman). The ancient and original orders of architecture are no more than three, the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, which were invented by the Greeks. To these the Romans added two, the Tuscan, which they made simpler than the Doric, and the Composite, which was more ornamental than the Corinthian. The order of a classical building is like the mode or key of classical music. It is established by certain modules like the intervals of music, and it raises certain expectations in an audience attuned to its language. The orders are like the grammar or rhetoric of a written composition. Parts of a column There are three parts of a column. A column is divided into a shaft, its base and its capital. In classical buildings the horizontal structure that is supported on the columns like a beam is called an entablature. The entablature is commonly divided into the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. To distinguish between the different Classical orders, the capital is used, having the most distinct characteristics. Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728 A complete column and entablature consist of a number of distinct parts. The stylobate is the flat pavement on which the columns are placed. Standing upon the stylobate is the plinth, a square block – sometimes circular – which forms the lowest part of the base. The remainder of the base may be given one or many moldings with profiles. Common examples are the convex torus and the concave scotia, separated by fillets or bands. On top of the base, the shaft is placed vertically. The shaft is cylindrical in shape and both long and narrow. The shaft is sometimes articulated with vertical hollow grooves or fluting. The shaft is wider at the bottom than at the top, because its entasis, beginning a third of the way up, imperceptibly makes the column slightly more slender at the top. The capital rests on the shaft. It has a load-bearing function, which concentrates the weight of the entablature on the supportive column, but it primarily serves an aesthetic purpose. The simplest form of the capital is the Doric, consisting of three parts. The necking is the continuation of the shaft, but is visually separated by one or many grooves. The echinus lies atop the necking. It is a circular block that bulges outwards towards the top in order to support the abacus, which is a square or shaped block that in turn supports the entablature. The entablature consists of three horizontal layers, all of which are visually separated from each other using moldings or bands. The three layers of the entablature have distinct names: the architrave comes at the bottom, the frieze is in the middle and the molded cornice lies on the top. In Roman and post-Renaissance work, the entablature may be carried from column to column in the form of an arch that springs from the column that bears its weight, retaining its divisions and sculptural enrichment, if any. Measurement The height of a column is measured in terms of a ratio between the diameter of the shaft at its base compared to the height of the column. A Doric column can be described as seven diameters high, an Ionic column as eight diameters high and a Corinthian column nine diameters high. Sometimes this is given as seven lower diameters high, in order to make sure which part of the shaft has been measured. Greek orders There are three distinct orders in Ancient Greek architecture: Doric, Ionic, and, later, Corinthian. These three were adopted by the Romans, who modified their capitals. The Roman adoption of the Greek orders took place in the first century BC. The three Ancient Greek orders have since been consistently used in neo-classical Western architecture. Sometimes the Doric order is considered the earliest order, but there is no evidence to support this. Rather, the Doric and Ionic orders seem to have appeared at around the same time, the Ionic in eastern Greece and the Doric in the west and mainland. Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have originated in wood. The Temple of Hera in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after 600 BC. The Doric order later spread across Greece and into Sicily where it was the chief order for monumental architecture for 800 years. Doric order The Doric order of the Parthenon The Doric order originated on the mainland and western Greece. It is the simplest of the orders, characterized by short, faceted, heavy columns with plain, round capitals (tops) and no base. With a height that is only four to eight times its diameter, the columns are the most squat of all orders. The shaft of the Doric order is channeled with 20 flutes. The capital consists of a necking which is of a simple form. The echinus is convex and the abacus is square. Above the capital is a square abacus connecting the capital to the entablature. The Entablature is divided into two horizontal registers, the lower part of which is either smooth or divided by horizontal lines. The upper half is distinctive for the Doric order. The frieze of the Doric entablature is divided into triglyphs and metopes. A triglyph is a unit consisting of three vertical bands which are separated by grooves. Metopes are plain or carved reliefs. The Greek forms of the Doric order come without an individual base. They instead are placed directly on the stylobate. Later forms, however, came with the conventional base consisting of a plinth and a torus. The Roman versions of the Doric order have smaller proportions. As a result they appear lighter than the Greek orders. Ionic order Ionic order The Ionic order came from eastern Greece, where its origins are entwined with the similar but little known Aeolic order. It is distinguished by slender, fluted pillars with a large base and two opposed volutes (also called scrolls) in the echinus of the capital. The echinus itself is decorated with an egg-and-dart motif. The Ionic shaft comes with four more flutes than the Doric counterpart (totalling 24). The Ionic base has two convex moldings called tori which are separated by a scotia. The Ionic order is also marked by an entasis, a curved tapering in the column shaft. A column of the ionic order is nine or lower diameters. The shaft itself is eight meters high. The architrave of the entablature commonly consists of three stepped bands (fasciae). The frieze comes without the Doric triglyph and metope. The frieze sometimes comes with a continuous ornament such as carved figures. Corinthian order Corinthian order The Corinthian order is the most ornate of the Greek orders, characterized by a slender fluted column having an ornate capital decorated with two rows of acanthus leaves and four scrolls. It is commonly regarded as the most elegant of the three orders. The shaft of the Corinthian order has 24 flutes. The column is commonly ten diameters high. Designed by Callimachus, a Greek sculptor of the 5th century BC. The oldest known building to be built according to the Corinthian order is the monument of Lysicrates in Athens. It was built in 335 to 334 BC. The Corinthian order was raised to rank by the writings of the Roman writer Vitruvius in the 1st century BC. Roman orders The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own, basically modification of Greek orders. The Romans also invented the superimposed order. A superimposed order is when successive stories of a building have different orders. The heaviest orders were at the bottom, whilst the lightest came at the top. This means that the Doric order was the order of the ground floor, the Ionic order was used for the middle storey, while the Corinthian or the Composite order was used for the top storey. The Colossal order was invented by architects in the Renaissance. The Colossal order is characterized by columns that extend the height of two or more stories. The Tuscan order in Andrea Palladio, Quattro Libri di Architettura, 1570 Tuscan order The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. It is a simplified adaptation of the Doric order by the Romans. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that only consist of an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid. Composite order Composite order The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order. Until the Renaissance it was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is ten diameters high. Nonce orders Several orders, usually based upon the Composite order and only varying in the design of the capitals, have been invented under the inspiration of specific occasions, but have not been used again. Thus they may be termed "nonce orders" on the analogy of nonce words. Robert Adam's brother James was in Rome in 1762, drawing antiquities under the direction of Clérisseau; he invented a British Order, of which his ink-and-wash rendering with red highlighting, is at the Avery Library, Columbia University. Adam published an engraving of it. In its capital the heraldic lion and unicorn take the place of the Composite's volutes, a Byzantine/Romanesque conception, but expressed in terms of neoclassical realism. In 1789 George Dance invented an Ammonite Order, a variant of Ionic substituting volutes in the form of fossil ammonites for John Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery in Pall Mall, London. Corn capital at the Litchfield Villa designed by architect A.J. Davis, located in Prospect Park (Brooklyn) In the United States Benjamin Latrobe, the architect of the Capitol building in Washington DC, designed a series of botanically American orders. Most famous is the order substituting corncobs and their husks, which was executed by Giuseppe Franzoni and employed in the small domed Vestibule of the Supreme Court. Only the Supreme Court survived the fire of August 24, 1814, nearly intact. With peace restored, Latrobe designed an American order that substituted for the acanthus tobacco leaves, of which he sent a sketch to Thomas Jefferson in a letter, November 5, 1816. He was encouraged to send a model of it, which remains at Monticello. In the 1830s Alexander Jackson Davis admired it enough to make a drawing of it. In 1809 Latrobe invented a second American order, employing magnolia flowers contrained within the profile of classical mouldings, as his drawing demonstrates. It was intended for "the Upper Columns in the Gallery of the Entrance of the Chamber of the Senate" (United States Capitol exhibit). These nonce orders all express the "speaking architecture" (architecture parlante) that was taught in the Paris courses, most explicitly by Étienne-Louis Boullée, in which sculptural details of classical architecture could be enlisted to speak symbolically, the better to express the purpose of the structure and enrich its visual meaning with specific appropriateness. This idea was taken up strongly in the training of Beaux-Arts architecture, ca 1875-1915: see architecture parlante. Original writings The handbook De architectura of Vitruvius is the only architectural writing that survived from Antiquity. After it was rediscovered in the 15th century, Vitruvius was instantly hailed as the authority on classical orders and architecture in general. Architects of the Renaissance and the Baroque period in Italy based their rules on Vitruvius' writings. What was added was rules for superimposing the classical orders and the exact proportions of the orders down to the most minute detail. Modern approaches Later the rules of the Renaissance and the Baroque period were disregarded and the original use of the orders was revived, often hailed as the 'correct' use of the orders. Many architects, however, used the Classical orders at their own discretion. In America, The American Builder's Companion (ISBN 0-486-22236-5), written in the early 1800s by the architect Asher Benjamin, influenced many builders in the eastern states, particularly those who developed what became known as the Federalist style. The Dover edition is based on the 1827 6th edition of the work, and contains 70 plates with many details of columns, capitals, pilasters, plinths, bases, mouldings, architraves, and so on, with numerous instructions regarding proportion as well. In 20th century modernist architecture, the orders have often become ornaments and regarded as superfluous. Instead columns of steel and reinforced concrete are used. In late 20th century postmodernist architecture, however, elements of the traditional orders have sometimes been reintroduced. See also Temple (Roman) Temple (Greek) Five Orders of Periwigs Further reading Barletta, Barbara A., The Origins of the Greek Architectural Orders (Cambridge University Press) 2001 Curl, James Stevens, Classical Architecture: An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials, with a Select Glossary of Terms 2003. ISBN 0-393-73119-7 Summerson, Sir John, The Classical Language of Architecture MIT Press, 1966. ISBN 0-262-69012-8 (developed from a set of BBC radio talks). 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6,485	History_of_Haiti	The recorded history of Haiti began on December 5, 1492 when the European navigator Christopher Columbus happened upon a large island in the region of the western Atlantic Ocean that later came to be known as the Caribbean Sea. It was inhabited by the Taíno, an Arawakan people, who variously called their island Ayiti, Bohio, or Kiskeya. Columbus promptly claimed the island for the Spanish Crown, and renamed it La Isla Española ("the Spanish Island"), or Hispañola (later Anglicized as Hispaniola). Spanish Hispaniola 1510 pictograph telling a story of missionaries arriving in Hispaniola Columbus established a small settlement, but, when he returned in 1493, the settlers had disappeared, presumably killed. He claimed the whole island for Spain, and left his brother Bartolomeo Columbus to found a new settlement. Following the arrival of Europeans, Haiti's indigenous population suffered near-extinction, in possibly the worst case of depopulation in the Americas. The high mortality in the colony can be attributed at least in part to murder, forced labor, and repression. However, evidence elsewhere suggests that the natives were exposed to Old World diseases, from which they had no immunity. Still, a significant number of the Taínos survived and set up villages elsewhere. Spanish interest in Hispaniola began to wane in the 1520s, as more lucrative gold and silver deposits were found in Mexico and South America. Thereafter, the population of Spanish Hispaniola grew slowly. Fearful of pirate attacks, the king of Spain in 1606 ordered all colonists on Hispaniola to move closer to the capital city, Santo Domingo. The decision backfired, as British, Dutch, and French pirates then established bases on the island's abandoned northern and western coasts. French Saint-Domingue French buccaneers established a settlement on the island of Tortuga in 1625. They survived by pirating Spanish ships and hunting wild cattle. Although the Spanish destroyed the buccaneers' settlements several times, on each occasion they returned. The first official settlement on Tortuga was established in 1659 under the commission of King Louis XIV. In 1664, the newly established French West India Company took control over the colony, which it named Saint-Domingue, and France formally claimed control of the western portion of the island of Hispaniola. In 1670 they established the first permanent French settlement on the mainland of Hispaniola, Cap François (later Cap Français, now Cap-Haïtien). Under the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick, Spain officially ceded the western third of Hispaniola to France. By that time, planters outnumbered buccaneers and, with the encouragement of Louis XIV, they had begun to grow tobacco, indigo, cotton, and cacao on the fertile northern plain, thus prompting the importation of African slaves. Slave insurrections were frequent and some slaves escaped to the mountains where they were met by what would be one of the last generations of Taíno natives. After the last Taíno died, the full-blooded Arawakan population on the island was extinct. Prior to the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), the economy of Saint-Domingue gradually expanded, with sugar and, later, coffee becoming important export crops. After the war, which disrupted maritime commerce, the colony underwent rapid expansion. In 1767, it exported 72 million pounds of raw sugar and 51 million pounds of refined sugar, one million pounds of indigo, and two million pounds of cotton. C.L.R. James The Black Jacobins (Vintage Books: New York, 1963) Pg. 45 Saint-Domingue became known as the "Pearl of the Antilles" – one of the richest colonies in the 18th century French empire. By the 1780s, Saint-Domingue produced about 40 percent of all the sugar and 60 percent of all the coffee consumed in Europe. This single colony, roughly the size of Maryland or Belgium, produced more sugar and coffee than all of Britain's West Indian colonies combined. The labor for these plantations was provided by an estimated 790,000 African slaves (accounting in 1783-1791 for a third of the entire Atlantic slave trade). Between 1764 and 1771, the average importation of slaves varied between 10,000-15,000, by 1786 about 28,000, and, from 1787 onward, the colony received more than 40,000 slaves a year. However, the inability to maintain slave numbers without constant resupply from Africa meant the slave population, by 1789, totaled 500,000, ruled over by a white population that, by 1789, numbered only 32,000. C.L.R. James The Black Jacobins Pg. 55 At all times, a majority of slaves in the colony were African-born, as the brutal conditions of slavery prevented the population from experiencing growth through natural increase. African culture thus remained strong among slaves to the end of French rule, in particular the folk-religion of Vodou, which commingled Catholic liturgy and ritual with the beliefs and practices of Guinea, Congo, and Dahomey. Vodou is a Dahomean word meaning 'god' or 'spirit Slave traders scoured the Atlantic coast of Africa, and the slaves who arrived came from hundreds of different tribes, their languages often mutually incomprehensible. To regularize slavery, in 1685 Louis XIV enacted the Code Noir, which accorded certain human rights to slaves and responsibilities to the master, who was obliged to feed, clothe, and provide for the general well-being of their slaves. The code noir also sanctioned corporal punishment, allowing masters to employ brutal methods to instill in their slaves the necessary docility, while ignoring provisions intended to regulate the administration of punishments. A passage from Henri Christophe's personal secretary, who lived more than half his life as a slave, describes the crimes perpetrated against the slaves of Saint-Domingue by their French masters: Thousands of slaves found freedom by fleeing into the mountains, forming communities of maroons and raiding isolated plantations. The most famous was Mackandal, a one-armed slave, originally from Guinea, who escaped in 1751. A Vodou Houngan (priest), he united many of the different maroon bands. He spent the next six years staging successful raids and evading capture by the French, reputedly killing over 6,000 people, while preaching a fanatic vision of the destruction of white civilization in St. Domingue. In 1758, after a failed plot to poison the drinking water of the plantation owners, he was captured and burned alive at the public square in Cap-Français. Saint-Domingue also had the largest and wealthiest free population of color in the Caribbean, the gens de couleur (French, "people of color"). The mixed-race community in Saint-Domingue numbered 25,000 in 1789. First-generation gens de couleur were typically the offspring of a male, French slaveowner and an African slave chosen as a concubine. In the French colonies, the semi-official institution of "plaçage" defined this practice. By this system, the children were free people and could inherit property, thus originating a class of "mulattos" with property and some with wealthy fathers. This class occupied a middle status between African slaves and French colonists. Some Africans also enjoyed status as gens de couleur. (See also Mestizo). As numbers of gens de couleur grew, the French rulers enacted discriminatory laws. Statutes forbade gens de couleur from taking up certain professions, marrying whites, wearing European clothing, carrying swords or firearms in public, or attending social functions where whites were present. However, these regulations did not restrict their purchase of land, and many accumulated substantial holdings and became slave-owners. By 1789, they owned one-third of the plantation property and one-quarter of the slaves of Saint-Domingue. Chapter 8 Page 1 Central to the rise of the gens de couleur planter class was the growing importance of coffee, which thrived on the marginal hillside plots to which they were often relegated. The largest concentration of gens de couleur was in the southern peninsula, the last region of the colony to be settled, owing to its distance from Atlantic shipping lanes and its formidable terrain, with the highest mountain range in the Caribbean. In the parish of Jérémie, they formed the majority of the population. The Revolutionary period 450x642, 198 KB\|Although he unofficially led the nation politically during the revolution, Toussaint Louverture is considered the father of Haiti. The outbreak of revolution in France in the summer of 1789 had a powerful effect on the colony. While the French settlers debated how new revolutionary laws would apply to Saint-Domingue, outright civil war broke out in 1790 when the free men of color claimed they too were French citizens under the terms of the Declaration of the Rights of Man. Ten days before the fall of the Bastille, in July 1789, the French National Assembly had voted to seat six delegates from Saint-Domingue. In Paris, a group of wealthy mulattoes, led by Julien Raimond and Vincent Ogé, unsuccessfully petitioned the white planter delegates to support mulatto claims for full civil and political rights. Through the efforts of a group called Société d'Amis des Noirs, of which Raimond and Ogé were prominent leaders, in March 1790 the National Assembly granted full civic rights to the gens de couleur. Vincent Ogé traveled to St. Domingue to secure the promulgation and implementation of this decree, landing near Cap-Français (now Cap-Haïtien) in October 1790 and petitioning the royal governor, the Comte de Peynier. After his demands were refused, he attempted to incite the gens de couleur to revolt. Ogé and Jean-Baptiste Chavennes, a veteran of the Siege of Savannah during the American Revolution, attempted to attack Cap-Français. However, the mulatto rebels refused to arm or free their slaves, or to challenge the status of slavery, and their attack was defeated by a force of white militia and black volunteers (including Henri Christophe). Afterwards, they fled across the frontier to Hinche, at the time in the Spanish part of the island. However, they were captured, returned to the French authorities, and both Ogé and Chavennes were executed in February 1791. On August 22, 1791, slaves in the northern region of the colony staged a revolt that began the Haitian Revolution. Tradition marks the beginning of the revolution at a vodou ceremony at Bois Caïman (Alligator Woods) near Cap-Français. The call to arms was issued by a Houngan (Vodou priest) named Dutty Boukman. Within hours, the northern plantations were in flames. The rebellion spread through the entire colony. Boukman was captured and executed, but the rebellion continued to rapidly spread. In 1792, Léger-Félicité Sonthonax was sent to the colony by the French Legislative Assembly as part of the Revolutionary Commission. His main goal was to maintain French control of Saint-Domingue, stabilize the colony, and enforce the social equality recently granted to free people of color by the National Convention of France. On August 29, 1793, Sonthonax took the radical step of proclaiming the freedom of the slaves in the north province (with severe limits on their freedom). In September and October, emancipation was extended throughout the colony. On February 4, 1794 the French National Convention ratified this act, applying it to all French colonies. The slaves did not immediately flock to Sonthonax's banner, however. White colonists continued to fight Sonthonax, with assistance from the British. They were joined by many of the free men of color who opposed the abolition of slavery. It was not until word of France's ratification of emancipation arrived back in the colony that Toussaint Louverture and his corps of well-disciplined, battle-hardened former slaves came over to the French Republican side in early May 1794. A change in the political winds in France caused Sonthonax to be recalled in 1796, but not before taking the step of arming the former slaves. With the colony facing a full-scale invasion by Britain, the rebel slaves emerged as a powerful military force, under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe. Louverture successfully drove back the British and by 1798 was the defacto ruler of the colony. In 1799, he defeated the mulatto General André Rigaud, who controlled most of the south and west and refused to acknowledge Toussaint's authority. By 1801, he was in control of the whole island, after conquering Spanish Santo Domingo and proclaiming the abolition of slavery there. He did not, however, proclaim full independence for the country, nor did he seek reprisals against the country's former white slaveholders, convinced that the French would not restore slavery and "that a population of slaves recently landed from Africa could not attain to civilization by 'going it alone.'" C.L.R. James, The Black Jacobins (Vintage Books: New York, 1990) Pg. 290 In 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte sent a massive invasion force under his brother-in-law Charles Leclerc. For a time, Leclerc met with some success; he also brought the eastern part of the island of Hispaniola under the direct control of France in accordance with the terms of the 1795 Treaties of Bâle with Spain (it had earlier been controlled by Toussaint since 1801). With a large expedition that eventually included 40,000 European troops, and receiving help from white colonists and mulatto forces commanded by Alexandre Pétion, a former lieutenant of Rigaud, the French won several victories after severe fighting. Two of Toussaint's chief lieutenants, Dessalines and Christophe, recognizing their untenable situation, held separate parleys with the invaders, and agreed to transfer their allegiance. At this point, Leclerc invited Toussaint to negotiate a settlement. It was a deception; Toussaint was seized and deported to France, where he died of pneumonia while imprisoned at Fort de Joux in the Jura Mountains in April 1803. Revenge by the black troops for cruelty of French soldiers. On May 20, 1802, Napoleon signed a law to maintain slavery where it had not disappeared, Martinique, Tobago, and Saint Lucia. A confidential copy of this decree was sent to Leclerc, who was authorized to restore slavery when the time was opportune. At the same time, further edicts stripped the gens de couleur of their newly won civil rights. None of these decrees were published or executed in St. Domingue, but, by midsummer, word began to reach the colony of the French intention to restore slavery. The betrayal of Toussaint and news of French actions in Martinique undermined the collaboration of leaders such as Dessalines, Christophe, and Pétion. Convinced that the same fate lay in store for Saint-Domingue, these commanders and others once again battled Leclerc. Intent on reconquest and reenslavement of the colony's black population, the war became a bloody struggle of atrocity and attrition. The rainy season brought yellow fever and malaria, which took a heavy toll on the invaders. By November, when Leclerc died of yellow fever, 24,000 French soldiers were dead and 8,000 were hospitalized, the majority from disease. C.L.R. James Black Jacobins, Pg. 355 Afterwards, Leclerc was replaced by Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau. Rochambeau wrote to Napoleon that, in order to reclaim Saint-Domingue, France must 'declare the negroes slaves, and destroy at least 30,000 negroes and negresses.' C.L.R. James, Black Jacobins Pg. 360 In his desperation, he turned to increasingly wanton acts of brutality; the French burned alive, hanged, drowned, and tortured black prisoners, reviving such practices as burying blacks in piles of insects and boiling them in cauldrons of molasses. One night, at Port-Républican, he held a ball to which he invited the most prominent mulatto ladies and, at midnight, announced the death of their husbands. However, each act of brutality was repaid by the Haitian rebels. After one battle, Rochambeau buried 500 prisoners alive; Dessalines responded by hanging 500 French prisoners. Heinl, Written in Blood Pg. 108-109 Rochambeau's brutal tactics helped unite black, mulatto, and mestizo soldiers against the French. See The Crime of Napoleon for a claim that the Napoleonic troops executed many rebels in an early form of gas chamber. As the tide of the war turned toward the former slaves, Napoleon abandoned his dreams of restoring France's New World empire. In 1803, war resumed between France and Britain, and with the Royal Navy firmly in control of the seas, reinforcements and supplies for Rochambeau never arrived in sufficient numbers. Abandoning his dream of a New World empire to concentrate on the war in Europe, in April, Napoleon signed the Louisiana Purchase, selling France's North American possessions to the United States. The indigenous army, now led by Dessalines, devastated Rochembeau and the French army at the Battle of Vertières on November 18, 1803. 590x784, 126 KB\|Jean Jacques Dessalines became Haiti's first emperor in 1804. On January 1, 1804 Dessalines then declared independence, reclaiming the indigenous Taíno name of Haiti ("Land of Mountains") for the new nation. Most of the remaining French colonists fled ahead of the defeated French army, many migrating to Louisiana or Cuba. Unlike Toussaint, Dessalines felt little equanimity toward whites. In a final act of retribution, the remaining French were slaughtered by Haitian military forces. Some 2,000 Frenchmen were massacred at Cap-Français, 800 in Port-au-Prince, and 400 at Jérémie. He issued a proclamation declaring, "we have repaid these cannibals, war for war, crime for crime, outrage for outrage." Heinl, pg. 122-123, 125 One exception was a military force of Poles from the Polish Legions that had fought in Napoleon's army. Some of them refused to fight against blacks, supporting the principles of liberty; also, a few Poles (around 100) actually joined the rebels (one of the Polish generals – Władysław Franciszek Jabłonowski – was, in fact, partly of African ancestry). Therefore, Poles were allowed to stay and were spared the fate of other whites (about 400 of the 5280 Poles chose this option. Of the remainder, 700 returned to France and many were – after capitulation – forced to serve in British units). 160 Poles were later given permission to leave Haiti and were sent to France at Haitian expense. Today, descendants of those Poles who stayed are living in Casale and Fond Des Blancs. Haiti as an independent republic Haiti is the world's oldest black republic and the second-oldest republic in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States. Although Haiti actively assisted the independence movements of many Latin American countries – and secured a promise from the great liberator, Simón Bolívar, that he would free their slaves after winning independence from Spain – the nation of former slaves was excluded from the hemisphere's first regional meeting of independent nations, held in Panama in 1826. Furthermore, owing to entrenched opposition from Southern slave states, Haiti did not receive U.S. diplomatic recognition until 1862 (after those states had seceded from the Union) – largely through the efforts of anti-slavery senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts. Upon assuming power, General Dessalines authorized the Constitution of 1804. This constitution, in terms of social freedoms, called for: 1. Freedom of Religion (Under Toussaint, Catholicism had been declared the official state religion); 2. All citizens of Haiti, regardless of skin color, to be known as "Black" (this was an attempt to eliminate the multi-tiered racial hierarchy which had developed in Haiti, with full-blooded Europeans at the top, various levels of light to brown skin in the middle, and dark skinned "Kongo" from Africa at the bottom). 3. White men were forbidden from possessing property or domain on Haitian soil. Should the French return to reimpose slavery, Article 5 of the constitution declared: "At the first shot of the warning gun, the towns shall be destroyed and the nation will rise in arms." Robert Henl, Written in Blood: The Story of the Haitian People Pg. 129 In January 1804, Dessalines, preferring Napoleon’s style rather than the more liberal yet vulnerable type of political government of the French Republican Radicals (see liberalism and radicalism in France), proclaimed himself Emperor Jacques I. Yet two of his own advisers, Henri Christophe and Alexandre Pétion, helped provoke his assassination in 1806. The conspirators ambushed him north of Port-au-Prince at Pont Larnage, (now known as Pont-Rouge) on October 17, 1806 en route to battle rebels to his regime. After the Dessalines coup d'état, the two main conspirators divided the country in two rival regimes. Christophe created the authoritarian State of Haiti in the north, and the Gens de couleur Pétion helped establish the Republic of Haiti in the south. Christophe attempted to maintain a strict system of labor and agricultural production akin to the former plantations. Although he did not establish slavery strictly speaking, he imposed a semi-feudal system, fermage, in which every able man was supposed to work in plantations (similar to Latifundios) to produce goods for the fledging country. His method, though undoubtedly oppressive, produced the most revenues of the two governments. By contrast, Pétion broke up the former colonial estates and parceled out the land into small holdings. In Pétion’s south, the Gens de couleur minority led the government and feared losing popular support, and thus, sought to assuage class tensions with land redistribution. Because of the weak international position and its labor policies (most peasants lived through a subsistence economy), Pétion’s government was perpetually on the brink of bankruptcy. Yet, for most of its time, it produced one of the most liberal and tolerant Haitian governments ever. In 1815, at a key period of Bolívar's fight for Venezuelan independence, he gave the Venezuelan leader asylum and provided him with soldiers and substantial material support. It also had the least of internal military skirmishes, despite its continuous conflicts with Christophe’s northern kingdom. In 1816, however, after finding the burden of the Senate intolerable, he suspended the legislature and turned his post into President for Life. Not long after, he died of yellow fever, and his assistant Jean Pierre Boyer replaced him. In this period, the eastern part of the island rose against the new powers following general Juan Sánchez Ramírez’s claims of independence from France which broke the Treaties of Bâle attacking Spain and prohibited commerce with Haiti. In the Palo Hincado battle (November 7, 1808), all the remaining French forces were defeated by Spanish-creoles insurrectionists; on July 9, 1809, Santo Domingo was born. The government put itself under the control of Spain, earning it the surname of “España Boba” (meaning “The Idiot Spain”). In 1811, Christophe proclaimed himself King Henri I in the North and commissioned several extraordinary buildings. He even created a nobility class in the fashion of European monarchies. Yet in 1820, weakened by illness and with a decreasing support for his authoritarian regime, he killed himself with a silver bullet rather than face a coup d'état. Immediately after, Pétion's successor, Boyer, reunited Haiti through diplomatic tactics, and ruled as president until his overthrow in 1843. Almost two years after Boyer had consolidated power in the west, in 1821, Santo Domingo declared independence from Spain and requested from Simón Bolívar inclusion in the Gran Colombia. Boyer, however, responding to a party on the east that preferred Haiti over Colombia, occupied the ex-Spanish colony in January 1822, encountering no military resistance. In this way he accomplished the unity of the island, which was only carried out temporarily by Toussaint Louverture in 1801. Boyer's occupation of the Spanish side also responded to internal struggles among Christophe’s generals, to which Boyer gave extensive powers and lands in the east. This occupation, however, pitted the Spanish white elite against the Haitian administration and stimulated the emigration of many white wealthy families. Still today, the various memories and interpretations of this occupation fuels animosities between Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The entire island remained under Haitian rule until 1844, when in the east a nationalist group called La Trinitaria led a revolt that helped convert the country into the Dominican Republic. From 1824 to 1826, while the island was under one government, Boyer promoted the largest single free-Black immigration from the United States in which more than 6000 immigrants settled in different parts of the island. Today remnants of these immigrants live throughout the island, but the larger number reside in Samaná, a peninsula on the Spanish side. From the government's perspective, the intention of the immigration was to help establish commercial and diplomatic relationships with the U.S., and to increase the number of skilled and agricultural workers in Haiti. In exchange for diplomatic recognition from France, Boyer was forced to pay a huge indemnity for the loss of French property during the revolution. To pay for this, he had to float loans in France, putting Haiti into a state of debt. Boyer attempted to enforce production through the Code Rural, enacted in 1826, but peasant freeholders, mostly former revolutionary soldiers, had no intention of returning to the forced labor they fought to escape. By 1840, Haiti had ceased to export sugar entirely, although large amounts continued to be grown for local consumption as taffia-a raw rum. However, Haiti continued to export coffee, which required little cultivation and grew semi-wild. Political struggles In 1843, a revolt, led by Charles Rivière-Hérard, overthrew Boyer and established a brief parliamentary rule under the Constitution of 1843. Revolts soon broke out and the country descended into near anarchy, with a series of transient presidents until March 1847, when General Faustin Soulouque, a former slave who had fought in the rebellion of 1791, became President. In 1849, taking advantage of his popularity, he proclaimed himself Emperor Faustin I. His iron rule succeeded in uniting Haiti for a time, but it came to an abrupt end in 1858 when he was deposed by General Fabre Geffrard, styled the Duke of Tabara. Geffrard's military government held office until 1867, and he encouraged a policy of national reconciliation that worked surprisingly well. In 1860, he reached an agreement with the Vatican, reintroducing official Roman Catholic institutions, including schools, to the nation. In 1867 an attempt was made to establish a constitutional government, but successive presidents Sylvain Salnave and Nissage Saget were overthrown in 1869 and 1874 respectively. A more workable constitution was introduced under Michel Domingue in 1874, leading to a long period of democratic peace and development for Haiti. The debt to France was finally repaid in 1879, and Michel Domingue's government peacefully transferred power to Lysius Salomon, one of Haiti's abler leaders. Monetary reform and a cultural renaissance ensued with a flowering of Haitian art. The last two decades of the 19th century were also marked by the development of a Haitian intellectual culture. Major works of history were published in 1847 and 1865. Haitian intellectuals, led by Louis-Joseph Janvier and Anténor Firmin, engaged in a war of letters against a tide of racism and Social Darwinism that emerged during this period. The Constitution of 1867 saw peaceful and progressive transitions in government that did much to improve the economy and stability of the Haitian nation and the condition of its people. Constitutional government restored the faith of the Haitian people in legal institutions. The development of industrial sugar and rum industries near Port-au-Prince made Haiti, for a while, a model for economic growth in Latin American countries. Foreign intervention See also: United States occupation of Haiti This period of relative stability and prosperity ended in 1911 when revolution broke out and the country slid once again into disorder and debt. From 1911 to 1915, there were six different Presidents, each of whom was killed or forced into exile. Robert Heinl, Pg. 791 The revolutionary armies were formed by cacos, peasant brigands from the mountains of the north, along the porous Dominican border, who were enlisted by rival political factions with promises of money to be paid after a successful revolution and an opportunity to plunder. The United States was particularly apprehensive about the role of the German community in Haiti (approximately 200 in 1910), who wielded a disproportionate amount of economic power. Germans controlled about 80 percent of the country's international commerce; they also owned and operated utilities in Cap Haïtien and Port-au-Prince, the main wharf and a tramway in the capital, and a railroad serving the Plaine de Cul-du-Sac. The German community proved more willing to integrate into Haitian society than any other group of white foreigners, including the French. A number married into the nation's most prominent mulatto families, bypassing the constitutional prohibition against foreign land-ownership. They also served as the principal financiers of the nation's innumerable revolutions, floating innumerable loans-at high interest rates-to competing political factions. In an effort to limit German influence, in 1910-11 the State Department backed a consortium of American investors, assembled by the National City Bank of New York, in acquiring control of the Banque National d'Haïti, the nation's only commercial bank and the government treasury. In February 1915, Guillaume Sam established a dictatorship, but in July, facing a new revolt, he massacred 167 political prisoners, all of whom were from elite families, and was lynched by a mob in Port-au-Prince. Shortly afterwards, the United States, responding to complaints to President Woodrow Wilson from American banks to which Haiti was deeply in debt, occupied the country. The occupation of Haiti lasted until 1934. The U.S. occupation was self-interested, sometimes brutal, and caused problems that lasted past its lifetime. Reforms, though, were carried out. The currency was reformed and the debt stabilized. Corruption was reduced, although never eradicated. Public health, education, and agricultural development were greatly improved. Under Marine supervision, the Haitian National Assembly elected Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave President, who signed a treaty which made Haiti a de jure U.S. protectorate, with American officials assuming control over the Financial Adviser, Customs Receivership, the Constabulary, the Public Works Service, and the Public Health Service for a period of ten years. The principal instrument of American authority was the newly-created Gendarmerie d'Haïti, commanded by American officers. In 1917, at the demand of U.S. officials, the National Assembly was dissolved, designating officials to write a new constitution, which was largely dictated by officials in the State Department and Navy Department. Under-Secretary for the Navy in the Wilson administration claimed to have personally written the new constitution. This document abolished the prohibition on foreign ownership of land-the most essential component of Haitian law. When the newly elected National Assembly refused to pass this document and drafted one of their own preserving this prohibition, it was forcibly dissolved by Gendarmerie commandant Smedley Butler. This constitution was approved by a plebiscite in 1919, in which less than five percent of the population voted. The State Department authorized this plebiscite presuming that “The people casting ballots would be 97% illiterate, ignorant in most cases of what they were voting for.” Hans Schmidt, The U.S. Occupation of Haiti: 1915-1934 Pg. 99 The Marines and Gendarmerie initiated an extensive road-building program to enhance their military effectiveness and open the country to U.S investment. Lacking any source of adequate funds, they revived an 1864 Haitian law, discovered by Butler, requiring peasants to perform labor on local roads in lieu of paying a road tax. This system, known as the corvée, originated in the unpaid labor which French peasants provided to their feudal lords. In 1915, Haiti had only three miles of road usable by automobile outside the towns. By 1918, more than of road had been built or repaired through the corvée system, including a road linking Port-au-Prince to Cap-Haïtien. Heinl, Pg. 430 However, Haitian peasants forced to work in the corvée labor-gangs, frequently dragged from their homes and harassed by armed guards, received few immediate benefits and saw this system of forced labor as a return to slavery at the hands of white men. The body of Charlemagne Péralte In 1919, a new caco uprising began, led by Charlemagne Péralte, vowing to 'drive the invaders into the sea and free Haiti.' max Boot, Small Wars and the Rise of American Power Pg. 173 Péralte’s Cacos attacked Port-au-Prince in October, but were driven back with heavy casualties. Afterwards, a Creole-speaking American Gendarmerie officer infiltrated Péralte’s camp, killing him and photographing his corpse in an attempt to demoralize the rebels. Leadership of the rebellion passed to Benoît Batraville, a Caco chieftain from Artibonite. His death in 1920 marked the end of hostilities. During Senate hearings in 1921, the commandant of the Marine Corps reported that, in the twenty months of active resistance, 2,250 Haitians had been killed. However, in a report to the Secretary of the Navy he reported the death toll as being 3,250. Schmidt, Pg. 102 Haitian historians have estimated the true number was much higher, one suggested: “the total number of battle victims and casualties of repression and consequences of the war might have reached, by the end of the pacification period four or five times that-somewhere in the neighborhood of 15,000 persons.” Paul Farmer, The Uses of Haiti (Common Courage Press: 2003) Pg. 98 In 1922, Dartiguenave was replaced by Louis Borno, who ruled without a legislature until 1930. That same year, General John H. Russell, Jr. was appointed High Commissioner. The Borno-Russel dictatorship oversaw the expansion of the economy, building over of road, establishing an automatic telephone exchange, modernizing the nation's port facilities, and establishing a public health service. Sisal was introduced to Haiti, and sugar and cotton became significant exports. Henl, Pg. 454-455 However, efforts to develop commercial agriculture met with limited success, in part because much of Haiti's labor force was employed as seasonal workers in the more-established sugar industries of Cuba and the Dominican Republic. An estimated 30,000-40,000 Haitian laborers, known as braceros, went annually to the Oriente Province of Cuba between 1913 and 1931. Bridget Woodling, Richard Moseley-Williams Needed but unwanted: Haitian Immigrants and their Descendants in the Dominican Republict (Catholic Institute for International Relations: London, 2004) Pg. 24 Most Haitians continued to resent the loss of sovereignty, exacerbated by the fact that the American occupiers imported the social protocols of Jim Crow. At the forefront of opposition among the educated elite was L'Union Patriotique, which established ties with opponents of the occupation in the U.S. itself, in particular the NAACP. The Great Depression decimated the prices of Haiti's exports, and destroyed the tenuous gains of the previous decade. In December 1929, Marines in Les Cayes killed ten Haitian peasants during a march to protest local economic conditions. This led Herbert Hoover to appoint two commissions, including one headed by a former U.S. governor of the Philippines William Cameron Forbes, which criticized the exclusion of Haitians from positions of authority in the government and constabulary, now known as the Garde d'Haïti. In 1930, Sténio Vincent, a long-time critic of the occupation, was elected President, and the U.S. began to withdraw its forces. The withdrawal was completed by FDR, as President, in 1934, under his "Good Neighbor policy". The U.S. retained control of Haiti's external finances until 1947. Schmidt, Hans. The United States Occupation of Haiti, 1915-1934 New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1995. (232) All three rulers during the occupation came from the country's small mulatto minority, whom the Americans considered more "civilised", while the black majority was kept in subordination. At the same time, many critics of the occupation, in particular those from the growing black professional classes, faced with American racism, departed from the traditional veneration of Haiti's French cultural heritage and emphasized the nation's African roots, most notably ethnologist Jean Price-Mars and the journal Les Griots, edited by Dr. François Duvalier. Renewed dictatorship Sténio Vincent was succeeded as President in 1941 by Élie Lescot, but in 1946 increasing economic difficulties led to a military coup. The military junta handed over power to Dumarsais Estimé, a black Haitian, who introduced major reforms in labor and social policy, and greatly expanded civil and political liberties for the black majority. In 1949, Lescot tried to change the constitution to allow for his own reelection, but in 1950 this triggered another coup. General Paul Magloire then established a dictatorship which lasted until December 1956, when he was forced to resign by a general strike. After a period of disorder, elections were held in September 1957, which saw Dr. François Duvalier elected President. A former Minister of Health who had earned a reputation as a humanitarian while serving as an administrator in a U.S.-funded anti-yaws campaign, Duvalier (known as "Papa Doc") soon established another dictatorship. His regime is regarded as one of the most repressive and corrupt of modern times, combining violence against political opponents with exploitation of Vodou to instil fear in the majority of the population. Duvalier's paramilitary police, officially the Volunteers for National Security (Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale – VSN) but more commonly known as the Tonton Macoutes, so named after a Vodou monster, carried out political murders, beatings, and intimidation. An estimated 30,000 Haitians were killed by his government. Haiti - FRANÇOIS DUVALIER, 1957-71 Incorporating many houngans into the ranks of the Macoutes, his public recognition of Vodou and its practitioners and his private adherence to Vodou ritual, combined with his reputed private knowledge of magic and sorcery, enhanced his popular persona among the common people and served as a peculiar form of legitimization. Duvalier's policies, designed to end the dominance of the mulatto elite over the nation's economic and political life, led to massive emigration of educated people, deepening Haiti's economic and social problems. However, Duvalier appealed to the black middle class of which he was a member by introducing public works into middle class neighborhoods which previously had been unable to have paved roads, running water, or modern sewage systems. In 1964, Duvalier proclaimed himself "President for Life." The Kennedy administration suspended aid in 1961, after allegations that Duvalier had pocketed aid money and intended to use a Marine Corps mission to strengthen the Macoutes. Duvalier also clashed with Dominican President Juan Bosch in 1963, after Bosch provided aid and asylum to Haitian exiles working to overthrow his regime. He ordered the Presidential Guard to occupy the Dominican chancery in Pétionville to apprehend an officer involved in a plot to kidnap his children, leading Bosch to publicly threaten to invade Haiti. However, the Dominican army, which distrusted Bosch's leftist leanings, expressed little support for an invasion, and the dispute was settled by OAS emissaries. In 1971, Papa Doc entered into 99-year contract with Don Pierson representing Dupont Caribbean Inc. of Texas for a free port project on the old buccaneer stronghold of Tortuga island located some off the north coast of the main Haitian island of Hispaniola. On Duvalier's death in April 1971, power passed to his 19-year-old son Jean-Claude Duvalier (known as "Baby Doc"). Under Jean-Claude Duvalier, Haiti's economic and political condition continued to decline, although some of the more fearsome elements of his father's regime were abolished. Foreign officials and observers also seemed more tolerant toward Baby Doc, in areas such as human-rights monitoring, and foreign countries were more generous to him with economic assistance. The United States restored its aid program in 1971. In 1974, Baby Doc expropriated the Freeport Tortuga project and this caused the venture to collapse. Content to leave administrative matters in the hands of his mother, Simone Ovid Duvalier, while living as a playboy, Jean-Claude enriched himself through a series of fraudulent schemes. Much of the Duvaliers' wealth, amounting to hundreds of millions of dollars over the years, came from the Régie du Tabac (Tobacco Administration), a tobacco monopoly established by Estimé which was expanded to include the proceeds from all government enterprises and served as a slush fund for which no balance sheets were ever kept. Haiti - JEAN-CLAUDE DUVALIER, 1971-86 His marriage, in 1980, to a beautiful mulatto divorcee, Michèle Bennet, in a $3 million ceremony, provoked widespread opposition, as it was seen as a betrayal of his father's antipathy towards the mulatto elite. At the request of Michèle, Papa Doc's widow Simone was expelled from Haiti. Baby Doc's kleptocracy left the regime vulnerable to unanticipated crises, exacerbated by endemic poverty, most notably the epidemic of African swine fever virus-which, at the insistence of USAID officials, led to the slaughter of the creole pigs, the principal source of wealth for most peasants; and the widely-publicized outbreak of AIDS in the early 1980s. Widespread discontent in Haiti began in 1983, when Pope John Paul II condemned the regime during a visit, finally provoking a rebellion, and in February 1986, after months of disorder, the army forced Duvalier to resign and go into exile. The Aristide era From 1986 to 1990, Haiti was ruled by a series of provisional governments. In 1987, a new constitution was ratified, providing for an elected bicameral parliament, an elected president, and a prime minister, cabinet, ministers, and supreme court appointed by the president with parliament's consent. The Constitution also provided for political decentralization through the election of mayors and administrative bodies responsible for local government. At the first elections under the new constitution, in December 1990, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a charismatic Roman Catholic priest, won 67% of the vote in elections that international observers deemed largely free and fair. Aristide's radical populist policies alarmed many of the country's elite, and, in September 1991, he was overthrown in a violent coup that brought General Raoul Cédras to power. There was violent resistance to the coup, in which hundreds were killed, and Aristide was forced into exile. An estimated 3,000-5,000 Haitians were killed during the period of military rule. The coup created a large-scale exodus of refugees to the United States. The United States Coast Guard interdicted (in many cases, rescued) a total of 41,342 Haitians during 1991 and 1992. Most were denied entry to the United States and repatriated back to Haiti. Aristide himself and some other commentators have accused the United States of backing the 1991 coup. http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=55&ItemID=12166 Aristide's Interview, originally published in London Review of Books, feb 19, 2007 http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=55&ItemID=9321 Marc Weisbrot: U.S. Is Still Undermining Haiti, December 2005 The military regime governed Haiti until 1993. Various initiatives to end the political crisis through the peaceful restoration of the constitutionally elected government failed. In July 1994, as repression mounted in Haiti and a civilian human rights monitoring mission was expelled from the country, the United Nations Security Council adopted United Nations Security Council Resolution 940, which authorized member states to use all necessary means to facilitate the departure of Haiti's military leadership and to restore Haiti's constitutionally elected government to power. In mid-September 1994, with U.S. troops prepared to enter Haiti by force for Operation Uphold Democracy, President Bill Clinton dispatched a negotiating team led by former President Jimmy Carter to persuade the authorities to step aside and allow for the return of constitutional rule. With intervening troops already airborne, Cédras and other top leaders agreed to step down. In October, Aristide was able to return. Elections were held in June 1995. Aristide's coalition, the Lavalas (Waterfall) Political Organization, had a sweeping victory. When Aristide's term ended in February 1996, René Préval, a prominent Aristide political ally, was elected President with 88% of the vote: this was Haiti's first ever transition between two democratically elected presidents. In late 1996, Aristide broke with Préval and formed a new political party, the Lavalas Family (Fanmi Lavalas, FL), which won elections in April 1997 for one-third of the Senate and local assemblies, but these results were not accepted by the government. The split between Aristide and Préval produced a dangerous political deadlock, and the government was unable to organize the local and parliamentary elections due in late 1998. In January 1999, Préval dismissed legislators whose terms had expired – the entire Chamber of Deputies and all but nine members of the Senate, and Préval then ruled by decree. Elections for the Chamber of Deputies and two-thirds of the Senate took place in May 2000. The election drew a voter turnout of more than 60%, and the FL won a virtual sweep. However, the elections were flawed by irregularities and fraud, and the opposition parties, regrouped in the Democratic Convergence (Convergence Democratique, CD), demanded that the elections be annulled, that Préval stand down and be replaced by a provisional government. In the meantime, the opposition announced it would boycott the November presidential and senatorial elections. Haiti's main aid donors threatened to cut off aid. As a result of this impasse, the November 2000 elections were boycotted by the opposition, and Aristide was again elected president, with more than 90% of the vote, on a very low turnout. The opposition refused to accept the result or to recognize Aristide as president. Major disorders were prevented by the continuing presence of U.S. and other foreign forces, under U.N. auspices. The initial 21,000-strong force became a U.N. peacekeeping force of 6,000 troops in 1995, and was scaled back progressively over the next four years as a series of U.N. technical missions succeeded the peacekeeping force. In January 2000, the last U.S. troops departed. The continuing political deadlock between Aristide and the opposition prevented legislative elections being held as scheduled in late 2003, and consequently the terms of most legislators expired in January, forcing Aristide to rule by decree. On December 5, 2003 after Fanmi Lavalas supporter's attack on the students at the State University, "Faculte des Sciences Humaines", under increasing pressure, Aristide promised new elections within six months. He refused demands from the opposition that he step down immediately. The 2004 coup d'état and Aristide's ouster Anti-Aristide protests in January 2004 led to violent clashes in Port-au-Prince, causing several deaths. In February, a revolt broke out in the city of Gonaïves, which was soon under rebel control. The rebellion then began to spread, and Cap-Haïtien, Haiti's second-largest city, was captured. A mediation team of diplomats presented a plan to reduce Aristide's power while allowing him to remain in office until the end of his constitutional term. Although Aristide accepted the plan, it was rejected by the opposition. On February 29, 2004, with rebel contingents marching towards Port-au-Prince, Aristide departed from Haiti. There is controversy over whether or not he was forced to leave the country by the United States (see controversy regarding U.S. involvement). Aristide insists that he was essentially kidnapped by the U.S., while the U.S. State Department maintains that he resigned from office. Aristide and his wife left Haiti on an American airplane, escorted by American diplomats and military personnel, and was flown directly to Bangui, capital of the Central African Republic, where he stayed for the following two weeks, before seeking asylum in a less remote location. The government was taken over by supreme court chief Boniface Alexandre. Many political organizations and writers, as well as Aristide himself, have suggested that the rebellion was in fact a foreign controlled coup d'état. Caricom, which had been backing the peace deal, accused the United States, France, and the International community of failing in Haiti because they allowed a democratically elected leader to be violently forced out of office. The U.S. claimed that the crisis was of Aristide's making and that he was not acting in the best interests of his country. They have argued that his removal was necessary for future stability in the island nation. Boniface Alexandre petitioned the United Nations Security Council for the intervention of an international peacekeeping force. The Security Council passed a resolution the same day "[t]aking note of the resignation of Jean-Bertrand Aristide as President of Haiti and the swearing-in of President Boniface Alexandre as the acting President of Haiti in accordance with the Constitution of Haiti" and authorized such a mission. As a vanguard of the official U.N. force, a force of about 1,000 U.S. Marines arrived in Haïti within the day, and Canadian and French troops arrived the next morning; the United Nations indicated it would send a team to assess the situation within days. On June 1, 2004, the peacekeeping mission was passed to MINUSTAH and comprised a 7000 strength force led by Brazil and backed by Argentina, Chile, Jordan, Morocco, Nepal, Peru, Philippines, Spain, Sri Lanka, and Uruguay. Brazilian forces led the United Nations peacekeeping troops in Haiti composed of United States, France, Canada, and Chile deployments. These peacekeeping troops were a part of the ongoing MINUSTAH operation. In November, 2004, the University of Miami School of Law carried out a Human Rights Investigation in Haiti and documented serious human rights abuses. It stated that "summary executions are a police tactic." Griffin Report - Haiti Human Rights Investigation, November 11-21, 2004 - By Thomas M. Griffin, ESQ. - Center for the Study of Human Rights, University of Miami School of Law - (Professor Irwin P. Stotzky, Director) - It also stated the following: "U.S. officials blame the crisis on armed gangs in the poor neighborhoods, not the official abuses and atrocities, nor the unconstitutional ouster of the elected president. Their support for the interim government is not surprising, as top officials, including the Minister of Justice, worked for U.S. government projects that undermined their elected predecessors. Coupled with the U.S. government’s development assistance embargo from 2000-2004, the projects suggest a disturbing pattern." Griffin Report - Haiti Human Rights Investigation, November 11-21, 2004 - By Thomas M. Griffin, ESQ. - Center for the Study of Human Rights, University of Miami School of Law - (Professor Irwin P. Stotzky, Director) - On October 15, 2005, Brazil called for more troops to be sent due to the worsening situation in the country. After Aristide's overthrow, the violence in Haiti continued, despite the presence of peacekeepers. Clashes between police and Fanmi Lavalas supporters were common, and peacekeeping forces were accused of conducting a massacre against the residents of Cité Soleil in July 2005. Many protests were organized to demand the return of Aristide. Several of the protests resulted in violence and deaths. In the midst of the ongoing controversy and violence, however, the interim government planned legislative and executive elections. After being postponed several times, these were held in February 2006. The elections were won by René Préval, who had a strong following among the poor, with 51% of the votes. BBC NEWS \| Americas \| Preval declared Haiti poll winner Préval took office in May 2006 and is the current president of Haiti. In the spring of 2008, Haitians demonstrated against rising food prices. In some instances, the few main roads on the island were blocked with burning tires and the airport at Port au Prince was closed. See also List of heads of state of Haiti Timeline of Haitian history Further reading Kurlansky, Mark. 1992. A Continent of Islands: Searching for the Caribbean Destiny. Addison-Wesley Publishing. ISBN 0-201-52396-5. References External links Haiti timeline Posted at the Center for Cooperative Research Bob Corbett's 1995 on-line course on Haitian history Article by Naomi Klein in The Nation Article by Aaron Mate from Z-Net The Louverture Project - A Haitian History Wiki EchodHaiti.com/history - Haitian History of the past as well as present	History_of_Haiti \|@lemmatized recorded:1 history:7 haiti:74 begin:9 december:6 european:6 navigator:1 christopher:1 columbus:4 happen:1 upon:2 large:9 island:23 region:3 western:5 atlantic:4 ocean:1 later:4 come:6 know:10 caribbean:5 sea:3 inhabit:1 taíno:4 arawakan:2 people:11 variously:1 call:6 ayiti:1 bohio:1 kiskeya:1 promptly:1 claim:9 spanish:14 crown:1 rename:1 la:3 isla:1 española:1 hispañola:1 anglicize:1 hispaniola:11 pictograph:1 tell:1 story:2 missionary:1 arrive:6 establish:19 small:4 settlement:7 return:10 settler:2 disappear:2 presumably:1 kill:10 whole:2 spain:10 leave:6 brother:2 bartolomeo:1 find:4 new:18 follow:2 arrival:1 indigenous:3 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6,486	Subspecies_of_Canis_lupus	Canis lupus has 39 subspecies currently described, including two subspecies of domestic dog, Canis lupus dingo and Canis lupus familiaris, and many subspecies of wolf throughout the northern hemisphere. The nominative subspecies is Canis lupus lupus. Biological taxonomy is not fixed, and placement of taxa is reviewed as a result of new research. The current categorization of subspecies of Canis lupus is shown below. Also included are synonyms, which are now-discarded duplicate or incorrect namings. Common names are given but may vary, as they have no set meaning. Wolves show a great deal of dimorphism geographically. For example, North American wolves are, overall, generally the same size as European breeds, but have have larger, rounder heads, broader, more obtuse muzzles, shorter legs and are usually more robust. European wolves on the contrary tend to have longer, more highly placed ears, narrower heads, more slender loins and coarser, less luxuriant fur The Canadian Naturalist and Geologist by the Natural History Society of Montreal, published by Dawson., 1857 Fauna Boreali-americana, Or, The Zoology of the Northern Parts of British America: Containing Descriptions of the Objects of Natural History Collected on the Late Northern Land Expeditions, Under Command of Captain Sir John Franklin, R.N., by John Richardson, William Swainson, William Kirby, published by J. Murray, 1829 . Wolves of different geographical locations can interbreed. The Zoological Gardens of London for example once successfully managed to mate a male European wolf to an Indian female, resulting in a cub bearing an almost exact likeness to its sire. The Living Age, published by Littell, Son and Co., 1851 List of Subspecies + Canis lupus subspecies Subspecies Author Common Name Canis lupus lupus Linnaeus, 1758 Common (Eurasian) Grey Wolf Canis lupus albus Kerr, 1792 Tundra Wolf, Turukhan Wolf, Arctic Wolf, White Wolf (Finland to eastern Russia) Canis lupus alces Goldman, 1941 Kenai (Alaska) Peninsula Wolf, extinct by 1925 Canis lupus arabs Pocock, 1934 Arabian Wolf (Saudi Arabia) Canis lupus arctos Pocock, 1935 Arctic Wolf, White Wolf, Polar Wolf (Northern Canada, Greenland) Canis lupus baileyi Nelson and Goldman, 1929 Mexican Wolf (central Mexico to southwestern United States) Canis lupus beothucus G. M. Allen and Barbour, 1937 Newfoundland Wolf (Newfoundland, Canada) (extinct) Canis lupus bernardi Anderson, 1943 Bernard's Wolf (Arctic) Canis lupus campestris Dwigubski, 1804 Steppe Wolf (Central Asia) Canis lupus chanco Gray, 1863 Tibetan wolf, Himalayan wolf, Chinese wolf Canis lupus columbianus Goldman, 1941 British Columbia Wolf (Western Canada) (extinct) Canis lupus crassodon Hall, 1932 Vancouver Island Wolf (Canada) Canis lupus dingo Meyer, 1793 Dingo, mostly wild living domestic dog of Australia and South-east Asia: dingo and familiaris provisionally separate, 2003 Canis lupus familiaris Linnaeus, 1758 Domestic dog Canis lupus floridanus Miller, 1912 Florida Black Wolf (Florida, United States) (extinct) Canis lupus fuscus Richardson, 1839 Cascade Mountain Wolf (Cascade Mountains, Canada and United States) Canis lupus gregoryi Goldman, 1937 Canis lupus griseoalbus Baird, 1858; syn. knightii (Anderson, 1945) Manitoba Wolf (Central Manitoba and northern Saskatchewan, Canada) (extinct) Canis lupus hattai Kishida, 1931 Hokkaidō Wolf (Japan) (extinct) Canis lupus hodophilax Temminck, 1839 Honshū Wolf (Honshū Islands, Japan) (extinct) Canis lupus hudsonicus Goldman, 1941 Hudson Bay Wolf, Tundra Wolf (Alaska and Canada) Canis lupus irremotus Goldman, 1937 Northern Rocky Mountains Wolf (Rocky Mountains, United States and Canada) Canis lupus labradorius Goldman, 1937 Labrador Wolf (Northern Quebec and Labrador, Canada) Canis lupus ligoni Goldman, 1937 Alexander Archipelago Wolf (Alexander Archipelago Islands in the Arctic) Canis lupus lycaon Schreber, 1775 Eastern North America Timber Wolf Canis lupus mackenzii Anderson, 1943 Mackenzie Tundra Wolf (Mackenzie River drainage, Canada) Canis lupus manningi Anderson, 1943 Baffin Island Wolf (Baffin Island, Canada) Canis lupus mogollonensis Goldman, 1937 Mogollon Mountain Wolf (Mogollon, New Mexico, southwest United States) (extinct) Canis lupus monstrabilis Goldman, 1937; syn. niger (Bartram, 1791) Texas Wolf (Texas, US and northern Mexico) (extinct, 1942) Canis lupus nubilus Say, 1823 Great Plains Wolf (Central North America) Canis lupus occidentalis Richardson, 1829 Rocky Mountain Wolf (Canada, US) Canis lupus orion Pocock, 1935 Canis lupus pallipes Sykes, 1831 Iranian Wolf (Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India) Canis lupus pambasileus Elliot, 1905 Canis lupus rufus Audubon and Bachman, 1851 Red Wolf (Perhaps a hybrid, status uncertain) Canis lupus tundrarum Miller, 1912 Alaskan Tundra Wolf (northeastern Alaska, USA), heavier dentition than pambasileus Canis lupus youngi Goldman, 1937 Disputed distinct subspecies and species Two subspecies not mentioned in the list above include the Italian Wolf (Canis lupus italicus) and the Iberian Wolf (Canis lupus signatus). The wolves of the Italian and Iberian peninsulas are morphologically and genetically distinct from other European wolves and each are now considered to represent their own subspecies. V. LUCCHINI, A. GALOV and E. RANDI Evidence of genetic distinction and long-term population decline in wolves (Canis lupus) in the Italian Apennines. Molecular Ecology (2004) 13, 523–536. abstract online European Mammal Assessment - Canis lupus J. Vos: Food habits and livestock depredation of two Iberian wolf packs (Canis lupus signatus) in the north of Portugal. Journal of Zoology (2000), 251: 457-462 Cambridge University Press. online abstract In addition, recent genetic research suggests that the Indian Wolf, originally considered only as a subpopulation of the Iranian Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes), may represent a distinct species (Canis indica). Similar results were obtained for the Himalayan wolf, which is traditionally placed into the Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus laniger) R. K. Aggarwal, T. Kivisild, J. Ramadevi, L. Singh:Mitochondrial DNA coding region sequences support the phylogenetic distinction of two Indian wolf species. Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research, Volume 45 Issue 2 Page 163-172, May 2007 online . Gallery References External links Canis lupus on the ITIS(Integrated Taxonomic Information System) Citations for Mammal Species of the World, as a PDF Ancient origin and evolution of the Indian wolf including discussion on naming. Wolf subspecies list with photos and maps Animal Corner, UK list of wolves A very detailed hobbyist's site	Subspecies_of_Canis_lupus \|@lemmatized canis:52 lupus:53 subspecies:12 currently:1 describe:1 include:4 two:4 domestic:3 dog:3 dingo:4 familiaris:3 many:1 wolf:58 throughout:1 northern:8 hemisphere:1 nominative:1 biological:1 taxonomy:1 fix:1 placement:1 taxon:1 review:1 result:3 new:2 research:3 current:1 categorization:1 show:2 also:1 synonyms:1 discard:1 duplicate:1 incorrect:1 naming:1 common:3 name:3 give:1 may:3 vary:1 set:1 meaning:1 wolves:1 great:2 deal:1 dimorphism:1 geographically:1 example:2 north:4 american:1 overall:1 generally:1 size:1 european:5 breed:1 large:1 round:1 head:2 broad:1 obtuse:1 muzzle:1 short:1 leg:1 usually:1 robust:1 contrary:1 tend:1 long:2 highly:1 placed:1 ear:1 narrow:1 slender:1 loin:1 coarser:1 less:1 luxuriant:1 fur:1 canadian:1 naturalist:1 geologist:1 natural:2 history:2 society:1 montreal:1 publish:3 dawson:1 fauna:1 boreali:1 americana:1 zoology:2 part:1 british:2 america:3 contain:1 description:1 object:1 collect:1 late:1 land:1 expedition:1 command:1 captain:1 sir:1 john:2 franklin:1 r:2 n:1 richardson:3 william:2 swainson:1 kirby:1 j:3 murray:1 different:1 geographical:1 location:1 interbreed:1 zoological:2 garden:1 london:1 successfully:1 manage:1 mate:1 male:1 indian:4 female:1 cub:1 bear:1 almost:1 exact:1 likeness:1 sire:1 living:1 age:1 littell:1 son:1 co:1 list:4 author:1 linnaeus:2 eurasian:1 grey:1 albus:1 kerr:1 tundra:4 turukhan:1 arctic:4 white:2 finland:1 eastern:2 russia:1 alces:1 goldman:11 kenai:1 alaska:3 peninsula:2 extinct:9 arab:1 pocock:3 arabian:1 saudi:1 arabia:1 arctos:1 polar:1 canada:12 greenland:1 baileyi:1 nelson:1 mexican:1 central:4 mexico:3 southwestern:1 united:5 state:5 beothucus:1 g:1 allen:1 barbour:1 newfoundland:2 bernardi:1 anderson:4 bernard:1 campestris:1 dwigubski:1 steppe:1 asia:2 chanco:1 gray:1 tibetan:2 himalayan:2 chinese:1 columbianus:1 columbia:1 western:1 crassodon:1 hall:1 vancouver:1 island:5 meyer:1 mostly:1 wild:1 live:1 australia:1 south:1 east:1 provisionally:1 separate:1 floridanus:1 miller:2 florida:2 black:1 fuscus:1 cascade:2 mountain:6 gregoryi:1 griseoalbus:1 baird:1 syn:2 knightii:1 manitoba:2 saskatchewan:1 hattai:1 kishida:1 hokkaidō:1 japan:2 hodophilax:1 temminck:1 honshū:2 hudsonicus:1 hudson:1 bay:1 irremotus:1 rocky:3 labradorius:1 labrador:2 quebec:1 ligoni:1 alexander:2 archipelago:2 lycaon:1 schreber:1 timber:1 mackenzii:1 mackenzie:2 river:1 drainage:1 manningi:1 baffin:2 mogollonensis:1 mogollon:2 southwest:1 monstrabilis:1 niger:1 bartram:1 texas:2 u:2 nubilus:1 say:1 plain:1 occidentalis:1 orion:1 pallipes:2 sykes:1 iranian:2 iran:1 afghanistan:1 pakistan:1 india:1 pambasileus:2 elliot:1 rufus:1 audubon:1 bachman:1 red:1 perhaps:1 hybrid:1 status:1 uncertain:1 tundrarum:1 alaskan:1 northeastern:1 usa:1 heavy:1 dentition:1 youngi:1 dispute:1 distinct:3 specie:4 mention:1 italian:3 italicus:1 iberian:3 signatus:2 morphologically:1 genetically:1 consider:2 represent:2 v:1 lucchini:1 galov:1 e:1 randi:1 evidence:1 genetic:2 distinction:2 term:1 population:1 decline:1 apennines:1 molecular:1 ecology:1 abstract:2 online:3 mammal:2 assessment:1 vos:1 food:1 habit:1 livestock:1 depredation:1 pack:1 portugal:1 journal:2 cambridge:1 university:1 press:1 addition:1 recent:1 suggest:1 originally:1 subpopulation:1 indica:1 similar:1 obtain:1 traditionally:1 place:1 laniger:1 k:1 aggarwal:1 kivisild:1 ramadevi:1 l:1 singh:1 mitochondrial:1 dna:1 cod:1 region:1 sequence:1 support:1 phylogenetic:1 systematics:1 evolutionary:1 volume:1 issue:1 page:1 gallery:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 itis:1 integrated:1 taxonomic:1 information:1 system:1 citation:1 world:1 pdf:1 ancient:1 origin:1 evolution:1 discussion:1 photo:1 map:1 animal:1 corner:1 uk:1 detailed:1 hobbyist:1 site:1 \|@bigram canis_lupus:51 northern_hemisphere:1 zoological_garden:1 wolf_canis:8 extinct_canis:9 saudi_arabia:1 hudson_bay:1 rocky_mountain:3 quebec_labrador:1 baffin_island:2 iberian_peninsula:1 mitochondrial_dna:1 external_link:1
6,487	The_Bahamas	The Bahamas, officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an independent, English-speaking country consisting of 2,387 rocks, 661 cays and 29 islands. It is located in the Atlantic Ocean southeast of the United States of America; northeast to east of Cuba, Hispaniola (Dominican Republic & Haiti) and north to east of the Caribbean Sea; and west to northwest of the Turks and Caicos Islands. Its size is almost 14,000 km2 with an estimated population of 330,000. Its capital is Nassau. It remains a Commonwealth realm. History The seafaring Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 7th century AD. These people came to be known as the Lucayans. There were an estimated 30,000+ Lucayans at the time of Columbus' arrival in 1492. Christopher Columbus' first landfall in the New World was on an island named San Salvador (known to the Lucayans as Guanahani), which is generally accepted to be present-day San Salvador Island, (also known as Watling's Island) in the southeastern Bahamas. Here, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayans and exchanged goods with them. The Spaniards who followed Columbus depopulated the islands, carrying most of the indigenous people off into slavery. The Lucayans throughout the Bahamas were wiped out by exposure to diseases for which they had no immunity. "Looking for Columbus". Joanne E. Dumene. Five Hundred Magazine. April 1990, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 11-15 The smallpox that ravaged the Taino Indians after Columbus's arrival wiped out half of the population on what is now the Bahamas. Schools Grapple With Columbus's Legacy: Intrepid Explorer or Ruthless Conqueror?. Education Week. October 9, 1991. It is generally assumed that the islands were uninhabited until the mid-17th century. However, recent research suggests that there may have been attempts to settle the islands by groups from Spain, France, and Britain, as well as by other Amerindians. In 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers migrated from Bermuda. These English puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera — the name derives from the Greek word for freedom. They later settled New Providence, naming it Sayle's Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers resorted to salvaged goods from wrecks. In 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas, who rented the islands from the king with rights of trading, tax, appointing governors, and administering the country. During proprietary rule, the Bahamas became a haven for pirates, including the infamous Blackbeard. To restore orderly government, the Bahamas was made a British crown colony in 1718 under the royal governorship of Woodes Rogers, who, after a difficult struggle, succeeded in suppressing piracy. During the American Revolutionary War, the islands were a target for American naval forces under the command of Commodore Ezekial Hopkins. The capital of Nassau on island of New Providence was occupied by US Marines for a fortnight. In 1782, after the British defeat at Yorktown, a Spanish fleet appeared off the coast of Nassau, which surrendered without fight. But the 1783 Treaty of Versailles — which ended the global conflict between Britain, France and Spain — returned the Bahamas to British sovereignty. After the American Revolution, some 7,300 loyalists and their slaves moved to the Bahamas from New York, Florida and the Carolinas. These Americans established plantations on several islands and became a political force in the capital. The small population became mostly African from this point on. The British abolished the slave trade in 1807, which led to the forced settlement on Bahamian islands of thousands of Africans liberated from slave ships by the Royal Navy. Slavery itself was finally abolished in the British Empire on August 1 1834. Modern political development began after the Second World War. The first political parties were formed in the 1950s and the British made the islands internally self-governing in 1964, with Roland Symonette of the United Bahamian Party as the first premier. In 1967, Lynden Pindling of the Progressive Liberal Party became the first black premier of the colony, and in 1968 the title was changed to prime minister. In 1973, the Bahamas became fully independent, but retained membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. Sir Milo Butler was appointed the first black governor-general (the representative of Queen Elizabeth II) shortly after independence. Based on the twin pillars of tourism and offshore finance, the Bahamian economy has prospered since the 1950s. However, there remain significant challenges in areas such as education, health care, international narcotics trafficking and illegal immigration from Haiti. The origin of the name "Bahamas" is unclear. It may derive from the Spanish baja mar, meaning "shallow seas"; or the Lucayan word for Grand Bahama Island, ba-ha-ma "large upper middle land". Geography and Climate Map of the Bahamas The closest island to the United States is Bimini, which is also known as the gateway to the Bahamas. The island of Abaco is to the east of Grand Bahama, also known as the "Big Island". The southeasternmost island is Great Inagua. Other notable islands include the Bahamas' largest island, Andros Island, and Eleuthera, Cat Island, Long Island, San Salvador Island, Acklins, Crooked Island, Exuma and Mayaguana. Nassau, the Bahamas capital city, lies on the island of New Providence. All the islands are low and flat, with ridges that usually rise no more than . The highest point in the country is Mount Alvernia, formerly called Como Hill, which has an altitude of on Cat Island. To the southeast, the Turks and Caicos Islands, and three more extensive submarine features called Mouchoir Bank, Silver Bank, and Navidad Bank, are geographically a continuation of the Bahamas, but not part of the Commonwealth of the Bahamas. The climate of the Bahamas is subtropical to tropical, and is moderated significantly by the waters of the Gulf Stream, particularly in winter. Location and General Description Bahamian dry forests, The Encyclopedia of Earth Conversely, this often proves very dangerous in the summer and autumn, when hurricanes pass near or through the islands. Hurricane Andrew hit the northern islands during the 1992 Atlantic hurricane season, and Hurricane Floyd hit most of the islands during the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season. Hurricane Frances hit in 2004; the Atlantic hurricane season of 2004 was expected to be the worst ever for the islands. Also in 2004, the northern Bahamas were hit by a less potent Hurricane Jeanne. In 2005 the northern islands were once again struck, this time by Hurricane Wilma. In Grand Bahama, tidal surges and high winds destroyed homes and schools, floated graves and made roughly 1,000 people homeless, most of whom lived on the west coast of the island. While there has never been a freeze reported in the Bahamas, the temperature can fall as low as 2-3°C during Arctic outbreaks that affect nearby Florida. Snow has been reported to have mixed with rain in Freeport in January, 1977, the same time that it snowed in the Miami, FL area. The temperature was about 5°C at the time. Districts The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere in The Bahamas except New Providence, whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. The districts other than New Providence are: Government and politics The Bahamas is a sovereign independent nation. Political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom and the Westminster system. The Bahamas is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, with Queen Elizabeth II as head of state (represented by a governor-general). Legislative power is vested in a bicameral parliament, which consists of a 41-member House of Assembly (the lower house), with members elected from single-member districts, and a 16-member Senate, with members appointed by the governor-general, including nine on the advice of the prime minister, four on the advice of the leader of the opposition, and three on the advice of the prime minister after consultation with the leader of the opposition. The House of Assembly carries out all major legislative functions. As under the Westminster system, the prime minister may dissolve parliament and call a general election at any time within a five-year term. The prime minister is the head of government and is the leader of the party with the most seats in the House of Assembly. Executive power is exercised by the cabinet, selected by the prime minister and drawn his supporters in the House of Assembly. The current governor-general is Arthur Dion Hanna and the current prime minister is Hubert Ingraham. The Bahamas has a largely two-party system dominated by the centre-left Progressive Liberal Party and the centre-right Free National Movement. A handful of splinter parties have been unable to win election to parliament. These parties have included the Bahamas Democratic Movement, the Coalition for Democratic Reform and the Bahamian Nationalist Party. Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association. Although the Bahamas is not geographically located in the Caribbean, it is a member of the Caribbean Community. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English law. Demographics Population: 307,541 (July 2008 est.) Age structure: 0–14 years: 29% (male 43,964; female 43,250) 15–64 years: 64.7% (male 95,508; female 98,859) 65 years and over: 6.3% (male 7,948; female 11,000) (2002 est.) Population growth rate: 0.86% (2002 est.) Birth rate: 18.69 births/1,000 population (2002 est.) Death rate: 7.49 deaths/1,000 population (2002 est.) Net migration rate: -2.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2002 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.02 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 15–64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.72 male(s)/female total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2002 est.) Infant mortality rate: 17.08 deaths/1,000 live births (2002 est.) Life expectancy at birth: total population: 69.87 years. Female: 73.49 years (2002 est.) Male: 66.32 years Total fertility rate: 2.28 children born/woman (2002 est.) Nationality: noun: Bahamian(s) Adjective: Bahamian Ethnic groups: black 85%, white 12%, Asian 3% Religions: Baptist 32%, Anglican 20%, Roman Catholic 19%, Methodist 6%, Church of God 6%, other Protestant 12%, none or unknown 3%, other 2% Religion, Faith and God in the Bahamas - accessed 8 August 2008 The 'other' category includes Jews, Muslims, Baha'is, Hindus, Rastafarians, and practitioners of Obeah. Bahamas - International Religious Freedom Report 2005 - accessed 8 August 2008 Languages: English (official), Bahamian Dialect, Bahamas Languages - accessed August 8, 2008 Literacy (age 15+): total population: 98.2% male: 98.5% female: 98% (1995 est.) The Bahamas guide Culture In the less developed outer islands, handicrafts include basketry made from palm fronds. This material, commonly called "straw", is plaited into hats and bags that are popular tourist items. Another use is for so-called "Voodoo dolls," despite the fact that such dolls are the result of the American imagination and not based on historic fact. Hurbon, Laennec. "American Fantasy and Haitian Vodou.” Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou. Ed. Donald J. Cosentino. Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 1995. 181–97. Junkanoo celebration in Nassau Obeah, a religion of folk magic, sorcery, and religious practices derived from Central African and West African origins, is practiced in some of the Family Islands (out-islands) of the Bahamas. Junkanoo is a street parade with music, which occurs in many towns across The Bahamas every Boxing Day (December 26), New Year's Day and, more recently, in the summer on the island of Grand Bahama. The largest Junkanoo parade happens in Nassau, the capital. Junkanoo is a Bahamian cultural expression, which has been derived from Bahamians' ancestry. In theses parades, the locals showcase a wonderful part of their culture in three forms: Music, Art and Dance. There is a huge controversy about the origin of Junkanoo, as many historians have offered explanations for the origins and beginning of this festival. The most accepted one is that the word “Junkanoo” comes from the name John Canoe, who was an African prince and slave trader operating on the Gold Coast in the seventeenth (17th) century. He was said to have outwitted the English and subsequently gained control of Fort Brandenbury. Therefore, the Dutch and English alike feared him. However, to the slaves, he was a hero and was worshipped and idolized by them. Those slaves who were brought here to the Bahamas kept up this distinct form of worship. In the pre-Emancipation era, the slaves were allowed three (3) days off during the year: 1st January, 25th December and 26th December. On the 1st January and the 26th December, they were allowed to perform their Junkanoo festival. The 26th December was the day for exchanging gifts and visiting friends. After Emancipation however, the festival continued, and individual characters such as Neptune and Amphitrite portrayed John Canoe. On the entertainment and arts side, the Bahamas is well known for having talented songwriters, vocalists, actors and had its' first movie produced and released in 1996. Regattas are important social events in many family island settlements. They usually feature one or more days of sailing by old-fashioned work boats, as well as an onshore festival. Some settlements have festivals associated with the traditional crop or food of that area, such as the "Pineapple Fest" in Gregory Town, Eleuthera or the "Crab Fest" on Andros. Other significant traditions include story telling. See also Commonwealth of Nations List of Bahamas-related articles List of Bahamas-related topics List of international rankings Outline of the Bahamas Outline of geography Outline of North America United Nations References Further reading General history Cash Philip et al. (Don Maples, Alison Packer). The Making of the Bahamas: A History for Schools. London: Collins, 1978. Albury, Paul. The Story of The Bahamas. London: MacMillan Caribbean, 1975. Miller, Hubert W. The Colonization of the Bahamas, 1647–1670, The William and Mary Quarterly 2 no.1 (January 1945): 33–46. Craton, Michael. A History of the Bahamas. London: Collins, 1962. Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992 McCartney, Donald M., "Bahamian Culture And Factors Which Impact Upon It". Pittsburgh, PA: Dorrance Publishing,:) 2004 Economic history Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991. Johnson, Howard. The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783–1933. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1996. Alan A. Block. Masters of Paradise, New Brunswick and London, Transaction Publishers, 1998. Storr, Virgil H. Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamaz. New York: Peter Lang, 2004. Social history Johnson, Wittington B. Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784–1834: The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas, 2000. Shirley, Paul. "Tek Force Wid Force", History Today 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30–35. Saunders, Gail. The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s–1920s. Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996. Saunders, Gail. Bahamas Society After Emancipation. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990. Curry, Jimmy. Filthy Rich Gangster/First Bahamian Movie. Movie Mogul Pictures: 1996. Curry, Jimmy. To The Rescue/First Bahamian Rap/Hip Hop Song. Royal Crown Records, 1985. Morrelo, Ryan. " External links The Official Tourism Website of The Islands Of The Bahamas Official website for Bahamas government Bahamas Financial Services Board The Bahamas Constitution The Bahamas at UCB Libraries GovPubs be-x-old:Багамы	The_Bahamas \|@lemmatized bahamas:53 officially:1 commonwealth:6 independent:4 english:6 speak:1 country:3 consist:2 rock:1 cay:1 island:45 locate:2 atlantic:4 ocean:1 southeast:2 united:5 state:3 america:2 northeast:1 east:3 cuba:2 hispaniola:2 dominican:1 republic:1 haiti:2 north:2 caribbean:4 sea:2 west:3 northwest:1 turk:2 caicos:2 size:1 almost:1 estimated:1 population:11 capital:5 nassau:7 remain:2 realm:1 history:9 seafaring:1 taino:2 people:5 move:2 uninhabited:2 southern:1 around:1 century:3 ad:1 come:2 know:6 lucayans:5 estimate:1 time:5 columbus:7 arrival:2 christopher:1 first:10 landfall:1 new:10 world:2 name:6 san:3 salvador:3 guanahani:1 generally:2 accept:1 present:1 day:6 also:5 watling:1 southeastern:1 make:5 contact:1 exchange:2 good:2 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6,488	Foreign_relations_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo	Its location in the center of Africa has made the Democratic Republic of the Congo (at one time known as Zaire) a key player in the region since independence. Because of its size, mineral wealth, and strategic location, Zaire was able to capitalize on Cold War tensions to garner support from the West. In the early 1990s, however, with the end of the Cold War and in the face of growing evidence of human rights abuses, Western support waned as pressure for internal reform increased. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is in the grip of a civil war that has drawn in military forces from neighboring states, with Ugandan, Burundian, and Rwandan forces helping the rebel movement which occupies much of the eastern portion of the state. One problem is the continuing theft of mineral resources, such as coltan, by occupying forces. One estimate has the Rwandan army making $250 million in 18 months from the sale of coltan, even though Rwanda has no coltan deposits. Not only can the DROC not make any money from its mineral wealth, due to its inability to tax anything in rebel-held areas, but the wealth is also used itself to finance insurgent activities. Troops from Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia, Chad, and Sudan support the Kinshasa regime. Furthermore, relations with surrounding countries have often been driven by security concerns. Intricate and interlocking alliances have often characterized regional relations. Conflicts in Sudan, Uganda, Angola, Rwanda, and Burundi have at various times created bilateral and regional tensions. The current crisis in DROC has its roots both in the use of The Congo as a base by various insurgency groups attacking neighboring countries and in the absence of a broad-based political system in the Congo. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). Disputes - international Democratic Republic of the Congo is in the grip of a civil war that has drawn in military forces from neighboring states, with Uganda and Rwanda supporting the rebel movements that occupy much of the eastern portion of the state - Tutsi, Hutu, Lendu, Hema and other conflicting ethnic groups, political rebels, and various government forces continue fighting in Great Lakes region, transcending the boundaries of Burundi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, and Uganda - heads of the Great Lakes states pledge to end conflict, but localized violence continues despite UN peacekeeping efforts; most of the Congo River boundary with the Republic of the Congo is indefinite (no agreement has been reached on the division of the river or its islands, except in the Pool Malebo/Stanley Pool area). On December 19, 2005, the International Court of Justice found against Uganda, in a case brought by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, for illegal invasion of its territory, and violation of human rights. Illicit drugs The DRC has some illicit production of cannabis, mostly for domestic consumption. While rampant corruption and inadequate supervision leaves the banking system vulnerable to money laundering, the lack of a well-developed financial system limits the country's utility as a money-laundering center. See also Diplomatic missions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Democratic Republic of the Congo-United States relations List of diplomatic missions in the Democratic Republic of the Congo	Foreign_relations_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo \|@lemmatized location:2 center:2 africa:1 make:3 democratic:9 republic:10 congo:13 one:3 time:2 know:1 zaire:2 key:1 player:1 region:2 since:1 independence:1 size:1 mineral:3 wealth:3 strategic:1 able:1 capitalize:1 cold:2 war:4 tension:2 garner:1 support:4 west:1 early:1 however:1 end:2 face:1 grow:1 evidence:1 human:2 right:2 abuse:1 western:1 wan:1 pressure:1 internal:1 reform:1 increase:1 grip:2 civil:2 draw:2 military:3 force:5 neighbor:2 state:6 ugandan:1 burundian:1 rwandan:2 help:1 rebel:4 movement:2 occupy:3 much:2 eastern:2 portion:2 problem:1 continue:3 theft:1 resource:1 coltan:3 estimate:1 army:1 million:1 month:1 sale:1 even:1 though:1 rwanda:4 deposit:1 droc:2 money:3 due:1 inability:1 tax:1 anything:1 hold:1 area:2 also:3 use:2 finance:1 insurgent:1 activity:1 troop:1 zimbabwe:1 angola:2 namibia:1 chad:1 sudan:2 kinshasa:1 regime:1 furthermore:1 relation:3 surround:1 country:3 often:2 drive:1 security:1 concern:1 intricate:1 interlock:1 alliance:1 characterize:1 regional:2 conflict:3 uganda:4 burundi:2 various:3 create:1 bilateral:2 current:1 crisis:1 root:1 base:2 insurgency:1 group:2 attack:1 neighboring:1 absence:1 broad:1 political:2 system:3 member:1 international:3 criminal:1 court:2 immunity:1 agreement:2 protection:1 u:1 cover:1 article:1 dispute:1 tutsi:1 hutu:1 lendu:1 hema:1 ethnic:1 government:1 fight:1 great:2 lakes:1 transcend:1 boundary:2 head:1 lake:1 pledge:1 localize:1 violence:1 despite:1 un:1 peacekeeping:1 effort:1 river:2 indefinite:1 reach:1 division:1 island:1 except:1 pool:2 malebo:1 stanley:1 december:1 justice:1 find:1 case:1 bring:1 illegal:1 invasion:1 territory:1 violation:1 illicit:2 drug:1 drc:1 production:1 cannabis:1 mostly:1 domestic:1 consumption:1 rampant:1 corruption:1 inadequate:1 supervision:1 leave:1 banking:1 vulnerable:1 laundering:2 lack:1 well:1 develop:1 financial:1 limit:1 utility:1 see:1 diplomatic:2 mission:2 united:1 list:1 \|@bigram republic_congo:10 angola_namibia:1 rwanda_burundi:1 bilateral_immunity:1 uganda_rwanda:1 rwanda_uganda:1 un_peacekeeping:1 illicit_drug:1 rampant_corruption:1 money_laundering:2 diplomatic_mission:2
6,489	Manatee	Manatees (family Trichechidae, genus Trichechus) are large, fully aquatic marine mammals sometimes known as sea cows. The name manatí comes from the Taíno, a pre-Columbian people of the Caribbean, meaning "breast". http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/Whats_in_a_name/default.cfm?id=37 They contain three of the four living species in the order Sirenia, the other being the dugong, which is native to the Eastern Hemisphere. The Sirenia are thought to have evolved from four-legged land mammals over 60 million years ago, with the closest living relatives being the Proboscidea (elephants) and Hyracoidea (hyraxes). Domning, D.P., 1994, Paleontology and evolution of sirenians: Status of knowledge and research needs, in Proceeding of the 1st International Manatee and Dugong Research Conference, Gainesville, Florida, 1-5) Physical characteristics Manatees are mainly herbivores, spending most of their time grazing in shallow waters and at depths of 1-2 meters (3-7 ft). Much of the knowledge about manatees is based upon research done in Florida and cannot necessarily be attributed to all types of manatees. Generally, manatees have a mean mass of 400-550 kg (900-1200 lb), and mean length of 2.8-3.0 m (9-10 ft), with maximums of 3.6 meters and 1,775 kg seen (the females tend to be larger and heavier). When born, baby manatees have an average mass of 30 kg. On average, most manatees swim at about 5 km/h to 8 km/h (1.4 m/s to 2.2 m/s; 3 to 5 miles per hour). However, they have been known to swim at up to 30 km/h (8 m/s; 20 miles per hour) in short bursts. Manatees inhabit the shallow, marshy coastal areas and rivers of the Caribbean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico (T. manatus, West Indian Manatee), the Amazon Basin (T. inunguis, Amazonian Manatee), and West Africa (T. senegalensis, West African Manatee). A fourth species, the Dwarf Manatee (T. bernhardi) was recently proposed for a population found in the Brazilian Amazon, although some have questioned its validity, instead believing it is an immature Amazonian Manatee. Trials of a Primatologist. - smithsonianmag.com. Accessed March 15, 2008. The coast of Georgia is usually the northernmost range of the West Indian Manatee as their low metabolic rate makes cold weather endurance difficult. They may on occasion stray up the mid-Atlantic coast in summer. Half a manatee's day is spent sleeping in the water, surfacing for air regularly at intervals no greater than 20 minutes. Florida Manatees (T. m. latirostris) have been known to live up to 60 years, and they can move freely between different salinity extremes; however, Amazonian Manatees (T. inunguis) never venture out into salt water. They have a large flexible prehensile upper lip that acts in many ways like a shortened trunk, somewhat similar to an elephant's. They use the lip to gather food and eat, as well as using it for social interactions and communications. Their small, widely spaced eyes have eyelids that close in a circular manner. Manatees are also believed to have the ability to see in color. They emit a wide range of sounds used in communication, especially between cows and their calves, yet also between adults to maintain contact and during sexual and play behaviors. They may use taste and smell, in addition to sight, sound, and touch, to communicate. Manatees are capable of understanding discrimination tasks, and show signs of complex associated learning and advanced long term memory. Gerstein, E.R., 1994, The manatee mind: Discrimination training for sensory perception testing of West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus), Mar. Mammals, 1: 10-21.) They demonstrate complex discrimination and task-learning similar to dolphins and pinnipeds in acoustic and visual studies. Manatees typically breed only once every other year, since gestation lasts about 12 months, and it takes a further 12 to 18 months to wean the calf. Only a single calf is born at a time and aside from mothers with their young or males following a receptive female, manatees are generally solitary creatures. The clearest visible difference between manatees and dugongs is in the shape of the tail; http://www.geocities.com/athens/acropolis/2569/animal.htm a manatee tail is paddle-shaped, while a dugong tail is fluked, similar in shape to a that of a whale. Diet Manatees are herbivores and eat over 60 different plant species such as mangrove leaves, turtle grass, and types of algae, using their divided upper lip. An adult manatee will commonly eat up to 9% of its body weight (approx 50 kg) per day. Manatees have been known to eat small amounts of fish from nets. Like horses, they have a simple stomach, but a large cecum, in which they can digest tough plant matter. In general, their intestines are unusually long for animals of their size. The adults have no incisor or canine teeth, just a set of cheek teeth, which are not clearly differentiated into molars and premolars. Uniquely among mammals, these teeth are continuously replaced throughout life, with new teeth growing at the rear as older teeth fall out from further forward in the mouth. At any given time, a manatee typically has no more than six teeth. Population Approximate distribution of Trichechus; T. manatus in green; T. inunguis in red; T. senegalenis in orange The population of manatees in Florida (T. manatus) is thought to be between 1,000 and 3,000, yet population estimates are very difficult. The number of manatee deaths in Florida caused by humans has been increasing through the years, and now typically accounts for 20%-40% of recorded manatee deaths. Yearly Mortality Summaries There were 417 manatee deaths in Florida in 2006 with 101 attributed to human causes according to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Commission. Accurate population estimates of the Florida manatee are notoriously difficult and have been called scientifically weak; with widely varying counts from year to year, some areas show possible increases yet others decreases, with very little strong evidence of increases except in 2 areas. However, population viability analysis studies carried out in 1997, found that decreasing adult survival and eventual extinction is a probable future outcome for the Florida manatees, unless they are aggressively protected. (Marmontel, Humphrey, O'Shea 1997, Population Variability Analysis of the Florida Manatee, 1976-1992, Conserv. biol., 11: 467-481) Manatee counts are highly variable without an accurate way to estimate numbers: (U.S. Marine Mammal Commission 1999) in Florida in 1996, a winter survey found 2,639 manatees; in 1997 a January survey found 2,229; and a February survey found 1,706. Fossil remains of manatee ancestors show they have inhabited Florida for about 45 million years. The Amazonian Manatee (T. inunguis) is a species of manatee that lives in the freshwater habitats of the Amazon River and its tributaries. Their color is brownish gray and they have thick, wrinkled skin, often with coarse hair, or "whiskers." Its main predator is also man. The Brazilian government has outlawed the hunting of the Manatee since 1973 in an effort to preserve the species. Deaths by boat strikes, however, are still common. The African Manatee (T. senegalensis) is the least studied of the three species of manatees. Photos of African Manatees are very rare; although very little is known about this species, scientists think they are similar to the West Indian Manatees. They are found in coastal marine and estuarine habitats, and in fresh water river systems along the west coast of Africa from the Senegal River south to the Kwanza River in Angola, including areas in Gambia, Liberia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire, Ghana, Mali, Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Republic of the Congo, and Democratic Republic of the Congo. Although crocodiles and sharks occasionally kill manatees in Africa, their only significant threats are from humankind due to poaching, habitat loss, and other environmental impacts. They live as high upriver on the Niger as Gao, Mali. Although rare, they occasionally get stranded as the river dries up at the end of rainy season and are cooked for a meal. The name in Songhay, the local language, is "ayyu". Habitat \|A group of 3 manatees \|A manatee taken out of its habitat.Manatees typically inhabit warm, shallow, coastal estuarine waters and cannot survive below 15°C (288 K; 60°F). Their natural source for warm waters during the winter is warm-spring fed rivers. The West Indian Manatee migrates into Florida rivers such as the Crystal River, the Homosassa River, and the Chassahowitzka River. The head springs of these rivers maintain a water temperature of 22°C (299 K; 72°F) year round. During the winter months, November to March, approximately 400 West Indian Manatees (according to the National Wildlife Refuge) congregate in the rivers in Citrus County, Florida. Manatees have been spotted as far north as Cape Cod, and as recently as the late summer of 2006, one made it up to New York City and Rhode Island's Narragansett Bay, as cited by The Boston Globe. According to Memphis, Tennessee's The Commercial Appeal newspaper, one manatee was spotted in the Wolf River harbor near the Mississippi River in downtown Memphis, Tennessee, on October 23, 2006, though it was later found dead ten miles downriver in McKellar Lake. Manatee's corpse recovered; goes to zoo for analysis, by Tom Charlier, The Commercial Appeal, December 13, 2006 (accessed December 14, 2006) Manatees often congregate near power plants, which warm the waters. Some have become reliant on this source of artificial heat and have ceased migrating to warmer waters. Some power plants have recently been closing and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is trying to find a new way to heat the water for these manatees. The main water treatment plant in Guyana has four manatees that keep storage canals clear of weeds; there are also some in the ponds of The National Park in Georgetown. Studies in Florida suggest that Florida manatees must have some access to fresh water for proper osmoregulation. Captivity The oldest manatee in captivity is Snooty who is held at the South Florida Museum. He was born at the Miami Seaquarium on July 21, 1948 and came to the South Florida Museum in Bradenton, Florida in 1949. Vulnerability Antillean ManateeAlthough manatees have few natural predators (sharks, crocodiles, orcas, and alligators), all three species of manatee are listed by the World Conservation Union as vulnerable to extinction. The current main threat to manatees in the United States is being struck with boats or slashed with propellers. Sometimes manatees can live through strikes, and over fifty deep slashes and permanent scars have been observed on some manatees off the Florida coast. (Marine Mammal Medicine, 2001, Leslie Dierauf & Frances Gulland, CRC Press) However, the wounds are often fatal, and the lungs may even pop out through the chest cavity. It is illegal under federal and Florida law to cause the manatees injury or harm. According to marine mammal veterinarians, "The severity of mutilations for some of these individuals can be astounding - including long term survivors with completely severed tails, major tail mutilations, and multiple disfiguring dorsal lacerations. These injuries not only cause gruesome wounds, but may also impact population processes by reducing calf production (and survival) in wounded females - observations also speak to the likely pain and suffering endured". In an example, they cited one case study of a small calf "with a severe dorsal mutilation trailing a decomposing piece of dermis and muscle as it continued to accompany and nurse from its mother...by age 2 its dorsum was grossly deformed and included a large protruding rib fragment visible." These veterinarians go on to state that "the overwhelming documentation of gruesome wounding of manatees leaves no room for denial. Minimization of this injury is explicit in the Recovery Plan, several state statutes, and federal laws, and implicit in our society's ethical and moral standards." Young Manatees can be curious— this one is checking out a kayak Manatees occasionally ingest fishing gear (hooks, metal weights, etc.) while feeding. These foreign materials do not appear to harm manatees, except for monofilament line or string. This can clog the animal's digestive system and slowly kill the animal. Manatees can also be crushed in water control structures (navigation locks, floodgates, etc.), drown in pipes and culverts, and are occasionally killed by entanglement in fishing gear, primarily crab pot float lines. Manatees are also vulnerable to red tides—blooms of algae, often caused by pollution, which leaches oxygen from the water. Manatees were commonly hunted for their meat by natives of the Caribbean, although this is much less common today. Hunting for Manatees On June 8, 2006, The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission voted to reclassify the manatee on Florida's list, to a "threatened" status in that state. FWC Manatee Program While none of the state laws protecting manatees have changed, many wildlife conservationists are not pleased with the removal decision. Manatees remain classified as "endangered" at the federal level. While humans are allowed to swim with manatees in one area of Florida, Savethemanatee.org - Help End Manatee Harassment in Citrus County, Florida! there have been numerous charges of people harassing and disturbing the manatees in various ways, in addition to the concern about repeated motorboat strikes causing the maiming, disfiguring, and death of manatees all across the Florida coast, and this privilege of swimming with wild manatees may be soon repealed. St. Petersburg Times - Manatee Abuse Caught on Tape Hunting Trichechus sp.Manatees were traditionally hunted by indigenous Caribbean people. When Christopher Columbus arrived in the region, manatee hunting was an established trade. Native Americans hunted manatees to make war shields, canoes, and shoes, though the manatee was predominantly hunted for its abundant meat. The primary method of hunting the manatee was somewhat crude, as the hunter would use dugout canoes to approach targeted manatees. The hunter would then use various methods of baiting to attract a manatee close enough to hit the animal near the head with an oar-like pole, temporarily stunning the prey. Many times the creature would flip over, leaving it vulnerable to further attacks. Manatees were also hunted for their valuable bones, which were used to make "special potions." Up until the 1800s, museums paid as much as $100 for manatee bones or hides. Though hunting manatees was banned in 1893, poaching continues today. Disposition and boat collisions A sign advising boaters of no-wake manatee zone Manatees are slow-moving, non-aggressive, and generally curious creatures. They enjoy warmer waters and are known to congregate in shallow waters, and frequently migrate through brackish water estuaries to freshwater springs. Their slow-moving, curious nature, coupled with dense coastal development, has led to many violent collisions with propellers from fast moving recreational motor boats, leading frequently to maiming, disfigurement, and even death. As a result, a large proportion of manatees exhibit propeller scars on their backs and they are now even classed by humans by their scar patterns. Some are concerned that the current situation is inhumane, with sometimes upwards of 50 scars and disfigurements from boat strikes on a single manatee. Florida boaters killing endangered manatees Often the cuts lead to infections, which can prove fatal. Internal injuries stemming from hull impacts have also been fatal. In 2003, a population model was released by the U.S. Geological Survey that predicted an extremely grave situation confronting the manatee in both the Southwest and Atlantic regions where the vast majority of manatees are found. It states, “In the absence of any new management action, that is, if boat mortality rates continue to increase at the rates observed since 1992, the situation in the Atlantic and Southwest regions is dire, with no chance of meeting recovery criteria within 100 years.” Long Term Prospects for Manatee Recovery Look Grim, According To New Data Released By Federal Government In 2007, a University of Florida study found that more than half of boat drivers in Volusia County, Florida sped through marked conservation zones despite their professed support for the endangered animals, and little difference was found between the driving speeds of ski boats, pontoons, and fishing vessels. In the study, 84 percent of the 236 people who responded said they fully obeyed with speed limits in manatee zones during their most recent boating experience, but observers found that only 45 percent actually complied. "Hurricanes, cold stress, red tide poisoning and a variety of other maladies threaten manatees, but by far their greatest danger is from watercraft strikes, which account for about a quarter of Florida manatee deaths," said study curator John Jett. Most boaters speed through manatee conservation zones Cultural depictions The manatee has been linked to folklore on mermaids. Native Americans ground the bones to treat asthma and earache. In West African folklore, it was sacred and thought to have been once human. Killing one was taboo and required penance. Notes References External links Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Reuters: Florida manatees may lose endangered status A website with many manatee photos A coalition of scientists studying and saving manatees around the world USGS gallery on manatees A website dedicated to helping save the manatee Some more information on manatees Report on Florida manatees by primary school students	Manatee \|@lemmatized manatee:114 family:1 trichechidae:1 genus:1 trichechus:4 large:6 fully:2 aquatic:1 marine:5 mammal:7 sometimes:3 know:6 sea:2 cow:2 name:2 manatí:1 come:2 taíno:1 pre:1 columbian:1 people:4 caribbean:4 mean:3 breast:1 http:2 nationalzoo:1 si:1 edu:1 animal:7 default:1 cfm:1 id:1 contain:1 three:3 four:3 living:2 specie:8 order:1 sirenia:2 dugong:4 native:4 eastern:1 hemisphere:1 think:4 evolve:1 legged:1 land:1 million:2 year:9 ago:1 close:3 relative:1 proboscidea:1 elephant:2 hyracoidea:1 hyraxes:1 domning:1 p:1 paleontology:1 evolution:1 sirenian:1 status:3 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6,490	Demographics_of_Lesotho	This article is about the demographic features of the population of Lesotho, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The Demographics of Lesotho describe the condition and overview of Lesotho's peoples. Demographic topics include basic education, health, and population statistics as well as identified racial and religious affiliations. Population Historical population of Lesotho, Data of FAO, year 2005; Number of inhabitants in thousands. According to the 2006 census, Lesotho has a total population of 1,872,721. Of the population, 23.74 percent lived in urban and 76.26 percent in rural areas. The country's capital, Maseru, accounts for around half of the total urban population. The sex distribution is 911,848 male and 960,873 female, or around 95 males for each 100 females. The average population density in the country is around 61,7 people per square kilometer. The density is lower in the highlands than in the western lowlands. Although the majority of the population—59.8 percent—is between 15 and 64 years of age, Lesotho has a substantial youth population numbering around 35.3 percent. The annual population growth rate is estimated at 0.13% Ethnic.. groups and languages Due to Lesotho's long history as a unified nation, that continued even through British colonial rule, the ethnic makeup of the country is very homogenous. Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho (singular Mosotho), a Bantu-speaking people: an estimate of 99.7 percent of the people identify as Basotho. The Kwena (Bakoena) are the largest subgroup of the Sotho; other Basotho subgroups include the Natal (North) Nguni, Batloung (the Tlou), Baphuthi (the Phuti), Bafokeng, Bataung (the Tau), Bats'oeneng (the tso'ene) and the Cape (South) Nguni (Thembu). Other ethnic groups include Europeans, numbering in the thousands, and several hundred Asians. Sesotho (Southern Sotho) and English languages are both official. Afrikaans, Zulu, Xhosa and French are also spoken. Religion The population of Lesotho is estimated to be around 90 percent Christian. Roman Catholics, the largest religious group, make up around 45 percent of the population. Evangelicals comprise 26 percent of the population, and Anglican and other Christian groups an additional 19 percent. Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Baha'i, and members of traditional indigenous religions comprise the remaining 10 percent of the population. Education and literacy According to recent estimates, 85 percent of the population 15 and over was literate. Among women the literacy rate was around 95 percent, and among men around 75 percent. As such, Lesotho boasts one of the higher literacy rates in Africa. Although education is not compulsory, the Government of Lesotho is incrementally implementing a programme for free primary education. It was expected that the program would be fully in place by 2006. The National University of Lesotho located in Roma is the only university in the country. In addition, the country has almost 20 other public and 15 private institutes giving tertiary education. References	Demographics_of_Lesotho \|@lemmatized article:1 demographic:3 feature:1 population:18 lesotho:12 include:4 density:3 ethnicity:1 education:6 level:1 health:2 populace:1 economic:1 status:1 religious:3 affiliation:2 aspect:1 describe:1 condition:1 overview:1 people:4 topic:1 basic:1 statistic:1 well:1 identify:2 racial:1 historical:1 data:1 fao:1 year:2 number:3 inhabitant:1 thousand:2 accord:2 census:1 total:2 percent:13 live:1 urban:2 rural:1 area:1 country:5 capital:1 maseru:1 account:1 around:8 half:1 sex:1 distribution:1 male:2 female:2 average:1 per:1 square:1 kilometer:1 lower:1 highland:1 western:1 lowland:1 although:2 majority:1 age:1 substantial:1 youth:1 annual:1 growth:1 rate:3 estimate:4 ethnic:3 group:4 language:2 due:1 long:1 history:1 unified:1 nation:1 continue:1 even:1 british:1 colonial:1 rule:1 makeup:1 homogenous:1 ethno:1 linguistic:1 structure:1 consist:1 almost:2 entirely:1 basotho:3 singular:1 mosotho:1 bantu:1 speaking:1 kwena:1 bakoena:1 large:2 subgroup:2 sotho:2 natal:1 north:1 nguni:2 batloung:1 tlou:1 baphuthi:1 phuti:1 bafokeng:1 bataung:1 tau:1 bat:1 oeneng:1 tso:1 ene:1 cape:1 south:1 thembu:1 european:1 several:1 hundred:1 asian:1 sesotho:1 southern:1 english:1 official:1 afrikaans:1 zulu:1 xhosa:1 french:1 also:1 speak:1 religion:2 christian:2 roman:1 catholic:1 make:1 evangelicals:1 comprise:2 anglican:1 additional:1 muslim:1 hindu:1 buddhist:1 baha:1 member:1 traditional:1 indigenous:1 remain:1 literacy:3 recent:1 literate:1 among:2 woman:1 men:1 boast:1 one:1 high:1 africa:1 compulsory:1 government:1 incrementally:1 implement:1 programme:1 free:1 primary:1 expect:1 program:1 would:1 fully:1 place:1 national:1 university:2 locate:1 rom:1 addition:1 public:1 private:1 institute:1 give:1 tertiary:1 reference:1 \|@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:2 affiliation_aspect:1 male_female:2 square_kilometer:1 ethno_linguistic:1 bantu_speaking:1
6,491	Odysseus	Head of Odysseus from a Greek 2nd century BC marble group representing Odysseus blinding Polyphemus, found at the villa of Tiberius at Sperlonga Odysseus or Ulysses (Greek , Odusseus; ), in Greek mythology , was a legendary Greek king of Ithaca and the hero of Homer's epic poem, the Odyssey. Odysseus also plays a key role in Homer's Iliad and other works in the Epic Cycle. King of Ithaca, husband of Penelope, father of Telemachus, and son of Laërtes and Anticlea, Odysseus is renowned for his guile and resourcefulness, and is hence known by the epithet Odysseus the Cunning. (See mētis, or "cunning intelligence"). He is most famous for the ten eventful years he took to return home after the ten-year Trojan War and his famous Trojan horse trick. Parentage Relatively little is known of Odysseus's background other than that his paternal grandfather (or step-grandfather) is Arcesius, son of Cephalus and grandson of Aeolus, whilst his maternal grandfather is the thief Autolycus, son of Hermes and Chione. According to the Odyssey, his father is Laertes Homer does not link Laertes as one of the Argonauts. and his mother Anticleia, although there was a non-Homeric tradition Scholium on Sophocles' Aiax 1988, noted in Karl Kerenyi, The Heroes of the Greeks 1959:77. that Sisyphus was his true father. "A so-called 'Homeric' drinking-cup shows pretty undisguisedly Sisyphos in the bed-chamber of his host's daughter, the arch-rogue sitting on the bed and the girl with her spindle." (Kerenyi, eo. loc.. Ithaca, an island along the Ionian northwestern coastline of Greece, is one of several islands that would have comprised the realm of Odysseus's family, but the true extent of the Cephallenian realm and the actual identities of the islands named in Homer's works are unknown. Variants and meanings of name The name has several variants: Olysseus (), Oulixeus (), Oulixes () Entry: at Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, 1940, A Greek-English Lexicon. and he was known as in Latin or in Roman mythology. The verb (), meaning "hate", Definition in Liddell & Scott suggests that the name could be rendered as "the one who is wrathful/hated". This interpretation is reinforced by Odysseus's and Poseidon's mutual wrath. In Odyssey 19, in which Odysseus's early childhood is recounted, Euryclea asks Autolycus, to name him. Euryclea tries to guide him to naming the boy Polyaretos, "for he has much been prayed for". (19.403f) Polyaretos, "prayed for". In Greek, however, Polyaretos can also take the opposite meaning: much accursed. Autolycus seems to infer this connotation of the name and accordingly names his grandson Odysseus. Odysseus often receives the patronymic epithet Laertiades (Greek: ), son of Laërtes. His name and stories were adopted into Etruscan religion under the name . Mommsen "Cruel Odysseus" Homer's Iliad and Odyssey portrayed Odysseus as a culture hero, but the Romans, who believed themselves the scions of Prince Aeneas of Troy, considered him a villainous falsifier. In Virgil's Aeneid, he is constantly referred to as "cruel Odysseus" (Latin "dirus Ulixes") or "deceitful Odysseus" ("pellacis", "fandi fictor"). Turnus, in Aeneid ix, reproaches the Trojan Ascanius with images of rugged, forthright Latin virtues, declaring (in John Dryden's translation), "You shall not find the sons of Atreus here, nor need the frauds of sly Ulysses fear." While the Greeks admired his cunning and deceit, these qualities did not recommend themselves to the Romans who possessed a rigid sense of honour. In Euripides's tragedy Iphigenia at Aulis, having convinced Agamemnon to consent to the sacrifice of his daughter, Iphigenia, to appease the goddess Artemis, Odysseus facilitates the immolation by telling her mother, Clytemnestra, that the girl is to be wed to Achilles. His attempts to avoid his sacred oath to defend Menelaus and Helen offended Roman notions of duty; the many stratagems and tricks that he employed to get his way offended Roman notions of honour. Before the Trojan War When Helen was abducted, Menelaus called upon the other suitors to honour their oaths and help him to retrieve her, thus forging the Trojan War. Odysseus tried to avoid it by feigning lunacy, as an oracle had prophesied a long-delayed return home for him if he went. He hooked a donkey and an ox to his plough (as they have different stride lengths, hindering the efficiency of the plough) and sowing his fields with salt. Palamedes, at the behest of Menelaus's brother Agamemnon, sought to disprove Odysseus's madness, and placed Telemachus, Odysseus's infant son, in front of the plough. Odysseus veered the plough away from his son, thus destroying his ruse. Odysseus held a grudge against Palamedes during the war for dragging him away from his home. Odysseus and other envoys of Agamemnon traveled to Scyros to recruit Achilles because of a prophecy that Troy could not be taken without him. By most accounts, Thetis, Achilles's mother, disguised the youth as a woman to hide him from the recruiters because an oracle had predicted that Achilles would either live a long, uneventful life or achieve everlasting glory while dying young. Odysseus cleverly discovered which of the women before him was Achilles when the youth stepped forward to examine an array of weapons. Some accounts say that Odysseus arranged for the sounding of a battle horn, which prompted Achilles to clutch a weapon. Just before the war began, Odysseus accompanied Menelaus and Palamedes in an attempt to negotiate Helen's peaceful return. Menelaus made unpersuasive emotional arguments, but Odysseus's arguments very nearly persuaded the Trojan court to hand Helen over. During the Trojan War Odysseus was one of the main Achaean leaders in the Trojan War. The others were "godlike" Achilles, Agamemnon "lord of men", Menelaus, Idomeneus, Nestor, Telamonian Ajax and Ajax the Lesser, Diomedes and Teucer the master archer. The Iliad Odysseus was one of the most influential Greek champions during the Trojan War. Along with Nestor and Idomeneus he was one of the most trusted counsellors and advisers. He always championed the Achaean cause, especially when the king was in question, as in one instance when Thersites spoke against him. When Agamemnon, to test the morale of the Achaeans, announced his intentions to depart Troy, Odysseus restored order to the Greek camp. Later on, after many of the heroes had left the battlefield due to injuries (including Odysseus and Agamemnon), Odysseus once again persuaded Agamemnon not to withdraw. Along with two other envoys, he was chosen in the failed embassy to try to persuade Achilles to return to combat. When Hector proposed a single combat duel, Odysseus was one of the Danaans who volunteered to battle him. Telamonian Ajax, however, was the volunteer who eventually did fight Hector. Odysseus aided Diomedes during the successful night operations in order to kill Rhesus, because it had been foretold that if his horses drank from the Scamander river Troy could not be taken. After Patroclus had been slain, it was Odysseus who counselled Achilles to let the Achaean men eat and rest rather than follow his rage-driven desire to go back on the offensive—and kill Trojans—immediately. Eventually (and reluctantly), he consented. During the funeral games for Patroclus, Odysseus became involved in a wrestling match with Telamonian Ajax, as well as a foot race. With the help of the goddess Athena, who favoured him, and despite Apollo helping another of the competitors, he won the race and managed to draw the wrestling match, to the surprise of all. Odysseus has traditionally been viewed in the Iliad as Achilles's antithesis: while Achilles's anger is all-consuming and of a self-destructive nature, Odysseus is frequently viewed as a man of the mean, world-renowned for his self-restraint and diplomatic skills. Professor Adele Haft, in her essay Odysseus' Wrath and Grief in the "Iliad", observes that there might be more to Odysseus's nature than initially appears on the surface. Haft makes several observations that raise questions about the traditional approach to his character. Haft notes that Odysseus is the only other character besides Achilles to receive a verbal reprimand from Agamemnon. Iliad 4.356-63 There are repeated suggestions that Agamemnon and Odysseus's relationship is strained: it is not Agamemnon but Nestor who selects Odysseus for his every mission in the Iliad. Haft explains Odysseus's displays of wrath, as well as his strained relationship with Agamemnon, as indicators that Odysseus will ultimately be responsible for the sacking of Troy. Haft points to the death of Democoon in Book IV as a prime example of the consequences of Odysseus's anger, for it results in a massive reduction of Trojan morale as well as a retreat. Haft goes on to suggest that Democoon's death, in conjunction with the death of Simoeisius, previses the destruction of Troy. Haft, Adele J. "Odysseus' Wrath and Grief in the "Iliad": Agamemnon, the Ithacan King, and the Sack of Troy in Books 2, 4, and 14." The Classical Journal, Vol. 85, No. 2. (December, 1989 - January, 1990), pp. 97-114. Other stories When the Achaean ships reached the beach of Troy, no one would jump ashore, since there was an oracle that the first Achaean to jump on Trojan soil would die. Odysseus tossed his shield on the shore and jumped on his shield. He was followed by Protesilaus, who jumped on Trojan soil and later became the first to die. Odysseus never forgave Palamedes for unmasking his madness ruse, leading him to frame him as a traitor. At one point, Odysseus convinced a Trojan captive to write a letter pretending to be from Palamedes. A sum of gold was mentioned to have been sent as a reward for Palamedes's treachery. Odysseus then killed the prisoner and hid the gold in Palamedes's tent. He ensured that the letter was found and acquired by Agamemnon, and also gave hints directing the Argives to the gold. This was evidence enough for the Greeks and they had Palamedes stoned to death. Other sources say that Odysseus and Diomedes goaded Palamedes into descending a wall with the prospect of treasure being at the bottom. When Palamedes reached the bottom, the two proceeded to bury him with stones, killing him. When Achilles was slain in battle, it was Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax who successfully retrieved the fallen warrior's body and armour in the thick of heavy fighting. During the funeral games for Achilles, Odysseus competed once again with Telamonian Ajax. Thetis said that the arms of Achilles would go to the bravest of the Greeks, but only these two warriors dared lay claim to that title. The two Argives became embroiled in a heavy dispute about one another's merits to receive the reward. The Greeks dithered out of fear in deciding a winner, because they did not want to insult one and have him abandon the war effort. Nestor suggested that they allow the captive Trojans decide the winner. Some accounts disagree, suggesting that the Greeks held a secret vote. In any case, Odysseus was the winner. Enraged and humiliated, Ajax was driven mad by Athena. When he returned to his senses, in shame at how he had slaughtered livestock in his madness, Ajax killed himself by the sword that Hector had given him Together with Diomedes, Odysseus went to fetch Achilles's son, Pyrrhus, to come to the aid of the Achaeans, because an oracle had stated that Troy could not be taken without him. A great warrior, Pyrrhus was named Neoptolemus (Greek: "new hero"). Upon the success of the mission, Odysseus gave him the armaments of his father. It was later learned that the war could not be won without the poison arrows of Heracles, which were owned by the abandoned Philoctetes. Odysseus and Diomedes (or, according to some accounts, Odysseus and Neoptolemus) went out to retrieve them. Upon their arrival, Philoctetes (still suffering from the wound) was seen still to be enraged at the Danaans, especially Odysseus, for abandoning him. Although his first instinct was to shoot Odysseus, his anger was eventually diffused by Odysseus's persuasive powers and the influence of the gods. Odysseus returned to the Argive camp with Philoctetes and his arrows. Odysseus captured Priam's son, Helenus the prophet, who told the Greeks that Troy could not be taken without the capture of the Palladium, which was located in the city itself. (Some accounts hold that Helenus was the one that told the Greeks to recruit Neoptolemus and Philoctetes.) Once again, Odysseus and Diomedes went on a mission together to fulfill a prophecy. Some say that Diomedes crawled up on Odysseus's shoulders into the city but would not help Odysseus up to do the same. When Diomedes returned from stealing the Palladium and met up again with the infuriated Odysseus, the latter thought to kill him and take credit for himself. He stepped behind him so as to stab him with his sword, but Diomedes caught the glint in the moonlight and spun around and disarmed the Ithacan king. He then proceeded to drive Odysseus back to the Argive camp with the flat of his sword. Another account of the stealing of the Palladium states that Odysseus and Diomedes entered the city together. Some myths state that Odysseus, in the disguise of a beggar, covered in rags and blood, entered the Trojan city furtively and alone. He was recognized by no one except Helen and Hecuba. They questioned him but allowed him to return to the Greek camp unharmed. The famous Trojan Horse was devised by Odysseus. It was built by Epeius and filled with Greek warriors, led by Odysseus. Beforehand, he made Menelaus swear to give him whatever he wanted after they had taken Troy and was met with concord. When the Horse was taken into Troy, Odysseus and Menelaus descended from it and went directly to Prince Deiphobos's house, where they engaged in a ferocious battle, although some accounts say that Odysseus fought him and that Menelaus came to find the dead body. Ultimately, however, Deiphobos, who was then the leading son of Priam and Helen's third husband, was killed. Menelaus was about to kill Helen for leaving him when Odysseus took advantage of the earlier promise and made him swear not to. In Euripedes's "The Trojan Women", it is Odysseus who convinces the other Argives to kill Hector's young son so that he has no chance to avenge his city. Journey home to Ithaca The Cicones After Odysseus left Troy he came first to Ismarus, the land of the Cicones. They sacked the town, and divided up the booty fairly. Odysseus then (according to his account given to Alcinous) gave orders to leave, but his men were anxious to stay and feast. The Cicones rallied back up with troops who had chariots from inland and launched a surprise attack. In a large battle by the ships Odysseus and his men fought valiantly, but as the battle dragged on the Cicones broke their defensive line. Odysseus lost six men from each of his ships before they fled. The Lotus-Eaters Ismarus is the last definite historical location Odysseus visited. As if to emphasise his passing into the land of myth and legend, he was driven for ten days When Odysseus and his men landed on the island of the Lotus-Eaters, Odysseus sent out a scouting party of three men who ate the lotus with the natives. This caused them to stop caring about going home, and desire only to eat the lotus. Odysseus went after the scouting party, and dragged them back to the ship against their will. He set sail, with the drugged sailors tied to the rowing benches to prevent them from swimming back to the island. Polyphemus Odysseus offering wine to the CyclopsOdysseus landed on an island full of goats. Nearby, within earshot, was the territory of the Cyclopes. Drawn by the sounds of civilisation, Odysseus sailed over to it with a single ship. He took a dozen men with him as a scouting party (including Achaemenides and Antiphus) and entered a large cave. They did not realise that it was the dwelling of Polyphemus the Cyclops. When he returned, he refused hospitality to his uninvited guests, and trapped them in the cave by blocking the entrance with a boulder that could not be moved by mortal men. He then proceeded to eat a pair of them at each meal, finally eating Antiphus as one of the third pair, but Odysseus devised a cunning plan. He and his men turned the olive tree branch which Polyphemus used to shepherd his flocks with into a giant spear, while Polyphemus was out of the cave shepherding his flocks. To lower Polyphemus's guard, Odysseus gave him the strong, unwatered wine given them by Maron, the Ismaran priest of Apollo. When the thoroughly inebriated Polyphemus asked for his name, Odysseus told him that it was "Noman". (Οὔτις, "Noman", is also a short form of his own name - a word game which is lost in translated versions.) In thanks for the wine, Polyphemus offered to eat him last. Once the giant fell asleep, Odysseus and his men drove their specially fashioned spear through his single eye, and blinded him. Hearing Polyphemus's cries, other Cyclopes called up to his cave to ask what was wrong. Polyphemus replied, "Οὖτίς με κτείνει δόλῳ οὐδὲ βίηφιν." ("Noman is killing me either by treachery or brute violence!") The other Cyclopes let him be, thinking that his outbursts must be either madness or the will of the gods. In the morning, Polyphemus rolled back the boulder to let the sheep out to graze. Now blind, he could not see the men, but he felt the tops of his sheep to make sure that the men were not riding them, and spread his arm at the entrance of the cave. Odysseus and his six remaining men escaped, however, by tying themselves to the undersides of three sheep each. Once out, they loaded the sheep aboard their ship and set sail. According to Virgil, they accidentally left Achaemenides behind in their rush. As Odysseus and his men were sailing away, he revealed his true identity to Polyphemus. Enraged, Polyphemus tried to sink the ship with boulders, but, because he was blind, he missed, although the rocks landed close enough to rock the ship. When the ship appeared to be getting away at last, Polyphemus raised his arms to his father, Poseidon, and asked him to not allow Odysseus to get back home to Ithaca. If this could not be granted, however, he must arrive alone, his crew dead, in a stranger's ship. This event is the setting for the only surviving complete satyr play, Cyclops by Euripides. This version contains a more humorous version of the story by including the cowardly satyrs. According to Virgil's Aeneid, Achaemenides was one of Odysseus's crew who stayed on Sicily with Polyphemus until Aeneas arrived and took him with him. Virgil was probably trying to interweave his tale as much as possible with Homer's already ancient, great work, especially as Achaemenides had nothing to do with the story at all and was in fact never mentioned again. Aeolus Continuing his journey, Odysseus stopped at Aeolia, the home of Aeolus, the mortal favoured by the gods enough to be given the power of controlling the winds. Aeolus gave Odysseus and his crew hospitality for a month, in return for Odysseus's interesting stories. Aeolus also provided a bag filled with all winds but the one to lead him home. Because Odysseus guarded the bag for the entire voyage home, without so much as a wink of sleep, his crew suspected that some treasure might be in it. They decided to open it as soon as he fell asleep — just before their home was reached. They were immediately blown back to Aeolia by a violent storm. Aeolus refused to offer any more help because he realized that Odysseus must be cursed by the gods. Odysseus had to begin his journey from Aeolia to Ithaca over again. Although heartbroken, he hid his feelings from his crew. The Laestrygonians They came next to Telepylos, the stronghold of Lamos, king of the Laestrygonians. Odysseus's ships entered a harbour surrounded by steep cliffs, with a single entrance between two headlands. The captains took their ships inside and made them fast close to one another, where it was dead calm. Odysseus kept his own ship outside the harbour, moored to a rock. He could see nothing but some smoke rising from over the horizon. He sent two of his company with an attendant to investigate the inhabitants. The men followed a road and eventually met a young woman, who said she was a daughter of Antiphates (another name for Lamos), the king, and directed them to his house. When they arrived there, however, they found a gigantic woman, the wife of Antiphates who promptly called her husband. He immediately left the assembly of the people and, on arrival, snatched up one of the men and started to eat him. The other two ran away, but Antiphates raised a hue-and-cry. Soon they were pursued by many Laestrygonians - men with the strength of giants - who threw vast rocks from the cliffs, smashing the ships, and speared the men like fish. Odysseus escaped with his single ship due only to the fact that it was not trapped in the harbour. The rest of his company was lost. Circe The next stop was Aeaea, the island of the enchantress Circe, where Odysseus sent ahead a scouting party. Circe invited the scouting party in for a meal, and turned all the men into swine after they ate food laced with one of her magical sleep-inducing potions. Only the leader of the scouting party, Eurylochus, suspecting treachery from the outset, escaped to warn Odysseus and the others, who had stayed behind with the ships. Odysseus, against his Eurylochus's bidding, set forth to rescue his transfigured men but was intercepted by Hermes and told to procure the herb moly, which would protect him from a similar fate. When it snubbed her magic, he threatened to kill her. She begged for mercy, and offered to sleep with him. He forced her to swear to not plot against him any longer, then obliged by Hermes's counsel. He then refused to eat and drink until his crew was turned back into humans. When she had done this, she asked Odysseus to stay. This he did, for an entire year. He eventually left Aeaea at the insistence of his crew. Circe agreed that it was time for him to go, and gave him advice about the remainder of his journey. During the preparation for departure, however, Odysseus's youngest crewman, Elpenor, fell from a roof and died. Circe subsequently bore Odysseus a son, Telegonus, who would eventually cause his father's death. Journey to the Underworld After speaking to Circe, Odysseus decided to talk with Tiresias, so he and his men journeyed to the River Acheron in Hades, where they performed sacrifices which allowed them to speak to the dead. Odysseus sacrificed a ram, attracting the dead spirits to the blood. He held them at bay and demanded to speak with Tiresias, who told him how to pass by Helios's cattle and the whirlpool-causing monster Charybdis. Tiresias also told him that, after his return to Ithaca, he must take a well-made oar and walk inland with it to parts where no-one mixed sea salt with food, until someone asked him why he carries a winnowing fan. At that place, he must fix the oar in the ground and make a sacrifice to appease Poseidon. Tiresias also told Odysseus that, after that was done, he would die an old man, "full of years and peace of mind"; his death would come from the sea and his life ebb away gently. (Some read this as saying that his death would come away from the sea, as opposed to out of the sea.) While in Hades, Odysseus also met Achilles (who told him that he would rather be a slave on earth than the king of the dead), Agamemnon, and his mother, Anticlea. The soul of Ajax, still sulking about Achilles's armour, refused to speak to Odysseus, despite the latter's pleas of regret. Odysseus also met his comrade, Elpenor, who told him of the manner of his death and begged him to give him an honorable burial. The Sirens Odysseus and the Sirens by John William Waterhouse At Elpenor's funeral, Circe warned Odysseus of the dangers of the singing creatures who lured men to their death on the rocks around their island. She advised him to avoid them but said that, if he really felt that he must listen, he should have his men plug their ears with beeswax and tie him to the mast to keep him from escaping. Odysseus told his men to do so. As they passed the island, the three Sirens began to sing beautifully, promising him wisdom and knowledge of past and future. Enchanted by their song, he struggled and tried to break free, but Eurylochus and Perimedes bound him even more tightly until they passed beyond the island. Scylla and Charybdis Odysseus had been told by Circe that he would have a choice between two paths home. One was the Wandering Rocks, where either all made it through or all died, and which had only previously been passed by Jason, with Zeus's help. Odysseus, however, chose the second path: on one side of the strait was a monster called Charybdis, whose whirlpool would sink the ship; on the other was a monster called Scylla, daughter of Crataeis, who had six heads and could seize and eat six men. The advice was to sail close to Scylla and lose six men but not to fight, lest they should lose more men. Odysseus did not dare tell his crew of the sacrifice, or they would have cowered below and not rowed, in which case all would have ended up in Charybdis. Six men duly died. Odysseus said that the desperate cries of the wretched, betrayed men were the worst thing he had ever known. Clearly this affected morale and left the survivors feeling mutinous. The Cattle of Helios Finally, Odysseus and his surviving crew approached an island, Thrinacia, which was sacred to Helios, who kept hallowed cattle there. Odysseus, having been warned by Tiresias and Circe not to touch these cattle, told his men that they would not land there. Eurylochus first argued that the men were mourning, then refused to travel by night and finally threatened mutiny. Outnumbered, Odysseus gave in. The men were soon trapped on the island by adverse winds and, after their food stores had run out, began to get hungry. Odysseus went inland to pray for help and fell asleep. In his absence, Eurylochus reasoned that they might as well eat the cattle and be killed by the gods as die of starvation, and claimed that they would offer sacrifices and treasure to appease the gods if they returned alive to Ithaca. When they slaughtered the cattle, the guardians of the island, Helios's daughters Lampetia and Phaethusa, told their father, who told to Zeus that he would take the sun down to Hades if justice was not done. When the ship put to sea, a storm conjured by Zeus killed all the rest but Odysseus. The crewless ship was sucked into Charybdis, but Odysseus survived by clinging to an olive tree below Scylla's cave. When Charybdis spat out the remains of his ship, he let go and landed on the keel, which drifted across the sea for nine days. Then on the tenth day, he was washed up on an island. Odysseus and Nausicaä by Charles Gleyre. Calypso and the Phaeacians The island, Ogygia, was home to the nymph Calypso (daughter of Atlas), who held Odysseus captive as her lover for seven years, promising him immortality if he agreed to stay. On behalf of Athena, Zeus intervened and sent Hermes to tell Calypso to let him go. Odysseus duly departed on a small raft, furnished by Calypso with provisions of water, wine and food, only to be hit by a storm from his old enemy Poseidon. He was washed up on the island of Scheria and found by Nausicaa, the daughter of King Alcinous and Queen Arete of the Phaeacians, who entertained him well. The bard Demodocus sung a song about the Trojan War. As Odysseus, as yet unidentified by the Phaeacians, had been at Troy and longed to return home, he wept at it, at which point Alcinous pressed him for his true identity. It is here that we are given the story of Odysseus's trip from Troy to Scheria, which occupies books nine to twelve of The Odyssey. After his recital, the Phaeacians offer him passage home, with all the hoardings he obtained along the way and the gifts the Phaecians themselves bestowed upon him (showing xenia, the idea of hospitality). King Alcinous provided one fast Phæacian ship that soon King Alcinous in Odyssey, Book 7, 320–326, describes how the Pheacians carried Rhadamanthus from Scheria to Euboea, "which is the furthest of any place" and came back on the same day. carried Odysseus home to Ithaca. Poseidon, on seeing Odysseus's return, was furious and decided to cast a ring of mountains around Scheria so that they could never sail again. This would have been very damaging to the Phaeacians, for they were seafarers, but Zeus persuaded Poseidon not to go ahead with the idea. Instead, he turned the ship on which Odysseus journeyed home to stone. Odysseus reaches Ithaca Back in Ithaca, Penelope was having difficulties, her husband having been gone for twenty years. She did not know whether he was alive or dead, and was beset with numerous men who thought that a fairly young widow and queen of a small but tidy kingdom was a great prize: they pestered her to declare Odysseus dead and choose a new husband. They loitered about the palace, eating her food, drinking her wine and consorting with her maidservants. Penelope was despondent about her husband's absence, especially the mystery of his fate. He could come home at any time—or never. Temporising, she fended the suitors off for years, using stalling tactics that eventually began to wear thin. Meanwhile, Odysseus's mother, Anticlea, died of grief, and his father, Laërtes, was not far off the same end. Odysseus arrived on Ithaca alone. Upon landing, he was disguised by Athena as an old man or beggar, and welcomed by his old swineherd, Eumaeus, who did not recognize him but nevertheless treated him well. His son, Telemachus, after returning from a year of searching for information about his father, was the first to know his father returned after Athena revealed Odysseus for who he was in front of him. Odysseus's faithful dog, Argos, was the second to recognize him. Aged and decrepit, the animal did its best to wag its tail, but Odysseus did not want to be found out and had to maintain his cover, so the weary dog died in peace. The second human to recognize him was his old wet nurse, Euryclea, who knew him well enough to see through his rags, recognising an old scar on his leg, received while hunting boar with Autolycus's sons. Odysseus learned that Penelope had remained faithful to him, pretending to weave a burial shroud for his father, and claiming that she would only choose a suitor when she was finished. Every day she wove a length of shroud, and every night undid her work, until one day a maid betrayed her. The suitors demanded that she finally choose a new husband. When Odysseus arrived at his house, disguised as a beggar, he sat in the hall, where he observed the suitors and was repeatedly humiliated by them. Presently, he went to Penelope and told her that he had met Odysseus, spinning a haughty tale about his bravery in battle. Penelope, still ignorant of the beggar's identity, began to cry. She went to the suitors and told them that whoever could string Odysseus's bow and shoot an arrow through 12 axe-handles would marry her. This was to Odysseus's advantage, as only he could string his bow. It is believed that his bow was a composite, requiring great skill and leverage to string, rather than brute strength. Penelope then announced what he, as the beggar, had told her. The suitors each tried to string the bow, but their attempts were in vain. Odysseus then took it, strung it, lined up twelve axe-handles and shot an arrow through all twelve. Athena then took off his disguise, and, with the help of his son, Philoteus and Eumaeus, he slaughtered all the suitors. Antinous was the first to be slain, taking an arrow fired by Odysseus in the throat while drinking in the great hall. Odysseus used arrows first, but, when he eventually ran short, he killed the remaining suitors with spears. Caught by surprise and deprived of arms by Telemachus, the suitors at a distinct disadvantage, and were only able to arm themeselves after it was too late. When all the suitors were dead, justice was meted out to the goatherd Melanthius and the female servants, who had been helping the suitors. Penelope, still not certain that the beggar was indeed her husband, tested him. She ordered her maid to make up Odysseus's bed and move it from their bedchamber into the hall outside his room. Odysseus was furious when he heard this because one of the bed posts was made from a living olive tree. He himself had designed it this way; it could not be moved unless by a god. He told her this, and, since only he and she knew of it, she accepted that he was indeed her husband. She came running to him, hoping that he would forgive her. He did, firstly because he could understand why she had tested him and secondly because he had passed the test. To avenge the death of his son Antinous, Eupeithes tried to kill Odysseus. Laërtes killed him, and Athena thereafter required the suitors' families and Odysseus to make peace. Thus ends the story of the Odyssey. Odysseus had been told (by the shade of Tiresias) that he had one more journey to make after he had re-established his rule in Ithaca. Based on several astronomical events described in the Odyssey, some scientists have recently calculated that Odysseus returned home exactly on April 16, 1178 BCE. Odysseus' return from Trojan War dated. Other stories Odysseus is one of the most recurrent characters in Western culture. Classical According to some late sources, most of them purely genealogical, Odysseus had many other children besides Telemachus, the most famous being: with Penelope: Poliporthes (born after Odysseus's return from Troy) with Circe: Telegonus, Ardeas, Latinus with Calypso: Nausinous with Kallidike: Polypoetes Most such genealogies aimed to link Odysseus with the foundation of many Italic cities in remote antiquity. He figures in the end of the story of King Telephus of Mysia. The supposed last poem in the Epic Cycle is called the Telegony, and is thought to tell the story of Odysseus's last voyage, and of his death at the hands of Telegonus, his son with Circe. The poem, like the others of the cycle, is "lost" in that no authentic version has been discovered. In 5th century BC Athens, tales of the Trojan War were popular subjects for tragedies, and Odysseus figures centrally or indirectly in a number of the extant plays by Aeschylus, Sophocles, (Ajax, Philoctetes) and Euripides, (Hecuba, Rhesus, Cyclops) and figured in still more that have not survived. In the Ajax, Sophocles portrays Odysseus as a modernistic voice of reasoning compared to the title character's rigid antiquity. As Ulysses, he is mentioned regularly in Virgil's Aeneid, and the poem's hero, Aeneas, rescues one of Ulysses's crew members who was left behind on the island of the Cyclops. He in turn offers a first-person account of some of the same events Homer relates, in which Ulysses appears directly. Virgil's Ulysses typifies his view of the Greeks: he is cunning but impious, and ultimately malicious and hedonistic. Ovid retells parts of Ulysses's journeys, focusing on his romantic involvements with Circe and Calypso, and recasts him as, in Harold Bloom's phrase, "one of the great wandering womanizers." Ovid also gives a detailed account of the contest between Ulysses and Ajax for the armor of Achilles. Greek legend tells of Ulysses as the founder of Lisbon, Portugal, calling it Ulisipo or Ulisseya, during his twenty-year errand on the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas. Olisipo was Lisbon's name in the Roman Empire. Basing in this folk etymology, the belief that Ulysses is recounted by Strabo based on Asclepiades of Myrleia's words, by Pomponius Mela, by Gaius Julius Solinus (3rd Century A.D.), and finally by Camões in his epic poem Lusiads. http://olisipo.blog.com Middle Ages and Renaissance Dante, in Canto 26 of the Inferno of his Divine Comedy, encounters Odysseus ("Ulisse" in the original Italian) near the very bottom of Hell: with Diomedes, he walks wrapped in flame in the eighth ring (Counselors of Fraud) of the Eighth circle (Sins of Malice), as punishment for his schemes and conspiracies that won the Trojan War. In a famous passage, Dante has Odysseus relate a different version of his final voyage and death from the one foreshadowed by Homer. He tells how he set out with his men for one final journey of exploration to sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules and into the western sea to find what adventures awaited them. Men, says Ulisse, are not made to live like brutes, but to follow virtue and knowledge (fatti non foste a viver come bruti / ma per seguir virtute e conoscenza). After travelling west and south for five months, they saw in the distance a great mountain rising from the sea (this is Purgatory, in Dante's cosmology) before a storm sank them. Dante did not have access to the original Greek texts of the Homeric epics, so his knowledge of their subject-matter was based only on information from later sources, chiefly Virgil's Aeneid but also Ovid; hence the discrepancy between Dante and Homer. He appears in Shakespeare's Troilus and Cressida, set during the Trojan War. Modern The bay of Palaiokastritsa in Corfu as seen from Bella vista of Lakones. Corfu is considered to be the mythical island of the Phaeacians. The bay of Palaiokastritsa is considered to be the place where Odysseus disembarked and met Nausicaa for the first time. The rock in the sea visible near the horizon at the top centre-left of the picture is considered by the locals to be the mythical petrified ship of Odysseus. The side of the rock toward the mainland is curved in such a way as to resemble the extended sail of a trireme Alfred, Lord Tennyson's Ulysses presents an aging king who has seen too much of the world to be happy sitting on a throne idling his days away. Leaving the task of civilizing his people to his son, he gathers together a band of old comrades "to sail beyond the sunset". James Joyce's novel Ulysses uses modern literary devices to narrate a single day in the life of a Dublin businessman named Leopold Bloom. Bloom's day turns out to bear many elaborate parallels to Odysseus's twenty years of wandering. Cream's song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" speaks somewhat of the travels of Odysseus including his encounter with the sirens. And an unnamed Odysseus figure is the narrator of the Steely Dan song, "Home at Last." Frederick Rolfe's The Weird of the Wanderer has the hero Nicholas Crabbe (based on the author) travelling back in time, discovering that he is the reincarnation of Odysseus, marrying Helen, being deified and ending up as one of the three Magi. In Dan Simmons' novels Ilium and Olympos, Odysseus is encountered both at Troy and on a futuristic Earth. Nikos Kazantzakis' The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel, a 33,333 line epic poem, begins with Odysseus cleansing his body of the blood of Penelope's suitors. Odysseus soon leaves Ithaca in search of new adventures. Before his death he abducts Helen; incites revolutions in Crete and Egypt; communes with God; and meets representatives of various famous historical and literary figures, such as Vladimir Lenin, Don Quixote and Jesus.Ulysses 31 is a Japanese-French anime series (1981) which updates the Greek and Roman mythologies of Ulysses (or Odysseus) to the thirty-first century. In the series, the gods are angered when Ulysses, commander of the giant spaceship Odyssey, kills the giant Cyclops to rescue a group of enslaved children including Telemachus. Zeus sentences Ulysses to travel the universe with his crew frozen until he finds the Kingdom of Hades, at which point his crew will be revived and he will be able to return to Earth. In one episode, he travels back in time and meets the Odysseus of the Greek myth. Early 20th century British composer Cecil Armstrong Gibbs's second symphony (for chorus and orchestra) is named after and based on the story of Odysseus, with text by Essex poet Mordaunt Currie. Suzanne Vega's song Calypso shows Odysseus from Calypso's point of view, and tells the tale of him coming to the island and his leaving. Joel and Ethan Coen's film O Brother Where Art Thou? (2000) is loosely based on the Odyssey. However, they also admit to never having read the epic. George Clooney plays Ulysses Everett McGill, leading a group of escapees from a chain gang through an adventure in search of the proceeds of an armoured truck heist. On their voyage, the gang encounter—amongst other characters—a trio of sirens and a one eyed bible salesman. In S.M. Stirling's Island in the Sea of Time Trilogy, Odikweos (Mycenean spelling) is a 'historical' figure who is every bit as cunning as his legendary self and is one of the few Bronze Age inhabitants who discerns the time-traveller's real background. Odikweos first aids William Walker's rise to power in Achaea, and later helps bring Walker down after seeing his homeland turn into a police state. Between 1978 and 1979, German director Tony Munzlinger made a documentary series called Unterwegs mit Odysseus (roughly translated: "Journeying with Odysseus"), in which a film team sails across the Mediterranean Sea trying to find traces of Odysseus in the modern-day settings of the Odyssey. In between the film crew's exploits, hand-drawn scissor-cut cartoons are inserted which relate the hero's story, with actor Hans Clarin providing the narratives. Odysseus appears as a playable character in the video game Age of Mythology (2002). In addition, one of the levels in the game involves the player's rescue of Odysseus and his men from Circe.The Penelopiad by Margaret Atwood retells the story from the point of view of Penelope. Lindsay Clarke's The War at Troy features Odysseus, and its sequel, The Return from Troy, retells the voyage of Odysseus in a manner which combines myth with modern psychological insight. Odysseus may be part of the basis for the character of Desmond Hume on the television series Lost. He is attempting to finish a "race around the world" and return to his girlfriend Penelope when he is stranded on the island. Progressive metal band Symphony X have a song based on Odysseus's journey, called 'The Odyssey' on the album going by the same name. It is 24 minutes 7 seconds long, and has a 6 part orchestra playing in it, each part comprising of 60 people or so. Eilean Ni Chuilleanain, an Irish poet, wrote a poem called 'The Second Voyage' in which she makes use of the story of Odysseus. The Simpsons re-enacted a version of the Odyssey in their 13th season, fourteenth episode named 'Tales from the Public Domain'. There were three mini stories in the episode, the first bearing the title 'D'oh, Brother Where Art Thou?' which starred Homer Simpson as Odysseus. The Police song King of Pain refers to Homer's connotation of the name "Odysseus". A cartoon show named Class of the Titans has a character named 'Odie' who is a direct descendant of Odysseus. One of the Episodes, named 'The Odie-sey' on the show re-enacted the story of The Odyssey, with characters like Calypso, Scylla, and Aeolus, and also modern twists and such. Actor Sean Bean portrayed Odysseus in the epic movie Troy. Actor Armand Assante played Odysseus in The Odyssey (TV miniseries). Comic book characters Batman and Superman are said to be somewhat inspired by Odysseus and Hercules. One plotline in the comic series 52 features a storyline (which follows the character Animal Man) is a parallel of the Odyssey. In this storyline, Animal Man is lost in space and must voyage home to his wife and children, and on his way back he encounters a planet of drug-like plants, a giant who captures him and various other similar adventures. Odysseus is also a character in David Gemmell's Troy trilogy. He is a good friend and mentor of Helikaon. He is known as the ugly king of Ithaka. His marriage with Penelope was arranged, but they grew to love each other. He is also a famous story teller, known to exaggerate his stories and heralded as the greatest story teller of his age. This is used as a plot device to explain the origins of such myths as Circe and the gorgons. In the series, he is fairly old, and an unwilling ally of Agamemnon. In the second book of the Percy Jackson series, The Sea of Monsters, Percy and his friends encounter many obstacles similar to those in the Odyssey, including Scylla and Charybidis, the Sirens, Polyphemus, and others. Other cultures Nala and Rama. A similar story exists in Hindu mythology with Nala and Damayanti where Nala separates from Damayanti and reunites with her. The story of stringing a bow is similar to the description in Ramayana of Rama stringing the bow to win Sita's hand in marriage.. References Odysseus Unbound website Ernle Bradford, Ulysses Found, Hodder and Stoughton, 1963 Notes See also Homer's Ithaca Odysseus Unbound External links Archaeological Discovery in Greece may be the tomb of Odysseus The Ulysses Voyage, by Tim Severin, 1987. An account of a voyage in a modern reconstruction of a Bronze Age ship, using the Odyssey as sailing directions, from Troy to Ithaca. Many Odyssey locations were, he claims, located. In the animated television series Class of the Titans'', the character Odie is descended from Odysseus. 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stoughton:1 external:1 archaeological:1 discovery:1 tomb:1 tim:1 severin:1 reconstruction:1 sailing:1 direction:1 animated:1 spanish:1 \|@bigram odyssey_odysseus:3 homer_iliad:2 trojan_horse:2 paternal_grandfather:1 maternal_grandfather:1 karl_kerenyi:1 kerenyi_hero:1 george_liddell:1 liddell_robert:1 liddell_scott:1 iliad_odyssey:1 virgil_aeneid:4 mother_clytemnestra:1 telamonian_ajax:5 ajax_ajax:1 odysseus_diomedes:5 poison_arrow:1 lotus_eater:2 olive_tree:3 fell_asleep:3 steep_cliff:1 william_waterhouse:1 scylla_charybdis:1 charles_gleyre:1 wet_nurse:1 aeschylus_sophocles:1 harold_bloom:1 lisbon_portugal:1 folk_etymology:1 pomponius_mela:1 gaius_julius:1 pillar_hercules:1 homeric_epic:1 troilus_cressida:1 lord_tennyson:1 leopold_bloom:1 dan_simmons:1 novel_ilium:1 ilium_olympos:1 nikos_kazantzakis:1 vladimir_lenin:1 chorus_orchestra:1 joel_ethan:1 ethan_coen:1 george_clooney:1 ulysses_everett:1 everett_mcgill:1 playable_character:1 margaret_atwood:1 homer_simpson:1 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6,492	Coal_tar	Coal tar is a brown or black liquid of high viscosity, which smells of naphthalene and aromatic hydrocarbons. Coal tar is among the by-products when coal is carbonized to make coke or gasified to make coal gas. Coal tars are complex and variable mixtures of phenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic compounds. TOXICOLOGICAL PROFILE FOR WOOD CREOSOTE, COAL TAR CREOSOTE, COAL TAR, COAL TAR PITCH, AND COAL TAR PITCH VOLATILES U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES, page 19, September 2002 Applications Being flammable, coal tar is sometimes used for heating or to fire boilers. Like most heavy oils, it must be heated before it will flow easily. Like pine tar, it can be used in medicated shampoo, soap and ointment, as a treatment for dandruff and psoriasis, as well as being used to kill and repel head lice. When used as a medication in the U.S., coal tar preparations are considered an OTC (over-the-counter drug) pharmaceutical and are subject to regulation by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Name brands include Denorex, Balnetar, Psoriasin, Tegrin, T-Gel, and Neutar. Coal tar is also used to synthesize paracetamol (acetaminophen). Coal tar was formerly used as one of the primary ingredients of asphalt pavements. Today, petroleum derived binders and sealers are more commonly used. These sealers are used to extend the life and lower maintenance cost associated with asphalt pavements, primarily in asphalt road paving, parking lots and walkways. Tar is used in treatment of the skin disease psoriasis, where coal tar is the most effective. Petroleum tar was also used in ancient Egyptian mummification circa 1000 BC. http://www.geotimes.org/feb05/NN_mummytar.html Tar was a vital component of the first sealed, or "tarmac", roads. The streets of Baghdad were the first to be paved with tar from the 8th century AD. Safety According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, preparations that include more than 5 percent of crude coal tar are Group 1 carcinogen. According to the National Psoriasis Foundation and the FDA, coal tar is a valuable, safe and inexpensive treatment option for millions of people with psoriasis and other scalp conditions. National Psoriasis Foundation, The battle to save coal tar in California, December 3 2001. Coal tar concentrations between 0.5% and 5% are safe and effective for psoriasis, and no scientific evidence suggests that the coal tar in the concentrations seen in non-prescription treatments is carcinogenic. The NPF states that coal tar contains approximately 10,000 different chemicals, of which only about 50% have been identified National Psoriasis Foundation: Tar , and the composition of coal tar varies with its origin and type of coal (eg: lignite, bituminous or anthracite) used to make it. See also Creosote Cresolene Preservative Red 40 Tar References External links Coal Tar Pitch Volatiles by OSHA Parking lots create sticky pollution problem by Erica Engelhaupt Environmental Science and Technology	Coal_tar \|@lemmatized coal:23 tar:27 brown:1 black:1 liquid:1 high:1 viscosity:1 smell:1 naphthalene:1 aromatic:2 hydrocarbon:2 among:1 product:1 carbonize:1 make:3 coke:1 gasify:1 gas:1 complex:1 variable:1 mixture:1 phenol:1 polycyclic:1 pahs:1 heterocyclic:1 compound:1 toxicological:1 profile:1 wood:1 creosote:3 pitch:3 volatile:2 u:2 department:1 health:1 human:1 service:1 page:1 september:1 application:1 flammable:1 sometimes:1 use:11 heat:2 fire:1 boiler:1 like:2 heavy:1 oil:1 must:1 flow:1 easily:1 pine:1 medicated:1 shampoo:1 soap:1 ointment:1 treatment:4 dandruff:1 psoriasis:7 well:1 kill:1 repel:1 head:1 louse:1 medication:1 preparation:2 consider:1 otc:1 counter:1 drug:2 pharmaceutical:1 subject:1 regulation:1 united:1 state:2 food:1 administration:1 name:1 brand:1 include:2 denorex:1 balnetar:1 psoriasin:1 tegrin:1 gel:1 neutar:1 also:3 synthesize:1 paracetamol:1 acetaminophen:1 formerly:1 one:1 primary:1 ingredient:1 asphalt:3 pavement:2 today:1 petroleum:2 derive:1 binder:1 sealer:2 commonly:1 extend:1 life:1 low:1 maintenance:1 cost:1 associate:1 primarily:1 road:2 paving:1 park:2 lot:1 walkway:1 skin:1 disease:1 effective:2 ancient:1 egyptian:1 mummification:1 circa:1 bc:1 http:1 www:1 geotimes:1 org:1 html:1 vital:1 component:1 first:2 seal:1 tarmac:1 street:1 baghdad:1 pave:1 century:1 ad:1 safety:1 accord:2 international:1 agency:1 research:1 cancer:1 percent:1 crude:1 group:1 carcinogen:1 national:3 foundation:3 fda:1 valuable:1 safe:2 inexpensive:1 option:1 million:1 people:1 scalp:1 condition:1 battle:1 save:1 california:1 december:1 concentration:2 scientific:1 evidence:1 suggest:1 see:2 non:1 prescription:1 carcinogenic:1 npf:1 contain:1 approximately:1 different:1 chemical:1 identify:1 composition:1 varies:1 origin:1 type:1 eg:1 lignite:1 bituminous:1 anthracite:1 cresolene:1 preservative:1 red:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 osha:1 lots:1 create:1 sticky:1 pollution:1 problem:1 erica:1 engelhaupt:1 environmental:1 science:1 technology:1 \|@bigram coal_tar:20 aromatic_hydrocarbon:2 polycyclic_aromatic:1 heterocyclic_compound:1 pine_tar:1 paracetamol_acetaminophen:1 http_www:1 external_link:1
6,493	Adobe_Systems	Adobe Systems Incorporated ( ) () is an American computer software company headquartered in San Jose, California, USA. The company has historically focused upon the creation of multimedia and creativity software products, with a more-recent foray towards rich Internet application software development. Adobe was founded in December 1982 by John Warnock and Charles Geschke, who established the company after leaving Xerox PARC in order to develop and sell the PostScript page description language. In 1985, Apple Computer licensed PostScript for use in its LaserWriter printers, which helped spark the desktop publishing revolution. The company name Adobe comes from Adobe Creek, which ran behind the house of one of the company's founders. Adobe acquired its former competitor, Macromedia, in December 2005, which added newer software products and platforms, such as Adobe Flash and Adobe Flex, to its product portfolio. As of February 2009, Adobe Systems has 7,173 employees, about 40% of whom work in San Jose. Adobe also has major development operations in Orlando, Florida; Seattle, Washington; San Francisco, California; Ottawa, Ontario; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Newton, Massachusetts; San Luis Obispo, California; Hamburg, Germany; Noida, India; Bangalore, India; Bucharest, Romania; Beijing, China. History Adobe's first products after PostScript were digital fonts, which they released in a proprietary format called Type 1. Apple subsequently developed a competing standard, TrueType, which provided full scalability and precise control of the pixel pattern created by the font's outlines, and licensed it to Microsoft. Adobe responded by publishing the Type 1 specification and releasing Adobe Type Manager, software that allowed WYSIWYG scaling of Type 1 fonts on screen, like TrueType, although without the precise pixel-level control. But these moves were too late to stop the rise of TrueType. Although Type 1 remained the standard in the graphics/publishing market, TrueType became the standard for business and the average Windows user. In 1996, Adobe and Microsoft announced the OpenType font format, and in 2003 Adobe completed converting its Type 1 font library to OpenType. In the mid-1980s, Adobe entered the consumer software market with Adobe Illustrator, a vector-based drawing program for the Apple Macintosh. Illustrator, which grew from the firm's in-house font-development software, helped popularize PostScript-enabled laser printers. Unlike MacDraw, then the standard Macintosh vector drawing program, Illustrator described shapes with more flexible Bézier curves, providing unprecedented accuracy. Font rendering in Illustrator, however, was left to the Macintosh's QuickDraw libraries and would not be superseded by a PostScript-like approach until Adobe released Adobe Type Manager. In 1989, Adobe introduced what was to become its flagship product, Adobe Photoshop for the Macintosh. Stable and full-featured, Photoshop 1.0 was ably marketed by Adobe and soon dominated the market. Arguably, one of Adobe's few missteps on the Macintosh platform was their failure to develop their own desktop publishing (DTP) program. Instead, Aldus with PageMaker in 1985 and Quark with QuarkXPress in 1987 gained early leads in the DTP market. Adobe was also slow to address the emerging Windows DTP market. However, Adobe made great strides in that market with release of InDesign and its bundled Creative Suite offering. In a failure to predict the direction of computing, Adobe released a complete version of Illustrator for Steve Jobs' ill-fated NeXT system, but a poorly-produced version for Windows. Despite these missteps, licensing fees from the PostScript interpreter allowed Adobe to outlast or acquire many of its rivals in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In December 1991, Adobe released Adobe Premiere, which Adobe rebranded to Adobe Premiere Pro in 2003. In 1994, Adobe acquired Aldus and added Adobe PageMaker and Adobe After Effects to its production line later in the year; it also controls the TIFF file format. In 1995, Adobe added Adobe FrameMaker, the long-document DTP application, to its production line after Adobe acquired Frame Technology Corp. In 1999, Adobe introduced Adobe InCopy as a direct competitor to QuarkCopyDesk. About Adobe - Press Room - For Immediate Release Top competitors According to Hoovers Adobe - Company Overview - Hoover's Adobe's top competitors are: Apple Inc. Microsoft Quark, Inc. Company events 1992 Acquired OCR Systems, Inc. 1999 Acquired GoLive Systems, Inc. and released Adobe GoLive. Shipped Adobe InDesign as a direct competitor to QuarkXPress and eventual replacement for PageMaker. 2003 May: Acquired Syntrillium Software, adding Adobe Audition to its product line. 2004 December: Acquired French company OKYZ S.A., makers of 3D collaboration software. The acquisition added 3D technology and expertise to the Adobe Intelligent Document Platform. 2005 December 12, 2005: Acquired its main rival Macromedia in a stock swap valued at about $3.4 billion adding: Adobe ColdFusion, Adobe Contribute, Adobe Captivate, Adobe Acrobat Connect (formerly Macromedia Breeze), Adobe Director, Adobe Dreamweaver, Adobe Fireworks, Adobe Flash, Macromedia FlashPaper, Adobe Flex, Macromedia FreeHand, Macromedia HomeSite, Macromedia JRun, Adobe Presenter, and Macromedia Authorware to Adobe's production line. 2006 October: Adobe acquires Serious Magic, makers of Visual Communicator and video blogging application, Vlog It! November: Sr. Vice-President of Corporate Marketing Melissa Dyrdahl retires from Adobe to co-found startup Bring Light with fellow Adobe alum Drew McManus December: The firm's headquarters buildings in San Jose received three Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design platinum certifications. 2007 January: Released Adobe Photoshop Lightroom to assist photographers in managing digital images and doing post production work. The product was intended as a competitor to Apple's Aperture in the RAW image editing market. May 2007: Acquired Scene7, which makes an image processing and display platform used in many retail sites on the web. July: Adobe released Adobe Soundbooth. This product was not intended to replace the existing Adobe Audition but merely to provide an environment for professionals not specializing in audio. August 3, 2007: announced their plans to discontinue development of Authorware, the “visual authoring tool for creating rich-media e-learning applications for delivery on corporate networks, CD/DVD, and the Web.” Authorware was one of the development tools acquired in the Macromedia/Adobe merger. This was replaced by Adobe Captivate. October 2007: Acquired Virtual Ubiquity, with its online word processor, Buzzword. November 12, 2007: CEO, Bruce Chizen resigns. Effective December 1, he is to be replaced by Shantanu Narayen, Adobe's current president and Chief Operating Officer. Bruce Chizen is expected to serve out his term on Adobe's Board of Directors, and then continue in a strategic advisory role until the end of Adobe's 2008 fiscal year. 2008 April: Adobe releases Adobe Media Player. Many videos and tutorials available for entertainment or training. 27 April: Adobe discontinues development and sales of its older HTML/web development software, GoLive in favour of Dreamweaver. Adobe offers a discount on Dreamweaver for GoLive users and supports those who still use GoLive with online tutorials and migration assistance. 1 June: Adobe launches Acrobat.com, a series of web applications geared for collaborative work. Creative Suite 4 which includes Design, Web, Production Premium and Master Collection came out in October 2008 in six configurations at prices from about USD $1,700 to $2,500 or by individual application. The Windows version of Photoshop includes 64-bit processing. December 3, 2008: Adobe lays off 600 of its employees (8% of the worldwide staff) citing the weak economic environment. 2009 Creative Suite 4 sales seem to be low http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story.asp?StoryId={71506579-2A79-4443-B4C6-91AFEBB869A9} Corporate leadership Executive Board http://www.adobe.com/aboutadobe/pressroom/pdfs/fastfacts.pdf Charles M. Geschke Co-Chairman of the Board John E. Warnock Co-Chairman of the Board Shantanu Narayen President & Chief Executive Officer (2005 Compensation: $1.08 M USD) Karen Cottle Senior Vice President, General Counsel, and Corporate Secretary Mark Garrett Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer Donna Morris Senior Vice President, Human Resources Kevin Lynch Senior Vice President - Experience & Technology Group, Chief Technology Officer Top Selling Products Adobe Photoshop Adobe Flash Adobe Dreamweaver Products Adobe's products include desktop software, such as Adobe Photoshop (part of the Adobe Creative Suite) and Adobe Audition server software, such as Adobe ColdFusion and Adobe LiveCycle technologies, such as Portable Document Format (PDF), PDF's predecessor PostScript, and Flash web hosted services as Adobe Kuler, Photoshop Express, and Acrobat.com web design programs: Adobe Dreamweaver and Adobe GoLive video editing and special effects: Adobe Premiere and Adobe After Effects Financial information Adobe Systems entered NASDAQ in 1986. Adobe's 2006 revenues were $2.575 billion USD. As of February 2007, Adobe's market capitalization was roughly $23 billion USD; as of August 2007, its shares were trading on the NASDAQ for around $40 USD, with a P/E ratio of about 49 and EPS of about $0.82. As of March 2008, Adobe's market capitalization was roughly $18 billion USD; its shares were trading on the NASDAQ for around $33 USD, with a P/E ratio of about 27 and EPS of about $1.21. Revenue 2000s Fiscal year Revenue 2008 $3.58 billion Q4 and FY2008 earnings press release 2007 $3.158 billion Macsimum News - Adobe announces record revenue 2006 $2.575 billion adobe.com 2005 $1.966 billion 2004 $1.667 billion adobe.com 2003 $1.295 billion Adobe Systems Reports Record Quarterly and Annual Revenue 2002 $1.165 billion 2001 $1.230 billion adobe.com 2000 $1.156 billion adobe.com 1990s Fiscal year Revenue 1999 $1.015 billion 1998 $0.895 billion adobe.com 1997 $0.912 billion 1996 $0.787 billion 1995 $0.762 billion 1994 $0.676 billion Awards Since 1995, Fortune has ranked Adobe as an outstanding place to work. Adobe was rated the fifth-best U.S. company to work for in 2003, sixth in 2004, 31st in 2007, 40th in 2008, and eleventh in 2009. In 2007 Adobe ranked 9th on the list of largest software companies in the world. Software Top 100: "The World's Largest Software Companies" In May 2008, Adobe Systems India was ranked 19th in great place to work in India. In October 2008, Adobe Systems Canada Inc. was named one of "Canada's Top 100 Employers" by Mediacorp Canada Inc., and was featured in Maclean's newsmagazine. Criticism Adobe has been extensively criticised for its pricing practices, with retail prices being as much as twice as high in foreign countries than in the domestic market. See also Adobe Engagement Platform Adobe Solutions Network Aldus OpenType PDF PostScript Adobe ColdFusion Adobe MAX US v. ElcomSoft Sklyarov MEI (Managing Editor Inc.) - Adobe reseller, distributor of the K4 Publishing System that works with Adobe InCopy and InDesign, and developer of publishing software that works with Adobe products Notes References San Jose Semaphore on Adobe's building External links Adobe Systems Video and Audio on MarketWatch	Adobe_Systems \|@lemmatized adobe:115 system:11 incorporate:1 american:1 computer:2 software:16 company:11 headquarter:1 san:6 jose:4 california:3 usa:1 historically:1 focus:1 upon:1 creation:1 multimedia:1 creativity:1 product:12 recent:1 foray:1 towards:1 rich:2 internet:1 application:6 development:7 found:1 december:8 john:2 warnock:2 charles:2 geschke:2 establish:1 leave:2 xerox:1 parc:1 order:1 develop:3 sell:1 postscript:8 page:1 description:1 language:1 apple:5 license:3 use:3 laserwriter:1 printer:2 help:2 spark:1 desktop:3 publishing:3 revolution:1 name:2 come:2 creek:1 run:1 behind:1 house:2 one:4 founder:1 acquire:13 former:1 competitor:6 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6,494	Apiaceae	The Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (both names are allowed by the ICBN) is a family of usually aromatic plants with hollow stems, commonly known as umbellifers. It includes cumin, parsley, carrot, coriander/cilantro, dill, caraway, fennel, parsnip, celery, Queen Anne's Lace and other relatives. It is a large family with about 300 genera and more than 3,000 species. The earlier name Umbelliferae derives from the inflorescence being generally in the form of a compound "umbel", and has the same root as the word "umbrella". The botanical subspeciality that studies Apiaceae is sometimes called sciadophytography. Description The small flowers are radially symmetrical with 5 small sepals, 5 petals and 5 stamens. The family includes some highly toxic plants, such as hemlock. Many plants in this family, such as wild carrot, have estrogenic properties and have been used as folk medicine for birth control. Most notable for this use is the extinct giant fennel, silphium. The cultivated plants in this category are almost all considered good companion plants, as the umbrella of tiny flowers attracts omnivorous beneficial insects, especially parasitic wasps and predatory flies, which then will hunt insect pests on nearby crops. The family is closely related to Araliaceae and the boundaries between these families remain unclear. Some recent systems include Araliaceae in an expanded Apiaceae but this has not been widely followed. Hydrocotyle and Trachymene, traditionally included in Apiaceae, are now generally included in Araliaceae. Notable members include Anethum graveolens - Dill, Anthriscus cerefolium - Chervil, Angelica spp. - Angelica, Apium graveolens - Celery, Arracacia xanthorrhiza - Arracacha, Carum carvi - Caraway, Centella asiatica - Gotu Kola (pennywort), Conium maculatum - Poison hemlock, Coriandrum sativum - Coriander, Cuminum cyminum - Cumin, Daucus carota - Carrot, Eryngium spp. - Sea holly, Foeniculum vulgare - Fennel, Myrrhis odorata - Cicely, Ferula gummosa - galbanum, Pastinaca sativa - Parsnip, Petroselinum crispum - Parsley, Pimpinella anisum - Anise, Levisticum officinale - Lovage Cultivation Many members of this plant group are cultivated, for various purposes. The plant structure includes a tap root, which on more than one occasion has been bred to grow large enough to be useful in food, as with parsnips, carrots, and hamburg root parsley. Plants of this category also are adapted to conditions that encourage heavy concentrations of essential oils, so that some are used as flavorfull/aromatic herbs, including parsley, cilantro, and dill. The plentiful seeds of the umbers, likewise, are sometimes used in cuisine, as with coriander, fennel, cumin, and caraway. Companion Plants Almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a companion plant. In large part, this is because the tiny flowers forming the umbers, for which the group is named, are perfectly suited for parasitic wasps and predatory flies, which actually drink nectar when not reproducing. They then will prey upon insect pests on nearby plants. Some of the plants, too, are herbs that produce enough scent to possibly dilute the odors of nearby plants, or the pheromones or emitted by insects that find those plants, which would otherwise attract more pests. Chaerophyllum bulbosum Anise (Pimpinella anisum) from Medical botany by William Woodville. London, James Phillips, 1793 See also List of culinary herbs and spices List of culinary vegetables List of plants with edible leaves External links UVSC Herbarium - Apiaceae Umbellifer Resource Centre Umbellifer Information Server Family Apiaceae - Flowers in Israel Apiaceae of Chile, by Chileflora	Apiaceae \|@lemmatized apiaceae:7 umbelliferae:2 name:3 allow:1 icbn:1 family:7 usually:1 aromatic:2 plant:16 hollow:1 stem:1 commonly:1 know:1 umbellifer:3 include:8 cumin:3 parsley:4 carrot:4 coriander:3 cilantro:2 dill:3 caraway:3 fennel:4 parsnip:3 celery:2 queen:1 anne:1 lace:1 relative:1 large:3 genus:1 specie:1 early:1 derives:1 inflorescence:1 generally:2 form:2 compound:1 umbel:1 root:3 word:1 umbrella:2 botanical:1 subspeciality:1 study:1 sometimes:2 call:1 sciadophytography:1 description:1 small:2 flower:4 radially:1 symmetrical:1 sepal:1 petal:1 stamen:1 highly:1 toxic:1 hemlock:2 many:2 wild:1 estrogenic:1 property:1 use:4 folk:1 medicine:1 birth:1 control:1 notable:2 extinct:1 giant:1 silphium:1 cultivated:1 category:2 almost:2 consider:1 good:1 companion:3 tiny:2 attract:2 omnivorous:1 beneficial:1 insect:4 especially:1 parasitic:2 wasp:2 predatory:2 fly:2 hunt:1 pest:3 nearby:3 crop:1 closely:1 relate:1 araliaceae:3 boundary:1 remain:1 unclear:1 recent:1 system:1 expanded:1 widely:2 follow:1 hydrocotyle:1 trachymene:1 traditionally:1 member:2 anethum:1 graveolens:2 anthriscus:1 cerefolium:1 chervil:1 angelica:2 spp:2 apium:1 arracacia:1 xanthorrhiza:1 arracacha:1 carum:1 carvi:1 centella:1 asiatica:1 gotu:1 kola:1 pennywort:1 conium:1 maculatum:1 poison:1 coriandrum:1 sativum:1 cuminum:1 cyminum:1 daucus:1 carota:1 eryngium:1 sea:1 holly:1 foeniculum:1 vulgare:1 myrrhis:1 odorata:1 cicely:1 ferula:1 gummosa:1 galbanum:1 pastinaca:1 sativa:1 petroselinum:1 crispum:1 pimpinella:2 anisum:2 anise:2 levisticum:1 officinale:1 lovage:1 cultivation:1 group:3 cultivate:2 various:1 purpose:1 structure:1 tap:1 one:1 occasion:1 breed:1 grow:1 enough:2 useful:1 food:1 hamburg:1 also:2 adapt:1 condition:1 encourage:1 heavy:1 concentration:1 essential:1 oil:1 flavorfull:1 herb:3 plentiful:1 seed:1 umber:2 likewise:1 cuisine:1 every:1 part:1 perfectly:1 suit:1 actually:1 drink:1 nectar:1 reproduce:1 prey:1 upon:1 produce:1 scent:1 possibly:1 dilute:1 odor:1 pheromone:1 emit:1 find:1 would:1 otherwise:1 chaerophyllum:1 bulbosum:1 medical:1 botany:1 william:1 woodville:1 london:1 james:1 phillips:1 see:1 list:3 culinary:2 spice:1 vegetable:1 edible:1 leaf:1 external:1 link:1 uvsc:1 herbarium:1 resource:1 centre:1 information:1 server:1 israel:1 chile:1 chileflora:1 \|@bigram sepal_petal:1 insect_pest:2 closely_relate:1 aromatic_herb:1 culinary_herb:1 herb_spice:1 culinary_vegetable:1 external_link:1
6,495	Charles_Mingus	Charles "Charlie" Mingus, Jr. (April 22, 1922 – January 5, 1979) was an American jazz bassist, composer, bandleader, and pianist. He was also known for his activism against racial injustice. Mingus is considered one of the most important composers and performers of jazz, and he recorded many highly regarded albums. Dozens of musicians passed through his bands and later went on to impressive careers. His tunes—though melodic and distinctive—are not often re-recorded, in part because of their unconventional nature. Mingus was also influential and creative as a band leader, recruiting talented and sometimes little-known artists whom he assembled into unconventional and revealing configurations. Nearly as well known as his ambitious music was Mingus' often fearsome temperament, which earned him the nickname "The Angry Man of Jazz." His refusal to compromise his musical integrity led to many on-stage eruptions. Mingus was prone to depression. He tended to have brief periods of extreme creative activity, intermixed with fairly long periods of greatly decreased output. Most of Mingus's music retained the hot and soulful feel of hard bop and drew heavily from black gospel music while sometimes drawing on elements of Third Stream, free jazz, and even classical music. Yet Mingus avoided categorization, forging his own brand of music that fused tradition with unique and unexplored realms of jazz. Mingus focused on collective improvisation, similar to the old New Orleans Jazz parades, paying particular attention to how each band member interacted with the group as a whole. In creating his bands, Mingus looked not only at the skills of the available musicians, but also their personalities. He strove to create unique music to be played by unique musicians. Due to his brilliant writing for mid-size ensembles—and his catering to and emphasizing the strengths of the musicians in his groups—Mingus is often considered the heir apparent to Duke Ellington, for whom he expressed unqualified admiration. Indeed, Dizzy Gillespie had once claimed Mingus reminded him "of a young Duke", citing their shared "organizational genius." Biography Early life and career Charles Mingus was born in Nogales, Arizona. He was raised largely in the Watts area of Los Angeles, California. His mother's paternal heritage was Chinese and English, while historical records indicate that his father was the illegitimate offspring of a black farmhand and his Swedish employer's white granddaughter. Myself When I am Real: The Life and Music of Charles Mingus, Gene Santoro (Oxford University Press, 1994) ISBN 0195097335 His mother allowed only church-related music in their home, but Mingus developed an early love for jazz, especially the music of Duke Ellington. He studied trombone, and later cello. Much of the cello technique he learned was applicable to double bass when he took up the instrument in high school. Beginning in his teen years, Mingus was writing quite advanced pieces; many are similar to Third Stream Jazz. A number of them were recorded in 1960 with conductor Gunther Schuller, and released as Pre-Bird, referring to Charlie "Bird" Parker. Mingus gained a reputation as something of a bass prodigy. He toured with Louis Armstrong in 1943, then played with Lionel Hampton's band in the late 1940s; Hampton performed and recorded several of Mingus's pieces. A popular trio of Mingus, Red Norvo and Tal Farlow in 1950 and 1951 received considerable acclaim, but Mingus' mixed origin caused problems with club owners and he left the group. Mingus was briefly a member of Ellington's band in the early 1950s, and Mingus's notorious temper reportedly led to his being the only musician personally fired by Ellington (although there are reports that Sidney Bechet in 1925 was another), after an on-stage fight between Mingus and Juan Tizol. Also in the early 1950s, before attaining commercial recognition as a bandleader, Mingus played gigs with Charlie Parker, whose compositions and improvisations greatly inspired and influenced him. Mingus considered Parker the greatest genius and innovator in jazz history, but he had a love-hate relationship with Parker's legacy. Mingus blamed the Parker mythology for a derivative crop of pretenders to Parker's throne. He was also conflicted and sometimes disgusted by Parker's self-destructive habits and the romanticized lure of drug addiction they offered to other jazz musicians. In response to the many sax players who imitated Parker, Mingus titled a song, "If Charlie Parker were a Gunslinger, There'd be a Whole Lot of Dead Copycats" (released on Mingus Dynasty as "Gunslinging Bird"). Based in New York In 1952 Mingus co-founded Debut Records with Max Roach, in order to conduct his recording career as he saw fit; the name originated with a desire to document unrecorded young musicians. Despite this, the best known recording the company issued was of the most prominent figures in bebop. On May 15, 1953, Mingus joined Dizzy Gillespie, Parker, Bud Powell, and Roach for a concert at Massey Hall in Toronto, which is the last recorded documentation of the two lead instrumentalists playing together. After the event, Mingus chose to overdub his barely-audible bass part back in New York; the original version was issued later. The two 10" albums of the Massey Hall concert (one featured the trio of Powell, Mingus and Roach) were among Debut Records' earliest releases. Mingus may have objected to the way the major record companies treated musicians, but Gillespie once commented that he did not receive any royalties "for years and years" for his Massey Hall appearance. The records though, are often regarded as among the finest live jazz recordings. In 1955, Mingus was involved in a notorious incident while playing a club date billed as a "reunion" with Parker, Powell, and Roach. Powell, who had suffered from alcoholism and mental illness for years (potentially exacerbated by a severe police beating and electroshock treatments), had to be helped from the stage, unable to play or speak coherently. As Powell's incapacitation became apparent, Parker stood in one spot at a microphone, chanting "Bud Powell...Bud Powell..." as if beseeching Powell's return. Allegedly, Parker continued this incantation for several minutes after Powell's departure, to his own amusement and Mingus' exasperation. Mingus took another microphone and announced to the crowd, "Ladies and gentlemen, please don't associate me with any of this. This is not jazz. These are sick people." This was Parker's last public performance; about a week later Parker died after years of alcohol and drug abuse. Mingus often worked with a mid-sized ensemble (around 8–10 members) of rotating musicians known as the Jazz Workshop. Mingus broke new ground, constantly demanding that his musicians be able to explore and develop their perceptions on the spot. Those who joined the Workshop (or Sweatshops as they were colorfully dubbed by the musicians) included Pepper Adams, Jaki Byard, Booker Ervin, John Handy, Jimmy Knepper, Charles McPherson and Horace Parlan. Mingus shaped these promising novices into a cohesive improvisational machine that in many ways anticipated free jazz. Some musicians dubbed the workshop a "university" for jazz. Pithecanthropus Erectus among other creations The decade which followed is generally regarded as Mingus's most productive and fertile period. Impressive new compositions and albums appeared at an astonishing rate: some thirty records in ten years, for a number of record labels (Atlantic Records, Candid, Columbia Records, Impulse! Records and others), a pace perhaps unmatched by any other musician except Ellington. Mingus had already recorded around ten albums as a bandleader, but 1956 was a breakthrough year for him, with the release of Pithecanthropus Erectus, arguably his first major work as both a bandleader and composer. Like Ellington, Mingus wrote songs with specific musicians in mind, and his band for Erectus included adventurous, though distinctly blues-oriented musicians, piano player Mal Waldron, alto saxophonist Jackie McLean and the Sonny Rollins-influenced tenor of J. R. Monterose. The title song is a ten minute tone poem, depicting the rise of man from his hominid roots (Pithecanthropus erectus) to an eventual downfall. A section of the piece was improvised free of structure or theme. Another album from this period, The Clown (1957 also on Atlantic Records), with an improvised story on the title track by humorist Jean Shepherd, was the first to feature drummer Dannie Richmond. Richmond would be his preferred drummer until Mingus's death in 1979. The two men formed one of the most impressive and versatile rhythm sections in jazz. Both were accomplished performers seeking to stretch the boundaries of their music while staying true to its roots. When joined by pianist Jaki Byard, they were dubbed "The Almighty Three". Saying Something: Jazz Improvisation and Interaction, Ingrid Monson (University of Chicago Press, 1997) ISBN 0226534782 Mingus Ah Um and other works Mingus witnessed Ornette Coleman's legendary—and controversial—1960 appearances at New York City's Five Spot jazz club. Though he initially expressed rather mixed feelings for Coleman's innovative music: "...if the free-form guys could play the same tune twice, then I would say they were playing something...Most of the time they use their fingers on the saxophone and they don't even know what's going to come out. They're experimenting." Mingus was in fact a prime influence of the early free jazz era. He formed a quartet with Richmond, trumpeter Ted Curson and saxophonist Eric Dolphy. This ensemble featured the same instruments as Coleman's quartet, and is often regarded as Mingus rising to the challenging new standard established by Coleman. Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus, the quartet's sole album, is frequently included among the finest in Mingus's catalogue. Only one misstep occurred in this era: 1962's Town Hall Concert. An ambitious program, it was unfortunately plagued with troubles from its inception. Mingus's vision was finally realized in 1989, see Epitaph (Mingus). The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady and the other Impulse! albums In 1963, Mingus released The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady, a sprawling, multi-section masterpiece, described as "one of the greatest achievements in orchestration by any composer in jazz history." The album was also unique in that Mingus asked his psychotherapist to provide notes for the record. 1963 also saw the release of an unaccompanied album Mingus Plays Piano. A few pieces were entirely improvised and drew on classical music as much as jazz, preceding Keith Jarrett's landmark The Köln Concert in those respects by some twelve years. In 1964 Mingus put together one of his best-known groups, a sextet including Dannie Richmond, Jaki Byard, Eric Dolphy, trumpeter Johnny Coles, and tenor saxophonist Clifford Jordan. The group was recorded frequently during its short existence; Coles fell ill during a European tour. On June 28, 1964 Dolphy died while in Berlin, and Mingus was evicted from his New York home in 1966. Changes Mingus's pace slowed somewhat in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In 1974 he formed a quintet with Richmond, pianist Don Pullen, trumpeter Jack Walrath and saxophonist George Adams. They recorded two well-received albums, Changes One and Changes Two. Mingus also played with Charles McPherson in many of his groups during this time. Cumbia and Jazz Fusion in 1976 sought to blend Colombian music (the "Cumbia" of the title) with more traditional jazz forms. In 1971, Mingus taught for a semester at the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York as the Slee Professor of Music. The Musical Styles of Charles Mingus, (Warner Bros. Publications, Jazz Workshop, 1982) Later career and death By the mid-1970s, Mingus was suffering from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, popularly known as Lou Gehrig's disease, a wastage of the musculature. His once formidable bass technique suffered, until he could no longer play the instrument. He continued composing, however, and supervised a number of recordings before his death. He did not complete his final project of an album named after him with singer Joni Mitchell, which included lyrics added by Mitchell to Mingus compositions, including "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat," among Mitchell originals and short, spoken word duets and home recordings of Mitchell and Mingus. The album featured the talents of Wayne Shorter, Herbie Hancock, and another influential bassist and composer, Jaco Pastorius. Mingus died aged 56 in Cuernavaca, Mexico, where he had traveled for treatment and convalescence. His ashes were scattered in the Ganges River. Legacy The Mingus Big Band The music of Charles Mingus is currently being performed and reinterpreted by the Mingus Big Band, which, starting October 2008, plays every Monday at Jazz Standard in New York City, and often tours the rest of the U.S. and Europe. Elvis Costello has written lyrics for a few Mingus pieces. He had once sung lyrics for one piece, "Invisible Lady", being backed by the Mingus Big Band on the album, Tonight at Noon: Three of Four Shades of Love. In addition to the Mingus Big Band, there is the Mingus Orchestra and the Mingus Dynasty, each of which are managed by Jazz Workshop, Inc., and run by Mingus's widow Sue Graham Mingus. Other tribute bands are also active all around the US and the world, including Mingus Amungus in the San Francisco Bay Area, and the Swedish Mingus Band Siegmund Freud's Mothers in Stockholm. Epitaph Epitaph is considered by many to be the masterwork of Charles Mingus. It is a composition which is 4,235 measures long, requires two hours to perform and was only completely discovered during the cataloguing process after his death by musicologist Andrew Homzy. With the help of a grant from the Ford Foundation, the score and instrumental parts were copied, and the piece itself was premiered by a 30-piece orchestra, conducted by Gunther Schuller. This concert was produced by Mingus's widow, Sue Graham Mingus, at Alice Tully Hall on June 3, 1989, ten years after his death. Epitaph is one of the longest jazz pieces ever written. It was performed again at several concerts in 2007. The performance at Walt Disney Concert Hall is available on NPR. The complete score was published in 2008 by Hal Leonard. Autobiography Written throughout the 1960s, Mingus's autobiography, Beneath the Underdog. Mingus, Charles. Beneath the Underdog: His Life as Composed by Mingus. New York, NY: Vintage, 1991. , was published in 1971. Written in a "stream of consciousness" style, it covered several aspects of Mingus's life that had previously been off-record. In addition to his musical proliferation, Mingus goes into great detail about his sexual proclivity. He claims to have had over 31 affairs over the course of his life (including 26 prostitutes in one sitting). This does not include any of his five wives (he claims to have been married to two of them simultaneously). In addition, he asserts that he held a brief career as a pimp. This has never been confirmed. Mingus's autobiography also serves as an insight into his history of violent behavior, as well as his contempt for consideration of race in the music business. Autobiographic accounts of abuse at the hands of his father from an early age, being bullied as a child, his removal from a white musician's union, and grappling with dissaproval while married to white women are all examples of the hardship and prejudice that left Mingus with a giant chip on his shoulder. Cover versions Considering the number of compositions that Charles Mingus has written, his works have not been recorded as often as comparable jazz composers. Of all his works, his elegant elegy for Lester Young, "Goodbye Pork Pie Hat" (from Mingus Ah Um) has probably had the most recordings. Besides recordings from the expected jazz artists, the song has also been recorded by musicians as disparate as Jeff Beck, Andy Summers, Eugene Chadbourne, and Bert Jansch and John Renbourn with and without Pentangle. Joni Mitchell sang a version with lyrics that she wrote for the song. Elvis Costello has recorded "Hora Decubitus" (from Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus) on My Flame Burns Blue (2006). "Better Git It in Your Soul" was covered by Davey Graham on his album "Folk, Blues, and Beyond." Trumpeter Ron Miles performs a version of "Pithecanthropus Erectus" on his EP "Witness." New York Ska Jazz Ensemble has done a cover of Mingus' "Haitian Fight Song", as have Pentangle and others. Hal Willner's 1992 tribute album Weird Nightmare: Meditations on Mingus (Columbia Records) contains idiosyncratic renditions of Mingus's works involving numerous popular musicians including Chuck D, Keith Richards, Henry Rollins and Dr. John. The Italian band Quintorigo recorded an entire album devoted to Mingus' music, titled Play Mingus. Personality and temper As respected as Mingus was for his musical talents, he was sometimes feared for his occasional violent onstage temper, which was at times directed at members of his band, and other times aimed at the audience. He was physically large, prone to obesity (especially in his later years), and was by all accounts often intimidating and frightening when expressing anger or displeasure. When confronted with a nightclub audience talking and clinking ice in their glasses while he performed, Mingus stopped his band and loudly chastised the audience, stating "Isaac Stern doesn't have to put up with this shit." He once played a prank on a similar group of nightclub chatterers by silencing his band for several seconds, allowing the loud audience members to be clearly heard, then continuing as the rest of the audience snickered at the oblivious "soloists". Guitarist and singer Jackie Paris was a first-hand witness to Mingus's irascibility. Paris recalls his time in the Jazz Workshop: "He chased everybody off the stand except [drummer] Paul Motian and me... The three of us just wailed on the blues for about an hour and a half before he called the other cats back." On October 12, 1962, Mingus punched Jimmy Knepper in the mouth while the two men were working together at Mingus's apartment on a score for his upcoming concert at New York Town Hall and Knepper refused to take on more work. The blow from Mingus broke off a crowned tooth and its underlying stub. Santoro, 2000 According to Knepper, this ruined his embouchure and resulted in the permanent loss of the top octave of his range on the trombone - a significant handicap for any professional trombonist. This attack ended their working relationship and Knepper was unable to perform at the concert. Charged with assault, Mingus appeared in court in January, 1963 and was given a suspended sentence. Mingus was also evicted from his apartment at 5 Great Jones Street in New York City because he fired a gun through his wall into a neighbor's apartment. Awards and honors 1971 Guggenheim Fellowship (Music Composition) 1971: Inducted in the Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame. 1993: The Library of Congress acquired Mingus's collected papers — including scores, sound recordings, correspondence and photos — in what they described as "the most important acquisition of a manuscript collection relating to jazz in the Library's history". Library of Congress press release, June 11, 1993. Rule, S. "Library of Congress buys Charles Mingus Archive", New York Times, June 14, 1993 1995: The United States Postal Service issued a stamp in his honor. 1997: Was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. 1999: The album Mingus Dynasty (1959) was inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame. 2005: Inducted in the Jazz at Lincoln Center, Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame. Discography As bandleader Baron Mingus - West Coast 1945-49 (1949, Uptown) Strings and Keys (duo with Spaulding Givens) (1951, Debut) The Young Rebel (1952, Swingtime) The Charles Mingus Duo and Trio (1953, Fantasy) Charles Mingus Octet (1953, Debut) The Moods of Mingus (1954, Savoy) The Jazz Experiments of Charles Mingus (1954, Bethlehem) Jazzical Moods (1954, Bethlehem) Mingus at the Bohemia (1955, Debut) The Charles Mingus Quintet & Max Roach (1955, Debut) Pithecanthropus Erectus (1956, Atlantic) The Clown (1957, Atlantic) The Jazz Experiments of Charles Mingus (1957) Mingus Three (1957, Jubilee) East Coasting (1957, Bethlehem) A Modern Jazz Symposium of Music and Poetry (1957, Bethlehem) Blues & Roots (1959, Atlantic) Mingus Ah Um (1959, Columbia) Mingus Dynasty (1959, Columbia) Jazz Portraits: Mingus in Wonderland (1959, United Artists) Pre Bird (1960, Mercury) Mingus at Antibes (1960, Atlantic) Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus (1960, Candid) Reincarnation of a Love Bird (1960, Candid) Tonight at Noon (1961, Atlantic) Vital Savage Horizons (1962, Alto) Tempo di Jazz (1962, Tempo di Jazz) Town Hall Concert (1962, Blue Note) Oh Yeah (1962, Atlantic) Tijuana Moods (1962, RCA) The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady (1963, Impulse!) Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus (1963, Impulse!; sometimes referred to as Five Mingus) Mingus Plays Piano (1963, Impulse!) Soul Fusion (1963, Pickwick live) Revenge! (live 1964 performance with Eric Dolphy, 32 Jazz; previously issued by Prestige as The Great Paris Concert) Town Hall Concert (1964, Fantasy) Concertgebouw Amsterdam, Vol. 1 (1964, Ulysse Musique) Charles Mingus Live In Oslo 1964 Featuring Eric Dolphy (1964, Jazz Up) Charles Mingus Sextet Live In Stockholm 1964 (1964, Royal Jazz) Charles Mingus Sextet Live In Europe (1964, Unique Jazz) The Great Concert Of Charles Mingus (1964, America) Charles Mingus Sextet with Eric Dolphy CORNELL March 18 1964 (2007, Blue Note) Mingus In Europe (1964, Enja) Mingus In Stuttgart, April 28, 1964 Concert (1964, Unique Jazz) Right Now: Live At The Jazz Workshop (1964, Fantasy) Mingus At Monterey (1964, Mingus JWS) Music Written For Monterey 1965. Not Heard... Played In Its Entirety At UCLA, Vol. 1&2 (1965, Mingus JWS) Charles Mingus - Cecil Taylor (1966, Ozone) Statements (1969, Joker) Paris TNP (1970, Ulysse Musique) Charles Mingus Sextet In Berlin (1970, Beppo) Charles Mingus (1971, Columbia) Charles Mingus And Friends In Concert (1972, Columbia) Charles Mingus Quintet Featuring Dexter Gordon (1972, White Label) Let My Children Hear Music (1972, Columbia) Passions of a Man (1973, Atlantic) Mingus At Carnegie Hall (1974, Atlantic) Changes One (1974, Atlantic) Changes Two (1974, Atlantic) Mingus Moves (1974, Atlantic) Village Vanguard 1975 (1975, Blue Mark Music) The Music Of Charles Mingus (1977, Bayside) Stormy & Funky Blues (1977) Cumbia & Jazz Fusion (1977, Atlantic) Three or Four Shades of Blues (1977) Something Like a Bird (1979, Atlantic) (Mingus does not play on this session) Me, Myself An Eye (1979, Atlantic) (Mingus does not play on this session) Epitaph (1990, Columbia) (Mingus does not play on this session) Mingus Mysterious Blues (1990, Candid) (Mingus does not play on this session) As a sideman Robbins' Nest (with Illinois Jacquet) (1945, Toho) Mellow Mama (with Dinah Washington) (1945, Delmark) Hot Piano (with Wilbert Baranco) (1946, Tops) Ivie Anderson and Her All Stars (with Ivie Anderson) (1946, Storyville) Lionel Hampton and His Orchestra 1948 (with Lionel Hampton) ((1948, Weka) Lionel Hampton in Concert (with Lionel Hampton) ((1948, Cicala Jazz) The Red Norvo Trio (with Red Norvo) (1951, Savoy) Move (with Red Norvo) (1951, Savoy) Miles Davis at Birdland 1951 (with Miles Davis) (1951, Beppo) Jazz in Storyville (with Billy Taylor) (1951, Roost) The George Wallington Trios Featuring Charles Mingus, Oscar Pettiford, Max Roach (1952, Prestige) Spring Broadcasts 1953 (with Bud Powell) (1953, ESP) Inner Fires (with Bud Powell) (1953, Electra/Musician) Jazz at Massey Hall (aka. The Greatest Jazz Concert Ever) (with Charlie Parker) (1953, Debut) Introducing Paul Bley (with Paul Bley) (1953, Debut) Explorations (with Teo Macero) (1953, Debut) The New Oscar Pettiford Sextet (with Oscar Pettiford) (1953, Debut) Ada Moore (with Ada Moore) (1954, Debut) Mad Bebop (with J.J. Johnson) (1954, Savoy) The Eminent J.J. Johnson (with J.J. Johnson) (1954, Blue Note) Evolution (with Teddy Charles) (1955, Prestige) Relaxed Piano Moods (with Hazel Scott) (1955, Debut) The John Mehegan Trio/Quartet (with John Mehegan) (1955, Savoy) Very Truly Yours (with Jimmy Scott) (1955, Savoy) The Fabulous Thad Jones (with Thad Jones) (1955, Debut) New Piano Expressions (with John Dennis) (1955, Debut) Easy Jazz (with Ralph Sharon) (1955, London) Blue Moods (with Miles Davis) (1955, Prestige) The Word from Bird (with Teddy Charles) (1956, Atlantic) New Faces (with Jimmy Knepper) (1957, Debut) Money Jungle (with Duke Ellington and Max Roach) (1962, Blue Note) Filmography 1959, Mingus provided the music for John Cassavetes's gritty New York City film, Shadows. 1961, Mingus appeared as a bassist and actor in the British film All Night Long. 1968, Thomas Reichman directed the documentary Mingus: Charlie Mingus 1968. 1991, Ray Davies produced a documentary entitled Weird Nightmare. It contains footage of Mingus and interviews with artists making Hal Willner's tribute album of the same name, including Elvis Costello, Charlie Watts, Keith Richards, and Vernon Reid. Charles Mingus: Triumph of the Underdog is a 78 minute long documentary film on Charles Mingus directed by Don McGlynn and released in 1998. Further reading Beneath the Underdog, his autobiography, presents a vibrantly boastful and possibly apocryphal account of his early career as a pimp. Myself When I Am Real: The Life and Music of Charles Mingus by Gene Santoro, Oxford University Press (November 1, 2001), 480 pages, ISBN 0-19-514711-1 Mingus: A Critical Biography by Brian Priestley, Da Capo Press (April 1, 1984), 340 pages, ISBN 0-306-80217-1 Tonight At Noon: A Love Story by Sue Graham Mingus, Da Capo Press; Reprint edition (April, 2003), 272 pages, ISBN 0-306-81220-7. Written by his widow. Charles Mingus - More Than a Fake Book by Charles Mingus, Hal Leonard Corporation (November 1, 1991), 160 pages, ISBN 0-7935-0900-9. Includes 2 CDs, photos, discography, music transcriptions, a Mingus comic book promoting his anti-bootlegging project, etc. Mingus/Mingus : Two Memoirs by Janet Coleman, Al Young, Limelight Editions (August 1, 2004), 164 pages, ISBN 0-87910-149-0 I Know What I Know : The Music of Charles Mingus by Todd S. Jenkins, Praeger (2006), 196 pages, ISBN 0-27598-102-9 But Beautiful by Geoff Dyer, Abacus (2006), pages 103 - 127, ISBN 0-349-11005-0 References External links Official website What Is a Jazz Composer - Liner notes from Let My Children Hear Music by Charles Mingus. 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6,496	Microphotonics	Microphotonics is a branch of technology that deals with directing light on a microscopic scale. It is used in optical networking. Microphotonics employs at least two different materials with a large differential index of refraction to squeeze the light down to a small size. Generally speaking virtually all of microphotonics relies on Fresnel reflection to guide the light. If the photons reside mainly in the higher index material, the confinement is due to total internal reflection. If the confinement is due many distributed Fresnel reflections, the device is termed a photonic crystal. There are many different types of geometries used in microphotonics including optical waveguides, optical microcavities, and Arrayed Waveguide Gratings. Photonic crystals Photonic crystals are non-conducting materials that reflect various wavelengths of light almost perfectly. Such a crystal can be referred to as a perfect mirror. Other devices employed in microphotonics include micromirrors and photonic wire waveguides. These tools are used to "mold the flow of light", a famous phrase for describing the goal of microphotonics. Currently microphotonics technology is being developed to replace electronics devices. For instance, the long-standing goal of an all-optical router would eliminate electronic bottlenecks, speeding up the network. Perfect mirrors are being developed for use in fiber optic cables. Microdisks, microtoroids, and microspheres Silica optical microdisk (courtesy http://copilot.caltech.edu An optical microdisk, optical microtoroid, or optical microsphere uses internal reflection in a circular geometry to hold onto the photons. This type of circularly symmetric optical resonance is called a Whispering Gallery Mode, after Lord Rayleigh coined the term. See also Photonics	Microphotonics \|@lemmatized microphotonics:7 branch:1 technology:2 deal:1 direct:1 light:5 microscopic:1 scale:1 use:5 optical:9 networking:1 employ:2 least:1 two:1 different:2 material:3 large:1 differential:1 index:2 refraction:1 squeeze:1 small:1 size:1 generally:1 speak:1 virtually:1 relies:1 fresnel:2 reflection:4 guide:1 photon:2 reside:1 mainly:1 high:1 confinement:2 due:2 total:1 internal:2 many:2 distribute:1 device:3 term:2 photonic:4 crystal:4 type:2 geometry:2 include:2 waveguide:3 microcavities:1 array:1 grating:1 non:1 conducting:1 reflect:1 various:1 wavelength:1 almost:1 perfectly:1 refer:1 perfect:2 mirror:2 micromirrors:1 wire:1 tool:1 mold:1 flow:1 famous:1 phrase:1 describe:1 goal:2 currently:1 develop:2 replace:1 electronics:1 instance:1 long:1 stand:1 router:1 would:1 eliminate:1 electronic:1 bottleneck:1 speed:1 network:1 fiber:1 optic:1 cable:1 microdisks:1 microtoroids:1 microspheres:1 silica:1 microdisk:2 courtesy:1 http:1 copilot:1 caltech:1 edu:1 microtoroid:1 microsphere:1 circular:1 hold:1 onto:1 circularly:1 symmetric:1 resonance:1 call:1 whispering:1 gallery:1 mode:1 lord:1 rayleigh:1 coin:1 see:1 also:1 photonics:1 \|@bigram index_refraction:1 photonic_crystal:3 fiber_optic:1 caltech_edu:1 lord_rayleigh:1
6,497	Kattegat	Kattegat and Skagerrak. The Kattegat (Danish, commonly used in English), or Kattegatt (Swedish) is a sea area bounded by Jutland (Denmark and extreme north Germany), and Scania, Halland and Bohuslän (Sweden). The Baltic Sea drains into the Kattegat through the Oresund and the Danish Straits. The Kattegat is a continuation of the Skagerrak and may be seen as either a bay of the Baltic Sea, a bay of the North Sea, or, in traditional Scandinavian usage, neither of these. Geography According to the definition established in a 1932 convention signed by Denmark, Norway and Sweden (registered in the League of Nations Treaty Series 199 - 1933), the northern boundary between Kattegat and Skagerrak is found at the northernmost point of Skagen on Jutland and the southern boundary towards Oresund is found at the tip of Kullen Peninsula in Scania. Convention No 3210. League of Nations Treaty Series 199, 1933. Retrieved 15 April 2008. Waterways that drain into the Kattegat are the rivers of Göta älv at Gothenburg, together with the Lagan, Nissan, Ätran and Viskan from the province of Halland on the Swedish side, and the river of Gudenå from Jutland, in Denmark. The main islands of the Kattegat are Samsø, Læsø and Anholt, where the latter two, due to their dry summer climate, are referred to as the Danish desert belt. A number of noteworthy coastal areas abut the Kattegat, including the Kullaberg Nature Reserve in Scania, Sweden, which contains a number of rare species and a scenic rocky shore, the town of Mölle, which has a picturesque harbour and views into the Kullaberg, and Skagen at the northern tip of Denmark. Currently, a proposed bridge from Jutland to Zealand across the southern part of Kattegat is under political consideration in Denmark. Etymology According to Den Store Danske Encyklopædi and Nudansk Ordbog, the name derives from the Dutch words Kat (cat) and Gat (hole). It refers to late medieval navigation jargon, when captains of the Hanseatic trading fleets would compare the Danish Straits to a hole so narrow that even a cat would have difficulty squeezing its way through on account of the many reefs and shallow waters. Den Store Danske Encyklopædi (2004), CD-rom edition, Copenhagen: Gyldendal, entry Kattegat. Nudansk Ordbog (1993), 15th edition, 2nd reprint, Copenhagen: Politikens Forlag, entry Kattegat. At one point, the passable waters were a mere 3.84 kilometers (2.38 miles) wide. An archaic name for both the Skagerrak and Kattegat was the Norwegian Sea or Jutland Sea (Knýtlinga saga mentions the name Jótlandshaf). The name of the Copenhagen street Kattesundet is derived from same root. History This was one of the first marine dead zones to be noted in the 1970s, when scientists began studying how intensive economic use affected the natural world. References	Kattegat \|@lemmatized kattegat:12 skagerrak:4 danish:4 commonly:1 use:2 english:1 kattegatt:1 swedish:2 sea:6 area:2 bound:1 jutland:5 denmark:5 extreme:1 north:2 germany:1 scania:3 halland:2 bohuslän:1 sweden:3 baltic:2 drain:2 oresund:2 strait:2 continuation:1 may:1 see:1 either:1 bay:2 traditional:1 scandinavian:1 usage:1 neither:1 geography:1 accord:2 definition:1 establish:1 convention:2 sign:1 norway:1 register:1 league:2 nation:2 treaty:2 series:2 northern:2 boundary:2 find:2 northernmost:1 point:2 skagen:2 southern:2 towards:1 tip:2 kullen:1 peninsula:1 retrieve:1 april:1 waterway:1 river:2 göta:1 älv:1 gothenburg:1 together:1 lagan:1 nissan:1 ätran:1 viskan:1 province:1 side:1 gudenå:1 main:1 island:1 samsø:1 læsø:1 anholt:1 latter:1 two:1 due:1 dry:1 summer:1 climate:1 refer:2 desert:1 belt:1 number:2 noteworthy:1 coastal:1 abut:1 include:1 kullaberg:2 nature:1 reserve:1 contain:1 rare:1 specie:1 scenic:1 rocky:1 shore:1 town:1 mölle:1 picturesque:1 harbour:1 view:1 currently:1 propose:1 bridge:1 zealand:1 across:1 part:1 political:1 consideration:1 etymology:1 den:2 store:2 danske:2 encyklopædi:2 nudansk:2 ordbog:2 name:4 derive:2 dutch:1 word:1 kat:1 cat:2 gat:1 hole:2 late:1 medieval:1 navigation:1 jargon:1 captain:1 hanseatic:1 trading:1 fleet:1 would:2 compare:1 narrow:1 even:1 difficulty:1 squeeze:1 way:1 account:1 many:1 reef:1 shallow:1 water:2 cd:1 rom:1 edition:2 copenhagen:3 gyldendal:1 entry:2 reprint:1 politikens:1 forlag:1 one:2 passable:1 mere:1 kilometer:1 mile:1 wide:1 archaic:1 norwegian:1 knýtlinga:1 saga:1 mention:1 jótlandshaf:1 street:1 kattesundet:1 root:1 history:1 first:1 marine:1 dead:1 zone:1 note:1 scientist:1 begin:1 study:1 intensive:1 economic:1 affect:1 natural:1 world:1 reference:1 \|@bigram jutland_denmark:2 baltic_sea:2 göta_älv:1 cd_rom:1
6,498	Democratic_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine	The Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP) (Arabic: 'الجبهة الديموقراطية لتحرير فلسطين', transliterated Al-Jabha al-Dimuqratiya Li-Tahrir Filastin) is a Palestinian Marxist-Leninist, secular political and military organization. It is also frequently referred to as the Democratic Front, or al-Jabha al-Dimuqratiyah (الجبهة الديموقراطية). It is a member organization of the Palestine Liberation Organization. History Formation as the PDFLP PDFLP poster (1965), the caption of which reads: "Solidarity with the people of the Middle East in their struggle against imperialism, feudalism, Zionism and Arab reaction" Liberation Graphics - PDFLP poster In 1969, a faction of the left-wing Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) broke away from the main organization to form the Popular Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PDFLP). The PDFLP was headed by Secretary-General Nayef Hawatmeh, who had been referred to as a leader of the PFLP's Maoist tendency. He believed that the PFLP had become, under the guidance of George Habash, too focused on military matters, and wanted to make the PDFLP a more grass-roots and more ideologically focused organization. By contrast, Ahmad Jibril's Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command (PFLP-GC), which has split away from Habash's organization in 1968, wanted to focus more on the tactical implementation of armed struggle. In May-June 1969, the Palestinian Revolutionary Left League and the Palestine Popular Liberation Organization merged into PDFLP. Demokratiska Folkfronten för Palestinas Befrielse, Dokument nr. 1, p. 1 The PDFLP soon gained a reputation as the most intellectual of the Palestinian fedayeen groups, and drew heavily on Marxist-Leninist theory to explain the situation in the Middle East. Its other leaders included Yasser Abd Rabbo. Early years and ideological moderation Publicly, the DFLP declared its goal was to ‘’create a people’s democratic Palestine, where Arabs and Jews would live without discrimination, a state without classes and national oppression, a state which allows Arabs and Jews to develop their national culture.’’ ‘’Aziya i Afrika segodnya’’ -- cited in edition ‘’Välispanoraam 1972’’, Tallinn, 1973, lk 129 (‘’Foreign Panorama 1972’’) The PDFLP's original political orientation was based on the view that Palestinian national goals could be achieved only through revolution of the masses and "people's war". However, it would soon come around to a more moderate standpoint and while preserving a hard-line attitude to armed struggle, the party began theorizing on various compromise solutions. DFLP was badly hit by the 1970 September crack-down in Jordan (Black September). The offices of its Amman-based publication Al-Charar was bombed and burned by Jordanian tanks. Al-Charar resumed publication of July 28 1971. Demokratiska Folkfronten för Palestinas Befrielse, Dokument nr. 3, p. 1 From the mid-1970s, the group occupied a political stance midway between Yasser Arafat and the PLO hardliners. The DFLP condemned attacks outside Israel (such as the aircraft hijackings for which the Habash PFLP gained notoriety) and was essential in making the binational state the goal of the PLO in the 1970s, insisting on the need for cooperation between Arabs and Jews. Still, while pioneering Palestinian-Israeli peace talks through making early contact with Jewish and Israeli peace campaigners, including Matzpen, the DFLP simultaneously conducted numerous small bombings and minor assaults against Israeli targets, refusing to give up the armed struggle. It also performed some more major attacks on civilians, of which most well known are the Ma'alot operation of 1974 and the Avivim incident. Between Fatah and the Rejectionists In 1974, the same year as the PDFLP changed its name into the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), it acted as a strong supporter of the 1974 Ten Point Program. This document, which was accepted by the Palestinian National Council (PNC) after lobbying by Fatah and DFLP, cautiously introduced the concept of a two-state solution in the PLO, and caused a split in the organization leading to the formation of the Rejectionist Front, where radical organizations such as the PFLP, PFLP-GC, Palestine Liberation Front and others gathered with the backing of Syria, Libya and Iraq to oppose Arafat and PLO moderation. In 1978 the DFLP temporarily switched sides and joined the Rejectionist Front after clashing with Arafat on several issues, but it would continue to serve as a mediator in the factional disputes of the PLO. In the tense situation leading up to the 1983 Fatah rebellion, during the Lebanese Civil War, DFLP offered mediation to prevent the Syrian-backed formation of a rival Fatah leadership under Said al-Muragha (Abu Musa), the Fatah al-Intifada faction. Its efforts ultimately failed, and the PLO became embroiled what was in effect a Palestinian civil war. Stagnation in the 1980s From the early 1980s the DFLP was seen as the most pro-Soviet and pro-Chinese of the PLO member organisations. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the growing Islamist trend in Palestinian society during the 1990s sapped the party of much of its popularity and resources. The Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping also began to reduce the PRC's support for revolutionary struggles abroad throughout this period so as to reduce the damage it caused to trade relations with the West. The DFLP continued to cautiously support Arafat's attempts to open negotiations with Israel, but this was not uncontroversial within the membership. The First Intifada (1987-93) provoked a shift in Palestinian politics towards the Occupied Palestinian Territories, which proved a severe handicap for the largely diaspora-based DFLP. With the swift rise of Islamism and religious groups such as Hamas in the 1980s, the DFLP faded among the Palestinian youth, and internal confusion over the future path of the organization paralysed political decision-making. 1991 split In 1991 the DFLP split, with a minority faction led by Yasser Abd Rabbo (who had become increasingly close to Yassir Arafat) favouring the Madrid negotiations that led initially to limited Palestinian autonomy in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Inspired by the USSR's Glasnost and the fall of the Berlin Wall, this group also favored a new political orientation, focused less on Marxism and armed struggle, and more on the democratisation of Palestinian society. It reconstituted itself as the Palestine Democratic Union (FIDA), and Abed Rabbo was officially made an advisor of Arafat. There were reports of armed clashes between the factions in Syria during the split. Essentially the Damascus-headquartered DFLP under Hawatmeh was able to retain its external branches, whereas the majority of the organization within Palestine, mainly on the West Bank, was taken over by FIDA. The Oslo period The DFLP, under Hawatmeh, joined the rejectionist groups to form the Alliance of Palestinian Forces (APF) to oppose the Declaration of Principles signed in 1993. The group argued that the Oslo negotiations were undemocratic, excluded the PLO from decision-making and deprived the Palestinians of their legitimate rights, but in contrast to most other Alliance members they did not oppose a two-state solution as such. Along with the PFLP, it then broke from the APF over ideological differences, and has made limited moves toward merging with the PFLP since the mid-1990s. In 1999, at a meeting in Cairo, the DFLP and the PFLP agreed to cooperate with the PLO leadership in final status negotiations with Israel. In October 1999, the group was dropped form the United States' list of terror organizations. The “FTO List” and Congress: Sanctioning Designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations The DFLP was subsequently represented in the Palestinian delegation at the unsuccessful Camp David negotiations of July 2000. Second Intifada (2000-) The DFLP has been largely unable to make its presence felt during the al-Aqsa Intifada, which began in 2000. The leadership is stationed in Damascus, and most of the DFLP organization on the Occupied Territories unraveled in the FIDA split. Its military capacity has been fading fast since the 1993 cease-fire between the PLO and Israel, which the DFLP respected despite its objections to the Oslo Accords. Since the beginning of the second Intifada the DFLP has carried out a number of shooting attacks against Israeli targets, such as the 25 August 2001 attack on a military base in Gaza that killed three Israeli soldiers and wounded seven others Attack on Gaza army base kills three \| World news \| The Observer :: Medea :: . However, its military capabilities in the Occupied Territories remain limited, and the refocusing on armed struggle during the Intifada has further weakened the organization. The DFLP confines all its military activities to the Occupied Territories, and publicly argues against targeting anyone or anything inside the Green Line, saying Palestinians must fight only the occupation, not Israeli civilians. On September 11, 2001, an anonymous caller claimed responsibility for the September 11 attacks in the United States on behalf of the DFLP. This was immediately denied by Nayef Hawatmeh, who strongly condemned the attacks ISO Statement on Attacks in New York and Washington, D.C . Although the accusations gained some attention in the days following the attacks, they are now universally regarded as false. Political influence The DFLP ran a candidate, Taysir Khalid, in the Palestinian Authority presidential election in 2005. He gained 3.35% of the vote. The party had initially participated in discussions with the PFLP and the Palestinian People's Party on running a joint left-wing candidate, but these were unsuccessful. It won one seat in the 2005 PA municipal elections. In the 2006 elections to the Palestinian Legislative Council, the Front formed a joint list called al-Badeel (The Alternative) with Palestine Democratic Union (FIDA), the Palestinian People's Party and independents. DFLP:Al-Badil List kicks off campaign in Ramallah event The list was led by the historic DFLP leader Qais Abd al-Karim (Abou Leila). It received 2.8% of the popular vote and won two of the Council's 132 seats. The DFLP retains important influence within the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). It was traditionally the third-largest group within the PLO, after Fatah and the PFLP, and since no new elections have been held to the PNC or the Executive Committee since 1988, the DFLP still commands important sectors within the organization. The PLO's role has admittedly diminished in later years, in favor of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA), but it is still the recognized representative of the Palestinian people, and a reactivation of the PLO's constitutional supremacy over the PNA in connection with power struggles in Palestinian society is a distinct possibility. Organization and leadership The DFLP held its 5th national general congress during a time-span from February to August 2007. The congress was divided into three parallel circle: West Bank, Gaza strip and the Palestinian exiles. The congress elected a Central Committee, with 81 full members and 21 alternate members. Subsequently after the closure of the 5th national general congress, the Central Committee re-elected Hawatmeh as general secretary of the DFLP. The Central Committee also elected a 13-member Polital Bureau: Qais Abdel-Karim Fahed Suleiman Taysir Khaled Saleh Zeidan Ramzi Rabah Hisham Abu Ghoush Ali Faisal Abdel-Ghani Hellu Moutasem Hamadeh Majida Al-Masri Mohammad Khalil Abdel-Hamid Abu Jeab Ibrahim Abu Hijleh DFLP:Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine Concludes Its Fifth General Congress Support base The DFLP is primarily active among Palestinians in Syria and Lebanon, with a smaller presence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Its Jordan branch has been converted into a separate political party, the Jordanian Democratic People's Party (JDPP or Hashd), and the DFLP is no longer active on the political arena there. The DFLP mainly attracts middle-class Palestinians with a more socially liberal and secular lifestyle, as well as Palestinian Christians, primarily in cites like Nablus, and Bethlehem. The party publishes a weekly newspaper in several Arab countries, al-Hurriya (Liberty) الحرية-مجلة التقدميين العرب على الإنترنت . External Relations The DFLP is believed to receive limited financial and military aid from Syria, where it is active in the Palestinian refugee camps. The DFLP's leader, Niaf Hawatmeh lives in Syria. The DFLP is not listed as a terrorist organization by the United States government, on its list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations, or by the United Nations. See also Jordanian Democratic People's Party Palestinian territories Palestine Democratic Union List of political parties in the Palestinian National Authority Jordanian National Liberation Movement References Patterns of Global Terrorism, 1998. United States Department of State, April, 1999. External links Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine - official English language web page. Al-badeel electoral coalition al-Hourriah Magazine (Arabic) al-Ahali - Newspaper of the Jordanian JDPP (Arabic)	Democratic_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine \|@lemmatized democratic:12 front:12 liberation:13 palestine:16 dflp:38 arabic:3 الجبهة:2 الديموقراطية:2 لتحرير:1 فلسطين:1 transliterate:1 al:17 jabha:2 dimuqratiya:1 li:1 tahrir:1 filastin:1 palestinian:30 marxist:2 leninist:2 secular:2 political:9 military:7 organization:20 also:6 frequently:1 refer:2 dimuqratiyah:1 member:6 history:1 formation:3 pdflp:10 poster:2 caption:1 read:1 solidarity:1 people:8 middle:3 east:2 struggle:8 imperialism:1 feudalism:1 zionism:1 arab:5 reaction:1 graphic:1 faction:4 left:2 wing:2 popular:5 pflp:12 break:2 away:2 main:1 form:4 head:1 secretary:2 general:6 nayef:2 hawatmeh:6 leader:5 maoist:1 tendency:1 believe:2 become:3 guidance:1 george:1 habash:3 focus:3 matter:1 want:2 make:6 grass:1 root:1 ideologically:1 focused:1 contrast:2 ahmad:1 jibril:1 command:2 gc:2 split:6 tactical:1 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hashd:1 longer:1 arena:1 attract:1 palestinians:1 socially:1 liberal:1 lifestyle:1 christian:1 like:1 nablus:1 bethlehem:1 publish:1 weekly:1 newspaper:2 country:1 hurriya:1 liberty:1 الحرية:1 مجلة:1 التقدميين:1 العرب:1 على:1 الإنترنت:1 financial:1 aid:1 refugee:1 niaf:1 life:1 government:1 nation:1 movement:1 reference:1 pattern:1 global:1 terrorism:1 department:1 april:1 link:1 official:1 english:1 language:1 web:1 page:1 electoral:1 coalition:1 hourriah:1 magazine:1 ahali:1 \|@bigram marxist_leninist:2 palestine_liberation:3 yasser_arafat:1 gain_notoriety:1 soviet_union:1 deng_xiaoping:1 occupied_palestinian:1 decision_making:2 gaza_strip:3 al_aqsa:1 aqsa_intifada:1 occupied_territory:3 presidential_election:1 abd_al:1 palestinian_refugee:1 external_link:1
6,499	Communications_in_the_Isle_of_Man	The Isle of Man benefits from an extremely modern and extensive communications infrastructure, which underpins the main sectors of the Island's economy. Telecommunications Telegraph The history of Manx telecommunications starts in 1859, when the Isle of Man Electric Telegraph Company was formed on the island with the intention of connecting across the island by telegraph, and allowing messages to be sent onwards to the UK. In August 1859, a 36 nautical mile long cable was commissioned from Glass, Elliot and Company of Greenwich and laid from Cranstal north of Ramsey, Isle of Man to St Bees in Cumbria using the chartered cable ship Resolute. The St Bees - Isle of Man Submarine Telegraph The cable was a single-core, with gutta-percha insulation. Twenty miles of overhead cable were also erected from Cranstal south to Ramsey, and on to Douglas. In England, the telegraph was connected to Whitehaven and the circuits of the Electric Telegraph Company. The telegraph offices were located at 64 Atholl Street, Douglas (also the company's head office) and at East Quay, Ramsey (now Marina House). Thwaite's Directory 1863 On 10 August 1860 the company was statutorily incorporated by an Act of Tynwald with a capital of £5,500. The currents at Cranstal proved too strong, and in 1864 the cable was taken up and relaid further south, at Port-e-Vullen in Ramsey Bay. It was later relaid to land even further south at Port Cornaa. Following the 1869 finalisation of UK telegraph nationalisation into a General Post Office monopoly, the Isle of Man Telegraph Company was nationalised in 1870 under the Telegraph Act 1870 (an Act of Parliament) at a cost to the British Government of £16,106 (paid in 1872 following arbitration proceedings over the value). Prior to nationalisation, the island's telegraph operations had been performing poorly and the company's share price valued it at around £100. Subsequent to nationalisation, operations were taken over by the GPO. The internal telegraph system was extended within a year to Castletown and Peel, however by then the previous lack of modern communications in Castletown had already started the Isle of Man Government on its move to Douglas. Due to increasing usage in the years following nationalisation, further cables between Port Cornaa and St Bees were laid in 1875 and 1885. By 1883 Smith's Directory listed several telegraph offices operated by the Post Office, in addition to those at Douglas, Ramsey, Castletown and Peel the telegraph was also available at Laxey, Ballaugh, and Port St. Mary. Throughout the First World War, the cable landing station at Port Cornaa was guarded by the Isle of Man Volunteer Corps. The undersea telegraph cables have been disused since the 1950s, but remain in place. Telephones The main telephone provider on the Isle of Man today is Manx Telecom. In 1889 George Gillmore, formerly an electrician for the GPO's Manx telegraph operations, was granted a licence by the Postmaster General to operate the Isle of Man's first telephone service. Based in an exchange in Atholl Street, early customers of Gilbert's telephone service included the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company and the Isle of Man Railway. Not having the resources to fund expansion or a link to England, Gillmore sold his licence to the National Telephone Company and stayed on as their manager on the island. By 1901 there were 600 subscribers, and the telephone system had been extended to Ramsey, Castletown, Peel, Port Erin, Port St. Mary and Onchan. On 1 January 1912, the National Telephone Company was nationalised and merged into the General Post Office by the Telephone Transfer Act 1911. Only Guernsey, Portsmouth and Hull remained outside of the GPO. The first off-island telephone link was established in 1929, with the laying of a cable by the CS Faraday between Port Erin and Ballyhornan in Northern Ireland, a distance of 57 km, and then between Port Grenaugh and Blackpool, primarily to provide a link to Northern Ireland. The cable was completed on 6 June 1929, and the first call between the Isle of Man and the outside world was made on 28 June 1929 by Lieutenant Governor Sir Claude Hill in Douglas to the Postmaster General in Liverpool. The cable initially carried only two trunk circuits. In 1942, a pioneering VHF frequency-modulated radio-link was established between Creg-na-Baa and the UK to provide an alternative to the sub-sea cable. This has since been discontinued. This was augmented on 24 June 1943 by a 74 km long cable between Cemaes Bay in Anglesea and Port Erin, which had the world's first submerged repeater, laid by HMCS Iris. The repeater doubled the possible number of circuits on the cable, and although it failed after only five months, its replacement worked for seven years. In 1962 a further undersea cable was laid by HMTS Ariel between Colwyn Bay and the Island. Historically, the telephone system on the Isle of Man had been run as a monopoly by the British General Post Office, and later British Telecommunications, and operated as part of the Liverpool telephone district. By 1985 the privatised British Telecom had inherited the telephone operations of the GPO, including those on the Isle of Man. At this time the Manx Government announced that it would award a 20-year licence to operate the telephone system in a tender process. As part of this process, in 1986 British Telecom created a Manx-registered subsidiary company, Manx Telecom, to bid for the tender. It was believed that a local identity and management would be more politically acceptable in the tendering process as they competed with Cable & Wireless to win the licence. Manx Telecom won the tender, and commenced operations under the new identity from 1 January 1987. On 28 March 1988 an 8000 telephone circuit fibre optic cable, the longest unregenerated system in Europe, was inaugurated. In links Port Grenaugh to Silecroft in Cumbria, and was laid in September 1987. The cable was buried in the seabed along its entire length. A further fibre optic cable, known as BT-MT1 was laid in October 1990 between Millom in Cumbria and Douglas, a distance of . Jointly operated by BT and Manx Telecom, it provides six channels each with a bandwidth of 140 Mb/s. This cable remains in use today. In July 1992, Mercury Communications laid the LANIS fibre-optic cables. LANIS-1 runs for between Port Grenaugh and Blackpool, and LANIS-2 runs for between the Isle of Man and Northern Ireland. They have six channels each with a bandwidth of 565 Mbit/s. The LANIS cables are now operated by Cable & Wireless. The LANIS-1 cable was damaged on 27 November 2006 600m off Port Grenaugh, causing loss of the link and resulting in temporary Internet access issues for some Manx customers whilst it was awaiting repair. On 17 November 2001, Manx Telecom became part of mmO2 following the demerger of BT Wireless's operations from BT Group, and the company is now owned by Telefónica. In December 2007, the Manx Electricity Authority and its telecoms subsidiary, e-llan Communications, commissioned the lighting of a new undersea fibre-optic link. It was laid in 1999 between Blackpool and Douglas as part of the Isle of Man to England Interconnector which connects the Manx electricity system to the UK's National Grid. In March 2009, BlueWave Communications installed a resiliant microwave link between the Isle of Man, Ireland and the UK. This is the first off-island microwave link of its kind. A previous link between Creg-na-Baa made use of narrow-band VHF frequencies. http://www.bluewave.im/ According to the CIA World Factbook, in 1999 there were 51,000 fixed telephone lines in use in the Isle of Man. The Isle of Man is included within the UK telephone numbering system, and is accessed externally via UK area codes, rather than by its own country calling code. The area codes currently in use are: +44 1624 (landlines) and +44 7624/7924 (mobiles). Submarine communications cables in service BT-MT1 (BT/Manx Telecom, 1990 - UK) LANIS-1 (Cable & Wireless, 1992 - UK) LANIS-2 (Cable & Wireless, 1992 - Ireland) Isle of Man to England Interconnector (Manx Electricity Authority, 2007 - UK) Submarine cables in Manx waters are governed by the Submarine Cables Act 2003 (an Act of Tynwald). Telephone service providers Manx Telecom Sure Cloud9 Mobile telephones The mobile phone network operated by Manx Telecom has been used by O2 as an environment for developing and testing new products and services prior to wider rollout. In December 2001, the company became the first telecommunications operator in Europe to launch a live 3G network. In November 2005, the company became the first in Europe to offer its customers an HSDPA (3.5G) service. Manx Telecom website. Retrieved May 16, 2007. Internet In 1996 the Isle of Man Government obtained permission to use the .im National Top Level Domain (TLD) and has ultimate responsibility for its use. The domain is managed on a daily basis by Domicilium (IOM) Limited, an island based internet service provider. Broadband internet services are available through five local providers which are BlueWave Communications, Domicilium, Manx Computer Bureau, Wi-Manx and Manx Telecom. Broadcasting Radio The public-service commercial radio station for the island is Manx Radio. Manx Radio is part funded by government grant, and partly by advertising. There are two other Manx-based FM radio stations, Energy FM and 3 FM. 3 FM . BBC national radio stations are also relayed locally via a transmitter located to the south of Douglas, relayed from Sandale transmitting station in Cumbria. The Douglas transmitter also broadcasts the BBC's DAB digital radio services and Classic FM. Manx Radio is the only local service to broadcast on AM medium wave. No UK services are relayed via local AM transmitters. No longwave stations operate from the Island, although one (Musicmann279) was proposed. A Channel 4 operated DAB multiplex is proposed, but there are currently no proposals to broadcast any of the three insular FM stations on DAB. Transmitters Snaefell - Manx Radio, Energy FM, 3 FM Foxdale - Manx Radio (AM) The Howe (near Port St. Mary) - Energy FM Jurby - Energy FM, Manx Radio Ramsey - Energy FM, 3 FM Dreemskerry - Energy FM Douglas - Manx Radio, Energy FM, 3 FM, Radio 1, Radio 2, Radio 3, Radio 4, Classic FM, BBC DAB multiplex Television There is no Island-specific television service. Local transmitters retransmit analogue broadcasts of BBC 1 and BBC 2 (with BBC North West regional programmes), ITV Border Television and Channel 4. Five is not available via the Island's analogue transmitters. Many TV services are available by satellite, such as Sky Digital, and Freesat from the Astra 2/Eurobird 1 group, as well as services from a range of other satellites around Europe such as Astra 1 and Hotbird. In some areas, terrestrial television (including digital terrestrial) from the United Kingdom (Freeview) or Republic of Ireland can be received. Analogue television transmission will cease between 2008 and 2009, and limited local transmission of digital terrestrial television will then commence. The UK's television licence regime extends to the Island. There is no Island-specific opt-out of the BBC regional news programme North West Tonight, in the way that the Channel Islands get their own version of Spotlight. ITV television has been available on the Isle of Man since 1 September 1961 when Border Television was launched, initially only directly from the Caldbeck transmitting station in Cumbria. On 26 March 1965, Border Television commenced relay of their signal through a local transmitter on Richmond Hill, above sea level and three miles (5 km) from the centre of Douglas. The site allowed reliable reception of the Calbeck signal, which is rebroadcast on a different frequency. The high transmission tower was re-sited from London, where it had been used for early ITV transmissions. The four analogue channels are now transmitted from a high transmitter on a hill to the south of Douglas. The transmitter is operated by National Grid Wireless and rebroadcasts signals received from Caldbeck. There are further sub-relay transmitters across the island. The Broadcasting Act 1993 (An Act of Tynwald) Broadcasting Act 1993 allows for the establishment of local television services. Only one application for a licence to run such a service was received by the Communications Commission. That application was rejected. Application for TV Station Licence - Communications Commission News Release - Isle of Man Government According to the CIA World Factbook, as of 1999 there were 27,490 televisions in use in the Isle of Man. Transmitters Kimmeragh (Bride) Beary (St Johns) Glen Maye Foxdale Port St. Mary Carnane (Douglas) Union Mills Laxey Post Isle of Man Post issues its own stamps for use within the island and for sending post off-island. Only Manx stamps are valid for sending mail using the postal system. The Isle of Man adopted postcodes in the 1990s using the prefix IM to fit in with the already established UK postcode system. References See also List of postal codes in the Isle of Man Communications Commission Manx Telecom Isle of Man Post External links Communications Commission Communications summary	Communications_in_the_Isle_of_Man \|@lemmatized isle:28 man:28 benefit:1 extremely:1 modern:2 extensive:1 communication:12 infrastructure:1 underpin:1 main:2 sector:1 island:18 economy:1 telecommunication:4 telegraph:16 history:1 manx:31 start:2 electric:2 company:14 form:1 intention:1 connect:3 across:2 allow:3 message:1 send:3 onwards:1 uk:13 august:2 nautical:1 mile:3 long:3 cable:29 commission:6 glass:1 elliot:1 greenwich:1 laid:1 cranstal:3 north:3 ramsey:7 st:8 bee:2 cumbria:5 use:13 charter:1 ship:1 resolute:1 submarine:4 single:1 core:1 gutta:1 percha:1 insulation:1 twenty:1 overhead:1 also:6 erect:1 south:5 douglas:13 england:4 whitehaven:1 circuit:4 office:7 locate:2 atholl:2 street:2 head:1 east:1 quay:1 marina:1 house:1 thwaite:1 directory:2 statutorily:1 incorporate:1 act:9 tynwald:3 capital:1 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\|@bigram nautical_mile:1 manx_telecom:11 port_erin:3 lieutenant_governor:1 undersea_cable:1 fibre_optic:4 http_www:1 landline_mobile:1 bt_bt:1 mobile_phone:1 broadband_internet:1 fm_fm:5 mile_km:1 external_link:1

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