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6,200 | Abbey | An abbey (from Latin abbatia, derived from Syriac abba, "father"), is a Christian monastery or convent, under the government of an Abbot or an Abbess, who serves as the spiritual father or mother of the community. The term can also refer to an establishment which has long ceased to function as an abbey, but continues to carry the name—in some cases for centuries (for example, see Westminster Abbey below). Origins The earliest known Christian monastic communities (see Monasticism) consisted of groups of cells or huts collected about a common center, which was usually the house of some hermit or anchorite famous for holiness or singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement. This arrangement probably followed the example set in part by the Essenes in Judea. In the earliest age of Christian monasticism the ascetics were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another, not far from some village church, supporting themselves by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution, drove them farther and farther away from the civilization into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the "cells" or huts of these anchorites. Anthony the Great, who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid during the persecution of Maximian, A.D. 312, was the most celebrated among them for his austerities, his sanctity, and his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of followers imitating his asceticism in an attempt to imitate his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They refused to be separated from him, and built their cells round that of their spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little dwelling, united together under one superior. Anthony, as Johann August Wilhelm Neander remarks, In Church History, iii. p. 316, Clark's translation. "without any conscious design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode of living in common, Coenobitism." By degrees order was introduced in the groups of huts. They were arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, "streets" or "lanes." The real founder of cenobitic (koinos, common, and bios, life) monasteries in the modern sense was Pachomius, an Egyptian of the beginning of the 4th century. The first community established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the Nile in Upper Egypt. Eight others were founded in the region during his lifetime, numbering 3,000 monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies could claim 50,000 members. These coenobia resembled villages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one sex. The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest character. Each cell or hut, according to Sozomen (H.R. iii. 14), contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common refectory or dining hall at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually fasted. They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The monks spent the time not devoted to religious services or study in manual labour. Palladius, who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the 4th century, found among the 300 members of the coenobium of Panopolis, under the Pachomian rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners. Each separate community had its own oeconomus or steward, who was subject to a chief steward stationed at the head establishment. All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and by him shipped to Alexandria. The money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the communities, and what was over was devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the several coenobia met at the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite ("the chief of the fold," from miandra, a sheepfold), and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian institution. We learn many details concerning those in the vicinity of Antioch from Chrysostom's writings. The monks lived in separate huts, kalbbia, forming a religious hamlet on the mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in the day they joined in prayers and psalms. Santa Laura, Mount Athos The necessity for defence from attacks (for monastic houses tended to accumulate rich gifts), economy of space and convenience of access from one part of the community to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more open courts, usually surrounded with cloisters. The usual Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent of the Holy Laura, Mount Athos. + Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir) Image:abbey 01.png A. Gateway B. Chapels C. Guesthouse D. Church E. Cloister F. Fountain G. Refectory H. Kitchen I. Monks' cells K. Storehouses L. Postern gate M. Tower This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an area of between 3 and 4 acres (12,000 and 16,000 m²). The longer side extends to a length of about . There is only one main entrance, on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the monasteries of the Levant. There is a small postern gate at L. The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the catholicon or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed narthex. In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a dome supported on columns. Opening from the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform building, about 100 feet (30 m) each way, decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semicircular recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. The annexed plan of a Coptic monastery, from Lenoir, shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery. + Plan of Coptic Monastery Image:abbey 02.png A. Narthex B. Church C. Corridor, with cells on each side D. Staircase Benedictine monasteries Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development to Benedict of Nursia (born A.D. 480). His rule was diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation on Monte Cassino through the whole of western Europe, and every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres of population in England, France and Spain. The number of these monasteries founded between A.D. 520 and 700 is amazing. Before the Council of Constance, A.D. 1415, no fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this order alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where necessary (as at Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances. We have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time and the violence of man. But we have preserved to us an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. 820, which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th century. This curious and interesting plan has been made the subject of a memoir both by Keller (Zürich, 1844) and by Professor Robert Willis (Arch. Journal, 1848, vol. v. pp. 86-117). To the latter we are indebted for the substance of the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved in the archives of the convent. The general appearance of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with streets running between them. It is evidently planned in compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible, the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the religious and social life of its inmates. It should comprise a mill, a bakehouse, stables, and cow-houses, together with accommodation for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits. Abbey of Jumièges, Normandy The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a quadrangular area, about square. The buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community. In closest connection with the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary conference. These essential elements of monastic life are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording communication sheltered from the elements between the various buildings. The infirmary for sick monks, with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the infirmary is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its headmaster's house against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, that he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor on the south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the church. The group of buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to workshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but the church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty-three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open "paradise" (E) between it and the wall of the church. The whole area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar (A) stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar of Saint Paul (B) in the eastern, and that of St Peter (C) in the western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the church on either side of the western apse (FF). The `cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the + Ground plan of St. Gall Image:st gall plan.jpgCHURCH. A. High altar. B. Altar of St Paul. C. Altar of St Peter. D. Nave. E. Paradise. FF. Towers. MONASTIC BUILDINGS G. Cloister. H. Calefactory, with dormitory over. I. Necessary. J. Abbot's house. K. Refectory. L. Kitchen. M. Bakehouse and brewhouse. N. Cellar. O. Parlour. (over. P1. Scriptorium with library k, P2. Sacristy and vestry. Q. House of Novices--1.chapel; 2. refectory; 3. calefactory; 4. dormitory; 5. master's room 6. chambers. R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in the house of novices. S. Doctor's house. T. Physic garden. U. House for blood-letting. V. School. W. Schoolmaster's lodgings. X1X1. Guest-house for those of superior rank X2X2. Guest-house for the poor. Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks. MENIAL DEPARTMENT. Z. Factory. a. Threshing-floor b. Workshops. c, c. Mills. d. Kiln. e. Stables. f Cow-sheds. g. Goat-sheds. h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds. k, k. Servants' and workmen's sleeping-chambers. l. Gardener's house m,m. Hen and duck house. n. Poultry-keeper's house. o. Garden. q. Bakehouse for sacramental s, s, s. Kitchens. t, t, t. Baths. church has on its east side the "pisalis" or "calefactory", (H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the chapter house, the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It appears, however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefactory is the "dormitory" opening into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with readiness. A passage at the other end leads to the "necessarium" (I), a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme care. The southern side is occupied by the "refectory" (K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with a building containing the bake house and brew house (M), and the sleeping-rooms of the servants. The upper story of the refectory is the "vestiarium," where the ordinary clothes of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is another two story building (N). The cellar is below, and the larder and store-room above. Between this building and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the "parlour" for interviews with visitors from the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the "scriptorium" or writing-room (P1), with the library above. To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself. Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, etc., and a church or chapel on one side, placed back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to the "oblati" or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks as an "infirmary" (R). Shrewsbury Abbey The "residence of the physicians" (S) stands contiguous to the infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill. The "house for bloodletting and purging" adjoins it on the west (U). The "outer school," to the north of the convent area, contains a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the scholars. The head-master's house (W) is opposite, built against the side wall of the church. The two "hospitia" or guest-houses for the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X1 X2) comprise a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and bakehouse, and that for travelers of a superior order has a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their horses. There is also an "hospitium" for strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y). Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent area to the south, stands the "factory" (Z), containing workshops for shoemakers, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders, trencher-makers, tanners, curriers, fullers, smiths and goldsmiths, with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm buildings, the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malthouse (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds (f), goatstables (gl, piggeries (h), sheep-folds (i), together with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k). At the south-east corner we find the hen and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, etc., eighteen in all. In the same way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, etc., planted there. Cells Every large monastery had depending upon it smaller foundations known as cells or priories. Sometimes these foundations were no more than a single building serving as residence and farm offices, while other examples were miniature monasteries for 5 or 10 monks. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They were usually staffed by lay-brothers, sometimes under the supervision of a single monk. Westminster Abbey Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be traced, with those described above. The cloister and monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church. Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door. On the eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept. The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The small cloister lay to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary with the table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers. The abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance, close to the inner gateway. Considerable portions of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, celebrated as "the Jerusalem Chamber," his hall, now used for the Westminster King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond. York St Mary's Abbey, York, of which the ground-plan is annexed, exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides, the river Ouse being sufficient protection on the fourth side. The entrance was by a strong gateway to the north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the church of St Olaf, in which the new-comers paid their devotions immediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south was the guest-hall or hospitium. The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to enable us to identify the grand cruciform church, the cloister-court with the chapterhouse, the refecrefectory, the kitchen-court with its offices and the other principal apartments. The infirmary has perished completely. Cluny The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed, until by the 10th century the decay of discipline was so complete in France that the monks are said to have been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at all. The reformation of abuses generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took its name from,the little village of Cluny, N.W. of Macon, near which, about A.D. 909, a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William, duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the order. The fame of Cluny spread far and wide. Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance to the "archabbot," established at Cluny. By the end of the 12th century the number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in the various countries of western Europe amounted to 2000. The monastic establishment of Cluny was one of the most extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, in A.D. 1245, Pope Innocent IV, accompanied by twelve cardinals, a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders and emperor of Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number. Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away at the close of the 18th century. When the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt. The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was . high. The nave had double vaulted aisles on either side. Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept was . long, and the eastern . The choir terminated in a semicircular apse, surrounded by five chapels, also semicircular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church, or narthex, itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court, of immense size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory, an immense building, 100 ft (30 m) long and 60 ft (18 m) wide, accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We are unable to identify any other of the principal buildings. The abbot's residence, still partly standing, adjoined the entrance-gate. The guest-house was close by. The bakehouse, also remaining, is a detached building of immense size. English Cluniac houses The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of Lewes, founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077. Of this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist. The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement. In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor become "abbeys" till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived. The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed. Cistercian abbeys |Cistercian Abbey of Sénanque The next great monastic revival, that of the Cistercians, arose in the last years of the 11th century and had a wider diffusion as well as a longer and more honourable existence. Owing its real origin as a distinct foundation of reformed Benedictines to Stephen Harding in the year 1098, it derives its name from Cîteaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost inaccessible forest solitude on the border between Champagne and Burgundy. The rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses, the renowned abbey of Clairvaux (de Clara Valle), A.D. 1116. The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and other buildings erected by them. The defining architectural characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the most extreme simplicity and a studied plainness. Only a single, central tower was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The triforium was omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep, well-watered valleys. They always stand on the border of a stream; often with the buildings extending over it, as at Fountains Abbey. These valleys, now so rich and productive, had a very different appearance when the brethren first chose them as their place of retreat. Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, and wild, impassable forests were their prevailing features. The "bright valley," Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known as the "Valley of Wormwood," infamous as a den of robbers. "It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on beech leaves."-(Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.) See also: Clairvaux Abbey. Cîteaux Abbey. Kirkstall Abbey. Fountains Abbey. Loc-Dieu. Rievaulx Abbey. Strata Florida. Austin Canons The buildings of the Austin canons or Black canons (so called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiarities. This order had its first seat in England at Colchester, where a house for Austin canons was founded about A.D. 1105, and it very soon spread widely. As an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christchurch (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, etc., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton, Brinkburn and Lanercost. The arrangement of the monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave. + Bristol Cathedral Image:bristol abbey.pngFIG. 11.--St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol A. Church. B. Great cloister. C. Little cloister. D. Chapter-house. E. Calefactory. F. Refectory. G. Parlour. H. Kitchen. I. Kitchen court. K. Cellars. L. Abbot's hall. P. Abbot's gateway. R. Infirmary. S. Friars' lodging. T. King's hall. V. Guest-house. W. Abbey gateway. X. Barns, stables, etc Y. Lavatory. The above plan of the Abbey of St Augustine's at Bristol, now the cathedral church of that city, shows the arrangement of the buildings, which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type. The Austin canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date. Premonstratensians The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect remaining are those of Easby, Yorkshire, and Bayham, Kent. The head house of the order in England was Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the Augustinian canons, founded, A.D. 1119, by Norbert of Xanten, on the Lower Rhine, c. 1080) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest of Coucy in the diocese of Laon. The order spread widely. Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in Syria and Palestine. It long maintained its rigid austerity, until in the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England shortly after A.D. 1140, and were first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the Humber. The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave--that to the north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels. The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions ., it is not more than . broad. Stern Premonstratensian canons wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; therefore they built their church like a long room. The Premonstratension order still exists and a small group of these Chanones de Premontre now run the former Benedictine Abbey at Conques in southwest France, which has become well known as a refuge for pilgrims travelling the Way of Saint James, from Le Puy en Velay in Auvergne, to Santiago de Compostela in Galicia, Spain. See also List of abbeys and priories References Notes External links Abbey entry on Catholic Encyclopedia website Monastery and abbey index on sacred-destinations.com Abbeys of Provence, France Abbey Pages on historyfish.net - info on abbeys and monastic life, images from Photochrom collection | Abbey |@lemmatized abbey:42 latin:1 abbatia:1 derive:2 syriac:1 abba:1 father:3 christian:3 monastery:33 convent:9 government:1 abbot:13 abbess:1 serve:3 spiritual:2 mother:3 community:10 term:2 also:7 refer:1 establishment:8 long:10 cease:1 function:1 continue:1 carry:2 name:5 case:2 century:8 example:5 see:6 westminster:4 origins:1 early:5 known:1 monastic:17 monasticism:4 consist:2 group:9 cell:12 hut:5 collect:2 common:10 center:1 usually:7 house:50 hermit:1 anchorite:3 famous:1 holiness:1 singular:1 asceticism:2 without:4 attempt:2 orderly:2 arrangement:13 probably:2 follow:3 set:1 part:4 essene:1 judea:1 age:1 ascetic:2 accustom:1 live:6 singly:1 independent:1 one:16 another:6 far:8 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6,201 | Oxidative_phosphorylation | The electron transport chain in the mitochondrion is the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes. The NADH and succinate generated in the citric acid cycle is oxidized, releasing energy to power the ATP synthase. Oxidative phosphorylation is a metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Although the many forms of life on earth use a range of different nutrients, almost all carry out oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP, the molecule that supplies energy to metabolism. This pathway is probably so pervasive because it is a highly efficient way of releasing energy, compared to alternative fermentation processes such as anaerobic glycolysis. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from electron donors to electron acceptors such as oxygen, in redox reactions. These redox reactions release energy, which is used to form ATP. In eukaryotes, these redox reactions are carried out by a series of protein complexes within mitochondria, whereas, in prokaryotes, these proteins are located in the cells' inner membranes. These linked sets of enzymes are called electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, five main protein complexes are involved, whereas in prokaryotes many different enzymes are present, using a variety of electron donors and acceptors. The energy released by electrons flowing through this electron transport chain is used to transport protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane, in a process called chemiosmosis. This generates potential energy in the form of a pH gradient and an electrical potential across this membrane. This store of energy is tapped by allowing protons to flow back across the membrane and down this gradient, through a large enzyme called ATP synthase. This enzyme uses this energy to generate ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP), in a phosphorylation reaction. This reaction is driven by the proton flow, which forces the rotation of a part of the enzyme; the ATP synthase is a rotary mechanical motor. Although oxidative phosphorylation is a vital part of metabolism, it produces reactive oxygen species such as superoxide and hydrogen peroxide, which lead to propagation of free radicals, damaging cells and contributing to disease and, possibly, aging (senescence). The enzymes carrying out this metabolic pathway are also the target of many drugs and poisons that inhibit their activities. Overview of energy transfer by chemiosmosis Oxidative phosphorylation works by using energy-releasing chemical reactions to drive energy-requiring reactions: The two sets of reactions are said to be coupled. This means one cannot occur without the other. The flow of electrons through the electron transport chain, from electron donors such as NADH to electron acceptors such as oxygen, is an exergonic process – it releases energy, whereas the synthesis of ATP is an endergonic process, which requires an input of energy. Both the electron transport chain and the ATP synthase are embedded in a membrane, and energy is transferred from electron transport chain to the ATP synthase by movements of protons across this membrane, in a process called chemiosmosis. In practice, this is like a simple electric circuit, with a current of protons being driven from the negative N-side of the membrane to the positive P-side by the proton-pumping enzymes of the electron transport chain. These enzymes are like a battery, as they perform work to drive current through the circuit. The movement of protons creates an electrochemical gradient across the membrane, which is often called the proton-motive force. This gradient has two components: a difference in proton concentration (a pH gradient) and a difference in electric potential, with the N-side having a negative charge. The energy is stored largely as the difference of electric potentials in mitochondria, but also as a pH gradient in chloroplasts. ATP synthase releases this stored energy by completing the circuit and allowing protons to flow down the electrochemical gradient, back to the N-side of the membrane. This enzyme is like an electric motor as it uses the proton-motive force to drive the rotation of part of its structure and couples this motion to the synthesis of ATP. The amount of energy released by oxidative phosphorylation is high, compared with the amount produced by anaerobic fermentation. Glycolysis produces only 2 ATP molecules, but somewhere between 30 and 36 ATPs are produced by the oxidative phosphorylation of the 10 NADH and 2 succinate molecules made by converting one molecule of glucose to carbon dioxide and water. This ATP yield is the theoretical maximum value; in practice, some protons leak across the membrane, lowering the yield of ATP. Electron and proton transfer molecules Reduction of coenzyme Q from its ubiquinone form (Q) to the reduced ubiquinol form (QH2). The electron transport chain carries both protons and electrons, passing electrons from donors to acceptors, and transporting protons across a membrane. These processes use both soluble and protein-bound transfer molecules. In mitochondria, electrons are transferred within the intermembrane space by the water-soluble electron transfer protein cytochrome c. This carries only electrons, and these are transferred by the reduction and oxidation of an iron atom that the protein holds within a heme group in its structure. Cytochrome c is also found in some bacteria, where it is located within the periplasmic space. Within the inner mitochondrial membrane, the lipid-soluble electron carrier coenzyme Q10 (Q) carries both electrons and protons by a redox cycle. This small benzoquinone molecule is very hydrophobic, so it diffuses freely within the membrane. When Q accepts two electrons and two protons, it becomes reduced to the ubiquinol form (QH2); when QH2 releases two electrons and two protons, it becomes oxidized back to the ubiquinone (Q) form. As a result, if two enzymes are arranged so that Q is reduced on one side of the membrane and QH2 oxidized on the other, ubiquinone will couple these reactions and shuttle protons across the membrane. Some bacterial electron transport chains use different quinones, such as menaquinone, in addition to ubiquinone. Within proteins, electrons are transferred between flavin cofactors, iron–sulfur clusters, and cytochromes. There are several types of iron–sulfur cluster. The simplest kind found in the electron transfer chain consists of two iron atoms joined by two atoms of inorganic sulfur; these are called [2Fe–2S] clusters. The second kind, called [4Fe–4S], contains a cube of four iron atoms and four sulfur atoms. Each iron atom in these clusters is coordinated by an additional amino acid, usually by the sulfur atom of cysteine. Metal ion cofactors undergo redox reactions without binding or releasing protons, so in the electron transport chain they serve solely to transport electrons through proteins. Electrons move quite long distances through proteins by hopping along chains of these cofactors. This occurs by quantum tunnelling, which is rapid over distances of less than 1.4 m. Eukaryotic electron transport chains Many catabolic biochemical processes, such as glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and beta oxidation, produce the reduced coenzyme NADH. This coenzyme contains electrons that have a high transfer potential; in other words, they will release a large amount of energy upon oxidation. However, the cell does not release this energy all at once, as this would be an uncontrollable reaction. Instead, the electrons are removed from NADH and passed to oxygen through a series of enzymes that each release a small amount of the energy. This set of enzymes, consisting of complexes I through IV, is called the electron transport chain and is found in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Succinate is also oxidized by the electron transport chain, but feeds into the pathway at a different point. In eukaryotes, the enzymes in this electron transport system use the energy released from the oxidation of NADH to pump protons across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. This causes protons to build up in the intermembrane space, and generates an electrochemical gradient across the membrane. The energy stored in this potential is then used by ATP synthase to produce ATP. Oxidative phosphorylation in the eukaryotic mitochondrion is the best-understood example of this process. The mitochondrion is present in almost all eukaryotes, with the exception of anaerobic protozoa such as Trichomonas vaginalis that instead reduce protons to hydrogen in a remnant mitochondrion called a hydrogenosome. + Typical respiratory enzymes and substrates in eukaryotes.Respiratory enzymeRedox pair Midpoint potential (Volts) NADH dehydrogenaseNAD+ / NADH−0.32 Medical CHEMISTRY Compendium. By Anders Overgaard Pedersen and Henning Nielsen. Aarhus University. 2008 Succinate dehydrogenaseFMN or FAD / FMNH2 or FADH2−0.20 Cytochrome bc1 complexCoenzyme Q10ox / Coenzyme Q10red+0.06 Cytochrome bc1 complexCytochrome box / Cytochrome bred+0.12 Complex IVCytochrome cox / Cytochrome cred+0.22 Complex IVCytochrome aox / Cytochrome ared+0.29 Complex IVO2 / HO-+0.82<font size=1> Conditions: pH = 7 NADH-coenzyme Q oxidoreductase (complex I) Complex I or NADH-Q oxidoreductase. The abbreviations are discussed in the text. In all diagrams of respiratory complexes in this article, the matrix is at the bottom, with the intermembrane space above. NADH-coenzyme Q oxidoreductase, also known as NADH dehydrogenase or complex I, is the first protein in the electron transport chain. Complex I is a giant enzyme with the mammalian complex I having 46 subunits and a molecular mass of about 1,000 kilodaltons (kDa). The structure is known in detail only from a bacterium; Sazanov L.A., Hinchliffe P. (2006) Structure of the hydrophilic domain of respiratory complex I from Thermus thermophilus. Science 311, 1430–1436 in most organisms the complex resembles a boot with a large “ball” poking out from the membrane into the mitochondrion. The genes that encode the individual proteins are contained in both the cell nucleus and the mitochondrial genome, as is the case for many enzymes present in the mitochondrion. The reaction that is catalyzed by this enzyme is the two electron reduction by NADH of coenzyme Q10 or ubiquinone (represented as Q in the equation below), a lipid-soluble quinone that is found in the mitochondrion membrane: The start of the reaction, and indeed of the entire electron chain, is the binding of a NADH molecule to complex I and the donation of two electrons. The electrons enter complex I via a prosthetic group attached to the complex, flavin mononucleotide (FMN). The addition of electrons to FMN converts it to its reduced form, FMNH2. The electrons are then transferred through a series of iron–sulfur clusters: the second kind of prosthetic group present in the complex. There are both [2Fe–2S] and [4Fe–4S] iron–sulfur clusters in complex I. As the electrons pass through this complex, four protons are pumped from the matrix into the intermembrane space. Exactly how this occurs is unclear, but it seems to involve conformational changes in complex I that cause the protein to bind protons on the N-side of the membrane and then move them onto the P-side of the membrane. Finally, the electrons are transferred from the chain of iron–sulfur clusters to a ubiquinone molecule in the membrane. Reduction of ubiquinone also contributes to the generation of a proton gradient, as two protons are taken up from the matrix as it is reduced to ubiquinol (QH2). Succinate-Q oxidoreductase (complex II) Complex II: Succinate-Q oxidoreductase. Succinate-Q oxidoreductase, also known as complex II or succinate dehydrogenase, is a second entry point to the electron transport chain. It is unusual because it is the only enzyme that is part of both the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain. Complex II consists of four protein subunits and contains a bound flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) cofactor, iron–sulfur clusters, and a heme group that does not participate in electron transfer to coenzyme Q, but is believed to be important in decreasing production of reactive oxygen species. Yankovskaya V., Horsefield R., Tornroth S., Luna-Chavez C., Miyoshi H., Leger C., Byrne B., Cecchini G., Iwata S. (2003) Architecture of succinate dehydrogenase and reactive oxygen species generation. Science 299, 700–704 It oxidizes succinate to fumarate and reduces ubiquinone. As this reaction releases less energy than the oxidation of NADH, complex II does not transport protons across the membrane and does not contribute to the proton gradient. In some eukaryotes, such as the parasitic worm Ascaris suum, an enzyme similar to complex II, fumarate reductase (menaquinol:fumarate oxidoreductase, or QFR), operates in reverse to oxidize ubiquinol and reduce fumarate. This allows the worm to survive in the anaerobic environment of the large intestine, carrying out anaerobic oxidative phosphorylation with fumarate as the electron acceptor. Another unconventional function of complex II is seen in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Here, the reversed action of complex II as an oxidase is important in regenerating ubiquinol, which the parasite uses in an unusual form of pyrimidine biosynthesis. Electron transfer flavoprotein-Q oxidoreductase Electron transfer flavoprotein-ubiquinone oxidoreductase (ETF-Q oxidoreductase), also known as electron transferring-flavoprotein dehydrogenase, is a third entry point to the electron transport chain. It is an enzyme that accepts electrons from electron-transferring flavoprotein in the mitochondrial matrix, and uses these electrons to reduce ubiquinone. This enzyme contains a flavin and a [4Fe–4S] cluster, but, unlike the other respiratory complexes, it attaches to the surface of the membrane and does not cross the lipid bilayer. In mammals, this metabolic pathway is important in beta oxidation of fatty acids and catabolism of amino acids and choline, as it accepts electrons from multiple acetyl-CoA dehydrogenases. In plants, ETF-Q oxidoreductase is also important in the metabolic responses that allow survival in extended periods of darkness. Q-cytochrome c oxidoreductase (complex III) The two electron transfer steps in complex III: Q-cytochrome c oxidoreductase. After each step, Q (in the upper part of the figure) leaves the enzyme. Q-cytochrome c oxidoreductase is also known as cytochrome c reductase, cytochrome bc1 complex, or simply complex III. In mammals, this enzyme is a dimer, with each subunit complex containing 11 protein subunits, an [2Fe-2S] iron–sulfur cluster and three cytochromes: one cytochrome c1 and two b cytochromes. A cytochrome is a kind of electron-transferring protein that contains at least one heme group. The iron atoms inside complex III’s heme groups alternate between a reduced ferrous (+2) and oxidized ferric (+3) state as the electrons are transferred through the protein. The reaction catalyzed by complex III is the oxidation of one molecule of ubiquinol and the reduction of two molecules of cytochrome c, a heme protein loosely associated with the mitochondrion. Unlike coenzyme Q, which carries two electrons, cytochrome c carries only one electron. As only one of the electrons can be transferred from the QH2 donor to a cytochrome c acceptor at a time, the reaction mechanism of complex III is more elaborate than those of the other respiratory complexes, and occurs in two steps called the Q cycle. In the first step, the enzyme binds three substrates, first, QH2, which is then oxidized, with one electron being passed to the second substrate, cytochrome c. The two protons released from QH2 pass into the intermembrane space. The third substrate is Q, which accepts the second electron from the QH2 and is reduced to Q.-, which is the ubisemiquinone free radical. The first two substrates are released, but this ubisemiquinone intermediate remains bound. In the second step, a second molecule of QH2 is bound and again passes its first electron to a cytochrome c acceptor. The second electron is passed to the bound ubisemiquinone, reducing it to QH2 as it gains two protons from the mitochondrial matrix. This QH2 is then released from the enzyme. As coenzyme Q is reduced to ubiquinol on the inner side of the membrane and oxidized to ubiquinone on the other, a net transfer of protons across the membrane occurs, adding to the proton gradient. The rather complex two-step mechanism by which this occurs is important, as it increases the efficiency of proton transfer. If, instead of the Q cycle, one molecule of QH2 were used to directly reduce two molecules of cytochrome c, the efficiency would be halved, with only one proton transferred per cytochrome c reduced. Cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) Complex IV: cytochrome c oxidase. Cytochrome c oxidase, also known as complex IV, is the final protein complex in the electron transport chain. The mammalian enzyme has an extremely complicated structure and contains 13 subunits, two heme groups, as well as multiple metal ion cofactors – in all three atoms of copper, one of magnesium and one of zinc. This enzyme mediates the final reaction in the electron transport chain and transfers electrons to oxygen, while pumping protons across the membrane. The final electron acceptor oxygen, which is also called the terminal electron acceptor, is reduced to water in this step. Both the direct pumping of protons and the consumption of matrix protons in the reduction of oxygen contribute to the proton gradient. The reaction catalyzed is the oxidation of cytochrome c and the reduction of oxygen: Alternative reductases and oxidases Many eukaryotic organisms have electron transport chains that differ from the much-studied mammalian enzymes described above. For example, plants have alternative NADH oxidases, which oxidize NADH in the cytosol rather than in the mitochondrial matrix, and pass these electrons to the ubiquinone pool. These enzymes do not transport protons, and, therefore, reduce ubiquinone without altering the electrochemical gradient across the inner membrane. Another example of a divergent electron transport chain is the alternative oxidase, which is found in plants, as well as some fungi, protists, and possibly some animals. This enzyme transfers electrons directly from ubiquinol to oxygen. The electron transport pathways produced by these alternative NADH and ubiquinone oxidases have lower ATP yields than the full pathway. The advantages produced by a shortened pathway are not entirely clear. However, the alternative oxidase is produced in response to stresses such as cold, reactive oxygen species, and infection by pathogens, as well as other factors that inhibit the full electron transport chain. Alternative pathways might, therefore, enhance an organisms' resistance to injury, by reducing oxidative stress. Organization of complexes The original model for how the respiratory chain complexes are organized was that they diffuse freely and independently in the mitochondrial membrane. However, recent data suggest that the complexes might form higher-order structures called supercomplexes or "respirasomes." In this model, the various complexes exist as organized sets of interacting enzymes. These associations might allow channeling of substrates between the various enzyme complexes, increasing the rate and efficiency of electron transfer. Within such mammalian supercomplexes, some components would be present in higher amounts than others, with a ratio between complexes I/II/III/IV and the ATP synthase of approximately 1:1:3:7:4. However, the debate over this supercomplex model is not completely resolved, as some data do not appear to fit with this model. Prokaryotic electron transport chains In contrast to the general similarity in structure and function of the electron transport chains in eukaryotes, bacteria and archaea possess a large variety of electron-transfer enzymes. These use an equally wide set of chemicals as substrates. In common with eukaryotes, prokaryotic electron transport uses the energy released from the oxidation of a substrate to pump ions across a membrane and generate an electrochemical gradient. In the bacteria, oxidative phosphorylation in Escherichia coli is understood in most detail, while archaeal systems are at present poorly understood. The main difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic oxidative phosphorylation is that bacteria and archaea use many different substances to donate or accept electrons. This allows prokaryotes to grow under a wide variety of environmental conditions. In E. coli, for example, oxidative phosphorylation can be driven by a large number of pairs of reducing agents and oxidizing agents, which are listed below. The midpoint potential of a chemical measures how much energy is released when it is oxidized or reduced, with reducing agents having negative potentials and oxidizing agents positive potentials. + Respiratory enzymes and substrates in E. coli. Respiratory enzymeRedox pair Midpoint potential (Volts) Formate dehydrogenaseBicarbonate / Formate−0.43 HydrogenaseProton / Hydrogen−0.42 NADH dehydrogenaseNAD+ / NADH−0.32 Glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenaseDHAP / Gly-3-P−0.19 Pyruvate oxidase Acetate + Carbon dioxide / Pyruvate ? Lactate dehydrogenasePyruvate / Lactate−0.19 D-amino acid dehydrogenase 2-oxoacid + ammonia / D-amino acid ? Glucose dehydrogenaseGluconate / Glucose−0.14 Succinate dehydrogenaseFumarate / Succinate+0.03 Ubiquinol oxidaseOxygen / Water+0.82 Nitrate reductaseNitrate / Nitrite+0.42 Nitrite reductaseNitrite / Ammonia+0.36 Dimethyl sulfoxide reductaseDMSO / DMS+0.16 Trimethylamine N-oxide reductaseTMAO / TMA+0.13 Fumarate reductaseFumarate / Succinate+0.03 As shown above, E. coli can grow with reducing agents such as formate, hydrogen, or lactate as electron donors, and nitrate, DMSO, or oxygen as acceptors. The larger the difference in midpoint potential between an oxidizing and reducing agent, the more energy is released when they react. Out of these compounds, the succinate/fumarate pair is unusual, as its midpoint potential is close to zero. Succinate can therefore be oxidized to fumarate if a strong oxidizing agent such as oxygen is available, or fumarate can be reduced to succinate using a strong reducing agent such as formate. These alternative reactions are catalyzed by succinate dehydrogenase and fumarate reductase, respectively. Some prokaryotes use redox pairs that have only a small difference in midpoint potential. For example, nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrobacter oxidize nitrite to nitrate, donating the electrons to oxygen. The small amount of energy released in this reaction is enough to pump protons and generate ATP, but not enough to produce NADH or NADPH directly for use in anabolism. This problem is solved by using a nitrite oxidoreductase to produce enough proton-motive force to run part of the electron transport chain in reverse, causing complex I to generate NADH. Prokaryotes control their use of these electron donors and acceptors by varying which enzymes are produced, in response to environmental conditions. This flexibility is possible because different oxidases and reductases use the same ubiquinone pool. This allows many combinations of enzymes to function together, linked by the common ubiquinol intermediate. These respiratory chains therefore have a modular design, with easily interchangeable sets of enzyme systems. In addition to this metabolic diversity, prokaryotes also possess a range of isozymes – different enzymes that catalyze the same reaction. For example, in E. coli, there are two different types of ubiquinol oxidase using oxygen as an electron acceptor. Under highly aerobic conditions, the cell uses an oxidase with a low affinity for oxygen that can transport two protons per electron. However, if levels of oxygen fall, they switch to an oxidase that transfers only one proton per electron, but has a high affinity for oxygen. ATP synthase (complex V) ATP synthase. The FO proton channel and stalk are shown in blue, the F1 synthase domain in red and the membrane in gray. ATP synthase, also called complex V, is the final enzyme in the oxidative phosphorylation pathway. This enzyme is found in all forms of life and functions in the same way in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The enzyme uses the energy stored in a proton gradient across a membrane to drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphate (Pi). Estimates of the number of protons required to synthesise one ATP have ranged from three to four, with some suggesting cells can vary this ratio, to suit different conditions. This phosphorylation reaction is an equilibrium, which can be shifted by altering the proton-motive force. In the absence of a proton-motive force, the ATP synthase reaction will run from right to left, hydrolyzing ATP and pumping protons out of the matrix across the membrane. However, when the proton-motive force is high, the reaction is forced to run in the opposite direction; it proceeds from left to right, allowing protons to flow down their concentration gradient and turning ADP into ATP. Indeed, in the closely related vacuolar type H+-ATPases, the same reaction is used to acidify cellular compartments, by pumping protons and hydrolysing ATP. ATP synthase is a massive protein complex with a mushroom-like shape. The mammalian enzyme complex contains 16 subunits and has a mass of approximately 600 kilodaltons. The portion embedded within the membrane is called FO and contains a ring of c subunits and the proton channel. The stalk and the ball-shaped headpiece is called F1 and is the site of ATP synthesis. The ball-shaped complex at the end of the F1 portion contains six proteins of two different kinds (three α subunits and three β subunits), whereas the "stalk" consists of one protein: the γ subunit, with the tip of the stalk extending into the ball of α and β subunits. Both the α and β subunits bind nucleotides, but only the β subunits catalyze the ATP synthesis reaction. Reaching along the side of the F1 portion and back into the membrane is a long rod-like subunit that anchors the α and β subunits into the base of the enzyme. As protons cross the membrane through the channel in the base of ATP synthase, the FO proton-driven motor rotates. Rotation might be caused by changes in the ionization of amino acids in the ring of c subunits causing electrostatic interactions that propel the ring of c subunits past the proton channel. This rotating ring in turn drives the rotation of the central axle (the γ subunit stalk) within the α and β subunits. The α and β subunits are prevented from rotating themselves by the side-arm, which acts as a stator. This movement of the tip of the γ subunit within the ball of α and β subunits provides the energy for the active sites in the β subunits to undergo a cycle of movements that produces and then releases ATP. Mechanism of ATP synthase. ATP is shown in red, ADP and phosphate in pink and the rotating γ subunit in black. This ATP synthesis reaction is called the binding change mechanism and involves the active site of a β subunit cycling between three states. In the "open" state, ADP and phosphate enter the active site (shown in brown in the diagram). The protein then closes up around the molecules and binds them loosely – the "loose" state (shown in red). The enzyme then changes shape again and forces these molecules together, with the active site in the resulting "tight" state (shown in pink) binding the newly produced ATP molecule with very high affinity. Finally, the active site cycles back to the open state, releasing ATP and binding more ADP and phosphate, ready for the next cycle. In some bacteria and archaea, ATP synthesis is driven by the movement of sodium ions through the cell membrane, rather than the movement of protons. Archaea such as Methanococcus also contain the A1Ao synthase, a form of the enzyme that contains additional proteins with little similarity in sequence to other bacterial and eukaryotic ATP synthase subunits. It is possible that, in some species, the A1Ao form of the enzyme is a specialized sodium-driven ATP synthase, but this might not be true in all cases. Reactive oxygen species Molecular oxygen is an ideal terminal electron acceptor because it is a strong oxidizing agent. The reduction of oxygen does involve potentially harmful intermediates. Although the transfer of four electrons and four protons reduces oxygen to water, which is harmless, transfer of one or two electrons produces superoxide or peroxide anions, which are dangerously reactive. These reactive oxygen species and their reaction products, such as the hydroxyl radical, are very harmful to cells, as they oxidize proteins and cause mutations in DNA. This cellular damage might contribute to disease and is proposed as one cause of aging. The cytochrome c oxidase complex is highly efficient at reducing oxygen to water, and it releases very few partly reduced intermediates; however small amounts of superoxide anion and peroxide are produced by the electron transport chain. Particularly important is the reduction of coenzyme Q in complex III, as a highly reactive ubisemiquinone free radical is formed as an intermediate in the Q cycle. This unstable species can lead to electron "leakage" when electrons transfer directly to oxygen, forming superoxide. To counteract these reactive oxygen species, cells contain numerous antioxidant systems, including antioxidant vitamins such as vitamin C and vitamin E, and antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and peroxidases, which detoxify the reactive species, limiting damage to the cell. Inhibitors There are several well-known drugs and toxins that inhibit oxidative phosphorylation. Although any one of these toxins inhibits only one enzyme in the electron transport chain, inhibition of any step in this process will halt the rest of the process. For example, if oligomycin inhibits ATP synthase, protons cannot pass back into the mitochondrion. As a result, the proton pumps are unable to operate, as the gradient becomes too strong for them to overcome. NADH is then no longer oxidized and the citric acid cycle ceases to operate because the concentration of NAD+ falls below the concentration that these enzymes can use. CompoundsUseEffect on oxidative phosphorylationCyanideCarbon monoxidePoisonsInhibit the electron transport chain by binding more strongly than oxygen to the Fe–Cu center in cytochrome c oxidase, preventing the reduction of oxygen. OligomycinAntibioticInhibits ATP synthase by blocking the flow of protons through the Fo subunit. CCCP2,4-DinitrophenolPoisonsIonophores that disrupt the proton gradient by carrying protons across a membrane. This ionophore uncouples proton pumping from ATP synthesis because it carries protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. RotenonePesticidePrevents the transfer of electrons from complex I to ubiquinone by blocking to the ubiquinone-binding site. Malonate and oxaloacetateCompetitive inhibitors of succinate dehydrogenase (complex II). Not all inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation are toxins. In brown adipose tissue, regulated proton channels called uncoupling proteins can uncouple respiration from ATP synthesis. This rapid respiration produces heat, and is particularly important as a way of maintaining body temperature for hibernating animals, although these proteins may also have a more general function in cells' responses to stress. History The field of oxidative phosphorylation began with the report in 1906 by Arthur Harden of a vital role for phosphate in cellular fermentation, but initially only sugar phosphates were known to be involved. However, in the early 1940s, the link between the oxidation of sugars and the generation of ATP was firmly established by Herman Kalckar, confirming the central role of ATP in energy transfer that had been proposed by Fritz Albert Lipmann in 1941. Later, in 1949, Morris Friedkin and Albert L. Lehninger proved that the coenzyme NADH linked metabolic pathways such as the citric acid cycle and the synthesis of ATP. For another twenty years, the mechanism by which ATP is generated remained mysterious, with scientists searching for an elusive "high-energy intermediate" that would link oxidation and phosphorylation reactions. This puzzle was solved by Peter D. Mitchell with the publication of the chemiosmotic theory in 1961. At first, this proposal was highly controversial, but it was slowly accepted and Mitchell was awarded a Nobel prize in 1978. Subsequent research concentrated on purifying and characterizing the enzymes involved, with major contributions being made by David E. Green on the complexes of the electron-transport chain, as well as Efraim Racker on the ATP synthase. A critical step towards solving the mechanism of the ATP synthase was provided by Paul D. Boyer, by his development in 1973 of the "binding change" mechanism, followed by his radical proposal of rotational catalysis in 1982. More recent work has included structural studies on the enzymes involved in oxidative phosphorylation by John E. Walker, with Walker and Boyer being awarded a Nobel Prize in 1997. References Further reading Introductory Advanced External links General resources Animated diagrams illustrating oxidative phosphorylation Wiley and Co Concepts in Biochemistry Oxidative phosphorylation Metabolic Pathways of Biochemistry, the online reference of metabolism for students and teachers, at George Washington University ATP synthase - the rotary engine in the cell Brief introduction, including videos of microscope images of the enzyme rotating, at Tokyo Institute of Technology On-line biophysics lectures Antony Crofts, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Structural resources Animations of the ATP synthase Hongyun Wang and George Oster, University of California, Berkeley PDB molecule of the month: ATP synthase Cytochrome c Cytochrome c oxidase Interactive molecular models at Universidade Fernando Pessoa: NADH dehydrogenase succinate dehydrogenase Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase cytochrome c oxidase | Oxidative_phosphorylation |@lemmatized electron:103 transport:38 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6,202 | Carthage | Carthaginian Empire Carthage (, , Berber: Kartajen, or Karthago, from the Phoenician meaning new town) refers both to an ancient city in present-day Tunisia, and a modern-day suburb of Tunis. The civilization that developed within the city's sphere of influence is referred to as Punic or Carthaginian. The city of Carthage is located on the eastern side of Lake Tunis across from the center of Tunis. According to Roman legend it was founded in 814 BC by Phoenician colonists under the leadership of Elissa (Queen Dido). It became a large and rich city and thus a major power in the Mediterranean. The resulting rivalry with Syracuse and Rome was accompanied by several wars with respective invasions of each other's homeland. Hannibal's invasion of Italy in the Second Punic War culminated in the Carthaginian victory at Cannae and led to a serious threat to the continuation of Roman rule over Italy, however Carthage emerged from the conflict at its historical weakest. After the Third Punic War, the city was destroyed by the Romans in 146 BC. However, the Romans refounded Carthage, which became one of the three most important cities of the Empire and the capital of the short-lived Vandal kingdom. It remained one of the most important Roman cities until the Muslim conquest when it was destroyed a second time in AD 698. Topography Carthage seen from Spot Satellite The two Punic ports of Carthage. Carthage was built on a promontory with inlets to the sea to the north and south. The city's location made it master of the Mediterranean's maritime trade. All ships crossing the sea had to pass between Sicily and the coast of Tunisia, where Carthage was built, affording it great power and influence. Two large, artificial harbors were built within the city, one for harboring the city's massive navy of 220 warships and the other for mercantile trade. A walled tower overlooked both harbors. The city had massive walls, 23 miles (37 kilometers) in length, longer than the walls of comparable cities. Most of the walls were located on the shore and thus could be less impressive as Carthaginian control of the sea made attack from that direction difficult. The 2½–3 miles (4–4.8 kilometers) of wall on the isthmus to the west were truly large and in fact were never penetrated. The city had a huge necropolis or burial ground, religious area, market places, council house, towers and a theatre and was divided into four equally-sized residential areas with the same layout. Roughly in the middle of the city stood a high citadel called the Byrsa. It was one of the largest cities in Hellenistic times (by some estimates only Alexandria was larger) and was among the largest cities in pre-industrial history. History Layout of the city. Source material Carthage The historical study of Carthage is problematic. Because its culture and records were destroyed by the Romans at the end of the Third Punic War, very few Carthaginian primary historical sources survive. While there are a few ancient translations of Punic texts into Greek and Latin, as well as inscriptions on monuments and buildings discovered in North Africa, the main sources are Greek and Roman historians, including Livy, Polybius, Appian, Cornelius Nepos, Silius Italicus, Plutarch, Dio Cassius, and Herodotus. These writers belonged to peoples in competition, and often in conflict, with Carthage. Carthage by B. H. Warmington p11 Greek cities contested with Carthage for Sicily, Herodotus, V2. 165–7 and the Romans fought three wars against Carthage. Polybius, World History: 1.7–1.60 Not surprisingly, their accounts of Carthage are extremely hostile; while there are a few Greek authors who took a favorable view, these works have been lost. Warmington, B. H. Carthage, p.11. Recent excavation has brought much more primary material to light. Some of these finds contradict aspects of the traditional picture of Carthage, and much of the material is still ambiguous. Legends of the foundation Queen Elissa Queen Elissa (also known as "Alissar", and by the Arabic name also and ), who in later accounts became known as Queen Dido, was a princess of Tyre who founded Carthage. At its peak, her metropolis came to be called the "shining city," ruling 300 other cities around the western Mediterranean and leading the Phoenician (or Punic) world. Elissa was a princess of Tyre. Her brother, King Pygmalion of Tyre, had murdered her husband, the high priest. Elissa escaped the tyranny of her own country and founded the "new city" of Carthage and subsequently its later dominions. Details of her life are sketchy and confusing, but the following can be deduced from various sources. According to Justin, Princess Elissa was the daughter of King Matten of Tyre (also known as Muttoial or Belus II). When he died, the throne was jointly bequeathed to her and her brother, Pygmalion. She married her uncle Acherbas (also known as Sychaeus) the High Priest of Melqart, a man with both authority and wealth comparable to the king. Pygmalion was a tyrant, lover of both gold and intrigue, who desired the authority and fortune enjoyed by Acherbas. Pygmalion assassinated Acherbas in the temple and kept the misdeed concealed from his sister for a long time, deceiving her with lies about her husband's death. At the same time, the people of Tyre called for a single sovereign, causing dissent within the royal family. Queen Dido In the Roman epic of Virgil, the Aeneid, Queen Dido, the Greek name for Queen Elissa, is first introduced as an extremely respected character in his legend. In just seven years, since their exodus from Tyre, the Carthaginians have rebuilt a successful kingdom under her rule. Her subjects adore her and present her with a festival of praise. Her character is perceived by Virgil as even more noble when she offers asylum to Aeneas and his men, who have recently escaped from Troy. A spirit in the form of the messenger god, Mercury, sent by Jupiter, reminds Aeneas that his mission is not to stay in Carthage with his new-found love, Dido, but to sail to Italy to found Rome. Virgil ends his legend of Dido with the story that, when Aeneas tells Dido, her heart broken, she orders a pyre to be built where she falls upon Aeneas' sword. As she lay dying, she predicted eternal strife between Aeneas' people and her own: "rise up from my bones, avenging spirit" (4.625, trans. Fitzgerald) she says, an obvious invocation of Hannibal. Carthaginian Empire Carthaginian Empire in the 3rd century BC The Carthaginian Empire was one of the longest-lived and largest empires in the ancient Mediterranean. Reports relay several wars with Syracuse and finally, Rome, which eventually resulted in the defeat and destruction of Carthage in the third Punic war. Army According to Polybius, Carthage relied heavily, though not exclusively, on foreign mercenaries, Polybius, Book 6, 52. On the Perseus project The former (the Romans - editor's note) bestow their whole attention upon this department (upon military service on land - editor's note): whereas the Carthaginians wholly neglect their infantry, though they do take some slight interest in the cavalry. The reason of this is that they employ foreign mercenaries, the Romans native and citizen levies. It is in this point that the latter polity is preferable to the former. They have their hopes of freedom ever resting on the courage of mercenary troops: the Romans on the valour of their own citizens and the aid of their allies. especially in overseas warfare. The core of its army was from its own territory in Africa (ethnic Libyans and Numidians, as well as "Liby-Phoenicians" — i.e. Punics proper). These troops were supported by mercenaries from different ethnic groups and geographic locations across the Mediterranean who fought in their own national units; Celtic, Balearic, and Iberian troops were especially common. Later, after the Barcid conquest of Iberia, Iberians came to form an even greater part of the Carthaginian forces. Carthage seems to have fielded a formidable cavalry force, especially in its African homeland; a significant part of it was composed of Numidian contingents of light cavalry. Other mounted troops included the now extinct North African elephants, trained for war, which, amongst other uses, were commonly used for frontal assaults or as anti-cavalry protection. An army could field up to several hundreds of these animals, but on most reported occasions fewer than a hundred were deployed. The riders of these elephants were armed with a spike and hammer to kill the elephants in case they charged toward their own army. Navy The navy of Carthage was one of the largest in the Mediterranean, using serial production to maintain high numbers at moderate cost. The sailors and marines of the Carthaginian navy were predominantly recruited from the Punic citizenry, unlike the multi-national allied and mercenary troops of the Carthaginian armies. The navy offered a stable profession and financial security for its sailors. This helped to contribute to the city's political stability, since the unemployed, debt ridden poor in other cities were frequently inclined to support revolutionary leaders in the hope of improving their own lot. Adrian Goldsworthy - The Fall of Carthage The reputation of her skilled sailors implies that there was in peacetime a training of oarsmen and coxswains, giving their navy a cutting edge in naval matters. The trade of Carthaginian merchantmen was by land across the Sahara and especially by sea throughout the Mediterranean and far into the Atlantic to the tin-rich islands of Britain and to West Africa. There is evidence that at least one Punic expedition under Hanno sailed along the West African coast to regions south of the Equator, describing how the sun was in the north at noon. Polybius wrote in the sixth book of his History that the Carthaginians were "more exercised in maritime affairs than any other people." Polybius, History Book 6 Their navy included some 300 to 350 warships. The Romans, who had little experience in naval warfare prior to the First Punic War, managed to finally defeat Carthage with a combination of reverse engineering captured Carthaginian ships, recruitment of experienced Greek sailors from the ranks of its conquered cities, the unorthodox corvus device, and their superior numbers in marines and rowers. In the Third Punic War Polybius describes a tactical innovation of the Carthaginians, augmenting their few triremes with small vessels that carried hooks (to attack the oars) and fire (to attack the hulls). With this new combination, they were able to stand their ground against the superior Roman numbers for a whole day. Fall Carthage ruines The fall of Carthage came at the end of the Third Punic War in 146 BC. Wine: The 8,000-Year-Old Story of the Wine Trade, Thomas Pellechia (2006) In spite of the initial devastating Roman naval losses at the beginning of the series of conflicts and Rome's recovery from the brink of defeat after the terror of a 15-year occupation of much of Italy by Hannibal, the end of the series of wars resulted in the end of Carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by Scipio Aemilianus. The Romans pulled the Phoenician warships out into the harbor and burned them before the city, and went from house to house, capturing and enslaving the people. Fifty thousand Carthaginians were sold into slavery. Ancient History The city was set ablaze, and in this way was razed with only ruins and rubble to field the aftermath. After the fall of Carthage, Rome annexed the majority of the Carthaginian colonies, including other North African locations such as Volubilis, Lixus, Chellah, and Mogador. C. Michael Hogan (2007) Volubilis, The Megalithic Portal, ed. by A. Burnham Through a series of misunderstandings, a belief that the Carthaginian farmland was salted to ensure that no crops could be grown there developed in the modern period. Ridley, R.T., "To Be Taken with a Pinch of Salt: The Destruction of Carthage," Classical Philology vol. 81, no. 2 (1986). A city of survivors Byrsa District of punic Byrsa On the top of the hill Byrsa location of the Roman Forum, was unearthed a residential area punic the last century of existence of the city, more precisely dated from the early second century. It was excavated by archaeologist french Serge Lancel. By visiting this site is interesting for that can not go to Kerkuane (Punic city of Cape Bon). Indeed, the neighborhood between houses and shops and private spaces is particularly significant Serge Lancel and Jean-Paul Morel, "Byrsa. Punic vestiges,To save Carthage. Exploration and conservation of the city Punic, Roman and Byzantine, ed. Unesco / INAA, 1992, pp. 43-59 . The habitat is typical, even stereotypical, with a local street may be used as a store, a tank is installed in the basement to collect water for domestic use, and a long corridor on the right side which leads to a courtyard pierced by a sump and around which successive small parts in variable. Some soils are covered with mosaics calledpaviment punica, sometimes in the middle of a characteristic red mortar. The remains have been preserved through the embankments Roman substructures forum whose foundation piles dot the district. The different housing blocks are separated by orthogonal streets of a width of approximately six meters, including the roadway consists of clay. We also notein situstairs to compensate the drop of the hill. Édilitaire this program, which required an organization and political will, has inspired the name of the neighborhood, called "Hannibal district", referring to suffétat Major General at the beginning (of the second century BC. J.-C.). Roman Carthage Roman Carthage When Carthage fell, its nearby rival Utica, a Roman ally, was made capital of the region and replaced Carthage as the leading center of Punic trade and leadership. It had the advantageous position of being situated on the Lake of Tunis and the outlet of the Majardah River, Tunisia's only river that flowed all year long. However, grain cultivation in the Tunisian mountains caused large amounts of silt to erode into the river. This silt was accumulated in the harbor until it was made useless, and Rome was forced to rebuild Carthage. By 122 BC, Gaius Gracchus founded a short-lived colonia, called Colonia Iunonia, after the Latin name for the punic goddess Tanit, Iuno caelestis. The purpose was to obtain arable lands for impoverished farmers. The Senate abolished the colony some time later, in order to undermine Gracchus' power. After this ill-fated attempt, a new city of Carthage was built on the same land, and by the 1st century it had grown to the second largest city in the western half of the Roman empire, with a peak population of 500,000. It was the center of the Roman province of Africa, which was a major breadbasket of the empire. Carthage also became a center of early Christianity. In the first of a string of rather poorly reported Councils at Carthage a few years later, no fewer than seventy bishops attended. Tertullian later broke with the mainstream that was represented more and more by the bishop of Rome, but a more serious rift among Christians was the Donatist controversy, which Augustine of Hippo spent much time and parchment arguing against. In 397 at the Council at Carthage, the biblical canon for the western Church was confirmed. Vandal Empire in AD 500, centered in Carthage. The political fallout from the deep disaffection of African Christians is supposedly a crucial factor in the ease with which Carthage and the other centres were captured in the 5th century by Gaiseric, king of the Vandals, who defeated the Roman general Bonifacius and made the city his capital. Gaiseric was considered a heretic too, an Arian, and though Arians commonly despised Catholic Christians, a mere promise of toleration might have caused the city's population to accept him. After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the 5th century, the Byzantines finally subdued the Vandals in the 6th century. During the emperor Maurice's reign, Carthage was made into an Exarchate, as was Ravenna in Italy. These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of Byzantium, all that remained of its power in the west. In the early 7th century, it was the Exarch of Carthage, Heraclius (of Armenian origin), who overthrew Emperor Phocas. Islamic Carthage The Byzantine Exarchate was not, however, able to withstand the Muslim conquerors of the 7th century. Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik in AD 686 sent a force led by Zuhayr ibn Qais who won a battle over Byzantines and Berbers led by Kusaila, on the Qairawan plain, but could not follow that up. In AD 695 Hasan ibn al-Nu'man captured Carthage and advanced into the Atlas Mountains. A Byzantine fleet arrived, retook Carthage but in AD 698 Hasan ibn al-Nu'man returned and defeated Tiberios III at the Battle of Carthage. The Byzantines withdrew from all of Africa except Ceuta. The Roman Carthage was destroyed, just as the Romans had done in 146 BC. Carthage was replaced by Tunis as the major regional center. The destruction of the Exarchate of Africa marked a permanent end to Roman or Byzantine influence there, as the rising tide of Islam took root. Culture Language Carthaginians spoke Punic, a variety of Phoenician. Commerce Carthaginian commerce was by sea throughout the Mediterranean and far into the Atlantic and by land across the Sahara desert. According to Aristotle, the Carthaginians and others had treaties of commerce to regulate their exports and imports. Aristotle, Politics Book 3,IX The empire of Carthage depended heavily on its trade with Tartessos and other cities of the Iberian peninsula, from which it obtained vast quantities of silver, lead, and, even more importantly, tin ore, which was essential to the manufacture of bronze objects by the civilizations of antiquity. Its trade relations with the Iberians and the naval might that enforced Carthage's monopoly on trade with tin-rich Britain and the Canary Islands allowed it to be the sole significant broker of tin and maker of bronze. Maintaining this monopoly was one of the major sources of power and prosperity for Carthage, and a Carthaginian merchant would rather crash his ship upon the rocky shores of Britain than reveal to any rival how it could be safely approached. In addition to being the sole significant distributor of tin, its central location in the Mediterranean and control of the waters between Sicily and Tunisia allowed it to control the eastern nations' supply of tin. Carthage was also the Mediterranean's largest producer of silver, mined in Iberia and the North African coast, and, after the tin monopoly, this was one of its most profitable trades. One mine in Iberia provided Hannibal with 300 Roman pounds(3,75 talents) of silver a day. Pliny, Nat His 33,96 Carthage's economy began as an extension of that of its parent city, Tyre. Its massive merchant fleet traversed the trade routes mapped out by Tyre, and Carthage inherited from Tyre the art of making the extremely valuable dye Tyrian Purple. It was one of the most highly-valued commodities in the ancient Mediterranean, being worth fifteen to twenty times its weight in gold. High Roman officials could only afford togas with a small stripe of it. Carthage also produced a less-valuable crimson pigment from the cochineal. Carthage produced finely embroidered and dyed textiles of cotton, linen, wool, and silk, artistic and functional pottery, faience, incense, and perfumes. Its artisans worked with glass, wood, alabaster, ivory, bronze, brass, lead, gold, silver, and precious stones to create a wide array of goods, including mirrors, highly-admired furniture and cabinetry, beds, bedding, and pillows, jewelry, arms, implements, and household items. It traded in salted Atlantic fish and fish sauce, and brokered the manufactured, agricultural, and natural products of almost every Mediterranean people. Punic pendant in the form of a bearded head, 4th–3rd century BC. In addition to manufacturing, Carthage practiced highly advanced and productive agriculture, using iron plows, irrigation, and crop rotation. Mago wrote a famous treatise on agriculture which the Romans ordered translated after Carthage was captured. After the Second Punic War, Hannibal promoted agriculture to help restore Carthage's economy and pay the war indemnity to Rome (10000 talents or 800,000 Roman pounds of silver Pliny 33,51 ), and he was largely successful. Carthage produced wine, which was highly prized in Rome, Etruria (the Etruscans), and Greece. Rome was a major consumer of raisin wine, a Carthaginian specialty. Fruits, nuts, grain, grapes, dates, and olives were grown, and olive oil was exported in competition with Greece. Carthage also raised fine horses, similar to today's Arabian horses, which were greatly prized and exported. Carthage's merchant ships, which surpassed even those of the cities of the Levant, visited every major port of the Mediterranean, Britain, the coast of Africa, and the Canary Islands. These ships were able to carry over 100 tons of goods. The commercial fleet of Carthage was comparable in size and tonnage to the fleets of major European powers in the 18th century. Merchants at first favored the ports of the east: Egypt, the Levant, Greece, Cyprus, and Asia Minor. But after Carthage's control of Sicily brought it into conflict with Greek colonists, it established commercial relations in the western Mediterranean, including trade with the Etruscans. Carthage also sent caravans into the interior of Africa and Persia. It traded its manufactured and agricultural goods to the coastal and interior peoples of Africa for salt, gold, timber, ivory, ebony, apes, peacocks, skins, and hides. Its merchants invented the practice of sale by auction and used it to trade with the African tribes. In other ports, they tried to establish permanent warehouses or sell their goods in open-air markets. They obtained amber from Scandinavia and tin from the Canary Islands. From the Celtiberians, Gauls, and Celts, they obtained amber, tin, silver, and furs. Sardinia and Corsica produced gold and silver for Carthage, and Phoenician settlements on islands such as Malta and the Balearic Islands produced commodities that would be sent back to Carthage for large-scale distribution. Carthage supplied poorer civilizations with simple things, such as pottery, metallic products, and ornamentations, often displacing the local manufacturing, but brought its best works to wealthier ones such as the Greeks and Etruscans. Carthage traded in almost every commodity wanted by the ancient world, including spices from Arabia, Africa, and India and slaves. These trade ships went all the way down the Atlantic coast of Africa to Senegal and Nigeria. One account has a Carthaginian trading vessel exploring Nigeria, including identification of distinguishing geographic features such as a coastal volcano and an encounter with gorillas (See Hanno the Navigator). Irregular trade exchanges occurred as far west as Madeira and the Canary Islands, and as far south as southern Africa. Carthage also traded with India by traveling through the Red Sea and the perhaps-mythical lands of Ophir (India/Arabia?) and Punt, which may be present-day Somalia. Archaeological finds show evidence of all kinds of exchanges, from the vast quantities of tin needed for a bronze-based metals civilization to all manner of textiles, ceramics and fine metalwork. Before and in between the wars, Carthaginian merchants were in every port in the Mediterranean, buying and selling, establishing warehouses where they could, or just bargaining in open-air markets after getting off their ships. The Etruscan language has not yet been deciphered, but archaeological excavations of Etruscan cities show that the Etruscan civilization was for several centuries a customer and a vendor to Carthage, long before the rise of Rome. The Etruscan city-states were, at times, both commercial partners of Carthage and military allies. Government Hannibal Punic district of Carthage The government of Carthage was an oligarchal republic, which relied on a system of checks and balances and ensured a form of public accountability. The Carthaginian heads of state were called Suffets (thus rendered in Latin by Livy 30.7.5, attested in Punic inscriptions as SPΘM /ʃuftˤim/, meaning "judges" and obviously related to the Biblical Hebrew ruler title "Judge"). Greek and Roman authors more commonly referred to them as "kings". SPΘ /ʃufitˤ/ might originally have been the title of the city's governor, installed by the mother city of Tyre. In the historically attested period, the two Suffets were elected annually from among the most wealthy and influential families and ruled collegially, similarly to Roman consuls (and equated with these by Livy). This practice might have descended from the plutocratic oligarchies that limited the Suffet's power in the first Phoenician cities. The aristocratic families were represented in a supreme council (Roman sources speak of a Carthaginian "Senate", and Greek ones of a "council of Elders" or a gerousia), which had a wide range of powers; however, it is not known whether the Suffets were elected by this council or by an assembly of the people. Suffets appear to have exercised judicial and executive power, but not military . Although the city's administration was firmly controlled by oligarchs , democratic elements were to be found as well: Carthage had elected legislators, trade unions and town meetings. Aristotle reported in his Politics that unless the Suffets and the Council reached a unanimous decision, the Carthaginian popular assembly had the decisive vote - unlike the situation in Greek states with similar constitutions such as Sparta and Crete. Polybius, in his History book 6, also stated that at the time of the Punic Wars, the Carthaginian public held more sway over the government than the people of Rome held over theirs (a development he regarded as evidence of decline). Finally, there was a body known as the Hundred and Four, which Aristotle compared to the Spartan ephors. These were judges who oversaw the actions of generals , who could sometimes be sentenced to crucifixion. Eratosthenes, head of the Library of Alexandria, noted that the Greeks had been wrong to describe all non-Greeks as barbarians, since the Carthaginians as well as the Romans had a constitution. Aristotle also knew and discussed the Carthaginian constitution in his Politics (Book II, Chapter 11). During the period between the end of the First Punic War and the end of the Second Punic War, members of the Barcid family dominated in Carthaginian politics. They were given control of the Carthaginian military and all the Carthaginian territories outside of Africa. Religion Ruins of Punic houses on the Byrsa Hill Stelae on the Tophet Serapis Carthaginian religion was based on Phoenician religion, a form of polytheism. Many of the gods the Carthaginians worshiped were localized and are now known only under their local names. Pantheon The supreme divine couple was that of Tanit and Ba'al Hammon. The goddess Astarte seems to have been popular in early times. At the height of its cosmopolitan era, Carthage seems to have hosted a large array of divinities from the neighbouring civilizations of Greece, Egypt and the Etruscan city-states. A pantheon was presided over by the father of the gods, but a goddess was the principal figure in the Phoenician pantheon. Caste of priests and acolytes Surviving Punic texts are detailed enough to give a portrait of a very well organized caste of temple priests and acolytes performing different types of functions, for a variety of prices. Priests were clean shaven, unlike most of the population. In the first centuries of the city ritual celebrations included rhythmic dancing, derived from Phoenician traditions. Punic stelae Cippi and stelae of limestone are characteristic monuments of Punic art and religion, and are found throughout the western Phoenician world in unbroken continuity, both historically and geographically. Most of them were set up over urns containing cremated human remains, placed within open-air sanctuaries. Such sanctuaries constitute striking relics of Punic civilization. Child sacrifice Carthage under the Phoenicians was criticized by its neighbors for child sacrifice. Plutarch (c. 46–120) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian, Orosius, Philo and Diodorus Siculus. Diodorus Siculus. Trans. C.H. Oldfather. Diodorus of Sicily 1, VI, VIII, IX. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954-1963 (The Loeb Classical Library). Livy and Polybius do not. The Hebrew Bible also mentions child sacrifice practiced by the Canaanites, ancestors of the Carthaginians. The Greek and Roman critics, according to the Charles Picards, objected not to the killing of children but to the religious nature of it. Exposure of children was common in ancient Greece and Rome but for economic rather than religious reasons. Life in Carthage Gilbert and Colette Charels-Picard pp149-50 Modern archaeology in formerly Punic areas has discovered a number of large cemeteries for children and infants. But there is some argument that the reports of child sacrifice were based on a misconception, later used as blood libel by the Romans who destroyed the city. These cemeteries may have been used as graves for stillborn infants or children who died very early. Modern archeological excavations have been interpreted as confirming Plutarch's reports of Carthaginian child sacrifice. Kelly A. MacFarlane, University of Alberta, Hittites and Phoenician In a single child cemetery called the Tophet by archaeologists, an estimated 20,000 urns were deposited between 400 BC and 200 BC, with the practice continuing until the early years of the Christian period. The urns contained the charred bones of newborns and in some cases the bones of fetuses and 2-year-olds. These remains have been interpreted to mean that in the cases of stillborn babies, the parents would sacrifice their youngest child. There is a clear correlation between the frequency of cremation and the well-being of the city. In bad times (war, poor harvests) cremations became more frequent, but it is not possible to know why. The correlation could be because bad times inspired the Carthaginians to pray for divine intervention (via child sacrifice), or because bad times increased child mortality, leading to more child burials (via cremation). Accounts of child sacrifice in Carthage report that beginning at the founding of Carthage in about 814 BC, mothers and fathers buried their children who had been sacrificed to Ba`al Hammon and Tanit there. The practice was apparently distasteful even to Carthaginians, and they began to buy children for the purpose of sacrifice or even to raise servant children instead of offering up their own. However, Carthage priests demanded the flower of their youth in times of crisis or calamity like war, drought or famine. Special ceremonies during extreme crisis saw up to 200 children of the most affluent and powerful families slain and tossed into the burning pyre. It has been argued by some modern scholars that evidence of Carthaginian child sacrifice is incomplete, and that it is far more likely to have been Roman blood libel against the Carthaginians to justify their conquest and destruction. Skeptics suggest that the bodies of children found in Carthaginian and Phoenician cemeteries were merely the cremated remains of children that died naturally. Sergio Ribichini has argued that the Tophet was "a child necropolis designed to receive the remains of infants who had died prematurely of sickness or other natural causes, and who for this reason were "offered" to specific deities and buried in a place different from the one reserved for the ordinary dead". Sergio Ribichini, "Beliefs and Religious Life" in Moscati, Sabatino (ed), The Phoenicians, 1988, p.141 The few Carthaginian texts which have survived make absolutely no mention of child sacrifice, though most of them pertain to matters entirely unrelated to religion, such as the practice of agriculture. Modern times Carthage remains a popular tourist attraction and residential suburb. In February 1985, Ugo Vetere, the mayor of Rome, and Chedly Klibi, the mayor of Carthage, signed a symbolic treaty "officially" ending the conflict between their cities, which had been supposedly extended by the lack of a peace treaty for more than 2100 years. http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198503/delenda.est.carthago.htm written by John Lawton See also List of Kings of Carthage Carthaginian Empire History of Tunisia Phoenician languages Umayyad conquest of North Africa Sources Religion Polybius LacusCurtius • Polybius' Histories Hannibal's Campaigns. Tony Bath. New York, NY: Barnes & Noble Books, 1981. La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal. Gilbert et Colette Charles-Picard. Paris: Hachette, 1958. La légende de Carthage. Azedine Beschaouch. Paris: Gallimard, 1993. Carthage: Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia. David Soren, Aicha Ben Abed Ben Kader, Heidi Slim. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990. The Phoenicians and the West: Politics, colonies and trade. Maria Eugenia Aubet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Itineraria Phoenicia.Edward Lipinski. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Department Oosterse Studies, 2004. "Aeneid" Virgil Navy Polybius. Ancient History Sourcebook'': Polybius (c 200–118 BC): Rome at the End of the Punic Wars History, Book 6. References External links Ancient History Sourcebook: Aristotle: On the Constitution of Carthage, c. 340 BC Ancient Places TV: HD video of Carthage Brian K. Garnand: "From infant sacrifice to the ABC'S: ancient Phoenicians and modern identities" - (University of Chicago). Earlier version presented in Standford Colloquium "Past Narratives / Narratives Pasts" Hannibal: Published by Decapo Books, an excellent source of military history about ancient Carthage and the tactics of Hannibal and the Roman Republic Livius.org: Carthage In Our Time: The Destruction of Carthage (may be audible in UK only) be-x-old:Карфаген | Carthage |@lemmatized carthaginian:48 empire:11 carthage:94 berber:2 kartajen:1 karthago:1 phoenician:19 mean:3 new:7 town:2 refer:4 ancient:13 city:50 present:4 day:5 tunisia:6 modern:7 suburb:2 tunis:5 civilization:7 develop:2 within:4 sphere:1 influence:3 punic:36 locate:2 eastern:2 side:2 lake:2 across:4 center:6 accord:5 roman:40 legend:4 found:4 bc:13 colonist:2 leadership:2 elissa:7 queen:7 dido:7 become:5 large:14 rich:3 thus:3 major:8 power:10 mediterranean:15 result:3 rivalry:1 syracuse:2 rome:15 accompany:1 several:4 war:21 respective:1 invasion:2 homeland:2 hannibal:11 italy:5 second:7 culminate:1 victory:1 cannae:1 lead:9 serious:2 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6,203 | Five-card_draw | Five-card draw is a poker variant and often the first variant learned by most players. It is common in home games although it is rare in casino and tournament play. Gameplay In casino play the first betting round begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left. Home games typically use an ante; the first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, and the second round begins with the player who opened the first round. Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, one at a time, all face down. The remaining deck is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it. Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players, then a round of betting occurs. If more than one player remains after the first round, the "draw" phase begins. Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace; up to three cards total; and discards them. The deck is retrieved, and each player is dealt in turn from the deck the same number of cards he discarded so that each player again has five cards. A second "after the draw" betting round occurs beginning with the player to the dealer's left or else beginning with the player who opened the first round (the latter is common when antes are used instead of blinds). This is followed by a showdown if more than one player remains, in which the player with the best hand wins the pot. House rules A common "house rule" in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless he draws four cards while keeping an (or wild card). This rule is only needed for low-stakes social games where many players will stay for the draw, and will help avoid depletion of the deck. In more serious games such as those played in casinos it is unnecessary and generally not used. A rule that is used by many casinos is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck. In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of his cards, he is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give him his fifth replacement; if no other player draws it is necessary to deal a burn card first. Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information. If the deck is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players. For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card, and the earlier players' discards (but not the player's own discards), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player. Sample deal The sample deal is being played by four players as shown to the right with Alice dealing. All four players ante $1. Alice deals five cards to each player and places the deck aside. Bob opens the betting round by betting $5. Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round. Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them. Alice retrieves the deck, deals a burn card, then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand. David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck. Alice now discards three of her own cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck (Note: in a player-dealt casino game there is often a rule that the dealer must discard before picking up the deck, but this is a home game so we won't worry about such details). Now a second betting round begins. Bob checks, David checks, Alice bets $10, Bob folds, David raises $16, and Alice calls, ending the second betting round. David shows a flush, and Alice shows two pair, so David takes the pot. See also Draw poker External links Online Draw Poker Strategy | Five-card_draw |@lemmatized five:6 card:27 draw:12 poker:3 variant:2 often:3 first:7 learn:1 player:35 common:4 home:3 game:6 although:1 rare:1 casino:5 tournament:1 play:5 gameplay:1 betting:6 round:13 begin:8 left:1 big:1 blind:2 subsequent:1 dealer:6 leave:3 typically:1 use:5 ante:3 second:4 open:3 dealt:2 one:6 time:1 face:1 remain:4 deck:14 place:4 aside:2 protect:1 chip:1 marker:1 pick:2 hold:1 hand:4 careful:1 keep:2 conceal:1 bet:4 occurs:1 phase:1 specify:1 many:3 wish:3 replace:5 three:8 total:1 discard:9 retrieve:2 deal:11 turn:2 number:1 occur:1 else:1 beginning:1 latter:1 instead:1 follow:1 showdown:1 best:1 win:2 pot:2 house:3 rule:6 may:1 unless:1 four:4 wild:1 need:1 low:1 stake:1 social:1 stay:1 help:1 avoid:2 depletion:1 serious:1 unnecessary:1 generally:1 allow:1 consecutive:1 case:1 give:6 return:1 fifth:1 replacement:5 necessary:1 burn:3 another:1 bottom:2 never:1 possibility:1 someone:1 might:1 see:2 information:1 deplete:1 receive:2 last:3 choose:1 randomly:1 among:1 previous:1 example:1 want:1 two:3 top:2 shuffle:1 together:1 early:1 finally:1 sample:2 show:3 right:1 alice:9 bob:5 carol:1 fold:2 david:6 call:3 close:1 declare:1 remove:1 directly:1 put:1 note:1 must:1 worry:1 detail:1 check:2 raise:1 end:1 flush:1 pair:1 take:1 also:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 strategy:1 |@bigram betting_round:6 external_link:1 |
6,204 | Elba | The island of Elba is located between the Ligurian Sea and the Tyrrhenian Sea, approximately 10 kilometers from the coast. It is the largest of the islands within the Tuscan Archipelago and the third largest in Italy (223 km ²). Elba, along with other islands (Pianosa, Capraia, Gorgona, Montecristo, Giglio and Giannutri) is part of the Tuscan Archipelago National Park. The island is divided into eight municipalities of which Portoferraio is the main one, the others; campo nell'Elba, Capoliveri, Marciana, Marciana Marina, Porto Azzurro, Rio Marina and Rio nell'Elba, all fall under the province of Livorno, for a total of about 30 thousand inhabitants, which increases considerably during the summer. Geography The island of Elba is the largest remaining stretch of land from the ancient tract that connected the Italian peninsula to Corsica, after the other islands of the Tuscan Archipelago. The northern coasts are bathed by the Ligurian Sea, the eastern coast skirts the Piombino Channel, the southern coast embraces the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Corsica channel divides the western tip of the Island from neighboring Corsica. The terrain is quite varied, and divided into several parts depending on its conformation and geology in which it was formed: • The mountainous and more recent part of the Island can be found to the west, the center of which is dominated by Mount Capanne (1018 m asl), also called the "roof of the Tuscan Archipelago." • The central part of the island is a mostly flat section with the width being reduced to just four kilometers. It is where the major centers can be found: Portoferraio, Campo nell'Elba. • To the east, is the oldest part of the island, formed over 400 million years ago. In the hilly area, dominated by Monte Calamita, are deposits of iron that made Elba famous. Hydrography Rivers rarely exceed 3 km in length on the Island and it is common for those of lesser length to dry up over the summer period. The most important, sorted by length, are: . Fosso San Francesco 6.5 km; • Fosso Barion, 5.1 km; • Fosso Redinoce, 2 km At the foot of Mount Capanne between Poggio and Marciana, is a natural spring called, Fonte Napoleone, which is regarded for its quality, and one of the best sources of drinking water in Italy. This can be seen by the locals usage and the ‘Tuscan Archipelago National park’ logo which is affixed to the bottled water on sale there. Climate The climate of the Island is predominantly Mediterranean, except for Mount Capanne, where winters tend to be moderately cold. Precipitation is concentrated in autumn and comprises of a normal rainfall. The table below shows the average temperatures for the islands by month. Mese Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Maximum Temperature (°C) 12 13 14 16 21 24 27 27 25 20 15 13 18,9 Minimum Temperatures(°C) 8 9 10 12 16 19 22 21 19 15 10 8 14,1 Rain Fall (mm) 61 53 51 47 28 24 13 30 51 82 86 69 595 History Originally inhabited by Ligures Ilvati who gave the ancient name Ilva, the island was well known from very ancient times for its iron resources and its valued mines. The Greeks called it Aethalia (fume) after the fumes of the furnaces for the metal production. The island was then taken by force by the Etruscans first and (after 480 BC) by the Romans. After the end of the Roman Empire, the island suffered from ravages by barbarians and Saracens. In the early 11th century it became a possession of the Republic of Pisa. When the latter, in 1398, was sold to the Visconti of Milan, the island was acquired by the Appiani, Lords of Piombino, who retained it for two centuries. In 1546 part of the island was handed over to Cosimo I de' Medici, who fortified Portoferraio, renaming it "Cosmopoli", while in 1577 the rest of the island returned to the Appiani. In 1603 Philip II of Spain captured Porto Azzurro and built there two fortresses. In 1802 the island became a French possession, and its economy flourished. Napoleon Bonaparte's exile to Elba, from a British engraving, 1814 Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, French emperor Napoleon I was exiled to Elba after his forced abdication in 1814 and arrived at Portoferraio on May 3, 1814 to begin his exile there. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men. Although he was nominally sovereign of Elba, the island was watched (more or less) by British naval patrols. During these months, partly to pass the time and partly out of a genuine concern for the well-being of the people, he carried out a series of economic and social reforms to improve the quality of life on Elba. Napoleon stayed on Elba for 300 days. His mistress on the island, Veronica Portelli, convinced him to return to France in attempt to regain his power. She helped him plan his escape from Elba and he returned to France on February 26 for the Hundred Days. After his defeat at Waterloo he was subsequently exiled again, this time to the barren and isolated South Atlantic island of Saint Helena. Napoleon's stay on Elba is the basis for the famous English language palindrome: "Able was I ere I saw Elba." It is for the connection with Napoleon that Elba is best known internationally. In the Congress of Vienna the island was given to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. In 1860 it became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy. French troops landed on Elba on June 17 1944, liberating the island from the Germans. Faulty intelligence and strong defences made the battle more difficult than expected. More recently, the island has become famed for its wine. It is today a renowned tourist resort. Transportation The island is connected to the mainland via the two ferry companies, Toremar and Moby Lines, both offering routes between Piombino and Portoferraio, the capital located in the north, Rio Marina and Porto Azzurro, on the east coast of the island. The Times and frequencies for each line, range from 5:10 to 20:30 in the winter and from 5:10 to 23:00 in the summer. The hydrofoil becomes available During the summer months, offering faster crossing times to Portoferraio. Tourism Tourism is the main source of income on Elba. Thanks to tourism, the population triples in the summer. Mountains Mount Capanne (the highest peak in the province of Livorno) offers the walker many possibilies to enjoy plus the views from its summit, 1019 m asl - During the summer months a cablecar running from Marciana (LI) can also be utilised to explore this area. The mountain is home to many animal species including the mouflon and wild boar that flourish despite the continuous influx of tourists who visit the mountain. Sub-aqua With a rich plethera of beaches and cliffs, the island of Elba offers a wide choice for scuba diving, ranging from diving accessible for the beginner to the more demanding under water thrill seeker. Some examples are: • The Pomonte wreck near the Ogliera reef found at a depth of only 10 feet on the sandy bottom, suitable for beginners; • Formiche of Zanca, found to the west of the islandwest near Capo Sant'Andrea, A vertical wall from 20 to 40 meters in height offering some spectacular examples of Paramuricea clavata; • Capo Stella, a demanding dive down to 41 meters full of grouper, moray eels, sea fans and red corals; • I Picchi di Pablo, from 8 to 33 meters deep, the walls of which are filled with white and yellow sea fans and sponges covered with yellow shrimp. • Lo Scoglietto di Portoferraio, a dive following a landslide to between 20 and 35 meters, with little current. Rich with barracuda, sea bream, snapper, grouper, corvina, moray eels and forkbeards. Where to Stay The island of Elba offers several types of accommodation, here is a list by type: Camping: The main areas for camping can be found on the southern coast, between Lido di Capoliveri, Lacona, Laconella, Margidore and Marina di Campo, surrounded mainly by green fragrant Mediterranean and pine forests. Hotels are scattered throughout the island, and vary by location; Portoazzurro, Marina di Campo, Marciana Marina, Capoliveri, Lacona, Rio Marina, Procchio. The Best Beaches Southern Coast: Margidore, Lacona, Laconella, Lido di Capoliveri, cabbage, Seccheto, Fetovaia, Marina di Campo (almost 2 km long), Pomonte. Western Coast: Is actually quite barren but some beaches can be found around Chiessi and Pomonte, notabley Pomonte, Patresi and Sant'Andrea. Northern Coast: There are many beaches to be found touring the northern coast. It should be noted that the closer you get towards Portoferraio the bottom shifts from sandy towards rocky. Beaches to remember: Marciana Marina, Procchio (fine sand), the Biodola (sandy), Scaglieri (sand), Enfola (sand and gravel), Acquaviva (white stones), Samson, Capo Bianco (white gravel, fantastic) Padulella and Ghiaie (similar to Capo Bianco), Schiopparello, Bagnaia and Nisporto. Eastern Coast: Cavo, Rio Marina, Ortano (often infested with jellyfish), Reale, Barbarossa, Naregno. Airport There is an airport on the island, Marina di Campo Airport. It's served by Intersky, with flights to Friedrichshafen, Munchen and Zurich. Note Corresponding Links Principato dell'Elba Hortus simplicium dell’Isola d’Elba Other Projects External Links Tourism in Elba Categoria:Luoghi di immersione in Italia | Elba |@lemmatized island:32 elba:23 locate:2 ligurian:2 sea:7 tyrrhenian:2 approximately:1 kilometer:2 coast:11 large:3 within:1 tuscan:5 archipelago:5 third:1 italy:3 km:6 along:1 pianosa:1 capraia:1 gorgona:1 montecristo:1 giglio:1 giannutri:1 part:7 national:2 park:2 divide:3 eight:1 municipality:1 portoferraio:8 main:3 one:2 others:1 campo:6 nell:3 capoliveri:4 marciana:6 marina:11 porto:3 azzurro:3 rio:5 fall:2 province:2 livorno:2 total:1 thousand:1 inhabitant:1 increase:1 considerably:1 summer:6 geography:1 remain:1 stretch:1 land:2 ancient:3 tract:1 connect:2 italian:1 peninsula:1 corsica:3 northern:3 bath:1 eastern:2 skirt:1 piombino:3 channel:2 southern:3 embrace:1 western:2 tip:1 neighbor:1 terrain:1 quite:2 varied:1 several:2 depend:1 conformation:1 geology:1 form:2 mountainous:1 recent:1 find:7 west:2 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depth:1 sandy:3 bottom:2 suitable:1 formiche:1 zanca:1 islandwest:1 capo:4 sant:2 andrea:2 vertical:1 wall:2 meter:4 height:1 spectacular:1 paramuricea:1 clavata:1 stella:1 demand:1 full:1 grouper:2 moray:2 eel:2 fan:2 red:1 coral:1 picchi:1 di:9 pablo:1 deep:1 fill:1 white:3 yellow:2 sponge:1 cover:1 shrimp:1 lo:1 scoglietto:1 landslide:1 little:1 current:1 barracuda:1 bream:1 snapper:1 corvina:1 forkbeards:1 type:2 accommodation:1 list:1 camping:1 camp:1 lido:2 lacona:3 laconella:2 margidore:2 surround:1 mainly:1 green:1 fragrant:1 pine:1 forest:1 hotel:1 scatter:1 throughout:1 vary:1 location:1 portoazzurro:1 procchio:2 cabbage:1 seccheto:1 fetovaia:1 almost:1 long:1 actually:1 around:1 chiessi:1 notabley:1 patresi:1 tour:1 note:2 closer:1 get:1 towards:2 shift:1 rocky:1 remember:1 fine:1 sand:3 biodola:1 scaglieri:1 enfola:1 gravel:2 acquaviva:1 stone:1 samson:1 bianco:2 fantastic:1 padulella:1 ghiaie:1 similar:1 schiopparello:1 bagnaia:1 nisporto:1 cavo:1 ortano:1 often:1 infest:1 jellyfish:1 reale:1 barbarossa:1 naregno:1 airport:3 serve:1 intersky:1 flight:1 friedrichshafen:1 munchen:1 zurich:1 correspond:1 link:2 principato:1 dell:2 hortus:1 simplicium:1 isola:1 project:1 external:1 categoria:1 luoghi:1 immersione:1 italia:1 |@bigram tyrrhenian_sea:2 tuscan_archipelago:5 bottled_water:1 jan_feb:1 feb_mar:1 mar_apr:1 aug_sep:1 sep_oct:1 oct_nov:1 nov_dec:1 napoleon_bonaparte:1 grand_duchy:1 duchy_tuscany:1 wild_boar:1 scuba_diving:1 sant_andrea:2 moray_eel:2 marina_di:4 sand_gravel:1 external_link:1 |
6,205 | Politics_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia | The politics of the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary representative democratic republic. The President of the Federated States of Micronesia is both head of state and head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government, while legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The internal workings of the FSM are governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The Federation is in free association with the United States; the Compact of Free Association entered into force 3 November 1986. Executive branch | President || Manny Mori || || May 11, 2007 </tr> | Vice-President || Alik L. Alik || ||May 11, 2007</tr> |} The president and the vice president are elected by Congress from among the four senators-at-large for four-year terms. The president is both the chief of state and head of government. Their congressional seats are then filled by special elections. The president and vice president are supported by an appointed cabinet. Legislative branch The Congress has fourteen non-partisan members, ten members elected for a two year term in single-seat constituencies and four members elected for a four-year term by proportional representation. Political parties and elections A head of state (the President) and a legislature are elected on a national level. As far as available, at the last elections, 8 March 2005, only non-partisans have been elected. The president is elected for a four-year term by the parliament. There are no political parties in Micronesia, though they are not banned. Political allegiances depend mainly on family and island-related factors. Judicial branch The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court, which is divided into trial and appellate divisions. The president appoints judges with the advice and consent of the Congress. Administrative divisions The FSM is divided in four states: Chuuk (Truk), Kosrae, Pohnpei, and Yap. Each has its own constitution, elected legislature, and governor. The state governments maintain considerable power, particularly regarding the implementation of budgetary policies. International organization participation AsDB, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFC, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, OPCW, PIF, Sparteca, SPC, UN, UNCTAD, WHO, WMO See also Federated States of Micronesia External links Government Government of the Federated States of Micronesia Adam Carr's Election Archive | Politics_of_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia |@lemmatized politics:1 federated:3 state:10 micronesia:5 fsm:3 take:1 place:1 framework:1 federal:1 parliamentary:1 representative:1 democratic:1 republic:1 president:11 head:5 government:7 executive:3 power:4 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 parliament:2 judiciary:2 independent:1 legislature:3 internal:1 working:1 govern:1 constitution:2 guarantee:1 fundamental:1 human:1 right:1 establish:1 separation:1 governmental:1 federation:1 free:2 association:2 united:1 compact:1 enter:1 force:1 november:1 branch:3 manny:1 mori:1 may:2 tr:2 vice:3 alik:2 l:1 elect:7 congress:3 among:1 four:6 senator:1 large:1 year:4 term:4 chief:1 congressional:1 seat:2 fill:1 special:1 election:4 support:1 appoint:1 cabinet:1 fourteen:1 non:2 partisan:2 member:3 ten:1 two:1 single:1 constituency:1 proportional:1 representation:1 political:3 party:2 national:1 level:1 far:1 available:1 last:1 march:1 though:1 ban:1 allegiance:1 depend:1 mainly:1 family:1 island:1 related:1 factor:1 judicial:1 supreme:1 court:1 divide:2 trial:1 appellate:1 division:2 appoints:1 judge:1 advice:1 consent:1 administrative:1 chuuk:1 truk:1 kosrae:1 pohnpei:1 yap:1 governor:1 maintain:1 considerable:1 particularly:1 regard:1 implementation:1 budgetary:1 policy:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 asdb:1 escap:1 g:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 ida:1 ifc:1 imf:1 intelsat:1 ioc:1 itu:1 opcw:1 pif:1 sparteca:1 spc:1 un:1 unctad:1 wmo:1 see:1 also:1 federate:1 external:1 link:1 adam:1 carr:1 archive:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 vice_president:3 legislative_branch:1 seat_constituency:1 proportional_representation:1 judicial_branch:1 supreme_court:1 advice_consent:1 participation_asdb:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_ida:1 imf_intelsat:1 ioc_itu:1 itu_opcw:1 un_unctad:1 external_link:1 |
6,206 | Endomorphism | In mathematics, an endomorphism is a morphism (or homomorphism) from a mathematical object to itself. For example, an endomorphism of a vector space V is a linear map ƒ: V → V, and an endomorphism of a group G is a group homomorphism ƒ: G → G. In general, we can talk about endomorphisms in any category. In the category of sets, endomorphisms are simply functions from a set S into itself. In any category, the composition of any two endomorphisms of X is again an endomorphism of X. It follows that the set of all endomorphisms of X forms a monoid, denoted End(X) (or EndC(X) to emphasize the category C). An invertible endomorphism of X is called an automorphism. The set of all automorphisms is a subgroup of End(X), called the automorphism group of X and denoted Aut(X). In the following diagram, the arrows denote implication: automorphism isomorphism endomorphism (homo)morphism Any two endomorphisms of an abelian group A can be added together by the rule (ƒ + g)(a) = ƒ(a) + g(a). Under this addition, the endomorphisms of an abelian group form a ring (the endomorphism ring). For example, the set of endomorphisms of Zn is the ring of all n × n matrices with integer entries. The endomorphisms of a vector space or module also form a ring, as do the endomorphisms of any object in a preadditive category. The endomorphisms of a nonabelian group generate an algebraic structure known as a nearring. Every ring with one is the endomorphism ring of its regular module, and so is a subring of an endomorphism ring of an abelian group, however there are rings which are not the endomorphism ring of any abelian group. Operator theory In any concrete category, especially for vector spaces, endomorphisms are maps from a set into itself, and may be interpreted as unary operators on that set, acting on the elements, and allowing to define the notion of orbits of elements, etc. Depending on the additional structure defined for the category at hand (topology, metric, ...), such operators can have properties like continuity, boundedness, and so on. More details should be found in the article about operator theory. See also morphism Frobenius endomorphism adjoint endomorphism External links Category of Endomorphisms and Pseudomorphisms. Victor Porton. 2005. - Endomorphisms of a category (particularly of a category with partially ordered morphisms) are also objects of certain categories. | Endomorphism |@lemmatized mathematics:1 endomorphism:12 morphism:3 homomorphism:2 mathematical:1 object:3 example:2 vector:3 space:3 v:3 linear:1 map:2 ƒ:4 group:8 g:5 general:1 talk:1 endomorphisms:13 category:11 set:7 simply:1 function:1 composition:1 two:2 x:9 follow:1 form:3 monoid:1 denoted:1 end:2 endc:1 emphasize:1 c:1 invertible:1 call:2 automorphism:3 automorphisms:1 subgroup:1 denote:2 aut:1 following:1 diagram:1 arrow:1 implication:1 isomorphism:1 homo:1 abelian:4 add:1 together:1 rule:1 addition:1 ring:9 zn:1 n:2 matrix:1 integer:1 entry:1 module:2 also:3 preadditive:1 nonabelian:1 generate:1 algebraic:1 structure:2 know:1 nearring:1 every:1 one:1 regular:1 subring:1 however:1 operator:4 theory:2 concrete:1 especially:1 may:1 interpret:1 unary:1 act:1 element:2 allow:1 define:2 notion:1 orbit:1 etc:1 depend:1 additional:1 hand:1 topology:1 metric:1 property:1 like:1 continuity:1 boundedness:1 detail:1 find:1 article:1 see:1 frobenius:1 adjoint:1 external:1 link:1 pseudomorphisms:1 victor:1 porton:1 particularly:1 partially:1 order:1 morphisms:1 certain:1 |@bigram endomorphism_ring:4 unary_operator:1 external_link:1 |
6,207 | English_orthography | English orthography is the alphabetic spelling system used by the English language. English orthography, like other alphabetic orthographies, uses a set of rules that generally governs how speech sounds are represented in writing. English has relatively complicated spelling rules when compared to other languages with alphabetic orthographies. Because of the complex history of the English language, nearly every sound can be legitimately spelled in more than one way, and many spellings can be pronounced in more than one way. Function of the letters Note: In the following discussion, only one or two common pronunciations of American and British English varieties are used in this article for each word cited. Other regional pronunciations may be possible for some words, but indicating all possible regional variants in the article is impractical. Phonemic representation Like most alphabetic systems, letters in English orthography may represent a particular sound. For example, the word cat (pronounced ) consists of three letters c, a, and t, in which c represents the sound , a the sound , and t the sound . Single letters or multiple sequences of letters may provide this function. Thus, the single letter c in the word cat represents the single sound . In the word ship (pronounced ), the digraph sh (two letters) represents the sound . In the word ditch, the three letters tch represent the sound . Less commonly, a single letter can represent more than one sound. The most common example is the letter x, which often represents more than one sound as in the prefix ex- where it represents the consonant cluster (for example, in the word ex-wife, pronounced ). The same letter (or sequence of letters) may indicate different sounds when the letter occurs in different positions. For instance, the digraph gh represents the sound at the end of single-syllable, single-morpheme words, such as cough (pronounced in many dialects of American English). At the beginning of syllables (i.e. the syllable onset), the digraph gh represents the sound , such as in the word ghost (pronounced or ). Furthermore, the sound value represented by a particular letter (or letters) is often restricted by its position within the word. Thus, the digraph gh never represents the sound in syllable onsets and never represents the sound in syllable codas. (Incidentally, this shows that ghoti does not follow English spelling rules to sound like fish.) Word origin Another type of spelling characteristic is related to word origin. For example, when representing a vowel, the letter y in non-word-final positions represents the sound in some words borrowed from Greek (reflecting an original upsilon), whereas the letter usually representing this sound in non-Greek words is the letter i. Thus, the word myth (pronounced ) is of Greek origin, while pith (pronounced ) is a Germanic word. Other examples include th representing (which is usually represented by t), ph representing (which is usually represented by f), and ch representing (which is usually represented by c or k) — the use of these spellings for these sounds often mark words that have been borrowed from Greek. Some, such as Brengelman (1970), have suggested that, in addition to this marking of word origin, these spellings indicate a more formal level of style or register in a given text, although Rollins (2004) finds this point to be exaggerated as there would be many exceptions where a word with one of these spellings, such as ph for (like telephone), could occur in an informal text. Homophone differentiation Letters are also used to distinguish between homophones (words with the same pronunciation) that would otherwise have the same pronunciation and spelling but different meanings. The words hour and our are pronounced identically in some dialects (as or ). However, they are distinguished from each other orthographically by the addition of the letter h. Another example of this is the homophones plain and plane where both are pronounced , but are marked with two different orthographic representations of the vowel . Often this is because of the historical pronunciation of each word where, over time, two separate sounds become the same but the different spellings remain: plane used to be pronounced , but the sound merged with the sound in plain, making plain and plane homonyms. In written language, this may help to resolve potential ambiguities that would arise otherwise (cf. He's breaking the car vs. He's braking the car). This can be seen in a positive light since with written language (unlike spoken language) the reader usually has no recourse to ask the writer for clarification (whereas in a conversation, the listener can ask the speaker about lexical uncertainties). Some proponents of spelling reform view homophones as undesirable and would prefer that they be eliminated. Doing so, however, would increase orthographic ambiguities that would need to be resolved via the linguistic context. Marking sound changes in other letters Another function of English letters is to provide information about other aspects of pronunciation or the word itself. Rollins (2004) uses the term "markers" for letters with this function. Letters may mark different types of information. One common type of marking is that of a different pronunciation of another letter within the word. An example of this is the letter e in the word cottage (pronounced or ). Here e indicates that the preceding g should represent the sound . This contrasts with the more common value of g in word-final position as the sound , such as in tag (pronounced ). A particular letter may have more than one pronunciation-marking role. Besides the marking of word-final g as indicating as in cottage, the letter e may also mark an altered pronunciation for other vowels. In the pair ban and bane, the a of ban has the value , whereas the a of bane is marked by the e as having the value . Functionless letters Other letters have no linguistic function. For example, there is a general "graphotactic" constraint in English orthography against words that end in the letter v. Thus, in order to satisfy this constraint, syllable-final v is followed by the letter e, such as in the word give. Spellings such as rev and slav are extremely rare. Multiple functionality A given letter or (letters) may have dual functions. For example, the letter i in the word cinema has a sound-representing function (representing the sound ) and a pronunciation-marking function (marking the c as having the value opposed to the value ). Underlying representation Like many other alphabetic orthographies, English spelling does not represent non-contrastive phonetic sounds (that is, sub-phonemic sounds). The fact that the letter t is pronounced with aspiration at the beginning of words is never indicated in the spelling, and, indeed, this phonetic detail is probably not noticeable to the average native speaker not trained in the phonetics. However, unlike some orthographies, English orthography often represents a very abstract underlying representation (or morphophonemic form) of English words. Rollins 2004: 16-19; Chomsky & Halle 1968; Chomsky 1970 In these cases, a given morpheme (i.e. a component of a word) is represented with a single spelling despite the fact that it is pronounced differently (i.e. has different surface representations) in different environments. An example is the past tense suffix -ed, which may be pronounced variously as , , or (for example, dip , dipped , boom , boomed , loot , looted ). Because these different pronunciations of -ed can be predicted by a few phonological rules, only a single spelling is needed in the orthography. Another example involves the vowel differences (with accompanying stress pattern changes) in several related words. For instance, the word photographer is derived from the word photograph by adding the derivational suffix -er. When this suffix is added, the vowel pronunciations change: {| cellspacing="4" ! Spelling ! Pronunciation |- | photograph | or |- | photographer | or |} It may be argued that the underlying representation of photo is a single phonological form, such as ||. Since the (surface) pronunciation of the vowels can be predicted by phonological rules according to the different stress patterns, the orthography only needs to have one spelling that corresponds to the underlying form. Other examples of this type, include words with the -ity suffix (as in agile vs agility, acid vs acidity, divine vs divinity, sane vs sanity, etc.). (See also: Trisyllabic laxing.) Another example includes words like sign (pronounced ) and bomb (pronounced or ) where the "silent" letters g and b, respectively, seem to be "inert" letters with no functional role. However, there are the related words signature and bombard in which the so-called "silent" letters are pronounced and or , respectively. Here it may be argued that the underlying representation of sign and bomb is || and || or ||, in which the underlying || and || are only pronounced in the surface forms when followed by certain suffixes (-ature, -ard). Otherwise, the || and || are not realized in the surface pronunciation (e.g. when standing alone, or when followed by suffixes like -ing or -er). In these cases, the orthography indicates the underlying consonants that are present in certain words but are absent in other related words. Other examples include the t in fast / and fasten / and the h in heir / and inherit . Another example includes words like mean (pronounced ) and meant (pronounced ). Here the vowel spelling ea is pronounced differently in the two related words. Thus, again the orthography uses only a single spelling that corresponds to the single morphemic form rather than to the surface phonological form. English orthography does not always provide an underlying representation; sometimes it provides an intermediate representation between the underlying form and the surface pronunciation. This is the case with the spelling of the regular plural morpheme, which is written as either -s (as in tick, ticks and mite, mites) or -es (as in box, boxes). Here the spelling -s is pronounced either or (depending on the environment, e.g. ticks and pigs ) while -es is pronounced (e.g. boxes or ). Thus, there are two different spellings that correspond to the single underlying representation || of the plural suffix and the three surface forms. The spelling indicates the insertion of before the in the spelling -es, but does not indicate the devoiced distinctly from the unaffected in the spelling -s. The abstract representation of words as indicated by the orthography can be considered to be advantageous since the etymological relationships between words are very apparent to English readers. This makes writing English more complex, but arguably makes reading English more efficient. Chomsky 1970:294; Rollins 2004:17 However, very abstract underlying representations, such as that of Chomsky & Halle (1968) or of underspecification theories, are sometimes considered too abstract to accurately reflect the linguistic knowledge of native speakers. Followers of these arguments believe the less abstract surface forms are more "psychologically real" and thus more useful in terms of pedagogy. Rollins 2004:17-19 Spelling patterns Spelling to sound correspondences Vowels In a generative approach to English spelling, Rollins (2004) identifies twenty main orthographic vowels of stressed syllables that are grouped into four main categories: "Lax", "Tense", "Heavy", "Tense-R". (As this classification is based on orthography, not all orthographic "lax" vowels are necessarily phonologically lax.) + General American Letter Lax Tense Heavy Tense-R a man mane mar mare e met mete her here i win wine fir fire o mop mope for, fore u hug huge cur cure u push rude -- sure + Received Pronunciation (British) Letter Lax Tense Heavy Tense-R a man mane mar mare e met mete her here i win wine fir fire o mop mope for, fore u hug huge cur cure u push rude -- sure For instance, the letter a can represent the lax vowel , tense , heavy or , or tense-r or . Heavy and tense-r vowels are the respective lax and tense counterparts followed by the letter r. Tense vowels are distinguished from lax vowels with a "silent" e letter that is added at the end of words. Thus, the letter a in hat is lax , but when the letter e is added in the word hate the letter a is tense . Similarly, heavy and tense-r vowels pattern together: the letters ar in car are heavy , the letters ar followed by silent e in the word care are . The letter u represents two different vowel patterns, one being , the other . There is no distinction between heavy and tense-r vowels with the letter o, and the letter u in the pattern does not have a heavy vowel member. Besides silent e, another strategy for indicating tense and tense-r vowels, is the addition of another orthographic vowel forming a digraph. In this case, the first vowel is usually the main vowel while the second vowel is the "marking" vowel. For example, the word man has a lax a pronounced , but with the addition of i (as the digraph ai) in the word main the a is marked as tense and pronounced . These two strategies produce words that are spelled differently but pronounced identically, as in mane (silent e strategy), main (digraph strategy) and Maine (both strategies). The use of two different strategies relates to the function of distinguishing between words that would otherwise be homonyms. Besides the 20 basic vowel spellings, Rollins (2004) has a reduced vowel category (representing the sounds ) and a miscellaneous category (representing the sounds and +V, +V, V+V). Consonants Notes: In the tables, the hyphen has two different meanings. A hyphen after the letter indicates that it must be at the beginning of a syllable, eg j- in jumper and ajar. A hyphen before the letter indicates that it cannot be at the beginning of a word, eg -ck in sick and ticket. More specific rules take precedence over more general ones, eg 'c- before e, i or y' takes precedence over 'c'. Where the letter combination is described as 'word-final', inflectional suffixes may be added without changing the pronunciation, eg catalogues. The dialect used is RP. Isolated foreign borrowings are excluded. This relies highly on knowledge of where the stress in a word is, but English has no consistent way of showing stress. Spelling Major value (IPA) Examples of major value Other values (IPA) b, -bb bit, rabbit c before e, i or y centre, city, cyst, face, prince cello special Celts c cat, cross -cc before e or i accept -cc account ch chin chord, archaic machine, parachute, chef -ck tack, ticket ct- ctenoid d, -dd dive, ladder graduate, gradual (both may also be pronounced as in RP) -dg before e, i, or y ledger f, -ff fine, off of g before e, i or y gentle, magic, gyrate, page, college get, give, girl, begin garage g, -gg go, great, stagger gh- ghost, ghastly -gh Ø dough, high laugh, enough -ght right, daughter, bought gn- gnome, gnaw h- after ex Ø exhibit, exhaust exhale h- he, alcohol Ø vehicle, honest, hono(u)r j- jump, ajar Hallelujah JeanØ Marijuana k key, bake kn- knee, knock l, -ll- line, valley -ll, -l- all, whale -ll, -l- in some dialects all, whale m, -mm mine, hammer -mb climb, plumber mn- mnemonic -mn hymn, autumn -n before link, plonk, anchor n, -nn nice, funny -ng long, singing England, finger, stronger danger, passenger p, -pp pill, happy ph physical, photograph /p/ Phuket,/v/ Stephen pn- pneumonia, pneumatic ps- psychology, psychic pt- ptomaine q Iraq r-, -rr ray, parrot Ø iron rh, -rrh rhyme, diarrhoea -r, -rr, -rrhwhen not followedby a vowel sound Ø in non-rhoticdialects such as RP, in rhoticdialects such as GA bar, bare, catarrh -s- between vowels rose, prison house, base word-final -s morphemeafter a voiceless sound pets, shops word-final -s morpheme after a voiced sound beds, magazines s, -ss song, ask, message scissors, dessert, dissolve sugar, tissue, agression vision sc- before e, i or y scene, scissors, scythe sceptic fascism sch- school schist, schedule (this may be pronounced as ) schism sh shin t, -tt ten, bitter ratio, Martian question, bastionØ castle, listen -tch batch, kitchen th or thin, them thyme, Thames eighth v, -vv vine, bovver w- we Ø sword, answer wh- before o who, whole wh- ( in dialects where this phoneme exists) wheel wr- wrong x- xylophone Xiao -xc before e or i excellent, excited -xc excuse -x box anxiety anxious y- yes z, -zz zoo, fuzz pizza Combinations of consonant and vowel letters Spelling Major value (IPA) Examples of major value Minor value (IPA) Examples of minor value Exceptions qu- queen, quick liquor, mosquito -cqu acquaint, acquire gu- before e or i guest, guide linguistics alf (RP) (GA) calf, half alm calm, almond salmon olm RP, GA holm (oak) alk walk, chalk olk yolk, folk al, all bald, call, falcon shall ol RP, /oʊɫ/ GA fold, old oll roll unstressed ex- before a vowel or h exist, examine, exhaust exhale unstressed ci- before a vowel special, gracious species unstressed sci- before a vowel conscience unstressed -si before a vowel expansion division, illusion unstressed -ssi before a vowel mission unstressed -ti before a vowel nation, ambitious equation patio, cation unstressed -ture nature, picture unstressed -sure leisure, treasure unstressed -zure seizure, azure unstressed -ften soften, often unstressed -sten listen, fasten tangsten, Austen /sten/ sten -scle corpuscle, muscle -(a)isle aisle, isle, enisle, lisle, Carlisle FR Lisle unstressed -stle whistle, rustle word-final -le after a consonant little, table word-final -re after a consonant metre, fibre FR célèbre, macabre, entendre, propre, théâtre, d'etre /reɪ/ SP padre word-final -ngue tongue distingué, merengue, dengue(+/ŋgi/) word-final -gue catalogue, plague, colleague argue, redargue, ague, Montague /gweɪ/ segue word-final -que mosque, bisque -qué : FR appliqué, communiqué, manqué, risqué /kjuː/ barbeque(barbecue) word-final -ed morpheme after /t/ or /d/* waited word-final -ed morpheme after a voiceless sound* topped word-final -ed morpheme after a voiced sound* failed, ordered word-final -es morpheme** washes, boxes * There is no way to tell if it is the morpheme or an integral part of the word. Compare snaked and naked. ** Same as above; compare the two pronunciations of axes. Small text indicates rare words. Loans words: SP for Spanish, FR for French. Sound to spelling correspondences The following table shows for each sound, the various spelling patterns used to denote it. The symbol "…" stands for an intervening consonant. The letter sequences are in order of frequency with the most common first. Some of these patterns are very rare or unique, such as au for the sound in laugh (some accents). In some cases, the spellings shown are found in only one known English word (such as "mh" for , or "yrrh" for ). Consonants IPA spelling example p, pp, ph, pe, gh pill, happy, Phuket, tape, hiccough b, bb, bh, p (in some dialects) bit, rabbit, Bhutan, thespian t, tt, ed, pt, th, ct ten, bitter, topped, pterodactyl, thyme, ctenoid d, dd, ed, dh, th (in some dialects) dive, ladder, failed, dharma, them g, gg, gue, gh go, stagger, catalogue, ghost c, k, ck, ch, cc, qu, q, cq, cu, que, kk, kh cat, key, tack, chord, account, liquor, Iraq, acquaint, biscuit, mosque, trekker, khan m, mm, mb, mn, mh, gm, chm mine, hammer, climb, hymn, mho, diaphragm, drachm n, nn, kn, gn, pn, nh, cn, mn, ng (in some dialects) nice, funny, knee, gnome, pneumonia, piranha, cnidarian, mnemonic, fighting ng, n, ngue, ngh sing, link, tongue, Singh r, rr, wr, rh, rrh ray, parrot, wrong, rhyme, diarrh(o)ea f, ph, ff, gh, pph, u, th (in some dialects) fine, physical, off, laugh, sapphire, lieutenant (Br), thin v, vv, f, ph vine, savvy, of, Stephen th, chth, phth, tth thin, chthonic, phthisis, Matthew th them, breathe s, c, ss, sc, st, ps, sch (in some dialects), cc, se, ce, z (in some dialects) song, city, mess, scene, listen, psychology, schism, flaccid, horse, juice, citizen s, z, x, zz, ss, ze, c (in some dialects) has, zoo, xylophone, fuzz, scissors, breeze, electricity sh, ti, ci, ssi, si, ss, ch, s, sci, ce, sch, sc shin, nation, special, mission, expansion, tissue, machine, sugar, conscience, ocean, schmooze, crescendo si, s, g, z, j, zh, ti, sh (in some dialects) division, leisure, genre, seizure, jeté, Zhytomyr, equation, Pershing ch, t, tch, ti, c, cz, tsch chin, nature, batch, bastion (some accents), cello, Czech, Deutschmark g, j, dg, dge, d, di, gi, ge, dj, gg magic, jump, ledger, bridge, graduate, soldier, Belgian, dungeon, Djibouti, exaggerate h, wh, j, ch he, who, fajita, chutzpah y, i, j, ll yes, onion, hallelujah, tortilla l, ll, lh line, hallo, Lhasa -ll, -l ball, halt w, u, o, ou, wh (in most dialects) we, queen, choir, Ouija board, what wh (in some dialects) wheel Vowels IPA spelling example e, ea, ee, e…e, ae, ei, i…e, ie, eo, oe, ie...e, ay, ey, i, y, oi, ue, ey, a be, beach, bee, cede, Caesar, deceit, machine, field, people, amoeba, hygiene, quay, key, ski, city, chamois, Portuguese, geyser (Br), karaoke i, y, ui, e, ee, ie, o, u, a, ei, ee, ia, ea, i...e, ai, ey, oe bit, myth, build, pretty, been (some accents), sieve, women, busy, damage, counterfeit, carriage, mileage, medicine, bargain, Ceylon, oedema oo, u, o, u…e, ou, ew, ue, o…e, ui, eu, oeu, oe, ough, wo, ioux, ieu, ault, oup, w tool, luminous, who, flute, soup, jewel, true, lose, fruit, maneuver (US), manoeuvre (Br), canoe, through, two, Sioux, lieutenant (US), Sault Sainte Marie, coup, cwm oo, u, o, oo...e, or, ou, oul look, full, wolf, gooseberry, worsted, courier, should a, a…e, ay, ai, ai...e, aig, aigh, ao, au, e (é), e...e, ea, ei, ei...e, eig, eigh, ee (ée), eh, et, ey, ez, er, ie, ae, eg paper, rate, pay, rain, cocaine, arraign, straight, gaol (Br), gauge, ukulele (café), crepe, steak, veil, beige, reign, eight, matinee (soirée), eh, ballet, obey, chez, dossier, lingerie (US), reggae, thegn a, e, o, u, ai, ou, eig, y, ah, ough, gh, ae, oi another, anthem, awesome, atrium, mountain, callous, foreign, beryl, Messiah, borough (Br), Edinburgh, Michael, porpoise o, o…e, oa, ow, ou, oe, oo, eau, oh, ew, au, aoh, ough, eo so, bone, boat, know, soul, foe, brooch, beau, oh, sew, mauve, pharaoh, furlough, yeoman e, ea, a, ae, ai, ay, ea…e, ei, eo, ie, ieu, u, ue, oe met, weather, many, aesthetic, said, says, cleanse, heifer, jeopardy, friend, lieutenant (Br), bury, guess, foetid a, ai, al, au, i hand, plaid, salmon, laugh (some accents), meringue u, o, o…e, oe, ou, oo, wo sun, son, come, does, touch, flood, twopennce a, au, aw, ough, augh, o, oa, oo, al, uo, u fall, author, jaw, bought, caught, cord, broad, door, walk, fluorine (Br), sure (some accents) o, a, eau, ach, au, ou lock, watch, bureaucracy, yacht, sausage, cough i…e, i, y, igh, ie, ei, eigh, uy, ai, ey, ye, eye, y…e, ae, ais, is, ig, ic, ay, ui fine, Christ, try, high, tie, eidos, height, buy, aisle, geyser (US), dye, eye, type, maestro, aisle, isle, sign, indict, kayak, guide ar, a, er, ear, a…e, ua, aa, au, ou car, father, sergeant, heart, are, guard, bazaar, aunt, our (some accents) er, ar, ere, are, aire, eir, air, aa, aer, ayr, ear stationery (some accents), vary, where, ware, millionaire, heir, hair, Aaron, aerial, Ayr, bear oi, oy, aw, uoy oy…e, eu foil, toy, lawyer, buoy, gargoyle, Freudian ou, ow, ough, au, ao out, now, bough, tau, Laos er, or, ur, ir, yr, our, ear, err, eur, yrrh, ar, oeu, olo, uer fern, worst, turn, thirst, myrtle, journey, earth, err, amateur, myrrh, grammar, hors d'oeuvre, colonel, Guernsey u, u…e, eu, ue, iew, eau, ieu, ueue, ui, ewe, ew music*, use, feud, cue, view, beautiful*, adieu*, queue, nuisance*, ewe, few, * in some dialects, see Yod dropping Diacritics English includes some words that can be written with accent marks. These words have mostly been imported from other languages, usually French. But it is increasingly rare for writers of English to actually use the accent marks for common words, even in very formal writing. The strongest tendency to retain the accent is in words that are atypical of English morphology and therefore still perceived as slightly foreign. For example, café and pâté both have a pronounced final e, which would be "silent" by the normal English pronunciation rules. Some examples: appliqué, attaché, blasé, bric-à-brac, brötchen, Included in Webster's Third New International Dictionary,1981 café, cliché, crème, crêpe, façade, fiancé(e), flambé, naïve, naïveté, né(e), papier-mâché, passé, piñata, protégé, raison d’être, résumé, risqué, über-, vis-à-vis, voilà. Some words such as rôle and hôtel were first seen with accents when they were borrowed into English, but now the accent is almost never used. The words were considered very French borrowings when first used in English, even accused by some of being foreign phrases used where English alternatives would suffice, but today their French origin is largely forgotten. The accent on "élite" has disappeared from most publications today, though Time and the New Yorker magazines still use it. For some words such as "soupçon" however, the only spelling found in English dictionaries (the Oxford English Dictionary and others) uses the diacritic. Italics, with appropriate accents, are generally applied to foreign terms that are uncommonly used in or have not been assimilated into English: for example, adiós, coup d'état, crème brûlée, pièce de résistance, raison d'être, über (übermensch), vis-à-vis. It was formerly common in English to use a diaeresis mark to indicate a hiatus: for example, coöperate, daïs, reëlect. The New Yorker and Technology Review magazines still use it for this purpose, even though this increasingly rare in modern English. Nowadays the diaeresis is normally left out (cooperate), or a hyphen is used (co-operate). It is, however, still common in loanwords such as naïve and noël. Written accents are also used occasionally in poetry and scripts for dramatic performances to indicate that a certain normally unstressed syllable in a word should be stressed for dramatic effect, or to keep with the metre of the poetry. This use is frequently seen in archaic and pseudoarchaic writings with the "-ed" suffix, to indicate that the "e" should be fully pronounced, as with cursèd. In certain older texts (typically British), the use of ligatures is common in words such as archæology, diarrhœa, and encyclopædia. Such words have Latin or Greek origin. Nowadays, the ligatures have been generally replaced in British English by the separated digraph "ae" and "oe" ("encyclopaedia", "diarrhoea"; but usually "economy", "ecology") and in American English by "e" ("encyclopedia", "diarrhea"; but usually "paean", "amoeba", "oedipal", "Caesar"). For information on entering diacritics and ligatures on keyboards, see British and American keyboards, keyboard layouts. Irregularities The English spelling system, compared to the systems used in other languages, is quite irregular and complex. Although French presents a similar degree of difficulty when encoding (writing), English is more difficult when decoding (reading). English has never had any formal regulating authority, like the Spanish Real Academia Española, Italian Accademia della Crusca or the French Académie française, so attempts to regularize or reform the language, including spelling reform, have usually met with failure. The only significant exceptions were the reforms of Noah Webster which resulted in many of the differences between British and American spelling, such as center/centre, and dialog/dialogue. (Other differences, such as -ize/-ise in realize/realise etc, came about separately; see American and British English spelling differences for details.) Besides the quirks the English spelling system has inherited from its past, there are other idiosyncrasies in spelling that make it tricky to learn. English contains 24-27 (depending on dialect) separate consonant phonemes and, depending on dialect, anywhere from fourteen to twenty vowels. However, there are only 26 letters in the modern English alphabet, so there cannot be a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. Many sounds are spelled using different letters or multiple letters, and for those words whose pronunciation is predictable from the spelling, the sounds denoted by the letters depend on the surrounding letters. For example, the digraph "th" represents two different sounds (the voiced interdental fricative and the voiceless interdental fricative) (see Pronunciation of English th), and the voiceless alveolar fricative can be represented by the letters "s" and "c". Furthermore, in most recent loanwords, English makes no attempt to Anglicise the spellings of these words, and preserves the foreign spellings, even when they employ exotic conventions, like the Polish "cz" in "Czech" or the Old Norse "fj" in "fjord" (although New Zealand English exclusively spells it "fiord"). In fact, instead of loans being respelled to conform to English spelling standards, sometimes the pronunciation changes as a result of pressure from the spelling. One example of this is the word "ski", which was adopted from Norwegian in the mid-18th century, although it didn't become common until 1900. It used to be pronounced "shee", which is similar to the Norwegian pronunciation, but the increasing popularity of the sport after the middle of the 20th century helped the "sk" pronunciation replace it. Of course, such a philosophy can be taken too far. For instance, there was also a period when the spellings of words was altered in what is now regarded as a misguided attempt to make them conform to what were perceived to be the etymological origins of the words. For example, the letter "b" was added to "debt" in an attempt to link it to the Latin debitum, and the letter "s" in "island" is a misplaced attempt to link it to Latin insula instead of the Norse word igland, which is the true origin of the English word. The letter "p" in "ptarmigan" has no etymological justification whatsoever. Some are just randomly changed: for example, 'score' used to be spelled 'skor'. The spelling of English continues to evolve. Many loanwords come from languages where the pronunciation of vowels corresponds to the way they were pronounced in Old English, which is similar to the Italian or Spanish pronunciation of the vowels, and is the value the vowel symbols [a], [e], [i], [o], and [u] have in the International Phonetic Alphabet. As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing "foreign" words in English, and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system. For example, Hindu used to be spelled "Hindoo", and the name "Maria" used to be pronounced like the name "Mariah", but was changed to conform to this system. It has been argued that this influence probably started with the introduction of many Italian words into English during the Renaissance, in fields like music, from which come the words "andante", "viola", "forte", etc. Commercial advertisers have also had an effect on English spelling. In attempts to differentiate their products from others, they introduce new or simplified spellings like "lite" instead of "light", "thru" instead of "through", "smokey" instead of "smoky" (for "smokey bacon" flavour crisps), and "rucsac" instead of "rucksack". The spellings of personal names have also been a source of spelling innovations: affectionate versions of women's names that sound the same as men's names have been spelled differently: Nikki and Nicky, Toni and Tony, Jo and Joe. As examples of the idiosyncratic nature of English spelling, the combination "ou" can be pronounced in at least seven different ways: /ə/ in "famous", /ɜː/ in "journey", /aʊ/ in "loud", /ʊ/ in "should", /uː/ in "you", /aʊə/ in "flour", /ɔː/ in "tour"; and the vowel sound /iː/ in "me" can be spelt in at least ten different ways: "paediatric", "me", "seat", "seem", "ceiling", "people", "chimney", "machine", "siege", "phoenix". (These examples assume a more-or-less standard non-regional British English accent. Other accents will vary.) Sometimes everyday speakers of English change a counterintuitive pronunciation simply because it is counterintuitive. Changes like this are not usually seen as "standard", but can become standard if used enough. An example is the word "miniscule", which still competes with its original spelling of "minuscule", though this might also be because of analogy with the word "mini". "Ough" words The most notorious group of letters in the English language, ough, is commonly pronounced at least ten different ways, six of which are illustrated in the construct, Though the tough cough and hiccough plough him through, which is quoted by Robert A. Heinlein in The Door into Summer to illustrate the difficulties facing automated speech transcription and reading. Ough is in fact a word in its own right; it is an exclamation of disgust similar to "ugh". though: // as in toe; tough: // as in cuff; cough: as in off; hiccough (a now uncommon variant of hiccup): // as in up; plough: // as in cow; through: // as in boo; nought: // as in "naught". History of the English spelling system Throughout the history of the English language, these inconsistencies have gradually increased in number. There are a number of contributing factors. First, gradual changes in pronunciation, such as the Great Vowel Shift, account for a tremendous number of irregularities. Second, relatively recent loan words from other languages generally carry their original spellings, which are often not phonetic in English. The Romanization of languages (e.g., Chinese) using alphabets derived from the Latin alphabet has further complicated this problem, for example when pronouncing Chinese place names. Third, some prescriptivists have had partial success in their attempts to normalize the English language, forcing a change in spelling but not in pronunciation. The regular spelling system of Old English was swept away by the Norman Conquest, and English itself was eclipsed by French for three centuries, eventually emerging with its spelling much influenced by French. English had also borrowed large numbers of words from French, which for reasons of prestige and familiarity kept their French spellings. The spelling of Middle English, such as in the writings of Geoffrey Chaucer, is very irregular and inconsistent, with the same word being spelled differently, sometimes even in the same sentence. However, these were generally much better guides to pronunciation than modern English spelling can honestly claim. For example, the sound , normally written u, is spelled with an o in son, love, come, etc., due to Norman spelling conventions which prohibited writing u before v, m, n due to the graphical confusion that would result. (v, u, n were identically written with two minims in Norman handwriting; w was written as two u letters; m was written with three minims, hence mm looked like vun, nvu, uvu, etc.) Similarly, spelling conventions also prohibited final v. Hence the identical spellings of the three different vowel sounds in love, grove and prove are due to ambiguity in the Middle English spelling system, not sound change. There was also a series of linguistic sound changes towards the end of this period, including the Great Vowel Shift, which resulted in "i" in "mine" changing from a pure vowel to a diphthong. These changes for the most part did not detract from the rule-governed nature of the spelling system; but in some cases they introduced confusing inconsistencies, like the well-known example of the many pronunciations of "ough" (rough, through, though, trough, plough, etc.). Most of these changes happened before the arrival of printing in England. However, the arrival of the printing press merely froze the current system, rather than providing the impetus for a realignment of spelling with pronunciation. Furthermore, it introduced further inconsistencies, partly because of the use of typesetters trained abroad, particularly in the Low Countries. For example, the "h" in "ghost" was influenced by Dutch. The addition and deletion of a silent "e" at the ends of words was also sometimes used to make the right-hand margin line up more neatly. Righting the Mother Tongue: From Olde English to Email, the Twisted Story of English Spelling, by David Wolman. Collins, ISBN 9780061369254. By the time dictionaries were introduced in the mid 1600s, the spelling system of English started to stabilize, and by the 1800s, most words had set spellings. See also Alternative political spellings American and British English spelling differences Apostrophe Basic Roman spelling of English Classical compound Disc or disk (spelling) English language English phonology English plural English spelling reform Eth False etymology Ghoti I before E except after C Initial-stress-derived noun International Phonetic Alphabet for English Internet spelling List of English homographs List of English words containing Q not followed by U List of names in English with counterintuitive pronunciations List of the longest English words with one syllable List of unusual English words Long S Longest word in English Misspelling Regional accents of English Sensational spelling Spelling bee Thorn (letter) Three letter rule Weak form and strong form References Bibliography Albrow, K. H. (1972). The English writing system: Notes towards a description. Schools Council Program in Linguistics and English Teaching, papers series 2 (No. 2). London: Longmans, for the Schools Council. Aronoff, Mark. (1978). An English spelling convention. Linguistic Inquiry, 9, 299-303. Brengelman, Fred H. (1970). Sounds and letters in American English. In The English language: An introduction for teachers (pp. 77–98). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Brengelman, Fred H. (1970). Generative phonology and the teaching of spelling. English Journal, 59, 1113-1118. Brengelman, Fred H. (1971). English spelling as a marker of register and style. English Studies, 52, 201-209. Brengelman, Fred H. (1980). Orthoepists, printers, and the rationalization of English spelling. Journal of English and German Philology, 79, 332-354. Carney, Edward. (1994). A survey of English spelling. London: Routledge. Chomsky, Carol. (1970). Reading, writing and phonology. Harvard Educational Review, 40 (2), 287-309. Chomsky, Noam; & Halle, Morris. (1968). The sound pattern of English. New York: Harper and Row. (Particularly pp. 46, 48-49, 69, 80n, 131n, 148, 174n, 221). Cummings, D. W. (1988). American English spelling: An informal description. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press. Derwing, Bruce; Priestly, Tom; Rochet, Bernard. (1987). The description of spelling-to-sound relationships in English, French and Russian: Progress, problems and prospects. In P. Luelsdorff (Ed.), Orthography and phonology. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Dixon, Robert. (1977). Morphographic spelling program. Eugene, OR: Engelman-Becker Press. Emerson, Ralph. (1997). English spelling and its relation to sound. American Speech, 72 (3), 260-288. Hanna, Paul; Hanna, Jean; Hodges, Richard; & Rudorf, Edwin. (1966). Phoneme-grapheme correspondences as cues to spelling improvement. Washington, D.C.: US Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Jespersen, Otto. (1909). A modern English grammar on historical principles: Sounds and spellings (Part 1). Heidelberg: C. Winter. Luelsdorff, Philip A. (1994). Developmental morphographemics II. In W. C. Watt (Ed.), Writing systems and cognition (pp. 141–182). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. McCawley, James D. (1994). Some graphotactic constraints. In W. C. Watt (Ed.), Writing systems and cognition (pp. 115–127). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Mencken, H. L. (1936). The American language: An inquiry into the development of English in the United States (4th ed.). New York: A.A. Knopf. Rollings, Andrew G. (1998). Marking devices in the spelling of English. Atlantis, 20 (1), 129-143. Rollings, Andrew G. (1999). Markers in English and other orthographies. In L. Iglesias Rábade & P. Nuñez Pertejo (Eds.), Estudios de lingüística contrastiva (pp. 441–449). Universidad de Santiago. Rollings, Andrew G. (2003). System and chaos in English spelling: The case of the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative. 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The structure of English orthography. The Hague: Mouton. Venezky, Richard L. (1976). Notes on the history of English spelling. Visible Language, 10, 351-365. Venezky, Richard L. (1999). The American way of spelling. New York: Guildford Press. Weir, Ruth H. (1967). Some thoughts on spelling. In W. M Austin (Ed.), Papers in linguistics in honor of Leon Dostert (pp. 169–177). Janua Linguarum, Series Major (No. 25). The Hague: Mouton. External links Teaching Spelling - Information on teaching English spelling Rules for English Spelling: Adding Suffixes, QU Rule, i before e, Silent e, 'er' vs. 'or' White Paper Research based Tutoring of English Spelling Hou tu pranownse Inglish describes rules which predict a word's pronunciation from its spelling with 85% accuracy Free spelling information and Free spelling lessons in QuickTime movie format at The Phonics Page. | English_orthography |@lemmatized english:113 orthography:22 alphabetic:5 spelling:67 system:19 use:35 language:21 like:16 set:2 rule:12 generally:5 govern:1 speech:3 sound:58 represent:35 write:17 relatively:2 complicate:2 compare:4 complex:3 history:4 nearly:1 every:1 legitimately:1 spell:50 one:16 way:9 many:10 pronounce:32 function:9 letter:72 note:4 following:1 discussion:1 two:15 common:10 pronunciation:35 american:13 british:10 variety:1 article:2 word:106 cite:1 regional:4 may:15 possible:2 indicate:17 variant:2 impractical:1 phonemic:2 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6,208 | NC_(complexity) | In complexity theory, the class NC (for "Nick's Class") is the set of decision problems decidable in polylogarithmic time on a parallel computer with a polynomial number of processors. In other words, a problem is in NC if there exist constants and such that it can be solved in time using parallel processors. Stephen Cook coined the name "Nick's class" after Nick Pippenger, who had done extensive research on circuits with polylogarithmic depth and polynomial size. Just as the class P can be thought of as the tractable problems, so NC can be thought of as the problems that can be efficiently solved on a parallel computer. NC is a subset of P because parallel computers can be simulated by sequential ones. It is unknown whether NC = P, but most researchers suspect this to be false, meaning that there are probably some tractable problems which are "inherently sequential" and cannot significantly be sped up by using parallelism. Just as the class NP-Complete can be thought of as "probably intractable", so the class P-Complete, when using NC reductions, can be thought of as "probably not parallelizable" or "probably inherently sequential". The parallel computer in the definition can be assumed to be a parallel, random-access machine (PRAM). That is a parallel computer with a central pool of memory, and any processor can access any bit of memory in constant time. The definition of NC is not affected by the choice of how the PRAM handles simultaneous access to a single bit by more than one processor. It can be CRCW, CREW, or EREW. See PRAM for descriptions of those models. Equivalently, NC can be defined as those decision problems decidable by a uniform Boolean circuit (which can be calculated from the length of the input) with polylogarithmic depth and a polynomial number of gates. The NC Hierarchy NCi is the class of decision problems decidable by uniform boolean circuits with a polynomial number of gates and depth , or the class of decision problems solvable in time on a parallel computer with a polynomial number of processors. Clearly, we have which forms the NC-hierarchy. We can relate the NC classes to the space classes L and NL. From Papadimitriou 1994, Theorem 16.1: Nick's Class Similarly, we have that NCi is equivalent to the problems solvable on an alternating Turing machine with space and alternations. Open problem: Is NC proper? One major open question in complexity theory is whether or not every containment in the NC hierarchy is proper. It was observed by Papadimitriou that, if NCi = NCi+1 for some i, then NCi = NCj for all , and as a result, NCi = NC. This observation is known as NC-hierarchy collapse because even a single equality in the chain of containments implies that the entire NC hierarchy "collapses" down to some level i. Thus, there are 2 possibilities: It is widely believed that (1) is the case, although no proof as to the truth of either statement has yet been discovered. References Greenlaw, Raymond, James Hoover, and Walter Ruzzo. Limits To Parallel computation; P-Completeness Theory. ISBN 0-19-508591-4 Heribert Vollmer. Introduction to Circuit Complexity -- A Uniform Approach. ISBN 3-540-64310-9 Section 15.3: The class NC, pp.375–381. Lecture 12: Relation of NC to Time-Space Classes | NC_(complexity) |@lemmatized complexity:3 theory:3 class:13 nc:18 nick:4 set:1 decision:4 problem:10 decidable:3 polylogarithmic:3 time:5 parallel:9 computer:6 polynomial:5 number:4 processor:5 word:1 exist:1 constant:2 solve:2 use:3 stephen:1 cook:1 coin:1 name:1 pippenger:1 extensive:1 research:1 circuit:4 depth:3 size:1 p:5 think:4 tractable:2 efficiently:1 subset:1 simulate:1 sequential:3 one:3 unknown:1 whether:2 researcher:1 suspect:1 false:1 mean:1 probably:4 inherently:2 cannot:1 significantly:1 speed:1 parallelism:1 np:1 complete:2 intractable:1 reduction:1 parallelizable:1 definition:2 assume:1 random:1 access:3 machine:2 pram:3 central:1 pool:1 memory:2 bit:2 affect:1 choice:1 handle:1 simultaneous:1 single:2 crcw:1 crew:1 erew:1 see:1 description:1 model:1 equivalently:1 define:1 uniform:3 boolean:2 calculate:1 length:1 input:1 gate:2 hierarchy:5 nci:6 solvable:2 clearly:1 form:1 relate:1 space:3 l:1 nl:1 papadimitriou:2 theorem:1 similarly:1 equivalent:1 alternate:1 turing:1 alternation:1 open:2 proper:2 major:1 question:1 every:1 containment:2 observe:1 ncj:1 result:1 observation:1 know:1 collapse:2 even:1 equality:1 chain:1 implies:1 entire:1 level:1 thus:1 possibility:1 widely:1 believe:1 case:1 although:1 proof:1 truth:1 either:1 statement:1 yet:1 discover:1 reference:1 greenlaw:1 raymond:1 james:1 hoover:1 walter:1 ruzzo:1 limit:1 computation:1 completeness:1 isbn:2 heribert:1 vollmer:1 introduction:1 approach:1 section:1 pp:1 lecture:1 relation:1 |@bigram np_complete:1 nc_hierarchy:5 turing_machine:1 |
6,209 | Niger_River | The Niger River ( ) is the principal river of western Africa, extending about 4180 km (2600 miles). Its drainage basin is in area. ; online at Google Books Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in southeastern Guinea. It runs in a crescent through Mali, Niger, on the border with Benin and then through Nigeria, discharging through a massive delta, known as the Niger Delta of the Oil Rivers, into the Gulf of Guinea. The Niger is the third-longest river in Africa, exceeded only by the Nile and the Congo River (also known as the Zaïre River). Its main tributary is the Benue River. Geography The great bend of the Niger River, seen from space, creates a green arc through the brown of the Sahel and Savanna. The green mass on the left is the Niger Inland Delta, and on the far left are tributaries of the Senegal River. Mud houses on the center island at Lake Debo, a wide section of the Niger River The Niger River is a relatively "clear" river, carrying only a tenth as much sediment as the Nile because the Niger's headlands are located in ancient rocks that provide little silt. Reader, John. Africa. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2001. p. 191 Like the Nile, the Niger floods yearly; this begins in September, peaks in November, and finishes by May. Reader, p. 191 An unusual feature of the river is the Niger Inland Delta, which forms where its gradient suddenly decreases. The result is a region of braided streams, marshes, and lakes the size of Belgium; the seasonal floods make the Delta extremely productive for both fishing and agriculture. Reader, pp. 191-2 The Niger takes one of the most unusual routes of any major river, a boomerang shape that baffled European geographers for two millennia. Its source is just 240 km (150 mi) inland from the Atlantic Ocean, but the river runs away from the sea into the Sahara Desert, then takes a sharp right turn near the ancient city of Timbuktu (Tombouctou) and heads southeast to the Gulf of Guinea. This strange geography apparently came about because the Niger River is two ancient rivers joined together. The upper Niger, from the source past the trading city of Timbuktu to the bend in the current river, once emptied into a now-gone lake, while the lower Niger started in hills near that lake and flowed south into the Gulf of Guinea. As the Sahara dried up in 4000-1000 BC, the two rivers altered their courses and hooked up. (This explanation is generally accepted, although some geographers disagree.) The northern part of the river, known as the Niger bend, is an important area because it is the closest major river and source of water to that part of the Sahara desert. This made it the focal point of trade across the western Sahara, and the centre of the Sahelian kingdoms of Mali and Gao. The surrounding Niger River Basin is one of the distinct physiographic sections of the Sudan province, which in turn is part of the larger African massive physiographic division. European exploration While the true course of the Niger was presumably known to locals, it was a mystery to the outside world until the late 18th century. Ancient Romans such as Pliny (N.H. 5.10) thought that the river near Timbuktu was part of the Nile River, a belief also held by Ibn Battuta, while early European explorers thought that it flowed west and joined the Senegal River. Many European expeditions to plot the river were unsuccessful. In 1788 the African Association was formed in England to promote the exploration of Africa in the hopes of locating the Niger, and in June of 1786 the Scottish explorer Mungo Park was the first European to lay eyes on the river. The true course was established in his book Travels in the Interior of Africa, which appeared in 1799. de Gramonte, Sanche, 1991, The Strong Brown God: STory of the Niger River, Houghton Mifflin, ISBN 0395567564 In the nineteenth century, the river steamer provided entry to the vast interior. The Laird shipyard built such a vessel in 1832. Macgregor Laird designed an iron paddle steamer, the Alburkah, which was capable of making its own way to West Africa, where the Lairds hope to trade. Macgregor Laird took personal charge of the expedition. The Alburkah steamed south from Milford Haven in July 1832 with 48 on board, reaching the mouth of the Niger three months later, entering history as the first ocean-going iron ship. After making her way up one of the many streams of the Niger delta, the Alburkah progressed upstream on the main river as far as Lokoja, at the confluence with the Benue River. The expedition demonstrated that the Niger offered a highway into the continent for ocean vessels, and the performance of the iron steamer was a triumph. When the Alburkah returned to Liverpool in 1834, only nine of the original crew of 48 were alive, including a much weakened Macgregor Laird. In 2005 Norwegian adventurer Helge Hjelland apparently became the first known man ever to successfully journey through the entire lenght of the Niger River starting in Guinea. The trip was filmed by the adventurer himself and made into a documentary titled "The Cruellest Journey". Bergen International Film Festival - The Cruellest Journey Etymology A reconstruction of the Ravenna Cosmography placed on a Ptolemic map. The River Ger is visible at bottom. Note it is placed, following Ptolemy, as just south of the land of the Garamantes. in modern Libya, constricting the continent to the land from the central Sahara north. 1561 map of West Africa by Girolamo Ruscelli, from Italian translation of Ptolemy's Atlas “La Geograpfia Di Claudio Tolomeo Alessandrino, Nouvamente Tradatta Di Greco in Italiano”. The writer was attempting to square information gleaned from Portuguese trade along the coast with Ptolemy's world map. The mouths of the Senegal River and Gambia River are postulated to flow into a lake, which also feeds the "Ger"/Niger River, which in turn feeds the "Nile Lake" and Nile River. The origin of the river's name remains unclear. What is clear is that "Niger" was an appellation applied in the Mediterranean world from at least the Classical era, when knowledge of the area by Europeans was slightly better than fable. A careful study of Classical writings on the interior of the Sahara begins with Ptolemy, who mentions two rivers in the desert: the "Gir" and farther south, the "Ni-Gir". R. C. C. Law . The Garamantes and Trans-Saharan Enterprise in Classical Times The Journal of African History, Vol. 8, No. 2 (1967), pp. 181-200 Law carefuly ties togther the classical sources on this, and explains the mix of third hand reports and mythology that was current in both the European and Arab worlds. The first has been since identified as the Wadi Ghir on the north western edge of the Tuat, along the borders of modern Morocco and Algeria. Edward Herbert Bunbury, William H. Stahl. A History of Ancient Geography Among the Greeks and Romans: From the Earliest Ages Till the Fall of the Roman Empire J. Murray, London (1879) pp.626-627 This would likely have been as far as Ptolemy would have had consistent records. The Ni-Ger was likely speculation, although the name stuck as that of a river south of the Mediterranean's "known world". Suetonius reports Romans traveling to the "Ger", although in reporting any river's name derived from a Berber language, in which "gher" means "watercourse", confusion could easily arise. J. Oliver Thomson. History of Ancient Geography. Biblo & Tannen Publishers (1948) ISBN 0819601438 pp.258-9 Pliny connected these two rivers as one long watercourse which flowed (via lakes and underground sections) into the Nile J. Oliver Thomson (1948) pp.268 , a notion which persisted in the Arab and European worlds -- and further added the Senegal River as the "Ger" -- until the 19th century. The connection to the Nile River was made not simply because this was then known as the great river of "Aethiopia" (by which all lands south of the desert were called by Classical writers), but because the Nile flooded every summer. In Europe and Western Asia, floods are expected in the Spring, following snow melt. Classical authors explained the summer flood by calculating the time it took for flood waters to move down a river, and calculating how long the Nile must have been for the waters to travel from a mountain range in the spring. Of course, the cycle of the Nile is based on tropical rain patterns, not snow melt, something unknown to the Classical Mediterranean world. Law (1967) pp.182-4 Through the descriptions of Leo Africanus and even Ibn Battuta - despite his visit to the river -- the myth connecting the Niger to the Nile persisted. Different African languages have a variety of names for the river. The Niger is still called Jeliba or Joliba "great river" in Manding, Isa Ber "big river" in Songhay, and Oya, a Yoruba River Niger goddess. A good possibility for a source of "Niger" remains the Tuareg phrase gher n gheren "river of rivers", shortened to ngher, a local name used along the middle reaches of the river around Timbuktu. As Tuareg is a Berber language which traveled from the Mediterranean basin with the Tuareg in the 10th century, it provides a linguistic link between the two regions. Some Medieval and late Classical European maps used the name "Niger" applied only to the middle reaches of the river, in modern Mali, while Quorra or Kworra was used for the lower reaches in modern Nigeria. The name Niger was extended to cover the entire river on maps once Europeans realized that these were one and the same. One possibility is the Tuareg phrase was shortened to ngher, from the middle of the river near Timbuktu. It is worth mentioning that the Tabula Peutingeriana records a Flumen Girin ("River Girin") with the remark Hoc flumen quidam Grin vocant, alii Nilum appellant; dicitur enim sub terra Etyopium in Nylum ire Lacum, The Tabula Peutingeriana, Section 7: Thrace - Achaia and Africa with the Girin River "This river which some are naming Grin is called Nile by others, for it is said to flow under the ground of Ethiopia [i.e. Africa] into the Nile Lake". When European colonial powers began to send ships along the West coast of Africa in the 16th and 17th centuries, the Senegal River was often postulated to be part of the Niger. The Niger Delta, pouring into the Atlantic through Mangrove swamps and thousands of tributaries along more than a hundred miles, was incorrectly identified by Europeans as coastal wetlands. It was only with the 18th century visits of Mungo Park, who travelled down the Niger River and visited the great Sahelian empires of his day, that Europeans correctly identified the course of the Niger. The name, even when Park and others reported its name correctly from local guides, persisted in the West as Niger. The modern nations of Nigeria and Niger take their names from the river, marking contesting national claims by colonial powers of the "Upper", "Lower" and "Middle" Niger river basin during the Scramble for Africa at the end of the 19th century. It is often assumed, without evidence, that Niger derives from the Latin word for "black", niger, but it would have been more likely for the Portuguese explorers who first wrote this name on their maps to have used the Portuguese word, negro, as they did elsewhere in the world. In any case the Niger is not a blackwater river, which was the motivation for all other rivers that were called black. (See Rio Negro.) Some have rationalized that 'black' may have referred to the color of the people living on the river, but this did not happen to any other river in Africa. Therefore it would seem that the similarity between the name Niger and the Latin word niger is either coincidence, or that knowledge of Latin influenced the spelling of an indigenous name like ngher. See also Niger Basin Authority Azaouad References R.L. Welcomme. The Niger River System. in Bryan Robert Davies, Keith F. Walker (eds) The Ecology of River Systems. Springer, (1986) ISBN 9061935407 pp.9–60 External links Information and a map of the Niger's watershed Map of the Niger River basin at Water Resources eAtlas Niger Currents: Exploring life and technology along the Niger River International law and the River Niger Bibliography on Water Resources and International Law Peace Palace Library Fabio Spadi, "The ICJ Judgment in the Benin-Niger Border Dispute: the interplay of titles and ‘effectivités’ under the uti possidetis juris principle", Leiden Journal of International Law(2005) 4, pp. 777–794. Pictures Pictures of the Niger River in Mal | Niger_River |@lemmatized niger:53 river:74 principal:1 western:4 africa:12 extend:2 km:2 mile:2 drainage:1 basin:6 area:3 online:1 google:1 book:2 source:6 guinea:6 highland:1 southeastern:1 run:2 crescent:1 mali:3 border:3 benin:2 nigeria:3 discharge:1 massive:2 delta:7 know:7 oil:1 gulf:3 third:2 long:3 exceed:1 nile:14 congo:1 also:4 zaïre:1 main:2 tributary:3 benue:2 geography:4 great:4 bend:3 see:3 space:1 create:1 green:2 arc:1 brown:2 sahel:1 savanna:1 mass:1 left:2 inland:3 far:4 senegal:5 mud:1 house:1 center:1 island:1 lake:7 debo:1 wide:1 section:4 relatively:1 clear:2 carry:1 tenth:1 much:2 sediment:1 headland:1 locate:2 ancient:6 rock:1 provide:3 little:1 silt:1 reader:3 john:1 washington:1 c:3 national:2 geographic:1 society:1 p:2 like:2 flood:6 yearly:1 begin:3 september:1 peak:1 november:1 finish:1 may:2 unusual:2 feature:1 form:2 gradient:1 suddenly:1 decrease:1 result:1 region:2 braided:1 stream:2 marsh:1 lakes:1 size:1 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6,210 | Aberdeen | Aberdeen (pronounced ; , ) is Scotland's third most populous city and one of Scotland's 32 local government council areas. It has an official population estimate of 202,370. Nicknames include the Granite City, the Grey City and the Silver City with the Golden Sands. During the mid-18th to mid-20th centuries, Aberdeen's buildings incorporated locally quarried grey granite, whose mica deposits sparkle like silver. The city has a long, sandy coastline. Since the discovery of North Sea oil in the 1970s, other nicknames have been the Oil Capital of Europe or the Energy Capital of Europe. The area around Aberdeen has been settled for at least 8000 years, when prehistoric villages lay around the mouths of the rivers Dee and Don. In 1319, Aberdeen received Royal Burgh status from Robert the Bruce, transforming the city economically. The city's two universities, the University of Aberdeen, founded in 1495, and the Robert Gordon University, which was awarded university status in 1992, make Aberdeen the educational centre of the north-east. The traditional industries of fishing, paper-making, shipbuilding, and textiles have been overtaken by the oil industry and Aberdeen's seaport. Aberdeen Heliport is one of the busiest commercial heliports in the world and the seaport is the largest in the north-east of Scotland. Aberdeen has won the Britain in Bloom competition a record breaking ten times, and hosts the Aberdeen International Youth Festival, a major international event which attracts up to 1000 of the most talented young performing arts companies. History Aberdeen Mercat Cross <center>The Castlegate and Union Street (c.1900) The Aberdeen area has seen human settlement for at least 8,000 years. The city began as two separate burghs: Old Aberdeen at the mouth of the river Don; and New Aberdeen, a fishing and trading settlement, where the Denburn waterway entered the river Dee estuary. The earliest charter was granted by William the Lion in 1179 and confirmed the corporate rights granted by David I. In 1319, the Great Charter of Robert the Bruce transformed Aberdeen into a property-owning and financially independent community. Granted with it was the nearby Forest of Stocket, whose income formed the basis for the city's Common Good Fund which still benefits Aberdonians. During the Wars of Scottish Independence, Aberdeen was under English rule, so Robert the Bruce laid siege to Aberdeen Castle before destroying it in 1308 followed by the massacring of the English garrison and the retaking of Aberdeen for the townspeople. The city was burned by Edward III of England in 1336, but was rebuilt and extended, and called New Aberdeen. The city was strongly fortified to prevent attacks by neighbouring lords, but the gates were removed by 1770. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms of 1644-1647 the city was impartially plundered by both sides. In 1644, it was taken and ransacked by Royalist troops after the Battle of Aberdeen. In 1647 an outbreak of bubonic plague killed a quarter of the population. In the eighteenth century, a new Town Hall was built and the first social services appeared with the Infirmary at Woolmanhill in 1742 and the Lunatic Asylum in 1779. The council began major road improvements at the end of the century with the main thoroughfares of George Street, King Street and Union Street all completed at the start of the next century. A century later, the increasing economic importance of Aberdeen and the development of the shipbuilding and fishing industries led to the existing harbour with Victoria Dock, the South Breakwater, and the extension to the North Pier. The expensive infrastructure program had repercussions, and in 1817 the city was bankrupt. However, a recovery was made in the general prosperity which followed the Napoleonic wars. Gas street lighting arrived in 1824 and an enhanced water supply appeared in 1830 when water was pumped from the Dee to a reservoir in Union Place. An underground sewer system replaced open sewers in 1865. The city was first incorporated in 1891. Although Old Aberdeen still has a separate charter and history, it and New Aberdeen are no longer truly distinct. They are both part of the city, along with Woodside and the Royal Burgh of Torry to the south of the River Dee. Toponymy Old Aberdeen is the approximate location of Aberdon the first settlement of Aberdeen; this literally means "at the confluence of the Don [ie. with the sea]" in relation to the local river. The modern name, Aberdeen literally means between the Dee and Don (the other local river) The Celtic prefix; "Aber-" means "the confluence of" in relation to the rivers. Gaelic scholars believe the name came from the prefix Aber- and da-aevi (variation;Da-abhuin, Da-awin) - which means "the mouth of two rivers". In Gaelic the name is Obar Dheathain (variation; Obairreadhain) and in Latin, the Romans referred to it as Devana. Mediaeval (or ecclesiastical) Latin has it as Aberdonia. Governance [[Image:New acc logo.png|thumb|right|Aberdeen City Councils logo with "Simplified" Coat of Arms.]] Aberdeen is locally governed by Aberdeen City Council, which comprises forty-three councillors who represent the city's wards and is headed by the Lord Provost who is currently Provost Peter Stephen. From May 2003 until May 2007 the council was run with a Liberal Democrat and Conservatives coalition. Following the May 2007 elections the Liberal Democrats formed a new coalition with the Scottish National Party. Lib Dems and SNP in Aberdeen deal, BBC News, May 14 2007 The council consists of: 15 Liberal Democrat, 13 SNP, 10 Labour, 4 Conservative councillors and a single independent councillor. Aberdeen is represented in the Parliament of the United Kingdom by three constituencies: Aberdeen North, Aberdeen South and Gordon, of which the first two are wholly within the Aberdeen City council area while the latter also encompasses a large swathe of Aberdeenshire. In the Scottish Parliament the city is represented again by three constituencies, all of which are solely within the council area: Aberdeen North, Aberdeen Central and Aberdeen South and by a further seven MSPs elected as part of the North East Scotland electoral region. In the European Union, the city is represented by seven MEPs, as part of the all inclusive Scotland constituency in the European Parliament. Heraldry Symbols of the city typically show three castles, such as in the case of the flag and coat of arms. The image has been around since the time of Robert the Bruce and represents the buildings that stood on the three hills of Aberdeen; Aberdeen Castle on Castle Hill (today's castlegate); an unknown building on Windmill Hill and a church on St. Catherine's Hill (now levelled). Bon Accord, is the motto of the city and is French literally for "Good Agreement". Legend tells that its use dates from the fourteenth century password used by Robert the Bruce during the Wars of Scottish Independence, when he and his men laid siege to Aberdeen Castle before destroying it in 1308. The leopard has traditionally been associated with the city and its emblem can be seen on the city crest. The local magazine is called the "Leopard" and when Union Bridge was constructed in the nineteenth century small statues of the creature in a sitting position were cast and placed on top of the railing posts. The city's toast is "Happy to meet, sorry to part, happy to meet again", this has been commonly misinterpreted as the translation of Bon Accord. Geography Climate The mean temperature is 8 °C (47 °F) and it varies between an average low of 5 °C (41 °F) and 11 °C (52 °F). In summer (June - August) the average high is 16 °C (63 °F) and average low 9 °C (49 °F). In winter (December - February) the average high is 6 °C (43 °F) and average low 0 °C (33 °F). The average yearly precipitation is 753 millimetres (29.7 in), with 64 millimetres (2.5 in) in summer (June - August) and 62 millimetres (2.5 in) in winter (December - February). The wettest months are October and November. Being sited between two river mouths, the city has little natural exposure of bedrock. This leaves local geologists in a slight quandary : despite the high concentration of geoscientists in the area (courtesy of the oil industry), there is only a vague understanding of what underlays the city. To the south side of the city, coastal cliffs expose high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Grampian Group; to the south-west and west are extensive granites intruded into similar high-grade schists; to the north the metamorphics are intruded by gabbroic complexes instead. And under the city itself? The small amount of geophysics done, and occasional building-related exposures, combined with small exposures in the banks of the River Don, suggest that it's actually sited on an inlier of Devonian "Old Red" sandstones and silts. The outskirts of the city spread beyond the (inferred) limits of the outlier onto the surrounding metamorphic/ igneous complexes formed during the Dalradian period (approximately 480-600 million years ago) with sporadic areas of igneous Diorite granites to be found, such as that at the Rubislaw quarry which was used to build much of the Victorian parts of the city. On the coast, Aberdeen has a long sand beach between the two rivers, the Dee and the Don, which turns into high sand dunes north of the Don stretching as far as Fraserburgh ; to the south of the Dee are steep rocky cliff faces with only minor pebble and shingle beaches in deep inlets. A number of granite outcrops along the south coast have been quarried in the past, making for spectacular scenery and good rock-climbing. The city extends to 71.22 square miles (184.46 km²), and includes the former burghs of Old Aberdeen, New Aberdeen, Woodside and the Royal Burgh of Torry to the south of River Dee. This gives the city a population density of 2,819 per square mile (1,089 per km²). The city is built on many hills, with the original beginnings of the city growing from Castle Hill, St. Catherine's Hill and Windmill Hill. Demography Aberdeen demographics In 1396 the population was about 3,000. By 1801 it had become 26,992; (1901) 153,503; (1941) 182,467. In 2001 the UK census records the Aberdeen City Council area's population at 212,125, but the Aberdeen locality's population at 184,788. The latest official population estimate, published by the General Register for Scotland for 2005, is 202,370. Data from the Aberdeen specific locality of the 2001 UK census shows that the demographics include a median male age of 35 and female age of 38 which are younger than Scotland's average and a 49% to 51% male to female ratio. The census showed that there are fewer young people in Aberdeen, with 16.4 % under 16, opposed to the national average of 19.2 %. Ethnically, 15.7 % were born outside of Scotland, higher than the national average of 12.9 %. Of this population 8.4 % were born in England. 3 % of Aberdonians stated to be from an ethnic minority (non-white) in the 2001 census, with 0.7% from the Indian-subcontinent and 0.6% Asian, in comparison Scotland's overall population of non-white origin is 2 %. However this is a lower percentage than any of Scotland's other three main cities, Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dundee. The most multicultural part of the city is George Street, which has many ethnic restaurants, supermarkets and hairdressers In the household, there were 97,013 individual dwellings recorded in the city of which 61% were privately owned, 9% privately rented and 23% rented from the council. The most popular type of dwellings are apartments which compromise 49% of residences followed by semi-detached at just below 22%. The median income of a household in the city is £16,813 (the mean income is £20,292) (2005) which places approximately 18% households in the city below the poverty line (defined as 60% of the mean income). Conversely, an Aberdeen postcode has the second highest number of millionaires of any postcode in the UK. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/newspapers/sunday_times/scotland/article559957.ece Religion St. Machar's Cathedral Traditionally Christian, Aberdeen's largest denominations are the Church of Scotland through the Presbytery of Aberdeen and the Roman Catholic Church. The last census revealed that Aberdeen is the least religious city in Scotland, with nearly 43 % of people claiming to have no religion and several former churches in the city have been converted into bars and restaurants. Minister thrown out of trendy nightclub that used to be his church, The Scotsman, 24 May 2006 In the Middle Ages, the Kirk of St Nicholas was the only burgh kirk and one of Scotland's largest parish churches. Like a number of other Scottish kirks, it was subdivided after the Reformation, in this case into the East and West churches. At this time, the city also was home to houses of the Carmelites (Whitefriars) and Franciscans (Greyfriars), the latter of which surviving in modified form as the chapel of Marischal College as late as the early twentieth Century. St Machar's Cathedral was formed twenty years after David I (1124-53) transferred the pre-Reformation Diocese from Mortlach in Banffshire to Old Aberdeen in 1137. With the exception of the episcopate of William Elphinstone (1484-1511), building progressed slowly. Gavin Dunbar, who followed him in 1518, completed the structure by adding the two western spires and the southern transept. St. Mary's Cathedral is a Roman Catholic Cathedral in Gothic style, erected in 1859. St. Andrew's Cathedral is the Scottish Episcopal Cathedral, constructed in 1817 as Archibald Simpson's first commission. It is notable for having consecrated the first bishop of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America. The Salvation Army citadel dominates the east end of Union Street. There is also an Islamic Mosque in Old Aberdeen and an Orthodox Jewish Synagogue established in 1945. There are no formal Buddhist or Hindu buildings. The University of Aberdeen has a small Bahá'í society. Economy Donside Paper Mill under demolition, 15 February, 2006 Oil and Gas Drilling rig The Aberdeen Coast Belmont Street Farmers Market Traditionally, Aberdeen was home to fishing, textile mills, shipbuilding and paper making. These industries have been largely replaced. High technology developments in the electronics design and development industry, research in agriculture and fishing and the oil industry, which has been largely responsible for Aberdeen's economic boom in the last three decades, are now major parts of Aberdeen's economy. Until the 1970s, most of Aberdeen's leading industries dated from the eighteenth Century; mainly these were textiles, foundry work, shipbuilding and paper-making, the oldest industry in the city, with paper having been first made there in 1694. Paper-making has reduced in importance since the closures of Donside Paper Mill in 2001 and the Davidson Mill in 2005 leaving the Stoneywood Paper Mill with a workforce of approximately 500. Textile production ended in 2004 when Richards of Aberdeen closed. Grey granite was quarried at Rubislaw quarry for more than 300 years, and used for paving setts, kerb and building stones, and monumental and other ornamental pieces. Aberdeen granite was used to build the terraces of the Houses of Parliament and Waterloo Bridge in London. Quarrying finally ceased in 1971. Fishing was once the predominant industry, but was surpassed by deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from improved technologies throughout the twentieth Century. Catches have fallen due to overfishing and the use of the harbour by oil support vessels, and so although still an important fishing port it is now eclipsed by the more northerly ports of Peterhead and Fraserburgh. The Fisheries Research Services is based in Aberdeen, including its headquarters, and a marine research lab in Torry. Aberdeen is well regarded for the agricultural and soil research that takes place at The Macaulay Institute, which has close links to the city's two universities. The Rowett Research Institute is a world renowned research centre for studies into food and nutrition located in Aberdeen. It has produced three Nobel laureates and there is a high concentration of life scientists working in the city. There is also a dynamic and fast growing electronics design and development industry. With the discovery of significant oil deposits in the North Sea during the late twentieth Century, Aberdeen became the centre of Europe's petroleum industry. With the second largest heliport in the world and an important service ship harbour port serving oil rigs off-shore, Aberdeen is often called the Oil Capital of Europe. There is now a concerted effort to transform Aberdeen's reputation as the Oil Capital of Europe into the Energy Capital of Europe as oil supplies may start to dwindle in coming years, and there is considerable interest in the development of new energy sources; and technology transfer from oil into renewable energy and other industries is underway. The "Energetica" initiative led by Scottish Enterprise has been designed to accelerate this process. The city ranks third in Scotland for shopping. The traditional shopping streets are Union Street and George Street which are now complemented by shopping centres, notably the St Nicholas & Bon Accord and the The Mall Aberdeen. A new retail |£190 million development, Union Square, is nearing completion. Major retail parks away from the city centre include the Berryden Retail Park, the Kittybrewster Retail Park and the Beach Boulevard Retail Park. In March 2004, Aberdeen was awarded Fairtrade City status by the Fairtrade Foundation. http://www.aberdeenfairtrade.org.uk Along with Dundee, it shares the distinction of being the first city in Scotland to receive this accolade. Landmarks Aberdeen's architecture is known for its principal use during the Victorian era of granite, which has led to its local nickname of the Granite City or more romantically the less commonly used name the Silver City, since the quartz in the stone sparkles in the sun. The Granite City The hard grey stone is one of the most durable materials available and helps to explain why the city's buildings look brand-new when they have been newly cleaned and the cement has been pointed. Unlike other Scottish cities where sandstone has been used the buildings are not weathering and need very little structural maintenance on their masonry. Granite terrace in central Aberdeen Amongst the notable buildings in the city's main street, Union Street, are the Town and County Bank, the Music Hall, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (originating between 1398 and 1527), now a shopping mall; the former office of the Northern Assurance Company, and the National Bank of Scotland. In Castle Street, a continuation eastwards of Union Street, is the Town House, built in 1873 by Peddie and Kinnear. Overview of Town House Marischal College on Broad Street, opened by King Edward VII in 1906, is the second largest granite building in the world (after the Escorial, Madrid). Overview of Marischal College Transport Aberdeen Railway Station Aberdeen Airport (ABZ), at Dyce in the north of the city, serves a number of domestic and international destinations including France, the Netherlands, Spain, Belgium, Austria, Ireland and Scandinavian countries. The heliport which serves the oil industry and rescue services is one of the busiest commercial heliports in the world. Aberdeen railway station is on the main UK rail network and connects directly to major cities such as Edinburgh, Glasgow and London. The station is currently being updated to bring it into the modern age. In 2007 additions were made and a new ticket office was built in the building. Until 2007, a 1950s style concrete bus station at Guild Street served out of the city locations; it has since transferred to a new and well presented bus station just 100 metres to the East off Market Street as part of the Union Square development. There are six major roads in and out of the city. The A90 is the main arterial route into the city from the north and south, linking Aberdeen to Edinburgh, Dundee, Brechin and Perth in the south and Ellon, Peterhead and Fraserburgh in the north. The A96 links to Elgin and Inverness and the north west. The A93 is the main route to the west, heading towards Royal Deeside and the Cairngorms. After Braemar, it turns south, providing an alternative tourist route to Perth. The A944 also heads west, through Westhill and onto Alford. The A92 was the original southerly road to Aberdeen prior to the building of the A90, and is now used as a tourist route, connecting the towns of Montrose and Arbroath and on the east coast. The A947 exits the city at Dyce and goes on to Newmachar, Oldmeldrum and Turriff finally ending at Banff and Macduff. Aberdeen Harbour is important as the largest in the north of Scotland and as a ferry route to Orkney and Shetland. Established in 1136, it has been referred to as the oldest business in Britain. FirstGroup operate the city buses in the city under the name First Aberdeen, as the successor of Grampian Regional Transport (GRT) and Aberdeen Corporation Tramways. Aberdeen is the global headquarters of FirstGroup plc, having grown from the GRT Group. First is still based at the former Aberdeen Tramways depot on King Street, www.firstgroup.com The History of 395 King Street 1862 – 2007 soon to be redeveloped into a new Global Headquarters and Aberdeen bus depot. Stagecoach Group also run buses in Aberdeen and Aberdeenshire, under the Stagecoach Bluebird name. Also, other bus companies (e.g. Megabus) run buses from the bus station to places North and South of the city. Aberdeen is connected to the UK National Cycle Network, and has a track to the south connecting to cities such as Dundee and Edinburgh and one to the north that forks about 10 miles from the city into two different tracks heading to Inverness and Fraserburgh respectively. Two particularly popular footpaths along old railway tracks are the Deeside Way to Banchory (which will eventually connect to Ballater) and the Formartine and Buchan Way to Ellon, both are used by a mixture of cyclists, walkers and occasionally horses. It has four Park and Ride sites which service the city, Stonehaven and Ellon (approx 12-17miles out from city centre) and Kingswells and Bridge of Don (approx 3-4miles out from city centre). Education University of Aberdeen, Elphinstone Hall King's College, Old Aberdeen Universities and colleges Aberdeen has two universities, the University of Aberdeen and The Robert Gordon University. Aberdeen's student rate of 11.5% is higher than the national average of 7%. The University of Aberdeen began life as King's College, Aberdeen, which was founded in 1495 by William Elphinstone (1431-1514), Bishop of Aberdeen and Chancellor of Scotland. Marischal College, a separate institution, was founded in "New" Aberdeen by George Keith, fifth Earl Marischal of Scotland in 1593. These institutions were amalgamated to form the present University of Aberdeen in 1860. The university is the fifth oldest in the English speaking world. Robert Gordon's College (originally Robert Gordon's Hospital) was founded in 1729 by the merchant Robert Gordon, grandson of the map maker Robert Gordon of Straloch, and was further endowed in 1816 by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill. Originally devoted to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganised in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical education. In 1903, the vocational education component of the college was designated a Central Institution and was renamed as the Robert Gordon Institute of Technology in 1965. In 1992, university status was gained and it became the Robert Gordon University. Aberdeen is also home to two artistic schools: Gray's School of Art, founded in 1886, which is one of the oldest established colleges of art in the UK, and is now incorporated into Robert Gordon University; and The Scott Sutherland School of Architecture and The Built Environment, which is situated on the Garthdee Campus of the Robert Gordon University, next to Gray's School of Art. Aberdeen College has several campuses in the city and offers a wide variety of part-time and full-time courses leading to several different qualifications. It is the largest further education institution in Scotland. Leading Scottish figures to be honoured by the University of Aberdeen, University of Aberdeen Media Release, 19 November 2004 The Scottish Agricultural College is based just outside Aberdeen, on the Craibstone Estate, which is situated on the A90 roundabout for the Dyce Airport. They provide three services - Learning, Research and Consultancy. The college provides many land based courses such as Agriculture, Countryside Management, Sustainable Environmental Management and Rural Business Management which are proving to be the most popular. There are a variety of courses from diplomas through to masters degrees. Schools There are currently 12 secondary schools and 54 primary schools which are run by the city council. The most notable are Aberdeen Grammar School (founded in 1257), Harlaw Academy, Cults Academy, and Oldmachar Academy which were all rated in the top 50 Scottish secondary schools league tables published by The Times in 2005. There are a number of private schools in Aberdeen; Robert Gordon's College, Albyn School for Girls (co-educational as of 2005), St Margaret's School for Girls, the Hamilton School (a Montessori school), the Total French School (for French oil industry families), the International School of Aberdeen and a Waldorf/Steiner School. Primary schools in Aberdeen include Airyhall Primary School, Albyn School, Ashley Road Primary School, Cornhill Primary School (the city's largest), Culter Primary School, Danestone Primary School, Gilcomstoun Primary School, Glashieburn Primary School, Hamilton School, Mile-End School, Robert Gordon's College, Skene Square Primary School, St. Joseph’s Primary School and St Margaret's School for Girls. Culture His Majesty's Theatre Looking down Shiprow with Provost Ross's house on the right The city has a wide range of cultural activities, amenities and museums. The city is regularly visited by Scotland's National Arts Companies. The Aberdeen Art Gallery houses a collection of Impressionist, Victorian, Scottish and twentieth Century British paintings as well as collections of silver and glass. It also includes The Alexander Macdonald Bequest, a collection of late nineteenth century works donated by the museum's first benefactor and a constantly changing collection of contemporary work and regular visiting exhibitions. Museums and galleries The Aberdeen Maritime Museum, located in Shiprow, tells the story of Aberdeen's links with the sea from the days of sail and clipper ships to the latest oil and gas exploration technology. It includes an 8.5 m (28 feet) high model of the Murchison oil production platform and a nineteenth century assembly taken from Rattray Headlighthouse. Provost Ross' House is the second oldest dwelling house in the city. It was built in 1593 and became the residence of Provost John Ross of Arnage in 1702. The house retains some original medieval features, including a kitchen, fire places and beam-and-board ceilings. The Gordon Highlanders Museum tells the story of one of Scotland's best known regiments. Marischal Museum holds the principal collections of the University of Aberdeen, comprising some 80,000 items in the areas of fine art, Scottish history and archaeology, and European, Mediterranean & Near Eastern archaeology. The permanent displays and reference collections are augmented by regular temporary exhibitions. Performing arts Aberdeen is home to a host of events and festivals including the Aberdeen International Youth Festival (the world's largest arts festival for young performers), Aberdeen Jazz Festival, Rootin' Aboot (folk and roots music event based at the Lemon Tree), Triptych, and the University of Aberdeen's literature festival Word. In 2006 Simon Farquhar's play Rainbow Kiss was staged at London's Royal Court Theatre. Directed by Richard Wilson and starring Joe McFadden and Dawn Steele, the play was an uncompromising depiction of Aberdeen life which, despite its strong sexual and violent content, won rave reviews from the liberal press and was applauded by MP for Aberdeen South Anne Begg. Music and film Aberdeen's music scene includes a variety of live music venues including pubs, clubs, and church choirs. The bars of Belmont Street are particularly known for featuring live music. Cèilidhs are also common in the city's halls. The many popular venues include The Moorings, The Lemon Tree, Drummonds, Moshulu (now owned by Barfly), Snafu, The Tunnels, the Aberdeen Exhibition and Conference Centre, and Aberdeen Music Hall. Notable Aberdonian musicians include Evelyn Glennie and Annie Lennox. Contemporary composers John McLeod and Martin Dalby also hail from Aberdeen. Cultural cinema, educational work and local film events are provided by The Belmont Picturehouse on Belmont Street, Peacock Visual Arts and The Foyer. Open spaces Union Terrace Gardens Duthie Park Winter Gardens Aberdeen Beach Aberdeen has long been famous for its 45 outstanding parks and gardens, and citywide floral displays which include two million roses, eleven million daffodils and three million crocuses. The city has won the Royal Horticultural Society's Britain in Bloom 'Best City' award ten times, the overall Scotland in Bloom competition twenty times and the large city category every year since 1968. At one point after winning a period of nine years straight, Aberdeen was banned from the Britain in Bloom competition to give another city a chance. The city won the 2006 Scotland in Bloom "Best City" award along with the International Cities in Bloom award. The suburb of Dyce also won the Small Towns award. Duthie Park opened in 1899 on the north bank of the River Dee. It was named after and gifted to the city by Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston in 1881. It has extensive gardens, a rose hill, boating pond, bandstand, and play area as well as Europe's second largest enclosed gardens the David Welch Winter Gardens. Hazlehead Park, is large and forested, located on the outskirts of the city, it is popular with walkers in the forests, sports enthusiasts, naturalists and picnickers. There are football pitches, two golf courses, a pitch and putt course and a horse riding school. Aberdeen's success in the Britain in Bloom competitions is often attributed to Johnston Gardens, a small park of one hectare in the west end of the city containing many different flowers and plants which have been renowned for their beauty. The garden was in 2002, named the best garden in Britain. Seaton Park, formerly the grounds of a private house, is on the edge of the grounds of St Machar's Cathedral. The Cathedral Walk is maintained in a formal style with a great variety of plants providing a popular display. The park includes several other areas with contrasting styles to this. Union Terrace Gardens opened in 1879 and is situated in the centre of the city. In recent years however it has become underused and there are several plans to improve it, including the building of an arts centre in the gardens. More recently however a prolific Aberdeen businessman, Sir Ian Wood has agreed to partly fund plans to create a massive civic square by raising the gardens and covering the nearby road and rail links. Situated next to each other, Victoria Park and Westburn Park cover between them. Victoria Park opened in 1871. There is a conservatory used as a seating area and a fountain made of fourteen different granites, presented to the people by the granite polishers and master builders of Aberdeen. Opposite to the north is Westburn Park opened in 1901. With large grass pitches it is widely used for field sports. There is large tennis centre with indoor and outdoor courts, a children's cycle track, play area and a grass boules lawn. Dialect Listen to recordings of a speaker of Scots from Aberdeen The local dialect of Lowland Scots is often known as the Doric, and is spoken not just in the city, but across the north-east of Scotland. It differs somewhat from other Scots dialects most noticeable are the pronunciation f for what is normally written wh and ee for what in standard English would usually be written oo (Scots ui). Every year the annual Doric Festival The Doric Festival takes place in Aberdeenshire to celebrate the history of the north-east's language. As with all Scots dialects in urban areas, it is not spoken as widely as it used to be in Aberdeen. Media Aberdeen is home to Scotland's oldest newspaper the Press and Journal, first published in 1747. The Press and Journal and its sister paper the Evening Express are printed six days a week by Aberdeen Journals. There are two free newspapers: Aberdeen Record PM and Aberdeen Citizen. BBC Scotland has a small studio in Aberdeen's Beechgrove area, and BBC Aberdeen produces the Beechgrove Garden television and radio programmes. The city is also home to STV North (formerly Grampian Television), which produces the nightly regional news programme, STV News at Six, as well as local commercials and some non-news programming in the Scottish Gaelic language. The station, based at Craigshaw Business Park in Tullos, was based at larger studios in Queens Cross from September 1961 until June 2003. There are three commercial radio stations operating within the city, Northsound Radio, which runs Northsound One and Northsound Two, and independent station Original 106. Other radio stations include NECR FM (North-East Community Radio FM) DAB station, and shmu FM Shmu community media productions managed by Station House Media Unit Shmu community media productions which supports community members to run Aberdeen's first (and only) full-time community radio station, broadcasting on 99.8 MHz FM. Sport Pittodrie's Dick Donald Stand Football The Scottish Premier League football club, Aberdeen F.C. play at Pittodrie. The club won the European Cup Winners Cup and the European Super Cup in 1983 and the Scottish Premier League Championship four times (1955, 1980, 1984 and 1985), the Scottish Cup seven times (1947, 1970, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986 and 1990). The other senior team is Cove Rangers F.C. of the Highland Football League (HFL), who play at Allan Park in the suburb of Cove Bay, although they will be moving to Calder Park once it is built to boost their chances of getting into the Scottish Football League. Cove won the HFL championship in 2001 and 2008. There was also a historic senior team Bon Accord F.C. who no longer play. Local junior teams include Banks O' Dee F.C., Culter F.C., F.C. Stoneywood, Glentanar F.C. and Hermes F.C.. Rugby Union Aberdeen hosted Caledonia Reds a Scottish rugby franchise, before they merged with the Glasgow Warriors in 1998. The city is also home to the BT Premiership Division Two rugby club Aberdeen GSFP RFC who play at Rubislaw Playing Fields, and Aberdeenshire RFC which was founded in 1875 and runs Junior, Senior Mens, Senior Ladies and Touch sections from the Woodside Sports Complex Aberdeenshire Rugby Football Club - The Community Club and also Aberdeen Wanderers RFC. Former Wanderers' player Jason White was captain of the Scotland national rugby union team. In 2005 the President of the SRFU said it was hoped eventually to establish a professional team in Aberdeen. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/rugby_union/scottish/4241554.stm In November 2008 the city hosted a rugby international at Pittodrie between Scotland and Canada, with Scotland winning 41-0. http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/feedarticle/8059892 Golf The Royal Aberdeen Golf Club, founded in 1780 and the oldest golf club in Aberdeen, hosted the Senior British Open in 2005. The club has a second course, and there are public golf courses at Auchmill, Balnagask, Hazlehead and King's Links. The 1999 winner of the The Open Championship, Paul Lawrie, hails from the city. There are new courses planned for the area, including world class facilities with major financial backing, the city and shire are set to become a hotbed for golf tourism. Swimming The City of Aberdeen Swim Team (COAST) is based in Northfield swimming pool and has been in operation since 1996. The team comprises several smaller swimming clubs, and has enjoyed success throughout Scotland and in international competitions. Three of the team's swimmers qualified for the 2006 Commonwealth Games. Rowing Rowing exists on the River Dee, south of the town centre. Four clubs are located on the banks: Aberdeen Boat Club (ABC), Aberdeen Schools Rowing Association (ASRA), Aberdeen University Boat Club (AUBC) and Robert Gordon University Boat Club (RGUBC). Other sports The city council operates public tennis courts in various parks including an indoor tennis centre at Westburn Park. The Beach Leisure Centre is home to a climbing wall, gymnasium and a swimming pool. There are numerous swimming pools dotted around the city notably the largest, the Bon-Accord Baths which closed down in 2006. Aberdeen has numerous skateparks dotted around the city in Torry, Westburn Park and Transition Extreme. Transition Extreme is an indoor skatepark built in 2007 it was designed by Aberdeen skate Andy Dobson. Public services Aberdeen's health is provided for most people by NHS Scotland through the NHS Grampian health board. Aberdeen Royal Infirmary is the main hospital in the city, with the Royal Aberdeen Children's Hospital for children, the Royal Cornhill Hospital for mental health and the Woodend Hospital and Woolmanhill Hospitals. Privately there is the Albyn Hospital on Albyn Place which is owned and operated by BMI Healthcare. Aberdeen City Council is responsible for city owned infrastructure which is paid for by a mixture of council tax and income from HM Treasury. Infrastructure and services run by the council include: clearing snow in winter, maintaining parks, refuse collection, sewage, street cleaning and street lighting. Infrastructure in private hands includes electricity, gas and telecoms. Water supplies are provided by Scottish Water.Police: Policing in Aberdeen is the responsibility of Grampian Police (the British Transport Police has responsibility for railways). The Grampian Police headquarters (and Aberdeen divisional headquarters) is located in Queen Street, Aberdeen. Ambulance: The North East divisional headquarters of the Scottish Ambulance Service is located in Aberdeen. http://www.scottishambulance.com/about/northeast.asp Fire and rescue: This is the responsibility of the Grampian Fire and Rescue Service; the service operates distinctive white painted fire engines (other UK fire brigades use red vehicles).Lifeboat:''' The Royal National Lifeboat Institution operates Aberdeen lifeboat station. It is located at Victoria Dock Entrance in York Place. Aberdeen Lifeboat The current building was opened in 1997. Twin Cities Aberdeen is twinned with: - Regensburg, Germany (1955) - Clermont-Ferrand, France (1983) - Bulawayo, Zimbabwe (1986) - Stavanger, Norway (1990) - Gomel, Belarus (1990) Notable people Paul Lawrie, the Open winning golfer Annie Lennox, musician Simon Farquhar, writer Denis Law, football player Nicol Stephen, former Scottish Liberal Democrats leader, former Deputy First Minister of Scotland Andrew Cruickshank, actor famous for his role in Dr Finlay's Casebook Tony Gordon, fictional character from the soap opera, Coronation Street - born in Aberdeen. Thomas Blake Glover, the founder of Mitsubishi George Jamesone, Scotland's first eminent painter Bertie Charles Forbes (from Aberdeenshire), founded Forbes Archibald Simpson, architect, influential in design of Aberdeens's modern centre Scott Booth, former striker for Aberdeen F.C. and the Scottish national football team John Rattray, professional skateboarder who appeared in the 2007 video game Skate Colin Montgomerie, Professional Golfer and Ryder Cup Captain. Fictional references Stuart MacBride's crime novels, Cold Granite, Dying Light, Broken Skin and Flesh House (a series with main protagonist, DS Logan MacRae) are all set in Aberdeen. DS Logan MacRae is a Grampian Police officer and locations found in the books can be found in Aberdeen and the surrounding countryside. A large part of the plot of the World War II spy thriller Eye of the Needle takes place in wartime Aberdeen, from which a German spy is trying to escape to a submarine waiting offshore. Stuart Home's sex and literary obsessed contemporary novel 69 Things to Do with a Dead Princess is set in Aberdeen A portion of Ian Rankin's novel Black and Blue'' (1997) is set in Aberdeen. Sarah Jane Smith from the popular sci-fi show Doctor Who was accidentally returned to Aberdeen instead of her home in South Croydon by the fourth incarnation of the Doctor. See also Wikimedia Britannica (1911) on Aberdeen Future Developments in Aberdeen Aberdeen Bestiary Etymology of Aberdeen Aberdeen City Youth Council References Further reading Peter Innes - Fit Like New York? An Irreverent History of Rock and Pop Music in Aberdeen and North East Scotland. Publisher The Evening Express, 1998 External links Aberdeen City Council Aberdeen Facts A brief history of Aberdeen Undiscovered Scotland Aberdeen History Aberdeen Art Galleries and Museums Events Calendar for Aberdeen City and surrounding area Oil and the City Aberdeen's relationship with the oil industry. 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6,211 | Obstetrics | Obstetrics (from the Latin obstare, "to stand by") is the surgical specialty dealing with the care of women and their children during pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium. Midwifery is the non-medical equivalent. Veterinary obstetrics is the same concept for veterinary medicine. Antenatal care In obstetric practice, an obstetrician or midwife sees a pregnant woman on a regular basis to check the progress of the pregnancy, to verify the absence of ex-novo disease, to monitor the state of preexisting disease and its possible effect on the ongoing pregnancy. A woman's schedule of antenatal appointment varies according to the presence of risk factors, such as diabetes, and local resources. Some of the clinically and statistically more important risk factors that must be systematically excluded, especially in advancing pregnancy, are pre-eclampsia, abnormal placentation, abnormal fetal presentation and intrauterine growth restriction. For example, to identify pre-eclampsia, blood-pressure and albuminuria (level of urine protein) are checked at every opportunity. Placenta praevia must be excluded (PP = low lying placenta that, at least partially, obstructs the birth canal and therefore warrants elective caesarean delivery); this can only be achieved with the use of an ultrasound scan. However, early placenta praevia is not alarming; this is because as the uterus grows along the pregnancy, the placenta may still move away. A placenta praevia is of clinical significance as from the 28th week of gestation. The current management includes a caesarean section. The type of caesarean section is determined by the position (anterior or posterior) of the placenta. In late pregnancy fetal presentation must be established: cephalic presentation (head first) is the norm but the fetus may present feet-first or buttocks-first (breech), side-on (transverse), or at an angle (oblique presentation). Intrauterine growth restriction is a general designation where the fetus is smaller than expected when compared to its gestational age (in this case, fetal growth parameters show a tendency to drop off from the 50th percentile eventually falling below the 10th percentile, when plotted on a fetal growth chart). Causes can be intrinsic (to the fetus) or extrinsic (maternal or placental problems). Maternal physiology During pregnancy, the woman undergoes many physiological changes, which are entirely normal, including cardiovascular, hematologic, metabolic, renal and respiratory changes that become very important in the event of complications. Cardiovascular The woman is the sole provider of nourishment for the embryo and later, the fetus, and so her plasma and blood volume slowly increase by 40-50% over the course of the pregnancy to accommodate the changes. This results in overall vasodilation, an increase in heart rate (15 beats/min more than usual), stroke volume, and cardiac output. Cardiac output increases by about 50%, mostly during the first trimester. The systemic vascular resistance also drops due to the smooth muscle relaxation caused by elevated progesterone, leading to a fall in blood pressure. Diastolic blood pressure consequently decreases between 12–26 weeks, and increases again to prepregnancy levels by 36 weeks. If the blood pressure remains abnormal beyond 36 weeks, the woman should be investigated for pre-eclampsia, a condition that precedes eclampsia. Endocrine Pregnant women experience adjustments in their endocrine system. These adjustments include an increase in her estrogen levels; which is mainly produced by the placenta and is associated with fetal well–being. Women also experience increased human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG); which is produced by the placenta. This maintains progesterone production by the corpus luteum. Additionally, human placental lactogen (hPL) is produced by the placenta, ensuring nutrient supply to the fetus. This also causes lipolysis and is an insulin antagonist, which is a diabetogenic effect. Additionally, there is increased prolactin, increased alkaline phosphatase, and increased progesterone production, first by corpus luteum and later by the placenta, whose main course of action is to relax smooth muscle. Gastrointestinal During pregnancy, woman can experience nausea and vomiting (morning sickness); which may be due to elevated B-hCG and should resolve by 14 to 16 weeks. Additionally, there is prolonged gastric empty time, decreased gastroesophageal sphincter tone, which can lead to acid reflux, and decreased colonic motility, which leads to increased water absorption and constipation. Hematology During pregnancy the plasma volume increases by 50% and the red blood cell volume increases only by 20-30%. Consequently, the hematocrit decreases on lab value, however this is not a true decrease in hematocrit, but rather due to the dilution. The white blood cell count increases and may peak at over 20 mg/mL in stressful conditions. Conversely, there is a decrease in platelet concentration to a minimal normal values of 100-150 mil/mL. A pregnant woman will also become hypercoagulable, leading to increased risk for developing blood clots and embolisms, due to increased liver production of coagulation factors, mainly fibrinogen and factor VIII (this hypercoagulable state along with the decreased ambulation causes an increased risk of both DVT and PE). Women are at highest risk for developing clots, or thrombi, during the weeks following labor. Clots usually develop in the left leg or the left iliac venous system. The left side is most afflicted because the left iliac vein is crossed by the right iliac artery. The increased flow in the right iliac artery after birth compresses the left iliac vein leading to an increased risk for thrombosis (clotting) which is exacerbated by the aforementioned lack of ambulation following delivery. Both underlying thrombophilia and cesarean section can further increase these risks. Edema, or swelling, of the feet is common during pregnancy, partly because the enlarging uterus compresses veins and lymphatic drainage from the legs. Metabolism During pregnancy, both protein metabolism and carbohydrate metabolism are affected. One kilogram of extra protein is deposited, with half going to the fetus and placenta, and another half going to uterine contractile proteins, breast glandular tissue, plasma protein, and hemoglobin. Nutrition Nutritionally, pregnant women require a caloric increase caloric of 300 kcal/day and an increase in protein to 70 or 75 g/day. There is also an increased folate requirement from 0.4 to 0.8 mg/day (important in preventing neural tube defects). On average, a weight gain of is experienced. All patients are advised to take prenatal vitamins to compensate for the increased nutritional requirements. The use of Omega 3 fatty acids supports mental and visual development of infants. Choline supplementation of research mammals supports mental development that lasts throughout life. Renal Pregnant woman can experience an increase in kidney and ureter size. There is also an increase in the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) by 50%, which subsides around 20 weeks postpartum. Plasma sodium does not change because this is offset by the increase in GFR. Additionally, there is decreased blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine, and glucosuria (due to saturated tubular reabsorption), persistent glucosuria can suggest gestational diabetes, and increased renin-angiotensin system, causing increased aldosterone levels. Pulmonary Changes in pulmonary activity for pregnant woman can include increased tidal volume (30-40%), decreased total lung capacity (TLC) by 5% due to elevation of diaphragm from uteral compression, decreased expiratory reserve volume, and increased minute ventilation (30-40%) which causes a decrease in PaCO2 and a compensated respiratory alkalosis All of these changes can contribute to the dyspnea (shortness of breath) that a pregnant woman may experience. Other Other conditions that can be encountered include: Lower back pain due to a shift in gravity Increased estrogen can cause spider angiomata and palmar erythema Increase melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) can cause hyperpigmentation of nipples, umbilicus, abdominal midline (linea nigra), perineum, and face (melasma or chloasma) Prenatal care Prenatal care is important in screening for various complications of pregnancy. This includes routine office visits with physical exams and routine lab tests: First trimester Complete blood count (CBC) Blood type General antibody screen (indirect Coombs test) for HDN Rh D negative antenatal patients should receive RhoGam at 28 weeks to prevent Rh disease. Rapid plasma reagent (RPR) which screens for syphilis Rubella antibody screen Hepatitis B surface antigen Gonorrhea and Chlamydia culture PPD for tuberculosis Pap smear Urinalysis and culture HIV screen Group B Streptococcus screen – will receive IV penicillin if positive (if mother is allergic, alternative therapies include IV clindamycin or IV vancomycin) Second trimester MSAFP/triple screen (maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein) - elevation correlated with neural tube defects and decrease correlated with Down's syndrome Ultrasound Amniocentesis in older patients Third trimester Hematocrit (if low, mother will receive iron supplementation) Glucose loading test (GLT) - screens for gestational diabetes; if > 140 mg/dL, a glucose tolerance test (GTT) is administered; a fasting glucose > 105 mg/dL suggests gestational diabetes. Complications Fetal assessments A common fetal assessment tool is the ultrasound. The ultrasound can be used for dating the gestational age of a pregnancy (most accurate in first trimester), detecting fetal anomalies and congenital anomalies in the second trimester, and determining the biophysical profiles (BPP). Ultrasound can also evaluate the blood flow velocity in the umbilical cord, looking to detect a decrease/absence/reversal or diastolic blood flow in the umbilical artery. Other tools used for assessment include: Fetal karyotype can be used for the screening of genetic diseases. This can be obtained via amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling (CVS) Fetal hematocrit for the assessment of fetal anemia, Rh isoimmunization, or hydrops can be determined by percutaneous umbilical blood sampling (PUBS) which is done by placing a needle through the abdomen into the uterus and taking a portion of the umbilical cord. Fetal lung maturity is associated with how much surfactant the fetus is producing. Reduced production of surfactant indicates decreased lung maturity and is a high risk factor for infant respiratory distress syndrome. Typically a lecithin:sphingomyelin ratio greater than 1.5 is associated with increased lung maturity. Nonstress test (NST) for fetal heart rate Oxytocin challenge test Childbirth Induction Induction is a method of artificially or prematurely stimulating labour in a woman. Reasons to induce can include pre-eclampsia, the birth mass, diabetes, and other various general medical conditions, such as renal disease. Induction may occur any time after 34 weeks of gestation if the risk to the fetus or mother is greater than the risk of delivering a premature fetus regardless of lung maturity. If a woman does not eventually labour by 41-42 weeks, induction may be performed, as the placenta may become unstable after this date. Induction may be achieved via several methods: Pessary of Prostin cream, prostaglandin E2 Intravaginal or oral administration of misoprostol Cervical insertion of a 30-mL Foley catheter Rupturing the amniotic membranes Intravenous infusion of synthetic oxytocin (Pitocin or Syntocinon) Labor During labor itself, the obstetrician/doctor/intern/medical student under supervision may be called on to do a number of tasks. These tasks can include: Monitor the progress of labor, by reviewing the nursing chart, performing vaginal examination, and assessing the trace produced by a fetal monitoring device (the cardiotocograph) Accelerate the progress of labor by infusion of the hormone oxytocin Provide pain relief, either by nitrous oxide, opiates, or by epidural anesthesia done by anaesthestists, an anesthesiologist, or a nurse anesthetist. Surgically assisting labor, by forceps or the Ventouse (a suction cap applied to the fetus' head) Caesarean section, if vaginal delivery is decided against or appears too difficult. Caesarean section can either be elective, that is, arranged before labor, or decided during labor as an alternative to hours of waiting. True "emergency" Cesarean sections include abruptio placenta, and are more common in multigravid patients, or patients attempting a Vaginal Birth After Caeserean section (VBAC). Emergencies in obstetrics The main emergencies include: Ectopic pregnancy is when an embryo implants in the Fallopian tube or (rarely) on the ovary or inside the peritoneal cavity. This may cause massive internal bleeding. Pre-eclampsia is a disease which is defined by a combination of signs and symptoms that are related to maternal hypertension. The cause is unknown, and markers are being sought to predict its development from the earlist stages of pregnancy. Some unknown factors cause vascular damage in the endothelium, causing hypertension and proteinuria. If severe, it progresses to fulminant pre-eclampsia, with headaches, epigastric pain and visual disturbances. This is a prelude to eclampsia, where a convulsion occurs, which can be fatal. Placental abruption where the patient can bleed to death if not managed appropriately. Shoulder dystocia where one of the fetus' shoulders becomes stuck during vaginal birth, especially in macrosomic babies of diabetic mothers. Imaging, monitoring and care In present society, medical science has developed a number of procedures to monitor pregnancy. Antenatal record On the first visit to her obstetrician or midwife, the pregnant woman is asked to carry out the antenatal record, which constitutes a medical history and physical examination. On subsequent visits, the gestational age (GA) is rechecked with each visit. Symphysis-fundal height (SFH; in cm) should equal gestational age after 20 weeks of gestation, and the fetal growth should be plotted on a curve during the antenatal visits. The fetus is palpated by the midwife or obstetrician using Leopold maneuver to determine the position of the baby. Blood pressure should also be monitored, and may be up to 140/90 in normal pregnancies. High blood pressure indicates hypertension and possibly pre-eclampsia, if severe swelling (edema) and spilled protein in the urine are also present. Fetal screening is also used to help assess the viability of the fetus, as well as congenital problems. Genetic counseling is often offered for families who may be at an increased risk to have a child with a genetic condition. Amniocentesis at around the 20th week is sometimes done for women 35 or older to check for Down's Syndrome and other chromosome abnormalities in the fetus. Even earlier than amniocentesis is performed, the mother may undergo the triple test, nuchal screening, nasal bone, alpha-fetoprotein screening and Chorionic villus sampling, also to check for disorders such as Down Syndrome. Amniocentesis is a prenatal genetic screening of the fetus, which involves inserting a needle through the mother's abdominal wall and uterine wall, to extract fetal DNA from the amniotic fluid. There is a risk of miscarriage and fetal injury with amniocentesis because it involves penetrating the uterus with the baby still in utero. Imaging A dating scan at 12 weeks. Imaging is another important way to monitor a pregnancy. The mother and fetus are also usually imaged in the first trimester of pregnancy. This is done to predict problems with the mother; confirm that a pregnancy is present inside the uterus; estimate the gestational age; determine the number of fetuses and placentae; evaluate for an ectopic pregnancy and first trimester bleeding; and assess for early signs of anomalies. X-rays and computerized tomography (CT) are not used, especially in the first trimester, due to the ionizing radiation, which has teratogenic effects on the fetus. Instead, ultrasound is the imaging method of choice in the first trimester and throughout the pregnancy, because it emits no radiation, is portable, and allows for realtime imaging. Ultrasound imaging may be done at any time throughout the pregnancy, but usually happens at the 12th week (dating scan) and the 20th week (detailed scan). A normal gestation would reveal a gestational sac, yolk sac, and fetal pole. The gestational age can be assessed by evaluating the mean gestational sac diameter (MGD) before week 6, and the crown-rump length after week 6. Multiple gestation is evaluated by the number of placentae and amniotic sacs present. Salary The salary of an obstetrician varies from country to country: CountryAnnual salary (US$)United Kingdom 187,771 Obstetrician working in United Kingdom, UK Salary, SalaryExpert.com, Retrieved on 2009-03-23 United Arab Emirates 231,809 Obstetrician working in United Arab Emirates, SalaryExpert.com. Retrieved on 2009-03-23 See also Childbirth and obstetrics in antiquity Home birth List of obstetric topics Obstetric ultrasonography Puerperum References Further reading External links Fluid and IV Warmer for Patient Comfort Omega 3 fatty acid supports mental and visual development of infants Ingenious - Archive of historical images related to obstetrics, gynaecology, and contraception. | Obstetrics |@lemmatized obstetrics:5 latin:1 obstare:1 stand:1 surgical:1 specialty:1 deal:1 care:5 woman:19 child:2 pregnancy:24 childbirth:3 puerperium:1 midwifery:1 non:1 medical:5 equivalent:1 veterinary:2 concept:1 medicine:1 antenatal:6 obstetric:3 practice:1 obstetrician:7 midwife:3 see:2 pregnant:8 regular:1 basis:1 check:4 progress:4 verify:1 absence:2 ex:1 novo:1 disease:6 monitor:5 state:2 preexist:1 possible:1 effect:3 ongoing:1 schedule:1 appointment:1 varies:2 accord:1 presence:1 risk:12 factor:6 diabetes:5 local:1 resource:1 clinically:1 statistically:1 important:5 must:3 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6,212 | G._E._Moore | "G.E. Moore" redirects here. For the cofounder of Intel, see Gordon Moore. George Edward Moore OM, usually known as G. E. Moore, (4 November 1873 – 24 October 1958) was a distinguished and influential English philosopher. He was, with Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and (before them) Gottlob Frege, one of the founders of the Analytic tradition in philosophy. Life and work Moore was educated at Dulwich College, Hodges, S, (1981), God's Gift: A Living History of Dulwich College, pages 87-88, (Heinemann: London) and at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he read Classics. He became a Fellow of Trinity in 1898 and went on to hold the University of Cambridge chair of mental philosophy and logic from 1925 to 1939. He was the brother of the writer and engraver Thomas Sturge Moore. Eminent Old Alleynians : Academe at dulwich.org.uk, accessed 24 February 2009 Moore is best known today for his defense of ethical non-naturalism, his emphasis on common sense in philosophical method, and the paradox that bears his name. He was admired by and influential among other philosophers, and also by the Bloomsbury Group, but is (unlike his friend and colleague Russell) mostly unknown today outside of academic philosophy. Moore's essays are known for his clear, circumspect writing style, and for his methodical and patient approach to philosophical problems. He was critical of philosophy for its lack of progress, which he believed was in stark contrast to the dramatic advances in the natural sciences since the Renaissance. He often praised the analytic reasoning of Thales of Miletus, an early Greek philosopher, for his analysis of the meaning of the term "landscaping." Moore thought Thales' reasoning was one of the few historical examples of philosophical inquiry resulting in practical advances. Among his most famous works are his book Principia Ethica, and his essays, "The Refutation of Idealism", "A Defence of Common Sense", and "A Proof of the External World". He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1918 to 1919. G. E. Moore died on 24 October 1958 and was interred at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, England. The poet Nicholas Moore and the composer Timothy Moore were his sons. He was an important member of the secretive Cambridge Apostles, and his life was written about by Paul Levy, in Moore: G. E. Moore and the Cambridge Apostles (1979). Ethics The title page of Principia Ethica Moore is also well-known for the so-called "open question argument," which is contained in his (also greatly influential) Principia Ethica. The Principia is one of the main inspirations of the movement against ethical naturalism (see ethical non-naturalism) and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with meta-ethics. The naturalistic fallacy Moore asserts that most other philosophers working in ethics had made a mistake he called the "Naturalistic fallacy". The business of ethics, Moore agreed, is to discover the qualities that make things good. So, for example, hedonists claim that the quality being pleasant is what makes things good; other theorists could claim that complexity is what makes things good. With this project Moore has no quarrel. What he objects to is the idea that, in telling us the qualities that make things good, ethical theorists have thereby given us an analysis of the term 'good' and the property goodness. Moore regards this as a serious confusion. To take an example, a hedonist might be right to claim that something is good just in the case that it is pleasant. But this does not mean, Moore wants to insist, that we can define value in terms of pleasure. Telling us what qualities make things valuable is one thing; analyzing value is quite another. Open question argument Moore's argument for the indefinability of “good” (and thus for the fallaciousness of the “naturalistic fallacy”) is often called the Open Question Argument; it is presented in §13 of Principia Ethica. The argument hinges on the nature of statements such as "Anything that is pleasant is also good" and the possibility of asking questions such as "Is it good that x is pleasant?" According to Moore, these questions are open and these statements are significant; and they will remain so no matter what is substituted for "pleasure". Moore concludes from this that any analysis of value is bound to fail. In other words, if value could be analyzed, then such questions and statements would be trivial and obvious. Since they are anything but trivial and obvious, value must be indefinable. Critics of Moore's arguments sometimes claim that he is appealing to general puzzles concerning analysis (cf. the paradox of analysis), rather than revealing anything special about value. Other responses appeal to the Fregean distinction between sense and reference, allowing that value concepts are special and sui generis, but insisting that value properties are nothing but natural properties (this strategy is similar to that taken by non-reductive materialists in philosophy of mind). Good as indefinable Moore contended that goodness cannot be analyzed in terms of any other property. In Principia Ethica, he writes: It may be true that all things which are good are also something else, just as it is true that all things which are yellow produce a certain kind of vibration in the light. And it is a fact, that Ethics aims at discovering what are those other properties belonging to all things which are good. But far too many philosophers have thought that when they named those other properties they were actually defining good; that these properties, in fact, were simply not "other," but absolutely and entirely the same with goodness. (§ 10 ¶ 3) Therefore, we cannot define "good" by explaining it in other words, we can only point to an action or a thing and say "That is good." Similarly, we cannot describe to a blind man exactly what yellow is. We can only show a sighted man a piece of yellow paper or a yellow scrap of cloth and say "That is yellow." Good as a non-natural property In addition to categorizing "good" as indefinable, Moore also emphasized that it is a non-natural property. That is, two objects that are qualitatively identical cannot have different values. There cannot be two yellow shirts that are identical in every way (same shade of yellow, made at the same factory, the same brand name, the same style, etc...) except for their reception of the predication of "good" (one cannot be good and the other not good). An object's property of "good" is determined by what other properties the object has. It is a property that is a product of having other properties. Therefore, if two objects are qualitatively identical, they must have the same value of "good". Moral knowledge Moore argued that once arguments based on the naturalistic fallacy had been discarded, questions of intrinsic goodness could only be settled by appeal to what he (following Sidgwick) called "moral intuitions:" self-evident propositions which recommend themselves to moral reflection, but which are not susceptible to either direct proof or disproof (PE § 45). As a result of his view, he has often been described by later writers as an advocate of ethical intuitionism. Moore, however, wished to distinguish his view from the views usually described as "Intuitionist" when Principia Ethica was written: Moore distinguished his view from the view of deontological intuitionists, who held that "intuitions" could determine questions about what actions are right or required by duty. Moore, as a consequentialist, argued that "duties" and moral rules could be determined by investigating the effects of particular actions or kinds of actions (PE § 89), and so were matters for empirical investigation rather than direct objects of intuition (PE § 90). On Moore's view, "intuitions" revealed not the rightness or wrongness of specific actions, but only what things were good in themselves, as ends to be pursued. Proof of an external world One of the most important parts of Moore's philosophical development was his break from the idealism that dominated British philosophy (as represented in the works of his former teachers F. H. Bradley and John McTaggart), and his defense of what he regarded as a "common sense" form of realism. In his 1925 essay "A Defence of Common Sense" he argued against idealism and skepticism toward the external world on the grounds that they could not give reasons to accept their metaphysical premises that were more plausible than the reasons we have to accept the common sense claims about our knowledge of the world that skeptics and idealists must deny. He famously put the point into dramatic relief with his 1939 essay "Proof of an External World", in which he gave a common sense argument against skepticism by raising his right hand and saying "Here is one hand," and then raising his left and saying "And here is another," then concluding that there are at least two external objects in the world, and therefore that he knows (by this argument) that an external world exists. Not surprisingly, not everyone inclined to skeptical doubts found Moore's method of argument entirely convincing; Moore, however, defends his argument on the grounds that skeptical arguments seem invariably to require an appeal to "philosophical intuitions" that we have considerably less reason to accept than we have for the common sense claims that they supposedly refute. (In addition to fueling Moore's own work, the "Here is one hand" argument also deeply influenced Wittgenstein, who spent his last years working out a new approach to Moore's argument in the remarks that were published posthumously as On Certainty.) Language Moore is also remembered for drawing attention to the peculiar inconsistency involved in uttering a sentence such as "It will rain but I don't believe that it will"--a puzzle which is now commonly called "Moore's paradox". The puzzle arises because it seems impossible for anyone to consistently assert such a sentence; but there doesn't seem to be any logical contradiction between "It will rain" and "I don't believe that it will rain". (Indeed, it is not unusual for such conjunctions to be true — for example, whenever I am wrong about the weather forecast.) In addition to Moore's own work on the paradox, the puzzle also inspired a great deal of work by Ludwig Wittgenstein, who described the paradox as the most impressive philosophical insight that Moore had ever introduced. Organic wholes Moore’s description of the principle of organic unity is extremely straightforward; nonetheless, it is a principle that seems to have generally escaped ethical philosophers and ontologists before his time: The value of a whole must not be assumed to be the same as the sum of the values of its parts (Principia, § 18). According to Moore, a moral actor cannot survey the “goodness” inherent in the various parts of a situation, assign a value to each of them, and then generate a sum in order to get an idea of its total value. A moral scenario is a complex assembly of parts, and its total value is often created by the relations between those parts, and not by their individual value. The organic metaphor is thus very appropriate: biological organisms seem to have emergent properties which cannot be found anywhere in their individual parts. For example, a human brain seems to exhibit a capacity for thought when none of its neurons exhibit any such capacity. In the same way, a moral scenario can have a value far greater than the sum of its component parts. To understand the application of the organic principle to questions of value, it is perhaps best to consider Moore’s primary example, that of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object. To see how the principle works, a thinker engages in “reflective isolation”, the act of isolating a given concept in a kind of null-context and determining its intrinsic value. In our example, we can easily see that per sui, beautiful objects and consciousnesses are not particularly valuable things. They might have some value, but when we consider the total value of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object, it seems to exceed the simple sum of these values (Principia 18:2). Bibliography G. E. Moore, The Nature of Judgment (1899) G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica (1903) G. E. Moore, Review of Franz Brentano's The Origin of the Knowledge of Right and Wrong (1903) G. E. Moore, The Refutation of Idealism (1903) G. E. Moore, The Nature and Reality of the Objects of Perception (1905-6) G. E. Moore, Ethics (1912) G. E. Moore, Some Judgments of Perception (1918) G. E. Moore, "Philosophical Studies" (1922) [Papers published 1903-21, and first published two:] G. E. Moore, The Conception of Intrinsic Value G. E. Moore, The Nature of Moral Philosophy G. E. Moore, Are the Characteristics of Things Universal or Particular? (1923) G. E. Moore, A Defence of Common Sense (1925) G. E. Moore and F. P. Ramsey, Facts and Proposition (Symposium) (1927) G. E. Moore, Proof of an External World (1939) G. E. Moore, "Some Main Problems of Philosophy" (1953) [Lectures delivered 1910-11] G. E. Moore, Propositions Margin Notes by G. E. Moore on The Works of Thomas Reid (1849: With Notes by Sir William Hamilton) Further reading Daval, René, Moore et la philosophie analytique, 1997, Presses Universitaires de France (PUF), ISBN 9782130486909 (french) External links Summary of life and work of G. E. Moore The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy G.E. Moore G.E. Moore's Moral Philosophy G. E. Moore at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy References G. E. Moore, On Defining "Good," in Analytic Philosophy: Classic Readings, Stamford, CT: Wadsworth, 2002, pp.1–10. 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6,213 | Max_Steiner | This article is about the film composer. For other persons with the same name, see Max Steiner. Max Steiner (May 10, 1888 - December 28, 1971) was an Academy Award-winning Austrian-American composer of music for theatre productions and films. He probably is known best for the score he composed for the classic Gone with the Wind and for the score and hugely popular theme song for the film A Summer Place. Steiner was born Maximilian Raoul Walter Steiner in Vienna, Austria-Hungary. Later on in his life he found out he had a half brother named James Owen, with whom he co-wrote the song Theme from A Summer Place. His paternal grandfather was Maximilian Steiner (1830-1880), the influential manager of Vienna's Theater an der Wien; his father was Gabor Steiner (1858-1944), Viennese impresario and carnival and exposition manager, responsible for the Ferris wheel in the Prater that would become the setting for a key scene of the film The Third Man (1949); his godfather was the composer Richard Strauss. A child prodigy in composing, Steiner received piano instruction from Johannes Brahms and, at the age of sixteen, enrolled at the Imperial Academy of Music (now known as the University of Music and Performing Arts), where he was taught by Gustav Mahler among others. His musical aptitudes enabled him to complete the school's four-year program in only two. At the age of 16 Steiner wrote and conducted the operetta The Beautiful Greek Girl. At the start of World War I, he was working in London and was classified as an enemy alien but was befriended by the Duke of Westminster and given exit papers. He arrived in New York City in December 1914 with $32 to his name. Steiner worked in New York for eleven years as a musical director, arranger, orchestrator, and conductor of Broadway operettas and musicals written by Victor Herbert, Jerome Kern, Vincent Youmans, and George Gershwin, among others. His credits included George White's Scandals (1922), Lady, Be Good (1924), and Rosalie (1928). In 1929, Steiner went to Hollywood to orchestrate the European film version of the Florenz Ziegfield show Rio Rita for RKO. The score for King Kong (1933) made Steiner's reputation; it was one of the first American films to have an extensive musical score. He conducted the scores for several Fred Astaire-Ginger Rogers musicals, including Top Hat (1935) and Roberta (1935). Steiner scored hundreds of Hollywood films, and was the most prominent composer in the music department at Warner Bros., where he wrote the famous fanfare that introduced most of the studio's films from 1937 through the early 1950s. Steiner continued to score Warner films until the mid 1960s; he usually worked with orchestrator Murray Cutter. His final original film score was the 1965 film Two on a Guillotine. He also wrote music for several of the television series produced by Warner Brothers. In 1954, RCA Victor asked Steiner to prepare and conduct an orchestral suite of music from Gone with the Wind for a special LP, which was later issued on CD. Max Steiner received 26 Academy Award nominations for his work and won three Oscars, for The Informer (1935), Now, Voyager (1942), and Since You Went Away (1944). Steiner died of congestive heart failure in Hollywood. He is entombed in the Great Mausoleum at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California. After his death, Charles Gerhardt conducted the National Philharmonic Orchestra in an RCA Victor album of highlights from Steiner's career, titled Now Voyager. Additional selections of Steiner scores were included on other RCA classic film albums during the early 1970s. The quadraphonic recordings were later digitally remastered for Dolby surround sound and released on CD. In 1995, Steiner was inducted posthumously into the Songwriters Hall of Fame. He has a star located at 1551 Vine Street on the Walk of Fame for his contribution to motion pictures. Additional filmography Cimarron (1931) Bird of Paradise (1932) The Most Dangerous Game (1932) A Bill of Divorcement (1932) Thirteen Women (1932) Christopher Strong (1933) Rafter Romance (1933) King Kong (1933) Son of Kong(1933) Mystery of the Wax Museum (1933) The Little Minister (1934) The Gay Divorcee (Musical Director) (Academy Award nomination, 1934) The Lost Patrol (Academy Award nomination, 1934) The Informer (1935) (ACADEMY AWARD WINNER) The Garden of Allah (Academy Award nomination, 1936) The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936) God's Country and the Woman (1937) A Star Is Born (1937) That Certain Woman (1937) The Life of Emile Zola (1937) Gold is Where You Find It (1938) Jezebel (Academy Award nomination, 1938) Angels with Dirty Faces (1938) The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1938) Dodge City (1939) Confessions of a Nazi Spy (1939) Dark Victory (Academy Award nomination, 1939) Gone with the Wind (Academy Award nomination, 1939) The Letter (Academy Award nomination, 1940) Santa Fe Trail (1940) Shining Victory (1941) They Died with Their Boots On (1941) Sergeant York (Academy Award nomination, 1941) Casablanca (Academy Award nomination, 1942) Now Voyager(1942) (ACADEMY AWARD WINNER) Since You Went Away (1944) (ACADEMY AWARD WINNER) The Adventures of Mark Twain (Academy Award nomination, 1944) Mildred Pierce (1945) Rhapsody in Blue (Academy Award nomination, shared with Ray Heindorf, 1945) The Big Sleep (1946) Night and Day (Academy Award nomination, shared with Ray Heindorf, 1946) Life with Father (Academy Award nomination, 1947) My Wild Irish Rose (Academy Award nomination, shared with Ray Heindorf, 1947) The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948) Winter Meeting (1948) Johnny Belinda (Academy Award nomination, 1948) Beyond the Forest (Academy Award nomination, 1949) The Fountainhead (1949) The Flame and the Arrow (Academy Award nomination, 1950) The Glass Menagerie (1950) Jim Thorpe, All American (1951) The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima (Academy Award nomination, 1952) The Jazz Singer (Academy Award nomination, shared with Ray Heindorf, 1953) So Big (1953) The Charge at Feather River The Caine Mutiny (Academy Award nomination, 1954) Battle Cry (Academy Award nomination, 1955) The Searchers (1956) Band of Angels (1957) A Summer Place (1959)(Theme U.S.#1 Hit Single) The FBI Story (1959) The Dark at the Top of the Stairs (1960) Parrish (1961) Spencer's Mountain (1963) Youngblood Hawke (1964) A Distant Trumpet (1964) External links Max Steiner at AmericanComposers.com | Max_Steiner |@lemmatized article:1 film:12 composer:4 person:1 name:3 see:1 max:4 steiner:20 may:1 december:2 academy:27 award:26 win:2 austrian:1 american:3 music:6 theatre:1 production:1 probably:1 know:2 best:1 score:9 compose:1 classic:2 go:6 wind:3 hugely:1 popular:1 theme:3 song:2 summer:3 place:3 bear:2 maximilian:2 raoul:1 walter:1 vienna:2 austria:1 hungary:1 later:3 life:3 find:2 half:1 brother:2 james:1 owen:1 co:1 write:5 paternal:1 grandfather:1 influential:1 manager:2 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6,214 | BQP | The suspected relationship of BQP to other problem spaces Michael Nielsen and Isaac Chuang (2000). Quantum Computation and Quantum Information. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63503-9. In computational complexity theory BQP stands for "Bounded error, Quantum, Polynomial time". It denotes the class of decision problems solvable by a quantum computer in polynomial time, with an error probability of at most 1/3 for all instances. In other words, there is an algorithm for a quantum computer that solves the decision problem with high probability and is guaranteed to run in polynomial time. On any given run of the algorithm, it has a probability of at most 1/3 that it will give the wrong answer. Similarly to other "bounded error" probabilistic classes the choice of 1/3 in the definition is arbitrary. Changing the constant to any real number such that does not change the set BQP. The idea behind this definition is that for any single run of algorithm the probability of error is lower than . Thus we can run the algorithm a constant number of times and take a majority vote to achieve any desired probability of correctness less than 1, using the Chernoff bound. This number of repeats increases if becomes closer to 1/2, but it does not depend on the input size. Probability of error is exponentially small with regard to the number of repeats. Quantum computation The number of qubits in the computer is allowed to be a polynomial function of the instance size. For example, algorithms are known for factoring an n-bit integer using just over 2n qubits (Shor's algorithm). Usually, computation on a quantum computer ends with a measurement. This leads to a collapse of quantum state to one of the basis states. It can be said that the quantum state is measured to be in the correct state with high probability. Quantum computers have gained widespread interest because some problems of practical interest are known to be in BQP, but suspected to be outside P. Currently, only three such problems are known: Integer factorization (see Shor's algorithm) Discrete logarithm Simulation of quantum systems (see universal quantum computer) Relationship to other complexity classes This class is defined for a quantum computer and its natural corresponding class for an ordinary computer (or a Turing machine plus a source of randomness) is BPP. BQP contains P and BPP and is contained in PP and PSPACE. Bernstein and Vazirani, Quantum complexity theory, SIAM Journal on Computing, 26(5):1411-1473, 1997. In fact, BQP is low for PP, meaning that a PP machine achieves no benefit from being able to solve BQP problems instantly, an indication of the possible difference in power between these similar classes. As the problem of has not yet been solved, the proof of inequality between BQP and classes mentioned above is supposed to be difficult. Relation between BQP and NP is not known. BQP can be shown to be in the counting complexity class AWPP. References | BQP |@lemmatized suspected:1 relationship:2 bqp:10 problem:7 space:1 michael:1 nielsen:1 isaac:1 chuang:1 quantum:14 computation:3 information:1 cambridge:2 university:1 press:1 isbn:1 computational:1 complexity:4 theory:2 stand:1 bound:3 error:5 polynomial:4 time:4 denote:1 class:8 decision:2 solvable:1 computer:8 probability:7 instance:2 word:1 algorithm:7 solve:3 high:2 guarantee:1 run:4 give:2 wrong:1 answer:1 similarly:1 probabilistic:1 choice:1 definition:2 arbitrary:1 change:2 constant:2 real:1 number:5 set:1 idea:1 behind:1 single:1 low:2 thus:1 take:1 majority:1 vote:1 achieve:2 desired:1 correctness:1 less:1 use:2 chernoff:1 repeat:2 increase:1 becomes:1 closer:1 depend:1 input:1 size:2 exponentially:1 small:1 regard:1 qubits:2 allow:1 function:1 example:1 know:4 factor:1 n:1 bit:1 integer:2 shor:2 usually:1 end:1 measurement:1 lead:1 collapse:1 state:4 one:1 basis:1 say:1 measure:1 correct:1 gain:1 widespread:1 interest:2 practical:1 suspect:1 outside:1 p:2 currently:1 three:1 factorization:1 see:2 discrete:1 logarithm:1 simulation:1 system:1 universal:1 define:1 natural:1 corresponding:1 ordinary:1 turing:1 machine:2 plus:1 source:1 randomness:1 bpp:2 contain:2 pp:3 pspace:1 bernstein:1 vazirani:1 siam:1 journal:1 computing:1 fact:1 mean:1 benefit:1 able:1 instantly:1 indication:1 possible:1 difference:1 power:1 similar:1 yet:1 proof:1 inequality:1 mention:1 suppose:1 difficult:1 relation:1 np:1 show:1 counting:1 awpp:1 reference:1 |@bigram computational_complexity:1 shor_algorithm:2 integer_factorization:1 discrete_logarithm:1 turing_machine:1 siam_journal:1 |
6,215 | Dharma | The term (Sanskrit: dhárma, dhamma), is an Indian spiritual and religious term, that means one's righteous duty or any virtuous path in the common sense of the term. In Indian languages it contextually implies one's religion. Throughout Indian philosophy, Dharma is presented as a central concept that is used in order to explain the "higher truth" or ultimate reality of the universe. The word dharma literally translates as that which upholds or supports, and is generally translated into English as law. The word "dharma" can also be translated as "the teachings of the Buddha". The various Indian religions and philosophy (Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, among others) have all accorded a central focus to Dharma and advocate its practice. Each of these religions emphasizes Dharma as the correct understanding of reality in its teachings. Pagan Theology: paganism as a world religion by Michael York In these traditions, beings that live in accordance with Dharma proceed more quickly toward Dharma Yukam, Moksha or Nirvana (personal liberation). Dharma also refers to the teachings and doctrines of the founders of these traditions, such as those of Gautama Buddha and Mahavira. In traditional Hindu society with its caste structure, Dharma constituted the religious and moral doctrine of the rights and duties of each individual. (see dharmasastra). Dharma in its universal meaning shares much in common with the way of Tao or Taoism. The antonym of dharma is adharma meaning unnatural or immoral. Etymology In the Rigveda, the word appears as an n-stem, , with a range of meanings encompassing "something established or firm" (in the literal sense of prods or poles), figuratively "sustainer, supporter" (of deities), and semantically similar to the Greek ethos ("fixed decree, statute, law"). In Classical Sanskrit, the noun becomes thematic, . It is from an Indo-Iranian root dhar ("to fasten, to support, to hold"), in turn from Proto-Indo-European *dher Pokorny, Julius. Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. 1959. , which is related to the Latin frēnum ("rein, horse tack"); OHG "tarni" and "latens" ("hidden, held back"); and, extended to "dher-gh", OCS "drъžǫ, drъžati" ("to hold, possess"). Etymological identity of dharma with Latin firmus (the source of the English word firm) has been suggested, but remains uncertain. From the Atharvaveda and in Classical Sanskrit, the stem is thematic, (Devanāgarī: धर्म), and in Pāli, it takes the form dhamma. It is also often rendered dharam in contemporary Indian languages and dialects. It is used in most or all philosophies and religions of Indian origin—sometimes summarized under the umbrella term of Dharmic faiths—including Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for dharma, as the word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations. In most of the modern Indian languages, such as Hindi or Bangla, dharma can also contextually mean simply "religion". Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism are called Hindu Dharma, Bauddha-Dharma, Jain-Dharma and Sikh dharma, respectively. Development In the Rig veda, the belief (or observation) that a natural justice and harmony pervades the natural world becomes manifest in the concept of rta, which is both 'nature's way' and the order implicit in nature. Thus rta bears a resemblance to the ancient Chinese concept of tao and the Heraclitan or stoic conception of the logos. This "power" that lies behind nature, and which keeps everything in balance became a natural forerunner to the idea of dharma as one can see in this early Vedic prayer. This idea laid the cornerstone of Dharma's implicit attribution to the "ultimate reality" of the surrounding universe, in classical Hindu. The following verse from the Rig-Veda is an example where rta finds mention : "O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils." (RV 10.133.6) The transition of the rta to the modern idea of Dharma occurs in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Upanishads saw dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the Universe. It is sat, truth, a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that "Ekam Sat," (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is "Sacchidananda" (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka's own words: " Verily, that which is Dharma is truth. Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, 'He speaks the Dharma,' or of a man who speaks the Dharma, 'He speaks the Truth.' Verily, both these things are the same." (Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14) (2) In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines Dharma as: "Dhaaranaad dharma ity aahur dharmena vidhrtaah prajaah, Yat syaad dhaarana sanyuktam sa dharma iti nishchayah," or, "Dharma upholds both this-worldly and other-worldly affairs" (Mbh 12.110.11). Dharma as a "Purusartha" In moving through the four ashrams, or stages of life, viz. Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vaanprastha, Sanyaasa, a person also seeks to fulfill the four essentials (purusartha) of Kama (sensual pleasures), Artha (worldly gain), Dharma, and Moksha (liberation from reincarnation or rebirth). Moksha, although the ultimate goal, is emphasized more in the last two stages of life, while Artha and Kama are considered primary only during Grihastha. Dharma, however is essential in all four stages. As a purusartha (human goal), Dharma can also be considered to be a lens through which humans plan and perform their interactions with the world. Through the Dharmic lens, one focuses on doing what is right and avoiding what is wrong, while the Kama perspective focuses on doing what is pleasurable (in many senses, not just sex) and avoiding pain, and the Artha perspective focuses on doing what is profitable (in many senses, not just money) and avoiding loss. The deity named Dharma Dharma is also the name of a deity or "Deva" in charge of Dharma. Mythologically, he is said to have been born from the right breast of Brahma, is married to ten daughters of Daksha and fathers Shama, Kama and Harahsa. He is also the father of the celebrated Rishis Hari, Krishna, Nara-Narayana. In the epic Mahabharata, he is incarnate as Vidura. The Mahābhārata: Book 11: The Book of the Venus Book 12: The Book of Peace, Part 1 By Johannes Adrianus Bernardus Buitenen, James L. Fitzgerald pg.124 Also, Dharma is invoked by Kunti and she begets her eldest son Yudhisthira from him. As such Yudhisthira is known as Dharmaputra. There is also an assimilation of God Dharma and Yama, the God responsible for the Dead. The Mahābhārata: Book 11: The Book of the Women Book 12: The Book of Peace, Part 1 By Johannes Adrianus Bernardus Buitenen, James L. Fitzgerald pg.124 In technical literature In technical literature, e.g., in Sanskrit grammar, dharma also means "property" and dharmin means "property-bearer".In a Sanskrit sentence like , "sound is impermanent", "sound" is the bearer of the property "impermanence". Likewise, in the sentence , "here, there is a pot", "here" is the bearer of the property "pot-existence" - this shows that the categories of property and property-bearer are closer to those of a logical predicate and its subject-term, and not to a grammatical predicate and subject. In Buddhism For many Buddhists, the Dharma most often means the body of teachings expounded by the Buddha. The word is also used in Buddhist phenomenology as a term roughly equivalent to phenomenon, a basic unit of existence and/or experience. In East Asia, the translation for Dharma is 法, pronounced fǎ in Mandarin, beop in Korean, hō in Japanese, and pháp in Vietnamese. However, the term Dharma can also be transliterated from its original form as well. The tradition says that the Buddha spent forty-nine days in the neighborhood of the Bodhi Tree. Then the two merchants en route from Orissa passed close by and were advised by the spirit of a dead relative to make offerings to the new Buddha, who was sitting at the foot of a certain tree. They offered honey cakes and sugar cane and "took refuge in the Buddha and his Dharma, thus becoming the first Buddhists and the first lay devotees in the world." In this case, Gautama did not preach Dharma to the two men, but merely received their reverence and offerings. Worship of holy persons is nonsectarian, and does not involve subscribing to their ideas. The Buddhist lay cult is here shown developing naturally out of pre-Buddhist practices. Robinson and Johnson. The Buddhist Religion.Dickson Publishing Company.1977 Buddha's teachings For practicing Buddhists, references to "Dharma" or Dhamma in Pali, particularly as "the" Dharma, generally means the teachings of the Buddha, commonly known throughout the East as Buddha-Dharma. The status of Dharma is regarded variably by different Buddhist traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate truth, or as the font of all things which lies beyond the 'three realms' (Sanskrit: tridhatu) and the 'wheel of becoming' (Sanskrit: bhavacakra), somewhat like the Christian logos: this is known as Dharmakaya (Sanskrit). Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see the Dharma as the essence of the '84,000 different aspects of the teaching' (Tibetan: chos-sgo brgyad-khri bzhi strong) that the Buddha gave to various types of people, based upon their individual propensities and capabilities. "Dharma" usually refers not only to the sayings of the Buddha, but also to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various schools of Buddhism have developed to help explain and to expand upon the Buddha's teachings. For others still, they see the Dharma as referring to the "truth," or the ultimate reality of "the way that things really are" (Tib. Cho). The Dharma is one of the Three Jewels of Buddhism in which practitioners of Buddhism seek refuge, or that upon which one relies for his or her lasting happiness. The Three Jewels of Buddhism are the Buddha, meaning the mind's perfection of enlightenment, the Dharma, meaning the teachings and the methods of the Buddha, and the Sangha, meaning those awakened beings who provide guidance and support to followers of the Buddha. Qualities of Buddha Dharma The Teaching of the Buddha also has six supreme qualities: Svakkhato (Pali) The Dharma is not a speculative philosophy, but is the Universal Law found through enlightenment and is preached precisely. Therefore it is Excellent in the beginning (Sīla — Moral principles), Excellent in the middle (Samadhi — Concentration) and Excellent in the end (Pańña — Wisdom). Samditthiko (Pali) The Dharma is testable by practice and known by direct experience. Akāliko (Pali) The Dharma is able to bestow timeless and immediate results here and now, for which there is no need to wait until the future or next existence. Ehipassiko (Pali) The Dharma welcomes all beings to put it to the test and to experience it for themselves. Opāneyiko (Pali) The Dharma is capable of being entered upon and therefore it is worthy to be followed as a part of one's life. Paccattam veditabbo viññūnhi (Pali) The Dharma may be perfectly realized only by the noble disciples (Pali: Ariyas) who have matured and who have become enlightened in supreme wisdom. Knowing these attributes, Buddhists hold that they will attain the greatest peace and happiness through the practice of their own Dharma. Each person is therefore fully responsible to engage in their own practice and commitment. Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology Other uses include dharma, normally spelled with a small "d" (to differentiate), which refers to a phenomenon or constituent factor of human experience. This was gradually expanded into a classification of constituents of the entire material and mental world. Rejecting the substantial existence of permanent entities which are qualified by possibly changing qualities, Buddhist Abhidharma philosophy, which enumerated seventy-five dharmas, came to propound that these "constituent factors" are the only type of entity that truly exists. This notion is of particular importance for the analysis of human experience: Rather than assuming that mental states inhere in a cognizing subject, or a soul-substance, Buddhist philosophers largely propose that mental states alone exist as "momentary elements of consciousness" and that a subjective perceiver is assumed. One of the central tenets of Buddhism, is the denial of a separate permanent "I", and is outlined in the three marks of existence. The three signs: Dukkha - Suffering ( way to end) (Pali: Dukkha), Anitya - Change/Impermanence (Pali: Anicca), Anatman - No-I (Pali: Annatta). At the heart of Buddhism, is the denial of an "I" (and hence the delusion) as a separate self-existing entity. Later, Buddhist philosophers like Nāgārjuna would question whether the dharmas (momentary elements of consciousness) truly have a separate existence of their own. (ie Do they exist apart from anything else?) Rejecting any inherent reality to the dharmas, he asked (rhetorically): | When all dharmas are empty, what is endless? What has an end? What is endless and with an end? What is not endless and not with an end? What is it? What is other? What is permanent? What is impermanent? What is impermanent and permanent? What is neither? Auspicious is the pacification of phenomenal metastasis, the pacification of all apprehending; There is no dharma whatsoever taught by the Buddha to whomever, whenever, wherever. --Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, , 25:22-24 Dharma as righteousness According to S. N. Goenka, teacher of Vipassana Meditation, the original meaning of dhamma is "dhareti ti dhamma", or "that which is contained". Dharma in the Buddhist scriptures has a variety of meanings, including "phenomenon" and "nature" or "characteristic". Dharma also means "mental contents," and is paired with citta, which means heart-mind. The pairing is paralleled with the combining of kaya (body) and vedana (feelings or sensations which arise within the body but are experienced through the mind), in major sutras such as the Mahasatipatthana sutra. Dharma is also used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha, especially the discourses on the fundamental principles (such as the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path), as opposed to the parables and to the poems. Dharma in Ch'an Dharma is employed in Ch'an in a specific context in relation to transmission of authentic doctrine, understanding and bodhi; recognized in Dharma transmission. In Zoroastrianism Daena (din in modern Persian) is the eternal Law, whose order was revealed to humanity through the Mathra-Spenta ("Holy Words"). Daena has been used to mean religion, faith, law, even as a translation for the Hindu and Buddhist term Dharma, often interpreted as "duty" or social order, right conduct, or virtue. The metaphor of the 'path' of Daena is represented in Zoroastrianism by the muslin undershirt Sudra, the 'Good/Holy Path', and the 72-thread Kushti girdle, the "Pathfinder". Daena should not be confused with the fundamental principle asha (Vedic rta), the equitable law of the universe, which governed the life of the ancient Indo-Iranians. For these, asha was the course of everything observable, the motion of the planets and astral bodies, the progression of the seasons, the pattern of daily nomadic herdsman life, governed by regular metronomic events such as sunrise and sunset. All physical creation (geti) was thus determined to run according to a master plan — inherent to Ahura Mazda — and violations of the order (druj) were violations against creation, and thus violations against Ahura Mazda. This concept of asha versus the druj should not be confused with the good-versus-evil battle evident in western religions, for although both forms of opposition express moral conflict, the asha versus druj concept is more systemic and less personal, representing, for instance, chaos (that opposes order); or "uncreation", evident as natural decay (that opposes creation); or more simply "the lie" (that opposes truth, righteousness). Moreover, in his role as the one uncreated creator of all, Ahura Mazda is not the creator of druj which is "nothing", anti-creation, and thus (likewise) uncreated. Thus, in Zoroaster's revelation, Ahura Mazda was perceived to be the creator of only the good (Yasna 31.4), the "supreme benevolent providence" (Yasna 43.11), that will ultimately triumph (Yasna 48.1). In this schema of asha versus druj, mortal beings (humans and animals both) play a critical role, for they too are created. Here, in their lives, they are active participants in the conflict and it is their duty to defend order, which would decay without counteraction. Throughout the Gathas, Zoroaster emphasizes deeds and actions, and accordingly asceticism is frowned upon in Zoroastrianism. In later Zoroastrianism this was explained as fleeing from the experiences of life, which was the very purpose that the urvan (most commonly translated as the 'soul') was sent into the mortal world to collect. The avoidance of any aspect of life, which includes the avoidance of the pleasures of life, is a shirking of the responsibility and duty to oneself, one's urvan, and one's family and social obligations. Thus, central to Zoroastrianism is the emphasis on moral choice, to choose between the responsibility and duty for which one is in the mortal world, or to give up this duty and so facilitate the work of druj. Similarly, predestination is rejected in Zoroastrian teaching. Humans bear responsibility for all situations they are in, and in the way they act to one another. Reward, punishment, happiness and grief all depend on how individuals live their life. In Zoroastrianism, good transpires for those who do righteous deeds. Those who do evil have themselves to blame for their ruin. Zoroastrian morality is then to be summed up in the simple phrase, "good thoughts, good words, good deeds" (Humata, Hukhta, Hvarshta in Avestan), for it is through these that asha is maintained and druj is kept in check. Through accumulation several other beliefs were introduced to the religion that in some instances supersede those expressed in the Gathas. In the late 19th century the moral and immoral forces came to be represented by Spenta Mainyu and its Satanic antithesis Angra Mainyu, the 'good spirit' and 'evil spirit' emanations of Ahura Mazda respectively. Although the names are old, this opposition is a modern western-influenced development popularized by Martin Haug in the 1880s, and was in effect a realignment of the precepts of Zurvanism (Zurvanite Zoroastrianism), which had invented a third deity, Zurvan, in order to explain a mention of twinship (Yasna 30.3) between the moral and immoral. Although Zurvanism had died out by the 10th century the critical question of the "twin brothers" mentioned in Yasna 30.3 remained, and Haug's explanation provided a convenient defence against Christian missionaries who disparaged the Parsis (Indian Zoroastrians) for their 'dualism'. Haug's concept was subsequently disseminated as a Parsi interpretation, thus corroborating Haug's theory and the idea became so popular that it is now almost universally accepted as doctrine. Achaemenid era (648–330 BCE) Zoroastrianism developed the abstract concepts of heaven, hell, personal and final judgement, all of which are only alluded to in the Gathas. Yasna 19 (which has only survived in a Sassanid era (226–650 CE) Zend commentary on the Ahuna Vairya invocation), prescribes a Path to Judgement known as the Chinvat Peretum or Chinvat bridge (cf: As-Sirāt in Islam), which all souls had to cross, and judgement (over thoughts, words, deeds performed during a lifetime) was passed as they were doing so. However, the Zoroastrian personal judgement is not final. At the end of time, when evil is finally defeated, all souls will be ultimately reunited with their Fravashi. Thus, Zoroastrianism can be said to be a universalist religion with respect to salvation. In addition, and strongly influenced by Babylonian and Akkadian practices, the Achaemenids popularized shrines and temples, hitherto alien forms of worship. In the wake of Achaemenid expansion shrines were constructed throughout the empire and particularly influenced the role of Mithra, Aredvi Sura Anahita, Verethregna and Tishtrya, all of which, in addition to their original (proto-)Indo-Iranian functions, now also received Perso-Babylonian functions. Although the worship of images would eventually fall out of favour (and be replaced by the iconoclastic fire temples), the lasting legacy of the Achaemenids was a vast, complex hierarchy of Yazatas (modern Zoroastrianism's Angels) that were now not just evident in the religion, but firmly established, not least because the divinities received dedications in the Zoroastrian calendar, thus ensuring that they were frequently invoked. Additionally, the Amesha Spenta, the six originally abstract terms that were regarded as direct emanations or aspects or "divine sparks" of Ahura Mazda, came to be personified as an archangel retinue. In Sikhism For Sikhs, the word "Dharma" means the "path of righteousness". What is the "righteous path"? That is the question that the Sikh scriptures attempt to answer. The main holy scriptures of the Sikhs is called the Guru Granth Sahib (SGGS.) It is considered to be more than a holy book of the Sikhs. The Sikhs treat this Granth (holy book) as a living Guru. The holy text spans 1430 pages and contains the actual words spoken by the Sikh Gurus and various other Saints from other religions including Hinduism and Islam. Sikh Dharma is a distinct religion revealed through the teachings of ten Gurus who are accepted by the followers as if they were spiritually the same. The Gurus are considered "the divine light" and they conveyed Gurbani (the word of God) in the form of the Guru Granth Sahib to the world. In this faith, God is described as both Nirgun (transcendent) and Sargun (immanent). Further, God pervades in His creation and is omnipresent, but cannot be incarnate. The principal Sikh belief lays stress on one's actions and deeds rather than people's religious labels, rituals or outward appearance or signs. Background The primary object of a Sikh's life is to seek union with God and hence, liberation from the cycle of births and deaths (cycle of re-incarnation) which is dictated by a person's thought, deeds and actions in this life. Liberation can be achieved through meditating on God, truthful living and sharing ones wealth in the context of a normal family life and through divine grace. Amrit Pahul – Sikh baptism for both men and women – was instituted in 1699 by Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth Guru. All Sikhs, on taking Amrit, are enjoined to lead a disciplined life by following a code of ethics leading to a "Saint-Soldier" way of life. In 1708, Guru Gobind Singh vested spiritual authority in the Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh Scriptures) as the eternal Guru and hence Sikh Dharma acknowledges the end of human Guruship. At the same time, the temporal authority was vested in the Khalsa Panth (a community of Sikhs who have taken Amrit). Other important aspects of a Sikh's life include Sewa (dedication to the service of God's creation) where the emphasis is often upon manual work, undertaking of goodwill towards other faiths and their followers, to defend for justice and assistance of the oppressed. In contrast to many other faiths, Sikhs believe that when all other means to achieve justice are exhausted, then it is just to wield the sword. Congregational worship includes the following: Paath - Reading of the Holy scriptures Kirtan - Singing of Shabads (hymns). Langar - A communal vegetarian meal also call free kitchen is an important feature of the Sikh way of life, and food is served to everyone at the end of a Sikh service. Community Centre - Today, in most countries, a Gurdwara, the Sikh place of worship, also serves as a centre to promote Sikh culture and such other needs of the community. Ardas - Sikhs conclude their prayers by doing the Ardas and invoking God's blessings on everyone – not just on Sikhs. Scriptures and Dharma The Guru Granth Sahib lays down the foundation of this "righteous path" and various salient points are found. Sikh is bound by Dharma: The followers of this faith are bound by Dharma as advocated in their holy scriptures. The committed Sikh is encouraged to follow this path at all times. The first recitation of the Guru Granth Sahib called the Japji Sahib says the following: "The path of the faithful shall never be blocked. The faithful shall depart with honor and fame. The faithful do not follow empty religious rituals. The faithful people are fully bound to do whatever the Dharma wants them to do. Such is the Name of the Immaculate Lord. Only one who has faith comes to know such a state of mind." (14) (Guru Granth Sahib Japji page 3.) Deeds are recorded: The persons thoughts and deeds are said to be recorded and the faithful is warned that these will be read out in the presence of the "Lord of Dharma". Two scribes called "Chitr and Gupt" 1 , the angels of the conscious and the subconscious mind are busy writing ones thought and deeds. On death the soul of the person he brought before "Lord of Dharma" are these account are read out as recoded in this quote: "Day and night are the two nurses, in whose lap all the world is at play. Good deeds and bad deeds - the record is read out in the Presence of the Lord of Dharma. According to their own actions, some are drawn closer, and some are driven farther away." (Guru Granth Sahib Japji page 8, Salok.) 2 Dharma administered by God: The scriptures further outline how the "Judge of Dharma" administers justice depending on the way that one has conducted life on Earth. The soul is either "cleared" or "subject to God's command" depending on the review of the person history. The holy text says: "The Righteous Judge of Dharma, by the Hukam of God's Command, sits and administers True Justice". (Guru Granth Sahib page 38) (4) and those followers who "chant the name of the Lord" are cleared as outlined thus: "Her account is cleared by the Righteous Judge of Dharma, when she chants the Name of the Lord, Har, Har." (Guru Granth Sahib page 78) 5 In Jainism Dharma is natural. Jain Acharya Samantabhadra writes: "Vatthu sahavo dhammo" the dharma is the nature of an object. It is the nature of the soul to be free, thus for the soul, the dharma ia paralaukika, beyond worldly. However the nature of the body is to seek self-preservation and be engaged in pleasures. Thus there are two dharmas. The two Dharmas Acharya Haribhadra (approx. 6-7th cent.) discusses dharma in Dharma-Bindu. he writes (Translation by Y. Malaiya): | Because of the difference in practice, dharma is of two kinds, for the householders and for the monks. | Of the householder's dharma, there are two kinds,"ordinary" and "special" | The ordinary dharma of the householder should be carried out according to tradition, such that it is not objectionable, according to ones abilities such as wealth, in accordance with nyaya (everyone treated fairly and according to laws). Somadeva suri (10th c.) terms the "ordinary" and "special" dharmas laukika ("worldly") and pralaukika ("extra-worldly") respectively: | || A householder follows both laukika and the paralaukika dharmas at the same time. References in pop culture TV The Dharma Initiative is a fictional research project featured in the American television series Lost shown on ABC. It was introduced in the second season episode "Orientation". During the Lost Experience it was revealed that "DHARMA" is an acronym for Department of Heuristics And Research on Material Applications. The Dharma Initiative brought together "scientists and free thinkers" from around the globe at a "large-scale communal research compound" to conduct research in various disciplines, including meteorology, psychology, parapsychology, zoology, electromagnetism, and a sixth discipline that the orientation film begins to identify as "utopian social-" before being cut off. Jenna Elfman starred in Dharma and Greg as "Dharma". She was raised by hippie parents, is a practitioner of yoga and an adherent of Eastern spiritualities. Music In the 1968 Jethro Tull album, This Was, there is a song called Dharma for One, which Tull also played two years later at the 1970 Isle of Wight Festival Donald Roeser, guitarist for Blue Öyster Cult listed his name on albums as "Buck Dharma." Up Dharma Down, a Filipino band, whose curious name is from the idea that everything in existence is connected no matter how diverse they are. FM (Canadian band), wrote a song called Dialing For Dharma, which can be found on the album Black Noise. The song Darkside of Aquarius by Iron Maiden (band) frontman Bruce Dickinson is about the heralds of Apocalypse, and about the wheel of dharma, which will not stop unless "From the starlit sky on the silver sea a lonely silver surfer comes to push the wheel for me". In the lyrics this wheel is also called the "wheel of torment". Literature Jack Kerouac wrote The Dharma Bums loosely based on his own spiritual awakening with friends Gary Snyder and John Montgomery in the late 1950s. Dharma Punx: A memoir by Noah Levine See also Tao (Chinese) Perennial philosophy Mysticism Rta Hindu philosophy Buddhist philosophy Karma Dhammapada Dharmacakra Dharma Maharaja Dharmasankat Dharma transmission Yuga Dharma Mitzvah (Jewish) Fard (Islamic) Themis (Greek) Essence Ma'at (Egyptian) Spontaneous order References Further reading Murthy, K. Krishna. "Dharma - Its Etymology." The Tibet Journal, Vol. XXI, No. 1, Spring 1966, pp. 84–87. Radhakrishnan, S. (1923): "Indian Philosophy Vol.1" (2nd Edition). New Delhi: Oxford India Paperbacks (Oxford University Press). Hume, R.E.: (1921): "The Thirteen Principal Upanishads" (2nd Edition, Revised). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Easwaran, E. (1987): "The Upanishads" (Seventh Printing). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press. 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6,216 | Jericho | Jericho () is a city located near the Jordan River in the West Bank of the Palestinian territories. It is the capital of the Jericho Governorate, and has a population of over 20,000 Palestinians. Projected Mid -Year Population for Jericho Governorate by Locality 2004–2006 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). Situated well below sea level on an east-west route north of the Dead Sea, Jericho is the lowest permanently inhabited site on earth. It is also believed to be the oldest continuously inhabited city of the world. Murphy-O'Connor, 1998, p. 288. Freedman et al., 2000, p. 689–671. Described in the Hebrew Bible as the "City of Palm Trees", copious springs in and around Jericho have made it an attractive site for human habitation for thousands of years. Bromiley, 1995, p. 715. It is known in Judeo-Christian tradition as the place of the Israelites' return from bondage in Egypt, led by Joshua, the successor to Moses. Archaeologists have unearthed the remains of over 20 successive settlements in Jericho, the first of which dates back to 11,000 years ago (9000 BC). "Jericho", Encyclopedia Britannica Etymology Jericho's name is pronounced by its local Palestinian inhabitants Ariha (Arabic ), which means "fragrant" and derives from the Canaanite (as well as Arabic and Hebrew) word Reah, of the same meaning. Schreiber, 2003, p. 141. Bromiley, 1995, p. 1136. Jericho is also pronounced Yəriḥo () in Hebrew, and an alternate theory holds that it is it derived from the word meaning "moon" (Yareah) in Canaanite and Hebrew, as the city was an early center of worship for lunar deities. Strong's Bible Dictionary History Ancient times Jericho is believed to be one of the oldest continuously-inhabited cities in the world, with evidence of settlement dating back to 9000 BC, providing important information about early human habitation in the Near East. Gates, 2003, p. 18. The first permanent settlement was built near the Ein as-Sultan spring between 8000 and 7000 BC by an unknown people, and consisted of a number of walls, a religious shrine, and a tower with an internal staircase. After a few centuries, it was abandoned for a second settlement, established in 6800 BC, perhaps by an invading people who absorbed the original inhabitants into their dominant culture. Artifacts dating from this period include ten skulls, plastered and painted so as to reconstitute the individuals' features. These represent the first example of portraiture in art history, and it is thought that these were kept in people's homes while the bodies were buried. Janson and Janson, 2003. This was followed by a succession of settlements from 4500 BC onward, the largest of these being constructed in 2600 BC. Archaeological evidence indicates that in the latter half of the Middle Bronze Age (circa 1700 BC), the city enjoyed some prosperity, its walls having been strengthened and expanded. Scneller, 1994, p. 138. The Canaanite city (Jericho City IV) was destroyed c.1200 BC, and the site remained uninhabited until the city was refounded in the 9th century BC. In the 8th century BC, the Assyrians invaded from the north, followed by the Babylonians, and Jericho was depopulated between 586 and 538 BC, the period of the Jewish exile to Babylon. Cyrus the Great, the Persian king, refounded the city one mile southeast of its historic site at the mound of Tell es-Sultan, and returned the Jewish exiles after conquering Babylon in 539 BC. Classical antiquity Remains from Herod's palace Jericho went from being an administrative center under Persian rule, to serving as the private estate of Alexander the Great between 336 and 323 BC after his conquest of the region. In the middle of the 2nd century BC, Jericho was under Hellenistic rule, and the Syrian General Bacchides built a number of forts to strengthen the defenses of the area around Jericho against invasion by the Macabees (1 Macc 9:50). One of these forts, built at the entrance to Wadi Qelt, was later refortified by Herod the Great, who named it Kypros after his mother. Murphy-O'Connor, 1998, pp. 289–291. Herod initially leased Jericho from Cleopatra after Mark Antony gave it to her as a gift. After their joint suicide in 30 BC, Octavian assumed control of the Roman empire and granted Herod free rein over Jericho. Herod’s rule oversaw the construction of a hippodrome-theater (Tel es-Samrat) to entertain his guests and new aqueducts to irrigate the area below the cliffs and reach his winter palace built at the site of Tulul al-Alaiq. The dramatic murder of Aristobulus III in a swimming pool at Jericho, as told by the Roman historian Josephus, took place during a banquet organized by Herod's Hasmonean mother-in-law. The city, since the construction of its palaces, functioned not only as an agricultural center and as a crossroad, but as a winter resort for Jerusalem's aristocracy. Jericho - (Ariha) Studium Biblicum Franciscum - Jerusalem. Herod was succeeded by his son, Archelus, who built an adjacent village in his name, Archelais, to house workers for his date plantation (Khirbet al-Beiyudat). First century Jericho is described in Strabo's Geography as follows:"Jericho is a plain surrounded by a kind of mountainous country, which in a way, slopes toward it like a theatre. Here is the Phoenicon, which is mixed also with all kinds of cultivated and fruitful trees, though it consists mostly of palm trees. It is 100 stadia in length and is everywhere watered with streams. Here also are the Palace and the Balsam Park." The rock cut tombs of a Herodian and Hasmonean era cemetery lie in the lowest part of the cliffs between Nuseib al-Aweishireh and Jebel Quruntul in Jericho and were used between 100 BC and 68 AD. The Christian Bible states that Jesus passed through Jericho where he healed two blind men and converted a local tax collector named Zacharias. After the fall of Jerusalem to Vespasian armies in 70 AD, Jericho declined rapidly, and by 100 AD it was but a small Roman garrison town. A fort was built there in 130 that played a role in putting down the Bar Kochba revolt in 133. Accounts of Jericho by a Christian pilgrim are given in 333. Shortly thereafter, the built-up area of the town was abandoned, and a Byzantine Jericho, Ericha was built a mile to the east, around which the modern town is centered. Losch, 2005, p. 117–118. Christianity took hold in the city during the Byzantine era and the area was heavily populated. A number of monasteries and churches were built, including St. George of Koziba in 340 AD and a domed church dedicated to Saint Eliseus. At least two synagogues were also built in the 6th century CE. The monasteries were abandoned after the Persian invasion of 614. Arab caliphate period An Arabic Umayyad mosaic from Khirbat al-Mafjar in Jericho By 661, Jericho was under the rule of the Umayyad dynasty. The tenth caliph of that dynasty, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, built a palatial complex known as Khirbet al-Mafjar about one mile north of Tell as-Sultan in 743, and two mosques, a courtyard, mosaics, and other items from it can still be seen in situ today, despite its having been partially destroyed in an earthquake in 747. Umayyad rule ended in 750 and was followed by the Arab caliphates of the Abbasid and Fatimid dynasties. Irrigated agriculture was developed under Islamic rule, reaffirming Jericho's reputation as a fertile "City of the Palms". Shahin, 2005, p. 285. Al-Maqdisi, the Arab geographer, wrote in 985 that, "the water of Jericho is held to be the highest and best in all Islam. Bananas are plentiful, also dates and flowers of fragrant odor." Shahin, 2005, p. 283. Jericho is also referred to by him as one of the principal cities of Jund Filastin. al-Muqaddasi quoted in le Strange, 1890, p.39. The city flourished until 1071 and the invasion of the Seljuk Turks, followed by the upheavals of the Crusades. In 1179, the Crusaders rebuilt the Monastery of St. George of Koziba, at its original site six miles from the center of town. They also built another two churches and a monastery dedicated to John the Baptist, and are credited with introducing sugarcane production to the city. Hull, 1855. In 1187, the Crusaders were evicted by the Ayyubid forces of Saladin after their victory in the Battle of Hattin, and the town slowly went into decline. In 1226, Arab geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi said of Jericho, "it has many palm trees, also sugarcane in quantities, and bananas. The best of all the sugar in the Ghaur land is made here." In the 14th century, Abu al-Fida writes there are sulfur mines in Jericho, "the only ones in Palestine." al-Hamawi and Abu-l Fida quoted in le Strange, 1890, p.397. Ottoman period (1517–1918) Old postcard depicting Jericho in the late 19th or early 20th century In the early years of Ottoman rule, Jericho formed part of the waqf and imerat of Jerusalem. The villagers processed indigo as one source of revenue, using a cauldron specifically for this purpose that was loaned to them by the Ottoman authorities in Jerusalem. Singer, 2002, p. 120. For most of the Ottoman period, Jericho was a small village of farmers susceptible to attacks by Bedouins. In the 19th century, European scholars, archaeologists and missionaries visited often. The first excavation at Tell as-Sultan was carried out in 1867, and the monasteries of St. George of Koziba and John the Baptist were refounded and completed in 1901 and 1904, respectively. 20th century After the collapse of the Ottoman empire at the end of World War I, Jericho, like other places in Ottoman Palestine, fell under the rule of the British Mandate. The British built fortresses in Jericho during World War II with the help of the Jewish company Solel Boneh, and bridges were rigged with explosives in preparation for a possible invasion by German allied forces. Friling and Cummings, 2005, p. 65. Jericho was captured by the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. The Jericho Conference, organized by King Abdullah and attended by over 2,000 Palestinian delegates in 1948 proclaimed "His Majesty Abdullah as King of all Palestine" and called for "the unification of Palestine and Transjordan as a step toward full Arab unity." In mid-1950, Jordan formally annexed the West Bank and Jericho residents, like other residents of West Bank localities became Jordanian citizens. Benvenisti, 1998, pp. 27-28. Jericho was captured from Jordan by Israel during the Six-Day War of 1967 along with the rest of the West Bank. It was one of the first cities handed over to Palestinian Authority control in 1994, in accordance with the Oslo accords, which saw construction of the Oasis casino. The other city handed over to the Palestinians was Gaza. 21st century Jericho was re-occupied by Israel during the Al-Aqsa Intifada of 2001. Greek Orthodox Monastery of Temptation overlooking modern Jericho On March 14, 2006, the Israel Defense Forces launched Operation Bringing Home the Goods, in which it took captive six inmates from a Jericho prison following a 10-hour siege. Israel's reason for the siege was to capture PFLP general secretary, Ahmad Sa'adat and five other inmates for the alleged assassination of Israeli tourist minister Rehavam Zeevi because of announcements of their upcoming release. Both sides of the siege were armed and at least two people were killed and 35 wounded in the incident. Before the siege British and American monitors were guarding the prison but withdrew, citing lax security arrangements. The siege caused an uproar amongst the PFLP members and supporters as well as other PLO factions, and as a result Palestinian militants raided and kidnapped British and European citizens in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The event is considered controversial and somewhat hampered Palestinian relations with the UK and US. Israel holds militant after siege March 14, 2006 BBC News After Hamas assaulted a neighborhood in Gaza mostly populated by the Fatah-aligned Hilles clan in response to their attack on Hamas which killed six of its members, the Hilles clan was relocated to Jericho on 4 August 2008. Jerusalem Post 4 August 2008 IDF: Hilles clan won't boost terrorism by Yaacov Katz And Khaled Abu Toameh Biblical references The walls of Jericho crumble as the Israelite priest blows his horn in this illustration from a 14th century Icelandic manuscript Jericho is mentioned over 70 times in the Hebrew Bible. Prior to Moses' death, God is described as showing him the Promised Land in the Torah's fifth book, Deuteronomy with Jericho as a point of reference: "And Moses went up from the plains of Moab unto Mount Nebo, to the top of Pisgah, that is over against Jericho. And the Lord showed him all the land, even Gilead as far as Dan".(Deuteronomy 34:1). The Book of Joshua describes the famous battle of Jericho, stating that it was circled seven times by the ancient Children of Israel until its walls came tumbling down, after which Joshua cursed the city: "And Joshua charged the people with an oath at that time, saying: 'Cursed be the man before the Lord that riseth up and buildeth this city, even Jericho; with the loss of his first-born shall he lay the foundation thereof, and with the loss of his youngest son shall he set up the gates of it'". (Joshua 6:26). According to the First Book of Kings, centuries later, a man named Hiel of Bethel rebuilt Jericho- and just as Joshua had foretold, he lost his eldest and youngest sons as a result. (1 Kings 16:34) The Book of Jeremiah describes the end of the Judean king Zedekiah when he is captured in the area of Jericho: "But the army of the Chaldeans pursued after them, and overtook Zedekiah in the plains of Jericho; and when they had taken him, they brought him up to Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon to Riblah in the land of Hamath, and he gave judgment upon him." (Jeremiah 39:5). Jericho is also mentioned several times in the Christian Bible's books of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and Hebrews. According to Matthew 20:29-30, Jesus healed two blind men as he and his disciples were leaving Jericho. In Mark 10:46-52, Mark tells the same story, except he only mentions one of the men, Bartimaeus. Like Mark, Luke only mentions one man, but he differs in his account by saying that Jesus and his apostles were approaching Jericho. Some versions reconcile this by translating it as "near". In the Epistle to the Hebrews, the author mentions the Old Testament story of the destruction of Jericho as an outward display of faith. (Hebrews 11:30) In the Parable of the Good Samaritan, Jesus mentions that a certain man was on his way to Jericho. Geography An aerial view of Jericho showing the ruins of Tell es-Sultan Jericho is located below sea level in an oasis in Wadi Qelt in the Jordan Valley. Holman, 2006, p. 1391. The nearby spring of Ein es-Sultan produces 1,000 gallons of water per minute, irrigating some through multiple channels and feeding into the Jordan River, away. Ring et al., 1994, p. 367–370. Annual rainfall is inches, mostly concentrated between November and February. The average temperature is in January and in August. The constant sunshine, rich alluvial soil, and abundant water from the spring have always made Jericho an attractive place for settlement. Archaeology The first excavations of the site were made by Charles Warren in 1868. Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger excavated Tell es-Sultan and Tulul Abu el-'Alayiq between 1907–1909 and in 1911, and John Garstang excavated between 1930 and 1936. Extensive investigations using more modern techniques were made by Kathleen Kenyon between 1952 and 1958. Lorenzo Nigro and Nicolo Marchetti conducted a limited excavation in 1997. Tell es-Sultan Dwelling foundations unearthed at Tell es-Sultan in Jericho The earliest settlement was located at the present-day Tell es-Sultan (or Sultan's Hill), a couple of kilometers from the current city. In Arabic and in Hebrew, tell means "mound" -- consecutive layers of habitation built up a mound over time, as is common for ancient settlements in the Middle East and Anatolia. Jericho is the type site for the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPN A) and B periods. Stone Age Epipaleolithic—construction at the site appears to predate the invention of agriculture, with the construction of Natufian culture structures beginning earlier than 9000 BC, the very beginning of the Holocene epoch in geologic history. Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (8350–7370 BC); Sometimes it is called Sultanian. The site is a 40,000 square metre settlement surrounded by a stone wall, with a stone tower in the centre of one wall. This is so far the oldest wall ever to be discovered, thus suggesting some kind of social organization. The town contained round mud-brick houses, yet no street planning. Old Testament Jericho The 2000–3000 dwellers The identity and number of the inhabitants of Jericho during the PPN A period is still under debate, though it is known that had domesticated emmer wheat, barley and pulses and hunted wild animals. Pre-Pottery Neolithic B, 7220 BC to 5850 BC (but carbon-14-dates are few and early). Expanded range of domesticated plants. Possible domestication of sheep. Apparent cult involving the preservation of human skulls, with facial features reconstructed from plaster and eyes set with shells in some cases. After the PPN A settlement-phase there was a settlement hiatus of several centuries, then the PPN B settlement was founded on the eroded surface of the tell. The architecture consisted of rectilinear buildings made of mudbricks on stone foundations. The mudbricks were loaf-shaped with deep thumb prints to facilitate bounding. No building has been excavated in its entirety. Normally, several rooms cluster around a central courtyard. There is one big room (6.5 × 4 m and 7 × 3 m) with internal divisions, the rest are small, presumably used for storage. The rooms have red or pinkish terrazzo-floors made of lime. Some impressions of mats made of reeds or rushes have been preserved. The courtyards have clay floors. Kathleen Kenyon interpreted one building as a shrine. It contained a niche in the wall. A chipped pillar of volcanic stone that was found nearby might have fit into this niche. The dead were buried under the floors or in the rubble fill of abandoned buildings. There are several collective burials. Not all the skeletons are completely articulated, which may point to a time of exposure before burial. A skull cache contained seven skulls. The jaws were removed and the faces covered with plaster; cowries were used as eyes. A total of ten skulls were found. Modelled skulls were found in Tell Ramad and Beisamoun as well. Other finds included flints, such as arrowheads (tanged or side-notched), finely denticulated sickle-blades, burins, scrapers, a few tranchet axes. 1% obsidian, Ciftlik and green obsidian from an unknown source. There were also querns, hammerstones, a few ground-stone axes made of greenstone. Other items discovered there included dishes and bowls carved from soft limestone, spindle whorls made of stone and maybe loom weights, spatulae and drills, stylised anthropomorphic plaster figures, almost life-size, anthropomorphic and theriomorphic clay figurines, shell and malachite beads. In the late 4th millennium BC, Jericho was occupied during Neolithic 2 and the general character of the remains on the site link it culturally with Neolithic 2 sites in the West Syrian and Middle Euphrates groups. There are the characteristic rectilinear mud-brick buildings and plaster floors. Bronze Age During the Middle Bronze Age Jericho was a small prominent city of the Canaan region, reaching its greatest Bronze Age extent in the period from 1700 to 1550 BC. It seems to have reflected the greater urbanization in the area at that time, and has been linked to the rise of the Maryannu, a class of chariot-using aristocrats linked to the rise of the Mitannite state to the north. Kathleen Kenyon reported “...the Middle Bronze Age is perhaps the most prosperous in the whole history of Kna'an. ... The defenses ... belong to a fairly advanced date in that period” and there was “a massive stone revetment... part of a complex system” of defenses (pp.213–218). Kenyon, Kathleen "Digging up Jericho"(London, 1957) Bronze-age Jericho fell in the 16th century at the end of the Middle Bronze Age, the calibrated carbon remains from its City-IV destruction layer dating to at least 100 years ago. (See, Radiocarbon Vol. 37, Number 2, 1995). Synagogues The Jericho Synagogue in the Royal Maccabean winter palace at Jericho dates from 70-50 BC. A synagogue dating to the late 6th or early 7th century CE was discovered in Jericho in 1936, and was named Shalom Al Israel, or "peace unto Israel", after the central Hebrew motto in its mosaic floor. It was controlled by Israel after the 1967 Six Day War, but after the handover to Palestinian Authority control per the Oslo Accords, especially during the Al-Aqsa Intifada it has been a source of conflict. The Na'aran synagogue, another Byzantine era construction, was discovered on the northern outskirts of Jericho in 1918. While less is known of it than Shalom Al Israel, it has a larger mosaic and is in similar condition. Demographics Demographics have varied widely depending on the dominant ethnic group and rule in the region over the past three thousand years. In a 1945 land and population survey by Sami Hadawi, 3,010 inhabitants is the figure given for Jericho, of which 94% were Arab and 170 were Jews. Hadawi, 1970, p.57 In the first census carried out by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), in 1997, Jericho's population was 14,674. Palestinian refugees constituted a significant 43.6% of the residents or 6,393 people. Palestinian Population by Locality and Refugee Status Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). The gender make-up of the city was 51% male and 49% female. Jericho has a young population, with nearly half (49.2%) of the inhabitants being under the age of 20. People between the ages of 20 and 44 made up 36.2% of the population, 10.7% between the ages of 45 and 64, and 3.6% were over the age of 64. Palestinian Population by Locality, Sex and Age Groups in Years Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS). Based on PCBS projections, Jericho presently has an Arab Palestinian population of over 20,000. Projected Mid -Year Population for Jericho Governorate by Locality 2004–2006 Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics(PCBS). The current mayor is Hassan Saleh, a former lawyer. International relations Twin towns - Sister cities Jericho is twinned with: Pisa in Italy (since 2000) {{cite web|url=http://www.comune.pisa.it/english/doc/gemhome.htm|title=Pisa - Official Sister Cities|publisher=© Comune di Pisa, Via degli Uffizi, 1 - 56100 Pisa centralino: +39 050 910111 |accessdate=2008-12-16}} Lyon in France Calipatria, California in United States Iasi in Romania See also History of pottery in the Southern Levant Mevo'ot Yericho PPNA Wall of Jericho References Bibliography External links Jericho (Ariha) - History Studium Biblicum Franciscum - Jerusalem. Telepherique & Sultan Tourist Center Jericho Municipality Official Website Jericho Municipality Official Website Historical site Resources on Biblical Archaeology Archaeological History of Jericho Jericho: Tel es-Sultan The walls of Jericho fell in 1550 BC | Jericho |@lemmatized jericho:88 city:26 locate:3 near:4 jordan:6 river:2 west:7 bank:5 palestinian:18 territory:1 capital:1 governorate:3 population:10 project:2 mid:3 year:8 locality:5 central:7 bureau:5 statistic:5 pcbs:6 situate:1 well:4 sea:3 level:2 east:4 route:1 north:4 dead:2 low:2 permanently:1 inhabit:1 site:13 earth:1 also:12 believe:2 old:6 continuously:2 inhabited:2 world:4 murphy:2 connor:2 p:17 freedman:1 et:2 al:17 describe:5 hebrew:9 bible:5 palm:4 tree:4 copious:1 spring:4 around:4 make:12 attractive:2 human:3 habitation:3 thousand:2 bromiley:2 know:4 judeo:1 christian:4 tradition:1 place:4 israelite:2 return:2 bondage:1 egypt:1 lead:1 joshua:6 successor:1 moses:3 archaeologist:2 unearth:2 remains:2 successive:1 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6,217 | House_of_Hohenzollern | The House of Hohenzollern is a noble family and royal dynasty of electors, kings, and emperors of Prussia, Germany, and Romania. It originated in the area around the town of Hechingen in Swabia during the 11th century. They took their name from their ancestral home, the Burg Hohenzollern castle near the forementioned town. The family uses the motto Nihil Sine Deo (). The family coat of arms, first adopted in 1192, began as a simple shield quarterly sable and argent. The head and shoulders of a hound were added in 1317 by Frederick IV. A Royal Student Stein Later quartering incorporated other branches of the family. The family split into two branches, the Catholic Swabian branch and Protestant Franconian branch. The Swabian branch ruled the area of Hechingen until their eventual extinction in 1869. The Franconian branch was comparatively more successful. Branches within the Franconian branch ascended the throne of Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1415 and of the Duchy of Prussia in 1525. The union of these two Franconian branches in 1618 allowed the creation of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701, the state which led the unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire in 1871. Social unrest at the end of World War I led to the German Revolution of 1918, with the subsequent formation of the Weimar Republic forcing the Hohenzollerns to abdicate, thus bringing an end to the modern German monarchy. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 set the final terms for the dismantling of the German Empire. Origins Counts of Zollern (before 1061 until 1204) The oldest known mentioning of the Zollern dates from 1061. It was a countship, ruled by the counts of Zollern. The accepted origin of the counts of Zollern is that they are derived from the Burchardinger dynasty. until 1061: Burkhard I before 1125: Frederick I (son of) circa 1142 : Frederick II (son of) before 1171 - circa 1200: Frederick III/I (son of, also Burgrave of Nuremberg) Count Frederick III of Zollern was a loyal retainer of the Holy Roman emperors Frederick Barbarossa and Henry VI and about 1185 he married Sophia of Raabs, the daughter of Conrad II, Burgrave of Nuremberg. After the death of Conrad II, who left no male heirs, Frederick III was granted the burgraviate of Nuremberg in 1192 as burgrave Frederick I of Nuremberg-Zollern. Since then the family name became to be known as Hohenzollern. After Frederick's death, his sons partitioned the family lands between themselves: The youngest brother, Frederick IV, received the county of Zollern and burgraviate of Nuremberg in 1200 from his father, thereby founding the Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollerns. The Swabian line remained Catholic. The oldest brother, Conrad III, received the burgraviate of Nuremberg in 1218 from his younger brother Frederick IV, thereby founding the Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollerns. The Franconian line later converted to Protestantism. Franconian senior branch and Brandenburg-Prussian Branch The senior Franconian branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Conrad III, Burgrave of Nuremberg. Beginning in the 16th century, this branch of the family became Protestant and decided on expansion through marriage and a purchase of surrounding lands. The family were supporters of the rulers from the House of Hohenstaufen and the House of Habsburg of the Holy Roman Empire during the 12th to 15th centuries, by which they were rewarded with several territorial benefits. In a first phase, the family gradually added to their lands, at first with many small acquisitions in the Franconian and Bavarian regions of Germany: Ansbach in 1331 Kulmbach in 1340 In a second phase, the family expanded their lands further with large acquisitions in the Brandenburg and Prussian regions of Germany and Poland: Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1417 Duchy of Prussia in 1618 These acquisitions were to eventually propel the Hohenzollerns from a minor German princely family into one of the most important in Europe. Burgraves of Nuremberg (1192-1427) Region of Nuremberg, Ansbach, Kulmbach and Bayreuth, (Franconia and Bavaria, Germany) 1192–1200/1204: Frederick I/III (also count of Zollern) 1204–1218: Frederick II/IV (son of, also count of Zollern) 1218–1261/1262: Conrad I/III (brother of, also count of Zollern) 1262–1297: Frederick III (son of) 1297–1300: John I (son of) 1300–1332: Frederick IV (brother of) 1332–1357: John II (son of) 1357–1398: Frederick V (son of) At Frederick V's death on 21 January 1398 his lands were partitioned between his two sons: 1398-1420: John III/I (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) 1420-1427: Frederick VI/I/I, (brother of, also Elector of Brandenburg and Margrave of Brandenburg-Asbach) After John III/I's death on 11 June 1420, the two principalities were shortly reunited under Frederick VI/I/I. From 1412 Frederick VI became Margrave of Brandenburg as Frederick I and Elector of Brandenburg as Frederick I. From 1420 he became Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Upon his death on 21 September 1440, his territories were divided between his sons: John II, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach Frederick II, Elector of Brandenburg Albert III, Elector of Brandenburg and Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach From 1427 onwards the title of Burgrave of Nuremberg was absorbed into the titles of Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1398-1791) 1398: Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) 1440: Albert I/I/III Achilles (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Elector of Brandenburg) 1486: Frederick II/III (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) 1515: George I/I the Pious (son of, also Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf) 1543: George Frederick I/I/I/I (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach, Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Regent of Prussia) 1603: Joachim Ernst 1625: Frederick III 1634: Albert II 1667: John Frederick 1686: Christian I Albrecht 1692: George Frederick II/II (later Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) 1703: William Frederick (before 1686-1723) 1723: Charles William (1712-1757) 1757: Christian II Frederick (1757-1791) (son of, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach) On 2 December 1791, Christian II Frederick sold the sovereignty of his principalities to king Frederick William II of Prussia. Margraves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (1398-1604), later Brandenburg-Bayreuth (1604-1791) 1397: John I 1420: Frederick I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach) 1440: John II 1457: Albert I/I/III Achilles (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and Elector of Brandenburg) 1464: Frederick II (also Elector of Brandenburg) 1486: Siegmund 1495: Frederick III/II (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach) 1515: Casimir 1527: Albert II Alcibiades 1553: George Frederick I/I/I/I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Regent of Prussia) 1603: Christian I 1655: Christian II Ernst 1712: George I William 1726: George Frederick II/II (previously Margrave of Kulmbach) 1735: Frederick IV 1763: Frederick V Christian 1769: Christian II Frederick (until 1791, also Margrave of brandenburg-Ansbach) On 2 December 1791, Christian II Frederick sold the sovereignty of his principalities to king Frederick William II of Prussia. Margraves and Electors of Brandenburg (1417-1806) Brandenburg region of Germany. 1415-1440: Frederick I/I/VI (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Burgrave of Nuremberg) 1440-1470: Frederick II (son) 1470-1486: Albrecht III/I/I Achilles (brother) (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach) 1486-1499: John I Cicero (son) 1499-1535: Joachim I Nestor (son) 1535-1571: Joachim II Hector (son) 1571-1598: John II George (son) 1598-1608: Joachim III/I/I Frederick (son, also Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Regent of Prussia) 1608-1619: John III/I Sigismund (son, also duke of Prussia) 1619-1640: George William I/I (son, also duke of Prussia) 1640-1688: Frederick III/I William the Great (son, also duke of Prussia) 1688-1701: Frederick IV/II/I (son, also Duke of Prussia and King in Prussia) From 1701 the title of Elector of Brandenburg was attached to the title of King in and of Prussia. Dukes of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf (1523-1622) The Duchy of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf was purchased in 1523. 1541–1543 : George I/I the Pious (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach) 1543–1603 : George Frederick I/I/I/I (also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Regent of Prussia) 1603–1606 : Joachim I/I/III (also Regent of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg) 1606–1621 : Johann Georg of Hohenzollern The duchy of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf was confiscated by Ferdinand III of the Holy Roman Empire in 1622. Margraves of Brandenburg-Küstrin (1535-1571) The short-lived Margraviate of Brandenburg-Küstrin (principality) was set up, against the Hohenzollern house laws on succession, as a secundogenitur fief of the House of Hohenzollern, a typical German institution. 1535–1571: Johan the Wise, Margrave of Brandenburg-Küstrin (son of Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg) He died without issue. The Margraviate of Brandenburg-Küstrin was absorbed in 1571 into the Margraviate and Electorate of Brandenburg. Margraves of Brandenburg-Schwedt (1688-1788) From 1688 onwards the Margraves of Brandenburg-Schwedt were a side branch of the House of Hohenzollern. The Margraviate of Brandenburg-Schwedt although never was a principality with allodial rights in its own right. 1688-1711 : Philip William, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt (son of Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg) 1731-1771 : Frederick William, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg-Schwedt (son of) 1771–1788 : Henry Frederick, Prince in Prussia, Margrave of Brandenburg Schwedt (son of) In 1788 the title was incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia. Dukes of Prussia (1525-1701) In 1525 the Duchy of Prussia was established as a fief of the King of Poland. Prussia region of Germany and Poland. 1525–1568: Albert I 1568–1618: Albert II Frederick co-inheritor (son of) 1568–1571: Joachim I/II Hector co-inheritor (also Elector of Brandenburg) 1578–1603: George Frederick I/I/I/I (Regent, also Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, Margrave of Brandenburg-Kulmbach and Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf) 1603–1608: Joachim I/I/III Frederick (Regent, also Duke of Brandenburg-Jägerndorf and Elector of Brandenburg) 1608–1618: John I/III Sigismund (Regent, also Elector of Brandenburg) 1618–1619: John I/III Sigismund (Regent, also Elector of Brandenburg) 1619–1640: George William I/I (son of, also Elector of Brandenburg) 1640–1688: Frederick I/III William the Great Elector (son of, also Elector of Brandenburg) 1688–1701: Frederick II/IV/I (also Elector of Brandenburg and King in Prussia) From 1701 the title of Duke of Prussia was attached to the title of King in and of Prussia. Kings in Prussia (1701-1772) In 1701 the title of King in Prussia was granted, without the Duchy of Prussia being elevated to a Kingdom within the Holy Roman Empire. From 1701 onwards the titles of Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title of King in Prussia. 1701–1713: Frederick I/II/IV (also Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg) 1713–1740: Frederick William I (son of) 1740–1786: Frederick II the Great (son of, later also King of Prussia) In 1772 the Duchy of Prussia was elevated to a kingdom. Kings of Prussia (1772-1918) Kingdom of Prussia in 1815. In 1772 the title of King of Prussia was granted with the establishment of the Kingdom of Prussia. From 1772 onwards the titles of Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title of King of Prussia. Frederick II the Great (1740–1786) (son of, before King in Prussia) Frederick William II (1786–1797) (nephew of) Frederick William III (1797–1840) (son of) Frederick William IV (1840–1861) (son of) Wilhelm I (1861–1888) (brother of) Frederick III (1888) (son of) Wilhelm II (1888–1918) (son of) In 1871 the Kingdom of Prussia was a constituting member of the German Empire. German Kings and Emperors (1871-1918) 175ox|German empire in 1871. Reigning (1871-1918) In 1871 the German empire was proclaimed. With the accession of Wilhelm I to the newly-established imperial German throne, the titles of King of Prussia, Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg were always attached to the title of German Emperor. 1871–1888: William I (also King of Prussia) 1888: Frederick III (son of, also King of Prussia) 1888–1918: William II (grandson of, also King of Prussia) In 1918 the German empire was abolished and replaced by the Weimar Republic. Pretenders (1918 until today) Prince Georg Friedrich head of the House of Hohenzollern The House of Hohenzollern never relinquished their claims to the thrones of Prussia and the German Empire. However, these claims are not recognised by the Federal Republic of Germany. House of Hohenzollern Since the death of William II in 1941, last reigning king and emperor and thereafter head of the House of Hohenzollern, he was succeeded by: 1941–1951: Crown Prince William 1951–1994: Prince Louis Ferdinand 1994–present: Prince George Frederick heir presumptive : Prince Christian-Sigismund of Prussia The head of the house is the titular King of Prussia and German Emperor. He also bears a historical claim to the title of prince of Orange. Members of this line style themselves princes of Prussia. Swabian junior branch Combined coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1849). The junior Swabian branch of the House of Hohenzollern was founded by Frederick IV, Burgrave of Nuremberg. Ruling the minor German principalities of Hechingen, Sigmaringen and Haigerloch, this branch of the family decided to remain Roman Catholic and from 1567 onwards split into the Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen and Hohenzollern-Haigerloch branches. When the last count of Hohenzollern, Charles I of Hohenzollern (1512-1579) died, the territory was to be divided up between his three sons: Eitel Frederick IV of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1545–1605) Charles II of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1547–1606) Christoph of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1552–1592) They never expanded from these three Swabian principalities, which was one of the reasons they became relatively unimportant in German history for much of their existence. However, they kept royal lineage and married members of the great royal European houses. In 1767 the principality of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch was incorporated in the other two principalities. In 1850, the princes of both Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen abdicated their thrones, and their principalities were incorporated as the Prussian province of Hohenzollern. The last ruling Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, Karl Anton, would later serve as Minister-President of Prussia between 1858 and 1862. The Hohenzollern-Hechingen finally became extinct in 1869. A descendent of this branch was Sophie Chotek, wife of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Este. However, a member of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family, Charles Eitel, second son of prince Karl Anton, was chosen to become prince of Romania as Charles I in 1866. In 1881 Charles I became the first king of the Romanians. Charles' older brother, Leopold, was offered the Spanish throne after a revolt removed queen Isabella II in 1870. Although encouraged by Bismarck to accept it, Leopold backed down once France's Emperor, Napoleon III, stated his objection. Despite this, France still declared war, beginning the Franco-Prussian war. Charles I had no children of his own, so Leopold's younger son Ferdinand I would succeed his uncle as king of the Romanians in 1906, and his descendants continued to rule in Romania until the end of the monarchy in 1947. Today this branch is represented only by the last king, Michael, and his daughters. The descendants of Leopold's oldest son William continue to use the titles of prince or princess of Hohenzollern. Counts of Hohenzollern (1204-1575) Hohenzollern region, now in Württemberg, Germany In 1204, the County of Hohenzollern was established out of the fusion of the County of Zollern and the Burgraviate of Nuremberg. 1204–1251/1255: Frederick IV/II, also Burgrave of Nuremberg 1251/1255–1289: Frederick V, also Burgrave of Nuremberg 1289–1298: Frederick VI/I, also Elector of Brandenburg 1298–1309: Frederick VII/II, also Elector of Brandenburg 1309–1333: Frederick VIII 1333–1377: Frederick IX 1377–1401: Frederick XI 1401–1426: Frederick XII 1426–1439: Eitel Frederick I 1439–1488: Jobst Nikolaus I 1488–1512: Eitel Frederick II 1512–1525: Eitel Frederick III 1525–1575: Charles I In 1575 the County of Hohenzollern was split in two Counties with allodial rights, Hohenzollern-Hechingen and Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Counts of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch (1567-1630 and 1681-1767) The County of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch was established in 1567 without allodial rights 1575-1601 : Christoph of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch 1601-1623 : Johann Christoph of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch 1601-1630 : Johann of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch Between 1630 and 1681 the county was temporarly integrated into the Margraviate of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. 1681-1702: Francis Anthony of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch 1702-1750: Ferdinand Anthony of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch 1750-1767: Francis Christoph Anthony of Hohenzollern-Haigerloch With the death of Francis Christoph Anthony, the county of Hohenzollern-Haigenloch was definitely absorbed into the principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen in 1767. Counts, later Princes of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (1576-1623-1850) The County of Hohenzollern-Hechingen was established in 1576 with allodial rights. Eitel Friedrich IV (1576-1605) Johann Georg (1605-1623) (also prince of Hohenzollern-Hechingen) Eitel Friedrich V (1623-1661) (also count of Hohenzollern-Hechingen) Philipp Christoph Friedrich (1661-1671) Friedrich Wilhelm (1671-1735) Friedrich Ludwig (1735-1750) Josef Friedrich Wilhelm (1750-1798) Hermann (1798-1810) Friedrich (1810-1838) Konstantin (1838-1850) In 1850 the principality was sold to the Franconian branch of the family and incorporated into the Kingdom of Prussia. The branch became extinct in dynastic line with Konstantin's death in 1869 until Prince Sigfried Vollmer re-established the house again in April 5, 1995. Counts, later Princes of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (1576-1623-1849) The County of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was established in 1576 with allodial rights. Karl II (1576–1606) Johann I (1606–1623) (also Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen) Johann II (1623–1638) (also Count of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen) Meinrad I (1638–1681) Maximilian (1681–1689) Meinrad II (1689–1715) Joseph Franz Ernst (1715–1769) Karl Friedrich (1769–1785) Anton Aloys (1785–1831) Karl III (1831–1848) Karl Anton (1848–1849) In 1850 the principality was sold to the Franconian branch of the family and incorporated into the kingdom of Prussia. Since then the family continue to use the princely title of Fürsten von Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen until 1869 and Fürsten von Hohenzollern until today. Kings of the Romanians Reigning (1866-1947) The Principality of Romania was established in 1862, after the Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia had been united in 1859 under Alexander John Cuza as Prince of Romania in a personal union. He was deposed in 1866 by the Romanian parliament which then invited a German prince of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen family, Charles, to become the new Prince of Romania. In 1881 the Principality of Romania was proclaimed a Kingdom. 1866–1914: Charles I (also Prince of Romania) 1914–1927: Ferdinand 1927–1930: regency 1930–1940: Charles II 1940–1947: Michael I In 1947 the Kingdom of Romania was abolished and replaced with the People's Republic of Romania. Succession (1947 until today) King Michael has retained his claim on the Romanian throne. At present, the claim is not recognised by Romania, a republic. House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen The princely House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen never relinquished their claims to the princely throne of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen or the royal throne of Romania. Because the last reigning king of the Romanians, Michael I, has no male issue, upon his death the claim will devolve to the head of the House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. 1849-1885: Karl Anton, Prince of Hohenzollern 1885-1905: Leopold, Prince of Hohenzollern 1905-1927: Wilhelm, Prince of Hohenzollern 1927-1965: Friedrich, Prince of Hohenzollern 1965-present : Friedrich Wilhelm, Prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen heir apparent : Karl Friedrich, Hereditary Prince of Hohenzollern The head of the family is styled His Serene Highness The Prince of Hohenzollern. See also Kings of Germany family tree. The Hohenzollerns were the 15th dynasty to rule Germany and were related by marriage to all the others. Coat of arms of Prussia Coat of arms of Germany Coat of arms of the House of Hohenzollern House Order of Hohenzollern Heil dir im Siegerkranz Order of the Black Eagle and SUUM CUIQUE Order of the Red Eagle and SINCERE ET CONSTANTE Wilhelm-Orden Order of the Crown (Prussia) and GOTT MIT UNS Iron Cross References External links Official site of the imperial House of Germany and royal House of Prussia Official site of the princely House of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen Official site of the royal house of Romania Genealogy of the Hohenzollern Genealogy of the Hohenzollerns from Genealogy.eu |- |- |- |- | House_of_Hohenzollern |@lemmatized house:27 hohenzollern:79 noble:1 family:20 royal:7 dynasty:3 elector:27 king:30 emperor:7 prussia:58 germany:13 romania:13 originate:1 area:2 around:1 town:2 hechingen:12 swabia:1 century:3 take:1 name:2 ancestral:1 home:1 burg:1 castle:1 near:1 forementioned:1 use:3 motto:1 nihil:1 sine:1 deo:1 coat:5 arm:5 first:4 adopt:1 begin:3 simple:1 shield:1 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6,218 | Mordecai_Kaplan | Mordecai Menahem Kaplan (June 11, 1881 – November 8, 1983) was a rabbi and essayist and the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism. Kaplan was born in Lithuania and was ordained as a rabbi at Jewish Theological Seminary (JTS) in New York City in 1902. Kaplan began his career as an Orthodox rabbi at Congregation Kehilath Jeshurun, a synagogue in New York. He helped to create the Young Israel movement of Modern Orthodox Judaism with Rabbi Israel Friedlander, was a leader in creating the Jewish community center concept, and helped found the Society for the Advancement of Judaism. Relationship with mainstream Judaism Due to Kaplan's evolving position on Jewish theology, he was later condemned as a heretic by Young Israel and the rest of Orthodox Judaism, and his name is no longer mentioned in official publications as being one of the movement's founders. Indeed, in 1945 the Union of Orthodox Rabbis "formally assembled to excommunicate from Judaism what it deemed to be the community's most heretical voice: Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, the man who eventually would become the founder of Reconstructionist Judaism. Kaplan, a critic of both Orthodox and Reform Judaism, believed that Jewish practice should be reconciled with modern thought, a philosophy reflected in his Sabbath Prayer Book — the target of the 1945 fire." In 1909 Kaplan joined the staff at JTS, where he had his greatest impact by teaching Conservative Jewish rabbinic and Jewish education students over a 50-year period. His central idea of understanding Judaism as a religious civilization was an easily accepted position within Conservative Judaism, but his naturalistic conception of God was not as acceptable. Even at JTS, as The Forward writes, "he was an outsider, and often privately considered leaving the institution. In 1941, the faculty illustrated its distaste with Kaplan by penning a unanimous letter to the professor of homiletics, expressing complete disgust with Kaplan's The New Haggadah for the Passover Seder. Four years later, seminary professors Alexander Marx, Louis Ginzberg and Saul Lieberman went public with their rebuke by writing a letter to the Hebrew newspaper Hadoar, lambasting Kaplan's prayer book and his entire career as a rabbi." His followers attempted to induce him to formally leave Conservative Judaism, but he stayed with JTS until he retired in 1963. Finally, in 1968, his closest disciple and son-in-law Ira Eisenstein founded a separate school, the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College (RRC), in which Kaplan's philosophy, Reconstructionist Judaism, would be promoted as a separate religious denomination. Kaplan's theology Kaplan's theology held that in light of the advances in philosophy, science, and history, it would be impossible for modern Jews to continue to adhere to many of Judaism's traditional theological claims. Kaplan's naturalistic theology has been seen as a variant of John Dewey's philosophy. Dewey's naturalism combined atheist beliefs with religious terminology in order to construct a religiously satisfying philosophy for those who had lost faith in traditional religion. Kaplan was also influenced by Émile Durkheim's argument that our experience of the sacred is a function of social solidarity. In agreement with the classical medieval Jewish thinkers, Kaplan affirmed that God is not personal, and that all anthropomorphic descriptions of God are, at best, imperfect metaphors. Kaplan's theology went beyond this to claim that God is the sum of all natural processes that allow man to become self-fulfilled. Kaplan wrote that "to believe in God means to take for granted that it is man's destiny to rise above the brute and to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society." Not all of Kaplan's writings on the subject were consistent; his position evolved somewhat over the years, and two distinct theologies can be discerned with a careful reading. The view more popularly associated with Kaplan is strict naturalism, à la Dewey, which has been criticised as using religious terminology to mask a non-theistic (if not outright atheistic) position. A second strand of Kaplanian theology exists, however, which makes clear that at times Kaplan believed that God has ontological reality, a real and absolute existence independent of human beliefs. In this latter theology Kaplan still rejects classical forms of theism and any belief in miracles, but holds to a position that in some ways is neo-Platonic. Works Judaism as a Civilization(1934) Judaism in Transition (1936) The Meaning of God in Modern Jewish Religion (1937) The Future of the American Jew (1948) Questions Jews Ask (1956) The New Zionism (1959) The Greater Judaism in the Making (1960) The Purpose and Meaning of Jewish Existence (1964) Jewish Without Supernaturalism (1968) The Religion of Ethical Nationhood (1970) If Not Now, When? (1973) References External links 'What Judaism Is Not,' Menorah Journal 1915 Jewish Reconstructionist Federation Conversion to Reconstructionist Judaism Role of gentiles in Reconstructionist synagogues Introduction to Reconstructionist Judaism Video: Rabbi Prof. David Hartman lectures about Mordecai Kaplan Reading list FAQ Role of women in liberal Judaism Ask a rabbi about Kaplan | Mordecai_Kaplan |@lemmatized mordecai:3 menahem:1 kaplan:24 june:1 november:1 rabbi:9 essayist:1 founder:3 reconstructionist:8 judaism:20 bear:1 lithuania:1 ordain:1 jewish:11 theological:2 seminary:2 jts:4 new:4 york:2 city:1 begin:1 career:2 orthodox:5 congregation:1 kehilath:1 jeshurun:1 synagogue:2 help:2 create:2 young:2 israel:3 movement:2 modern:4 friedlander:1 leader:1 community:2 center:1 concept:1 find:1 society:2 advancement:1 relationship:1 mainstream:1 due:1 evolve:2 position:5 theology:8 later:2 condemn:1 heretic:1 rest:1 name:1 longer:1 mention:1 official:1 publication:1 one:1 indeed:1 union:1 formally:2 assemble:1 excommunicate:1 deem:1 heretical:1 voice:1 man:3 eventually:1 would:3 become:2 critic:1 reform:1 believe:3 practice:1 reconcile:1 think:1 philosophy:5 reflect:1 sabbath:1 prayer:2 book:2 target:1 fire:1 join:1 staff:1 great:2 impact:1 teach:1 conservative:3 rabbinic:1 education:1 student:1 year:3 period:1 central:1 idea:1 understanding:1 religious:4 civilization:2 easily:1 accept:1 within:1 naturalistic:2 conception:1 god:7 acceptable:1 even:1 forward:1 write:3 outsider:1 often:1 privately:1 consider:1 leave:2 institution:1 faculty:1 illustrate:1 distaste:1 pen:1 unanimous:1 letter:2 professor:2 homiletics:1 express:1 complete:1 disgust:1 haggadah:1 passover:1 seder:1 four:1 alexander:1 marx:1 louis:1 ginzberg:1 saul:1 lieberman:1 go:2 public:1 rebuke:1 hebrew:1 newspaper:1 hadoar:1 lambast:1 entire:1 follower:1 attempt:1 induce:1 stay:1 retire:1 finally:1 close:1 disciple:1 son:1 law:1 ira:1 eisenstein:1 found:1 separate:2 school:1 rabbinical:1 college:1 rrc:1 promote:1 denomination:1 hold:2 light:1 advance:1 science:1 history:1 impossible:1 jew:2 continue:1 adhere:1 many:1 traditional:2 claim:2 see:1 variant:1 john:1 dewey:3 naturalism:2 combine:1 atheist:1 belief:3 terminology:2 order:1 construct:1 religiously:1 satisfying:1 lose:1 faith:1 religion:3 also:1 influence:1 émile:1 durkheim:1 argument:1 experience:1 sacred:1 function:1 social:1 solidarity:1 agreement:1 classical:2 medieval:1 thinker:1 affirm:1 personal:1 anthropomorphic:1 description:1 best:1 imperfect:1 metaphor:1 beyond:1 sum:1 natural:1 process:1 allow:1 self:1 fulfil:1 mean:1 take:1 grant:1 destiny:1 rise:1 brute:1 eliminate:1 form:2 violence:1 exploitation:1 human:2 writing:1 subject:1 consistent:1 somewhat:1 two:1 distinct:1 discern:1 careful:1 reading:1 view:1 popularly:1 associate:1 strict:1 à:1 la:1 criticise:1 use:1 mask:1 non:1 theistic:1 outright:1 atheistic:1 second:1 strand:1 kaplanian:1 exists:1 however:1 make:1 clear:1 time:1 ontological:1 reality:1 real:1 absolute:1 existence:2 independent:1 latter:1 still:1 reject:1 theism:1 miracle:1 way:1 neo:1 platonic:1 work:1 transition:1 meaning:2 future:1 american:1 question:1 jews:1 ask:2 zionism:1 making:1 purpose:1 without:1 supernaturalism:1 ethical:1 nationhood:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 menorah:1 journal:1 federation:1 conversion:1 role:2 gentile:1 introduction:1 video:1 prof:1 david:1 hartman:1 lecture:1 read:1 list:1 faq:1 woman:1 liberal:1 |@bigram reconstructionist_judaism:5 theological_seminary:1 mordecai_kaplan:2 conservative_judaism:2 passover_seder:1 louis_ginzberg:1 saul_lieberman:1 reconstructionist_rabbinical:1 émile_durkheim:1 neo_platonic:1 external_link:1 |
6,219 | Joseph_Yoakum | Joseph Elmer Yoakum (February 20, 1890-December 25, 1972) was a self-taught artist of African-American and Native American descent who drew landscapes in a unique and highly individual style. He was 76 when he started to record his memories in the form of imaginary landscapes, and he produced over 2000 drawings during the last decade of his life. His work is a prime example of outsider art. Whitney Halstead of the Art Institute of Chicago was the greatest promoter of Yoakum's work during his lifetime. He believed that his story was "more invention than reality... in part myth, Yoakum's life as he would have wished to have lived it." (Depasse 2001, p. 3) His official records state that he was born in Missouri, but Yoakum always claimed to have been born in 1888 in Arizona as a Navajo Indian. (Proud of his invented heritage, he used to pronounce "Navajo" as "Na-va-JOE.") His father was a Cherokee Indian and his mother a former slave of Cherokee, French-American, and African-American descent, but their son was always most fascinated by his Native American heritage. When he was nine, Yoakum left home to join the Great Wallace Circus. He traveled the country, and even the world, as a billposter with five different circuses including Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show and the Ringling Brothers. He returned to Missouri in 1908 and devoted himself to a family, having his first son with Myrtle Julian in 1909 and marrying her in 1910. He was drafted into the army in 1918, where he worked repairing roads and railroads as a member of the 805th Pioneer Infantry. Yoakum never returned to his family after the war, choosing instead to travel around the United States working at odd jobs. He eventually remarred and settled down in Chicago, where he was committed to a psychiatric hospital in 1946. He soon left, and was drawing on a regular basis by the early 1950s. He was discovered by the mainstream art community in 1967 by John Hopgood, an instructor at the Chicago State College who saw Yoakum's work hanging in his studio window and purchased twenty-two pictures on the spot. A group of students and teachers at the Art Institute of Chicago, including Ray Yoshida and Whitney Halstead, took a primary interest in his work, promoting him so well that he was given a one-man show at the Whitney Museum in New York City in 1972, just a month before he died. Although he started drawing as a way to capture his memories of places like Green Valley Ashville Kentucky, he shifted towards imaginary landscapes from places he had never been, places like Mt Mowbullan in Dividing Range near Brisbane Australia and Mt Cloubelle of West India. He drew freehand with ballpoint pen, rarely having to make corrections, and colored his drawings with watercolors and pastels. He always used two lines to delineate land masses and is known for his sinuous lines and organic forms. The autobiographical works, such as This is the flooding of Sock River through Ash Grove Mo on July 4, 1914 in that drove many persons from Homes I were with the Groupe leiving their homes for safety (sic), come from a four month period at the end of his life and are marked by a shift towards pure abstraction. Resources Depasse, Derrel B. (2001). Traveling the Rainbow: The Life and Art of Joseph E. Yoakum. University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1-57806-248-9. External links Joseph Yoakum article with pictures Biography and picture of work | Joseph_Yoakum |@lemmatized joseph:3 elmer:1 yoakum:9 february:1 december:1 self:1 taught:1 artist:1 african:2 american:5 native:2 descent:2 draw:4 landscape:3 unique:1 highly:1 individual:1 style:1 start:2 record:2 memory:2 form:2 imaginary:2 produce:1 drawing:2 last:1 decade:1 life:4 work:8 prime:1 example:1 outsider:1 art:5 whitney:3 halstead:2 institute:2 chicago:4 great:2 promoter:1 lifetime:1 believe:1 story:1 invention:1 reality:1 part:1 myth:1 would:1 wish:1 live:1 depasse:2 p:1 official:1 state:3 bear:2 missouri:2 always:3 claim:1 arizona:1 navajo:2 indian:2 proud:1 invented:1 heritage:2 use:2 pronounce:1 na:1 va:1 joe:1 father:1 cherokee:2 mother:1 former:1 slave:1 french:1 son:2 fascinate:1 nine:1 leave:2 home:3 join:1 wallace:1 circus:2 travel:3 country:1 even:1 world:1 billposter:1 five:1 different:1 include:2 buffalo:1 bill:1 wild:1 west:2 show:2 ringling:1 brother:1 return:2 devote:1 family:2 first:1 myrtle:1 julian:1 marry:1 draft:1 army:1 repair:1 road:1 railroad:1 member:1 pioneer:1 infantry:1 never:2 war:1 choose:1 instead:1 around:1 united:1 odd:1 job:1 eventually:1 remarred:1 settle:1 commit:1 psychiatric:1 hospital:1 soon:1 regular:1 basis:1 early:1 discover:1 mainstream:1 community:1 john:1 hopgood:1 instructor:1 college:1 saw:1 hang:1 studio:1 window:1 purchase:1 twenty:1 two:2 picture:3 spot:1 group:1 student:1 teacher:1 ray:1 yoshida:1 take:1 primary:1 interest:1 promote:1 well:1 give:1 one:1 man:1 museum:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 month:2 die:1 although:1 way:1 capture:1 place:3 like:2 green:1 valley:1 ashville:1 kentucky:1 shift:2 towards:2 mt:2 mowbullan:1 divide:1 range:1 near:1 brisbane:1 australia:1 cloubelle:1 india:1 freehand:1 ballpoint:1 pen:1 rarely:1 make:1 correction:1 color:1 watercolor:1 pastel:1 line:2 delineate:1 land:1 mass:1 know:1 sinuous:1 organic:1 autobiographical:1 flooding:1 sock:1 river:1 ash:1 grove:1 mo:1 july:1 drive:1 many:1 person:1 groupe:1 leiving:1 safety:1 sic:1 come:1 four:1 period:1 end:1 mark:1 pure:1 abstraction:1 resource:1 derrel:1 b:1 rainbow:1 e:1 university:1 press:1 mississippi:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 article:1 biography:1 |@bigram psychiatric_hospital:1 external_link:1 |
6,220 | Demographics_of_Japan | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Japan, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Birth and death rates of Japan since 1950 As of June 2008, Japan's population is around 127.7 million Japan Statistics Bureau, accessed 26 October 2008. According to this source, the final estimate for May 1, 2008 was 127, 662, 000 and the provisional estimates for October 1, 2008 was 127, 288, 416 , making it the world's tenth most populated country. Its size can be attributed to fast growth rates experienced during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. However more recently Japan has been experiencing net population loss, due to falling birth rates and almost no net immigration, despite having one of the highest life expectancies in the world, at 81.25 years of age as of 2006. CIA - The World Factbook - Rank Order - Life expectancy at birth Japan is also noted for its ethnically and linguistically homogeneous population and strict laws regarding immigration. Urban distribution Japan is an urban society with only about 5% of the labor force engaged in agriculture. Many farmers supplement their income with part-time jobs in nearby towns and cities. About 80 million of the urban population is heavily concentrated on the Pacific shore of Honshū. Metropolitan Tokyo-Yokohama, with 35, 000, 000 people, is the world's most populous city. Japan faces the same problems that confront urban industrialized societies throughout the world: over-crowded cities, congested highways. Languages Japanese society of Yamato people is linguistically homogeneous with small populations of Koreans (0.6 million), Chinese/Taiwanese (0.5 million), Brazilians (300, 000, many of whom are ethnically Japanese), and Filipino (245, 518 some being Japanese Filipino; children of Japanese and Filipino parentage). 2005 statistics on registered foreign residents in Japan - Ministry of Justice website Japan has indigenous minority groups such as the Ainu and Ryukyuans and social minority groups like the burakumin. Japanese citizenship is conferred jus sanguinis, and monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth, although legally they are allowed to do so. Some 10, 000 Zainichi Koreans naturalize every year. Approximately 98.6% of the population is pure Japanese (though technically this figure includes all naturalized people regardless of race) and 99% of the population speak Japanese as their first language. Non-ethnic Japanese in the past, and to an extent in the present, also live in small numbers in the Japanese archipelago. John Lie, Multietnic Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001) ISBN 0674013581 Birth rate In February 2007, demographers and the Japanese government announced the first significant rise in the national birth rate in 40 years took place in 2006. The nation had an estimated 33, 500 new births that year, a sign of a small but suitable rise in the Japanese population. Population density Japan's population density is 339 persons per square kilometer according to the United Nations World Populations Prospects Report as of July 2005. It ranks 32nd in a list of countries by population density, ranking directly above India (336 per km²) and directly below Belgium (341 per km²). Between 1955 and 1989, land prices in the six largest cities increased 15, 000% (+12% a year). Urban land prices generally increased 40% from 1980 to 1987; in the six largest cities, the price of land doubled over that period. For many families, this trend put housing in central cities out of reach. The result was lengthy commutes for many workers; daily commutes of two hours each way are not uncommon in the Tokyo area. Since about the year 2000, after a decade of declining land prices, residents have been moving back into central city areas (especially Tokyo's 23 wards), as evidenced by 2005 census figures. Despite the large amount of forested land in Japan, parks in cities are smaller and scarcer than in major West European or North American cities, which average 10 times the amount of parkland per inhabitant. National and regional governments devote resources to making regional cities and rural areas more attractive by developing transportation networks, social services, industry, and educational institutions in attempts to decentralize settlement and improve the quality of life. Nevertheless, major cities, especially Tokyo, Yokohama and Chiba and, to a lesser extent, Kyoto,Osaka and Kobe, remain attractive to young people seeking education and jobs. Like other postindustrial countries, Japan faces the benefits as well as potential drawbacks associated with an aging population. While young populations such as those in sub-Saharan Africa inevitably face problems of crime, poverty, and underdevelopment, older populations enjoy a much higher quality of life. In 1989, only 11.6% of the population was 65 years or older, but projections were that 25.6% would be in that age category by 2030. However, those estimates now seem low given that 21.2% (as of April 2007) are already 65 and over, now the world's highest. The change will have taken place in a shorter span of time than in any other country. This aging of the population was brought about by a combination of low fertility and high life expectancies (i.e. low mortality). In 1993 the birth rate was estimated at 10.3 per 1, 000 population, and the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime has been fewer than two since the late 1970s (the average number was estimated at 1.5 in 1993). Family planning was nearly universal, with condoms and legal abortions the main forms of birth control. A number of factors contributed to the trend toward small families: high education, devotion to raising healthy children, late marriage, increased participation of women in the labor force, small living spaces, education about the problems of overpopulation, and the high costs of child education. Life expectancies at birth, 76.4 years for males and 82.2 years for women in 1993, were the highest in the world. (The expected life span at the end of World War II, for both males and females, was 50 years.) The mortality rate in 1993 was estimated at 7.2 per 1, 000 population. The leading causes of death are cancer, heart disease, and cerebrovascular disease, a pattern common to postindustrial societies. Public policy, the media, and discussions with private citizens revealed a high level of concern for the implications of one in four persons in Japan being 65 or older. By 2025 the dependency ratio (the ratio of people under age 15 plus those 65 and older to those age 15–65, indicating in a general way the ratio of the dependent population to the working population) was expected to be two dependents for every three workers. This actually a quite low dependency ratio, for example, Uganda has 1.3 dependents for every one worker. The aging of the population was already becoming evident in the aging of the labor force and the shortage of young workers in the late-1980s, with potential impacts on employment practices, wages and benefits, and the roles of women in the labor force. The increasing proportion of elderly people also had a major impact on government spending. Millions of dollars are saved every year on education and on health care and welfare for children. As recently as the early-1970s, social expenditures amounted to only about 6% of Japan's national income. In 1992 that portion of the national budget was 18%, and it was expected that by 2025, 27% of national income would be spent on social welfare. In addition, the median age of the elderly population was rising in the late 1980s. The proportion of people age 65–85 was expected to increase from 6% in 1985 to 15% in 2025. Because the incidence of chronic disease increases with age, the health care and pension systems are expected to come under severe strain. In the mid-1980s the government began to reevaluate the relative burdens of government and the private sector in health care and pensions, and it established policies to control government costs in these programs. Recognizing the lower probability that an elderly person will be residing with an adult child and the higher probability of any daughter or daughter-in-law's participation in the paid labor force, the government encouraged establishment of nursing homes, day-care facilities for the elderly, and home health programs. Longer life spans are altering relations between spouses and across generations, creating new government responsibilities, and changing virtually all aspects of social life. Migration Internal migration Between 6 million and 7 million people moved their residences each year during the 1980s. About 50% of these moves were within the same prefecture; the others were relocations from one prefecture to another. During Japan's economic development in the twentieth century, and especially during the 1950s and 1960s, migration was characterized by urbanization as people from rural areas in increasing numbers moved to the larger metropolitan areas in search of better jobs and education. Out-migration from rural prefectures continued in the late 1980s, but more slowly than in previous decades. In the 1980s, government policy provided support for new urban development away from the large cities, particularly Tokyo, and assisted regional cities to attract young people to live and work there. Regional cities offered familiarity to those from nearby areas, lower costs of living, shorter commutes, and, in general, a more relaxed life-style then could be had in larger cities. Young people continued to move to large cities, however, to attend universities and find work, but some returned to regional cities (a pattern known as U-turn) or to their prefecture of origin (a pattern referred to as J-turn). Government statistics show that in the 1980s significant numbers of people left the largest central cities (Tokyo and Osaka) to move to suburbs within their metropolitan areas. In 1988 more than 500, 000 people left Tokyo, which experienced a net loss through migration of nearly 73, 000 for the year. Osaka had a net loss of nearly 36, 000 in the same year. However, the prefectures showing the highest net growth are located near the major urban centers, such as Saitama, Chiba, Ibaraki, and Kanagawa around Tokyo, and Hyogo, Nara, and Shiga near Osaka and Kyoto. This pattern suggests a process of suburbanization, people moving away from the cities for affordable housing but still commuting there for work and recreation, rather than a true decentralization. Emigration About 663, 100 Japanese were living abroad, approximately 75, 000 of whom had permanent foreign residency, more than six times the number who had that status in 1975. More than 200, 000 Japanese went abroad in 1990 for extended periods of study, research, or business assignments. As the government and private corporations have stressed internationalization, greater numbers of individuals have been directly affected, decreasing Japan's historical insularity. Despite the benefits of experiencing life abroad, individuals who have lived outside of Japan for extended periods often faced problems of discrimination upon their return because others might no longer consider them fully Japanese. By the late 1980s, these problems, particularly the bullying of returnee children in the schools, had become a major public issue both in Japan and in Japanese communities abroad. Immigration Japan has a steady flow of about 15, 000 immigrants per year. http://www.moj.go.jp/TOUKEI/t_minj03.html Japan, though not known for its immigrant population, does have a range of foreigners and emigrants living within its borders. Japan has a total of 200, 000-some residents of European (including the risen presence of Eastern Europeans and Russians in the late 1980s and 1990s) and North American nationalities (esp. Americans and Canadians), but most are temporary residents and a small percentage are naturalized citizens. Japan has relatively small populations of foreign-born Asians: Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Thais and Vietnamese, the majority arrived since the 1970s, but peaked in the 1980s and 1990s. Asian immigration rates, although smaller when compared to immigration into the U.S. or Europe, remain steady. In the 1990s and early-2000s, Japanese diplomats signed agreements with South Asian country officials to obtain an estimated 50, 000 temporary "guest workers", to work in Japan (e.g., Bangladesh, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India). Similar guest-worker agreements with Latin American countries, such as Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, Mexico and Peru has brought another 20, 000 foreigners to Japan, including Latin Americans of Japanese descent who might culturally assimilate into the Japanese population. Society Lifestyle Japanese enjoy a high standard of living, and nearly 90% of the population consider themselves part of the middle class. Many studies on happiness and satisfaction with life tend to find that Japanese people average relatively low levels of life satisfaction and happiness when compared to most of the highly developed world. The levels have remained consistent if not declining slightly over the last half century. Ranks of Happiness in Nations in the 1990s nation NationMaster - Life satisfaction (most recent) by country A Global Projection of Subjective Well-being: A Challenge to Positive Psychology? Japanese have been surveyed to be relatively lacking in financial satisfaction. NationMaster - Financial satisfaction (most recent) by country The suicide rates per 100, 000 in Japan in 2004 were 36.5 for men and 12.8 for women, the second-highest in the OECD. Mental Health, WHO 2003 Minorities Hisabetsu Buraku Three native Japanese minority groups can be identified. The largest are the hisabetsu buraku or "discriminated communities," also known as the burakumin. These descendants of premodern outcast hereditary occupational groups, such as butchers, leatherworkers, funeral directors, and certain entertainers, may be considered a Japanese analog of India's Dalits. Discrimination against these occupational groups arose historically because of Buddhist prohibitions against killing and Shinto notions of pollution, as well as governmental attempts at social control. During the Tokugawa period, such people were required to live in special buraku and, like the rest of the population, were bound by sumptuary laws based on the inheritance of social class. The Meiji government abolished most derogatory names applied to these discriminated communities in 1871, but the new laws had little effect on the social discrimination faced by the former outcasts and their descendants. The laws, however, did eliminate the economic monopoly they had over certain occupations. The buraku continue to be treated as social outcasts and some casual interactions with the majority caste was perceived taboo until the era after World War II. Although members of these discriminated communities are physically indistinguishable from other Japanese, they often live in urban ghettoes or in the traditional special hamlets in rural areas. Some attempt to pass as ordinary Japanese, but the checks on family background that are often part of marriage arrangements and employment applications make this difficult. Estimates of their number range from 2 million to 4 million, or about 2% to 3% of the national population. Non-Burakumin Japanese claimed that membership in these discriminated communities can be surmised from the location of the family home, occupation, dialect, or mannerisms and, despite legal equality, continued to discriminate against people they surmised to be members of this group. Past and current discrimination has resulted in lower educational attainment and socioeconomic status among hisabetsu buraku than among the majority of Japanese. Movements with objectives ranging from "liberation" to encouraging integration have tried over the years to change this situation. Ryukyuans The second largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the Ryukyuan people. They are primary distinguished from their use of several distinct Ryukyuan languages though use of Ryukyuan is dying out. The Ryukyuan people and language originated in the Ryukyu Islands, which are in Okinawa prefecture. Though similar to Japanese culture in many ways, the Ryukyuan culture has had a much larger influence from China than other parts of Japan, due to its geographical position in relation to the east coast of China and the island of Taiwan. Ainu The third largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the Ainu whose language is an isolate. Historically, the Ainu were an indigenous hunting and gathering population who occupied most of northern Honshū as late as the Nara period (A.D. 710-94). As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward, until by the Meiji period they were confined by the government to a small area in Hokkaidō, in a manner similar to the placing of Native Americans on reservations. Characterized as remnants of a primitive circumpolar culture, the fewer than 20, 000 Ainu in 1990 were considered racially distinct and thus not fully Japanese. Disease and a low birth rate had severely diminished their numbers over the past two centuries, and intermarriage had brought about an almost completely mixed population. Although no longer in daily use, the Ainu language is preserved in epics, songs, and stories transmitted orally over succeeding generations. Distinctive rhythmic music and dances and some Ainu festivals and crafts are preserved, but mainly in order to take advantage of tourism. Foreign residents Transition of Numbers of Registered Foreigners in Japan from 5 Major Countries In 2005 there were 1, 555, 505 foreign residents permanently residing in Japan, representing 1.22% of the Japanese population Statistical Data in Japan . A significant portion of these foreign residents are in fact the descendants of Korean and Chinese labourers, who, in many cases, despite being born in Japan and only speaking Japanese, are not necessarily classed as Japanese citizens HAN: "Koreans in Japan: Past and Present" . Most Koreans in Japan have never been to the Korean Peninsula and do not speak Korean. Foreigners in Japan in 2000 by citizenship.Source:Japan Statistics Bureau Japan Statistics Bureau, accessed 8 December 2007 All non-Japanese without special residential status (people whose residential root go back to pre WWII) are required by law to register with the government and carry alien registration cards. From the early 1980s, a civil disobedience movement encouraged refusal of the fingerprinting that accompanied registration every five years. Those people who opposed fingerprinting argued that it was discriminatory because the only Japanese who were fingerprinted were criminals. The courts upheld fingerprinting, but the law was changed so that fingerprinting was done once rather than with each renewal of the registration. Koseki Japanese citizens are recorded in koseki (family registry) and jūminhyō (resident registry) systems, while foreign residents are only recorded in a separate alien registration system. In some areas, a non-Japanese person cannot be directly added to a koseki, which is the main record of familial relations. As a result, based on official records, the Japanese spouse of a foreigner may appear to be a single head of household, and children may appear as illegitimate. Some municipalities may compromise by allowing foreign spouses to be recorded in the "Notes" section of the koseki and jūminhyō. Alien registration card Foreign residents in Japan (those staying for more than 90 days) are issued an alien registration card. By law, foreign residents must carry their passport or alien registration card at all times and present it to police upon demand, even though Japanese citizens are not required to carry identification. Foreigner-reporting website and hotline The Japanese Ministry of Justice maintains a websiteand hotline (English reference) for "receiving report on illegal stay foreigner." Critics assert this is nothing but a snitching service, as the criteria for reporting include "feeling anxious about a foreigner," and anonymous submissions are permitted when reporting any non-Japanese. Japanese immigration authorities work in union with police to investigate those reported, and human rights groups such as Amnesty International have argued that those reported do not receive proper legal protection. The Daiyo Kangoku system allows police to detain suspects without charges, access to legal counsel or telephone calls for up to 23 days. In October 2006, the foreigner reporting hotline's operating hours were extended to include Saturday, Sunday and national holidays. Fingerprinting foreigners when entering Japan As of November 20, 2007, all foreigners entering Japan must be biometrically registered (photograph and fingerprints) on arrival; this includes people living in Japan with visas as well as permanent residents, but excludes the Zainichi and Chinese with special permanent resident permission and diplomats and those under 16. Chris Hogg Japan ups checks for foreigners, BBC News, 20 November 2007. The Immigration Bureau introduced new immigration procedures on November 20th, 2007., Immigration Bureau, Ministry of Justice (Japan). Immigration Control 2006, the Immigration Bureau, the Ministry of Justice (Japan), 2006. 平成１９年版「出入国管理」の発刊について (Publication of Immigration Control 2007), 法務省入国管理局, 2007-9-21. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population Population in 47, 062, 743 households, 78.7% in urban areas (July 2000). High population density; 329.5 persons per square kilometer for total area; 1, 523 persons per square kilometer for habitable land. More than 50% of population lives on 2% of land. (July 1993) Changes in the Population of Japan Year Population (July est.) Growth rate (est.) 2009 127, 078, 679 −0.191% 2008 127, 288, 416 −0.139% 2007 127, 433, 494 −0.09% 2006 127, 463, 611 +0.01% 2005 127, 417, 244 +0.04% 2004 127, 333, 002 +0.07% 2003 127, 214, 499 +0.12% 2002 126, 974, 628 +0.16% 2001 +0.17 2000 +0.18% Source: CIA Factbooks 2000-2008. Year Birth rate (est.): births/1000 pop. Death rate (est.): deaths/1000 pop. Net migration rate (est.): migrants/1000 pop. 20087.879.26not available 20078.108.980 20068.378.92 20059.478.95 20049.568.75 20039.618.55 2002 2001 20009.968.15 1930ties,first half31.7 Ruth Benedict: Chrysantheme und Schwert. Formen der japanischen Kultur., translated by Jobst-Mathias Spannagel. page 223. Suhrkamp Verlag. edition suhrkamp. January 2008. First edition published 2006. Original edition published 1946. ISBN 9783518120149 Source: CIA Factbooks 2000-2008. Age structure (2009 est.) 0-14 years: 13.5% (male 8, 804, 465/female 8, 344, 800) 15-64 years: 64.3% (male 41, 187, 425/female 40, 533, 876) 65 years and over: 22.2% (male 11, 964, 694/female 16, 243, 419) (2007 est.) 0-14 years: 13.8% (male 9, 024, 344/female 8, 553, 700) 15-64 years: 65.2% (male 41, 841, 760/female 41, 253, 968) 65 years and over: 21% (male 11, 312, 492/female 15, 447, 230) (2006 est.) 0-14 years: 14.2% (male 9, 309, 524/female 8, 849, 476) 15-64 years: 65.7% (male 42, 158, 122/female 41, 611, 754) 65 years and over: 20% (male 10, 762, 585/female 14, 772, 150) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate total: 3.24 deaths/1, 000 live births male: 3.5 deaths/1, 000 live births female: 2.97 deaths/1, 000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 81.25 years male: 77.96 years female: 84.7 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 1.23 children born/woman (2007 est.) 1.4 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate less than 0.1% (2004 est.) HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS 12, 000 (2003 est.) HIV/AIDS - deaths 500 (2003 est.) Nationality noun: Japanese (singular and plural) adjective: Japanese Ethnic groups 99.4% Japanese and 0.6% other, mostly Korean (40.4% of non-Japanese), some Chinese and Filipinos. Ainu, Ryukyuans and hisabetsu buraku constitute native Japanese minority groups. Foreign citizens More than 2.5 million (possibly higher because of the illegal immigrants), 14.9% up in five years. North and South Koreans 1 million, Chinese 0.5 million, Filipinos 0.5 million, Brazilians 250, 000 and Peruvians 200, 000. Other nationalities (examples): Americans, Canadians, Australians, British, Indonesians, Thais, Africans, Iranians, Russians, Turks, Indians and others. Marital status Over 15: Married Male 61.8%, Female 58.2%. Never married Male 31.8%, Female 23.7%. 25 - 29: Never married Male 69.3%, Female 54.0%. 30 - 34: Never married Male 42.9%, Female 26.6% (July 2000). Religion Shinto and Buddhism are Japan's two major religions. They have been co-existing for several centuries and have even complemented each other to a certain degree. Most Japanese consider themselves Buddhist, Shintoist or both. Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1, 000 population (2006 est.) Language Japanese. Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Portuguese and English. Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 99% (2002 est.) male: 99% (2002 est.) female: 99% (2002 est.) These figures are problematic, as school attendance rates, not tests, are used to determine literacy rates. See also Demographics of Imperial Japan Elderly people in Japan Japanese people Aging of Japan Suicide in Japan References - Japan United Nations World Population Prospects (2004 revision). Data is for 2005. External links The Dilemma Posed by Japan's Population Decline, discussion paper by Julian Chapple in the electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies, 18 October 2004. | Demographics_of_Japan |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:47 japan:53 include:7 density:5 ethnicity:1 education:7 level:4 health:6 populace:1 economic:3 status:6 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:2 birth:18 death:8 rate:20 since:4 june:1 around:2 million:13 statistic:7 bureau:6 access:3 october:4 accord:2 source:4 final:1 estimate:8 may:5 provisional:1 make:3 world:14 tenth:1 populated:1 country:10 size:1 attribute:1 fast:1 growth:3 experience:4 late:9 early:4 century:5 however:5 recently:2 net:7 loss:3 due:2 fall:1 almost:2 immigration:12 despite:5 one:4 high:13 life:16 expectancy:5 year:35 age:11 cia:5 factbook:3 rank:4 order:2 also:5 note:2 ethnically:2 linguistically:2 homogeneous:2 strict:1 law:8 regard:1 urban:9 distribution:1 society:5 labor:5 force:5 engage:1 agriculture:1 many:7 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6,221 | Epiphenomenalism | In philosophy of mind, epiphenomenalism, also known as 'Type-E Dualism' is a view according to which some or all mental states are mere epiphenomena (side-effects or by-products) of physical states of the world. Thus, epiphenomenalism denies that the mind (as in its states, not its processing) has any influence on the body or any other part of the physical world: while mental states are caused by physical states, mental states do not have any influence on physical states. Some versions of epiphenomenalism claim that all mental states are inert, while others claim that only some mental states are inert. The latter version often claims that only those types of mental states that are especially difficult to account for scientifically are epiphenomenal, such as qualitative mental states (e.g., the sensation of pain). Background The history of epiphenomenalism goes back to the post-Cartesian attempt to solve the riddle of Cartesian dualism, ie, of how mind and body could interact. La Mettrie, Leibniz and Spinoza all in their own way began this way of thinking. The idea that even if the animal were conscious nothing would be added to the production of behavior, even in animals of the human type, was first voiced by La Mettrie (1745), and then by Cabanis (1802), and was further explicated by Hodgson (1870) and Huxley(1874). Gallagher, S. 2006. Where s the action1' Epiphenomenalism and the problem of free will. In W. Banks, S. Pockett, and S. Gallagher. Does Consciousness Cause Behavior? An Investigation of the Nature of Intuition (109-124). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Huxley (1874) likened mental phenomena to the whistle on a steam locomotive. However, epiphenomenalism flourished primarily as it found a niche among methodological or scientific behaviorism. In the early 1900s scientific behaviorists such as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B. F. Skinner began the attempt to uncover laws describing the relationship between stimuli and responses, without reference to inner mental phenomena. Instead of adopting a form of eliminativism or mental fictionalism, positions that deny that inner mental phenomena exists, a behaviorist was able to adopt epiphenomenalism in order to allow for the existence of mind. However, by the 1960s, scientific behaviourism met substantial difficulties and eventually gave way to the cognitive revolution. Participants in that revolution, such as Jerry Fodor, reject epiphenomenalism and insist upon the efficacy of the mind. Fodor even speaks of "epiphobia"—fear that one is becoming an epiphenomenalist. However, since the cognitive revolution, there have been several who have argued for a version of epiphenomenalism. These more recent versions, however, maintain that only the subjective, qualitative aspects of mental states are epiphenomenal. Imagine both Pierre and a robot eating a cupcake. Unlike the robot, Pierre is conscious of eating the cupcake while the behavior is under way. This subjective experience is often called a quale (plural qualia), and it describes the private "raw feel" or the subjective "what-it-is-like" that is the inner accompaniment of many mental states. Thus, while Pierre and the robot are both doing the same thing, only Pierre has the inner conscious experience. Frank Jackson (1982), for example, once espoused the following view: According to epiphenomenalism, mental states like Pierre's pleasurable experience—or, at any rate, their distinctive qualia—are just epiphenomena; they are side-effects or by-products of physical processes in the body. Pierre, according to epiphenomenalism, might as well be a robot or a zombie, because conscious mental states do not affect his behavior. If Pierre takes a second bite, it is not caused by his pleasure from the first; If Pierre says, "That was good, so I will take another bite", his speech act is not caused by the preceding pleasure. The conscious experiences that accompany brain processes are causally impotent. Arguments for A large body of neurophysiological data seems to support epiphenomenalism. Some of the oldest such data is the Bereitschaftspotential or "readiness potential" in which electrical activity related to voluntary actions can be recorded up to two seconds before the subject is aware of taking a decision to perform the action. More recently Benjamin Libet et al. (1979) have shown that it can take 0.5 seconds before a stimulus becomes part of conscious experience even though subjects can respond to the stimulus in reaction time tests within 200 milliseconds. Recent research on the Event Related Potential also shows that conscious experience does not occur until the late phase of the potential (P3 or later) that occurs 300 milliseconds or more after the event. In Bregman's Auditory Continuity Illusion, where a pure tone is followed by broadband noise and the noise is followed by the same pure tone it seems as if the tone occurs throughout the period of noise. This also suggests a delay for processing data before conscious experience occurs. Norretranders has called the delay "The User Illusion" implying that we only have the illusion of conscious control, most actions being controlled automatically by non-conscious parts of the brain with the conscious mind relegated to the role of spectator. The scientific data seem to support the idea that conscious experience is created by non-conscious processes in the brain (i.e., there is subliminal processing that becomes conscious experience). These results have been interpreted to suggest that people are capable of action before conscious experience of the decision to act occurs. Some argue that this supports epiphenomenalism, since it shows that the feeling of making a decision to act is actually an epiphenomenon; the action happens before the decision, so the decision did not cause the action to occur. Some critical responses The philosophical behaviorists (as opposed to scientific behaviourists) reject epiphenomenalism on the grounds that it is, in Gilbert Ryle's phrase, a "category mistake." Just as there is no Cartesian "ghost in the machine", there are no ghostly events that accompany behavior in an inner theater. Consciousness belongs not to the category of objects of reference, but rather to the category of ways of doing things. To be attentive is to do things with focus and care, not for something to be happening in the ghostly theater that Ryle lampooned as a dualist dogma. Functionalists chart a different course, accepting that there is a system of mental events mediating stimulus and response, but asserting that this system is "topic neutral" and capable of being realized in various ways. The topic neutrality of the mind implies the denial of epiphenomenalism, which, as a kind of property dualism, fixes consciousness as a non-neutral, non-physical topic. Eliminative materialists, on the other hand, assert that the concept of mind aims to fix reference to a non-physical topic; so they disagree with the philosophical behaviorist analysis, as well as the functionalist analysis. Eliminative materialism holds, however, that this dualistic aim of "folk psychology" is a fatal error built into mental concepts. So it would be better to eliminate the concept of mind, and concepts implicated in it such as desire and belief, in favor of an emerging neurocomputational account. (A more moderate eliminativist position would maintain what J. L. Mackie called an error theory, stripping false beliefs away from the problematic concepts but not eliminating them, leaving intact a legitimate core of meaning.) Arguments against Benjamin Libet's results are quoted in favor of epiphenomenalism, but he believes subjects still have a "conscious veto", since the readiness potential does not invariably lead to an action. In Freedom Evolves, Daniel Dennett argues that the no-free-will conclusion is based on dubious assumptions about the location of consciousness. Many argue that data such as the Bereitschaftspotential undermine, rather than support, epiphenomenalism. Such experiments rely on the subject reporting the point in time when conscious experience apparently occurs, which relies on the subject being able to consciously perform an action, and on conscious experience being effective enough to prompt a response. Such a premise contradicts epiphenomenalism, which claims that conscious experience has no effects and therefore cannot be measured. Hence, so the argument goes, any experiment that detects whether or when conscious experience occurs argues strongly against, not for, epiphenomenalism. Flanagan, O. Consciousness Reconsidered, MIT press, 1994 Alternatively, a property dualist in acceptance of physical mental states might respond to this by arguing that the subjective conscious experience or qualia believed to be mapped to the measured or objective conscious experience does not prompt a response and has no effects. Another criticism of epiphenomenalism is that the presence of the theory of epiphenomenalism seems to contradict the very idea. Most would agree that thinking is a mental process, but, if epiphenomenalism is true, how could someone ever express the idea of epiphenomenalism? It would be impossible, because this "expressing" would require the banned connection between mind and behavior. If epiphenomenalism is true and thinking is a mental process, then its truth is ineffable. So in the example above, Pierre cannot convey his pleasure. Alternatively, a property dualist in acceptance of physical mental states might respond to this by arguing that mental processes such as thinking are both physical (objective) and non physical (in this case subjective). Additionally, many argue that the history of epiphenomenalism is revealing. It was concocted as a potential solution to a problem facing dualism: By what mechanism does the mental realm affect the physical? Epiphenomenalism provides an out: The mental realm simply doesn't affect the physical, so the issue is moot. Because it arose out of an attempt to save another conjecture rather than by its own merits, epiphenomenalism can be seen as suspiciously motivated. Alternatively, a property dualist in acceptance of physical mental states might respond to this by arguing that separation of reality into two ontological categories is not necessarily an attempt to save another conjecture based upon an assumption of physical determinism, or the product of an inherited belief system, but forms the basis of the distinction between scientific and non scientific philosophy. Green (2003) has argued that epiphenomenalism does not even provide a satisfactory ‘out’ from the problem of interaction posed by substance dualism. According to Green, epiphenomenalism implies a one-way form of interactionism that is just as hard to conceive of as the two-way form embodied in substance dualism. If it is a problem how mental events can influence physical events, how is it any less of a problem how physical events can influence mental ones? Green suggests that the assumption that it is less of a problem may arise from the unexamined belief that physical events have some sort of primacy over mental ones. Alternatively, a property dualist in acceptance of physical mental states might respond to this by arguing that the initial problem of how non physical events can influence physical ones was a product of an inference of physical determinism, and not a problem of metaphysical conception. If epiphenomenalism is really nothing but a way of rescuing dualism, then the whole issue can be avoided by rejecting dualism. For instance, if the mind is identical to the brain, it must have the same causal powers as the brain, by Leibniz's law. Notes References and further reading Chalmers, David. (1996) The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dennett, Daniel. (2003) Freedom evolves. Green, Celia. (2003) The Lost Cause: Causation and the Mind-Body Problem, Oxford: Oxford Forum. Huxley, Thomas. (1874) "On the Hypothesis that Animals are Automata, and its History", The Fortnightly Review, n.s. 16, pp. 555–580. Reprinted in Method and Results: Essays by Thomas H. Huxley (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1898). Jackson, Frank. (1982) "Epiphenomenal Qualia", The Philosophical Quarterly, 32, pp. 127–136. Online text James, William. (1890) The Principles of Psychology, Henry Holt And Company. Online text Libet, Benjamin, E. W. Wright, B. Feinstein, and D. K. Pearl, "Subjective Referral of the Timing for a Conscious Sensory Experience", Brain, 194, pp. 191–221. Libet, Benjamin. (1985) "Unconscious Cerebral Initiative and the Role of Conscious Will in Voluntary Action", Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8, pp. 529–566. Robinson, William. (2003) "Epiphenomenalism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Zalta (ed.). Online text Walter, Sven. (2007) "Epiphenomenalism," The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, James Fieser and Bradley Dowden (eds.). Online text See also Problem of mental causation Philosophy of mind Dualism (philosophy of mind) Qualia Frank Jackson George Santayana External links by William Robinson. Epiphenomenalism - an article by Sven Walter in The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Wikibook on consciousness Exit Epiphenomenalism - Analysis by Rivas and Van Dongen. 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6,222 | Mummy | An Egyptian mummy kept in the Vatican Museums. A Mummy is a corpse whose skin and organs have been preserved by either intentional or incidental exposure to chemicals, extreme coldness, very high humidity, or lack of air when bodies are submerged in bogs. Presently, the oldest discovered (naturally) mummified human corpse was a decapitated head dated as 6,000 years old and was found in 1936. Mummies of humans and other animals have been found throughout the world, both as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts to preserve the dead. Etymology The English word mummy is derived from medieval Latin mumia, a borrowing of the Persian word mūm (موم), which means "bitumen". Because of the blackened skin bitumen was once thought to be used extensively in ancient Egyptian embalming procedures. The earliest known Egyptian "mummified" individual dates back to approximately 3300 BC. This individual, nicknamed 'Ginger' because of the color of his hair, is not internationally renowned despite being older than other famous mummies, such as Rameses II or Seti I. Currently on display in the British Museum, Ginger was discovered buried in hot desert sand. Desert conditions can naturally preserve bodies so it is uncertain whether the mummification was intentional or not. However, since Ginger was buried with some pottery vessels it is likely that the mummification was a result of preservation techniques of those burying him. Stones might have been piled on top to prevent the corpse from being eaten by jackals and other scavengers and the pottery might have held food and drink which was later believed to sustain the deceased during the journey to the other world. The mummification process It wasn’t until the Middle Kingdom that embalmers used natural salts to remove moisture from the body. The salt-like substance natron dried out and preserved more flesh than bone. Once dried, mummies were ritualistically anointed with oils and perfumes. The 21st Dynasty brought forth its most advanced skills in embalming and the mummification process reached its peak. The bodies' abdomens were opened and all organs, except for the heart, were removed and preserved in Canopic jars. The jars had the heads of four gods. The gods looked after the organs in which were placed in the jar of the god who looked after it. The brain, thought to be useless, was smashed and pulled out through the nose with hooks, then discarded. It was also drained through the nose after being liquefied with the same hooks. The emptied body was then covered in natron, to speed up the process of dehydration and prevent decomposition. Natron dries the body up faster than desert sand, preserving the body better. Often finger and toe protectors were placed over the mummy's fingers and toes to prevent breakage. They were wrapped with strips of white linen that protected the body from being damaged. After that, they were wrapped in a sheet of canvas to further protect them. Many sacred charms and amulets were placed in and around the mummy and the wrappings. This was meant to protect the mummy from harm and to give good luck to the Ka of the mummy. Once preserved, the mummies were laid to rest in a sarcophagus inside a tomb, where it was believed that the mummy would rest eternally. In some cases the mummy's mouth would later be opened in a ritual designed to symbolize breathing, giving rise to legends about revivified mummies. ; p. 525. Over 1 million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats. Scientific study of Egyptian mummies Mummy in the British Museum Egyptian mummies were much sought-after by museums worldwide in the 19th and early 20th centuries and many exhibit mummies today. Notably fine examples are exhibited at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, at the Ägyptisches Museum in Berlin, and at the British Museum in London. The Egyptian city of Luxor is also home to a specialized Mummification Museum. The mummified remains of what turned out to be Ramesses I ended up in a "Daredevil Museum" near Niagara Falls on the United States–Canada border; records indicate that it had been sold to a Canadian in 1860 and exhibited alongside displays such as a two-headed calf for nearly 140 years, until a museum in Atlanta, Georgia, which had acquired the mummy along with other artifacts, determined it to be royal and returned it to Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities. It is currently on display in the Luxor Museum. More recently, science has also taken interest in mummies. Dr. Bob Brier, an Egyptologist, has been the first modern scientist attempted to recreate a mummy using the ancient Egyptian method. Mummies have been used in medicine to calibrate CAT scan machines at levels of radiation that would be too dangerous for use on living people. In fact, mummies can be studied without unwrapping them using CAT scan and X-ray machines to form a digital image of what's inside. They have been very useful to biologists and anthropologists, as they have provided a wealth of information about the health and life expectancy of ancient people. In 2008, the latest generation CT scanners (64- and 256-slice Philips at the University of Chicago) were used to study Meresamun, a temple singer and priestess at the Temple of Amun whose mummy now resides at the Oriental Institute of Chicago. A mummy in the British Museum. Scientists interested in cloning the DNA of mummies have recently reported findings of clonable DNA in an Egyptian mummy dating to circa 400 BC. Although analysis of the hair of Ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Middle Kingdom has revealed evidence of a stable diet, Ancient Egyptian mummies from circa 3200 BC show signs of severe anaemia and hemolytic disorders. Natural mummies |A naturally mummified seahorse Mummies that are formed as a result of naturally-occurring environmental conditions, such as extreme coldness (Ötzi the Iceman, the Ice Maiden), acid (Tollund Man), salinity (Salt Man), or desiccating dryness (Tarim mummies), have been found all over the world. More than a thousand Iron Age corpses, so called bog bodies, have been found in bogs in northern Europe, such as the Yde Girl and the Lindow Man. Natural mummification of other animal species also occurs; this is most common in species from shallow saline water environments, especially those with a body structure which is particularly favourable to this process, such as seahorses and starfish. Old mummies such as the dinosaurs Leonardo, Dakota, and the Trachodon mummy in America were very valuable discoveries. Europe Italy Natural mummification is rare, requiring specific conditions to occur, but it has produced some of the oldest known mummies. The most famous ancient mummy is Ötzi the Iceman, frozen in a glacier in the Ötztal Alps around 3300 BC and found in 1991. Also in the Umbria region mummies were discovered in 1805 in Ferentillo. These are twenty natural mummies, the most ancient of which dates four centuries and the most recent is from the 19th century. Bog bodies The United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden and Denmark have produced a number of bog bodies, mummies of peeps deposited in sphagnum bogs, apparently as a result of murder or ritual sacrifices. In such cases, the acidity of the water, cold temperature and lack of oxygen combined to tan the body's skin and soft tissues. The skeleton typically disintegrates over time. Such mummies are remarkably well-preserved on emerging from the bog, with skin and internal organs intact; it is even possible to determine the deceased's last meal by examining the stomach. A famous case is that of the Haraldskær Woman, who was discovered by labourers in a bog in Jutland in 1835. She was erroneously identified as an early medieval Danish queen, and for that reason was placed in a royal sarcophagus at the Saint Nicolai Church, Vejle, where she currently remains. Guanches mummies Mummy of San Andrés in Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre (Tenerife, Canarias). The aboriginal guanches of the Canary Isles, embalmed their dead; many mummies have been found in an extreme state of desiccation, each weighing not more than 6 or 7 pounds. Their method was similar to that of the former Egyptians. The process of embalming seems to have varied. In Tenerife and Gran Canaria, the corpse was simply wrapped up in goat and sheep skins, while on other islands, a resinous substance was used to preserve the body, which was then placed in a cave difficult to access, or buried under a tumulus. The work of embalming was reserved for a special class, women for female corpses, men for male. Embalming seems not to have been universal, and bodies were often simply hidden in caves or buried. Of the lean mummies, guanches stand out San Andrés's Mummy (Tenerife). In South America Peruvian mummy at the Carmo Convent (Lisbon). Some of the best-preserved mummies date from the Inca period in Peru and Chile some 500 years ago, where children were ritually sacrificed and placed on the summits of mountains in the Andes. Also found in this area are the Chinchorro mummies, which are among the oldest mummified bodies ever found. The cold, dry climate had the effect of desiccating the corpses and preserving them intact. In 1995, the frozen body of a 12- to 14-year-old Inca girl who had died some time between 1440 and 1450 was discovered on Mount Ampato in southern Peru. Known as "Mummy Juanita" ("Momia Juanita" in Spanish) or "The Ice Maiden", some archaeologists believe that she was a human sacrifice to the Inca mountain god Apus. In Chile, there is 'Miss Chile', a well preserved Tiwanaku era mummy. http://books.google.com/books?id=P_xj3QTHHvoC&pg=PA156&lpg=PA156&dq=Miss+Chile+Mummy&source=bl&ots=BpEJtyAjAs&sig=d0ANonPb7ZjJH5u-X-hXMdC9IiE&hl=en&ei=H7DsScT5NoGeM_SD5ekF&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=5 She is currently displayed in the Gustavo Page Museum in San Pedro de Atacama. http://www.alovelyworld.com/webchili/htmgb/chl030.htm In Russia In the summer of 1993, a team of Russian archaeologists led by Dr. Natalia Polosmak discovered the Siberian Ice Maiden in a sacred area known as the Pastures of Heaven, on the Pontic-Caspian steppe in the Altay Mountains near the Mongolian border. Mummified, then frozen by unusual climatic conditions in the fifth century B.C. along with six decorated horses and a symbolic meal for her last journey, she is believed to have been a shaman of the lost Pazyryk culture. Her body was covered with vivid blue tattoos of mythical animal figures. The best preserved tattoos were images of a donkey, a mountain ram, two highly stylized deer with long antlers and an imaginary carnivore on the right arm. A man found with her (nicknamed "Conan") was also discovered, with tattoos of two monsters resembling griffins decorating his chest and three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and a mountain goat on his left arm. The Ice Maiden has been a source of controversy, as alleged improper care after her removal from the ice resulted in rapid decay of the body; and since the breakup of the Soviet Union, the Altai Republic has demanded the return of various "stolen" artifacts, including the Ice Maiden, who is currently stored in Novosibirsk in Siberia. In North America In 1972, eight remarkably preserved mummies were discovered at an abandoned Inuit settlement called Qilakitsoq, in Greenland. The "Greenland Mummies" consisted of a six-month old baby, a four year old boy, and six women of various ages, who died around 500 years ago. Their bodies were naturally mummified by the sub-zero temperatures and dry winds in the cave in which they were found. The oldest preserved mummy in North America is Kwäday Dän Ts’ìnchi ("Long ago person found" in the Southern Tutchone language of the Champagne and Aishihik First Nations), found in August 1999 by three First Nations hunters at the edge of a glacier in Tatshenshini-Alsek Park. It was determined that he had died about 550 years ago and that his preserved remains were the oldest ever discovered in North America. ; Self-mummification Monks whose bodies remain incorrupt without any traces of deliberate mummification are venerated by some Buddhists who believe they successfully were able to mortify their flesh to death. "Buddhists say that only the most advanced masters can fall into some particular condition before death and purify themselves so that his dead body could not decay." Mortals and saints can remain physically immortal after death - Pravda.Ru Many Mahayana Buddhist monks were reported to know the time of death and left their last testaments and their students accordingly buried them sitting in lotus posture, put into a vessel with full of such as coal, wood, paper or lime and surrounded by bricks, and be exhumed after usually 3 years. The preserved bodies would be painted with paints and sticked with gold. Victor H. Mair claims that hundreds of mummified bodies of Tibetan monks were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution or were cremated by the Lamaists in order to prevent their desecration. Also according to Mair, the self-mummification of a Tibetan monk, who died ca. 1475 and whose body was retrieved relatively incorrupt in the 1990s, was achieved by the sophisticated practices of meditation, coupled with prolonged starvation and slow self-suffocation using a special belt that connected the neck with his knees in a lotus position. Bodies purported to be those of self-mummified monks are exhibited in several Japanese shrines, and it has been claimed that the monks, prior to their death, stuck to a sparse diet made up of salt, nuts, seeds, roots, pine bark, and urushi tea. The Buddhist Mummies of Japan Some of them were buried alive in a pine-wood box full of salt. Modern mummies In the 1830s, Jeremy Bentham, the founder of utilitarianism, left instructions to be followed upon his death which led to the creation of a sort of modern-day mummy. He asked that his body be displayed to illustrate how the "horror at dissection originates in ignorance"; once so displayed and lectured about, he asked that his body parts be preserved, including his skeleton (minus his skull, for which he had other plans ), which were to be dressed in the clothes he usually wore and "seated in a Chair usually occupied by me when living in the attitude in which I am sitting when engaged in thought." His body, outfitted with a wax head created because of problems preparing it as Bentham requested, is on open display in the University College London. During the early 20th century the Russian movement of Cosmism, as represented by Nikolaj Fedorov, envisioned scientific resurrection of dead people. The idea was so popular that, after Lenin's death, Leonid Krasin and Alexander Bogdanov suggested to cryonically preserve his body and brain in order to revive him in the future. See the article: А.М. и А.А. Панченко «Осьмое чудо света», in the book Панченко А.М. О русской истории и культуре. St. Petersburg: Azbuka, 2003. Page 433. Necessary equipment was purchased abroad, but for a variety of reasons the plan was not realized. Ibidem. Instead his body was embalmed and placed on permanent exhibition in the Lenin Mausoleum in Moscow, where it is displayed to this day. The mausoleum itself was modeled by Aleksey Shchusev on the Pyramid of Djoser and the Tomb of Cyrus. In the state of Guanajuato, Mexico, mummies were discovered in a cemetery of a city named Guanajuato northwest of Mexico City (near León). They are accidental modern mummies and were literally "dug up" between the years 1896 and 1958 when a local law required relatives of the deceased to pay a kind of grave tax. The Guanajuato mummies are on display in the Museo de las momias, high on a hill overlooking the city. Another notable example of natural mummification in modern times is Christian Friedrich von Kahlbutz (1651-1702), whose body is on exhibit in his native Kampehl. In 1994 265 mummified bodies were found in the crypt of a Dominican church in Vác, Hungary from the 1729-1838 period. The discovery proved to be scientifically important, and by 2006 an exhibition was established in the Museum of Natural History in Budapest. Újkori múmiák gyűjteménye In March 2006, the body of the Greek Orthodox Monk Vissarion Korkoliacos was found intact in his tomb, after fifteen years in grave. The event has led to a dispute between those who believe the preservation to be a miracle and those who claimed the possibility of natural mummification. Summum A cat being mummified by Summum In 1975, an esoteric organization by the name of Summum introduced "Modern Mummification", a form of mummification that Summum claims uses modern techniques along with aspects of ancient methods. The service is available for spiritual reasons. Summum considers animals and people to have an essence that continues following the death of the body, and their mummification process is meant to preserve the body as a means to aid the essence as it transitions to a new destination. Summum calls this "transference," and the concept seems to correspond to ancient Egyptian reasons for mummification. Rather than using a dehydration process that is typical of ancient mummies, Summum uses a chemical process that is supposed to maintain the body's natural look. The process includes leaving the body submerged in a tank of preservation fluid for several months. Summum claims its process preserves the body so well that the DNA will remain intact far into the future, leaving open the possibility for cloning should science perfect the technique on humans. According to news stories, Summum has mummified numerous pets such as birds, cats, and dogs. People were mummified early on when Summum developed its process and many have made personal, "pre-need" arrangements. Summum has been included in television programs by National Geographic and the British Broadcasting Corporation, and is also discussed in the book The Scientific Study of Mummies by Arthur C. Aufderheide. Plastination Plastination is a technique used in anatomy to conserve bodies or body parts. The water and fat are replaced by certain plastics, yielding specimens that can be touched, do not smell or decay, and even retain most microscopic properties of the original sample. The technique was invented by Gunther von Hagens when working at the anatomical institute of the University of Heidelberg in 1978. Von Hagens has patented the technique in several countries and is heavily involved in its promotion, especially as the creator and Director of the Body Worlds travelling exhibitions Body Worlds Official Web Site , exhibiting plastinated human bodies internationally. He also founded and directs the Institute for Plastination in Heidelberg. More than 40 institutions worldwide have facilities for plastination, mainly for medical research and study, and most affiliated to the International Society for Plastination. International Society for Plastination Egyptian mummies as commodities In the Middle Ages, based on a mis-translation from Arabic it became common practice to grind mummies preserved in bitumen into a powder to be sold and used as medicine. When actual mummies became unavailable, the sun-desiccated corpses of criminals, slaves and suicidal people were substituted by mendacious merchants. The practice developed into a wide-scale business which flourished until the late 16th century. Two centuries ago, mummies were still believed to have medicinal properties against bleeding, and were sold as pharmaceuticals in powdered form as in Mellified Man. Artists also made use of Egyptian mummies; the brownish paint known as Caput mortuum (Latin for death's head) was originally made from the wrappings of mummies. It was most popular in the 17th century but was discontinued in the early 19th century when its composition became generally known to artists. In the 19th century, European aristocrats would occasionally entertain themselves by purchasing mummies, having them unwrapped, and holding observation sessions. These sessions destroyed hundreds of mummies, because the exposure to the air caused them to disintegrate. An urban myth of mummies being used as fuel for locomotives was popularized by Mark Twain, but the truth of the story remains a debate. During the American Civil War, mummy-wrapping linens were said to have been used to manufacture paper. Evidence for the reality of these claims is still equivocal. Many thousands of mummified cats were sent from Egypt to England to be processed for use in fertilizer. Mummies in fiction Lon Chaney, Jr. as Kharis in the film The Mummy's Ghost (1944) Mummies are commonly featured in romance genres as undead creatures. During the 20th century, horror films and other mass media popularized the notion of a curse associated with mummies. One of the earliest appearances was The Jewel of Seven Stars, a horror novel by Bram Stoker first published in 1903 that concerned an archaeologist's plot to revive an ancient Egyptian mummy. Films representing such a belief include the 1932 movie The Mummy starring Boris Karloff as Imhotep; four subsequent 1940's Universal Studios mummy films which featured a mummy named Kharis, who also was the title mummy in The Mummy, a 1959 Hammer remake of The Mummy's Hand and The Mummy's Tomb; and a remake of the original film that was released in 1999. The belief in cursed mummies probably stems in part from the supposed curse on the tomb of Tutankhamun. In 1979, the American Broadcasting Company aired a TV holiday show, The Halloween That Almost Wasn't, in which a mummy from Egypt (Robert Fitch) arrived at Count Dracula's castle without speaking. In 1939, The Three Stooges spoofed the discovery of King Tutankhamun with their short film "We Want Our Mummy". The 1922 discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb by archaeologist Howard Carter brought mummies into the mainstream. Slapstick comedy trio the Three Stooges humorously exploited the discovery in the short film We Want Our Mummy, in which they explored the tomb of the midget King Rutentuten (and his Queen, Hotsy Totsy). A decade later, they played crooked used chariot salesmen in Mummy's Dummies, in which they ultimately assisted a different King Rootentootin (Vernon Dent) with a toothache. Fictional mummies have also been prominently featured in comics and animation, such as Hakushin in the anime series InuYasha, Anal Ho Tep from Eric Millikin's Fetus-X, N'Kantu, the Living Mummy from Marvel Comics, and Mumm-Ra from the animated TV series ThunderCats. Another animated TV series, Mummies Alive!, features a group of Egyptian mummies who are appointed with the protection of the reincarnated son of a pharaoh. A humorous cartoon mummy was also used as the mascot for General Mills' monster-themed breakfast cereal Yummy Mummy. See also Embalming Incorruptibility Bog body List of mummies List of DNA tested mummies References Sources Books Barber, Elizabeth Wayland. 1999. The Mummies of Ürümchi. 1999. London. Pan Books. Also: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04521-8. Budge, E.A.Wallis. 1925. The Mummy, A Handbook of Egyptian Funerary Archaeology. Dover Publ. Inc., New York, Dover Ed. 1989, (512 pgs.) ISBN 0-486-25928-5. Davis-Kimball, Jeannine, with Behan, Mona. 2002. Warrior Women: An Archaeologist’s Search for History’s Hidden Heroines. Warner Books, New York. First Trade Printing, 2003. ISBN 0-446-67983-6. Ilkerson, Bill. 2006. Wrap-It-Up: How My Lost Child Will Survive Us All. Portland. Eye of Raw Texts. ISBN 0-43-956827-7. Mallory, J. P. and Mair, Victor H. 2000. The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West. Thames & Hudson. London. 2000. ISBN 0-500-05101-1. Pringle, Heather. 2001. Mummy Congress: Science, Obsession, and the Everlasting Dead. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-028669-1. Taylor, John H. 2004. Mummy: the inside story. The British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-1962-8. Online Mummies at Howstuffworks.com. The Straight Dope on claims that Egyptian mummies show evidence of cocaine use University of Colorado paper discussing the discovery of cocaine and other new-world drugs in Egyptian mummies About the Unknown Mummy E The Virtual Mummy: Unwrapping a Mummy by Mouse Click Video External links http://www.mummytombs.com Naturally Preserved Peruvian Mummies World's Best Preserved Mummies in China The "Auto-Icon of Jeremy Bentham, from a University College London website Cat Mummies Egyptian and Incan Mummification Clickable Mummy Mummies from the Smithsonian Institution. Rameses: Wrath of God or Man? at Discovery Channel Summum - Animal Mummy Gallery U.S. Museum to Return Ramses I Mummy to Egypt, an article from the National Geographic website "King Mutt's Tomb", 2006-09-13 article about dog mummy found in Peru Roman Period Fayyum mummies: A picture test from Cognitive Labs Cooking With Mummy, by Sarah Bakewell, Fortean Times 124, July 1999. Article on the medicinal uses of mummy. | Mummy |@lemmatized egyptian:21 mummy:121 keep:1 vatican:1 museum:16 corpse:4 whose:5 skin:5 organ:4 preserve:19 either:1 intentional:2 incidental:1 exposure:2 chemical:2 extreme:3 coldness:2 high:2 humidity:1 lack:2 air:3 body:45 submerge:2 bog:9 presently:1 old:11 discover:10 naturally:6 mummify:7 human:5 decapitated:1 head:5 date:5 year:10 find:15 animal:6 throughout:1 world:5 result:6 natural:10 preservation:4 unusual:2 condition:6 cultural:2 artifact:3 dead:5 etymology:1 english:1 word:2 derive:1 medieval:2 latin:2 mumia:1 borrowing:1 persian:1 mūm:1 موم:1 mean:4 bitumen:3 blackened:1 think:2 use:20 extensively:1 ancient:12 embalming:1 procedure:1 early:8 known:2 individual:2 back:1 approximately:1 bc:4 nickname:1 ginger:3 color:1 hair:2 internationally:2 renowned:1 despite:1 famous:3 rameses:2 ii:1 seti:1 currently:5 display:8 british:6 bury:7 hot:1 desert:3 sand:2 uncertain:1 whether:1 mummification:17 however:1 since:2 pottery:2 vessel:2 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6,223 | Transport_in_Mali | Highway heading south from Bamako, Mali Mali's transportation infrastructure is regarded as poor, even by regional standards, and deficiencies have limited economic growth and development. Nevertheless, improvements have been noted in the early 2000s. A number of road and airport projects were initiated prior to Mali’s hosting of the African Nations Cup football tournament in 2002. Mali country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (January 2005). ''This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Railways Mali has only one railroad, including 729 kilometers in Mali, which runs from the port of Koulikoro via Bamako to the border with Senegal and continues on to Dakar. The Bamako-Dakar line, which has been described as dilapidated, is owned by a joint company established by Mali and Senegal in 1995, with the eventual goal of privatization. In 2003 the two countries sold a 25-year concession to run the rail line to a Canadian company, which has pledged to upgrade equipment and infrastructure. The Malian portion of the railroad carried an estimated 536,000 tons of freight and 778,000 passengers in 1999, but the track is in poor condition and the line is closed frequently during the rainy season. The line is potentially significant because it links landlocked Mali to the port of Dakar, increasingly of interest for Malian exports in the face of the disruption of access to Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire, as a result of civil conflict in that country beginning in late 2002. In the early 2000s, there also were plans to construct a new rail line between Bamako and Kouroussa and Kankan in Guinea. Brakes: Air Indian MG coaches for Senegal/Mali - Railpage Australia Forums (Africa) Couplings: unknown. Railway links with adjacent countries Algeria - no - potential break of gauge 1000mm/1435mm Niger - no railways Burkina Faso - no - same gauge 1000mm Ivory Coast - no - same gauge 1000mm Guinea - no - same gauge 1000mm also 1435mm Senegal - yes - same gauge 1000mm Mauritania - no - break of gauge 1000mm/1435mm Maps UN Map Cities and Towns served by rail Existing Dakar, Senegal Thies, Senegal Diourbel, Senegal Guinguinéo, Senegal Kaffrine, Senegal Tambacounda, Senegal Kidira, Senegal - Mali border Kayes, Mali Diamou, Mali Kita, Mali Kati, Mali Bamako - national capital Koulikoro - railhead and river port. Proposed Closed Charts Length Highways Typical highway scene in Mali Mali had a road network totaling about 18,563 kilometers in 2000, including about 4,450 kilometers of paved roads. Mali’s main economic link to the coast is a paved road between Bamako and Abidjan in Côte d’Ivoire. The European Development Fund is financing construction of a road linking Bamako and Dakar, Senegal. The African Development Bank is funding the construction of a road linking Bamako and Kankan in Guinea. There are also plans for a trans-Saharan road linking Mali with Algeria. In general, road conditions outside of urban areas are hazardous, especially at night. Because of isolation, poor road conditions, and the prevalence of banditry, overland travel to the north of Mali is regarded as especially dangerous; flying or traveling by boat is reported to be preferable where possible. Many of Mali’s major thoroughfares in the north are little more than desert tracks with long isolated stretches. Road fatalities Motor vehicle accidents are relatively common on Mali's roads. The Malian Equipment and Transport Ministry reported that the first half of 2008 saw 254 deaths and 1,924 injuries on Mali's roads, following on 579 deaths in 2007 and 642 in 2006. The government has pledged 15 billion CFAF in 2009 to fund road safety, and has pledged to create a national road security agency to control highway traffic. 254 people killed in car accidents in Mali in 2008. PANA Press, 30/12/2008. Barriers to transport While police control barriers are a common sight on African highways, and while illicit demands for bribes at such stops are common in many countries, the main Malian highway heading south from Bamako to the Burkina Faso border was singled out in late 2008 as the worst in West Africa. A survey by the Observatory of Abnormal Practices (OPA) of the West African Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) found the Malian section of this road to have the highest number of police roadblocks with the highest average amount paid in bribes per trip in West Africa. An average of twenty-nine roadblocks, almost 4 for every 100km, were reported from June to September 2008. The amount paid in bribes in the Mali section (per trip) was CFA F 31,509. While in other nations the customs officials were responsible for most stops, in Mali, gendarmerie (National paramilitary police) and the Police force were found creating the majority of bribe extorting roadblocks. The number of roadblocks on the Bamako-Burkina highway also increased by 12 per cent during the third quarter of 2008, going from 67 to 75. High number of barriers on Ouagadougou-Bamako road. Pana Press. 05/01/2009. Ports and waterways The Kankou Moussa river ferry on the Niger river at Korioume, 2008 Mali has no seaports because it is landlocked, but Koulikoro on the Niger River near Bamako, serves as a principal river port. Traditionally, Abidjan in Côte d’Ivoire has been Mali’s main seaport, handling as much as 70 percent of Mali’s trade (except for gold exports). Mali’s export trade suffered when turbulence in Côte d’Ivoire in the early 2000s interrupted that trade route. Mali has 1,815 kilometers of inland waterways, principally the Niger River, some portions of which are navigable for medium and large shipping during the rainy season (June/July–November/December) in years of normal rainfall. Parts of the Senegal River also are navigable, providing year-round access to the Atlantic from Kayes to St. Louis in Senegal. Aviation In 2007 Mali reportedly had 29 airports, 8 of which had paved runways. CIA factbook. The main airport is Senou International Airport in Bamako, which offers flights to neighboring countries and to Europe. As part of infrastructure improvements in 2002, the runway at Bamako was extended, and new airstrips were built in previously isolated areas of the west—Kayes, Mopti, and Sikasso. Air Mali was liquidated in April 2003, but intercontinental services from Bamako are provided by Air France and a Belgian airline, among others. Pipelines As of 2005, Mali had no pipelines. 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6,224 | Lost_city | In the popular imagination lost cities were real, prosperous, well-populated areas of human habitation that fell into terminal decline and whose location may have later been lost. Most lost cities at known sites have been studied extensively by scientists. Abandoned urban sites of relatively recent origin might be referred to as ghost towns; this article, however, includes places where people lived that were important local centres, without applying a specific test of size. Lost cities generally fall into three broad categories: those whose disappearance has been so complete that no knowledge of the city existed until the time of its rediscovery and study, those whose location has been lost but whose memory has been retained in the context of myths and legends, and those whose existence and location have always been known, but which are no longer inhabited. The search for such lost cities by European explorers and adventurers in the Americas, Africa and in Southeast Asia from the 15th century onwards eventually led to the development of the science of archaeology. History of Archaeology How are cities lost? Cities may become lost for a variety of reasons, including geographic, economic and social (e.g. war). An Arabian city named Ubar (Iram of the Pillars) was abandoned after much of the city sank into a sinkhole created by the collapse of an underground cavern, which also destroyed its water supply. The city was rediscovered in 1992 when satellite photography revealed traces of the ancient trade routes leading to it. Other settlements are lost with few or no clues to guide historians, such as the Colony of Roanoke. In August 1590, John White returned to the former English colony, which had housed 91 men (including White), 17 women (two of them pregnant) and 11 children when he left, to find it completely empty, with no indication of struggle or any visible reason for the mass disappearance. Malden Island, in the central Pacific, was deserted when first visited by Europeans in 1825, but ruined temples and the remains of other structures found on the island indicate that a small population of Polynesians had lived there for perhaps several generations some centuries earlier. Prolonged drought seems the most likely explanation for their demise. The ruins of another city, called Nan Madol, have been found on the Micronesian island of Ponape. In more recent times Port Royal, Jamaica sank into the Caribbean Sea after an earthquake. Many cities have been destroyed by natural disasters and rebuilt, sometimes repeatedly. But in other cases the destruction has been so complete that the sites were abandoned completely. Classic examples include the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, buried with many of their inhabitants under a thick layer of volcanic ash after an eruption of Vesuvius. A lesser known example is Akrotiri, on the island of Thera, where in 1967, under a blanket of ash, the remains of a Minoan city were discovered. The volcanic explosion on Thera was immense, and had disastrous effects on the Minoan civilization. It has been suggested that this disaster was the inspiration that Plato used for the story of Atlantis. Less dramatic examples of the destruction of cities by natural forces are those where the coastline has eroded away. Cities which have sunk into the sea include the one-time centre of the English wool-trade, at Dunwich, England, and the city of Rungholt in Germany which sank into the North Sea during a massive storm surge in 1362. Cities are also often destroyed by wars. This was the case, for instance, with Troy and Carthage, though both of these were subsequently rebuilt, and the Achaemenid capital at Persepolis was accidentally burnt by Alexander the Great. Various capitals in the Middle East were abandoned; after Babylon was abandoned Ctesiphon became the capital of the new Parthian Empire, and this was in turn passed over in favor of Baghdad (and later Samarra) for the site of the Abbasid capital. Some cities which are considered lost are (or may be) places of legend such as the Arthurian Camelot, Russian Kitezh, Lyonesse and Atlantis. Others, such as Troy and Bjarmaland, having once been considered legendary, are now known to have existed. Lost cities by continent Pacific Ocean Hawaiki, The mythical land to which some Polynesian cultures trace their origins. It may also refer to an underworld in many Māori stories. Africa Akhetaten, Egypt – Capital during the reign of 18th Dynasty pharaoh Akhenaten. Later abandoned and almost totally destroyed. Modern day el Amarna. Canopus, Egypt – Located on the now-dry Canopic branch of the Nile, east of Alexandria. Itjtawy, Egypt – Capital during the 12th Dynasty. Exact location still unknown, but it is believed to lie near the modern town of el-Lisht. Tanis, Egypt – Capital during the 21st and 22nd Dynasties, in the Delta region. Memphis, Egypt – Administrative capital of ancient Egypt. Little remains. Avaris, capital city of the Hyksos in the Nile Delta. Leptis Magna – Roman city located in present day Libya. It was the birthplace of Emperor Septimius Severus, who lavished an extensive public works programme on the city, including diverting the course of a nearby river. The river later returned to its original course, burying much of the city in silt and sand. Dougga, Tunisia – Roman city located in present day Tunisia. Carthage – Initially a Phoenician city, destroyed and then rebuilt by Rome. Later served as the capital of the Vandal Kingdom of North Africa, before being destroyed by the Arabs after its capture in AD 697. Great Zimbabwe Aoudaghost – Wealthy Berber city in medieval Ghana, sacked by mujahideen, location unknown. Timgad - Roman city founded by the emperor Trajan around 100 AD, covered by the sand at 7th century. Asia Far East Asia Yamatai – Japan Xanadu – Mongolia Shamballah-Gobi Desert-Mongolia Southeast Asia Sukhothai Ayutthaya Angkor and surrounds. Metropolis: Angkor, the world's first mega-city South Asia Vijayanagar – Located in South India Poompuhar – Located in Tamil Nadu, South India Mohenjodaro – Located in Pakistan Sindh - early city of the Indus Valley Civilization Harappa – Located in Pakistan Punjab - early city of the Indus Valley Civilization Taxila – Located in Pakistan's Northwest Frontier Province Muziris – Located in Kodungallur, Kerala, South India Lothal – Located in Gujarat, India - early city of the Indus Valley Civilization Kalibangan – Located in Rajasthan, India - early city of the Indus Valley Civilization Surkotada – Located in Gujarat, India - early city of the Indus Valley Civilization Dwarka – ancient seat of Krishna, hero of the Mahabharata. Now largely excavated. Off the coast of the Indian state of Gujarat Pattadakal – Located in Karnataka, South India Anuradhapura – Located in Sri Lanka Sigiriya – Located in Sri Lanka Dvaraka Central Asia Abaskun – Medieval Caspian Sea trading port Ani – Medieval Armenian capital Niya – Located in the Taklamakan Desert, on the ancient Silk Road route. Loulan – Located in the Taklamakan Desert, on the ancient Silk Road route. Subashi – Located in the Taklamakan Desert, on the ancient Silk Road route. Lost Cities of the Silk Road Otrar – City located along the Silk Road, important in the history of Central Asia. Karakorum – Capital of Genghis Khan. Old Urgench – Capital of Khwarezm. Mangazeya, Siberia Turquoise Mountain - Capital of Afghanistan, destroyed 1220 Sarai - Capital of the Golden Horde Western Asia/Middle East Akkad Babylon Çatalhöyük – A Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement, located near the modern city of Konya, Turkey. Choqa Zanbil Ctesiphon Iram of the Pillars – Lost Arabian city in the Empty Quarter. Kourion, Cyprus Hattusa – Capital of the Hittite Empire. Located near the modern village of Boğazköy in north-central Turkey. Kish Lagash Nineveh Persepolis Petra Troy South America Inca cities Machu Picchu – Possibly Pachacuti's Family Palace. Vilcabamba – Currently known as Espiritu Pampa. Paititi – A legendary city and refuge in the rainforests where Peru, Bolivia and Brazil meet. Ancient "Lost City" Discovered in Peru, Official Claims Choquequirao - Considered to be the last bastion of Incan resistance against the Spaniards and refuge of Manco Inca Yupanqui. Other Chan Chan – Chimu. Located near Trujillo, in present day Peru. Tiahuanaco – pre-Inca. Located in present day Bolivia. Cahuachi – Nazca, in present day Peru. Caral – An important center of the Norte Chico civilization, in present day Peru. Ciudad de los Cesares - City of the Caesars, A legendary city in Patagonia, never found. Also variously known as City of the Patagonia, Wandering City, Trapalanda or Trapananda, Lin Lin or Elelín, Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien – First city in the mainland of the American continent, in the Darien region between Colombia and Panama. Founded by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa in 1510. Lost City of Z - A city allegedly located in the jungles of the Mato Grosso region of Brazil, was said to have been seen by the British explorer Col. Percy Harrison Fawcett sometime prior to World War I. Lost cities of the Amazon revealed, msnbc.com Kuelap - A massive ruined city still covered in jungle that was the capital of the Chachapoyas culture in Northern Peru. Amazon jungle gives up lost city of the 'Cloud People', News.com.au Tayuna (Ciudad Perdida) located in present day Colombia North America Mexico and Central America Maya cities incomplete list – for further information, see Maya civilization Chichen Itza – This ancient place of pilgrimage is still the most visited Maya ruin. Copán – In modern Honduras. Calakmul – One of two "superpowers" in the classic Maya period. Coba Naachtun – Rediscovered in 1922, it remains one of the most remote and least visited Maya sites. Located 44 km (27 miles) south-south-east of Calakmul, and 65 km (40 miles) north of Tikal, it is believed to have had strategic importance to, and been vulnerable to military attacks by, both neighbours. Its ancient name was identified in the mid-1990s as Masuul. Palenque — in the Mexican state of Chiapas, known for its beautiful art and architecture Tikal — One of two "superpowers" in the classic Maya period. Aztec Cities Aztlán- the ancient home of the Aztecs Teotihuacan – Pre-Aztec Mexico. Teotihuacan, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Olmec cities La Venta – In the present day Mexican state of Tabasco. San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán – In the present day Mexican state of Veracruz. Other Izapa – Chief city of the Izapa civilization, whose territory extended from the Gulf Coast across to the Pacific Coast of Chiapas, in present day Mexico, and Guatemala. Guayabo – It is believed that the site was inhabited from 1500 BCE (BC) to 1400 CE (AD), and had at its peak a population of around 10.000. United States The cities of the Ancestral Pueblo (or Anasazi) culture, located in the Four Corners region of the Southwest United States – The best known are located at Chaco Canyon and Mesa Verde. Cahokia – Located near present-day St. Louis, Missouri. At its height Cahokia is believed to have had a population of between 40,000 and 80,000 people, making it amongst the largest pre-Columbian cities of the Americas. It is known chiefly for its huge pyramidal mounds of compacted earth. Birmingham, Kentucky was lost when Kentucky Dam was built. Kennett, California was lost under 400 feet of water when Shasta Dam was built. Kane, Wyoming was a city that was lost when the Yellowtail Dam was built. Dana, Enfield, Greenwich, and Prescott, Massachusetts, were submerged beneath the Quabbin Reservoir in 1938. Napoleon, Arkansas was a city along the Arkansas Delta which was destroyed during a flood. Lost counties, cities, and towns of Virginia Pattenville, New Hampshire was flooded when the Moore Dam was built. Pueblo Grande de Nevada a complex of villages, located near Overton, Nevada Roanoke Colony Lost towns of Glen Canyon region of Southern Utah-Glen Canyon Dam and Lake Powell Recreation Area Created Canada L'Anse aux Meadows – Viking settlement founded around 1000. Lost Villages - The Lost Villages are ten communities in the Canadian province of Ontario, in the former townships of Cornwall and Osnabruck (now South Stormont) near Cornwall, which were permanently submerged by the creation of the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1958. Aultsville - Dickinson's Landing - Farran's Point - Maple Grove - Mille Roches - Moulinette - Santa Cruz - Sheek's Island - Wales - Woodlands Europe Acerrae Vatriae – a town of the Sarranates mentioned by Pliny the elder as having been situated in an unknown location in Umbria. Akrotiri – On the island of Thera, Greece. Atil, Tmutarakan, Sarai Berke – Capitals of the steppe peoples. Attila's Fortified Camp, Romania – Probably the great ruins at Saden (Zsadany, Jadani, now Cornesti -jud. Timis) from or to which the Hun tribe Sadagariem took or gave their name. Avars'Khan Fortified Camp, Romania - Probably the re-occupied city of Attila at Saden (Zsadany, Jadani, now Cornesti -jud. Timis). Avar Ring, Hungary - Central stronghold of the Avars, it is believed to have been in the wide plain between the Danube and the Tisza. Charlemagne and the Avars Birka, Sweden Biskupin, Poland Calleva Atrebatum, Silchester, England - Large Romano-British walled city 10 miles south of present day Reading, Berkshire. Just the walls remain and a street pattern can be discerned from the air. Chryse Island in the Aegean, reputed site of an ancient temple still visible on the sea floor. Damasia – Sank into the Ammersee, Germany. Dunwich, England, United Kingdom – Lost to coastal erosion. Hedeby, Germany Helike, Greece on the Peloponese – Sunk by an earthquake in the 4th century BC and rediscovered in the 1990s. Kaupang - In Viksfjord near Larvik, Norway. Largest trading city around the Oslo Fjord during the Viking age. As sea levels retreated (the shoreline is 7m lower today than in 1000) the city was no longer accessible from the ocean and was abandoned. Kitezh, Russia - Legendary underwater city which supposedly may be seen in good weather. Niedam near Rungholt Ny Varberg, Sweden Old Sarum, England, United Kingdom – population moved to nearby Salisbury although the owners of the archaeological site retained the right to elect a Member of Parliament to represent Old Sarum until the nineteenth century (see William Pitt abandoned). Paestum - Greek and Roman city south of Naples, abandoned after attacks by Muslim pirates. Three famous Greek temples. Perperikon in Bulgaria - The megalith complex had been laid in ruins and re-erected many times in history - from the Bronze Age till Middle Ages. Pompeii and Herculaneum in Italy - buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD and rediscovered in the 18th century Reccopolis, Spain - One of the capital cities founded in Hispania by the Visigoths. the site was incrementally abandoned in the tenth century. Roxburgh, Scotland - abandoned in the 15th century Rungholt – Wadden Sea in Germany, sunken during the "grote Mandraenke", a storm surge in the North Sea on January 16, 1362 Saeftinghe, Netherlands - prosperous city lost to the sea in 1584. Selsey, England, United Kingdom - mostly abandoned to coastal erosion after 1043. Skara Brae, Scotland, United Kingdom - Neolithic settlement buried under sediment. Uncovered by a winter storm in 1850. Sybaris, Italy - Ancient Greek colonial city of unsurpassed wealth utterly destroyed by its arch-rival Crotona in 510 BCE. Tartessos, Spain Teljä, Finland Trellech, Wales, United Kingdom. Uppåkra, Sweden Vineta – Legendary city somewhere at the Baltic coast of Germany or Poland. Winchelsea, East Sussex, UK Old Winchelsea, Important Channel port, pop 4000+, abandoned after 1287 inundation and coastal erosion. Modern Winchelsea, 2 miles inland, was built to replace it as a planned town by Edward I of England Ys - Legendary city on the western coast of France. See also Lost city (fiction) Ghost town Lost lands Mythical place Atlantis Collapse by Jared Diamond References | Lost_city |@lemmatized popular:1 imagination:1 lose:26 city:72 real:1 prosperous:2 well:1 populate:1 area:2 human:1 habitation:1 fell:1 terminal:1 decline:1 whose:6 location:6 may:5 later:5 lost:2 know:8 site:9 study:2 extensively:1 scientist:1 abandon:13 urban:1 relatively:1 recent:2 origin:2 might:1 refer:2 ghost:2 town:7 article:1 however:1 include:6 place:4 people:4 live:2 important:4 local:1 centre:2 without:1 apply:1 specific:1 test:1 size:1 generally:1 fall:1 three:2 broad:1 category:1 disappearance:2 complete:2 knowledge:1 exist:2 time:4 rediscovery:1 memory:1 retain:2 context:1 myth:1 legend:2 existence:1 always:1 longer:2 inhabit:2 search:1 european:2 explorer:2 adventurer:1 america:5 africa:3 southeast:2 asia:8 century:8 onwards:1 eventually:1 lead:2 development:1 science:1 archaeology:2 history:3 become:2 variety:1 reason:2 geographic:1 economic:1 social:1 e:1 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6,225 | Growth_factor | The term growth factor refers to a naturally occurring substance capable of stimulating cellular growth, proliferation and cellular differentiation. Usually it is a protein or a steroid hormone. Growth factors are important for regulating a variety of cellular processes. Growth factors typically act as signaling molecules between cells. Examples are cytokines and hormones that bind to specific receptors on the surface of their target cells. They often promote cell differentiation and maturation, which varies between growth factors. For example, bone morphogenic proteins stimulate bone cell differentiation, while fibroblast growth factors and vascular endothelial growth factors stimulate blood vessel differentiation (angiogenesis). Growth factors versus cytokines Growth factor is sometimes used interchangeably among scientists with the term cytokine. Historically, cytokines were associated with hematopoietic (blood forming) cells and immune system cells (e.g., lymphocytes and tissue cells from spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes). For the circulatory system and bone marrow in which cells can occur in a liquid suspension and not bound up in solid tissue, it makes sense for them to communicate by soluble, circulating protein molecules. However, as different lines of research converged, it became clear that some of the same signaling proteins the hematopoietic and immune systems used were also being used by all sorts of other cells and tissues, during development and in the mature organism. While growth factor implies a positive effect on cell division, cytokine is a neutral term with respect to whether a molecule affects proliferation. While some cytokines can be growth factors, such as G-CSF and GM-CSF, others have an inhibitory effect on cell growth or proliferation. Some cytokines, such as Fas ligand are used as "death" signals; they cause target cells to undergo programmed cell death or apoptosis. Classes of growth factors Individual growth factor proteins tend to occur as members of larger families of structurally and evolutionarily related proteins. There are many families which are listed below: Bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) Epidermal growth factor (EGF) Erythropoietin (EPO) Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor (G-CSF) Granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) Growth differentiation factor-9 (GDF9) Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) Myostatin (GDF-8) Nerve growth factor (NGF) and other neurotrophins Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) Thrombopoietin (TPO) Transforming growth factor alpha(TGF-α) Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) Stimulates cell cycle from G0 phase to G1 phase Uses in medicine For the last two decades, growth factors have been increasingly used in the treatment of hematologic and oncologic diseases and cardiovascular diseases like: neutropenia myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) leukemias aplastic anaemia bone marrow transplantation angiogenesis for cardiovascular diseases See also Wound healing#Overview of involved growth factors Signal transduction Receptor (biochemistry) Cytokine Angiogenesis Human Genome Organisation Growth factor receptor References External links | Growth_factor |@lemmatized term:3 growth:27 factor:27 refers:1 naturally:1 occur:3 substance:1 capable:1 stimulate:6 cellular:3 proliferation:3 differentiation:5 usually:1 protein:5 steroid:1 hormone:2 important:1 regulate:1 variety:1 process:1 typically:1 act:1 signal:3 molecule:3 cell:14 example:2 cytokine:8 bind:2 specific:1 receptor:3 surface:1 target:2 often:1 promote:1 maturation:1 vary:1 bone:5 morphogenic:1 fibroblast:2 vascular:2 endothelial:2 blood:2 vessel:1 angiogenesis:3 versus:1 sometimes:1 use:5 interchangeably:1 among:1 scientist:1 historically:1 associate:1 hematopoietic:2 forming:1 immune:2 system:3 e:1 g:3 lymphocyte:1 tissue:3 spleen:1 thymus:1 lymph:1 node:1 circulatory:1 marrow:2 liquid:1 suspension:1 solid:1 make:1 sense:1 communicate:1 soluble:1 circulate:1 however:1 different:1 line:1 research:1 converge:1 become:1 clear:1 signaling:1 proteins:2 also:2 sort:1 development:1 mature:1 organism:1 imply:1 positive:1 effect:2 division:1 neutral:1 respect:1 whether:1 affect:1 csf:4 gm:2 others:1 inhibitory:1 fas:1 ligand:1 death:2 cause:1 undergo:1 programmed:1 apoptosis:1 class:1 individual:1 tend:1 member:1 large:1 family:2 structurally:1 evolutionarily:1 related:1 many:1 list:1 morphogenetic:1 bmps:1 epidermal:1 egf:1 erythropoietin:1 epo:1 fgf:1 granulocyte:2 colony:2 macrophage:1 hepatocyte:1 hgf:1 insulin:1 like:2 igf:1 myostatin:1 gdf:1 nerve:1 ngf:1 neurotrophins:1 platelet:1 derived:1 pdgf:1 thrombopoietin:1 tpo:1 transform:2 alpha:1 tgf:2 α:1 beta:1 β:1 vegf:1 cycle:1 phase:2 us:1 medicine:1 last:1 two:1 decade:1 increasingly:1 treatment:1 hematologic:1 oncologic:1 disease:3 cardiovascular:2 neutropenia:1 myelodysplastic:1 syndrome:1 md:1 leukemias:1 aplastic:1 anaemia:1 transplantation:1 see:1 wind:1 heal:1 overview:1 involved:1 transduction:1 biochemistry:1 human:1 genome:1 organisation:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram cellular_differentiation:1 steroid_hormone:1 fibroblast_growth:2 lymph_node:1 bone_marrow:2 gm_csf:2 csf_granulocyte:1 macrophage_colony:1 cardiovascular_disease:2 aplastic_anaemia:1 signal_transduction:1 external_link:1 |
6,226 | Cyclades | The Cyclades (, ) are a Greek island group in the Aegean Sea, south-east of the mainland of Greece; and an administrative prefecture of Greece. They are one of the island groups which constitute the Aegean archipelago. The name refers to the islands around (κυκλάς) the sacred island of Delos. The Cyclades is where the native Greek breed of cat (the Aegean cat) first came from. The Cyclades comprise about 220 islands, the major ones being Amorgos, Anafi, Ándros, Antiparos, Delos, Eschati, Ios, Kéa, Kimolos, Kythnos, Mílos, Mykonos, Náxos, Páros, Folegandros, Serifos, Sifnos, Sikinos, Síros, Tínos, and Santorini. Most of the smaller islands are uninhabited. Ermoupolis, on Síros, is the chief town and administrative center of the prefecture. The islands are peaks of a submerged mountainous terrain, with the exception of two volcanic islands, Milos and Santorini (Thera). The climate is generally dry and mild, but with the exception of Naxos the soil is not very fertile: agricultural produce includes wine, fruit, wheat, olive oil, and tobacco. Cooler temperatures are in higher elevations and mainly do not receive wintry weather. In transportation, the Cyclades is the only prefecture in Greece that is not linked with a state-maintained highway or a highway number. All of the roads in the island complex are secondary or provincial. History The Cyclades Islands encircle Delos. The significant Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age Cycladic culture is best known for its schematic flat female idols carved out of the islands' pure white marble centuries before the great Middle Bronze Age ("Minoan") culture arose in Crete, to the south: these figures have been looted from burials to satisfy a thriving Cycladic antiquities market since the early 20th century. A distinctive Neolithic culture amalgamating Anatolian and mainland Greek elements arose in the western Aegean before 4000 BCE, based on emmer wheat and wild-type barley, sheep and goats, pigs, and tuna that were apparently speared from small boats (Rutter). Excavated sites include Saliagos and Kephala (on Keos) with signs of copper-working, Each of the small Cycladic islands could support no more than a few thousand people, though Late Cycladic boat models show that fifty oarsmen could be assembled from the scattered communities (Rutter), and when the highly organized palace-culture of Crete arose, the islands faded into insignificance, with the exception of Delos, which retained its archaic reputation as a sanctuary through the period of Classical Greek civilization. Archaeology The first archaeological excavations of the 1880s were followed by systematic work by the British School at Athens and by Christos Tsountas, who investigated burial sites on several islands in 1898 - 1899 and coined the term "Cycladic civilization". Interest lagged, then picked up in the mid-20th century, as collectors competed for the modern-looking figures that seemed so similar to sculpture by Jean Arp or Constantin Brâncuşi. Sites were looted and a brisk trade in forgeries arose. The context for many of these Cycladic figurines has been mostly destroyed and their meaning may never be completely understood. Another intriguing and mysterious object is that of the Cycladic frying pans. More accurate archaeology has revealed the broad outlines of a farming and seafaring culture that had immigrated from Asia Minor ca 5000 BCE. Early Cycladic culture evolved in three phases, between ca 3300 - 2000 BCE, when it was increasingly swamped in the rising influence of Minoan Crete. The culture of mainland Greece contemporary with Cycladic culture is termed Helladic. In recent decades the Cyclades islands have become popular with European and other tourists, and as a result there have been problems with erosion, pollution, and water shortages. Area codes Satellite image of the Cyclades 22810 - Syros, including Kythnos, Serifos and Syros islands 22820 - Andros 22830 - Tinos 22840 - Paros and Sifnos islands 22850 - Amorgos and Naxos islands 22860 - Folegandros, Ios, Santorini and Sikinos islands 22870 - Kimolos and Milos 22880 - Kea Island 22890 - Mykonos Municipalities and communities Municipality YPES code Seat (if different) Postal code Area code Amorgos 3101 840 08 22850-2 Andros 3103 845 00 22820-2 Ano Syros 3105 841 00 22810-8 Drymalia 3107 Chalkeio Naxou 843 02 22850 Ermoupoli 3109 841 00 22810-2 Exomvourgo 3108 Kampos 842 00 22850-5 Ios 3112 840 01 22860-9 Kea 3113 Ioulis 840 02 22880-2 Korthio 3115 Ormos Korthiou 845 02 22820-6 Kythnos 3117 840 06 22810-3 Milos 3118 848 00 22870-2 Mykonos 3119 846 00 22890-2 Naxos 3120 843 00 22850-2 Paros 3123 844 00 22840-2 Poseidonia 3124 841 00 22810-4 Santorini 3111 847 00 22860-2 Serifos 3125 840 02 22810-5 Sifnos 3127 840 03 22840-3 Tinos 3129 842 00 22830-2 Ydrousa 3130 Gavrio 845 01 22820-7 Community YPES code Seat (if different) Postal code Area code Anafi 3102 840 09 22860-6 Antiparos 3104 840 07 22840-6 Donousa 3106 843 00 22850-5 Folegandros 3131 840 11 22860 Irakleia 3110 843 00 22870-7 Kimolos 3114 840 04 22870-5 Koufonisi 3116 843 00 22870-7 Oia 3121 847 02 22860-7 Panormos 3122 842 01 22830-3 Schoinoussa 3128 843 00 22870-7 Sikinos 3126 840 10 22860-5 Provinces Province of Andros - Andros Province of Tinos - Tinos Province of Syros - Ermoupoli Province of Kea - Ioulis Province of Milos - Milos Province of Paros - Paroikia Province of Naxos - Naxos Province of Amorgos - Amorgos Province of Thera - Thera Note: Provinces no longer hold any legal status in Greece. See also: List of settlements in the Cyclades prefecture See also National Archaeological Museum of Athens Further reading J. A. MacGillivray and R. L. N. Barber, editors, The Prehistoric Cyclades (Edinburgh) 1984. R. L. N. Barber, The Cyclades in the Bronze Age (Iowa City) 1987. External links Jeremy B. Rutter, "The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean" : especially Lessons 2 and 4: chronology, history, bibliography Cyclades News portal: Cyclades News portal | Cyclades |@lemmatized cyclades:12 greek:4 island:20 group:2 aegean:5 sea:1 south:2 east:1 mainland:3 greece:5 administrative:2 prefecture:4 one:2 constitute:1 archipelago:1 name:1 refers:1 around:1 κυκλάς:1 sacred:1 delos:4 native:1 breed:1 cat:2 first:2 come:1 comprise:1 major:1 amorgos:5 anafi:2 ándros:1 antiparos:2 eschati:1 io:3 kéa:1 kimolos:3 kythnos:3 mílos:1 mykonos:3 náxos:1 páros:1 folegandros:3 serifos:3 sifnos:3 sikinos:3 síros:2 tínos:1 santorini:4 small:3 uninhabited:1 ermoupolis:1 chief:1 town:1 center:1 peak:1 submerge:1 mountainous:1 terrain:1 exception:3 two:1 volcanic:1 milo:5 thera:3 climate:1 generally:1 dry:1 mild:1 naxos:5 soil:1 fertile:1 agricultural:1 produce:1 include:3 wine:1 fruit:1 wheat:2 olive:1 oil:1 tobacco:1 cooler:1 temperature:1 high:1 elevation:1 mainly:1 receive:1 wintry:1 weather:1 transportation:1 link:2 state:1 maintain:1 highway:2 number:1 road:1 complex:1 secondary:1 provincial:1 history:2 encircle:1 significant:1 late:2 neolithic:2 early:3 bronze:3 age:3 cycladic:9 culture:8 best:1 know:1 schematic:1 flat:1 female:1 idol:1 carve:1 pure:1 white:1 marble:1 century:3 great:1 middle:1 minoan:2 arose:2 crete:3 figure:2 loot:2 burial:2 satisfy:1 thriving:1 antiquity:1 market:1 since:1 distinctive:1 amalgamate:1 anatolian:1 element:1 arise:2 western:1 bce:3 base:1 emmer:1 wild:1 type:1 barley:1 sheep:1 goat:1 pig:1 tuna:1 apparently:1 spear:1 boat:2 rutter:3 excavate:1 site:3 saliagos:1 kephala:1 keos:1 sign:1 copper:1 working:1 could:2 support:1 thousand:1 people:1 though:1 model:1 show:1 fifty:1 oarsman:1 assemble:1 scattered:1 community:3 highly:1 organize:1 palace:1 fade:1 insignificance:1 retain:1 archaic:1 reputation:1 sanctuary:1 period:1 classical:1 civilization:2 archaeology:3 archaeological:2 excavation:1 follow:1 systematic:1 work:1 british:1 school:1 athens:2 christos:1 tsountas:1 investigate:1 several:1 coin:1 term:2 interest:1 lag:1 pick:1 mid:1 collector:1 compete:1 modern:1 look:1 seem:1 similar:1 sculpture:1 jean:1 arp:1 constantin:1 brâncuşi:1 brisk:1 trade:1 forgery:1 context:1 many:1 figurine:1 mostly:1 destroy:1 meaning:1 may:1 never:1 completely:1 understood:1 another:1 intriguing:1 mysterious:1 object:1 frying:1 pan:1 accurate:1 reveal:1 broad:1 outline:1 farming:1 seafaring:1 immigrate:1 asia:1 minor:1 ca:2 evolve:1 three:1 phase:1 increasingly:1 swamp:1 rise:1 influence:1 contemporary:1 helladic:1 recent:1 decade:1 become:1 popular:1 european:1 tourist:1 result:1 problem:1 erosion:1 pollution:1 water:1 shortage:1 area:3 cod:1 satellite:1 image:1 syros:4 andros:4 tinos:4 paros:3 kea:3 municipality:2 ypes:2 code:6 seat:2 different:2 postal:2 ano:1 drymalia:1 chalkeio:1 naxou:1 ermoupoli:2 exomvourgo:1 kampos:1 ioulis:2 korthio:1 ormos:1 korthiou:1 poseidonia:1 ydrousa:1 gavrio:1 donousa:1 irakleia:1 koufonisi:1 oia:1 panormos:1 schoinoussa:1 province:10 paroikia:1 note:1 provinces:1 longer:1 hold:1 legal:1 status:1 see:2 also:2 list:1 settlement:1 national:1 museum:1 read:1 j:1 macgillivray:1 r:2 l:2 n:2 barber:2 editor:1 prehistoric:2 edinburgh:1 iowa:1 city:1 external:1 jeremy:1 b:1 especially:1 lessons:1 chronology:1 bibliography:1 news:2 portal:2 |@bigram aegean_sea:1 mountainous_terrain:1 olive_oil:1 emmer_wheat:1 sheep_goat:1 goat_pig:1 archaeological_excavation:1 jean_arp:1 frying_pan:1 minoan_crete:1 external_link:1 prehistoric_archaeology:1 |
6,227 | Mark_McGwire | Mark David McGwire (born October 1, 1963) is a former Major League Baseball player who played his major league career with the Oakland Athletics before moving to the St. Louis Cardinals. Mark McGwire Statistics - Baseball-Reference.com For his career, McGwire averaged a home run once every 10.61 at bats, the lowest at bats per home run ratio in baseball history (Babe Ruth is second at 11.80). Career Leaders & Records for At Bats per Home Run - Baseball-Reference.com In 1987, he broke the single-season home run record for rookies, with 49. In 1998, McGwire broke the single-season home run record by hitting 70. Progressive Leaders & Records for Home Runs - Baseball-Reference.com Baseball career McGwire worked hard on his defense at first base and resisted being seen as a one-dimensional player. He was regarded as a good fielder in his early years, even winning a Gold Glove in 1990. In later years his mobility was reduced, and his defense declined as a result. McGwire's total of 363 home runs with the Athletics is that franchise's record. He was selected or voted to nine American League All-Star Teams while playing for the A's, including six consecutive appearances from 1987 through 1992. 1987–91 In his first full Major League season in 1987, he hit 49 home runs, a single-season record for a rookie; he was named the American League Rookie of the Year. McGwire hit 32, 33, and 39 homers the next three seasons, the first Major Leaguer to hit 30+ home runs in each of his first 4 full seasons. On July 3 and 4, 1988, McGwire hit game-winning home runs in the 16th inning of each game. July 3, 1988 Oakland Athletics at Toronto Blue Jays Play by Play and Box Score - Baseball-Reference.com July 4, 1988 Oakland Athletics at Cleveland Indians Play by Play and Box Score - Baseball-Reference.com Through May 2009 McGwire was tied for third all-time with Joe DiMaggio in home runs over his first two calendar years in the major leagues (77), behind Phillies Hall of Famer Chuck Klein (83) and Ryan Braun (79). Sandler, Jeremy, "NL Weekly: The Notebook," National Post, May 27, 2009, accessed 5/28/09 But Mark McGwire's most famous home run with the A's was likely his game-winning solo shot in the bottom of the ninth inning of Game 3 of the 1988 World Series against the Los Angeles Dodgers and former A's closer Jay Howell. October 18, 1988 World Series Game 3 at Network Associates Coliseum Play by Play and Box Score - Baseball-Reference.com McGwire's game-winner brought the A's their only victory in the 1988 World Series, which they lost in five games. However, Big Mac and his fellow Bash Brother José Canseco did play a large part in the 1989 World Champion A's team that defeated the San Francisco Giants in the famous "Earthquake Series." 1989 World Series - OAK vs. SFG - Baseball-Reference.com McGwire's batting average, .289 as a rookie, plummeted over the next three seasons to .260, .231, and .235, respectively. In 1991, he bottomed out with a .201 average and 22 homers. Manager Tony LaRussa sat him out the last game of the season so his average could not dip below .200. Despite the declining batting averages during this time of his career, his high bases on balls totals allowed him to maintain acceptable on-base percentages. In fact, when he hit .201, his adjusted OPS (OPS+) was 103, or just over league average. McGwire stated in an interview with Sports Illustrated that 1991 was the "worst year" of his life, with his on-field performance and marriage difficulties, and that he "didn't lift a weight" that entire season. With all that behind him, McGwire re-dedicated himself to working out harder than ever and received visual therapy from a sports vision specialist. http://www.sdccd.edu/events/we/wepdf/we-sp99.pdf CNNSI.com - SI Online - Mark McGwire Flashback: Most Happy Fella - Thursday January 03, 2002 11:55 AM 1992–97 He changed his clean-cut look and grew a mullet, a mustache, and a goatee to look more fearsome. The "new look" McGwire hit 42 homers and batted .268 in 1992, with an outstanding OPS+ of 175 (the highest of his career to that point), and put on a home run hitting show at the Home Run Derby during the 1992 All-Star break. His performance propelled the A's to the American League West Division title in 1992, their fourth in five seasons. The A's lost in the playoffs to the eventual World Series champion, the Toronto Blue Jays. Foot injuries limited McGwire to a total of 74 games in 1993 and 1994, and just 9 home runs in each of the two seasons. He played just 104 games in 1995, but his proportional totals were much improved: 39 home runs in 317 at-bats. In 1996, McGwire belted a major league leading 52 homers in 423 at-bats. He also hit a career high .312 average, and led the league in both slugging percentage and on base percentage. St. Louis Cardinals and the HR record chase In 1997, he hit a major league-leading 58 home runs for the season, but he was traded from the Oakland Athletics to the St. Louis Cardinals on July 31, when he had hit 34 homers for the A's. It was widely believed that McGwire, in the last year of his contract, would play for the Cardinals only for the remainder of the season, then seek a long-term deal, possibly in Southern California, where he still lives. However, McGwire signed a contract to stay in St. Louis instead. (It is also believed that McGwire encouraged Jim Edmonds, another Southern California resident, who was traded to St. Louis, to sign a contract with the Cardinals.) There was much media speculation as to where Maris' record would be broken in 1998, and a debate as to who would break it, Sammy Sosa or McGwire. As the 1998 season progressed, it became clear that McGwire, Griffey, and Chicago Cubs outfielder Sammy Sosa were all on track to break Roger Maris' single-season home run record. The race to break the record first became a media spectacle as the lead swung back and forth. On August 19, Sosa hit his 48th home run to move ahead of McGwire. However, later that day McGwire hit his 48th and 49th home runs to regain the lead. Griffey had injury problems and dropped out of the competition, leaving Sosa and McGwire to battle it out to #62. On September 8, 1998 at 8:18 p.m. et, McGwire hit a pitch by the Chicago Cubs' Steve Trachsel over the left field wall for his record-breaking 62nd home run, setting off huge celebrations at Busch Stadium. The fact that the game was against the Cubs meant that Sosa was able to congratulate McGwire personally on his achievement. Members of Roger Maris' family were also present at the game. Memorably, the ball was freely given to him in a ceremony on the field by the stadium worker who found it. McGwire finished the 1998 season with 70 home runs, four ahead of Sosa's 66, a record that was broken three seasons later by Barry Bonds. Since Babe Ruth had hit 60 home runs in 154 games during 1927, and Roger Maris hit 61 in 161 games in 1961 (not breaking the record until after the 154 game mark), some had quibbled whether the single-season record was actually broken. With McGwire breaking the record in his team's 145th game, he laid to rest the issue of the extended season. Although McGwire had the prestige of the home run record, Sammy Sosa (who had fewer HR but more RBI and stolen bases) would win the 1998 NL MVP award, as his contributions helped propel the Cubs to the playoffs (the Cardinals in 1998 finished third in the NL Central). Many credited the Sosa-McGwire home run chase in 1998 with "saving baseball," by both bringing in new, younger fans and bringing back old fans soured by the 1994 Major League Baseball strike. 1999–2001 In 1999, McGwire hit 65 home runs and drove in a league-leading 147 runs while only having 145 hits, the highest RBI-per-hit tally in baseball history. Sammy Sosa again was right on his tail, hitting 63 home runs. In 2000 and 2001, McGwire had reduced numbers as he played in a reduced amount of games (32-HR in 89 games, and 29-HR in 97 games, respectively). Baseball-reference.om McGwire stats McGwire ended his career with 583 home runs, which was then fifth-most in history. He led Major League Baseball in home runs five times. He hit 50 or more home runs four seasons in a row (1996-1999), leading Major League Baseball in homers all four seasons, and also shared the MLB lead in home runs in 1987, his rookie year, when he set the Major League record for home runs by a rookie with 49. McGwire had the fewest career triples (6) of any player with 5,000 or more at-bats. Honors In 1999, the The Sporting News released a list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players. The list had been compiled during the 1998 season and included statistics through the 1997 season. McGwire was ranked at Number 91. That year, he was elected to the Major League Baseball All-Century Team (though he received fewer votes than any other selected player). In 2005, The Sporting News published an update of their list and McGwire had been moved up to Number 84. However, in the 2007 and 2008 balloting for the Baseball Hall of Fame, McGwire failed to attain election, receiving 128 of the 545 cast, 23.5% of the vote. He received the same exact amount of votes both years. It is widely conceded that this was related to the steroid scandal and McGwire's less than forthcoming testimony (see below). A portion of Interstate 70 in St. Louis and near Busch Stadium was named "Mark McGwire Highway" to honor his 70 home run achievement, along with his various good works for the city. Steroids controversy Although McGwire has never admitted to or been convicted of any steroid use, many of his accomplishments, particularly his historic home run surge late in his career, have come into question due to his connection to the steroid scandal in Major League Baseball. Despite being under a cloud of suspicion for years, McGwire has repeatedly refused to discuss his involvement, or lack thereof, with steroids and performance-enhancing drugs. McGwire was not identified by name in The Mitchell Report, but he has been accused by former teammate Jose Canseco, who said he personally injected McGwire with steroids. In 1998, after an article written by Associated Press writer Steve Wilstein, McGwire admitted to taking steroid-precursor androstenedione, an over-the-counter muscle enhancement product. Rumors surfaced later that McGwire admitted to the use of androstenedione to throw off the scent of the steroids he was allegedly using. While legal at the time under U.S. law and for use in MLB, it had already been banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency, the NFL and the IOC. In 2005, McGwire and Canseco were subpoenaed to testify at a congressional hearing on steroids, along with five other baseball players and four baseball executives. Canseco had released Juiced: Wild Times, Rampant 'Roids, Smash Hits & How Baseball Got Big, a book in which he spoke positively about steroids, and made various claims—among them, that McGwire had been using performance enhancing drugs since the 1980s. During his testimony on March 17, 2005, McGwire declined to answer questions under oath when he appeared before the House Government Reform Committee. In a tearful opening statement McGwire said, CNN.com - McGwire mum on steroids in hearing - Mar 17, 2005 When asked if he was asserting his Fifth Amendment right not to incriminate himself, McGwire once again responded: While no legal action has been taken against McGwire, in baseball or out of it, his testimony cost him public affection and support. In 1999, McGwire was voted to the All-Century Team, and upon his retirement in 2001, he was uniformly characterized as "a future Hall of Famer." However, when his Cooperstown eligibility began in 2006–07, McGwire received less than a quarter of the vote. Several of these sportswriters indicated that they were casting a protest non-vote in McGwire's first year of eligibility, or that they wanted more time to consider the developing steroid story in baseball; some noted that McGwire's relatively low career batting average (.263) and the fact that he did not attain 2,000 hits during his career as deciding factors to abstain. It is unclear where McGwire's true level of ballot support will end up leveling off. On January 22, 2009, McGwire's brother Jay circulated a book proposal entitled The McGwire Family Secret: The Truth about Steroids, a slugger and Ultimate Redemption. The book proposal alleged that Jay was the one that introduced Mark to steroids in 1994 and was the first one to inject him with Deca-Durabolin. Jay also stated that McGwire used HGH during his baseball career Report: McGwire Brother Claims He Introduced Slugger to Steroids SI.com, January 22, 2009 . In 2008, musicians Scott McCaughey (of The Minus 5), Steve Wynn, Linda Pitmon, and Peter Buck formed The Baseball Project to pay homage to America 's greatest pastime. Their album Volume 1: Frozen Ropes and Dying Quails contains the song Broken Man, a tribute to McGwire that is sympathetic to his legacy. The Baseball Project Personal life McGwire was born in Pomona, California. He attended Damien High School in La Verne, California where he started playing baseball, golf, and basketball. He played college baseball at the University of Southern California under legendary coach Rod Dedeaux. His brother Dan McGwire was a quarterback for the Seattle Seahawks and Miami Dolphins of the NFL in the early 1990s, and was a first round draft choice out of San Diego State University, where he was teammates with Marshall Faulk. McGwire married Stephanie Slemer, a former pharmaceutical sales representative from the St. Louis area, in Las Vegas on April 20, 2002. They reside in a gated community in Shady Canyon Irvine, California and together created the Mark McGwire Foundation for Children to support agencies that work with children who have been sexually and physically abused to help come to terms with a difficult childhood. McGwire currently avoids the media. ESPN.com - E-Ticket: Fading Away He spends much of his free time playing golf. He is currently working as a hitting coach for Major League players Matt Holliday, Bobby Crosby, Chris Duncan and Skip Schumaker. McGwire Talks About Teaching Hitting ESPN.com, March 13, 2009 McGwire appeared on an episode of the sitcom Mad About You, playing a ballplayer infatuated with Helen Hunt's character. Career totals In 16 seasons, Mark McGwire accumulated these career stats: Mark McGwire career stats from Baseball-reference.com Games played 1874 At bats 6187 Runs 1167 Hits 1626 Doubles 252 Triples 6 Runs batted in 1414 On base percentage .394 Home runs 583 Walks 1317 Strikeouts 1596 Stolen bases 12 Caught stealing 8 Batting average .263 Slugging percentage .588 Home run records McGwire’s rookie record of 49 (1987) Home Run Game Date Inning Location Opposing Pitcher Team 1 4 04-10-1987 7th Oakland Donnie Moore http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198704100OAK Angels 2 15 04-21-1987 4th Oakland Urbano Lugo http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198704210CAL Angels 3 18 04-25-1987 3rd Oakland Scott Bankhead http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198704250OAK Mariners 4 22 04-29-1987 2nd Oakland Ted Higuera http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198704290OAK Brewers 5 24 05-01-1987 3rd Oakland Walt Terrell http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705010OAK Tigers 6 29 05-08-1987 4th Detroit Frank Tanana http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705080DET Tigers 7 29 05-08-1987 8th Detroit Frank Tanana Tigers 8 30 05-09-1987 6th Detroit Eric King http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705090DET Tigers 9 31 05-10-1987 2nd Detroit Jack Morris http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705100DET Tigers 10 31 05-10-1987 4th Detroit Jack Morris http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705100DET Tigers 11 35 05-16-1987 1st Oakland Jimmy Key http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705160OAK Blue Jays 12 37 05-18-1987 7th Oakland Tim Stoddard http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705180OAK Yankees 13 38 05-19-1987 3rd Oakland Dennis Rasmussen http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705190OAK Yankees 14 39 05-20-1987 2nd Oakland Charles Hudson http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705200OAK Yankees 15 41 05-23-1987 2nd Oakland Mike Boddicker http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705230OAK Orioles 16 42 05-24-1987 2nd Oakland Jeff Ballard http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705240OAK Orioles 17 44 05-27-1987 4th Toronto Joe Johnson http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705270TOR Blue Jays 18 48 05-31-1987 2nd New York Tommy John http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705310NYA Yankees 19 48 05-31-1987 7th New York Tommy John http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198705310NYA Yankees 20 59 06-13-1987 4th Arlington Stadium Ed Correa http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198706130TEX Rangers 21 61 06-15-1987 4th Kansas City Charlie Liebrandt http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198706150KCA Royals 22 66 06-21-1987 8th Oakland Jose Guzman http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198706211OAK Rangers 23 72 06-27-1987 1st Cleveland Ken Schrom http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198706270CLE Indians 24 72 06-27-1987 5th Cleveland Ed Vande Berg http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198706270CLE Indians 25 72 06-27-1987 9th Cleveland Scott Bailes http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198706270CLE Indians 26 73 06-28-1987 4th Cleveland Tom Candiotti http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198706280CLE Indians 27 73 06-28-1987 7th Cleveland Tom Candiotti http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198706280CLE Indians 28 75 06-30-1987 1st Chicago Scott Nielsen http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198706300CHA White Sox 29 79 07-04-1987 5th Boston Bruce Hurst http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198707040OAK Red Sox 30 80 07-05-1987 4th Boston Oil Can Boyd http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198707050OAK Red Sox 31 83 07-08-1987 6th Oakland Jeff Robinson http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198707080OAK Tigers 32 86 07-11-1987 2nd Oakland Bill Wegman http://baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198707110OAK Brewers 33 86 07-11-1987 8th Oakland Dan Plesac http://baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198707110OAK Brewers 34 89 07-17-1987 10th Boston Calvin Schiraldi http://baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198707170BOS Red Sox 35 93 07-21-1987 10th Detroit Eric King http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198707210DET Tigers 36 94 07-22-1987 8th Detroit Mark Thurmond http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198707220DET Tigers 37 101 07-29-1987 4th Oakland Don Sutton http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198707290OAK Angels 38 113 08-11-1987 7th Seattle Mike Moore http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198708110SEA Mariners 39 115 08-14-1987 6th Anaheim Don Sutton http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198708140CAL Angels 40 129 08-29-1987 10th Toronto Mark Eichhorn http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198708290TOR Blue Jays 41 134 09-04-1987 5th Baltimore Mike Boddicker http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198709040BAL Orioles 42 136 09-06-1987 2nd Baltimore Jon Habyan http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198709060BAL Orioles 43 142 09-12-1987 2nd Oakland Charlie Liebrandt http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198709120OAK Royals 44 145 09-15-1987 4th Arlington Stadium Greg Harris http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198709150TEX Rangers 45 145 09-15-1987 6th Arlington Stadium Greg Harris http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198709150TEX Rangers 46 148 09-19-1987 1st Kansas City Melido Perez http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198709190KCA Royals 47 153 09-24-1987 9th Oakland Scott Bannister http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198709240OAK White Sox 48 154 09-25-1987 9th Oakland Bobby Thigpen http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198709250OAK White Sox 49 157 09-29-1987 1st Oakland John Farrell http://www.baseball-almanac.com/box-scores/boxscore.php?boxid=198709290OAK Indians McGwire’s 70 (1998) Number Date Pitcher Length103-31-1998Ramon Martinez364'204-02-1998Frank Lankford368'304-03-1998Mark Langston364'404-04-1998Don Wengert419'504-14-1998Jeff Suppan424'604-14-1998Jeff Suppan347'704-14-1998Barry Manuel462'804-17-1998Matt Whiteside419'904-21-1998Trey Moore437'1004-25-1998Jerry Spradlin419'1104-30-1998Marc Pisciotta371'1205-01-1998Rod Beck362'1305-08-1998Rick Reed358'1405-12-1998Paul Wagner527'1505-14-1998Kevin Millwood381'1605-16-1998Liván Hernández545'1705-18-1998Jesus Sanchez478'1805-19-1998Tyler Green440'1905-19-1998Tyler Green471'2005-19-1998Wayne Gomes451'2105-22-1998Mark Gardner425'2205-23-1998Rich Rodriguez366'2305-23-1998John Johnstone477'2405-24-1998Robb Nen397'2505-25-1998John Thomson433'2605-29-1998Dan Miceli388'2705-30-1998Andy Ashby423'2806-05-1998Orel Hershiser409'2906-08-1998Jason Bere356'3006-10-1998Jim Parque409'3106-12-1998Andy Benes438'3206-17-1998Jose Lima437'3306-18-1998Shane Reynolds449'3406-24-1998Jaret Wright433'3506-25-1998Dave Burba461'3606-27-1998Mike Trombley431'3706-30-1998Glendon Rusch472'3807-11-1998Billy Wagner485'3907-12-1998Sean Bergman405''4007-12-1998Scott Elarton415'4107-17-1998Brian Bohanon511'4207-17-1998Antonio Osuna425'4307-20-1998Brian Boehringer452'4407-26-1998John Thomson452'4507-28-1998Mike Myers408'4608-08-1998Mark Clark374'4708-11-1998Bobby Jones464'4808-19-1998Matt Karchner398'4908-19-1998Terry Mulholland409'5008-20-1998Willie Blair369'5108-20-1998Rick Reed393'5208-22-1998Francisco Cordova477'5308-23-1998Ricardo Rincon393'5408-26-1998Justin Speier509'5508-30-1998Dennis Martinez501'5609-01-1998Liván Hernández450'5709-01-1998Donn Pall472'5809-02-1998Brian Edmondson497'5909-02-1998Rob Stanifer458'6009-05-1998Dennys Reyes381'6109-07-1998Mike Morgan430'6209-08-1998Steve Trachsel341'6309-15-1998Jason Christiansen385'6409-18-1998Rafael Roque423'6509-20-1998Scott Karl423'6609-25-1998Shayne Bennett375'6709-26-1998Dustin Hermanson403'6809-26-1998Kirk Bullinger435'6909-27-1998Mike Thurman377'7009-27-1998Carl Pavano370' Mark McGwire's Seventy Home Run Season by Baseball Almanac See also List of Major League Baseball home run records Top 500 home run hitters of all time 500 home run club Major League Baseball players who have hit 30 or more home runs before the All-Star break List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 runs List of Major League Baseball players with 1000 RBI List of Major League Baseball RBI champions List of Major League Baseball home run champions List of Major League Baseball hitters with three home runs in one game Major League Baseball titles leaders 1998 Major League Baseball home run record chase List of doping cases in sport References External links | Mark_McGwire |@lemmatized mark:13 david:1 mcgwire:77 born:1 october:2 former:4 major:23 league:28 baseball:89 player:10 play:17 career:16 oakland:24 athletics:5 move:3 st:7 louis:7 cardinal:6 statistic:2 reference:10 com:61 average:9 home:45 run:49 every:1 bat:9 low:2 per:3 ratio:1 history:3 babe:2 ruth:2 second:1 leader:3 record:21 break:13 single:5 season:25 rookie:7 hit:26 progressive:1 work:5 hard:2 defense:2 first:9 base:7 resist:1 see:3 one:4 dimensional:1 regard:1 good:2 fielder:1 early:2 year:11 even:1 win:3 gold:1 glove:1 late:2 mobility:1 reduce:2 decline:3 result:1 total:5 franchise:1 select:2 vote:7 nine:1 american:3 star:3 team:6 include:2 six:1 consecutive:1 appearance:1 full:2 name:3 homer:6 next:2 three:4 leaguer:1 july:4 game:22 winning:1 inning:3 toronto:4 blue:5 jay:9 box:51 score:51 cleveland:6 indian:7 may:2 tie:1 third:2 time:8 joe:2 dimaggio:1 two:2 calendar:1 behind:2 phillies:1 hall:3 famer:2 chuck:1 klein:1 ryan:1 braun:1 sandler:1 jeremy:1 nl:3 weekly:1 notebook:1 national:1 post:1 access:1 famous:2 likely:1 solo:1 shot:1 bottom:2 ninth:1 world:7 series:6 los:1 angeles:1 dodger:1 closer:1 howell:1 network:1 associate:1 coliseum:1 winner:1 bring:3 victory:1 lose:2 five:4 however:5 big:2 mac:1 fellow:1 bash:1 brother:4 josé:1 canseco:4 large:1 part:1 champion:4 defeat:1 san:2 francisco:1 giant:1 earthquake:1 oak:1 v:1 sfg:1 batting:4 plummet:1 respectively:2 manager:1 tony:1 larussa:1 sit:1 last:2 could:1 dip:1 despite:2 high:5 ball:2 allow:1 maintain:1 acceptable:1 percentage:5 fact:3 adjust:1 ops:3 state:3 interview:1 sport:4 illustrate:1 bad:1 life:2 field:3 performance:4 marriage:1 difficulty:1 lift:1 weight:1 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schiraldi:1 thurmond:1 sutton:2 anaheim:1 eichhorn:1 baltimore:2 jon:1 habyan:1 greg:2 harris:2 melido:1 perez:1 bannister:1 thigpen:1 farrell:1 seventy:1 top:1 hitter:2 club:1 dope:1 case:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram league_baseball:15 oakland_athletics:4 mark_mcgwire:8 babe_ruth:2 gold_glove:1 joe_dimaggio:1 hall_famer:2 ninth_inning:1 los_angeles:1 angeles_dodger:1 josé_canseco:1 san_francisco:1 batting_average:4 ops_ops:1 http_www:46 slugging_percentage:2 sammy_sosa:4 chicago_cub:2 roger_mari:3 busch_stadium:2 hr_rbi:1 rbi_steal:1 nl_mvp:1 mvp_award:1 hall_fame:1 steroid_scandal:2 lack_thereof:1 anti_doping:1 doping_agency:1 congressional_hearing:1 cnn_com:1 pay_homage:1 seattle_seahawks:1 miami_dolphin:1 san_diego:1 las_vega:1 irvine_california:1 matt_holliday:1 baseball_almanac:49 score_boxscore:48 boxscore_php:48 php_boxid:48 boxid_tiger:8 boxid_yankee:5 yankee_oakland:3 white_sox:3 red_sox:3 external_link:1 |
6,228 | Actinide | Atomic No. Name Symbol 89 Actinium Ac 90 Thorium Th 91 Protactinium Pa 92 Uranium U 93 Neptunium Np 94 Plutonium Pu 95 Americium Am 96 Curium Cm 97 Berkelium Bk 98 Californium Cf 99 Einsteinium Es 100 Fermium Fm 101 Mendelevium Md 102 Nobelium No 103 Lawrencium Lr According to IUPAC nomenclature, the actinoid (previously actinide) series encompasses the 15 chemical elements that lie between actinium and lawrencium included on the periodic table, with atomic numbers 89 - 103. IUPAC Periodic Table IUPAC Periodic Table 2007 .pdf The actinoid series derives its name from the first element in the series, actinium, and ultimately from the Greek ακτις (aktis), "ray," reflecting the elements' radioactivity. The actinoid series (An) is included in some definitions of the rare earth elements. IUPAC is currently recommending the name actinoid rather than actinide, as the suffix "-ide" generally indicates ions (moreover, from Greek, the suffix -ide means "sons of actinium", while -oid means "similar to actinium"). There are alternative arrangements of the periodic table that exclude actinium or lawrencium from appearing together with the other actinoids. The actinoids display less similarity in their chemical properties than the lanthanoid series (Ln), exhibiting a wider range of oxidation states, which initially led to confusion as to whether actinium, thorium, and uranium should be considered d-block elements. All actinoids are radioactive. Only thorium and uranium occur naturally in the Earth's crust in anything more than trace quantities. Neptunium and plutonium have been known to show up naturally in trace amounts in uranium ores as a result of decay or bombardment. The remaining actinoids were discovered in nuclear fallout, or were synthesized in particle colliders. The latter half of the series possess exceedingly short half-lives. The actinoids are typically placed below the main body of the periodic table (below the lanthanoid series), in the manner of a footnote. The full-width version of the periodic table shows the position of the actinoids more clearly. An organometallic compound of an actinoid is known as an organoactinoid. History of the actinoid series From the earlier known chemical properties of actinium (89) up to uranium (92), indicating a relationship to the transition metals, it was generally assumed that the transuraniums would have similar qualities. During his Manhattan Project research in 1944, Glenn T. Seaborg experienced unexpected difficulty isolating americium (95) and curium (96). He began wondering if these elements more properly belonged to a different series from the transition metals, which would explain why the chemical properties of the new elements were different. In 1945, he went against the advice of colleagues and proposed the most significant change to Mendeleev's periodic table to have been accepted universally by the scientific community: the actinide series. In 1945, Seaborg published his actinide concept of heavy element electronic structure, predicting that the actinoids would form a transition series analogous to the rare earth series of lanthanoid elements. In 1961, Antoni Przybylski discovered a star that contains unusually high amounts of actinoids. See also Actinides in the environment References External links The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Chemical Elements website Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory image of historic periodic table by Seaborg showing actinide series for the first time Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Uncovering the Secrets of the Actinides Los Alamos National Laboratory, Actinide Research Quarterly http://www.rsc.org/publishing/journals/CS/article.asp?doi=b614969n | Actinide |@lemmatized atomic:2 name:3 symbol:1 actinium:8 ac:1 thorium:3 th:1 protactinium:1 pa:1 uranium:5 u:1 neptunium:2 np:1 plutonium:2 pu:1 americium:2 curium:2 cm:1 berkelium:1 bk:1 californium:1 cf:1 einsteinium:1 e:1 fermium:1 fm:1 mendelevium:1 md:1 nobelium:1 lawrencium:3 lr:1 accord:1 iupac:4 nomenclature:1 actinoid:14 previously:1 actinide:8 series:13 encompass:1 chemical:5 element:10 lie:1 include:2 periodic:8 table:8 number:1 pdf:1 derive:1 first:2 ultimately:1 greek:2 ακτις:1 aktis:1 ray:1 reflect:1 radioactivity:1 definition:1 rare:2 earth:3 currently:1 recommend:1 rather:1 suffix:2 ide:2 generally:2 indicate:2 ion:1 moreover:1 mean:2 son:1 oid:1 similar:2 alternative:1 arrangement:1 exclude:1 appear:1 together:1 display:1 less:1 similarity:1 property:3 lanthanoid:3 ln:1 exhibit:1 wider:1 range:1 oxidation:1 state:1 initially:1 lead:1 confusion:1 whether:1 consider:1 block:1 radioactive:1 occur:1 naturally:2 crust:1 anything:1 trace:2 quantity:1 know:2 show:3 amount:2 ore:1 result:1 decay:1 bombardment:1 remain:1 discover:2 nuclear:1 fallout:1 synthesize:1 particle:1 collider:1 latter:1 half:2 posse:1 exceedingly:1 short:1 life:1 typically:1 place:1 main:1 body:1 manner:1 footnote:1 full:1 width:1 version:1 position:1 clearly:1 organometallic:1 compound:1 organoactinoid:1 history:1 early:1 known:1 relationship:1 transition:3 metal:2 assume:1 transuraniums:1 would:3 quality:1 manhattan:1 project:1 research:2 glenn:1 seaborg:3 experience:1 unexpected:1 difficulty:1 isolate:1 begin:1 wonder:1 properly:1 belong:1 different:2 explain:1 new:1 go:1 advice:1 colleague:1 propose:1 significant:1 change:1 mendeleev:1 accept:1 universally:1 scientific:1 community:1 publish:1 concept:1 heavy:1 electronic:1 structure:1 predict:1 form:1 analogous:1 antoni:1 przybylski:1 star:1 contain:1 unusually:1 high:1 see:1 also:1 environment:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 columbia:1 encyclopedia:1 sixth:1 edition:1 website:1 lawrence:2 berkeley:1 laboratory:3 image:1 historic:1 time:1 livermore:1 national:2 uncover:1 secret:1 los:1 alamos:1 quarterly:1 http:1 www:1 rsc:1 org:1 publishing:1 journal:1 c:1 article:1 asp:1 doi:1 |@bigram americium_curium:2 iupac_nomenclature:1 periodic_table:8 thorium_uranium:2 earth_crust:1 uranium_ore:1 particle_collider:1 organometallic_compound:1 glenn_seaborg:1 external_link:1 lawrence_livermore:1 livermore_national:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 http_www:1 |
6,229 | Crannog | Reconstructed crannóg on Loch Tay A crannóg is an artificial island, usually originally built in lakes, rivers and estuarine waters, and most often used as an island settlement or dwelling place in prehistoric or medieval times. The name itself may refer to a wooden platform erected on shallow floors, but few remains of this sort have been found. The name crannóg, Anglicized "crannoge", is from Old Irish "crannóc", from crann, tree. and 'og' young. Crannógs are most common in Ireland, where at least 2,000 examples are known. They are also very common in Scotland, with at least 600 sites known. It is likely that many more undiscovered sites lie hidden underwater, or in reeds, carr woodland or other wetland environments around lake shores and edges. Today, crannogs typically appear as small, circular islands, 10-30m in diameter, covered in trees and bushes because they are isolated from browsing livestock. Originally, crannogs may have taken many different forms. The classic image of an ancient crannóg is of a small island, surrounded or defined at its edges by a post or oak plank palisade and on top of which is a roundhouse. Another image, as suggested by excavations at Oakbank, Loch Tay, Scotland, is one of a raised platform on stilts. The choice of an island as a home remains mysterious, but they may have been used for defence at times of danger, for social display by the wealthy and prosperous, or because islands carried many meanings in the past. Some crannogs could be reached from the nearest shore by means of a causeway built up with stones, or a wooden gangway built atop raised piles, but most were probably accessed by boat. Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers are known to have occupied constructed lakeshore platforms in central and north-west Ireland at c.4500 BC. Neolithic crannógs are also known, notable in Scotland. The islet of Eilean Domhnuill, Loch Olabhat on North Uist may be the earliest crannóg, dated to 3200-2800 BC in the Neolithic period. Most crannógs were in use from the Iron Age through to the early Medieval period, at about the same time as the brochs, the wags, duns and the larger roundhouses. In Ireland, most crannógs date to the early medieval period, when they were the island dwelling places of kings, lords, prosperous farmers and occasionally socially marginalised groups. The largest concentrations of crannógs in Ireland are in the lakelands district of the midlands, the north west and Ulster. The highest concentrations of crannógs in Scotland are in several lochs in Dumfries and Galloway region, although many have been found in the highlands as well. In the Grampian Highlands, a well known crannóg was built by the Burnetts of Leys, whose family thence moved nearby to the present 16th century Crathes Castle. A crannóg dating from around 500 AD still stands in a lough in Loughbrickland, near Banbridge, County Down, and another can be seen in Llangorse Lake in the Brecon Beacons National Park, built c889-893 AD. Reconstructed crannógs are located in Craggaunowen, Ireland; the Irish National Heritage Park, in Wexford, Ireland; and on Loch Tay in Scotland. A variant of the crannóg was the island roundhouse. Built on a small, rocky island in a lochan and usually reached by means of a causeway, these are extremely common in the Western Isles. The visible remains are most often those of a dún, although there are examples of full broch towers occupying some sites. Few have been excavated, and most of those show earlier occupation underneath the visible remains. Dún is the gaelic word for "fort", and a number of Scottish castles use Dun- as a prefix. It was used as a stronghold and residence of Gaelic chieftains such as the O'Boylans and McMahons in County Monaghan and the ancient Kingdom of Airgíalla up until the 1600s. Construction Loughbrickland Crannog in Northern Ireland. The construction of a prehistoric crannóg began on a small island or shoal that was located within a loch or marsh. This rise was surrounded by a circle of oak piles with axe-sharpened bases that were driven into the bottom, forming a circular enclosure of about 200 ft. in diameter. The piles were then joined together by interlaced branches and wattle. Then, the interior surface was built up, first with wooden logs, then with branches and rocks, clay, peat, and other earthen materials. At the centre, a large stone hearth was built with large flat stones, and a wooden home was constructed around it. Sometimes, multiple homes were built on a single crannóg. This prehistoric fortification was occupied by a family or tribe, and access was often achieved by means of dugout canoe. However, many were connected to shore by timber or stone causeways, sometimes lying just beneath the surface of the water concealing them from potentially hostile intruders. The bones of cattle, deer, and swine have been found in excavated crannógs. There is an example of a reconstructed crannóg at the "Scottish Crannóg Centre" at Loch Tay, Perthshire. References Morrison, I. 1985 Landscape with Lake Dwellings Edinburgh University Press Crone, A. 2000 The History of a Scottish Lowland Crannog: excavations at Buiston AOC/STAR Monograph 4, Edinburgh Cavers, M.G. and Henderson, J.C 2005 Underwater Excavation at Ederline Crannog, Loch Awe, Argyll, Scotland International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, vol.34.2, pp.278-94 O'Sullivan, A. 1998 The Archaeology of Lake Settlement in Ireland Discovery Programme, Dublin O'Sullivan, A. 2000 Crannogs: lake dwellings of early Ireland Town House, Dublin Fredengren C. 2002 Crannogs Wordwell, Bray External links The Scottish Crannog Centre Reconstruction of a crannog. Crannog illustration showing attack in Monaghan, Ireland in 1500s. Channel 4 Time Team on Crannogs The Channel 4 Time Team on Crannogs. Channel 4 Time Team at Loch Migdale The Channel 4 Time Team excavation at Loch Migdale, January 2004. Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland A searchable database of archaeological sites in Scotland, including crannogs (requires free registration). Llangors Crannog | Crannog |@lemmatized reconstruct:2 crannóg:12 loch:10 tay:4 artificial:1 island:10 usually:2 originally:2 build:9 lake:6 river:1 estuarine:1 water:2 often:3 use:5 settlement:2 dwell:2 place:2 prehistoric:3 medieval:3 time:7 name:2 may:4 refer:1 wooden:4 platform:3 erect:1 shallow:1 floor:1 remains:3 sort:1 find:3 anglicize:1 crannoge:1 old:1 irish:2 crannóc:1 crann:1 tree:2 og:1 young:1 crannógs:8 common:3 ireland:10 least:2 example:3 know:5 also:2 scotland:8 site:4 likely:1 many:5 undiscovered:1 lie:2 hidden:1 underwater:2 reed:1 carr:1 woodland:1 wetland:1 environment:1 around:3 shore:3 edge:2 today:1 crannogs:8 typically:1 appear:1 small:4 circular:2 diameter:2 cover:1 bush:1 isolate:1 browse:1 livestock:1 take:1 different:1 form:2 classic:1 image:2 ancient:3 surround:2 define:1 post:1 oak:2 plank:1 palisade:1 top:1 roundhouse:3 another:2 suggest:1 excavation:4 oakbank:1 one:1 raise:2 stilt:1 choice:1 home:3 remain:1 mysterious:1 defence:1 danger:1 social:1 display:1 wealthy:1 prosperous:2 carry:1 meaning:1 past:1 could:1 reach:2 near:2 mean:3 causeway:3 stone:4 gangway:1 atop:1 pile:3 probably:1 access:2 boat:1 late:1 mesolithic:1 hunter:1 gatherer:1 occupy:3 construct:2 lakeshore:1 central:1 north:3 west:2 c:3 bc:2 neolithic:2 notable:1 islet:1 eilean:1 domhnuill:1 olabhat:1 uist:1 early:4 date:3 period:3 iron:1 age:1 brochs:1 wag:1 dun:2 large:4 king:1 lord:1 farmer:1 occasionally:1 socially:1 marginalised:1 group:1 concentration:2 lakeland:1 district:1 midland:1 ulster:1 high:1 several:1 dumfries:1 galloway:1 region:1 although:2 highland:2 well:2 grampian:1 burnett:1 ley:1 whose:1 family:2 thence:1 move:1 nearby:1 present:1 century:1 crathes:1 castle:2 ad:2 still:1 stand:1 lough:1 loughbrickland:2 banbridge:1 county:2 see:1 llangorse:1 brecon:1 beacon:1 national:2 park:2 locate:2 craggaunowen:1 heritage:1 wexford:1 variant:1 rocky:1 lochan:1 extremely:1 western:1 isle:1 visible:2 dún:2 full:1 broch:1 tower:1 excavate:1 show:2 earlier:1 occupation:1 underneath:1 gaelic:2 word:1 fort:1 number:1 scottish:4 prefix:1 stronghold:1 residence:1 chieftain:1 boylans:1 mcmahons:1 monaghan:2 kingdom:1 airgíalla:1 construction:2 crannog:7 northern:1 begin:1 shoal:1 within:1 marsh:1 rise:1 circle:1 axe:1 sharpen:1 base:1 drive:1 bottom:1 enclosure:1 ft:1 join:1 together:1 interlaced:1 branch:2 wattle:1 interior:1 surface:2 first:1 log:1 rock:1 clay:1 peat:1 earthen:1 material:1 centre:3 hearth:1 flat:1 sometimes:2 multiple:1 single:1 fortification:1 tribe:1 achieve:1 dugout:1 canoe:1 however:1 connect:1 timber:1 beneath:1 conceal:1 potentially:1 hostile:1 intruder:1 bone:1 cattle:1 deer:1 swine:1 excavated:1 reconstructed:1 perthshire:1 reference:1 morrison:1 landscape:1 dwelling:2 edinburgh:2 university:1 press:1 crone:1 history:1 lowland:1 buiston:1 aoc:1 star:1 monograph:1 cavers:1 g:1 henderson:1 j:1 ederline:1 awe:1 argyll:1 international:1 journal:1 nautical:1 archaeology:2 vol:1 pp:1 sullivan:2 discovery:1 programme:1 dublin:2 town:1 house:1 fredengren:1 wordwell:1 bray:1 external:1 link:1 reconstruction:1 illustration:1 attack:1 channel:4 team:4 migdale:2 january:1 royal:1 commission:1 historical:1 monument:1 searchable:1 database:1 archaeological:1 include:1 require:1 free:1 registration:1 llangors:1 |@bigram loch_tay:4 mesolithic_hunter:1 hunter_gatherer:1 dumfries_galloway:1 dugout_canoe:1 nautical_archaeology:1 external_link:1 searchable_database:1 |
6,230 | Madagascar | Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic, French: ), is an island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa. The main island, also called Madagascar, is the fourth-largest island in the world, and is home to 5% of the world's plant and animal species, of which more than 80% are endemic to Madagascar. They include the lemur infraorder of primates, the carnivorous fossa, three bird families and six baobab species. History Madagascar, as part of East Gondwana, split from Africa approximately 160 million years ago; the island of Madagascar was created when it separated from the Indian subcontinent 80 to 100 million years ago. BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Giant palm tree puzzles botanists Most archaeologists estimate that the human settlement of Madagascar happened between 200 and 500 A.D., when seafarers from southeast Asia (probably from Borneo or the southern Celebes) arrived in outrigger sailing canoes. Migration from Kalimantan to Madagascar by O. C. Dahl Bantu settlers probably crossed the Mozambique Channel to Madagascar at about the same time or shortly afterwards. However, Malagasy tradition and ethnographic evidence suggests that they may have been preceded by the Mikea hunter gatherers. Archaeology, Language, and the African Past by Roger Blench The written history of Madagascar begins in the 7th century, when Arab Muslims established trading posts along the northwest coast. During the Middle Ages, the island's kings began to extend their power through trade with their Indian Ocean neighbours, notably East Africa, the Middle East and India. Large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island. Among these were the Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe, centred in what is now the town of Morondava, and of Boina, centred in what is now the provincial capital of Mahajanga (Majunga). The influence of the Sakalava extended across what are now the provinces of Antsiranana, Mahajanga and Toliara. Madagascar served as an important transoceanic trading port for the East African Coast that gave Africa a trade route in the Silk Road, and served simultaneously as a port for incoming ships. The wealth created in Madagascar through trade created a state system ruled by powerful regional monarchs known as the Maroserana. These monarchs would adopt the cultural traditions of subjects in their territories and would expand their kingdoms. They were given divine status and new nobility and artisan classes were created. Kingdoms of Madagascar: Maroserana and Merina Madagascar functioned in the East African Middle Ages as a contact port for the other Swahili seaport city-states such as Sofala, Kilwa, Mombasa and Zanzibar. European contact began in the year 1500, when Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island after his ship separated from a fleet going to India. The Portuguese continued trading with the islanders and named the island as "São Lourenço" (St. Lawrence). In 1666, Francois Caron, the Director General of the newly formed French East India Company, sailed to Madagascar. The Company failed to establish a colony on Madagascar but established ports on the nearby islands of Bourbon and Ile-de-France (today's Réunion and Mauritius). In the late 17th century, the French established trading posts along the east coast. From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar was a favourite haunt for pirates, including Americans, one of whom brought Malagasy rice to South Carolina. Many European sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury whose journal is one of the only written depictions of life in southern Madagascar during the 18th century. From MADAGASCAR to the MALAGASY REPUBLIC by Raymond K. Kent pg 65-71 Sailors sometimes called Madagascar "Island of the Moon", Madagascar: An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Island and Its Former Dependencies by Samuel Pasfield Oliver., p. 6. (excerpted in Google Book Search) a name by which it is referenced in the 1988 single "'Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)'" by artist Enya. Beginning in the 1790s, Merina rulers succeeded in establishing hegemony over most of the island, including the coast. In 1817, the Merina ruler and the British governor of Mauritius concluded a treaty abolishing the slave trade, which had been important in Madagascar's economy. In return, the island received British military and financial assistance. British influence remained strong for several decades, during which the Merina court was converted to Presbyterianism, Congregationalism and Anglicanism. With the domination of the Indian Ocean by the Royal Navy and the end of the Arab slave trade, the western Sakalava lost their power to the emerging Merina state. The Betsimisaraka of the east coast also unified, but this union soon faltered. France invaded Madagascar in 1883, in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War seeking to restore property that had been confiscated from French citizens. (Hova is one of three Merina classes: andriana - aristocracy, hova - common people, andevo - slaves. The term hova was wrongly used by the French to mean Merina.) At the war's end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) on the northern coast to France and paid 560,000 gold stripers francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. In 1890, the British accepted the full formal imposition of a French protectorate. In 1895, a French flying column landed in Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched to the capital, Antananarivo, where the city's defenders quickly surrendered. Twenty French soldiers died fighting and 6,000 died of malaria and other diseases before the second Franco-Hova War ended. After the conclusion of hostilities, in 1896 the French Parliament voted to annex Madagascar. The 103-year-old Merina monarchy ended with the royal family being sent into exile in Algeria. In December 1904, the Russian Baltic Fleet docked at Antsiranana (Diego Suarez) for coal and provisions before sailing on to its doomed encounter with the Japanese fleet in the Battle of Tsushima. Before leaving port, the Russian sailors were required to put ashore the animals they had acquired, including monkeys, boa constrictors and one crocodile. During World War II, Malagasy troops fought in France, Morocco, and Syria. Just before the fall of France, Germany planned to forcibly deport all of Europe's Jews to Madagascar in what was known as the Madagascar Plan. But action on the plan was never begun. After France fell to Germany, the Vichy government administered Madagascar. During the Battle of Madagascar, British troops occupied the strategic island in 1942 to preclude its seizure by the Japanese, after which the Free French took over. In 1947, with French prestige at low ebb, a nationalist uprising was suppressed after several months of bitter fighting with 90,000 people killed. 1947 L'insurrection á Madagascar - Jean Fremigacci - Marianne The French later established reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre (Overseas Reform Act), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on October 14, 1958, as an autonomous state within the French Community. A period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and full independence on June 26, 1960. In 2006 the country experienced an attempted coup. Politics Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Madagascar is head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Senate and the National Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The political situation in Madagascar has been marked by struggle for control. After Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, assassinations, military coups and disputed elections featured prominently. Didier Ratsiraka took power in a military coup in 1975 and ruled until 2001, IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: 'Violence could escalate' | Governance Conflict | News Item with a short break when he was ousted in the early 1990s. When Marc Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka both claimed victory after presidential elections in December 2001, Ratsiraka's supporters tried to blockade the capital, Antananarivo, which was pro-Ravalomanana. After eight months of sporadic violence with considerable economic disruption, a recount in April 2002 led the High Constitutional Court to pronounce Ravalomanana president, but it was not until July that Ratsiraka fled to France and Ravalomanana gained control of the country. IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: Former president sentenced to five years in prison | Governance | News Item Internal conflict in Madagascar had been minimal in the years that followed and since 2002, Ravalomanana and his party, Tiako-I-Madagasikara (TIM), have dominated political life. In an attempt to restrict the power and influence of the president, the prime minister and the 150-seat parliament have been given greater power in recent years. Tension since was generally associated with elections. A presidential election took place in December 2006 with some protests over worsening standards of living, despite a government drive to eradicate poverty. IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: Hoping for fair, transparent, uncontroversial elections | Economy Governance Other | Feature Calls by a retired army general in November 2006 for Ravalomanana to step down were said to have been 'misinterpreted' as a coup attempt. 2009 Malagasy protests The latest, and ongoing, spate of violence pitted then-President Marc Ravalomanana against Andry Rajoelina, former mayor of the capital, Antananarivo. Since the power tussle started on 26 January, more than 170 people were killed. IRIN Africa | Southern Africa | Madagascar | MADAGASCAR: Appeal launched despite political uncertainty | Children Economy Food Security Governance Health & Nutrition Conflict ... Rajoelina mobilized his supporters to take to the streets of Antananarivo to demand Ravalomanana's ousting on the grounds of his alleged "autocratic" style of government. Ravalomanana resigned on 17 March. Ravalomanana's resignation After losing support of the military and under intense pressure from Rajoelina, President Ravalomanana resigned on 17 March 2009. Ravalomanana assigned his powers to a military council loyal to himself headed by Vice-Admiral Hyppolite Ramaroson. The military called the move by Ravalomanana a "ploy" and said that it would support Rajoelina as leader. Rajoelina had already declared himself the new leader a month earlier and has since assumed the role of acting President. He has appointed Monja Roindefo as Prime Minister. Rajoelina announced that elections would be held in two years and that the constitution would be amended. The European Union, amongst other international entities, has refused to recognize the new government, due to it being installed by force. The African Union, which proceeded to suspend Madagascar's membership on 20 March African Union suspends Madagascar over 'coup' - Africa, World - The Independent and the Southern Africa Development Community both criticized the forced resignation of Ravalomanana. United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon's spokesperson said he is "gravely concerned about the evolving developments in Madagascar". (UPDATE) Army puts Madagascar opposition leader in charge | Home >> Other Sections >> Breaking News Provinces and regions Madagascar is currently divided into six autonomous provinces (faritany mizakatena), and subdivided into 22 regions (faritra), the latter created in 2004. The regions will be the highest subdivision level when the provinces are dissolved in accordance with the results of the 4 April 2007 referendum, which means by 4 October 2009. Antananarivo (1) Analamanga Bongolava Itasy Vakinankaratra Antsiranana (2) Diana SavaFianarantsoa (3) Amoron'i Mania Atsimo-Atsinanana Haute-Matsiatra Ihorombe Vatovavy-Fitovinany Mahajanga (4) Betsiboka Boeny Melaky SofiaToamasina (5) Alaotra Mangoro Analanjirofo Atsinanana Toliara (6) Androy Anosy Atsimo-Andrefana Menabe The regions are further subdivided into 116 districts, 1,548 communes, and 16,969 fokontany. The major cities have a special status as "commune urbaine", at the same level as the districts. Geography At , Madagascar is the world's 46th-largest country and the fourth largest island. It is slightly bigger than France, and is one of 11 distinct physiographic provinces of the South African Platform physiographic division. Towards the east, a steep escarpment leads from the central highlands down into a ribbon of rain forest with a narrow coastal further east. The Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of natural and man-made lakes connected by canals that runs parallel to the east coast for some 460 km (about two-thirds of the island). The descent from the central highlands toward the west is more gradual, with remnants of deciduous forest and savanna-like plains (which in the south and southwest, are quite dry and host spiny desert and baobabs). On the west coast are many protected harbours, but silting is a major problem caused by sediment from the high levels of erosion inland. Along the crest of this ridge lie the central highlands, a plateau region ranging in altitude from 2,450 to 4,400 ft (750 to 1350m) above sea level. The central highlands are characterised by terraced, rice-growing valleys lying between barren hills. Here, the red laterite soil that covers much of the island has been exposed by erosion, showing clearly why the country is often referred to as the "Red Island". The island's highest peak, Maromokotro, at , is found in the Tsaratanana Massif, located in the far north of the country. The Ankaratra Massif is in the central area south of the capital Antananarivo and hosts the third highest mountain on the island, Tsiafajavona, with an altitude of . Further south is the Andringitra massif which has several peaks over including the second and fourth highest peaks, Pic Imarivolanitra, more widely known as Pic Boby (), and Pic Bory (). Other peaks in the massif include Pic Soaindra () and Pic Ivangomena (). This massif also contains the Andringitra Reserve. On very rare occasions, this region experiences snow in winter due to its high altitude. There are two seasons: a hot, rainy season from November to April, and a cooler, dry season from May to October. South-eastern trade winds predominate, and the island occasionally experiences cyclones. Ecology Madagascar's long isolation from the neighboring continents has resulted in a unique mix of plants and animals, many found nowhere else in the world; some ecologists refer to Madagascar as the "eighth continent". The Eighth Continent: Life, Death, and Discovery in the Lost World of Madagascar Of the 10,000 plants native to Madagascar, 90% are found nowhere else in the world. Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered by human activity, as a third of its native vegetation has disappeared since the 1970s, and only 18% remains intact. It has several national parks. The eastern, or windward side of the island is home to tropical rainforests, while the western and southern sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands, are home to tropical dry forests, thorn forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Madagascar's dry deciduous rain forest has been preserved generally better than the eastern rainforests or the high central plateau, presumably due to historically low population densities. Extensive deforestation has taken place in parts of the country, some due to mining operations. Slash-and-burn activity, locally called tavy, has occurred in the eastern and western dry forests as well as on the central high plateau, reducing certain forest habitat and applying pressure to some endangered species. Slash-and-burn is a method sometimes used by shifting cultivators to create short-term yields from marginal soils. When practiced repeatedly without intervening fallow periods, the nutrient-poor soils may be exhausted or eroded to an unproductive state. The resulting increased surface runoff from burned lands has caused significant erosion and resulting high sedimentation to western rivers. As a part of conservation efforts, the Wildlife Conservation Society has recently opened a Madagascar! exhibit at the Bronx Zoo. The New York Academy of Sciences recently published a Podcast about the Madagascar! exhibit, which details the fauna and flora of Madagascar and what types of projects the WCS is involved with in the country. The Podcast can be listened to here Science & the City | Public Gateway to the New York Academy of Sciences Madagascar is represented in the FIPS 10-4 geographical encoding standard by the symbol MA. Economy Agriculture, including fishing and forestry, is a mainstay of the economy. Major exports are coffee, vanilla (Madagascar is the world's largest producer and exporter of vanilla), sugarcane, cloves, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), beans, bananas, peanuts and livestock products. Vanilla has historically been of particular importance, and when in 1985 Coca-cola switched to New Coke which involved less vanilla, Madagascar's economy took a marked downturn, but returned to previous levels after the return of Coke Classic. Madagascar - Country Facts- Goway Travel Experiences Structural reforms began in the late 1980s, initially under pressure from international financial institutions, notably the World Bank. An initial privatization program (1988-1993) and the development of an export processing zone (EPZ) regime in the early 1990s were key milestones in this effort. A period of significant stagnation from 1991-96 was followed by 5 years of solid economic growth and accelerating foreign investment, driven by a second wave of privatizations and EPZ development. Although structural reforms advanced, governance remained weak and perceived corruption in Madagascar was extremely high. During the period of solid growth from 1997 to 2001, poverty levels remained stubbornly high, especially in rural areas. A six-month political crisis triggered by a dispute over the outcome of the presidential elections held in December 2001 virtually halted economic activity in much of the country in the first half of 2002. Real GDP dropped 12.7% for the year 2002, inflows of foreign investment dropped sharply, and the crisis tarnished Madagascar's budding reputation as an AGOA standout and a promising place to invest. After the crisis, the economy rebounded with GDP growth of over 10% in 2003. Currency depreciation and rising inflation in 2004 have hampered economic performance, but growth for the year reached 5.3%, with inflation reaching around 25% at the end of the year. In 2005 inflation was brought under control by tight monetary policy of raising the Taux Directeur (central bank rate) to 16% and tightening reserve requirements for banks. Thus growth was expected to reach around 6.5% in 2005. Following the 2002 political crisis, the government attempted to set a new course and build confidence, in coordination with international financial institutions and donors. Madagascar developed a recovery plan in collaboration with the private sector and donors and presented it at a "Friends of Madagascar" conference organized by the World Bank in Paris in July 2002. Donor countries demonstrated their confidence in the new government by pledging $1 billion in assistance over five years. The Malagasy Government identified road infrastructure as its principle priority and underlined its commitment to public-private partnership by establishing a joint public-private sector steering committee. In 2000, Madagascar embarked on the preparation of a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative. The boards of the IMF and World Bank agreed in December 2000 that the country had reached the decision point for debt relief under the HIPC Initiative and defined a set of conditions for Madagascar to reach the completion point. In October 2004, the boards of the IMF and the World Bank determined that Madagascar had reached the completion point under the enhanced HIPC Initiative. The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed as a collaboration between the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Malagasian artisan producers in Madagascar in 2002. "Made in Madagascar: Exporting Handicrafts to the U.S. Market: a Project with the UN Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development; Final Report", A Project with the UN Public-Private Alliance for Rural Development. The U.S.-Madagascar Business Council was formed in the United States in May 2003, and the two organisations continue to explore ways to work for the benefit of both groups. The government of President Ravalomanana is aggressively seeking foreign investment and is tackling many of the obstacles to such investment, including combating corruption, reforming land-ownership laws, encouraging study of American and European business techniques, and active pursuit of foreign investors. President Ravalomanana rose to prominence through his agro-foods TIKO company, and is known for attempting to apply many of the lessons learned in the world of business to running the government. Some recent concerns have arisen about the conflict of interest between his policies and the activities of his firms. Most notable among them the preferential treatment for rice imports initiated by the government in late 2004 when responding to a production shortfall in the country. Madagascar's sources of growth are tourism; textile and light manufacturing exports (notably through the EPZs); agricultural products; and mining. Madagascar is the world's leading producer of vanilla and accounts for about half the world's export market. Tourism targets the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar's unique biodiversity, unspoiled natural habitats, national parks and lemur species. Exports from the EPZs, located around Antananarivo and Antsirabe, comprise the majority of garment manufacture, targeting the US market under AGOA and the European markets under the Everything But Arms (EBA) agreement. Agricultural exports consist of low-volume high-value products like vanilla, litchies and essential oils. A small but growing part of the economy is based on mining of ilmenite, with investments emerging in recent years, particularly near Tulear and Fort Dauphin. Madagascar - Mining: Heavy Minerals Mining Mining corporation Rio Tinto Group expects to begin operations near Fort Dauphin in 2008, following several years of infrastructure preparation. The mining project is highly controversial, with Friends of the Earth and other environmental organizations filing reports to detail their concerns about effects on the local environment and communities. Rio Tinto's Madagascar mining project Several major projects are underway in the mining and oil and gas sectors that, if successful, will give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. In the mining sector, these include the development of coal at Sakoa and nickel near Tamatave. In oil, Madagascar Oil is developing the massive onshore heavy oil field at Tsimiroro and ultra heavy oil field at Bemolanga. Foreign relations Madagascar was historically perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a founding member of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), which was founded in 1963. From 1978 to 1991, President Ratsiraka emphasized independence and nonalignment and followed an "all points" policy stressing ties with socialist and radical regimes, including North Korea, Cuba, Libya, and Iran. But President Albert Zafy, taking office in 1993, expressed his desire for diplomatic relations with all countries. Early in his tenure, he established formal ties with South Korea and sent emissaries to Morocco. Starting in 1997, globalisation encouraged the government and President Ratsiraka to adhere to market-oriented policies and to engage world markets. External relations reflect this trend, although Madagascar's physical isolation and strong traditional insular orientation have limited its activity in regional economic organizations and relations with its East African neighbours. It enjoys closer and generally good relations with its Indian Ocean neighbours -- Mauritius, Réunion, and Comoros. Active relationships with Europe, especially France, Germany, and Switzerland, as well as with Britain, Russia, Japan, India, and China have been strong since independence. More recently, President Ravalomanana has cultivated strong links with the United States, and Madagascar was the first country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA). Madagascar is also a member of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the US-military (as covered under Article 98). The OAU dissolved in 2002 and was replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit due to the dispute over the results of the election in December 2001, but eagerly rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month hiatus triggered by the 2002 political crisis. However, Madagascar was suspended again by the African Union in March 2009 due to the ongoing political crisis. "Africa rejects Madagascar 'coup'" bbc.co.uk 20 March 2009 Link accessed 20/03/09 During his presidency, Marc Ravalomanana traveled widely promoting Madagascar abroad and consciously sought to strengthen relations with Anglophone countries as a means of balancing traditionally strong French influence. He also cultivated strong ties with China during his tenure. In November 2004, after an absence of almost 30 years, Madagascar re-opened its embassy in London. On 15 December 2004 the Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, announced the closure of the British embassy in Antananarivo to save £250,000 a year. He also announced an end to the DFID-funded Small Grants Scheme, the only aid Britain gave to this, one of the world's poorest countries. The embassy closed in August 2005 despite petitions and protests from African heads of state, a European commissioner, the Malagasy Senate, many British companies, 30 or so NGOs operating in Madagascar, and members of the public. The British Embassy was previously closed (also for financial reasons) from 1975 to 1980. The Anglo-Malagasy Society are campaigning to have it re-opened once again. Demographics Madagascar's population is predominantly of mixed Austronesian (i.e.South-East Asian/Pacific Islander) and African origin. Those who are visibly Austronesian in appearance and culture are the minority, found mostly in the highland regions. Recent research suggests that the island was uninhabited until Austronesian seafarers arrived about 1,500 to 2,000 years ago. Recent DNA research shows that the Malagasy people are approximately of half Austronesian and half East African descent, although some Arab, Indian and European influence is present along the coast. Malagasy language shares some 90% of its basic vocabulary with the Maanyan language from the region of the River Barito in southern Borneo. Subsequent migrations from the East Indies and Africa consolidated this original mixture, and 36 separate tribal groups emerged. Austronesian features are most predominant in the Merina (3 million) ; the coastal people (called côtiers) are of more clearly African origin. The largest coastal groups are the Betsimisaraka (1.5 million) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava (700,000 each). The Vezo live in the southwest. Two of the southern tribes are the Antandroy and the Antanosy. Other tribes include Tankarana (northern tip), Sihanaka and Bezanozano (east), Tanala (south-east), An-Taimoro, Tambahoaka, Zafisoro, An-Taisaka and Timanambondro (south-east coast), and Mahafaly and Bara (south-west). During the French colonial administration (1895-1960) and some time after independence, people were officially classified in ethnic groups. This practice was abandoned in the first census (1975) after independence, L'ethnicisation des rapports sociaux à Madagascar so any recent classification and figures for ethnic groups is an unofficial estimate. There is for instance no mention of ethnicity or religion in the national identity cards. Also, territorial divisions (provinces, regions) do not follow any ethnic division lines, despite an attempt by the colonial administration in the early 20th century. Ethnic divisions continue, and may cause violence, but their role is limited in today's society. Regional political parties are also rare, although some parties receive most of their support in certain areas. Only two general censuses, 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. In 1993 (last census) there were 18,497 foreign residents on Madagascar, or 0.15% of the population. Language The Malagasy language is of Malayo-Polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is spoken among the educated population of this former French colony. English, although still rare, is becoming more widely spoken, and in 2003, the government began a pilot project of introducing the teaching of English into the primary grades of 44 schools, with hopes of taking the project nationwide. Many Peace Corps volunteers are serving to further this effort and train teachers. In the first Constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. "Le malgache et le français sont les langues officielles de la République Malgache." Constitution, Titre I, Art. 2; Constitutional Law 14 October 1958. No official languages were recorded in the Constitution of 1992. Instead, Malagasy was named the national language; however, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, as they were de facto. In April 2000, a citizen brought a legal case on the grounds that the publication of official documents in the French language only was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decision Haute Cour Constitutionnelle De Madagascar, Décision n°03-HCC/D2 Du 12 avril 2000 that, in the absence of a language law, French still had the character of an official language. In the Constitution of 2007, Malagasy remains the national language while official languages are reintroduced: Malagasy, French, and English. The motivation for the inclusion of English is partly to improve relations with the neighbouring countries where English is used and to encourage foreign direct investment. Madagascar adopts English as official language, ClickAfrique.com, 10 April 2007. Religion . Approximately 50% of the country's population practice traditional religion, which tends to emphasize links between the living and the dead. The Merina in the highlands particularly tend to hold tightly to this practice. They believe that the dead join their ancestors in the ranks of divinity and that ancestors are intensely concerned with the fate of their living descendants. The Merina and Betsileo reburial practice of famadihana, or "turning over the dead", celebrates this spiritual communion. In this ritual, relatives' remains are removed from the family tomb, rewrapped in new silk shrouds, and returned to the tomb following festive ceremonies in their honor where sometimes the bodies are lifted and carried high above the celebrants heads with singing and dancing before returning them to the tomb. Despite infamous persecution and mass extermination of Christians during the 19th century under Queen Ranavalona I, See esp. Persecution of Christians by Ranavalona I. today about 45% of the Malagasy are Christian, divided almost evenly between Catholics and Protestants. Many incorporate the cult of the dead with their other religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional burial rites. They also may invite a Christian minister to attend a famadihana. Many of the Christian churches are influential in politics. The best example of this is the Malagasy Council of Churches (FFKM) comprising the four oldest and most prominent Christian denomination—(Roman Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican). Islam in Madagascar constitutes about 7% of the population. The Muslim traders who first brought Islam in the 10th century had a deep influence on the west coast. For example, many Malagasy converted to Islam and the Malagasy language was, for the first time, transcribed into an alphabet, based on the Arabic alphabet, called Sorabe. Muslims are concentrated in the provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana (Diego Suarez). Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, Indians, Pakistanis and Comorians. The number of mosques in the south-east region has increased from 10 to 50 in the last ten years. Madagascar, Southern Africa Recently, several tribes in Madagascar have been converting to Islam. One particular occasion is the Intimor tribe of the southeast, of which 17,500 converted en-masse. 17,500 of Intimor Tribe come back to Islam Culture See also List of Madagascar-related topics Military of Madagascar Transport in Madagascar Communications in Madagascar Malagasy diplomatic missions Firaisan'ny Skotisma eto Madagasikara Galapagos References External links Government The Madagascar Government National Assembly of Madagascar Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Madagascar Embassies and Consulates Canada Hungary Washington DC Chief of State and Cabinet Members, from CIA General information Country Profile from BBC News Madagascar from UCB Libraries GovPubs News media Madagascar Humanitarian news and analysis from IRIN United Nations Madagascar news headline links from allAfrica.com Ecology Madagascar's National Parks and Reserves official park website Conservation International - Madagascar overview pages Madagascar Wildlife Conservation MWC is a Malagasy non-profit association, which organises and pursues community-based conservations projects New York Academy of Sciences Conserving Madagascar - Podcast by Helen Crowley Madagascar conservation story Journal Madagascar Conservation & Development Miscellaneous The Madagascar Project, Project set up to help Malagasy communities tackle the causes and effects of poverty Old maps of Madagascar by CEGET library (CNRS, France) Azafady UK charity and Malagasy NGO working in southeast Madagascar to alleviate poverty, improve well-being and protect beautiful unique environments with the help of its award winning volunteering programmes. Shama Foundation of Madagascar charitable organization providing scholarships for underprivileged students in Madagascar Opinions of La Haute Cour Constitutionelle du Madagascar Blue Ventures award winning not-for-profit organisation dedicated to facilitating projects and expeditions that enhance global marine conservation and research. Based in Andavadoaka, South West coast of Madagascar. Foko-madagascar not-for-profit organization and Rising Voices grantee project dedicated to the use of ICT as a tool to promote sustainable development, especially combining human development and the protection of the environment. WildMadagascar.org Overview, news, photos, cultural history. English and French Madagascar Photos Madagascar The Palmarium reserve, is situated on the East coast of Madagascar. 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6,231 | Hunter_College | Hunter College of the City University of New York is a senior college of the City University of New York (CUNY), located on Manhattan's Upper East Side. Originally known as the Normal College, Hunter was founded in 1870 by Irish immigrant and social reformer Thomas Hunter as a teacher-training school for young women. Hunter College 2007-2010 Undergraduate Catalog, p.3 Today, Hunter is a coeducational liberal arts and sciences college that offers undergraduate and graduate programs in more than 100 fields. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/academics/index.shtml, "Academics at Hunter", 1/4/08 The college is organized into four schools: The School of Arts and Sciences, the School of Education, the School of the Health Professions, and the School of Social Work. Hunter College 2007-2010 Undergraduate Catalog, p.3 The 2008 edition of "America's Best Colleges", published by U.S. News & World Report, places the college 12th among public universities in the north in the "Best Universities-Master's" category, and among the 574 public and private institutions in this category, Hunter is in the first tier with a rank of 51. http://colleges.usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/usnews/edu/college/directory/brief/drglance_2689_brief.php, "America's Best Colleges 2008", 1/4/08 According to the "Best Value Colleges for 2009," a ranking published by the Princeton Review and U.S.A. Today, Hunter is the nation's number 8 "Best Value" in public colleges (on the basis of the analysis of over 30 factors in three areas: academics, costs of attendance, and financial aid). History Founding Thomas Hunter Hall, on Lexington Avenue, with the North Building in the backgroundHunter College has its origins in the nineteenth-century movement for normal school training which swept across the United States. Hunter descends from the Female Normal and High School (later renamed the Normal College of the City of New York), organized in New York City in 1870. Founded by Irish immigrant Thomas Hunter, who was president of the school during the first 37 years, it was originally a women's college for training teachers. The school, which was housed in an armory and saddle store at Broadway and East Fourth Street in Manhattan, was open to all qualified women, irrespective of race, religion or ethnic background, which was incongruent to the prevailing admission practices of other schools during this era. Created by the New York State Legislature, Hunter was deemed the only approved institution for those seeking to teach in New York City during this time. The school incorporated an elementary and high school for gifted children, where students practiced teaching. In 1887, a kindergarten was established as well. (Today, the elementary school and the high school still exist at a different location, and are now called the Hunter College Campus Schools.) During Thomas Hunter's tenure as president of the school, Hunter became known for its impartiality regarding race, religion, ethnicity, financial or political favoritism; its pursuit of higher education for women; its high entry requirements; and its rigorous academics. The college's student population quickly expanded, and the college subsequently moved uptown, in 1873, into a new Gothic structure, now known as Thomas Hunter Hall, on Lexington Avenue between 68th and 69th Streets. In 1888 the school was incorporated as a college under the statutes of New York State, with the power to confer the degree of A.B. This led to the separation of the school into two "camps": the "Normals", who pursued a four-year course of study to become licensed teachers, and the "Academics", who sought non-teaching professions and the Bachelor of Arts degree. After 1902 when the "Normal" course of study was abolished, the "Academic" course became standard across the student body. Expansion In 1914 the Normal College became Hunter College in honor of its first president. At the same time, the college was experiencing a period of great expansion as increasing student enrollments necessitated more space. The college reacted by establishing branches in the boroughs of Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island. By 1920, Hunter College had the largest enrollment of women of any municipally financed college in the United States. In 1930, Hunter's Brooklyn campus merged with City College's Brooklyn campus, and the two were spun off to form Brooklyn College. The late 1930s saw the construction of Hunter College in the Bronx (later known as the Bronx Campus). During the Second World War, Hunter leased the Bronx Campus buildings to the United States Navy who used the facilities to train 95,000 women volunteers for military service as WAVES and SPARS. Free A Marine to Fight: Women Marines in World War II (Early Training: Holyoke and Hunter) When the Navy vacated the campus, the site was briefly occupied by the nascent United Nations, which held its first Security Council sessions at the Bronx Campus in 1946, giving the school an international profile. History of Lehman College In 1943, Eleanor Roosevelt dedicated a town house at 47-49 East 65th Street in Manhattan to the college. The house had been a home for the future President and First Lady. Today it is known as Roosevelt House and is undergoing renovation to become an academic center. The CUNY Era Hunter became the women's college of the municipal system, and in the 1950s, when City College became coeducational, Hunter started admitting men to its Bronx campus. In 1964, the Manhattan campus began admitting men also. The Bronx campus subsequently became Lehman College in 1968. In 1968-1969, Black and Puerto Rican students struggled to get a department that would teach about their history and experience. These and supportive students and faculty expressed this demand through building take-overs, rallies, etc. In Spring 1969, Hunter College established Black and Puerto Rican Studies (now called Africana/Puerto Rican and Latino Studies). An "open admissions" policy initiated in 1970 by the City University of New York opened the school's doors to historically underrepresented groups by guaranteeing a college education to any and all who graduated from NYC high schools. Many African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, Puerto Ricans, and students from the developing world made their presence felt at Hunter, and even after the end of "open admissions" still comprise a large part of the school's student body. As a result of the this increase in enrollment, Hunter opened new buildings on Lexington Avenue during the early 1980s. In further advancing Puerto Rican studies, Hunter became home to the Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños ("Center for Puerto Rican Studies" or simply "Centro") in 1982. Today, Hunter College is a comprehensive teaching and research institution. Of the more than 20,000 students enrolled at Hunter, nearly 5,000 are enrolled in a graduate program, the most popular of which are education and social work. Although less than 28% of students are the first in their families to attend college, the college maintains its tradition of concern for women's education, with nearly three out of four students being female. In 2006, Hunter became home to the Bella Abzug Leadership Institute, which will run training programs for young women to build their leadership, public speaking, business and advocacy skills. Princeton Review named the college as one of America's "Best Value" Colleges in its 2007 guide. In recent years, the college has integrated its undergraduate and graduate programs to successfully make advanced programs in fields such as (Psychology and Biology) - "Ph.D Program", (Education) - "Master's Program", (Mathematics) - "Master's Program", -"Ph.D Program"(Biology & Chemistry) - "Biochemistry", (Accounting) - "Master's Program" along with the highly competitive (Economics) - "Master's Program" to which only a select few students may enter based on excellent scholarship and performance, and less than half will earn a Master's Degree by maintaining a nearly perfect academic record and performing thesis research. Although far from the polar regions, Hunter is a member institution of the University of the Arctic, a network of schools providing education accessible to northern students. University of the Arctic - MEMBERS - LIST OF MEMBERS Campus Main Campus View of the bridges between the East and West Buildings, the main no. 6 subway entrance, and Tony Smith's Tau.Hunter College is anchored by its main campus at East 68th Street and Lexington Avenue, a modern complex of three towers — the East, West, and North Buildings — and Thomas Hunter Hall, all of which are interconnected by skywalks. The college's official street address is 695 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10065. (Formerly bearing the ZIP code of 10021, the code changed on July 1, 2007 in accordance with the United States Postal Service's plan to split the 10021 ZIP code.) An Elite ZIP Code Becomes Harder to Crack, New York Times, Mar. 21, 2007 It claims a Park Avenue address by virtue of the North Building, which stretches from 68th to 69th Streets along Park Avenue. The main campus is situated within walking distance of Central Park, as well as many of New York's most prestigious cultural institutions, including the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Asia Society Museum, and the Frick Collection. Additionally, it has its own No. 6 subway line stop at 68th Street and Lexington Avenue. Adjacent to the main subway exit, in front of the West Building, sits an iconic Hunter sculpture: “Tao” created by late Hunter professor and respected artist Tony Smith. The main campus is home to the School of Arts and Sciences and the School of Education, as well as CUNY doctoral studies. It features numerous facilities that serve not only Hunter, but the surrounding community, and is particularly well-known as a center for the arts. The Assembly Hall, which seats more than 2,000, is a major performance site; the Sylvia and Danny Kaye Playhouse, a 675-seat proscenium theatre, has over 100,000 visitors annually and hosts over 200 performances each season; the Ida K. Lang Recital Hall is a fully equipped concert space with 148 seats; the Frederick Loewe Theatre, a 50 x black box performance space is the site of most department performances; and the Bertha and Karl Leubsdorf Art Gallery hosts professionally organized art exhibits. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/abouthunter/thearts.shtml, "The Arts at Hunter", 1/4/08 Students have access to specialized learning facilities at the main campus, including the Dolciani Mathematics Learning Center, the Leona and Marcy Chanin Language Center, and the Physical Sciences Learning Center. A respected research institution, Hunter has numerous research laboratories in the natural and biomedical sciences. These labs accommodate post-docs, PhD students from the CUNY Graduate School, and undergraduate researchers. http://score.hunter.cuny.edu/, "Hunter College Score Program", 12/1/07 College sports and recreational programs are served by the Hunter Sportsplex, located below the West Building. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/news/inbrief.shtml, "About Hunter: In Brief", 12/1/07 The Sportsplex, a major athletics center in the metropolitan area, is built entirely underground and is the deepest building in New York City. It features numerous competition and practice facilities, including multiple gymnasiums, racquetball courts, a weight room, locker areas, a training room, Hall of Fame, showcases, classrooms, and offices. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/athletics/join/index.shtml, “All About Athletics,” 12/1/07 Satellite Campuses Hunter has two satellite campuses: The School of Social Work, located on East 79th street, which is dedicated to studies leading to the master of social work degree; and the Brookdale Campus, located on East 25th Street and 1st Avenue, which houses the Hunter-Bellevue School of Nursing, School of Health Sciences, the Brookdale Center on Aging, the Health Professions Library and several research centers and computer labs. http://studentservices.hunter.cuny.edu/reslife/reslife_brookdale.htm, "Brookdale Campus", 12/2/07 Additionally, it is the site of the Hunter dormitory, which is home to over 600 undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a limited number of nurses employed at Bellevue Hospital. Prior to the opening of City College's new "Towers", the Brookdale complex was the City University's only dormitory facility. Other Facilities Hunter College owns and operates property outside of its main campuses, including the MFA Building, Roosevelt House, and the Hunter College Campus Schools. The MFA Building, located on West 41st Street between 9th and 10th Avenues, is a space that is the site of most BFA and MFA exhibitions. Roosevelt House, currently under renovation, is the Roosevelt's historic family home on East 65th Street, which Hunter aims to establish as the Roosevelt House Public Policy Institute. The institute will be an internationally prominent establishment honoring the public policy commitments of Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt, and is scheduled to open in early 2008. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/news/newsreleases/2007/EllenCheslerNamedDirectorofWomenandPublicPolicyInitiativeatHunterCollege.shtml, "Ellen Chesler Named Director of Women and Public Policy Initiative at Hunter College", 12/1/07 The Hunter Campus Schools—Hunter College High School and Hunter College Elementary School—are publicly funded schools for the intellectually gifted. Located at East 94th Street, the Campus Schools are among the nation's oldest and largest elementary and secondary schools of their kind. http://www1.cuny.edu/portal_ur/content/capital_budget/pdfs/2007-08Request/hunter_campus_schools_07_08.pdf, "Hunter Campus Schools", 12/1/07 Libraries Hunter library collections are housed in the Jacqueline Grennan Wexler Library (the main library) and the Art Slide Library at East 68th Street, the Health Professions Library at the Brookdale Campus, and the Social Work Library at East 79th Street. Together, these libraries hold over 760,000 volumes, more than 2,100 current print periodical subscriptions and approximately 10,000 in electronic format, 1,168,000 microforms, 13,000 videos and music CDs, 250,000 art slides, and 40,000+ digital images. The CUNY+ online catalog of university-wide holdings and remote online databases are accessible at all Hunter libraries. http://library.hunter.cuny.edu/libcollection.htm, "Library Information: Library Collection", 12/1/07 Under the guidance of the Presidential Task Force on the Library, created in the fall of 2006, the Wexler Library has undergone several improvements in the areas of facilities, holdings, and services. The library now features wireless capability, a redesigned student lounge and circulation desk, improved lighting, and expanded electronic resources. Additionally, the college has extended library hours, hired more library staff, and instituted a laptop loan program for students. More improvements are planned for the future, as part of an initiative to fully modernize the library. Summary Report of the Presidential Task Force on the Library Academics Profile Hunter, a fully accredited college, is organized into four schools: The School of Arts and Sciences, the School of Education, the School of the Health Professions and the School of Social Work. Hunter students have their choice of 70 programs leading to a BA or BS degree; 10 BA-MA joint degree programs; and 75 graduate programs. They may study within the fields of fine arts, the humanities, the language arts, the sciences, the social sciences, and the applied arts and sciences, as well as in professional areas in accounting, education, health sciences, and nursing. Regardless of area of concentration, all Hunter students are encouraged to have broad exposure to the liberal arts; Hunter was one of the first colleges in the nation to pass a 12-credit curriculum requirement for pluralism and diversity courses. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/news/inbrief.shtml, "About Hunter: In Brief", 12/1/07 Hunter has 673 full-time http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ir/factbook2007/table41.htm, "Race/Ethnicity/Gender for Full Time Faculty", 12/01/07 and 886 part-time faculty members, http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ir/factbook2007/table42.htm, "Race/Ethnicity/Gender for Part Time Faculty ", 12/01/07 and 20,844 students—15,718 undergraduates and 5,126 graduates. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ir/factbook2007/table1.htm, "Total Enrollment--Full-time and Part-time Status", 12/01/07 Over 50% of Hunter's students belong to ethnic minority groups. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ir/factbook2007/table18.htm, "Race/Ethnicity for Total Enrollment", 12/01/07 The class of 2011 represents 60 countries and speaks 59 different languages. Seventy-one percent of these students were born outside the United States or have at least one foreign-born parent. SAT scores for the class of 2011 are in the 25th-75th percentile range of 990 to 1180, meaning that 75% of students scored higher than 990 on the SAT and 25% received a score higher than 1180. Hunter College Open Line Fall 2007 Hunter is also known as one of the more affordable schools in the Manhattan area providing low-cost, yet high quality education. In 2006, Hunter was listed in Barron's "Best Buys in College Education"—the only CUNY school to receive such recognition—as a "dynamic college, with an energy that makes the campus sizzle." Hunter students graduate from the college with one of the lowest debt-loads in the country, and are frequent recipients of prestigious prizes and awards, including Fulbright and Mellon Fellowships. Additionally, they are regularly accepted into graduate programs at the nation's most prestigious universities. Honors Hunter offers several honors programs, including the Macaulay Honors College and the Thomas Hunter Honors Program. The Honors College, a CUNY-wide honors program, supports the undergraduate education of academically gifted students. University Scholars benefit from personalized advising, access to internships, and study abroad opportunities. All scholars at Hunter are given the choice of either a free dormitory room at the Brookdale Campus or a yearly stipend. http://macaulay.cuny.edu/campuses/hunter.php, "Macaulay Honors College at CUNY-Hunter College", 12/1/07 This year, over 1,000 applicants with an average score of 1354 applied to the program at Hunter. The Thomas Hunter Honors Program offers topical interdisciplinary seminars and academic concentrations designed to meet students’ individual interests. The program is open to outstanding students pursuing a BA and is orchestrated under the supervision of an Honors Council. It can be combined with, or replace, a formal departmental major/minor. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/honors/, "Thomas Hunter Honors Program", 12/1/07 In addition to these honors programs, several honors societies are based at Hunter, including Phi Beta Kappa (PBK). A small percentage of Hunter students are invited to join Hunter's Nu chapter of PBK, which has existed at the college since 1920. Less than 10% of the nation's liberal arts colleges qualify academically for a PBK chapter. Student life Student Governance The Hunter College student body is governed by the Undergraduate Student Government (USG; web site currently under construction) and the Graduate Student Association (GSA), both of which offer a wide range of activities and services. Hunter College Model United Nations Hunter College currently has two bodies that participate in Model United Nations Conferences. There is the United Nations Student Association (UNSA) and there is the option to participate in Model United Nations Conferences as a course in the Department of Political Science under the Direction of Professor Pamela Falk. UNSA is a student run Model UN team founded as a club in 1999 and averages about 25 participants from year to year. From 2002-2004 UNSA held their own Model UN conferences for High School students. In January of 2003, High school students from New York City, Canada, and India were delegates during the second annual Columbia Model United Nations Conference and Exposition (CMUNCE) at Hunter College. The conference, joint sponsored by UNSA and Columbia University Model United Nations Club, featured Ambassador Luis Alfonso de Alba, representative of Mexico to the U.N. The club has accumulated many awards since it was founded. Recently, UNSA has paticipated at the National Model United Nations conferences held at the U.N. Headquarters in the Spring of 2008 and the Spring of 2009. Representatives to conferences are chosen based on their their merit of participation in simulations and submitted papers. The Hunter College Model U.N. course was founded by Professor Pamela Falk in the Spring of 2008. In addition to serving as Faculty Advisor, Professor Falk teaches International Law and is the U.N. correspondent for CBS News. Currently there is a waiting list for students interested in joining the team. The Hunter College Model UN Team competed at Yale University's 31st Annual Security Council Simulation. Students competed on 14 different committees. Some of these committees are current, while others are historic. Other conferences the the course has participated in include, Harvard Nationa MUN (HNMUN), National Model United Nations (NMUN), and Columbia MUN (CMUNCE.) Participants in the class have been honored with many awards in the conferences in which they participate. Most recently they have been honored by college with the Amelia Ottinger Award for Excellence in Public Debate. A handful of students who have taken the course have gone on to work for the United Nations after graduation. Clubs Hunter offers approximately 150 clubs that reflect the diverse interests of its student body. These organizations range from the academic to the athletic, and from the religious/spiritual to the visual and performing arts. There are even clubs based around specific interests, such as "Russian Club", which offers a look at Russian life and culture and "InterVarsity Christian Fellowship" an organization whose vision is to "transform students and faculty, renew the campus, and develop world changers." http://ivcfnynj.org/ Greek Life Due to a mostly commuter student body and a lack of a sense of community, common in the public and private colleges in New York City, Greek life at Hunter has recently been on the rise. There is a chapter of Alpha Phi Omega - the nation's largest service fraternity, a few African-American fraternities, a local service sorority by the name of Zeta Phi Alpha, a multicultural sorority that builds leadership in women, Mu Sigma Upsilon, several small sororities including Alpha Sigma, and Delta Pi Sigma, and there are even a few students working on establishing a chapter of Kappa Sigma , the nation's largest social fraternity. New to the Hunter College Greek life is also Nu Phi Delta. Nu Phi Delta is a new multicultural social fraternity founded in 2008 at Hunter College. www.nuphidelta.tk There is also a chapter of Gamma Ce Upsilon at Hunter, the nation's first non-Greek Latina sorority. Student media Hunter College had a campus radio station, WHCS, which broadcasted at 590AM. WHCS radio It is currently in the process of becoming an online radio station. The Envoy is the main campus newspaper, published bi-weekly during the academic year. Other publications include The Olivetree Review (literature and art), the WORD The WORD (news), Hunter Anonymous Hunter Anonymous the Wistarion (yearbook), SABOR (Spanish language), Revista De La Academia (Spanish language), The Islamic Times, The Shield (African-American interest), Political Paradigm (political science), Psych News (psychology), Hakol (Jewish interest), and Spoof (humor). Student Activities: Media Athletics At Hunter, athletics are considered complementary to a student's education. Hunter is a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and competes at the Division III level. The Athletic Program offers 20 sports for men and women, from basketball to fencing, with the majority competing in the City University of New York Athletic Conference Hunter is also a member of the Eastern Collegiate Athletic Conference (ECAC), the largest athletic conference in the country. http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/athletics/athlinfo/index.shtml#2, "All About Athletics", 12/1/07 According to the CUNY website, “Hunter offers what is widely considered the premier athletic program in the City University of New York.” http://www1.cuny.edu/about/colleges/hunter.html, "Hunter College", 12/1/07 The Hunter College's intercollegiate athletic teams have had a legacy of success in recent decades at the conference, regional, and national levels of competition. Hunter has been the dominant institution in the City University of New York Athletic Conference since 1990 (CUNYAC). Current issues Academic freedom In recent years, but particularly after the September 11, 2001 attacks, conservative students and faculty nationwide have rallied around David Horowitz and his arguments that colleges by and large impose a liberal agenda. As a result, colleges have come under pressure to adopt codes of academic freedom to ensure that professors do not impose their own beliefs on to students who may disagree with them politically. Conversely, many professors have expressed concern that college administrators are retaliating against faculty members who dissent either on administrative or political issues. Nonetheless, the College Republicans are a small and rarely visible aspect of the college campus. Liberal or left-wing clubs are far older and well-organized. At Hunter, the College Senate (consisting of student government, faculty, and administrators) established a committee in 2004 to investigate issues of academic freedom. Office of the Hunter College Senate, Report of the Senate Select Committee on Academic Freedom, February 1, 2006. The committee found that no faculty member was "pressured to make changes in the content or form of their classroom teaching." However, the committee did report allegations that departmental administrators imposed certain policies without a basis in student need and without consultation with faculty. The committee further reported on allegations that administrators unduly influenced faculty hiring and tenure decisions, bypassing formal governance procedures. Finally, the committee found that a "perception of a climate of fear" has dissuaded some faculty from engaging in discussions about college policy. Additionally, PSC-CUNY, the faculty labor union, was charged by the American Association of University Professors (AAUP) in 2005 to conduct a survey of academic freedom among faculty in furtherance of the findings of the College Senate committee. PSC-CUNY, HUNTER COLLEGE ACADEMIC FREEDOM SURVEY The survey was conducted in 2006 and found that "only 22 percent of the respondents were satisfied in the faculty's role in shared governance", and only "44 percent ... agreed that the campus climate supports their personal freedom of expression." The survey also found that "23 percent of the respondents, and 30 percent of the full-time tenured faculty, said they had been subject to reprisals from the president or senior administrators." Finally, the survey found that "the faculty and staff have not had influence on major institutional issues in recent years", due to the failure of administrators to properly integrate faculty input. Some professors have expressed concerns as to the accuracy of the PSC/AAUP survey, claiming that its questions were biased and it was developed without a transparent process.<ref>A Scam in the Works?], The Word, April 2, 2006.</ref> Manhattan/Hunter College Science High School As a partnership with the New York City Department of Education, the Manhattan/Hunter College Science High School was opened in 2003 on the campus of the former Martin Luther King, Jr. High School on the Upper West Side. Unlike Hunter's campus schools, Hunter Science does not require an entrance exam for admission. Manhattan/Hunter College High School for Science at InsideSchools.org. Curriculum The Economics Department has been successful in promoting a highly rigorous curriculum with high academic standards, all without any noteworthy negative feedback from students. The Accounting & Economics undergraduate degree programs have actively hired a collection of highly-talented faculty members to go along with the two demanding programs. Both faculty members and students note that a perfect (4.0) academic record with either an Accounting or Economics major might not be realistic due to the difficulty and demanding standards of the department, but the payoff is well-noted when graduates enter the workforce or move on to graduate schools. Although the Accounting degree does not allow for a second major or minors, students of both majors commonly minor in Mathematics & Statistics for a successful transition into Business School or a Graduate Finance program, while those interested in Law School or Public Policy commonly select to minor in Philosophy and/or Political Science. Julia Richman Education Complex The college is currently raising funds to purchase the Julia Richman Education Complex (JREC), a public high school building, with plans to raze it and build a science building on the site. JREC's location at East 67th Street at Second Avenue, near Hunter's main 68th Street campus, makes the site attractive for the college's expansion. College president Jennifer Raab and opponents of the expansion have traded opinion articles in local newspapers throughout 2006. See the "Save JREC" website and Hunter-L (college listserv) postings by Prof. Claus Mueller and Prof. Roger Persell for more information. In 2007, the college launched a website promoting the new science building. Science & Health Professions Building According to the site, Hunter's science departments at the Brookdale campus will essentially trade locations with the schools of the Julia Richman complex. Frequently Asked Questions It is a controversial plan which the educators of the Julia Richman Complex have denounced. Community members and local elected officials, including city councilmember Jessica Lappin and State Senator Liz Krueger, have formally voiced their opposition to the plan, Save JREC website saying that "a preference by one CUNY school for expansion convenient to its existing campus is simply not a sufficient rationale" to "uproot six outstanding public schools." See Sen. Krueger and Assemblyman Kellner's letter to Chancellor Klein and Chancellor Goldstein at the Save JREC website . Notable alumni Art Robert Altman (photographer) Jules de Balincourt - artist (painter) Ryan Humphrey - competitor on Bravo's first season of Top Design. Eliminated in episode 5. Received an MFA in 1999. Nick Valensi - musician and guitarist for The Strokes Terrance Lindall - artist (surrealist) Nikolai Fraiture - musician and bassist for The Strokes Robert Morris - artist (sculptor) Enoc Perez - artist (painter) Hugo Bastidas - artist (painter) Sylvie G. Covey - artist (printmaking, lithography) Michael Pellettieri - artist (printmaking) William Crow - artist (painter) Kathleen Kucka - artist (painter) Fanny Kaufman Casher - artist and founder of the Bronx Museum of the Arts Liz Story - artist (pianist) - attended Entertainment and sports Martina Arroyo - opera singer Ellen Barkin - actress James Bethea - producer/television executive Inna Brayer - ballroom dance champion Edward Burns - actor Julia Chernetsky - television host, model Bobby Darin - musician Ruby Dee - actress Vin Diesel - actor Hugh Downs - television host Nikolai Fraiture - musician and bassist for The Strokes Wilson Jermaine Heredia - Tony Award-winning actor Jake Hurwitz - web comedian and actor from Collegehumor.com and Jake and Amir Richard Jeni - comedian Natasha Leggero - actress/comedian Leigh Lezark - member of DJ trio the Misshapes Jill Matthews - boxer and musician Julianne Nicholson - actor on Law & Order: Criminal Intent, did not graduate Antonia Pantoja - Puerto Rican community leader, founder of Boricua College Rhea Perlman - actress Judy Reyes - actress Esther Rolle - actress Ron Rothstein - basketball coach Mirko Savone - actor and voice-over Robert Smigel - comedic writer/actor Jean Stapleton - actress Trevor "Troi" Torain - radio personality (Star of Star & Buc Wild), did not graduate Nick Valensi - musician and guitarist for The Strokes J. Buzz Von Ornsteiner - Forensic Psychologist/Television Personality Chad Hunt - gay pornstar Government, politics, and social issues Bella Abzug - Congresswoman and women's rights advocate Charles Barron - New York City Council member Keiko Bonk - activist, artist, politician, and highest-ranking elected Green Party member in the United States Carmen Beauchamp Ciparick - New York State Court of Appeals Judge Roger Manno - Maryland politician Soia Mentschikoff - attorney and law professor who worked on the Uniform Commercial Code Thomas P. Noonan, Jr. Medal of Honor USMC Vietnam Larry Seidlin - Broward County, Florida Judge, presided over Anna Nicole Smith's estate Donna Shalala - United States Secretary of Health and Human Services under Bill Clinton, 10th President of Hunter College (1980-1988) John Timoney - Chief of Police of Miami, Florida Glen T. Martin - Radford University philosophy professor, CounterPunch contributor, and President of International Philosophers for Peace Virginia Martinez - Louisiana politician Literature Mohamad Bazzi - Journalist Maurice Berger - cultural critic Peter Carey - writer Colin Channer - writer, musician, co-founder of Calabash International Literary Festival Trust Martin Greif - writer, publisher, former Managing Editor of Time-Life Books Ada Louise Huxtable - writer, Pulitzer Prize-winning architectural critic Audre Lorde - poet Grace Paley - writer - attended Sylvia Field Porter - economist/journalist, former Financial Editor of the New York Post Sonia Sanchez - poet Augusta Huiell Seaman - writer Ned Vizzini - writer Science and technology Susan Bershad - Well-known dermatologist Gertrude Elion - Nobel Laureate in medicine Erich Jarvis - neurobiologist, Duke University Medical Center researcher Rosalyn Yalow - Nobel Laureate in medicine Mildred Dresselhaus - National Medal of Science recipient, Institute Professor at MIT Arlie Petters - astrophysicist Notable faculty Meena Alexander, poet Jacob Appel, medical historian and bioethicist. Peter Carey (novelist) an internationally renowned novelist, who has won the Booker Prize twice. Roy DeCarava, photographer, cofounder in 1963, of the Kamoinge Workshop in New York City. Distinguished Professor of Arts at Hunter. Emil Draitser author Nathan Englander, (novelist) is the author of For the Relief of Unbearable Urges (Knopf, 1999) and The Ministry of Special Cases (Random House, 2007). He is the recipient of the PEN/Faulkner Malamud Award. H. Wiley Hitchcock, musicologist Eva Hoffman, (writer) is a Polish writer whose books include Lost in Translation: A Life in a New Language and After Such Knowledge: Memory, History and the Legacy of the Holocaust. Tina Howe, American playwright. Bo Lawergren, physicist and musicologist Jan Heller Levi, American poet Colum McCann, novelist Leonard Peikoff, Ayn Rand's intellectual heir and founder of the Ayn Rand Institute, taught philosophy at Hunter College for approximately ten years. Blake Schwarzenbach, singer/guitarist of Jawbreaker and Jets to Brazil, currently teaches creative writing classes at Hunter. Tom Sleigh, (poet) is the author of six volumes of poetry, and is the recipient of numerous literary awards including, most recently, the 2008 Kingsley Tufts Award worth $100,000. Tony Smith (sculptor) Leo Steinberg, American Art Historian. John Kennedy Toole, late professor and author of the posthumously published Pulitzer Prize winning novel A Confederacy of Dunces. In fiction In the movie The Fisher King the character portrayed by Robin Williams was a History professor at Hunter prior to the tragic event he experienced A scene for the 2004 film The Interpreter was filmed at the Brookdale Campus. Campuses Open Their Doors for Film Shoots, Gaining Revenue for Programs and Exposure, CUNY Matters, Summer 2006. The comic A Couple of Guys features a character, Hector Velázquez, who is a fictional student of Hunter College. The Hunter College Book Store is mentioned in Woody Allen's short story, "The Whore of Mensa", published in Without Feathers. The fictional novel Bodega Dreams by Ernesto Quinonez (who studied writing at City College) features two characters, a young married couple, who are both fictional students of Hunter College. This book is used in High School and College curriculum as required reading. Bob Corbett's Home Page. The CW show Gossip Girl featured the main characters taking the at Hunter. References External links Hunter College[http://books.google.com/books?id=mzMqUAoAvhYC From the Free Academy to Cuny: Illustrating Public Higher Education in New York City, 1847-1997'', by Sandra S. 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6,232 | Alexis_Carrel | Alexis Carrel (June 28, 1873 – November 5, 1944) was a French surgeon, biologist and eugenicist, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912. Biography Born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon , Lyon, Carrel received his medical degree from Université de Lyon, and practiced in France and in the United States at the University of Chicago and the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research. He developed new techniques in vascular sutures and was a pioneer in transplantology and thoracic surgery. Alexis Carrel was also a member of learned societies in the U.S., Spain, Russia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Vatican City, Germany, Italy and Greece and received honorary doctorates from Queen's University of Belfast, Princeton University, California, New York, Brown University and Columbia University. He collaborated with American physician Charles Claude Guthrie in work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the head, and Carrel was awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for these efforts. Nobelprize.org Due to his close proximity with Jacques Doriot's fascist Parti Populaire Français (PPF) during the 1930s and his role in implementing eugenics policies during Vichy France, he was accused after the Liberation of collaborationism, but died before the trial. Contributions to science Suturing blood vessels During World War I (1914-1918), Carrel and the English chemist Henry Drysdale Dakin developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds based on chlorine (Dakin's solution) which, preceding the development of antibiotics, was a major medical advance in the care of traumatic wounds. For this, Carrel was awarded the Légion d'honneur. Organ transplants Carrel co-authored a book with famed pilot Charles A. Lindbergh, The Culture of Organs, and worked with Lindbergh in the mid-1930s to create the "perfusion pump," which allowed living organs to exist outside of the body during surgery. The advance is said to have been a crucial step in the development of open-heart surgery and organ transplants, and to have laid the groundwork for the artificial heart, which became a reality decades later. Red Gold . Innovators & Pioneers . Alexis Carrel | PBS Some critics of Lindbergh claimed that Carrel overstated Lindbergh's role to gain media attention, (Wallace, American Axis p. 101) but other sources say Lindbergh played an important role in developing the device The Doric Column - Lindbergh & Carrel, organ perfusion, tissue culture, transplants, gene therapy The "Lone Eagle's" Contribution to Cardiology . Both Lindbergh and Carrel appeared on the cover of Time magazine on June 13, 1938. Cellular senescence Carrel was also interested in the phenomenon of senescence, or aging. He claimed that all cells continued to grow indefinitely, and this became a dominant view in the early twentieth century. ; page 24. Carrel was especially famous for an experiment begun on January 17, 1912. To defend his idea, Carrel placed tissue cultured from an embryonic chicken heart in a stoppered Pyrex flask of his own design, and maintained the living culture for over 20 years with regular supplies of nutrient. This was longer than a chicken's normal lifespan. The experiment, which was conducted at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, attracted considerable popular and scientific attention. Carrel's famous experiment was never fully replicated (although other researchers obtained mutated "immortal" strains), and in the 1960s research by Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead proposed that earlier researchers were wrong, and that differentiated cells can only undergo a limited number of divisions before dying. This is known as the Hayflick limit, and is now a pillar of biology. It is not certain how Carrel obtained his anomalous results. Leonard Hayflick suggests that the daily feeding of nutrient was continually introducing new living cells to the alleged immortal culture. J. A. Witkowski has argued that, while "immortal" strains of visibly mutated cells have been obtained by other experimenters, a more likely explanation is deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture, possibly without Carrel's knowledge. Witkowsky explanation is actually based on the account of a visiting medical researcher, Ralph Buchbaum, who reports being told by a technician in Carrel's lab "Dr. Carrel would be so upset if we lost the strain, we just add a few embryo cells now and then". After the first six months, Carrel's colleague Albert Ebeling had actually taken charge of the cultures and published several papers about their development, until they were eventually discarded in 1946. Witkowsky, in "Dr. Carrel's immortal cells", op. cit., quotes Buchbaum's account. At the end Buchbaum writes that "I told this story, of my visit to Carrel's laboratory, to various people. Dr. Bloom (Buchbaum's director of research in Chicago)refused to believe it. Others chuckled gleefully. Dr. Carrel was to blame only in that he did not keep on top of what was really going on in the laboratory (mostly, he wrote the papers). Dr. Parker and Dr. Ebeling probably suspected something, hence the "retirement". In the interest of truth and science, the incident should have been thoroughly investigated. If it had been, some heads might have rolled, sacrificed to devotion to a wrong hypothesis - immortality of cell strains.". Witkowsky also reports a Dr. Margaret Murray telling him that "one of Carrel's technicians of that time was passionately anti-fascist and detested Carrel's political and social ideas" and expressing her belief that "that this technician would willingly have discredited Carrel scientifically if possible.". Honors In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series. The Nobel Stamps of 1972 In 1979, the lunar crater Carrel was named after him as a tribute to his scientific breakthroughs. In February 2002 the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston, within the celebrations for the Lindbergh 100th birthday established the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize, Charles Lindbergh Symposium given to major contributors to "development of perfusion and bioreactor technologies for organ preservation and growth". M. E. DeBakey and 9 other scientists Charles Lindbergh Symposium received the prize, a bronze statuette espressly created for the event by the Italian artist C. Zoli and named "Elisabeth" Foundation Alexis Carrel for thoracic and cardiovascular researches after Elisabeth Morrow, sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow, died due to heart disease. Lindbergh in fact was disappointed that contemporary medical technology could not provide an artificial heart pump which would allow for heart surgery on her and that gave the occasion for the first contact between Carrel and Lindbergh. Man, The Unknown (1935) In 1935, Carrel published a best-selling book titled L'Homme, cet inconnu (Man, The Unknown) which advocated, in part, that mankind could better itself by following the guidance of an elite group of intellectuals, and by implementing a regime of enforced eugenics. Sociologist Roger Caillois quoted and paraphrased L'Homme, cet inconnu in The Edge of Surrealism: " '(p)resent-day proletarians owe their status to inherited intellectual and physical defects' (sancta simplicitas). And he [Carrel] suggests that this state of affairs should be accentuated through appropriate measures, so as to correlate social and biological inequalities more precisely. Society would then be directed by a hereditary aristocracy composed of descendants from the Crusaders, the heroes of the Revolution, the great criminals, the financial and industrial magnates" (p. 360). Carrel advocated the use of gas chambers to rid humanity of "inferior stock", thus endorsing the scientific racism discourse. His endorsement of this idea began in the mid-1930s, prior to the Nazi implementation of such practices in Germany. In the 1936 German introduction of his book, at the publishers request, he added the following praise of the Nazi regime which did not appear in the editions in other languages: "(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous." Quoted in Reggiani, p. 339 Carrel also wrote: "(t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts.". quoted on p. 11 of Szasz as A.Carrel, Man, The Unknown (Harper and Brothers, NY; (1950)) The French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems In 1937, Carrel joined Jean Coutrot’s Centre d’Etudes des Problèmes Humains - Coutrot’s aim was to develop what he called an "economic humanism" through "collective thinking." In 1941, through connections to the cabinet of Marshal Philippe Pétain (specifically, French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier) he went on to advocate for the creation of the Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes Humains (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems) which was created by decree of the Vichy regime in 1941, and where he served as 'regent'. (see Andrés Horacio Reggiani, Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy, as well as Caillois, p. 107) The foundation was at the origin of the October 11, 1946 law, enacted by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF), which institutionalized the field of occupational medicine. It worked on demographics (Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois-Pichat), on economics, (François Perroux), on nutrition (Jean Sutter), on habitation (Jean Merlet) and on the first opinion polls (Jean Stoetzel). "The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs—roughly one franc per inhabitant—a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation’s resources. By way of comparison, the whole Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs." (Reggiani) According to Gwen Terrenoire, writing in Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings, "The foundation was a pluridisciplinary centre that employed around 300 researchers (mainly statisticians, psychologists, physicians) from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944. After the liberation of Paris, Carrel was suspended by the Minister of Health; he died in November 1944, but the Foundation itself was "purged", only to reappear in a short time as the Institut national d’études démographiques (INED) that is still active." Gwen Terrenoire, "Eugenics in France (1913-1941): a review of research findings", Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 2003) Although Carrel himself died on November 5, 1944, most members of his team did move to the INED, which was led by famous demographist Alfred Sauvy, who coined the expression "Third World". Others joined Robert Debré's "Institut national d'hygiène" (National Hygiene Institute), which later became the INSERM. 1990s-2000s debates concerning Carrel Some left-wing scholars, such as Lucien Bonnafé (who belongs to the French Communist Party), Patrick Tort and Max Lafont have accused Carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under Vichy. They argue that this policy was inspired by Carrel's advocacy of eugenics. Carrel's association with Vichy, and the harshness of his advocacy for eugenics, has led to his descent from fame to obscurity. In recent years, Jean-Marie le Pen, leader of the far-right Front National party ("National Front"), has become an advocate for Carrel, referring to him as "the first environmentalist, or, if you will, the first modern ecologist, precisely because he committed himself to defining the relationships of natural harmony.". Jean-Marie Le Pen, L'Espoir 133-134, cited in Golson, Fascism's Return) His writings on eugenics are studied "avidly in the training camps of the National Front". (Lucien Bonnafé and Patrick Tort, L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz ISBN 978-2907993142) In the 1990s, the attention the National Front's support brought to Carrel's fascist associations and controversial views created a series of controversies with respect to streets and institutions named in honor of Carrel. Over 20 French cities and towns, including Paris, renamed streets previously named for Carrel. The controversy came to a head in Lyon, the city next to his birthplace, where he studied medicine. One of the four medicine faculties of the university Claude Bernard - Lyon I had been named in his honor in 1968. Lyon libération questioned the wisdom of this. In response to this, in May 1995, the Palais des Congrès of Lyon hosted a conference on Carrel and scientific racism at which several of the participants accused the inquiry commission of whitewashing the controversial scientist. In early 1996, after five years of embarrassing publicity, the governing board of the University of Lyon decided to rename its school of medicine after René Laënnec, inventor of the stethoscope." French Historical Studies - Sign In Page In the United States as well as in France, the 1990s were not kind to Carrel's reputation. In an interview for PBS' The American Experience, historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. blamed Carrel for Charles Lindbergh's increasing racism in the 1930s. Schlesinger stated in response to a question concerning the source of Lindbergh's beliefs on this subject: "I suppose he got a lot of it from Alexis Carrel, the French biologist who had a kind of racial mysticism of a sort." PBS, interview with Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. Alexis Carrel and Lourdes Alexis Carrel went from being a skeptic of the visions and miracles reported at Lourdes to being a believer after experiencing a healing he could not explain. Rev. Stanley Jaki Two Lourdes Miracles and a Nobel Laureate: What Really Happened? To the detriment of his career and reputation among his fellow doctors, he steadfastly reiterated his beliefs, and even wrote a book describing his experience. Alexis Carrel, The Voyage to Lourdes (New York, Harper & Row, 1939). See also Eugenics Charles Lindbergh External links Web page about Alexis Carrel Nobel Prize presentation speech to Dr. Carrel Nobel Prize biography of Dr. Carrel Research Foundation entitled to Alexis Carrel Time Magazine, Oct. 16, 1944 Death of Alexis Carrel Time Magazine Nov. 13, 1944 Sources Carrel, Alexis. Man, The Unknown. New York and London: Harper and Brothers. 1935. Feuerwerker, Elie. Alexis Carrel et l'eugénisme. Le Monde, 1er Juillet 1986. Andrés Horacio Reggiani. Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy (FRENCH HISTORICAL STUDIES 25:2 SPRING 2002) Wallace, Max. The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003. Szasz, Thomas. The Theology of Medicine New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977. Ali, Tariq. Clash of Fundamentalisms Verso, London, 2002 Choueiri, Youssef. Islamic Fundamentalism Continuum International Publishing Group, London, 2002. Walther, Rudolph. Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel, DIE ZEIT 31.07.2003 Nr.32 Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel: Wie ein katholischer Arzt aus Frankreich zum Vordenker der radikalen Islamisten wurde | Nachrichten auf ZEIT ONLINE Bonnafé, Lucien and Tort, Patrick. L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz Editions Syllepse, 1996. Amazon.fr: L'Homme cet inconnu ? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie Le Pen et les Chambres à gaz: Lucien Bonnafé, Patrick Tort: Livres ISBN 2907993143 Abu-Rabi, Ibrahim M. Intellectual Origins of Islamic Resurgence, SUNY Press, Albany, 1996 Azmeh, Aziz (Aziz Al-Azmeh). Islams and Modernities Verso, London, 1993. Berman, Paul. Terror and Liberalism W. W. Norton, 2003 David Zane Mairowitz. "Fascism à la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity", Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997 Pioneers of Islamic Revival (edited by Ali Rahnema), Zed Books, London 1994 Schneider, William. Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France, Cambridge Studies in the History of Medicine (chap. 7 French eugenics in the thirties; and 10 Vichy and after) Terrenoire, Gwen, CNRS. Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, March 24, 2003 Comité de Liaison ONG-UNESCO References | Alexis_Carrel |@lemmatized alexis:18 carrel:69 june:2 november:3 french:11 surgeon:1 biologist:2 eugenicist:1 award:3 nobel:7 prize:6 physiology:2 medicine:8 biography:2 bear:1 sainte:1 foy:1 lès:1 lyon:8 receive:3 medical:7 degree:1 université:1 de:7 practice:2 france:9 united:2 state:4 university:9 chicago:2 rockefeller:2 institute:3 research:11 develop:4 new:8 technique:1 vascular:2 suture:3 pioneer:3 transplantology:1 thoracic:2 surgery:4 also:5 member:2 learned:1 society:2 u:1 spain:1 russia:1 sweden:1 netherlands:1 belgium:1 vatican:1 city:3 germany:2 italy:1 greece:1 honorary:1 doctorate:1 queen:1 belfast:1 princeton:1 california:1 york:5 brown:1 columbia:1 collaborate:1 american:4 physician:3 charles:7 claude:2 guthrie:1 work:3 transplantation:1 blood:2 vessel:2 organ:7 well:3 head:3 effort:1 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6,233 | James_L._Jones | James Logan Jones Jr. (born 19 December 1943) is the current United States National Security Advisor and a retired United States Marine Corps four-star general. During his military career, he served as Commander, United States European Command (COMUSEUCOM) and Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) from 2003 to 2006 and as the 32nd Commandant of the Marine Corps from July 1999 to January 2003. Jones retired from the Marine Corps on February 1, 2007, after 40 years of service. After retiring from the Marine Corps, Jones remained involved in national security and foreign policy issues. In 2007, Jones served as chairman of the Congressional Independent Commission on the Security Forces of Iraq, which investigated the capabilities of the Iraqi police and armed forces. In November 2007, he was appointed by the U.S. Secretary of State as special envoy for Middle East security. He served as chairman of the Atlantic Council of the United States from June 2007 to January 2009, when he assumed the post of National Security Advisor. Early life James Logan Jones Jr. was born in Kansas City, Missouri. He is the son of James L. Jones, Sr., a decorated Marine in World War II who was an officer in the Observer Group and the commanding officer of its successor, the Amphibious Reconnaissance Battalion. Having spent his formative years in France, where he attended the American School of Paris, he returned to the United States to attend the Georgetown University Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, from which he received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1966. Jones, who is six feet four inches (1.93 m) tall, played forward on the Georgetown Hoyas men's basketball team. Military career Early career In January 1967, Jones was commissioned a second lieutenant in the U.S. Marine Corps. Upon completion of The Basic School at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, in October 1967, he was ordered to the Republic of Vietnam, where he served as a platoon and company commander with Golf Company, 2nd Battalion, 3rd Marines. While overseas, he was promoted to first lieutenant in June 1968. Returning to the United States in December 1968, Jones was assigned to Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California, where he served as a company commander until May 1970. He then received orders to Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., for duties as a company commander, serving in this assignment until July 1973. While at this post (December 1970) he was promoted to captain. From July 1973 until June 1974, he was a student at the Amphibious Warfare School, Marine Corps University, MCB Quantico, Virginia. In November 1974, he received orders to report to the 3rd Marine Division at MCB Camp Butler, Okinawa, Japan, where he served as the commander of Company H, 2nd Battalion, 9th Marines, until December 1975. From January 1976 to August 1979, Jones served in the Officer Assignments Section at Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. During this assignment, he was promoted to major in July 1977. Remaining in Washington, his next assignment was as the Marine Corps liaison officer to the United States Senate, where he served until July 1984. In this assignment, his first boss was John McCain, then a U.S. Navy captain. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel in September 1982 Senior staff and command He was selected to attend the National War College in Washington, D.C. Following graduation in June 1985, he was assigned to command the 3rd Battalion, 9th Marines, 1st Marine Division, at Camp Pendleton, California, from July 1985 to July 1987. In August 1987, Jones returned to Headquarters Marine Corps, where he served as senior aide to the commandant of the Marine Corps. He was promoted to colonel in April 1988, and became the military secretary to the commandant in February 1989. During August 1990, Jones was assigned as the commanding officer of the 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit (24th MEU) at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. During his tour with the 24th MEU, he participated in Operation Provide Comfort in Northern Iraq and Turkey. He was advanced to brigadier general on April 23, 1992. Jones was assigned to duties as deputy director, J-3, U.S European Command, Stuttgart, Germany, on July 15, 1992. During this tour of duty, he was reassigned as chief of staff, Joint Task Force Provide Promise, for operations in Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Republic of Macedonia. Returning to the United States, he was advanced to the rank of major general in July 1994 and was assigned as commanding general, 2nd Marine Division, Marine Forces Atlantic, MCB Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. Jones next served as director, Expeditionary Warfare Division (N85), Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, during 1996, then as the deputy chief of staff for plans, policies, and operations, Headquarters Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. He was advanced to lieutenant general on July 18, 1996. His next assignment was as the military assistant to the Secretary of Defense. Commandant Change of Command ceremony, 13 January 2003. SgtMaj Alford McMichael (left) salutes as General Jones (center) relinquishes command to General Michael Hagee (right).Photo credit: Sgt. Brandon P. O'Brien, USMC. On April 21, 1999, he was nominated for appointment to the grade of general and assignment as the 32nd commandant of the Marine Corps. He was promoted to general on June 30, 1999, and assumed the post on July 1, 1999. He served as commandant until January 2003, turning over the reins to General Michael Hagee. Among other innovations during his career as Marine Corps commandant, Jones oversaw the Marine Corps' development of MARPAT camouflage uniforms, and the adoption of the Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). These replaced M81 Woodland uniforms and the LINE combat system, respectively. SACEUR/EUCOM Deputy Defense Secretary Paul D. Wolfowitz (left) and Jones at press conference on Jones' assumption of command of EUCOM.Photo credit:DoD photo by Maria Higgins. Jones assumed duties as the commander of U.S. European Command on January 16, 2003, and supreme allied commander Europe the following day. He was the first Marine Corps general to serve as SACEUR/EUCOM commander. The Marine Corps had only recently begun to take on a larger share of high-level assignments in the Department of Defense. As of December 2006, Jones was one of five serving Marine Corps four-star general officers who outranked the current commandant of the Marine Corps (General James T. Conway) in terms of seniority and time in grade — the others being Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Peter Pace; former commandant Michael Hagee, commander of U.S. Strategic Command James E. Cartwright, and Assistant Commandant Robert Magnus. As SACEUR, Jones led the Allied Command Operations (ACO), comprising NATO’s military forces in Europe, from the Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, Mons, Belgium, Jones relinquished command as SACEUR on December 7, 2006, and was succeeded by U.S. Army Gen. John Craddock. Jones was reported to have declined an opportunity to succeed Gen. John P. Abizaid as commander of U.S. Central Command, and stepped down as SACEUR on December 4, 2006. He retired from the Marine Corps on February 1, 2007. Awards and decorations Jones' personal decorations include (Foreign and non-U.S. personal and unit decorations are in order of precedence based on military guidelines and award date): First rowDefense Distinguished Service Medal with two oak leaf clustersSilver StarOffice of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification BadgeSecond rowLegion of Merit with four gold starsBronze Star with Valor deviceCombat Action RibbonNavy and Marine Presidential Unit CitationThird rowJoint Meritorious Unit Award with two oak leaf clustersNavy Unit CommendationNational Defense Service Medal with two service starsNavy Meritorious Unit Commendation Ribbon with three service starsFourth rowArmed Forces Expeditionary MedalVietnam Service Medal with four service starsSouthwest Asia Service Medal with service starArmed Forces Service MedalFifth rowHumanitarian Service MedalSea Service Deployment Ribbon with seven service starsNavy and Marine Corps Overseas Service Ribbon with service starNATO Meritorious Service Medal - NATOSixth rowGallantry Cross Regiment Citation with Bronze Star - VietnamLégion d'honneur, Commandeur (Commander) - Ordre national du Mérite, Officier (Officer) - Meritorious Service Cross (Military Division); Post-nominal: M.S.C. - Seventh rowOrder of the Cross of the Eagle, Class 1 (Estonian: Kotkaristi I Klassi Teenetemärk) Order of the Lithuanian Grand Duke Gediminas, Grand Cross of Commander President of the Republic of Lithuania. State Decorations - Ancient Military Order of Aviz, Grand Cross - Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm - VietnamEighth rowVietnam Civil Actions Unit Citation with Palm - VietnamNATO Medal for Yugoslavia - NATO Vietnam Campaign Medal with 1960 date bar - VietnamKuwait Liberation Medal - Kuwait Post-military career Business roles Following his retirement from the military, Jones became president of the Institute for 21st Century Energy, an affiliate of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce; served as chair of the board of directors of the Atlantic Council of the United States from June 2007 until January 2009 when he assumed the post of National Security Advisor. He also served as a member of the guiding coalition for the Project on National Security Reform, as well as chairman of the Independent Commission on Security Forces of Iraq. Jones was a member of the Board of directors of The Boeing Company from June 21, 2007 to December 15, 2008, serving on the company's Audit and Finance Committees. Jones was a member of the Board of directors of Cross Match Technologies, a privately held biometric solutions company, from October 2007 to January 2009. Jones was a member of the Board of directors of Chevron Corporation from May 28, 2008 to December 5, 2008, serving on the Board Nominating and Governance and Public Policy Committees. According to the first report since he re-entered government service in January 2009, Jones earned salary and bonus of $900,000 from the U.S. Chamber, as well as director fees of $330,000 from the Boeing Company and $290,000 from Chevron Corp. "Hedge Fund Paid Summers $5.2 Million in Past Year" by John D. McKinnon and F. W. Farnum, wsj.online, April 4, 2009. Retrieved 4/5/09. Diplomatic roles Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice asked Jones twice to be Deputy Secretary of State after Robert Zoellick resigned. He declined. On May 25, 2007, Congress created an Independent Commission on the Security Forces of Iraq to investigate for 120 days the capabilities of the Iraq armed forces and police. P.L. 110-28 § 1314(e)(2). Jones served as chairman of that commission and reported on Congress on September 6, 2007 noting serious deficiencies in the Iraq Interior Ministry and in the Iraq National Police. Rice appointed Jones as a special envoy for Middle East security on November 28, 2007, working with Israelis and Palestinians to strengthen security for both sides. National Security Advisor On December 1, 2008 then-President-elect Obama announced Jones as his selection for National Security Advisor. The National Security Advisor is appointed by the President without confirmation by the United States Senate. The pick surprised people because, as Michael Crowley reported "The two men didn't meet until Obama's foreign policy aide, Mark Lippert, arranged a 2005 sit-down, and, as of this October, Jones had only spoken to Obama twice." Crowley speculated that Jones' record suggests he is "someone who, unencumbered by strong ideological leanings, can evaluate ideas dispassionately whether they come from left or right," and, "This is probably why Obama picked him." Jones was also picked because he is well-respected and likely to possess the skills to navigate the other prestigious and powerful cabinet members. "He does not appear to be a natural antagonist of anyone else on the team. Though he doesn't know Gates especially well, both men share long experience in the national security establishment (Gates was in the Air Force and previously headed the CIA). Jones and Clinton have a more direct connection, having bonded — as Hillary did with many military officials — during her tenure on the Senate Armed Services Committee. The two are said to have particularly clicked at a 2005 conference on security policy in Munich. Jones hosted a small private dinner that included Clinton and South Carolina Republican Senator Lindsey Graham, among others; at the end of the convivial evening, according to one person present, Jones followed Clinton out to her car to exchange private words. (Jones's relationship with Susan Rice remains a question mark.)" Jones assumed the post when Obama was sworn into office on January 20, 2009. Personal style Former U.S. Secretary of Defense William Cohen, who hired Jones as his military assistant, is quoted as saying Jones has a placid demeanor and a “methodical approach to problems — he’s able to view issues at both the strategic and tactical level.” Quotes Speaking to Marines in July 1999, shortly after assuming the post of commandant: Jones stated in a speech at the 45th Munich Conference on Security Policy at the Hotel Bayerischer Hof on February 8, 2009: A transcript of the speech is posted on the Council on Foreign Relations website. See also James L. Jones, Sr., decorated World War II Marine Corps officer, father of General James L. Jones, Jr. William K. Jones, decorated Marine Corps lieutenant general, served in combat in three wars; uncle of General James L. Jones Notes References Official Biography for James L. Jones, General Officer Biographies, United States Marine Corps. Accessed on 2006-07-11]]. SACEUR General James L. Jones, SHAPE Biographies, Allied Command Operations, NATO. Accessed on 2006-07-11. 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6,234 | Danse_Macabre | The Dance of Death (1493) by Michael Wolgemut, from the Liber chronicarum by Hartmann Schedel. Dance of Death, also variously called Danse Macabre (French), Danza Macabra (Italian and Spanish), Dança da Morte (portuguese), or Totentanz (German), is a late-medieval allegory on the universality of death: no matter one's station in life, the dance of death unites all. La Danse Macabre consists of the personified death leading a row of dancing figures from all walks of life to the grave, typically with an emperor, king, youngster, and beautiful girl—all skeletal. They were produced to remind people of how fragile their lives and how vain the glories of earthly life were. Its origins are postulated from illustrated sermon texts; the earliest artistic examples are in a cemetery in Paris from 1424. Paintings Pieter Brueghel the Elder, The Triumph of Death (c.1562) in the Museo del Prado, Madrid. Brueghel was strongly influenced by the style of Hieronymus Bosch. La Danse macabre (Abbot and Bailiff). Paris, Guy Marchant, 1486. The earliest artistic example is from the frescoed cemetery of the Church of the Holy Innocents in Paris (1424). There are also works by Konrad Witz, in Basel (1440); Bernt Notke, in Lübeck (1463); and woodcuts designed by Hans Holbein the Younger and executed by Hans Lützelburger (1538). The deathly horrors of the 14th century—such as recurring famines; the Hundred Years' War in France; and, most of all, the Black Death—were culturally digested throughout Europe. The omnipresent possibility of sudden and painful death increased the religious desire for penitence, but it also evoked a hysterical desire for amusement while still possible; a last dance as cold comfort. The danse macabre combines both desires: similar to the popular mediaeval mystery plays, the dance-with-death allegory was originally a didactic play to remind people of the inevitability of death and to advise them strongly to be prepared all times for death (see memento mori and Ars moriendi). The earliest examples of such plays, which consisted of short dialogues between Death and each of its victims, can be found in the direct aftermath of the Black Death in Germany (where it was known as the Totentanz, and in Spain as la Danza de la Muerte). The French term danse macabre most likely derives from Latin Chorea Machabæorum, literally "dance of the Maccabees." 2 Maccabees, a deuterocanonical book of the Bible in which the grim martyrdom of a mother and her seven sons is described, was a well-known mediaeval subject. It is possible that the Maccabean Martyrs were commemorated in some early French plays or that people just associated the book’s vivid descriptions of the martyrdom with the interaction between Death and its prey. Both the play and the evolving paintings were ostensive penitential sermons that even illiterate people (who were the overwhelming majority) could understand. Furthermore, church frescoes dealing with death had a long tradition and were widespread; e.g., the legend of the three men and the three dead: on a ride, three young gentlemen meet the skeletal remains of three of their ancestors who warn them, Quod fuimus, estis; quod sumus, vos eritis (What we were, you are; what we are, you will be). Numerous if often simple fresco versions of that legend from the 13th century onwards have survived (for instance, in the hospital church of Wismar). Since they showed pictorial sequences of men and skeletons covered with shrouds, those paintings can be regarded as cultural precursors of the new genre. A danse macabre painting normally shows a round dance headed by Death. From the highest ranks of the mediaeval hierarchy (usually pope and emperor) descending to its lowest (beggar, peasant, and child), each mortal’s hand is taken by a skeleton or an extremely decayed body. The famous Totentanz in Lübeck’s Marienkirche (destroyed by an Allied bomb raid in WW II) presented Death as very lively and agile, making the impression that the skeletons were actually dancing, whereas their dancing partners looked clumsy and passive. The apparent class distinction in almost all of these paintings is completely neutralized by Death as the ultimate equalizer, so that a sociocritical element is subtly inherent to the whole genre. The Totentanz of Metzin, for example, shows how a pope crowned with his tiara is being led into hell by the dancing Death. Generally, a short dialogue is attached to each victim, in which Death is summoning him or her to dance and the summoned is moaning about the near-death. In the first printed Totentanz textbook (Anon.: Vierzeiliger oberdeutscher Totentanz, Heidelberger Blockbuch, approx. 1460), Death addresses, for example, the emperor: Her keyser euch hilft nicht das swert Czeptir vnd crone sint hy nicht wert Ich habe euch bey der hand genomen Ir must an meynen reyen komen Emperor, your sword won’t help you out Sceptre and crown are worthless here I’ve taken you by the hand For you must come to my dance At the bottom end of the Totentanz, Death calls, for example, the peasant to dance, and he answers: Ich habe gehabt [vil arbeit gross] Der sweis mir du[rch die haut floss] Noch wolde ich ger[n dem tod empfliehen] Zo habe ich des glu[cks nit hie] I had to work very much and very hard The sweat was running down my skin I’d like to escape death nonetheless But here I won’t have any luck Bernt Notke: Totentanz in St. Nicholas' Church, Tallinn. Printing The earliest known depiction of a print shop appears in a printed image of the Dance of Death, in 1499, in Lyon, by Mattias Huss. It depicts a compositor at his station, which is raised to facilitate his work, and a person running the press. To the right of the print shop, an early book store is shown. Early print shops were gathering places for the literati. Musical settings Musical examples include Danse Macabre by Camille Saint-Saëns, 1874 Mattasin oder Toden Tanz, 1598, by August Nörmiger Totentanz by Franz Liszt, 1849, a set of variations based on the plainchant melody "Dies Irae." Песни и пляски смерти (Songs and Dances of Death), 1875–77, by Modest Mussorgsky Symphony No. 4, 2nd Movement, 1901, by Gustav Mahler Totentanz, Oratorium, 1905, by Felix Woyrsch Totentanz der Prinzipien, 1914, by Arnold Schoenberg Ein Totentanz (Dance of Death), Op. 37, for piano and orchestra, 1931, by Wilhelm Kempff The Green Table (Der grüne Tisch), 1932, ballet by Kurt Jooss Scherzo (Dance of Death), Op.14, in "Ballad of Heroes," 1939, by Benjamin Britten Trio in E minor, Op. 67, 4th movement, "Dance of Death," 1944, by Dmitri Shostakovich Totentanz, Der Kaiser von Atlantis, 1944, by Viktor Ullmann Zombie Jamboree, 1958, by the Kingston Trio, which they state is based upon a theme by Goethe involving the dance of the dead. The song had been originally performed by a number of Calypso artists. Dance of Death, 1964, by John Fahey, a finger-style guitar solo in G minor tuning. An excerpt was used in the film Zabriskie Point. Dance with Death, 1968, by Andrew Hill Black Angels, 1971, by George Crumb. Contains a danse macabre at the end of part one, "Departure." Dancing with Mr. D, 1973, by the Rolling Stones Ballo in Fa diesis minore (Fm), 1977, by Angelo Branduardi Danse Macabre, 1984, by Celtic Frost Totentanz, 1987, by Coroner Danse Macabre, 1994, by Symphony X Totentanz, 1996, by In Extremo Danse macabre, 1996, by Jaromir Nohavica La Danse Macabre, 1996, by Memento Mori The Danse Macabre, 1997, by Hecate Enthroned Danzon Macabre, 1999, by Kennan Wylie (marching percussion feature) Danse Macabre, 2000, by Decapitated Danse Macabre, 2001, by The Faint La Grande Danse Macabre, 2001, by Marduk Dance Macabre, 2002, by Cradle of Filth La Danse Macabre du Vampire, 2002, by Theatres des Vampires, a track of Suicide Vampire Der makabere tanze des vampires, 2002, by Theatres des Vampires, a bonus track of Suicide Vampire in German Dance of Death, 2003, by Iron Maiden Kuolon Tanssi, 2003, by Catamenia Danse Macabre (ダンスマカブラ), 2004, by Plastic Tree Danse Macabre, 2005, by Wintersleep Danse Macabre, 2007, by illScarlett Danse Macabre, 2007, by Blood (band) See also Ars moriendi Memento mori Vanitas Macabre Death (Tarot card) Skeleton (undead) The Skeleton Dance Dancing mania The Seventh Seal Notes References James M. Clark. The Dance of Death in the Middle Ages and Renaissance, 1950. Israil Bercovici. O sută de ani de teatru evriesc în România ("One hundred years of Yiddish/Jewish theater in Romania"), 2nd Romanian-language edition, revised and augmented by Constantin Măciucă. Editura Integral (an imprint of Editurile Universala), Bucharest (1998). ISBN 973-98272-2-5. André Corvisier. Les danses macabres, Presses Universitaires de France, 1998. ISBN 2-13-049495-1. Rich illustrated Latin translation of the Danse macabre, late 15th century. treasure 4 National Library of Romania External links A collection of historical images of the Danse Macabre at Cornell's The Fantastic in Art and Fiction Holbein's Totentanz A collection of 400 paintings of the Dance of Death with the lyrics of Henri Cazalis and the music of Saint Saens at Uzi Dornai's Web Site. Photos from a modern performance of Antonie Svoboda and Mirek Vodrážka in May 2001 in Prague at Hynek Semecký web site. | Danse_Macabre |@lemmatized dance:28 death:35 michael:1 wolgemut:1 liber:1 chronicarum:1 hartmann:1 schedel:1 also:4 variously:1 call:2 danse:23 macabre:26 french:3 danza:2 macabra:1 italian:1 spanish:1 dança:1 da:2 morte:1 portuguese:1 totentanz:16 german:2 late:2 medieval:1 allegory:2 universality:1 matter:1 one:3 station:2 life:4 unites:1 la:7 consist:2 personified:1 lead:2 row:1 figure:1 walk:1 grave:1 typically:1 emperor:4 king:1 youngster:1 beautiful:1 girl:1 skeletal:2 produce:1 remind:2 people:4 fragile:1 vain:1 glory:1 earthly:1 origin:1 postulate:1 illustrated:1 sermon:2 text:1 early:7 artistic:2 example:7 cemetery:2 paris:3 painting:5 pieter:1 brueghel:2 elder:1 triumph:1 c:1 museo:1 del:1 prado:1 madrid:1 strongly:2 influence:1 style:2 hieronymus:1 bosch:1 abbot:1 bailiff:1 guy:1 marchant:1 frescoed:1 church:4 holy:1 innocent:1 work:3 konrad:1 witz:1 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6,235 | Roman_censor | The position of the censor (called censura) was responsible for maintaining the census, supervising public morality, and overseeing certain aspects of the government's finances. The censors' regulation of public morality is the origin of the modern meaning of the words "censor" and "censorship." Creation of the rank The census was first instituted by Servius Tullius sixth king of Rome. After the expulsion of the kings and the founding of the Republic, the census was taken over by consuls until 443 BC. In 442 BC, no consuls were elected, but rather military tribunes with consular power were appointed in their stead; the plebeians were attempting to attain higher magistracies (since only patricians could be consuls, while some military tribunes were plebeians). To stop the plebeians from possibly gaining control of the census, the patricians removed the consuls'—and consequently their representatives, the tribunes—right to take the census, and entrusted it to two magistrates, called censores (English censors), who were to be chosen exclusively from the patricians in Rome. The magistracy continued to be controlled by patricians until 351 BC, when Gaius Marcius Rutilus was appointed the first plebeian censor. Livy vii.22. Twelve years afterwards in 339 BC, one of the Publilian laws required that one censor had to be a plebeian. Livy viii.12. Despite this, no plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people (the "lustrum"; Livy Periochae 13) until 280 BC. In 131 BC, for the first time, both censors were plebeians. There were always two censors, because the two consuls had previously taken the census together. If one of the censors died during the time of his office, another had to be chosen to replace him, just as with consuls. This, however, happened only once, in 393 BC—the Gauls captured Rome in this lustrum (five-year period), so the Romans regarded it as "an offense against religion" thereafter. Livy v.31. From then on, if one of the censors died, his colleague resigned, and two new censors were chosen to replace them. Livy vi.27, ix.34, xxiv.43, xxvii.6. Election The censors were elected in the Centuriate Assembly, which met under the presidency of a consul. Auli Gellii xiii.15; Livy xl.45. Barthold Niebuhr suggests that the censors were at first elected by the Curiate Assembly, and that the Assembly's selections were confirmed by the Centuriate; but William Smith believes that "there is no authority for this supposition, and the truth of it depends entirely upon the correctness of [Niebuhr's] views respecting the election of the consuls". Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished in the same day, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held. Livy ix.34. The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different auspices from those at the election of the consuls and praetors, so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the maxima auspicia. Gellii xiii.15. The assembly was held by the new consuls shortly after they began their term of office; Livy xxiv.10, xxxix.41. and the censors, as soon as they were elected and the censorial power had been granted to them by a decree of the Centuriate Assembly (lex centuriata), were fully installed in their office. Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii.11; Livy xl.45. As a general principle, the only ones eligible for the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but there were a few exceptions. At first, there was no law to prevent a person being censor twice, but the only person who was elected to the office twice was Gaius Marcius Rutilus in 265 BC. In that year, he originated a law stating that no one could be elected censor twice. In consequence of this, he received the surname of Censorinus. Plutarch, Life of Coriolanus 1; Valerius Maximus iv.1 §3. Attributes The censorship differed from all other Roman magistracies in the length of office. The censors were originally chosen for a whole lustrum (the period of five years), but as early as ten years after its institution (433 BC) their office was limited to eighteen months by a law of the dictator Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus. Livy iv.24, ix.33. The censors were also unique with respect to rank and dignity. They had no imperium, and accordingly no lictors. Zonar. vii.19. Their rank was granted to them by the Centuriate Assembly, and not by the curiae, and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors. Cicero, de Lege Agraria ii.11. Notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was a "sacred magistracy" (sanctus magistratus), to which the deepest reverence was due. Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 16, Life of Flaminius 18, Life of Camillus 2, 14, Life of Aemilius 38; Cicero ad Familiares iii.10. The high rank and dignity which the censorship obtained was due to the various important duties gradually entrusted to it, and especially to its possessing the regimen morum, or general control over the conduct and the morals of the citizens. In the exercise of this power, they were regulated solely by their own views of duty, and were not responsible to any other power in the state. Dionys. in Mai, Nova Coll. vol. ii p516; Livy iv.24, xxix.37; Valerius Maximus vii.2 §6. The censors possessed of course the "curule chair" (sella curulis), Livy xl.45. but there is some doubt with respect to their official dress. A well-known passage of Polybius vi.53. describes the use of the imagines at funerals; we may conclude that a consul or praetor wore the purple-bordered toga praetexta, one who triumphed the embroidered toga picta, and the censor a purple toga peculiar to him; but other writers speak of their official dress as being the same as that of the other higher magistrates. Zonar. vii.19; Athen. xiv. p660c. The funeral of a censor was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a "censorial funeral" (funus censorium) was voted even to the emperors. Tacitus Annales iv.15, xiii.2. Abolition The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, from 443 BC to 22 BC; but during this period many lustra passed by without any censor being chosen at all. According to one statement, the office was abolished by Lucius Cornelius Sulla. Schol. Gronov. ad Cic. Div. in Caecil. 3, p384, ed. Johann Caspar Orelli. Although the authority on which this statement rests is not of much weight, the fact itself is probable, since there was no census during the two lustra which elapsed from Sulla's dictatorship to Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey)'s first consulship (82–70 BC), and any strict "imposition of morals" would have been found inconvenient to the aristocracy that supported Sulla. If the censorship was done away with by Sulla, it was at any rate restored in the consulship of Pompey and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher (58 BC), which prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding before the censors in expelling a person from the Roman Senate, and required that the censors be in agreement to exact this punishment. Cassius Dio xxxviii.13; Cicero pro Sestio 25, de Prov. Cons. 15. This law, however, was repealed in the third consulship of Pompey in 52 BC, on the urging of his colleague Caecilius Metellus Scipio, Cassius Dio xl.57. but the office of the censorship never recovered its former power and influence. During the civil wars which followed soon afterwards, no censors were elected; it was only after a long interval that they were again appointed, namely in 22 BC, when Augustus caused Lucius Munatius Plancus and Aemilius Lepidus Paullus to fill the office. Suetonius Life of Augustus 37, Life of Claudius 16; Cassius Dio liv.2. This was the last time that such magistrates were appointed; the emperors in future discharged the duties of their office under the name of Praefectura Morum ("prefect of the morals"). Some of the emperors sometimes took the name of censor when they held a census of the Roman people; this was the case with Claudius, who appointed the elder Vitellius as his colleague, Suetonius Life of Claudius 16; Tacitus Annales xii.4, Historia i.9. and with Vespasian, who likewise had a colleague in his son Titus. Suet. Vesp. 8, Tit. 6. Domitian assumed the title of "perpetual censor" (censor perpetuus), Cassius Dio liii.18. but this example was not imitated by succeeding emperors. In the reign of Decius we find the elder Valerian nominated to the censorship, Symmach. Ep. iv.29, v.9) but Valerian was never actually elected censor. Duties The duties of the censors may be divided into three classes, all of which were closely connected with one another: The Census, or register of the citizens and of their property, in which were included the reading of the Senate's lists (lectio senatus) and the recognition of who qualified for equestrian rank (recognitio equitum); The Regimen Morum, or keeping of the public morals; and The administration of the finances of the state, under which were classed the superintendence of the public buildings and the erection of all new public works. The original business of the censorship was at first of a much more limited kind, and was restricted almost entirely to taking the census, Livy iv.8. but the possession of this power gradually brought with it fresh power and new duties, as is shown below. A general view of these duties is briefly expressed in the following passage of Cicero De legibus ii.3. : "Censores populi aevitates, soboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus distribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines patiunto: equitum, peditumque prolem describunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto." Census The Census, the first and principal duty of the censors, was always held in the Campus Martius, and from the year 435 BC onwards, in a special building called Villa Publica, which was erected for that purpose by the second pair of censors, Gaius Furius Pacilus and Marcus Geganius Macerinus. Livy iv.22; Varro de Re Rustica iii.2. An account of the formalities with which the census was opened is given in a fragment of the Tabulae Censoriae, preserved by Varro. De lingua Latina vi.86, 87, ed. Müller. After the auspices had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up separately, Dionys. v.75. and the names in each tribe were probably taken according to the lists previously made out by the tribunes of the tribes. Every paterfamilias had to appear in person before the censors, who were seated in their curule chairs, and those names were taken first which were considered to be of good omen, such as Valerius, Salvius, Statorius, etc. Festus, s.v. Lacus Lucrinus; Schol. Bob. ad Cic. pro Scaur. p374, ed. Orelli. The census was conducted according to the judgment of the censor (ad arbitrium censoris), but the censors laid down certain rules, Livy iv.8, xxix.15. sometimes called leges censui censendo, Liv. xliii.14. in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these laws, each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, "declared from the heart". Dionysius iv.15; Livy xliii.14. First he had to give his full name (praenomen, nomen, and cognomen) and that of his father, or if he were a Libertus ("freedman") that of his patron, and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked, "You, declaring from your heart, do you have a wife?" and if married he had to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any. Gell. iv.20; Cicero de Oratore ii.64; Tab. Heracl. 142 (68); Digesta Iustiniani 50 tit.15 s3. Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians; their names were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the sum total of heads. cf. Livy iii.3, Periochae 59. After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, etc., he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it was subject to the census. Only such things were liable to the census (censui censendo) as were property according to the Quiritarian law. At first, each citizen appears to have merely given the value of his whole property in general without entering into details; Dionysius iv.15; Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Festus, s.v. Censores. but it soon became the practice to give a minute specification of each article, as well as the general value of the whole. cf. Cicero pro Flacc. 32; Gell. vii.11; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18. Land formed the most important article of the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen, was excluded as not being Quiritarian property. If we may judge from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and location of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and of the land thus described, he had to give his assessment of its value. Digesta Iustiniani 50 tit.15 s4. Slaves and cattle formed the next most important item. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages. Livy xxxix.44; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18. It has been doubted by some modern writers whether the censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves gave, but when we recollect the discretionary nature of the censors' powers, and the necessity almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, we can hardly doubt that the censors had this power. It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury; Livy xxxix.44; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18. and even if they did not enter in their books the property of a person at a higher value than he returned it, they accomplished the same end by compelling him to pay a tax upon the property at a higher rate than others. The tax was usually one per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors, but on one occasion the censors compelled a person to pay eight per thousand as a punishment. Livy iv.24. A person who voluntarily absented himself from the census was considered incensus and subject to the severest punishment. Servius Tullius is said to have threatened such individuals with imprisonment and death, Livy i.44. and in the Republican period he might be sold by the state as a slave Cicero pro Caecina Oratio 34. In the later times of the republic, a person who was absent from the census might be represented by another, and be thus registered by the censors. Varro De lingua Latina vi.86. Whether the soldiers who were absent on service had to appoint a representative is uncertain. In ancient times, the sudden outbreaks of war prevented the census from being taken, Livy vi.31. because a large number of the citizens would necessarily be absent. It is supposed from a passage in Livy xxix.37. that in later times the censors sent commissioners into the provinces with full powers to take the census of the Roman soldiers there, but this seems to have been a special case. It is, on the contrary, probable from the way in which Cicero pleads the absence of Archias from Rome with the army under Lucullus, as a sufficient reason for his not having been enrolled in the census, pro Licinio Archia 5. that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence. After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property (Comitia Centuriata). These lists formed a most important part of the Tabulae Censoriae, under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties. Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Liv. xxiv.18; Plut. Cat. Maj. 16; Cic. de Leg. Agr. i.2. These lists, insofar as they were connected with the finances of the state, were deposited in the aerarium, which was the temple of Saturn; Liv. xxix.37. but the regular depositary for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica, Liv. xliii.16, xlv.15. and in later times the temple of the Nymphs. Cic. pro Mil. 27. Besides the division of the citizens into tribes, centuries, and classes, the censors had also to make out the lists of the senators for the ensuing five years, or till new censors were appointed; striking out the names of such as they considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified. In the same manner they held a review of the Equestrians who received a horse from public funds (equites equo publico), and added and removed names as they judged proper. They also confirmed the princeps senatus, or appointed a new one. The princeps himself had to be a former censor. After the lists had been completed, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced. Accordingly, we find that in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as capita ("heads"), sometimes with the addition of the word civium ("of the citizens"), and sometimes not. Hence, to be registered in the census was the same thing as "having a head" (caput habere). Census beyond Rome A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the republic. Cicero In Verrem ii.53, 56. The emperor sent into the provinces special officers called Censitores to take the census; Dig. 50 tit.15 s4 § 1; Cassiod. Var. ix.11; Orelli, Inscr. No. 3652. but the duty was sometimes discharged by the Imperial legati. Tacitus Ann. i.31, ii.6. The Censitores were assisted by subordinate officers, called Censuales, who made out the lists, &c. Capitol. Gordian. 12; Symmach. Ep. x.43; Cod. Theod. 8 tit.2. In Rome, the census was still taken under the empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer performed, and the ceremony of the lustration was not performed after the time of Vespasian. The jurists Paulus and Ulpian each wrote works on the census in the imperial period; and several extracts from these works are given in a chapter in the Digest (50 15). Other uses of census The word census, besides the conventional meaning of "valuation" of a person's estate, has other meaning in Rome; it could refer to: the amount of a person's property (hence we read of census senatorius, the estate of a senator; census equestris, the estate of an eques). the lists of the censors. the tax which depended upon the valuation in the census. The Lexicons will supply examples of these meanings. Regimen morum Keeping the public morals (regimen morum, or in the empire cura morum or praefectura morum) was the second most important branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be one of the most revered and the most dreaded in the Roman state; hence they were also known as Castigatores ("chastisers"). It naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding persons from the lists of citizens; for, as has been well remarked, "they would, in the first place, be the sole judges of many questions of fact, such as whether a citizen had the qualifications required by law or custom for the rank which he claimed, or whether he had ever incurred any judicial sentence, which rendered him infamous: but from thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decisions of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank, whether he had not committed some act as justly degrading as those which incurred the sentence of the law." In this manner, the censors gradually assumed at least nominal complete superintendence over the whole public and private life of every citizen. They were constituted as the conservators of public morality; they were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, but rather to maintain the traditional Roman character, ethics, and habits (mos majorum)—regimen morum also encompassed this protection of traditional ways, Cicero de Legibus iii.3; Livy iv.8, xxiv.18, xl.46, xli.27, xlii.3; Suetonius Life of Augustus 27. which was called in the times of the empire cura ("supervision") or praefectura ("command"). The punishment inflicted by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was called nota ("mark, letter") or notatio, or animadversio censoria ("censorial reproach"). In inflicting it, they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of duty; they had to take an oath that they would act biased by neither partiality nor favour; and, in addition to this, they were bound in every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him, Subscriptio censoria. Livy xxxix.42; Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 42‑48; Gell. iv.20. This part of the censors' office invested them with a peculiar kind of jurisdiction, which in many respects resembled the exercise of public opinion in modern times; for there are innumerable actions which, though acknowledged by every one to be prejudicial and immoral, still do not come within the reach of the positive laws of a country; as often said, "immorality does not equal illegality". Even in cases of real crimes, the positive laws frequently punish only the particular offence, while in public opinion the offender, even after he has undergone punishment, is still incapacitated for certain honours and distinctions which are granted only to persons of unblemished character. Hence the Roman censors might brand a man with their "censorial mark" (nota censoria) in case he had been convicted of a crime in an ordinary court of justice, and had already suffered punishment for it. The consequence of such a nota was only ignominia and not infamia. Cicero de Re Publica iv.6. Infamia and the censorial verdict was not a judicium or res judicata, Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 42. for its effects were not lasting, but might be removed by the following censors, or by a lex (roughly "law"). A censorial mark was moreover not valid unless both censors agreed. The ignominia was thus only a transitory reduction of status, which does not even appear to have deprived a magistrate of his office, (Livy xxiv.18. and certainly did not disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed as judices by the praetor, or for serving in the Roman armies. Mamercus Aemilius was thus, notwithstanding the reproach of the censors (animadversio censoria), made dictator. Livy iv.31. A person might be branded with a censorial mark in a variety of cases, which it would be impossible to specify, as in a great many instances it depended upon the discretion of the censors and the view they took of a case; and sometimes even one set of censors would overlook an offence which was severely chastised by their successors. Cicero de Senectute 12. But the offences which are recorded to have been punished by the censors are of a threefold nature. <li>Such as occurred in the private life of individuals, e.g. <li>Living in celibacy at a time when a person ought to be married to provide the state with citizens. Valerius Maximus ii.9 §1. The obligation of marrying was frequently impressed upon the citizens by the censors, and the refusal to fulfil it was punished with a fine (aes uxorium). <li>The dissolution of matrimony or betrothment in an improper way, or for insufficient reasons. Valerius Maximus ii.9 §2. <li>Improper conduct towards one's wife or children, as well as harshness or too great indulgence towards children, and disobedience of the latter towards their parents. Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 17; cf. Cicero de Re Publica iv.6; Dionys. xx.3. <li>Inordinate and luxurious mode of living, or an extravagant expenditure of money. A great many instances of this kind are recorded. Livy Periochae 14, xxxix.4; Plutarch Life of Cato the Elder 18; Gellius, iv.8; Valerius Maximus ii.9 §4. At a later time the leges sumtuariae were made to check the growing love of luxuries. <li>Neglect and carelessness in cultivating one's fields. Auli Gellii iv.12; Pliny Natural History xviii.3. <li>Cruelty towards slaves or clients. Dionysius xx.3. <li>The carrying on of a disreputable trade or occupation, Dionysius, l.c. such as acting in theatres. Livy vii.2. <li>Legacy-hunting, defrauding orphans, &c. <li>A variety of actions or pursuits which were thought to be injurious to public morality, might be forbidden by an edict, Gellius, xv.11. and those who acted contrary to such edicts were branded with the nota and degraded. For an enumeration of the offences that might be punished by the censors with ignominia, see Niebuhr. History of Rome, vol. ii p399, &c. A person who had been branded with a nota censoria, might, if he considered himself wronged, endeavour to prove his innocence to the censors, causam agere apud censores, Varro de re Rustica i.7. and if he did not succeed, he might try to gain the protection of one of the censors, that he might intercede on his behalf. Punishments The punishments inflicted by the censors generally differed according to the station which a man occupied, though sometimes a person of the highest rank might suffer all the punishments at once, by being degraded to the lowest class of citizens. But they are generally divided into four classes:— Motio ("removal") or ejectio e senatu ("ejection from the Senate"), or the exclusion of a man from the ranks of senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from the list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian. Liv. xxiv.18. The latter course seems to have been seldom adopted; the ordinary mode of inflicting the punishment was simply this: the censors in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, quietly omitted the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the expression praeteriti senatores ("senators passed over") is equivalent to e senatu ejecti (those removed from the senate). Livy xxxviii.28, xxvii.11, xxxiv.44; Festus, s.v. Praeteriti. In some cases, however, the censors did not acquiesce to this simple mode of proceeding, but addressed the senator whom they had noted, and publicly reprimanded him for his conduct. Livy xxiv.18. As, however, in ordinary cases an ex-senator was not disqualified by his ignominia for holding any of the magistracies which opened the way to the senate, he might at the next census again become a senator. Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 42, Plutarch Life of Cicero 17. The ademptio equi, or the taking away the publicly-funded horse from an equestrian. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian. Livy xxiv.18, 43, xxvii.11, xxix.37, xliii.16. The motio e tribu, or the exclusion of a person from his tribe. This punishment and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian were originally the same; but when in the course of time a distinction was made between the rural or rustic tribes and the urban tribes, the motio e tribu transferred a person from the rustic tribes to the less respectable city tribes, and if the further degradation to the rank of an aerarian was combined with the motio e tribu, it was always expressly stated. Liv. xlv.15, Plin. H.N. xviii.3. The fourth punishment was called referre in aerarios Livy xxiv.18; Cicero pro Cluentio Oratio 43. or facere aliquem aerarium, Livy xliii.43. and might be inflicted on any person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. This degradation, properly speaking, included all the other punishments, for an equestrian could not be made an aerarius unless he was previously deprived of his horse, nor could a member of a rustic tribe be made an aerarius unless he was previously excluded from it. Livy iv.24, xxiv.18, &c. It was this authority of the Roman censors which eventually developed into the modern meaning of "Censor" and "censorship"—i.e., officials who review published material and forbid the publication of material judged to be contrary to "public morality" as the term is interpreted in a given political and social environment. Administration of the finances of the state The administration of the state's finances was another part of the censors' office. In the first place the tributum, or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the censors. cf. Livy xxxix.44. They also had the superintendence of all the other revenues of the state, the vectigalia, such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the salt works, the mines, the customs, etc. The censors typically auctioned off to the highest bidder for the space of a lustrum the collection of the tithes and taxes. This auctioning was called venditio or locatio, and seems to have taken place in the month of March, Macrobius Saturnalia i.12. in a public place in Rome Cicero de Lege Agraria i.3, ii.21. The terms on which they were let, together with the rights and duties of the purchasers, were all specified in the leges censoriae, which the censors published in every case before the bidding commenced. Cicero ad Qu. Fr. i.1 §12, In Verrem iii.7, De Natura Deorum iii.19, Varro de re rustica ii.1. For further particulars see Publicani. The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the assent of the Senate, of imposing new vectigalia, Livy xxix.37, xl.51. and even of selling the land belonging to the state. Livy xxxii.7. It would thus appear that it was the duty of the censors to bring forward a budget for a five-year period, and to take care that the income of the state was sufficient for its expenditure during that time. In part, their duties resembled those of a modern minister of finance. The censors, however, did not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid into the aerarium, which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the quaestors as its officers. In one important department the censors were entrusted with the expenditure of the public money, though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors. The censors had the general superintendence of all the public buildings and works (opera publica), and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion. Polybius vi.13; Livy xl.46, xliv.16. They had to see that the temples and all other public buildings were in a good state of repair, aedes sacras tueri and sarta tecta exigere, Livy xxiv.18, xxix.37, xlii.3, xlv.15. that no public places were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons, loca tueri, Livy xlii.3, xliii.16. and that the aqueduct, roads, drains, etc. were properly attended to. The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to the lowest bidder, just as the vectigalia were let out to the highest bidder. These expenses were called ultrotributa, and hence we frequently find vectigalia and ultrotributa contrasted with one another. Livy xxxix.44, xliii.16. The persons who undertook the contract were called conductores, mancipes, redemptores, susceptores, etc.; and the duties they had to discharge were specified in the Leges Censoriae. The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods, even for instance the feeding of the sacred geese in the Capitol; these various tasks were also let out on contract. Plutarch Roman Questions 98; Pliny Natural History x.22; Cicero pro Sexto Roscio Amerino Oratio 20. Besides keeping existing public buildings and facilities in a proper state of repair, the censors were also in charge of constructing new ones, either for ornament or utility, both in Rome and in other parts of Italy, such as temples, basilicae, theatres, porticoes, fora, walls of towns, aqueducts, harbours, bridges, cloacae, roads, etc. These works were either performed by them jointly, or they divided between them the money, which had been granted to them by the senate. Liv. xl.51, xliv.16. They were let out to contractors, like the other works mentioned above, and when they were completed, the censors had to see that the work was performed in accordance with the contract: this was called opus probare or in acceptum referre. Cicero In Verrem i.57; Livy iv.22, xlv.15; Lex Puteol. p73, Spang. The aediles had likewise a superintendence over the public buildings, and it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles, but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors were more financial in subject matter. Lustrum After the censors had performed their various duties and taken the five-yearly census, the lustrum, a solemn purification of the people, followed. When the censors entered upon their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this purification; lustrum facere or condere, Varro De lingua Latina vi.86; Livy xxix.37, xxxv.9, xxxviii.36, xlii.10. but both censors were of course obliged to be present at the ceremony. Long after the Roman census was no longer taken, the Latin word lustrum has survived, and been adopted in some modern languages, in the derived sense of a period of five years, i.e. half a decennium. Census statistics CensusPopulationEconomic crisesWarsEpidemics 508 BC 130,000 505–504 BC 503 BC 120,000 499 or 496 BC 498 BC150,700 493 BC110,000 492–491 BC 486 BC 474 BC103,000474 BC 474 BC 465 BC104,714 459 BC117,319 456 BC 454 BC 454 BC 440–439 BC 433 BC 433 BC 428 BC 428 BC 412 BC 412 BC 400 BC 396 BC 392 BC152,573 392 BC 392 BC390 BC 390 BC 386 BC 383 BC 383 BC 343–341 BC 340 BC165,000 340–338 BC 326–304 BC 323 BC150,000 299 BC 298–290 BC 294 BC262,321 293/292 BC289 BC 272,200 281 BC 280 BC287,222 280–275 BC 276 BC271,224 276 BC?265 BC292,234 264–241 BC 252 BC297,797 250 BCE 250 BC 247 BC241,712 241 BC260,000 234 BC270,713 216 BC216 BC 211–210 BC211–210 BC209 BC137,108 204 BC214,000 204 BC 203 BC 201 BC 200 BC 200–195 BC 194 BC143,704 192–188 BC 189 BC258,318 187 BC 182–180 BC179 BC258,318 176–175 BC174 BC269,015 171–167 BC 169 BC312,805 165 BC164 BC337,022 159 BC328,316 154 BC324,000 153 BC 147 BC322,000 142 BC322,442 142 BC 138 BC 136 BC317,933 131 BC318,823 125 BC394,736 123 BC 115 BC394,336 104 BC 87 BC86 BC463,000 75 BC 70 BC910,000 67 BC 65 BC 54 BC 49–46 BC 43 BC 28 BC4,063,000 23–22 23–22 8 BC 4,233,000 5–6 10 14 AD 4,937,000 Sources Brunt, P. A. Italian Manpower 225 BC – AD 14. Oxford, 1971; Wiseman, T. P. The Census in the first century B.C. Journal of Roman Studies, 1969; Virlouvet, C. Famines et émeutes à Rome, des origines de la République à la mort de Néron. Roma, 1985; Suder, W., Góralczyk, E. Sezonowość epidemii w Republice Rzymskiej. Vitae historicae, Księga jubileuszowa dedykowana profesorowi Lechowi A. Tyszkiewiczowi w siedemdziesiątą rocznicę urodzin. Wrocław, 2001. Andrea Doria as "perpetual censor" Andrea Doria, the famous 16th Century Genoese admiral, was rewarded for his services to his city by getting the title of "perpetual censor"—inspired by, though not precisely identical with, the Roman one. See also Constitution of the Roman Republic Cursus honorum Lex Caecilia De Censoria List of topics related to ancient Rome List of censors Political institutions of Rome Roman Republic References Pauly–Wissowa | Roman_censor |@lemmatized position:2 censor:98 call:15 censura:1 responsible:2 maintain:2 census:41 supervise:1 public:27 morality:5 oversee:1 certain:6 aspect:1 government:1 finance:6 regulation:2 origin:1 modern:6 meaning:4 word:4 censorship:10 creation:1 rank:13 first:15 institute:1 servius:3 tullius:3 sixth:1 king:2 rome:13 expulsion:1 founding:1 republic:5 take:20 consul:11 bc:75 elect:9 rather:2 military:2 tribune:5 consular:1 power:13 appoint:9 stead:1 plebeian:7 attempt:1 attain:1 high:10 magistracy:6 since:2 patrician:4 could:5 consuls:2 stop:1 possibly:1 gain:2 control:3 remove:4 consequently:1 representative:2 right:7 entrust:3 two:5 magistrate:4 censores:4 english:1 choose:5 exclusively:1 continue:2 gaius:3 marcius:2 rutilus:2 livy:44 vii:6 twelve:1 year:10 afterwards:2 one:25 publilian:1 law:14 require:3 viii:1 despite:1 perform:7 solemn:2 purification:3 people:3 lustrum:8 periochae:3 time:17 always:4 previously:5 together:2 die:2 office:16 another:5 replace:2 however:5 happen:1 gaul:1 capture:1 five:6 period:8 roman:17 regard:3 offense:1 religion:1 thereafter:1 v:6 colleague:5 resign:1 new:11 vi:7 ix:4 xxiv:11 xxvii:3 election:5 centuriate:4 assembly:8 meet:2 presidency:1 auli:2 gellii:3 xiii:3 xl:8 barthold:1 niebuhr:3 suggest:1 curiate:1 selection:1 confirm:2 william:1 smith:1 believe:1 authority:3 supposition:1 truth:1 depend:3 entirely:3 upon:9 correctness:1 view:4 respect:5 day:2 accordingly:4 voting:1 second:3 finish:1 invalidate:1 hold:8 different:2 auspex:2 praetor:4 although:2 likewise:7 possess:7 maximum:1 auspicia:1 shortly:1 begin:1 term:3 xxxix:7 soon:3 censorial:7 grant:4 decree:1 lex:4 centuriata:2 fully:1 instal:1 cicero:25 de:24 lege:3 agraria:3 ii:13 general:7 principle:1 eligible:1 exception:2 prevent:4 person:23 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vitellius:1 xii:1 historia:1 vespasian:2 son:1 titus:1 suet:1 vesp:1 tit:5 domitian:1 assume:2 title:2 perpetual:3 perpetuus:1 liii:1 example:2 imitate:1 succeed:2 reign:1 decius:1 valerian:2 nominate:1 symmach:2 ep:2 actually:1 duties:1 divide:3 three:1 class:6 closely:1 connect:6 register:4 property:16 include:4 reading:1 list:17 lectio:1 senatus:2 recognition:1 qualify:2 equestrian:4 recognitio:1 equitum:2 keep:4 administration:3 superintendence:6 building:6 erection:1 work:9 original:1 business:1 limited:1 kind:4 restrict:2 almost:2 possession:2 bring:2 fresh:1 show:1 briefly:1 express:1 following:2 legibus:4 populi:2 aevitates:2 soboles:1 familias:1 pecuniasque:1 censento:1 urbis:1 templa:1 vias:1 aqua:1 aerarium:4 vectigalia:5 tuento:1 populique:1 partes:1 tribus:1 distribunto:1 exin:1 pecunias:1 ordines:1 patiunto:1 peditumque:1 prolem:1 describunto:1 caelibes:1 esse:1 prohibento:1 regunto:1 probrum:1 senatu:3 ne:1 relinquunto:1 principal:1 campus:1 martius:1 onwards:1 special:3 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6,236 | Italian_battleship_Giulio_Cesare | Giulio Cesare was an Italian Conte di Cavour-class battleship that served in the Regia Marina in both World Wars before joining the Soviet Navy as the Novorossiysk. Her keel was laid down on 24 June 1910 at Cantieri Ansaldo, Genoa. She was launched 15 October 1911, and construction was completed 14 May 1914. Giulio Cesare (Italian for Julius Caesar, motto Caesar Adest) had no active missions during World War I. In 1926 she attacked the Greek island of Corfu, as a reaction against the killing of Italian representatives in Ioannina. She was later renovated. From 1928 to 1933 she was used as an artillery training ship, then went into the yards for extensive modernization. Between 1933 and 1937 she was completely rebuilt, changing her silhouette and increasing her combat capabilities. Length was increased by 10.3 meters, and she was given new armored decks and new propulsion machinery that uprated her to 93,000 horsepower (69 MW), and allowed a speed of 28 knots (52 km/h). World War II During the Battle of Punta Stilo on 9 July 1940, Giulio Cesare was hit by a 15 inch (381 mm) shell as HMS Warspite set the record for naval gunnery against a moving target at well over 24,000 meters (26,000 yards). Shortly before, a Cesare'''s 320 mm salvo aimed at HMS Warspite had actually straddled two British destroyers, HMS Hereward and HMS Decoy, causing some splinter damage on both of them. "Blue Smoke" controversy Some debate is ongoing in Italy about the possibility of a hit by the Cesare on Warspite around the same time; this controversy, called "the blue smoke affair" is about a blue smoke seen rising from the Warspite by officers and lookouts aboard the Cesare. There was also an article by the Italian naval historian Enrico Cernuschi, who is considered a maverick in Italian naval and naval history circles, about the actual performance of Italian naval artillery. As of 2006 no definite conclusion on this is achieved. Activity after Punta Stilo Giulio Cesare was assigned to covering convoys, participating in the First Battle of Sirte, until 1942, when she was sidelined because of fuel shortages. After World War II, Giulio Cesare was ceded to the Soviet Union as compensation for war damages. Novorossiysk The Soviet Navy recommissioned the battleship as the Novorossiysk (Новороссийск). Novorossiysk was based at Sevastopol from July 1949, serving as a flagship of the Black Sea Fleet and later as a gunnery training vessel. On 29 October 1955, the Novorossiysk was moored in Sevastopol Bay, 300 meters (1000 feet) from shore and opposite a hospital. At 1:30am, an explosion estimated to be the equivalent of 1,200 kilograms of TNT under the bow of the ship pierced all decks from the bottom plating to the forecastle deck. In the forecastle deck there was one hole which measured 14×4 meters in size. The damage extended aft from the bow 22 meters. The ship sank slowly from the bow, capsizing at 4:15am, 2 hours 45 minutes after the explosion, and 18 hours later became fully submerged. The capsizing resulted in the death of 608 sailors, most of whom were staying in the ship's compartments. It became the worst disaster in Soviet naval history. Because of the politics of the Cold War, the fate of the Novorossiysk remained clouded in mystery until the late 1980s. The cause of the explosion is still unclear. The official cause of the sinking, regarded as most probable, is a magnetic RMH naval mine, laid by the Germans during World War II. During the next two years after the disaster, divers found 19 German mines on the bottom of Sevastopol Bay. Eleven of the mines were as powerful as the estimated blast under Novorossiysk. There is, however, some doubt that the blast was caused by a mine. The area where Novorossiysk sank was considered swept of mines, and other ships had used the area without triggering the mine. Some experts place the maximum battery life of the magnetic mines at 9 years, and thus contend that such a mine would be unlikely to trigger by the time of the explosion. Another problem some experts claim is that the size of the crater (1 - 2.1 m deep) was too small for such a big mine. On the other hand, according to some research, damage to the ship corresponded to an explosion equivalent to 5,000 kilograms of TNT. A more theatrical conspiracy explanation was that Italian frogmen were avenging the transfer of the formerly-Italian battleship to the USSR. Covert action by the Italian special operations unit Decima Flottiglia MAS has often been surmised, and there were rumors that not long thereafter a group of Italian Navy frogmen received high military awards. However, no firm evidence for this hypothesis exists or ever surfaced. Another theory states that explosives were hidden in the ship before she was given to the Russians. No evidence of sabotage has been found, though Soviet enquiries did not rule out the possibility because of the poor safeguarding of the fleet base on the night of the explosion. The goal of covertly destroying the battleship would be a small prize compared to the risk of provoking war if discovered, so the motive of such an Italian operation is questionable and does not support these theories. There is also a conspiracy theory that Novorossiysk was sunk by Soviet secret service divers in order to blame Turkey for the sabotage as justification to take control of Bosporus and Dardanelles, and that the plan was eventually abandoned. There is no strong evidence to support this hypothesis. The enormous loss of life was directly blamed on the incompetent actions of her captain, Fleet Commander Vice Admiral Victor Parkhomenko. Among other underestimates of the danger to his ship, he did not know the conditions of the sea bottom, believing that the ratio between the sea depth (17 meters) and the ship's beam (28 meters) would prevent capsizing. However, the bottom was soft ooze, 15 meters deep, which offered no resistance. It was also reported that the commander displayed conceit and groundless calmness during this critical situation, and had even expressed the wish to "go have some tea". Because of the loss of Novorossiysk'', the First Deputy Minister of Defence and Commander-in-Chief of the Navy Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov was fired from his post in November 1955, and in February 1956 was demoted to the rank of vice admiral and sent to retirement without the right to return to active service in the Navy. Kuznetsov was later reinstated. 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6,237 | Félix_Guattari | Pierre-Félix Guattari (April 30, 1930 – August 29, 1992) was a French militant, institutional psychotherapist and philosopher, a founder of both schizoanalysis and ecosophy. Guattari is best known for his intellectual collaborations with Gilles Deleuze, most notably Anti-Oedipus (1972) and A Thousand Plateaus (1980). Biography Clinic of La Borde Guattari was born in Villeneuve-les-Sablons, a working-class suburb of north-west Paris, France. "Felix Guattari: A Chronology" in Felix Guattari, The Three Ecologies, Trans. Ian Pindar and Paul Sutton, London: Athlone, 2000, p. ix. He trained under, and was analysed by, the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan in the early 1950s. Subsequently, he worked at the experimental psychiatric clinic of La Borde under the direction of Lacan's pupil, the psychiatrist Jean Oury. One particularly novel orientation developed at La Borde consisted of the suspension of the classical master-patient, or analyst/analysand binome, in favour of open confrontation in group therapy. It was the practice of group-therapy and the study of the dynamics of a plurality of subjects in complex interaction, rather than the individualistic style of analysis of the traditional Freudian school, which in turn led him into a larger philosophical exploration of and political engagement with as vast an array of domains as possible (philosophy, ethnology, linguistics, architecture, etc.,) in order to better define the orientation, delimitation and psychiatric efficacy of the practice. Brian Massumi, Foreword to A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, Athlone Press, London 1988 p.x Guattari would later proclaim that psychoanalysis is "the best capitalist drug" "The Best Capitalist Drug" (Trans. Janis Forman) in Felix Guattari, Chaosophy, New York: Semiotext(e), 1995, pp. 209-224. because in it desire is confined to a couch: desire, in Lacanian psychoanalysis, is an energy that is contained rather than one that, if freed, could militantly engage itself in something different. He continued this research, collaborating in Jean Oury's private clinic of La Borde at Cour-Cheverny, one of the main centers of institutional psychotherapy at the time. La Borde was a venue for conversation amongst innumerable students of philosophy, psychology, ethnology, and social work. La Borde was Félix Guattari's principal anchoring until he died of a heart attack in 1992. 1960s to 1970s From 1955 to 1965, Félix Guattari animated the trotskyist group Voie Communiste (Communist Way). He would then support anticolonialist struggles as well as the Italian Autonomists. Guattari also took part in the movement of the psychological G.T., which gathered many psychiatrists at the beginning of the sixties and created the Association of Institutional Psychotherapy in November 1965. It was at the same time that he founded, along with other militants, the F.G.E.R.I. (Federation of Groups for Institutional Study & Research) and its review Recherche (Research), working on philosophy, mathematics, psychoanalysis, education, architecture, ethnology, etc. The F.G.E.R.I. came to represent aspects of the multiple political and cultural engagements of Félix Guattari: the Group for Young Hispanics, the Franco-Chinese Friendships (in the times of the popular communes), the opposition activities with the wars in Algeria and Vietnam, the participation in the M.N.E.F., with the U.N.E.F., the policy of the offices of psychological academic aid (B.A.P.U.), the organisation of the University Working Groups (G.T.U.), but also the reorganizations of the training courses with the Centers of Training to the Methods of Education Activities (C.E.M.E.A.) for psychiatric male nurses, as well as the formation of Friendly Male Nurses (Amicales d'infirmiers) (in 1958), the studies on architecture and the projects of construction of a day hospital of for "students and young workers". Guattari was involved in the events of May 1968, starting from the Movement of March 22. It was in the aftermath of 1968 that Guattari met Gilles Deleuze at the University of Vincennes and began to lay the ground-work for the soon to be infamous Anti-Oedipus (1972), which Michel Foucault described as "an introduction to the non-fascist life" in his preface to the book. Throughout his career it may be said that his writings were at all times correspondent in one fashion or another with sociopolitical and cultural engagements. In 1967, he appeared as one of the founders of OSARLA (Organization of solidarity and Aid to the Latin-American Revolution). It was with the head office of the F.G.E.R.I. that he met, in 1968, Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Jean-Jacques Lebel, and Julian Beck. In 1970, he created C.E.R.F.I. (Center for the Study and Research of Institutional Formation), which takes the direction of the Recherches review. In 1977, he created the CINEL for "new spaces of freedom" before joining in the 1980s the ecological movement with his "ecosophy". 1980s to 1990s In his last book, Chaosmose (1992), the topic of which is already partially developed in What is Philosophy? (1991, with Deleuze), Félix Guattari takes again his essential topic: the question of subjectivity. "How to produce it, collect it, enrich it, reinvent it permanently in order to make it compatible with mutant Universes of value?" This idea returns like a leitmotiv, from Psychanalyse and transversality (a regrouping of articles from 1957 to 1972) through Années d'hiver (1980 - 1986) and Cartographies Schizoanalytique (1989). He insists on the function of "a-signification", which plays the role of support for a subjectivity in act, starting from four parameters: "significative and semiotic flows, Phylum of Machinic Propositions, Existential Territories and Incorporeal Universes of Reference." In 1995, the posthumous release Chaosophy featured Guattari's first collection of essays and interviews focuses on the French anti-psychiatrist and theorist's work as director of the experimental La Borde clinic and collaborator of philosopher Gilles Deleuze. Chaosophy is a groundbreaking introduction to Guattari's theories on "schizo-analysis", a process meant to replace Sigmund Freud's interpretation with a more pragmatic, experimental, and collective approach rooted in reality. Unlike Freud, Guattari believes that schizophrenia is an extreme mental state co-existent with the capitalist system itself. But capitalism keeps enforcing neurosis as a way of maintaining normality. Guattari's post-Marxist vision of capitalism provides a new definition not only of mental illness, but also of micropolitical means of subversion. It includes key essays such as "Balance-Sheet Program for Desiring Machines," cosigned by Deleuze (with whom he coauthored Anti-Oedipus and A Thousand Plateaus), and the provocative "Everybody Wants To Be a Fascist." Soft Subversions is another collection of Félix Guattari's essays, lectures, and interviews traces the militant anti-psychiatrist and theorist's thought and activity throughout the 1980s ("the winter years"). Concepts such as "micropolitics," "schizoanalysis," and "becoming-woman" open up new horizons for political and creative resistance in the "postmedia era." Guattari's energetic analyses of art, cinema, youth culture, economics, and power formations introduce a radically inventive thought process engaged in liberating subjectivity from the standardizing and homogenizing processes of global capitalism. Bibliography Works published in English Molecular Revolution: Psychiatry and Politics (1984). Trans. Rosemary Sheed. Selected essays from Psychanalyse et transversalité (1972) and La révolution moléculaire (1977). Les Trois écologies (1989). Trans. The Three Ecologies. Partial translation by Chris Turner (Paris: Galilee, 1989), full translation by Ian Pindar and Paul Sutton (London: The Athlone Press, 2000). Chaosmose (1992). Trans. Chaosmosis: an ethico-aesthetic paradigm (1995). Chaosophy (1995), ed. Sylvere Lotringer. Collected essays and interviews. Soft Subversions (1996), ed. Sylvere Lotringer. Collected essays and interviews. The Guattari Reader (1996), ed. Gary Genosko. Collected essays and interviews. Ecrits pour L'Anti-Œdipe (2004), ed. Stéphane Nadaud. Trans. The Anti-Œdipus Papers (2006). Collection of texts written between 1969 and 1972. Chaos and Complexity (Forthcoming 2008, MIT Press). Collected essays and interviews. In collaboration with Gilles Deleuze: Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 1. L'Anti-Œdipe (1972). Trans. Anti-Oedipus (1977). Kafka: Pour une Littérature Mineure (1975). Trans. Kafka: Toward a Theory of Minor Literature (1986). Rhizome: introduction (Paris: Minuit, 1976). Trans. "Rhizome," in Ideology and Consciousness 8 (Spring, 1981): 49-71. This is an early version of what became the introductory chapter in Mille Plateaux. Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 2. Mille Plateaux (1980). Trans. A Thousand Plateaus (1987). On the Line (1983). Contains translations of "Rhizome," and "Politics" ("Many Politics") by Deleuze and Parnet. Nomadology: The War Machine. (1986). Translation of "Plateau 12," Mille Plateaux. Qu'est-ce que la philosophie? (1991). Trans. What Is Philosophy? (1996). Other collaborations: Les nouveaux espaces de liberté (1985). Trans. Communists Like Us (1990). With Antonio Negri. Micropolitica: Cartografias do Desejo (1986). Trans. Molecular Revolution in Brazil (Forthcoming October 2007, MIT Press). With Suely Rolnik. The Party without Bosses (2003), by Gary Genosko. Features a 1982 conversation between Guattari and Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, the current President of Brazil. Works untranslated into English Note: Many of the essays found in these works have been individually translated and can be found in the English collections. Psychanalyse et transversalité. Essais d'analyse institutionnelle (1972). La révolution moléculaire (1977, 1980). The 1980 version (éditions 10/18) contains substantially different essays from the 1977 version. L'inconscient machinique. Essais de Schizoanalyse (1979). Les années d'hiver, 1980-1985 (1986). Cartographies schizoanalytiques (1989). Other collaborations: L’intervention institutionnelle (Paris: Petite Bibliothèque Payot, n. 382 - 1980). On institutional pedagogy. With Jacques Ardoino, G. Lapassade, Gerard Mendel, Rene Lourau. Pratique de l'institutionnel et politique (1985). With Jean Oury and Francois Tosquelles. (it) Desiderio e rivoluzione. Intervista a cura di Paolo Bertetto (Milan: Squilibri, 1977). Conversation with Franco Berardi (Bifo) and Paolo Bertetto. Select secondary sources Abou-Rihan, Fadi, Deleuze and Guattari: A Psychoanalytic Itinerary. (Continuum, 2008). Éric Alliez, La Signature du monde, ou Qu'est-ce que la philosophie de Deleuze et Guattari (1993). Trans. The Signature of the World: Or, What is Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy? (2005). Gary Genosko, Félix Guattari: An Aberrant Introduction (2002). Gary Genosko (ed.), Deleuze and Guattari: Critical Assessments of Leading Philosophers. Volume 2: Guattari (2001). ISBN 0415186781. External links Fractal Ontology (with unpublished English translations of Guattari and others) Chimeres site on Guattari (in French) Multitudes page on Guattari (in French) Schizo's Web by Harrison Mujica-Jenkins at latephilosophers.com References | Félix_Guattari |@lemmatized pierre:1 félix:7 guattari:31 april:1 august:1 french:4 militant:3 institutional:6 psychotherapist:1 philosopher:3 founder:2 schizoanalysis:2 ecosophy:2 best:3 know:1 intellectual:1 collaboration:4 gilles:4 deleuze:11 notably:1 anti:9 oedipus:4 thousand:4 plateau:8 biography:1 clinic:4 la:12 borde:7 bear:1 villeneuve:1 les:3 sablons:1 work:10 class:1 suburb:1 north:1 west:1 paris:4 france:1 felix:3 chronology:1 three:2 ecology:2 trans:14 ian:2 pindar:2 paul:2 sutton:2 london:3 athlone:3 p:3 ix:1 train:1 analyse:2 psychoanalyst:1 jacques:3 lacan:2 early:2 subsequently:1 experimental:3 psychiatric:3 direction:2 pupil:1 psychiatrist:4 jean:4 oury:3 one:5 particularly:1 novel:1 orientation:2 develop:2 consist:1 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book:2 throughout:2 career:1 say:1 writing:1 correspondent:1 fashion:1 another:2 sociopolitical:1 appear:1 osarla:1 organization:1 solidarity:1 latin:1 american:1 revolution:3 head:1 daniel:1 cohn:1 bendit:1 lebel:1 julian:1 beck:1 recherches:1 cinel:1 space:1 freedom:1 join:1 ecological:1 last:1 chaosmose:2 topic:2 already:1 partially:1 essential:1 question:1 subjectivity:3 produce:1 collect:5 enrich:1 reinvent:1 permanently:1 make:1 compatible:1 mutant:1 universe:2 value:1 idea:1 return:1 like:2 leitmotiv:1 psychanalyse:3 transversality:1 regrouping:1 article:1 années:2 hiver:2 cartography:2 schizoanalytique:1 insist:1 function:1 signification:1 play:1 role:1 act:1 four:1 parameter:1 significative:1 semiotic:1 flow:1 phylum:1 machinic:1 proposition:1 existential:1 territory:1 incorporeal:1 reference:2 posthumous:1 release:1 feature:2 first:1 collection:4 essay:10 interview:6 focus:1 theorist:2 director:1 collaborator:1 groundbreaking:1 theory:2 schizo:2 process:3 meant:1 replace:1 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6,238 | African_National_Congress | The African National Congress (ANC) has been South Africa's governing party, supported by its tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU) and the South African Communist Party (SACP), since the establishment of non-racial democracy in April 1994. It defines itself as a "disciplined force of the left". ANC Party Declaration from the African National Congress, retrieved 15 May 2008 Members founded the organization as the South African Native National Congress (SANNC) on 8 January 1912 in Bloemfontein to increase the rights of the black South African population. John Dube, its first president, and poet and author Sol Plaatje are among its founding members. The organization became the ANC in 1923 and formed a military wing, the Umkhonto we Sizwe (Spear of the Nation) in 1961. It has been the ruling party of post-apartheid South Africa on the national level since 1994. It gained support in the 1999 elections, and further increased its majority in 2004, with 69.7% of the votes. In 2009 its share of the vote reduced slightly, but it remained the dominant party with 65.9% of the votes. History The founding of the ANC follows decades of oppression of black South Africans by white South Africans and foreigners. It can be said that the ANC had its origins in a pronouncement by Pixley ka Isaka Seme who said in 1911 Forget all the past differences among Africans and unite in one national organisation. The ANC was founded in the subsequent year on 8 January 1912. The government of the newly formed Union of South Africa began a systematic oppression of black people in South Africa. The notorious Land Act was promulgated in 1913. The effect of these antiblack laws was to force black people from their farms into the cities and towns to work, and to restrict their movement within South Africa. By 1919, the ANC led a campaign against passes, and in 1920 the ANC supported a militant mineworkers' strike. The ANC became dormant in the mid 1920s. During that time, black people were also represented by the ICU and the previously white-only Communist party. By 1927, J.T. Gumende (president of the ANC) proposed cooperation with the Communists in a bid to revitalise the organisation, but he was voted out of power in the 1930s. This lead to the ANC becoming largely ineffectual and inactive, until the mid 1940s when the ANC was remodelled as a mass movement. Increased attacks on the rights of black people created a need for a military response from the ANC. The beginning of greater cooperation between African people, Coloured and Indian people. 1944 – Youth League (Nelson Mandela, Walter Sisulu, Oliver Tambo). Their ideas were based on African nationalism and they utilised this idea to involve masses into military struggles. they gathered support among the new population program of action calling for strikes, boycotts and defiance the organisation was adopted by the ANC in 1949 and this lead to a later Defiance Campaign in the 1950s The Defiance Campaign – was a mass movement of resistance to apartheid It encouraged further campaigns against apartheid laws The government tried to stop them by banning party leaders and enacting new laws to stop them however it was too late as the movement had acquired too much power. Formation of new organisations such as SACPO and the COD Congress of the people – this was a congress of all the people of South Africa. They demanded a New South Africa and these ideas were expressed in the Freedom Charter (26 June 1955) The government claimed that this was a communist's document consequently leaders of the ANC and Congress were arrested. 1955 Women’s strike Blacks and Whites brought together in the fight for justice and democracy, consequently Africanists broke away from the ANC. The Sharpeville Massacre – this leads to the end of the peaceful strike and peaceful protests ANC goes underground Many acts of sabotage and terrorism Military training for ANC members outside the country 1969 – consultative conference at Morogoro > 4 aspects of all around struggle Mass political struggle Armed struggle Building ANC underground structures within the country Campaign for international support and assistance Non-African membership of the ANC As a result of banning the liberation movement the apartheid system grew stronger again until 1970s Students and Workers changed the face of South Africa 1973 strike of workers in Durban 1976 student anger exploded, ANC supported student struggles for national liberation New heights of liberation struggles came in, in the 1980s. People taking over the situation in communities, workplaces and at schools etc. Strong demand for political power 1976 reforms were introduced to apartheid for the first time The government enacted new reforms and repressions and thoughts this would win the hearts and minds of Blacks but it led to even greater resistance Women Workers Students and Youths organisations make a major step forward from 1985 when the state of emergency was called. http://www.anc.org.za/show.php?doc=/ancdocs/about/umzabalazo.html Umkhonto we Sizwe Umkhonto we Sizwe ("Spear of the Nation"), abbreviated to MK, was the military wing of the ANC. Partly in response to the Sharpeville Massacre of 1960, individual members of the ANC found it necessary to resort to violence. Though most of ANC's leadership disagreed, many members within the organisation decided that non-violent campaigns were not working. Many members of the ANC were not comfortable with the MK arrangement, but individuals, such as Nelson Mandela, felt guerrilla warfare had to be considered. In cooperation with the SA communist party, MK was founded in 1961. http://www.sahistory.org.za/pages/governence-projects/organisations/MK/formation.htm Ideology The ANC deems itself as a force of national liberation in the post-apartheid era; it officially defines its umbrella agenda as the National Democratic Revolution. The ANC is a member of the Socialist International. It also sets forth the redressing of socioeconomic differences stemming from colonial- and apartheid-era policies which discriminated against non-whites, such as land, housing and job distributions, as a central focus of ANC policy. The National Democratic Revolution (NDR) is described as a process through which the National Democratic Society (NDS) is achieved; a society in which people are intellectually, socially, economically and politically empowered. The drivers of the NDR are also called the motive forces and are defined as the elements within society that gain from the success of the NDR. Using contour plots or concentric circles the centre represents the elements in society that gain the most out of the success of the NDR. Moving away from the centre results in the reduction of the gains that those elements derive. It is generally believed that the force that occupies the centre of those concentric circles in countries with low unemployment is the working class while in countries with higher levels of unemployment it is the unemployed. Some of the many theoreticians that have written about the NDR include Joe Slovo and Joel Netshitenzhe. Tripartite Alliance The ANC holds a historic alliance with the South African Communist Party (SACP) and Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU), known as the Tripartite Alliance. The SACP and COSATU have not contested any election in South Africa, but field candidates through the ANC, hold senior positions in the ANC, and influence party policy and dialogue. During Mbeki's presidency, the government took a more pro-capitalist stance, often running counter to the demands of the SACP and COSATU. 2008 schism Following Zuma's accession to the ANC leadership in 2007 and Mbeki's resignation as president in 2008, the Mbeki faction of former ministers led by Mosiuoa Lekota split away from the ANC to form the Congress of the People. ANC flag The ANC flag is composed of three stripes - black, green and yellow. The black represents the color of the people, the green the fertility of the land and the yellow represents the gold with which the country is rich. This flag was also the battle flag of the Umkhonto we Sizwe. The official party flag also has the emblem of the party incorporated onto the flag. Party list Politicians in the party win a place in parliament by being on the Party List, which is drawn up before the elections and enumerates, in order, the party's preferred MPs. The number of seats allocated is proportional to the popular national vote, and this determines the cut-off point. The ANC has also gained members through the controversial floor crossing process. Although most South African parties announced their candidate list for provincial premierships in the 2009 election, the ANC did not. It is not required for parties to do so. http://www.politicsweb.co.za/politicsweb/view/politicsweb/en/page71619?oid=120071&sn=Detail Election results Election Votes % Seats 2009 11,650,748 65.90 264 2004 10,880,915 69.69 279 1999 10,601,330 66.35 266 1994 12,237,655 62.65 252 Role of the ANC in Resolving the Conflict The ANC represented the main opposition to the government during apartheid and therefore they played a major role in resolving the conflict through participating in the peacemaking and peace-building processes. Initially intelligence agents of the National Party met in secret with ANC leaders, including Nelson Mandela to judge whether conflict resolution was possible. http://student.britannica.com/comptons/article-226016/apartheid Discussions and negotiations took place leading to the eventual unbanning of the ANC and other opposing political parties by then President de Klerk on 2 February 1990. These initial meetings were the first crucial steps towards resolution. The next official step towards rebuilding South Africa was the Groote Schuur Minute where the government and the ANC agreed on a common commitment towards the resolution of the existing climate of violence and intimidation from whatever quarter, as well as a commitment to stability and to a peaceful process of negotiations. The ANC negotiated the release of political prisoners and the indemnity from prosecution for returning exiles and moreover channels of communication were established between the Government and the ANC. Later the Pretoria Minute represented another step towards resolution where agreements at Groote Schuur were reconsolidated and steps towards setting up an interim government and drafting a new constitution were established as well as the symbolic suspension of the military wing of the ANC - the Umkhonto we Sizwe. This represented a stop to direct violence within South Africa. Another agreement that came out of the Pretoria minute was that both parties would try and raise awareness that a New Order was underway and that the violence must stop. However violence still continued in Kwazulu-Natal, which violated the trust between Mandela and De Klerk. Moreover internal disputes in the ANC prolonged the war as consensus on peace was not reached. The next significant steps towards resolution were the Repeal of the Population Registration Act – this meant no one could claim, or be deprived of rights on the basis of racial classification, the repeal of the Group Areas and the Native Land Acts and a catch-all Abolishment of Racially Based Measures Act was passed. In December 1991 the Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) was held with the aim of establishing a interim government. However a few months later in June 1992 the Boipatong massacre occurred and all negotiations crumbled as the ANC pulled out. After this negotiations proceeded between two agents, Cyril Ramaphosa of the ANC, and Roelf Meyer of the National Party. In over 40 meetings the two men discussed and negotiated over many issues including the nature of the future political system, the fates of over 40,000 current government employees and how the country was going to be divided. Cyril Ramaphosa dominated the negotiations as he was far more apt at negotiation having worked as Union leader in the mines than Roelf Meyer, who had been unchallenged for the past three decades. The result of these negotiations was an interim constitution that meant the transition from apartheid to democracy was a constitutional continuation and that the rule of law and state sovereignty remained intact during the transition, which was vital for stability within the country. A date was set for the first democratic elections on the 27th April 1994. The ANC won 62.5% of the votes and has been in power ever since. www.africanhistory.about.com/od/apartheidfaq/f/HowEnded.htm Criticism Terrorism and violence During its days in exile, the ANC was often criticised by western governments who shared the South African government's characterization of the group as a terrorist organization. Several high-profile anti-Apartheid activists such as Archbishop Desmond Tutu criticized the ANC for its willingness to resort to violence, arguing that tactics of non-violent resistance, such as civil disobedience were more productive. The ANC's willingness to ally with Communists was also the subject of both foreign and domestic criticism. A Pentagon report of the late 1980s described the ANC as "a major terrorist organization". Party and State conflict The ANC has been heavily criticized for awarding large state contracts, involving tens of billions of Rands, to its party funding vehicle, Chancellor House. At times, the decision to award the contract was made by the same state employees who sit on the ANC fundraising committee. Chancellor House is named after Mandela's former work premises. The ANC was also criticized for the setting up of a formal scheme whereby businessmen and members of the public could buy 'face time' with various government ministers, with the costs ranging R3 000 to R7 000 for an individual and R12 500 to R60 000 for businesses. The scheme is run from the ANC headquarters, Luthuli House (Formerly Shell House), with all money going to the party. Controversy over corrupt members Another accusation frequently levelled at the ANC is that they protect their high-ranking members in the face of controversy, and as such are seen as supporting criminal behaviour. The most prominent corruption case involving the ANC relates to a series of bribes paid to companies involved in the ongoing R55-billion Arms Deal saga, which resulted in a long term jail sentence to former Deputy President Jacob Zuma's legal adviser Schabir Shaik. Zuma, now the State president elect, currently faces 783 charges relating to alleged fraud, bribery and corruption in the Arms Deal. The ANC has also been criticised for its subsequent abolishment of the Scorpions, the multidisciplinary agency that investigated and prosecuted organised crime and corruption, and was heavily involved in the investigation into Zuma and Shaik. Other recent corruption issues include the sexual misconduct and criminal charges of Beaufort West municipal manager Truman Prince, and the Oilgate scandal, in which millions of Rand in funds from a state-owned company were allegedly funneled into ANC coffers. Links between factions in the ANC, specifically the ANC Youth League leadership, and businessman Brett Kebble gained media attention following Kebble's murder in September 2005. In December 2007 the ANC elected their new National Executive Committee (NEC), the highest structure in the party. Out of the 80 member committee, 9% are (post-apartheid) convicted criminals. Most of these members have been convicted of fraud, while one member, Winnie Madikizela-Mandela, was convicted of the kidnapping of a 14-year old boy (who was also murdered). According to an article in the Mail & Guardian, "by adding those who have been disciplined or moved, and those with dark clouds of unanswered questions hanging over their heads, the figure shifts to 29%." ANC rogues' gallery : Mail & Guardian Online The ANC has also been accused of using government and civil society to fight its political battles against opposition parties such as the Democratic Alliance. The result has been a number of complaints and allegations that none of the political parties truly represent the interests of the poor. This has resulted in the "No Land! No House! No Vote!" Campaign which becomes very prominent each time the country holds elections. See also Congress of South African Trade Unions United Democratic Front (South Africa) References External links African National Congress official site Response by the ANC General Secretary to COSATU's assessment, 2004 "Today it feels good to be an African" - Thabo Mbeki, Cape Town, 8 May 1996 Interview with Nimrod Sejake, an ANC dissident, "The ANC has sold out!" 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6,239 | Hanover | Hanover or Hannover(i) (, ), on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony (Niedersachsen), Germany and was once by personal union the family seat of the Hanoverian Kings of Great Britain, in their dignities as the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg (which title was later called the Elector of Hanover at the end of the historical period known as Early Modern Europe). After the Napoleonic Wars ended, the Electorate was enlarged and made into the capital of the Kingdom of Hanover. In addition to being the capital of Lower Saxony, Hanover was the capital of the administrative area Regierungsbezirk Hannover (Hanover region) until Lower Saxony's administrative regions were disbanded at the beginning of 2005. It is, however, still part of the Hanover district (Region Hannover), which is a municipal body made up from the former district and city of Hanover. With a population of 522,944 (1 February 2007) the city is a major center of northern Germany, known for hosting annual commercial expositions such as the Hanover Fair and the CeBIT. Every year Hanover hosts the Schützenfest Hannover, the world's largest Marksmen's Fun Fair, and the Oktoberfest Hannover, which is the second largest Oktoberfest in the world. In 2000, Hanover hosted the world fair Expo 2000. The Hanover fairground, due to numerous extensions especially for the Expo 2000, is the largest in the world. Hanover also has regional importance because of its universities and medical school, its international airport, and its large zoo. The city is also a major crossing point of railway lines and highways (Autobahnen), connecting European main lines in east-west-direction (Berlin - Ruhr area) and north-south-direction (Hamburg - Munich et al.). History Founded in medieval times on the south bank of the river Leine (the original name Honovere may be translated as "high bank", though this is debated), Hanover was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen that became a comparatively large town in the 13th century as a natural crossroads. In a time of relatively difficult overland travel, its position on the upper navigable reaches of the river favored it for increasing trade and growth. Connected to the Hanseatic League city of Bremerhaven via the Leine river from its place near the southern edge of the wide central German plains to its north and situated north-west of the Harz mountains, it enjoyed a mountain skirting "crossroads" position in east-west land traffic by mule train. Hanover thus acted as a gateway to the Rhine, the Ruhr and Saar River valleys and their industrial areas to the southwest, for the plains regions both to its east and north, as well as overland traffic skirting the Hartz between the Low Countries and Saxony or Thuringia. In the 14th century the main churches of Hanover were built, as well as a city wall with three town gates to secure the city. With the beginnings of industrialization in Germany, trade in iron and silver from the northern Hartz mountains increased the city's importance. In 1636, the Elector of Calenberg, the new Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg,moved his residence to Hanover. His electorate was thereafter known as the Electorate of Hanover (see: House of Hanover). His descendants would later become monarchs of Great Britain (after 1801, monarchs of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland). The first of them was George I, who ascended to the British throne in 1714. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover was Queen Victoria (her son King Edward VII belonged to the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha). Three kings of Great Britain, or the United Kingdom, were at the same time Electoral Princes of Hanover. During the time of the union of the crowns of the United Kingdom and Hanover (1714–1837), the monarchs rarely visited the city. In fact, during the reigns of the final three joint rulers (1760–1837), there was only one short visit, by George IV, in 1821. Usually, a viceroy represented the monarch in Hanover. During the Seven Years' War the Battle of Hastenbeck took place on July 26, 1757, near the city. The French army defeated the Hanoverian Army of Observation, leading to the city's occupation. 19th century Am Kröpcke, 1895. Schloss Herrenhausen, 1895. After Napoleon imposed the Convention of Artlenburg (Convention of the Elbe) on July 5, 1803, about 30,000 French soldiers occupied Hanover. The Convention also meant the disbanding of the army of Hanover. George III did not recognize the Convention of the Elbe. As a result of this, a great number of soldiers from Hanover eventually emigrated to Great Britain, leading to the formation of the King's German Legion, which was the only German army to fight continually during the entire Napoleonic wars against the French. They later played an important role in the Battle of Waterloo in 1815. The Congress of Vienna in 1814 elevated the electorate to the Kingdom of Hanover. The capital town Hanover expanded to the western bank of the Leine and grew considerably since then. In 1837, the personal union of the United Kingdom and Hanover ended as William IV's heir in the United Kingdom was female (Queen Victoria). According to Salic Law Hanover could only be inherited by males. As a consequence, Hanover passed to William IV's brother, Ernest Augustus, and remained a kingdom until 1866, when it was annexed by Prussia, during the Austro-Prussian war. Despite having won the Battle of Langensalza against Prussia,the city of Hanover became the Prussian provincial capital. After the annexation, the people of Hanover opposed the Prussian regime. However, for Hanoverian industry, the new connection to Prussia meant an improvement in business. The introduction of free trade promoted economic growth, and also led to the recovery of the Gründerzeit (founders era). In the period from 1871 to 1912 the population of Hanover grew from 87,600 to 313,400. In 1872 the first horse railway was inaugurated, and from 1893 an electric tram was developed. In 1887 Emile Berliner invented the record and the gramophone. The upswing in Hanover started with the era of urban Director Heinrich Tramm. From 1891–1918 he was director of the city of Hanover, and fundamentally shaped the look of the city up to the turn of the century (The "Tramm Era"). The New Town Hall, the Trammplatz, is named after him. In 1883 from the city of Hanover, the Hanover district government was created and became active. The city was enlarged first in 1869, followed in 1882 by adding Königsworther Platz and the Welfengarten. In 1891 the municipalities of Herrenhausen, Hainholz, Vahrenwald were added. In 1907 the municipalities of Stöcken, Gutsbezirk Mecklenheide, Bothfeld, Klein-Buchholz, Groß-Buchholz, Kirchrode, Döhren and Wülfel were incorporated into Hanover The Synagogue Memorial in Hanover. Nazi Germany From 1937 the Lord Mayor and the state commissioners of Hanover were members of the NSDAP (NAZI party). As everywhere else in Germany, there was also a Jewish population in Hanover. In October 1938, 484 Hanoverian Jews of Polish origin were expelled to Poland, including the Grynszpan family. However, Poland refused to admit them. The Grynszpans and thousands of other Polish-Jewish deportees were left stranded at the border, fed only intermittently by the Polish Red Cross and Jewish welfare organizations. Their famous (or infamous) assassin son Herschel Grynszpan was in Paris at the time. When he heard about the expulsion of his family to Poland, he drove to the German embassy and killed the German diplomat Eduard Ernst vom Rath. The Nazis took this act as a pretext for staging their nationwide pogrom known as Kristallnacht. It was in Hanover on November 9, 1938 that the synagogue, designed in 1870 by Edwin Oppler in neo-romantic style, was burnt by the Nazis. In September 1941, through the "Action Lauterbacher" plan, a ghettoisation of the remaining Hanoverian Jewish families began. Even before the Wannsee Conference, on December 15, 1941, the first Jews from Hanover were deported to Riga. A total of 2,400 people were deported, and very few survived. Of the approximately 4,800 Jews who had lived in Hannover 1938, less than 100 were still in the city when troops of the United States Army arrived on April 10, 1945 to occupy Hanover at the end of the war. Today, a memorial at the Opera Square is a reminder of the persecution of the Jews in Hanover. World War II Hanover was an important road junction and production center that was a target area of the Strategic bombing during World War II, including the Oil Campaign. Targets included the AFA (Stöcken), the Deurag-Nerag refinery (Misburg), the Continental plant (Vahrenwald), the United light metal works (VLW) in Ricklingen and Laatzen, and in Linden, the Hanover/Limmer rubber reclamation plant, the Hanomag factory, and NMH. Forced laborers were used from the Hannover-Misburg subcamp of the Neuengamme concentration camp. The residential areas were also targeted and more than 6,000 people were killed in the Allied bombing raids. More than 90% of the city center was destroyed in 88 bombing raids History of Hanover 1866-1945, official web site of the city (German) . After the war, the Aegidienkirche was not rebuilt and its ruins were kept as a war memorial. Hanover was in the British zone of occupation of Germany after the war, and became part of the new state (Land) of Lower Saxony in 1946. Today the City of Hanover is a Vice-President City of Mayors for Peace, an international Mayoral organization mobilizing cities and citizens worldwide to abolish and eliminate nuclear weapons by the year 2020. Mayors for Peace Subdivisions Districts Boroughs of Hanover Hanover Region Mitte Vahrenwald-List Bothfeld-Vahrenheide Buchholz-Kleefeld Misburg-Anderten Kirchrode-Bemerode-Wülferode Südstadt-Bult Döhren-Wülfel Ricklingen Linden-Limmer Ahlem-Badenstedt-Davenstedt Herrenhausen-Stöcken Nord Quarters Nordstadt Südstadt Oststadt Zoo (for the zoo itself, see Hanover Zoo) Herrenhausen Main sights Ernst August memorial, central railway station The Staatsoper Hanover ("state opera") is housed in its classical 19th century opera house. Market Church in Hanover Old Town Hall Leine River At Hanover City Waterloo Column in Hanover One of the most famous sights is the Royal Gardens of Herrenhausen: The Great Garden is an important European baroque garden. The palace itself, however, was largely destroyed by Allied bombing. Some points of interest are the Grotto (the interior was designed by the French artist Niki de Saint-Phalle), the Galery Building, the Orangerie and the two pavillons by Remy de la Fosse. The Great Garden consists of several parts. The most popular ones are the Great Ground and the Neuveau Jardin. At the centre of the Neuveau Jardin is Europe's highest garden fountain. The historic Garden Theatre inter alia hosted the musicals of the German rock musician Heinz Rudolf Kunze. The Berggarten is an important European botanical garden. Some points of interest are the Tropical House, the Cactus House, the Canary House and the Orchid House, which hosts one of the world's biggest collection of orchids, and free-flying birds and butterflies. Near the entrance to the Berggarten is the historic Library Pavillon. The Mausoleum of the Guelphs is also located in the Berggarten. Like the Great Garden, the Berggarten also consists of several parts, for example the Paradies and the Prairie Garden. There is also the Sea Life Centre Hanover, which is the first tropical aquarium in Germany. The Georgengarten is an English landscape garden. The Leibniz Temple and the Georgen Palace are two points of interest there. Other gardens are the Guelph Garden with the Guelph Palace and the Prince Garden. Nearby are the Water Art, the Hardenbergsche House and the Prince House. The landmark of Hanover is the New Town Hall (Neues Rathaus). Inside the building are four scale models of the town and the only working diagonal elevator in Germany, which goes up the large dome. The Hanover Zoo is one of the most spectacular and best zoos in Europe. The zoo received the Park Scout Award for the third year running in 2008, placing it among the best zoos in Germany. The zoo consists of several theme-areas: Sambesi, Meyers Farm, Gorilla-Mountain, Jungle-Palace, and Mullewapp. Some smaller areas are Australia, the wooded area for wolves, and the so-called swimming area with many seabirds. There is also a tropical house, a jungle house, and a show arena. The new Alaska-themed area, Yukon Bay, is still under construction. Another point of interest is the Old Town. At the centre is the huge Market Church and the Old Town Hall. Near by are the Leibniz House, the Nolte House, and the Beguine Tower. A very nice quarter of the Old Town is the Kreuz-Church-Quarter around the Kreuz Church with many nice little lanes. Nearby is the old theatre, called Ballhofeins. On the edge of the Old Town are the Market Hall, the Leine Palace, and the ruin of the Aegidien Church which is now a monument to the victims of war and violence. Through the Marstall Gate you arrive at the bank of the river Leine, where the world-famous Nanas of Niki de Saint-Phalle are located. They are part of the Mile of Sculpture which leads from the Königsworter Square up to the entrance of the Georgengarten. Near the Old Town is the district Calenberger Neustadt where the Catholic church of St. Clemens, the Reformed Church, and the Protestant Neustädter Church are located. Some other popular sights are the Waterloo Column, the Laves House, the Wangenheim Palace, the Lower Saxony State Archives, the Hanover Playhouse, the Kröpcke Clock, the Anzeiger Tower Block, the Administration Building of the NORD/LB, the Cupola Hall of the Congress Centre, the Lower Saxony Stock, the Ministry of Finance, the Garten Church, the Luther Church, the Gehry Tower (designed by the American architect Frank O. Gehry), the specially designed Bus Stops, the Opera House, the Central Station, the Maschsee lake and the city forest Eilenriede, which is one of the largest of its kind in Europe. Due to its around 40 parks, forests and gardens, a couple of lakes, two rivers and one canal, Hanover offers a large variety of leisure activities. Since 2007 the historic Leibniz Letters, which can be visited in the Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Library, are an UNESCO World Heritage Site. Outside of the city centre is the EXPO-Park, former site of EXPO 2000. Some points of interests are the Planet M., the former German Pavillon, the Yempa Event-Palace, the Expowale, the EXPO-Plaza and the EXPO-Gardens (Parc Agricole, EXPO-Park South and the Gardens of change). Via the Exponale, which is one of the largest pedestrianbridges in Europe, the fairground is reachable. The Hanover fairground is the largest in the world. Two important sights on the fairground are the Hermes Tower (88.8 metres high) and the EXPO Roof, which is the largest woodroof in the world. In the district of Anderten is the European Cheese Centre, which is the only Cheese-Experience-Centre in Europe. Nearby is also Hanovers large funpark, the CAMPO Aktiv-Arena. It is the largest sports- and leisure facility in Northern Germany with around 60 attractions. Another important sight in Anderten is the Hindenburg Lock, which was the biggest lock in Europe at the time of construction in 1928. The Animalgarden in the district of Kirchrode is a huge forest and shows the local animals. In the district of Groß-Buchholz is the Telemax, the tallest building in Lower Saxony and one of the highest television towers in Northern Germany. Some other remarkable towers are the VW-Tower and the old towers of the former mid-age defence belt: Döhrener Tower, Lister Tower and the Horse Tower. The 36 most important sights of the city centre are connected with a long red line, which is painted on the pavement. This so-called Red Thread marks out a walk that starts at the Tourist Information Office and ends on the Ernst-August-Square in front of the central station. There is also a guided sightseeing-bus tour through the city. Society and Culture Museums and Galleries The Historic Museum describes the history of Hanover, from the medieval settlement "honovere" to the world-famous Exhibition City of today. The museum focuses on the period from 1714 to 1834 when Hanover had a strong relationship with the British royal house. With more than 4,000 members, the Kestnergesellschaft is the largest art society in Germany. The museum hosts exhibitions from classical modernist art to contemporary art. One big focus is put on film, video, contemporary music and architecture, room installments and big presentations of contemporary paintings, sculptures and video art. The Kestner Museum is located in the House of 5.000 windows. The museum is named after August Kestner and exhibits 6,000 years of applied art in four areas: Ancient cultures, ancient Egypt, applied art and a valuable collection of historic coins. The KUBUS is a forum for contemporary art. It features mostly exhibitions and projects of famous and important artists from Hanover. The Kunstverein Hannover (Art Society Hanover) was established in 1832 as one of the first art societies in Germany. It is located in the Künstlerhaus (House of artists). There are around 7 international monografic and thematic Exhibitions in one year. The Lower Saxony State Museum is the largest museum in Hanover. The State Gallery shows the European Art from the 11th to the 20th century, the Nature Department shows the zoology, geology, botanic, geology and a Vivarium with fishes, insects, reptiles and amphibians. The Primeval Department shows the primeval history of Lower Saxony and the Folklore Department shows the cultures from all over the world. The Sprengel Museum shows the art of the 20th century. It is one of the most notable art museums in Germany. The focus is put on the classical modernist art with the collection of Kurt Schwitters, works of the German expressionism, and the French cubism, the cabinet of abstracts, the graphics and the department of photography and media. Furthermore the museum shows the famous works of the French artist Niki de Saint-Phalle. The Theatre Museum shows an exhibition of the history of the theatre in Hanover from the 17th century up to now: opera, concert, drama and ballet. The museum also hosts several touring exhibitions during the year. The Wilhelm-Busch-Museum is the German museum for caricature and critical graphics. The collection of the works of Wilhelm Busch and the extensive collection of caricatures and critical graphics is this museum unique in Germany. Furthermore the museum hosts several exhibitions of national and international artists during the year. A cabinet of coins is the Münzkabinett der TUI-AG. The Polizeigeschichtliche Sammlung Niedersachsen is the largest police museum in Germany. Textiles from all over the world can be visited in the Museum for textile art. The EXPOseeum is the museum of the world-exhibition "EXPO 2000 Hannover". Carpets and things from the orient can be visited in the Oriental Carpet Museum. The Blind Man Museum is a rarity in Germany, another one is only in Berlin. The Museum of veterinary medicine is unique in Germany. The Museum for Energy History describes the 150 years old history of the application of energy. The Home Museum Ahlem shows the history of the district of Ahlem. The Mahn- und Gedenkstätte Ahlem describes the history of the Jewish people in Hanover and the Stiftung Ahlers Pro Arte / Kestner Pro Arte shows modern art. Modern art is also the maintopic of the Kunsthalle Faust, the Nord/LB Art Gellery and of the Foro Artistico / Eisfabrik. Some leading art events in Hanover are the Long Night of the museums and the Zinnober Kunstvolkslauf which features all the galleries in Hanover. People who are interested in space should visit the Observatory Geschwister Herrschel on the Lindener Mountain or the small planetarium inside of the Bismarck School. Theatre, Cabaret and Musical Around 40 theatres are located in Hanover. The Opera House, the Schauspielhaus (Play House), the Ballhofeins, the Ballhofzwei and the Cumbarlandsche Galerie belong to the Lower Saxony State Theatre. The Theater am Aegi is Hanovers big theatre for musicals, shows and guest performances. The Neues Theater (New Theatre) is the Boulevard Theatre of Hanover. The Theater für Niedersachsen is another big theatre in Hanover, which also has an own Musical-Company. Some 0f the must important Musical-Productions are the rockmusicals of the German rockmusician Heinz Rudolph Kunze, which take place at the Garden-Theatre in the Great Garden. Some important theatre-events are the Tanztheater International, the Long Night of the Theatres, the Festival Theaterformen and the International Competition for Choreographs. Hanovers leading cabaret-stage is the GOP Variety theatre which is located in the Georgs Palace. Some other famous cabaret-stages are the Variety Marlene, the Uhu-Theatre. the theatre Die Hinterbühne, the Rampenlich Variety and the revue-stage TAK. The most important Cabaret-Event is the Kleines Fest im Großen Garten (Little Festival in the Great Garden) which is the most successful Cabaret Festival in Germany. It features artists from around the world. Some other important events are the Calenberger Cabaret Weeks, the Hanover Cabaret Festival and the Wintervariety. Music Hanover's own band, the ScorpionsThe rock bands Scorpions and Fury in the Slaughterhouse are originally from Hanover. Also, acclaimed DJ Mousse T has his main recording studio in the area. There are/were two big international competitions for classical music in Hanover: Joseph Joachim International Violin Competition (since 1991) Classica Nova International Music Competition (1997) (Non profit association Classica Nova exists in Hanover with the aim to continue the Classica Nova competition). Sport Hannover 96 (nickname Die Roten or 'The Reds') is Hanover's football team that plays in the Bundesliga top division. Home games are played at the AWD-Arena. Hannover 96 II plays in the fourth league and the home games are played in the traditional Eilenriedestadium. Arminia Hannover is another very traditional soccer team in Hanover that has played in the first league for years and plays now in the Niedersachsen-West Liga (Lower Saxony League West). Home matches are played in the Rudolf-Kalweit-Stadium. Inside the AWD-ArenaHanover is one of Germany's centres for ice hockey. The Hannover Scorpions play in the top division and their home games are played in the TUI Arena. The Hannover Indians are the second ice hockey team in Hanover. Even though the Hanover Indians are in the second league usually more people come to matches at the "PferdeTurm" than to matches of the "Hannover Scorpions". Hanover is also one of the Rugby union capitals in Germany. The first German Rugby team was founded in Hanover in 1878. Hanover is one of the leading towns in the German Rugby scene. DRC Hannover plays in the first division, and SV Odin von 1905 as well as SG 78/08 Hannover play in the second division. The first German Fencing Club was founded in Hanover in 1862. Today there are three more Fencing Clubs in Hanover. Hanover is a centre for Water Sports. Thanks to the lake Maschsee, the rivers Ihme and Leine and to the channel Mittellandkanal Hanover hosts sailing schools, yacht schools, waterski clubs, rowing clubs, canoe clubs and paddle clubs. The water polo team WASPO W98 plays in the first division. The Hannover Regents play in the first German Baseball division. Important Sport Events The Hannover Marathon is the biggest running event in Hanover with more than 11.000 participants and usually around 200.000 spectators. Some other important running events are the Gilde Stadtstaffel (relay), the Sport-Check Nachtlauf (night-running), the Herrenhäuser Team-Challenge, the Hannoversche Firmenlauf (company running) and the Silvesterlauf (sylvester running). Hanover hosts also an important international cycle race: The Nacht von Hannover (night of Hanover). The race takes place around the Market Hall. The lake Maschsee hosts the International Dragon Boat Races and the Canoe-Polo-Tournament. Many regattas take place during the year. Head of the river Leine on the river Leine is one of the biggest rowing regattas in Hanover. Some other important sport events are the Lower Saxony Beach Volleyball Tournament, the international horse show German Classics and the international ice hockey tournament Nations Cup. Regular Events CeBIT 2008 conference centre in HanoverHanover is one of the leading Exhibition Cities in the world. Each year Hanover hosts more than 60 international and national exhibitions. The most popular ones are the CeBIT, the Hanover Fair, the Domotex, the Ligna, the IAA Nutzfahrzeuge and the Agritechnica. Hanover also hosts a huge number of congresses. But Hanover is not only one of the most important Exhibition Cities in the world, Hanover is also one of the German capitals for the marksmen. The Schützenfest Hannover is the largest Marksmen's Fun Fair in the world and takes place once a year. It consists of more than 260 rides and inns, five large beer tents and a big entertainment program. The highlight of this fun fair is the long Parade of the Marksmen with more than 12.000 participants from all over the world, among them around 5.000 marksmen, 128 bands and more than 70 wagons, carriages and big festival vehicles. It is the longest procession in Europe. Around 2 million people visit this fun fair every year. The landmark of this Fun Fair is the biggest transportable Ferris Wheel in the world ( high). The origins of this fun fair is located in the year 1529. Hanover also hosts one of the two largest Spring Festivals in Europe with around 180 rides and inns, 2 large beer tents and around 1.5 million visitors each year. The Oktoberfest Hannover is the second largest Oktoberfest in the world with around 160 rides and inns, two large beer tents and around 1 million visitors each year. The Maschsee Festival takes place around the Maschsee Lake. Each year around 2 million visitors want to enjoy live music, comedy, cabaret and many more. It is the largest Volksfest of its kind in Northern Germany. The Great Garden hosts every year the International Fireworks Competition, and the International Festival Weeks Herrenhausen with lots of music and cabaret. The Carnival Procession is around long and consists of 3.000 participants, around 30 festival vehicles and around 20 bands and takes place every year. Some more festivals are for example the Festival Feuer und Flamme (Fire and Flames), the Gartenfestival (Garden Festival), the Herbstfestival (Autumn Festival), the Harley Days, the Steintor Festival (Steintor is a party area in the city centre) and the Lister-Meile-Festival (Lister Meile is a large pedestrian area). Hanover also hosts Food Festivals, for example the Wine Festival and the Gourmet Festival. Furthermore Hanover hosts some special markets. The Old Town Flea Market is the oldest flea market in Germany and the Market for Art and Trade has a high reputation. Some other big market is of course the Christmas Market Hanover in the Old Town. Transport Hannover Hauptbahnhof Citaro G natural gas bus designed by James Irvine TW 2000 tram designed by Herbert Lindinger and Jasper Morrison Rail The city's central station, Hannover Hauptbahnhof, is a hub of vital importance in the German high-speed ICE network. It is the starting point of the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line and the central hub for the Hanover S-Bahn, offering international and national connections to virtually everywhere in Germany. Air Hanover and its area is served by Hanover/Langenhagen International Airport (HAJ) Road Hanover is an important hub in Germany's Autobahn network; the interchange of two major autobahns, the A2 and A7 is at Kreuz Hannover-Ost, at the northeastern edge of the city. Local autobahns are A 352 (a bypass between A7 and A2, also known as the airport autobahn because it runs close to Hanover Airport) and the A 37. The Schnellweg (en: expressway) system, a number of Bundesstraße roads, forms a structure loosely resembling a large ring road together with A2 and A7. The roads are B 3 , B 6 and B 65, called Westschnellweg (B6 on the northern part, B3 on the southern part), Messeschnellweg (B3, becomes A37 near Burgdorf, crosses A2, becomes B3 again, changes to B6 at Seelhorster Kreuz, then passes the Hanover fairground as B6 and becomes A37 again before merging into A7) and Südschnellweg (starts out as B65, becomes B3/B6/B65 upon crossing Westschnellweg, then becomes B65 again at Seelhorster Kreuz). Bus and light rail Hanover has an extensive Stadtbahn system, traditionally operated by üstra. The city is famous for its designer buses and tramways, the TW 6000 and TW 2000 trams being the most well-known examples. Economy The Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles Transporter factory at Hannover-Stöcken is the biggest employer in the region. German tire and automobile parts manufacturer Continental AG has its headquarters in Hanover. TUI AG is headquartered in Hanover. "Contact TUI Group." TUI AG. Retrieved on 29 May 2009. Education The Leibniz University Hannover is the largest funded institution in Hanover for providing higher education to the students from around the world. Below are the names of the universities and some of the important schools including newly opened Hannover Medical Research School in 2003 for attracting the students from biology background from around the world. There are several universities in Hanover: Leibniz University Hannover Hanover State University of Music and Drama Hanover Medical School School of Veterinary Medicine Hanover There is one University of Applied Science and Arts in Hanover: Fachhochschule Hannover Towns named Hanover Hanover, Ontario, Canada Hanover, Northern Cape, South Africa Hanover, Brighton, New Hanover, Illinois, U.S. Hanover, Kansas, U.S. Hanover, Maine, U.S. Hanover, Maryland, U.S. Hanover, Massachusetts, U.S. Hanover, Minnesota, U.S. Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S. Hanover, New Mexico, U.S. Hanover, Pennsylvania, U.S. Hanover, Virginia, U.S. Also, Hanover County, Virginia and New Hanover County, North Carolina, U.S. are named after the city. Twin cities Twin cities of Hanover (German text only) - Bristol, United Kingdom - Perpignan, France - Rouen, France - Blantyre, Malawi - Poznań, Poland - Hiroshima, Japan - Leipzig, Germany Definitions Note: Hanover is the traditional English spelling, even though the German spelling (with a double n) is becoming more popular in English. The traditional spelling should always be used in historical context, especially when referring to the British House of Hanover. See also Expo 2000 Hanover Fair (Hannover Messe) CeBIT (CeBIT Computer Messe) Oktoberfest Hannover Treaty of Hanover among Britain, France, and Prussia on May 19, 1727 Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg References External links City's own website Official website for tourism, holiday and leisure in Lower Saxony and Hanover EXPOseeum - see what is left from Expo 2000 tram in Hanover http://www.mh-hannover.de/hbrs.html SV Odin von 1905 website | Hanover |@lemmatized hanover:146 hannover:34 river:11 leine:10 capital:8 federal:1 state:10 low:14 saxony:14 niedersachsen:4 germany:26 personal:2 union:4 family:4 seat:1 hanoverian:5 king:4 great:13 britain:6 dignity:1 duke:2 brunswick:2 lüneburg:2 title:1 later:3 call:5 elector:2 end:5 historical:2 period:3 know:6 early:1 modern:3 europe:9 napoleonic:2 war:11 electorate:4 enlarge:2 make:2 kingdom:9 addition:1 administrative:2 area:15 regierungsbezirk:1 region:7 disband:1 beginning:2 however:4 still:3 part:8 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6,240 | Hugo_Gernsback | Hugo Gernsback watching a television broadcast from his WRNY station in 1928. Hugo Gernsback (August 16 1884 – August 19 1967), born Hugo Gernsbacher, was a Luxembourg American inventor, writer and magazine publisher, best remembered for publications that included the first science fiction magazine. His contributions to the genre as publisher were so significant that, along with H.G. Wells and Jules Verne, he is sometimes popularly called "The Father of Science Fiction" . Others who are popularly called "The Father of Science Fiction" include H.G. Wells and Jules Verne. ; in his honor, the annual Science Fiction Achievement awards are named the "Hugos". Born in the Bonnevoie neighbourhood of Luxembourg City, Gernsback emigrated to the United States in 1905 and later became a naturalized citizen. He married three times: to Rose Harvey in 1906, Dorothy Kantrowitz in 1921, and Mary Hancher in 1951. In 1925, Hugo founded radio station WRNY and was involved in the first television broadcasts. He is also considered a pioneer in amateur radio. Science fiction Gernsback started the modern genre of science fiction by founding the first magazine dedicated to it, Amazing Stories, in 1926. He said he became interested in the concept after reading a translation of the work of Percival Lowell as a child. He also played a key role in starting science fiction fandom, by publishing the addresses of people who wrote letters to his magazines. So, the science fiction fans began to organize, and became aware of themselves as a movement, a social force; this was probably decisive for the subsequent history of the genre. He also created the term “science fiction”. In 1929, he lost ownership of his first magazines after a bankruptcy lawsuit. There is some debate about whether this process was genuine, manipulated by publisher Bernarr Macfadden, or was a Gernsback scheme to begin another company. After losing control of Amazing Stories, Gernsback founded two new science fiction magazines, Science Wonder Stories and Air Wonder Stories. A year later, due to Depression-era financial troubles, the two were merged together into Wonder Stories, which Gernsback continued to publish until 1936, when it was sold to Thrilling Publications and renamed Thrilling Wonder Stories. Gernsback was noted for sharp (and sometimes shady) business practices, Lovecraft: a Biography and for paying his writers extremely low fees. H. P. Lovecraft and Clark Ashton Smith referred to him as "Hugo the Rat." Lovecraft: a Biography, p. 298 Gernsback returned in 1952-53 with Science-Fiction Plus. Gernsback wrote some fiction, including the novel Ralph 124C 41+ in 1911 (the title was a pun of the phrase "one to foresee for one"). Though hugely influential at the time, and filled with numerous science fiction ideas, the plot, characters, and writing strike most modern readers as shallow and old-fashioned. Gernsback combined his fiction and science into the popular Everyday Science and Mechanics magazine serving as the editor in the 1930's. The Science Fiction Achievement awards, given to various works each year by vote of the members of the World Science Fiction Society, are named the "Hugos" after him. He was one of 1996's inaugural inductees into the Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame. Before creating a literary genre, Gernsback was an entrepreneur in the electronics industry, importing radio parts from Europe to the United States and helping to popularize amateur "wireless". In April 1908 founded Modern Electrics, the world's first magazine about electronics. Under its auspices, in January 1909, he founded the Wireless Association of America, which had 10,000 members within a year. In 1912, Gernsback said that he estimated 400,000 people in the U.S. were involved in amateur radio. In 1913, he founded a similar magazine, The Electrical Experimenter, which became Science and Invention in 1920. It was in these magazines that he began including scientific fiction stories alongside science journalism. Gernsback held 80 patents by the time of his death in New York City on August 19, 1967. See also Science fiction editors Pulp magazine Order of the Oak Crown Popular culture "The Gernsback Continuum", one of William Gibson's first short stories, deals with the difference between the future envisioned in Gernsback's time and the present. M9E Gernsback, an Arm Slave in the popular anime series Full Metal Panic, is named after Hugo Gernsback. The anime series Ergo Proxy features a character named Re-l Mayer, whose manufacture number (124C41+) references Gernsback's novel Ralph 124C 41+. Notes References External links Forecast Posthumous issues and other material about Hugo Gernsback Rescue at Sea "Boys of Wireless" PBS. Contains information about Gernsback's role in early amateur radio Hugo Gernsback Papers Description of his papers in the Special Collections Research Center of the Syracuse University Library Hugo Gernsback, Publisher Discussion of Gernsback as a magazine publisher, with links to cover images of most of his technical and other non-fiction magazines | Hugo_Gernsback |@lemmatized hugo:11 gernsback:24 watch:1 television:2 broadcast:2 wrny:2 station:2 august:3 bear:1 gernsbacher:1 luxembourg:2 american:1 inventor:1 writer:2 magazine:13 publisher:5 best:1 remember:1 publication:2 include:4 first:6 science:21 fiction:20 contribution:1 genre:4 significant:1 along:1 h:3 g:2 well:2 jules:2 verne:2 sometimes:2 popularly:2 call:2 father:2 others:1 honor:1 annual:1 achievement:2 award:2 name:4 born:1 bonnevoie:1 neighbourhood:1 city:2 emigrate:1 united:2 state:2 later:2 become:4 naturalized:1 citizen:1 marry:1 three:1 time:4 rise:1 harvey:1 dorothy:1 kantrowitz:1 mary:1 hancher:1 found:6 radio:5 involve:2 also:4 consider:1 pioneer:1 amateur:4 start:2 modern:3 dedicate:1 amaze:2 story:8 say:2 interested:1 concept:1 read:1 translation:1 work:2 percival:1 lowell:1 child:1 play:1 key:1 role:2 fandom:1 publish:2 address:1 people:2 write:3 letter:1 fan:1 begin:3 organize:1 aware:1 movement:1 social:1 force:1 probably:1 decisive:1 subsequent:1 history:1 create:2 term:1 lose:2 ownership:1 bankruptcy:1 lawsuit:1 debate:1 whether:1 process:1 genuine:1 manipulate:1 bernarr:1 macfadden:1 scheme:1 another:1 company:1 control:1 two:2 new:2 wonder:4 air:1 year:3 due:1 depression:1 era:1 financial:1 trouble:1 merge:1 together:1 continue:1 sell:1 thrill:2 rename:1 note:2 sharp:1 shady:1 business:1 practice:1 lovecraft:3 biography:2 pay:1 extremely:1 low:1 fee:1 p:2 clark:1 ashton:1 smith:1 refer:1 rat:1 return:1 plus:1 novel:2 ralph:2 title:1 pun:1 phrase:1 one:4 foresee:1 though:1 hugely:1 influential:1 fill:1 numerous:1 idea:1 plot:1 character:2 strike:1 reader:1 shallow:1 old:1 fashion:1 combine:1 popular:3 everyday:1 mechanic:1 serving:1 editor:2 give:1 various:1 vote:1 member:2 world:2 society:1 inaugural:1 inductee:1 fantasy:1 hall:1 fame:1 literary:1 entrepreneur:1 electronics:2 industry:1 import:1 part:1 europe:1 help:1 popularize:1 wireless:3 april:1 electric:1 auspex:1 january:1 association:1 america:1 within:1 estimate:1 u:1 similar:1 electrical:1 experimenter:1 invention:1 scientific:1 alongside:1 journalism:1 hold:1 patent:1 death:1 york:1 see:1 pulp:1 order:1 oak:1 crown:1 culture:1 continuum:1 william:1 gibson:1 short:1 deal:1 difference:1 future:1 envision:1 present:1 arm:1 slave:1 anime:2 series:2 full:1 metal:1 panic:1 ergo:1 proxy:1 feature:1 l:1 mayer:1 whose:1 manufacture:1 number:1 reference:2 external:1 link:2 forecast:1 posthumous:1 issue:1 material:1 rescue:1 sea:1 boys:1 pb:1 contain:1 information:1 early:1 paper:2 description:1 special:1 collection:1 research:1 center:1 syracuse:1 university:1 library:1 discussion:1 cover:1 image:1 technical:1 non:1 |@bigram hugo_gernsback:6 science_fiction:16 jules_verne:2 naturalized_citizen:1 percival_lowell:1 fiction_fandom:1 thrill_wonder:1 clark_ashton:1 ashton_smith:1 hugely_influential:1 hall_fame:1 electrical_experimenter:1 pulp_magazine:1 external_link:1 |
6,241 | Direct_product | In mathematics, one can often define a direct product of objects already known, giving a new one. This is generally the Cartesian product of the underlying sets, together with a suitably defined structure on the product set. More abstractly, one talks about the product in category theory, which formalizes these notions. Examples are the product of sets (see Cartesian product), groups (described below), the product of rings and of other algebraic structures. The product of topological spaces is another instance. There is also the direct sum – in some areas this is used interchangeably, in others it is a different concept. Examples If we think of as the set of real numbers, then the direct product is precisely just the cartesian product, . If we think of as the group of real numbers under addition, then the direct product still consists of . The difference between this and the preceding example is that is now a group. We have to also say how to add their elements. This is done by letting . If we think of as the ring of real numbers, then the direct product again consists of . To make this a ring, we say how their elements are added, , and how they are multiplied . However, if we think of as the field of real numbers, then the direct product does not exist! Naively defining in a similar manner to the above examples would not result in a field since the element does not have a multiplicative inverse. In a similar manner, we can talk about the product of more than two objects, e.g. . We can even talk about product of infinitely many objects, e.g. . Group direct product In group theory one can define the direct product of two groups (G, *) and (H, ●), denoted by G × H. For abelian groups which are written additively, it may also be called the direct sum of two groups, denoted by . It is defined as follows: the set of the elements of the new group is the cartesian product of the sets of elements of G and H, that is {(g, h): g in G, h in H}; on these elements put an operation, defined elementwise: (g, h) × (g' , h' ) = (g * g' , h ● h' ) (Note the operation * may be the same as ●.) This construction gives a new group. It has a normal subgroup isomorphic to G (given by the elements of the form (g, 1)), and one isomorphic to H (comprising the elements (1, h)). The reverse also holds, there is the following recognition theorem: If a group K contains two normal subgroups G and H, such that K= GH and the intersection of G and H contains only the identity, then K = G x H. A relaxation of these conditions gives the semidirect product. As an example, take as G and H two copies of the unique (up to isomorphisms) group of order 2, C2: say {1, a} and {1, b}. Then C2×C2 = {(1,1), (1,b), (a,1), (a,b)}, with the operation element by element. For instance, (1,b)*(a,1) = (1*a, b*1) = (a,b), and (1,b)*(1,b) = (1,b2) = (1,1). With a direct product, we get some natural group homomorphisms for free: the projection maps , called the coordinate functions. Also, every homomorphism f on the direct product is totally determined by its component functions . For any group (G, *), and any integer n ≥ 0, multiple application of the direct product gives the group of all n-tuples Gn (for n=0 the trivial group). Examples: Zn Rn (with additional vector space structure this is called Euclidean space, see below) Direct product of modules The direct product for modules (not to be confused with the tensor product) is very similar to the one defined for groups above, using the cartesian product with the operation of addition being componentwise, and the scalar multiplication just distributing over all the components. Starting from R we get Euclidean space Rn, the prototypical example of a real n-dimensional vector space. The direct product of Rm and Rn is Rm + n. Note that a direct product for a finite index is identical to the direct sum . The direct sum and direct product differ only for infinite indices, where the elements of a direct sum are zero for all but for a finite number of entries. They are dual in the sense of Category Theory: the direct sum is the coproduct, while the direct product is the product. For example, consider and , the infinite direct product and direct sum of the real numbers. Only sequences with a finite number of non-zero elements are in Y. For example, (1,0,0,0,...) is in Y but (1,1,1,1,...) is not. Both of these sequences are in the direct product X; in fact, Y is a proper subset of X (that is, Y⊂X). Topological space direct product The direct product for a collection of topological spaces Xi for i in I, some index set, once again makes use of the cartesian product Defining the topology is a little tricky. For finitely many factors, this is the obvious and natural thing to do: simply take as a basis of open sets to be the collection of all cartesian products of open subsets from each factor: This topology is called the product topology. For example, directly defining the product topology on R2 by the open sets of R (disjoint unions of open intervals), the basis for this topology would consist of all disjoint unions of open rectangles in the plane (as it turns out, it coincides with the usual metric topology). The product topology for infinite products has a twist, and this has to do with being able to make all the projection maps continuous and to make all functions into the product continuous if and only if all its component functions are continuous (i.e. to satisfy the categorical definition of product: the morphisms here are continuous functions): we take as a basis of open sets to be the collection of all cartesian products of open subsets from each factor, as before, with the proviso that all but finitely many of the open subsets are the entire factor: The more natural-sounding topology would be, in this case, to take products of infinitely many open subsets as before, and this does yield a somewhat interesting topology, the box topology. However it is not too difficult to find an example of bunch of continuous component functions whose product function is not continuous (see the separate entry box topology for an example and more). The problem which makes the twist necessary is ultimately rooted in the fact that the intersection of open sets is only guaranteed to be open for finitely many sets in the definition of topology. Products (with the product topology) are nice with respect to preserving properties of their factors; for example, the product of Hausdorff spaces is Hausdorff; the product of connected spaces is connected, and the product of compact spaces is compact. That last one, called Tychonoff's theorem, is yet another equivalence to the axiom of choice. For more properties and equivalent formulations, see the separate entry product topology. Direct product of binary relations On the Cartesian product of two sets with binary relations R and S, define (a, b) T (c, d) as a R c and b S d. If R and S are both reflexive, irreflexive, transitive, symmetric, or antisymmetric, relation T has the same property. Equivalence and Order Combining properties it follows that this also applies for being a preorder and being an equivalence relation. However, if R and S are total relations, T is in general not. Categorical product Main article: Product (category theory) The direct product can be abstracted to an arbitrary category. In a general category, given a collection of objects Ai and a collection of morphisms pi from A to Ai with i ranging in some index set I, an object A is said to be a categorical product in the category if, for any object B and any collection of morphisms fi from B to Ai, there exists a unique morphism f from B to A such that fi = pi f and this object A is unique. This not only works for two factors, but arbitrarily (even infinitely) many. For groups we similarly define the direct product of a more general, arbitrary collection of groups Gi for i in I, I an index set. Denoting the cartesian product of the groups by G we define multiplication on G with the operation of componentwise multiplication; and corresponding to the pi in the definition above are the projection maps , the functions that take to its ith component gi. Internal and External direct product Some authors draw a distinction between an internal direct product and an external direct product. If and , then we say that X is an internal direct product (of A and B); if A and B are not subobjects, then we say that this is an external direct product. Metric and norm A metric on a Cartesian product of metric spaces, and a norm on a direct product of normed vector spaces, can be defined in various ways, see for example . See also Direct sum Cartesian product Coproduct Free product Semidirect product Zappa-Szep product Tensor product of graphs Notes References | Direct_product |@lemmatized mathematics:1 one:7 often:1 define:12 direct:37 product:72 object:7 already:1 know:1 give:6 new:3 generally:1 cartesian:12 underlying:1 set:15 together:1 suitably:1 defined:1 structure:3 abstractly:1 talk:3 category:6 theory:4 formalize:1 notion:1 example:14 see:6 group:20 describe:1 ring:3 algebraic:1 topological:3 space:12 another:2 instance:2 also:7 sum:8 area:1 use:3 interchangeably:1 others:1 different:1 concept:1 think:4 real:6 number:7 precisely:1 addition:2 still:1 consist:3 difference:1 preceding:1 say:6 add:2 element:12 let:1 make:5 multiply:1 however:3 field:2 exist:2 naively:1 similar:3 manner:2 would:3 result:1 since:1 multiplicative:1 inverse:1 two:7 e:3 g:21 even:2 infinitely:3 many:6 h:16 denote:3 abelian:1 write:1 additively:1 may:2 call:5 follow:2 put:1 operation:5 elementwise:1 note:3 construction:1 normal:2 subgroup:2 isomorphic:2 form:1 comprise:1 reverse:1 hold:1 following:1 recognition:1 theorem:2 k:3 contain:2 gh:1 intersection:2 identity:1 x:5 relaxation:1 condition:1 semidirect:2 take:5 copy:1 unique:3 isomorphism:1 order:2 b:15 get:2 natural:3 homomorphism:2 free:2 projection:3 map:3 coordinate:1 function:8 every:1 f:3 totally:1 determine:1 component:5 integer:1 n:5 multiple:1 application:1 tuples:1 gn:1 trivial:1 zn:1 rn:3 additional:1 vector:3 euclidean:2 module:2 confuse:1 tensor:2 componentwise:2 scalar:1 multiplication:3 distribute:1 start:1 r:6 prototypical:1 dimensional:1 rm:2 finite:3 index:5 identical:1 differ:1 infinite:3 zero:2 entry:3 dual:1 sense:1 coproduct:2 consider:1 sequence:2 non:1 fact:2 proper:1 subset:5 collection:7 xi:1 topology:14 little:1 tricky:1 finitely:3 factor:6 obvious:1 thing:1 simply:1 basis:3 open:11 directly:1 disjoint:2 union:2 interval:1 rectangle:1 plane:1 turn:1 coincide:1 usual:1 metric:4 twist:2 able:1 continuous:6 satisfy:1 categorical:3 definition:3 morphisms:3 proviso:1 entire:1 sounding:1 case:1 yield:1 somewhat:1 interesting:1 box:2 difficult:1 find:1 bunch:1 whose:1 separate:2 problem:1 necessary:1 ultimately:1 root:1 guarantee:1 nice:1 respect:1 preserve:1 property:4 hausdorff:2 connected:1 connect:1 compact:2 last:1 tychonoff:1 yet:1 equivalence:3 axiom:1 choice:1 equivalent:1 formulation:1 binary:2 relation:5 c:2 reflexive:1 irreflexive:1 transitive:1 symmetric:1 antisymmetric:1 combining:1 apply:1 preorder:1 total:1 general:3 main:1 article:1 abstract:1 arbitrary:2 ai:3 pi:3 range:1 fi:2 morphism:1 work:1 arbitrarily:1 similarly:1 gi:2 correspond:1 ith:1 internal:3 external:3 author:1 draw:1 distinction:1 subobjects:1 norm:2 normed:1 various:1 way:1 zappa:1 szep:1 graphs:1 reference:1 |@bigram cartesian_product:12 topological_space:3 multiplicative_inverse:1 normal_subgroup:2 semidirect_product:2 scalar_multiplication:1 disjoint_union:2 tychonoff_theorem:1 axiom_choice:1 symmetric_antisymmetric:1 equivalence_relation:1 normed_vector:1 |
6,242 | Afrikaans | Afrikaans is an Indo-European language, derived from Dutch and thus classified as Low Franconian West Germanic. It is mainly spoken in South Africa and Namibia, with smaller numbers of speakers living in Botswana, Angola, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Zambia, Australia, New Zealand, United States of America, Taiwan and Argentina. http://www.vandenberg.co.za/southafricansinpategonia1.htm, http://www.vandenberg.co.za/southafricansinpategonia.htm, this website shows that there is a community of Afrikaans speakers in Patagonia, but they are a small group Due to emigration and migrant labour, there are possibly over 100 000 Afrikaans speakers in the United Kingdom, Figure for 2001, up 106% from 1991 http://www.tourismtrade.org.uk/Images/Profile_SouthAfrica_tcm12-22701.pdf with other substantial communities found in Brussels, Amsterdam, Perth, Mount Isa, Toronto and Auckland. It is the primary language used by two related ethnic groups in South Africa: the Afrikaans people (Afrikaners) and the Coloureds (in Afrikaans: kleurlinge or bruinmense (including Basters, Cape Malays and Griqua). Geographically, the Afrikaans language is the majority language of the western one-third of South Africa (Northern and Western Cape, spoken at home by 69% and 58%, respectively). It is also the largest first language in the adjacent southern third of Namibia (Hardap and Karas, where it is the first language of 44% and 40%, respectively). Afrikaans and Dutch are largely mutually intelligible. History Afrikaans developed among the Dutch speaking Protestant settlers, and the indentured or slave workforce of the Cape area in southwestern South Africa that was established by the Dutch East India Company () between 1652 and 1705. A relative majority of these first settlers were from the United Provinces (now Netherlands), though there were also many from Germany, a considerable number from France, and some from Norway, Portugal, Scotland, and various other countries. The indentured workers and slaves were Asians, Malays, Malagasy in addition to the indigenous Khoi and Bushmen. The Afrikaans School has long seen Afrikaans as a natural development from the South-Hollandic Dutch dialect. Because of the absence of historical indication of the development of the dialect (language), some have implied Afrikaans to be a creolisation of conceptual Dutch. However, this theory is rather implausible since it implies that a language systematically developed out of a vocabulary. Furthermore, this theory would fail to explain the systematic process of simplification from dialectical 17th century Dutch to Afrikaans, its geographically widespread and cohesive nature and also the persistent structural similarities between Afrikaans and other regional Franconic dialects including West Flemish and Zeelandic. This indicates rather a linear, though isolated linguistic path. Afrikaans also remains akin to other West-Germanic languages (except English) in that it remains a V2 language which features verb final structures in subordinate clauses, just like Dutch and German. Dialects Following early dialectical studies of Afrikaans it was theorised that three main historical dialects probably existed before the Great Trek in the 1830s. These dialects are defined as the Northern Cape, Western Cape and Eastern Cape dialects. Remnants of these dialects still remain in present-day Afrikaans although the standardising effect of Standard Afrikaans has contributed to a great levelling of differences in modern times. There is also a prison cant known as soebela, or sombela which is based on Afrikaans yet heavily influenced by Zulu. This language is used as a secret language in prison and is taught to initiates. Expatriate geolect The geolect of Afrikaans spoken outside South Africa in predominantly English speaking countries have been referred to as "soutmielie". http://litnetblogs.24.com/ViewComments.aspx?blogid=e5d4e396-82b5-4eba-86f7-789914dc866b&mid=9410586a-31e6-46c1-9715-86e32bf75a54 http://www.forums.mlb.com/n/pfx/forum.aspx?tsn=194&nav=messages&webtag=ml-mlb&tid=80777 http://www.litnet.co.za/cgi-bin/giga.cgi?cmd=cause_dir_news_item&news_id=53260&cause_id=1270 The term is a corruption of "soutpiel" or "soutie", a derogatory term for white English speaking South Africans. (The metaphor being that such a person has one foot in England and one foot in South Africa, with his penis or "piel" hanging in the sea). "Mielie" is corn (Zea mays) and "sout" is salt. The word mielie is associated with farmers and thus by historical extension with Afrikaners, some who refer to themselves as "Boere" (farmers) even though they are city dwellers. "Mileie" is also a lesser-known slang term for a penis. Standardisation The linguist Paul Roberge suggests that the earliest 'truly Afrikaans' texts are doggerel verse from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Printed material among the Afrikaners at first used only standard European Dutch. By the mid-19th century, more and more were appearing in Afrikaans, which was very much still regarded as a set of regional dialects. In 1861, L.H. Meurant published his , which is considered by some to be the first authoritative Afrikaans text. Abu Bakr Effendi also compiled his Arabic Afrikaans Islamic instruction book between 1862 and 1869, although this was only published and printed in 1877. The first Afrikaans grammars and dictionaries were published in 1875 by the ('Society for Real Afrikaners') in Cape Town. The First and Second Boer Wars further strengthened the position of Afrikaans. The official languages of the Union of South Africa were English and Dutch until Afrikaans was subsumed under Dutch on 5 May 1925. The main Afrikaans dictionary is the Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (WAT) (Dictionary of the Afrikaans Language), which is as yet incomplete due to the scale of the project, but the one-volume dictionary in household use is the Verklarende Handwoordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal (HAT). The official orthography of Afrikaans is the Afrikaanse Woordelys en Spelreëls, compiled by the Taalkommissie. The Afrikaans Bible A major landmark in the development of Afrikaans was the full translation of the Bible into the language. Prior to this most Cape Dutch-Afrikaans speakers had to rely on the Dutch Statenbijbel. The aforementioned Statenvertaling had its origins with the Synod of Dordrecht 1637 and was thus in an archaic form of Dutch. This rendered understanding difficult at best to Dutch and Cape Dutch speakers, moreover increasingly unintelligible to Afrikaans speakers. C. P. Hoogehout, Arnoldus Pannevis, and Stephanus Jacobus du Toit were the first Afrikaans Bible translators. Important landmarks in the translation of the Scriptures were in 1878 with C. P. Hoogehout's translation of the Evangelie volgens Markus (Gospel of Mark), however this translation was never published. The manuscript is to be found in the South African National Library, Cape Town. The first official Bible translation of the entire Bible into Afrikaans was in 1933 by J. D. du Toit, E. E. van Rooyen, J. D. Kestell, H. C. M. Fourie, and BB Keet. This monumental work established Afrikaans as a suiwer and oordentlike taal, i.e. a "pure" and "suitable language" for religious purposes, especially amongst the deeply Calvinist Afrikaans religious community that had hitherto been somewhat sceptical of a Bible translation out of the original Dutch language to which they were accustomed. In 1983 there was a fresh translation in order to mark the 50th anniversary of the original 1933 translation and provide much needed revision. The final editing of this edition was done by E. P. Groenewald, A. H. van Zyl, P. A. Verhoef, J. L. Helberg, and W. Kempen. Afrikaans Version of the Lord's Prayer. Onse Vader. Onse Vader : Afrikaans Onse Vader wat in die hemele is, laat U naam geheilig word. Laat U koninkryk kom, laat U wil geskied, soos in die hemel net so ook op die aarde. Gee ons vandag ons daaglikse brood, en vergeef ons ons skulde, soos ons ook ons skuldenaars vergewe. En lei ons nie in versoeking nie, maar verlos ons van die bose. Want aan U behoort die Koninkryk en die krag en die heerlikheid, tot in ewigheid. Amen. Classic Dutch Protestant version of the Lord's Prayer.Onze Vader' Onze Vader Onze Vader die in de hemelen zijt, Uw Naam worde geheiligd; Uw koninkrijk kome; Uw wil geschiede, gelijk in de hemel alzo ook op de aarde. Geef ons heden ons dagelijks brood; en vergeef ons onze schulden, gelijk ook wij vergeven onze schuldenaren; en leidt ons niet in verzoeking, maar verlos ons van de boze. Want van U is het koninkrijk en de kracht en de heerlijkheid tot in eeuwigheid. Amen. Grammar In Afrikaans grammar, there is no distinction between the infinitive and present forms of verbs, with the exception of the verbs 'to be' and 'to have': infinitive form present indicative form Dutch Englishwees is zijn behê het hebben have In addition, verbs do not conjugate differently depending on the subject. For example, Afrikaans Dutch Englishek is ik ben I amjy/u is jij/U bent you are (sing.)hy/sy/dit is hij/zij/het is he/she/it isons is wij zijn we arejulle is jullie zijn you are (plur.)hulle is zij zijn they are The preterite has also almost disappeared in Afrikaans, with the perfect tense being used instead, the exception being 'to be'. Afrikaans Dutch Englishek was ik was I was For other verbs, the perfect tense is used in Afrikaans where the preterite would be used in Dutch or English, for example, in the case of the verb to drink: Afrikaans Dutch Englishek het gedrink. ik dronk. I drank. In other respects, the perfect tense in Afrikaans follows Dutch and English. Afrikaans Dutch Englishek het gedrink ik heb gedronken. I have drunk. Orthography In Afrikaans, many consonants are dropped from the earlier Dutch (see also the grammar section for a description of how consonant dropping affects the morphology of Afrikaans adjectives and nouns). This is a similar process to what happened with modern English. (compare: Afrikaans; regen=reën, and English; regn=rain.) The spelling is also considerably more phonetic than the Dutch counterpart. A notable feature is the indefinite article, which, as noted in the grammar section, is ′n , not '' as in Dutch. 'A book' is '', whereas in Dutch it would be ''. (Note that '' is still allowed in Dutch; Afrikaans uses only '' where Dutch uses it next to ''. When letters are dropped an apostrophe is mandatory. Note that this ′n is usually pronounced as a weak vowel ([]; like the Afrikaans 'i') and is not as a consonant. The Afrikaans word een is the number 'one'. Other features include the use of 's' instead of 'z', and therefore, 'South Africa' in Afrikaans is written as , whereas in Dutch it is . (This accounts for .za being used as South Africa's internet top level domain.) The Dutch letter 'IJ' is written as 'Y', except where it replaces the Dutch suffix —lijk, as in = . The diminutive suffix in Afrikaans is -jie, whereas in Dutch it is -je, hence a 'little bit' in Afrikaans is bietjie - in Dutch it is beetje. The use of the hard 'k' is analogous to the pronunciation in parts of West Flanders. Although the first 90 VOC settlers came from Haarlem in the Northern Netherlands, the majority of the population of that city at that time consisted of Southern Dutch immigrants. (Recent academic research also points to Afrikaans probably being a modern perpetuation of an earlier Dutch dialect, Amsterdams (Paardekoper)). The letters "c","q","x" and "z" are rarely seen in Afrikaans, and words containing them are almost exclusively borrowings from French, English, Greek, or Latin. This is usually because words that had c and ch in the original Dutch are spelt with k and g respectively in Afrikaans (in many dialects of Dutch (including the Hollandic ones), a g is pronounced like a ch (IPA ), which explains the use of the g in Afrikaans language). Similarly original qu and x are spelt kw and ks respectively. For example instead of 'equatoriaal' and instead of 'excuus'. Letter combinations in Dutch such as cht are simplified, for example, slechts (only) in Dutch becomes slegs in Afrikaans. Diacritics All letters in the Latin alphabet are acceptable in Afrikaans, although for non-loan words only the 26 letters of the English alphabet and certain vowels with diacritics are used. The vowels with diacritics in non-loanword Afrikaans are: á, é, è, ê, ë, í, î, ï, ó, ô, ú, û, ý. These thirteen letters are pronounced the same way as their non-diacritic counterparts in isolation. For the purpose of alphabetic ordering, these diacritic letters are regarded as equivalent to their non-diacritic counterparts. It is not acceptable to replace them by their non-diacritic equivalents in situations where typing the diacritic forms may be difficult. In the early days of e-mail and on primitive computer systems, the diacritics were often left out or written next to the character, and computer illiterate users may still do so today. Initial apostrophes A few short words in Afrikaans take initial apostrophes. In modern Afrikaans, these words are always written in lower case (except if the entire line is uppercase), and if they occur at the beginning of a sentence, the next word is capitalised. Three examples of such apostrophed words are 't, 'k, 'n . The most common is 'n , which is the indefinite article, and the other two may soon be regarded as archaic. 'k Het hom lief (I love him)similar to Dutch words: ik heb hem lief'k 't Dit gesê (I said it)similar to Dutch words: ik heb dit gezegd'n Man loop daar (A man walks there) similar to Dutch words: een man loopt daarDaar is 'n man (There is a man)similar to Dutch words: daar is een manThe apostrophe and the following letter are regarded as two separate characters, and is never written using a single glyph, although a single character variant of the indefinite article appears in Unicode, . Some modern word processors have auto-correct features that incorrectly treat an apostrophe (also known as a 9-quote) at the beginning of a word as a single quote (also known as a 6-quote). In non-stylised fonts, it is acceptable to use a straight quote for the apostrophe, and this is often done in electronic communication. Table of characters letter(s) value(s) in IPA notes a , aa aai au, ow b ch found only in words borrowed from French, typically 'sj' is used instead c , found only in borrowed words it is pronounced 's' before 'e', 'i', or 'y', otherwise 'k' d , 'd' is pronounced 't' in final position dj used to transcribe foreign words e , , ê ee eeu ei, ey, y eu f g , gh used for the sound when it is not an allophone of , found only in borrowed words h i , ie ieu j k l m n , 'n' is 'ŋ' before 'c', 'k', 'q', and 'x', otherwise 'n' ng o , oe oei oi, oy oo ooi p q found only in foreign words with original spelling maintained, typically 'k' is used instead r s sj t tj , 'tj' is 'tʃ' at the beginning of a word, but 'k' in '-tjie' u , uu û ui, uy v w , 'w' is 'w' after a consonant, otherwise 'v' x used only in foreign words with original spelling maintained, typically 'ks' is used z found only in borrowed words Afrikaans phrases Afrikaans is a very centralised language, meaning that most of the vowels are pronounced in a very centralised (i.e. very schwa-like) way. Although there are many different dialects and accents, the transcription should be fairly standard. Afrikaans IPA Dutch English Hallo! Hoe gaat het? Hello! How is it going (Hello! How are you?) </small> Heel goed, dank je. Very well, thank you. Spreek je Afrikaans? Do you speak Afrikaans? Spreek je Engels? Do you speak English? Ja. Yes. Nee. No. Een beetje. A little. Wat is jouw naam? More common: Hoe heet je? What is your name? De kinderen praten Afrikaans. The children are speaking Afrikaans. Ik heb je lief. More common: Ik hou van jou. I love you. Note: The word Afrikaans means African (in the general sense) in the Dutch language. Although considered incorrect, the word Zuid-Afrikaans, lit. "South African", is sometimes used to avoid confusion when referring specifically to the Afrikaans language. This problem also occurs in Afrikaans itself, resolved by using the words Afrika and Afrikaan to distinguish from Afrikaans(e) and Afrikaner respectively. A sentence having the same meaning and written identically (but pronounced more closely to Dutch) in Afrikaans and English is: My pen was in my hand. () Closely in Dutch: Mijn pen was in mijn hand.Similarly the sentence: My hand is in warm water. () Closely in Dutch: Mijn hand is in warm waterhas almost identical meaning in Afrikaans and English although the Afrikaans warm corresponds more closely in meaning to English hot and Dutch heet (Dutch warm corresponds to English warm, but is closer to Afrikaans in pronunciation). Sample text in Afrikaans Psalm 23. 1983 Translation: Die Here is my Herder, ek kom niks kort nie. Hy laat my in groen weivelde rus. Hy bring my by waters waar daar vrede is. Hy gee my nuwe krag. Hy lei my op die regte paaie tot eer van Sy naam. Selfs al gaan ek deur donker dieptes, sal ek nie bang wees nie, want U is by my. In U hande is ek veilig.The Lord is my shepherd I shall not be in want: He makes me lie down in green pastures, he leads me beside quiet waters: He restores my soul. he guides me in paths of righteousness for his name's sake. Even though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil for you are with me; your rod and staff they comfort me' Lord's prayer (Dutch Living translation) Lord's prayer (Afrikaans New Living translation) Onze Vader in de hemel, wij eren Uw heilige naam. Laat Uw Koninkrijk spoedig komen. Laat Uw wil op de aarde worden gedaan, net zoals in die hemel. Geef ons vandaag het eten dat wij nodig hebben. Vergeef ons onze zonden, zoals wij anderen hun zonden vergeven. Laat ons niet in verleiding komen, maar verlos ons van de kwade machten. Ons Vader in die hemel, laat u Naam geheilig word. Laat u koningsheerskappy spoedig kom. Laat u wil hier op aarde uitgevoer word soos in die hemel. Gee ons die porsie brood wat ons vir vandag nodig het. En vergeef ons ons sondeskuld soos ons ook óns skuldenaars vergewe het. Bewaar ons sodat ons nie aan verleiding sal toegee nie; en bevry ons van die greep van die Bose. Sociolinguistics Afrikaans is the first language of approximately 60% of White South Africans (3 million), the Afrikaans people, and over 80% of Coloured South Africans (2.6 million). Around 200,000 black South Africans speak it as their first language. Toespraak:Deputy Pres. Mbeki - Budget Debate Large numbers of Bantu-speaking and English-speaking South Africans also speak it as their second language. Some state that the term Afrikaanses should be used as a term for all people who speak Afrikaans, without respect to ethnic origin, instead of 'Afrikaners', which refers to an ethnic group, or 'Afrikaanssprekendes' (lit. people that speak Afrikaans). Linguistic identity has not yet established that one term be favoured above another and all three are used in common parlance. Die dilemma van ‘n gedeelde Afrikaanse identiteit: Kan wit en bruin mekaar vind? It is also widely spoken in Namibia, where it has had constitutional recognition as a national, but not official, language since independence in 1990. Prior to independence, Afrikaans had equal status with German as an official language. There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among Zimbabwe's white minority, as most have left the country since 1980. Afrikaans was also a medium of instruction for schools in Bophuthatswana Bantustan. Armoria patriæ - Republic of Bophuthatswana Many South Africans living and working in Belgium, The Netherlands, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, Kuwait, and the United Kingdom are also Afrikaans-speaking. There are Afrikaans websites, among them, news sites such as http://www.praag.co.za, and radio broadcasts over the web, such as those from Radio Sonder Grense and Radio Pretoria. New Zealand has an Afrikaans club based in Auckland which organises Afrikaans dances and meetings (http://www.afrikaans.org.nz/). Afrikaans has been influential in the development of South African English. Many Afrikaans loanwords have found their way into South African English, such as 'bakkie' ('pickup truck'), 'braai' ('barbecue'), 'tekkies' ('sneakers'). A few words in standard English are derived from Afrikaans, such as 'aardvark' (lit. 'earth pig'), 'trek' ('pioneering journey', in Afrikaans lit. 'pull' but used also for 'migrate'), 'spoor' ('animal track'), 'veld' ('Southern African grassland' in Afrikaans lit. 'field'), 'commando' from Afrikaans 'kommando' meaning small fighting unit, 'boomslang' ('tree snake') and apartheid ('segregation'; more accurately 'apartness' or 'the state or condition of being apart'). In 1976, high school students in Soweto began a rebellion in response to the government's decision that Afrikaans be used as the language of instruction for half the subjects taught in non-White schools (with English continuing for the other half). Although English is the mother tongue of only 8.2 per cent of the population, it is the language most widely understood, and the second language of the majority of South Africans. Govt info available online in all official languages - South Africa - The Good News Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English in the Northern and Western Cape provinces, several hundred kilometers from Soweto. The Black community's opposition to Afrikaans and preference for continuing English instruction was underscored when the government rescinded the policy one month after the uprising: 96% of Black schools chose English (over Afrikaans or native languages) as the language of instruction. Black Linguistics: Language, Society and Politics in Africa and the Americas, by Sinfree Makoni, p. 120S Many historians argue that the language issue was a catalyst for the uprising rather than a major underlying cause (which was racial oppression). Others argue that the primary cause of the uprising was one specific aspect of the government's language instruction decision: that non-White (i.e., Black, Coloured and Indian) South African children be denied instruction in all but the most basic topics of mathematics, sciences, fine arts, etc. The government justified this policy by claiming that non-White South Africans would never have an occasion to use such knowledge; see History of South Africa. Under South Africa's Constitution of 1996, Afrikaans remains an official language, and has equal status to English and nine other languages. The new policy means that the use of Afrikaans is now, in effect, often reduced in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages. In 1996, for example, the South African Broadcasting Corporation reduced the amount of television airtime in Afrikaans, while South African Airways dropped its Afrikaans name from its livery. Similarly, South Africa's diplomatic missions overseas now only display the name of the country in English and their host country's language, and not in Afrikaans. In spite of these moves, the language has remained strong, with Afrikaans newspapers and magazines continuing to have large circulation figures. Indeed the Afrikaans language general interest family magazine Huisgenoot, has the largest readership of any magazine in the country. In addition, a pay-TV channel in Afrikaans called KykNet was launched in 1999, and an Afrikaans music channel, MK, in 2005. A large number of Afrikaans books are still published every year, mainly by the publishers Human & Rousseau, Tafelberg Uitgewers, Struik, and Protea Boekhuis. Modern Dutch and Afrikaans share 85 plus per cent of their vocabulary. Afrikaans speakers are able to learn Dutch within a comparatively short period of time. Native Dutch speakers pick up written Afrikaans even more quickly, due to its simplified grammar, whereas understanding spoken Afrikaans might need more effort. Afrikaans speakers can learn a Dutch accent with little training. This has enabled Dutch and Belgian companies to outsource their call centre operations to South Africa. SA holds its own in global call centre industry - eProp Commercial Property News in South Africa - Commercial Properties For Sale / To Let / To Rent in South Africa Afrikaans has two monuments erected in its honour. The first was erected in Burgersdorp, South Africa, in 1893, and the second, better-known Afrikaans Language Monument () was built in Paarl, South Africa, in 1975. When the British design magazine Wallpaper described Afrikaans as "one of the world's ugliest languages" in its September 2005 article about the Monument, South African billionaire Johann Rupert (chairman of the Richemont group), responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such as Cartier, Van Cleef & Arpels, Montblanc and Alfred Dunhill from the magazine. Afrikaans stars join row over 'ugly language' Cape Argus, December 10, 2005 The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was an English-speaking South African. Future of Afrikaans Post-apartheid South Africa has seen a loss of government support for Afrikaans, in terms of education, social events, media (TV and Radio), and general status throughout the country, given that it now shares its place as official language with ten other languages. Nevertheless, Afrikaans remains more prevalent in the media - radio, newspapers and television Oranje FM, Radio Sonder Grense, Jacaranda FM, Radio Pretoria, Rapport, Beeld, Die Burger, Die Son, Afrikaans news is run everyday; the PRAAG website is a web-based news service. On pay channels it is provided as second language on all sports, Kyknet - than all the other official languages, except for English. More than 300 titles in Afrikaans are published per year. Hannes van Zyl Through all the problems of depreciation and migration that Afrikaans faces today, the language still competes well, with Afrikaans DSTV channels (pay channels) and high newspaper and CD sales as well as popular internet sites. The incredible resurgence in Afrikaans popular music (from the late 1990s) has added new momentum to the language especially among the younger generations in South Africa. Modern, often rage-infused music forms a large part of music sales in South Africa. The latest contribution to building the Afrikaans language is the availability of pre-school educational CDs and DVDs. These are also popular with large Afrikaans-speaking expatriate communities seeking to retain the language in family context. After years of inactivity, the Afrikaans language cinema is also starting to reactivate. With the 2007 film 'Ouma se slim kind', the first full length Afrikaans movie since Paljas from 1998, a new era for Afrikaans cinema started. Several short-films have been created and more feature-length movies as Poena is Koning and Bakgat, both from 2008 have been produced. Afrikaans also seems to be returning to the SABC. SABC3 stated in the beginning of 2009 that it will increase Afrikaans programming because of the needs of the 'growing Afrikaans-language market'. As of April 2009, SABC3 started showing several Afrikaans language programmes, something which had been unthinkable a couple of years ago. Further latent support for the language is the de-politicised view of younger generation South Africans - i.e. it is less and less viewed as "the language of the oppressor" and this is supported to a large extent by new-generation Afrikaans youths openly supporting change and unabundant rejection of old repressive racial policies. Afrikaans is one of 45 search-languages available on Google search. See also Aardklop Arts Festival Arabic Afrikaans Languages of South Africa List of Afrikaans language poets List of English words of Afrikaans origin Afrikaans speaking population in South Africa South African Translators' Institute Vonk Magazine - Die bevonkte tydskrif Notes Afrikaans as "Search Language" on Google References Roberge, P. T., 2002. Afrikaans - considering origins, in Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 0-521-53383-X South African Afrikaans: History Slang External links General The Ethnologue: Afrikaans Wordgumbo: Afrikaans Afrikaans pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar An introduction to Afrikaans The New South African - Afrikaans - More about South Africa's official languages. Organisations Federasie van Afrikaanse Kultuurvereniginge (FAK) - Federation of Afrikaans Cultural Associations Afrikaanse Taal- en Kultuurvereniging (ATKV) - Afrikaans Language and Cultural Association Vriende van Afrikaans - Friends of Afrikaans Stigting vir Bemagtiging deur Afrikaans - Foundation for Empowerment through Afrikaans Spell checkers Spel.co.za - Commercial spell checker for Microsoft Office WSpel - Free spell checker for Microsoft Office Translate.org.za - Open source spell checker for OpenOffice.org, Mozilla Firefox and Mozilla Thunderbird Dictionaries Afrikanisch - Deutsch altogether 8453 entries. Afrikaans Dictionary - with definitions (approx 8763 words) Afrikaans to English - from Wordgumbo.com (5129 words) English to Afrikaans - from Wordgumbo.com (6397 words) Afrikaans-English-Afrikaans Online Dictionary - sometimes using Esperanto as intermezzo (7975 Afrikaans words) Afrikaans at Dict.info - Afrikaans into 57 languages (roughly 2300 words each) and Afrikaans-English (10 127 words) Elektroblok - Crossword Puzzle Solver and Thesaurus Dictionary (4 Million Afrikaans and English words, synonyms and hints) | Afrikaans |@lemmatized afrikaans:172 indo:1 european:2 language:64 derive:2 dutch:60 thus:3 classify:1 low:2 franconian:1 west:4 germanic:2 mainly:2 speak:16 south:47 africa:26 namibia:3 small:5 number:6 speaker:10 live:3 botswana:1 angola:1 swaziland:1 zimbabwe:2 lesotho:1 zambia:1 australia:2 new:9 zealand:3 united:6 state:5 america:2 taiwan:1 argentina:1 http:8 www:7 vandenberg:2 co:5 za:7 htm:2 southafricansinpategonia:1 website:3 show:2 community:5 patagonia:1 group:4 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6,243 | Intercontinental_ballistic_missile | A Minuteman III ICBM test launch from Vandenberg AFB, California, United States. An intercontinental ballistic missile, or ICBM, is a long-range (greater than 5,500 km or 3,500 miles) ballistic missile typically designed for nuclear weapons delivery, that is, delivering one or more nuclear warheads. Due to their great range and firepower, in an all-out nuclear war, submarine and land-based ICBMs would carry most of the destructive force, with nuclear-armed bombers the remainder. ICBMs are differentiated by having greater range and speed than other ballistic missiles: intermediate-range ballistic missiles (IRBMs), medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs), short-range ballistic missiles (SRBMs), and the newly-named theatre ballistic missiles. Categorizing missiles by range is necessarily subjective and the boundaries are chosen somewhat arbitrarily. History World War II A-4 (V-2) in Peenemünde, Germany. The development of the world's first practical design for a ICBM, A9/10, intended for use in bombing New York and other American cities, was undertaken in Nazi Germany by the team of Wernher von Braun under Projekt Amerika. The ICBM A9/A10 rocket initially was intended to be guided by radio, but was changed to be a piloted craft after the failure of Operation Elster. The second stage of the A9/A10 rocket was tested a few times in January and February 1945. The progenitor of the A9/A10 was the German V-2 rocket, also designed by von Braun and widely used at the end of World War II to bomb British and Belgian cities. All of these rockets used liquid propellants. Following the war, von Braun and other leading German scientists were secretly transferred to the United States to work directly for the U.S. Army through Operation Paperclip, developing the IRBMs, ICBMs, and launchers. Cold War In 1953, the USSR initiated, under the direction of the reactive propulsion engineer Sergey Korolyov, a program to develop an ICBM. Korolyov had constructed the R-1, a copy of the V-2 based on some captured materials, but later developed his own distinct design. This rocket, the R-7, was successfully tested in August 1957 becoming the world's first ICBM and, on October 4, 1957, placed the first artificial satellite in space, Sputnik. In the USA, competition between the U.S. armed services meant that each force developed its own ICBM program. The U.S. initiated ICBM research in 1946 with the MX-774. However, its funding was cancelled and only three partially successful launches in 1948, of an intermediate rocket, were ever conducted. In 1951, the U.S. began a new ICBM program called MX-774 and B-65 (later renamed Atlas). The U.S.' first successful ICBM, the Atlas A, was launched on 17 December 1957, four months after the Soviet R-7 flight. Military units with deployed ICBMs would first be fielded in 1959, in both the Soviet Union and the United States. The R7 and Atlas both required a large launch facility, making them vulnerable to attack, and could not be kept in a ready state. These early ICBMs also formed the basis of many space launch systems. Examples include Atlas, Redstone rocket, Titan, R-7, and Proton, which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM. The Eisenhower administration supported the development of solid-fueled missiles such as the LGM-30 Minuteman, Polaris and Skybolt. Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors, due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads, and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles. Deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of Mutually Assured Destruction. In the 1950s and 1960s, development began on Anti-Ballistic Missile systems by both the U.S. and USSR; these systems were restricted by the 1972 ABM treaty. The 1972 SALT treaty froze the number of ICBM launchers of both the USA and the USSR at existing levels, and allowed new submarine-based SLBM launchers only if an equal number of land-based ICBM launchers were dismantled. Subsequent talks, called SALT II, were held from 1972 to 1979 and actually reduced the number of nuclear warheads held by the USA and USSR. SALT II was never ratified by the United States Senate, but its terms were nevertheless honored by both sides until 1986, when the Reagan administration "withdrew" after accusing the USSR of violating the pact. In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan launched the Strategic Defense Initiative as well as the MX and Midgetman ICBM programmes. Post-Cold War In 1991, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed in the START I treaty to reduce their deployed ICBMs and attributed warheads. , all five of the nations with permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council have operational ICBM systems: all have submarine-launched missiles, and Russia, the United States and China also have land-based missiles. In addition, Russia and China have mobile land-based missiles. India is reported to be developing a new variant of the Agni missile, called the Agni V, which is reported to have a strike range of 6,000 km. Times of India: India plans 6,000-km range Agni-IV missile There have also been reports that India is developing another class of ICBMs called the Surya. It is speculated by some intelligence agencies that North Korea is developing an ICBM; Taep'o-dong 2 (TD-2) - North Korea two tests of somewhat different developmental missiles in 1998 and 2006 were not fully successful. On April 5th, 2009, North Korea tried launching its first satellite into space using potential ballistic missile technology, but this also resulted in failure, with the rocket falling into the ocean shortly after takeoff. Most countries in the early stages of developing ICBMs have used liquid propellants, with the known exceptions being the planned South African RSA-4 ICBM and the now in service Israeli Jericho 3. http://www.astronautix.com/lvfam/jericho.htm Flight phases The following flight phases can be distinguished: boost phase — 3 to 5 minutes (shorter for a solid rocket than for a liquid-propellant rocket); altitude at the end of this phase is typically 150 to 400 km depending on the trajectory chosen, typical burnout speed is 7 km/s. midcourse phase — approx. 25 minutes — sub-orbital spaceflight in an elliptic orbit; the orbit is part of an ellipse with a vertical major axis; the apogee (halfway the midcourse phase) is at an altitude of approximately 1,200 km; the semi-major axis is between 3,186 km and 6,372 km; the projection of the orbit on the Earth's surface is close to a great circle, slightly displaced due to earth rotation during the time of flight; the missile may release several independent warheads, and penetration aids such as metallic-coated balloons, aluminum chaff, and full-scale warhead decoys. reentry phase (starting at an altitude of 100 km) — 2 minutes — impact is at a speed of up to 4 km/s (for early ICBMs less than 1 km/s); see also maneuverable reentry vehicle. Modern ICBMs External and cross sectional views of a Trident II D5 nuclear missile system. It is a submarine launched missile capable of carrying multiple nuclear warheads up to 8,000 km. Trident missiles are carried by fourteen active US Navy Ohio class submarines and four Royal Navy Vanguard class submarines. Modern ICBMs typically carry multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles (MIRVs), each of which carries a separate nuclear warhead, allowing a single missile to hit multiple targets. MIRV was an outgrowth of the rapidly shrinking size and weight of modern warheads and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties which imposed limitations on the number of launch vehicles (SALT I and SALT II). It has also proved to be an "easy answer" to proposed deployments of ABM systems it is far less expensive to add more warheads to an existing missile system than to build an ABM system capable of shooting down the additional warheads; hence, most ABM system proposals have been judged to be impractical. The first operational ABM systems were deployed in the 1970s, the U.S. Safeguard ABM facility was located in North Dakota and was operational from 1975–1976. The USSR deployed its Galosh ABM system around Moscow in the 1970s, which remains in service. Israel deployed a national ABM system based on the Arrow missile in 1998, Israeli Arrow ABM System is Operational as War Clouds Darken but it is mainly designed to intercept shorter-ranged theater ballistic missiles, not ICBMs. The U.S. Alaska-based National missile defense system attained initial operational capability in 2004. MissileThreat :: ICBMs can be deployed from multiple platforms: in missile silos, which offer some protection from military attack (including, the designers hope, some protection from a nuclear first strike) on submarines: submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs); most or all SLBMs have the long range of ICBMs (as opposed to IRBMs) on heavy trucks; this applies to one version of the RT-2UTTH Topol M which may be deployed from a self-propelled mobile launcher, capable of moving through roadless terrain, and launching a missile from any point along its route mobile launchers on rails; this applies, for example, to РТ-23УТТХ "Молодец" (RT-23UTTH "Molodets"—SS-24 "Sсаlреl") The last three kinds are mobile and therefore hard to find. During storage, one of the most important features of the missile is its serviceability. One of the key features of the first computer-controlled ICBM, the Minuteman missile, was that it could quickly and easily use its computer to test itself. In flight, a booster pushes the warhead and then falls away. Most modern boosters are solid-fueled rocket motors, which can be stored easily for long periods of time. Early missiles used liquid-fueled rocket motors. Many liquid-fueled ICBMs could not be kept fuelled all the time as the cryogenic liquid oxygen boiled off and caused ice formation, and therefore fueling the rocket was necessary before launch. This procedure was a source of significant operational delay, and might cause the rockets to be destroyed before they could be used. To resolve this problem the British invented the missile silo that protected the missile from a first strike and also hid fuelling operations underground. Once the booster falls away, the warhead continues on an unpowered ballistic trajectory, much like an artillery shell or cannon ball. The warhead is encased in a cone-shaped reentry vehicle and is difficult to detect in this phase of flight as there is no rocket exhaust or other emissions to mark its position to defenders. The high speeds of the warheads make them difficult to intercept and allow for little warning striking targets anywhere in the world within minutes. Many authorities say that missiles also release aluminized balloons, electronic noisemakers, and other items intended to confuse interception devices and radars (see penetration aid). As the nuclear warhead reenters the earth's atmosphere its high speed causes friction with the air, leading to a dramatic rise in temperature which would destroy it if it were not shielded in some way. As a result, warhead components are contained within an aluminium honeycomb substructure, sheathed in pyrolytic graphite-epoxy resin composite, with a heat-shield layer on top which is constructed out of 3-Dimensional Quartz Phenolic. Accuracy is crucial, because doubling the accuracy decreases the needed warhead energy by a factor of four. Accuracy is limited by the accuracy of the navigation system and the available geophysical information. Strategic missile systems are thought to use custom integrated circuits designed to calculate navigational differential equations thousands to millions of times per second in order to reduce navigational errors caused by calculation alone. These circuits are usually a network of binary addition circuits that continually recalculate the missile's position. The inputs to the navigation circuit are set by a general purpose computer according to a navigational input schedule loaded into the missile before launch. One particular weapon developed by the Soviet Union (FOBS) had a partial orbital trajectory, and unlike most ICBMs its target could not be deduced from its orbital flight path. It was decommissioned in compliance with arms control agreements, which address the maximum range of ICBMs and prohibit orbital or fractional-orbital weapons. Low-flying guided cruise missiles are an alternative to ballistic missiles. Specific missiles Land-based ICBMs Testing at the Kwajalein Atoll of the Peacekeeper re-entry vehicles, all eight fired from only one missile. Each line, were its warhead live, represents the potential explosive power of about 375 kilotons of TNT. The U.S. Air Force currently operates 450 ICBMs around three air force bases located primarily in the northern Rocky Mountain states and North Dakota. These are of the LGM-30 Minuteman III ICBM variant only. Peacekeeper missiles were phased out in 2005. Peacekeeper missile mission ends during ceremony All USAF Minuteman II missiles have been destroyed in accordance with START, and their launch silos have been sealed or sold to the public. To comply with the START II most U.S. multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, or MIRVs, have been eliminated and replaced with single warhead missiles. However, since the abandonment of the START II treaty, the U.S. is said to be considering retaining 800 warheads on 450 missiles. "Nuclear Notebook: U.S. and Soviet/Russian intercontinental ballistic missiles, 1959– 2008," http://thebulletin.metapress.com/content/037qk4866n431045/fulltext.pdf MIRVed land-based ICBMs are considered destabilizing because they tend to put a premium on striking first. If we assume that each side has 100 missiles, with 5 warheads each, and further that each side has a 95 percent chance of neutralizing the opponent's missiles in their silos by firing 2 warheads at each silo, then the side that strikes first can reduce the enemy ICBM force from 100 missiles to about 5 by firing 40 missiles at the enemy silos and using the remaining 60 for other targets. This first-strike strategy increases the chance of a nuclear war, so the MIRV weapon system was banned under the START II agreement. The United States Air Force awards two badges for performing duty in a nuclear missile silo or Launch Control Center (LCC). The Missile Badge is presented to enlisted and commissioned maintainers while the Space and Missile Pin is awarded to commissioned Officer operators after completed training and full certification. Sea-based ICBMs Trident missile launch at sea from a Royal Navy Vanguard- class ballistic missile submarine. The U.S. Navy currently has 14 Ohio-class SSBNs deployed. There are a total of 18 Ohio-class submarines in the US Navy inventory; however four of these submarines have been retrofitted to carry and fire cruise missiles, and are no longer considered ballistic missile subs. Each submarine is equipped with a complement of 24 Trident II missiles, for a total of 288 missiles equipped with 1152 nuclear warheads. The Russian Navy currently has 12 SSBNs deployed, including 5 Delta III class submarines, 6 Delta IV class submarines and 1 Typhoon class submarine, for a total of 181 missiles equipped with 639 nuclear warheads. Missiles includes the R-29R, R-29RM/Sineva and Bulava SLBMs (deployed on the single Typhoon SSBN as a testbed for the next generation Borei class submarines being built). The French Navy constantly maintains at least four active units, relying on two classes of nuclear-powered ballistic submarines (SSBN): the older Redoutable class, which are being progressively decommissioned, and the newer le Triomphant class. These carry 16 M45 missiles with TN75 warheads, and are scheduled to be upgraded to M51 nuclear missiles around 2010. The UK's Royal Navy has four Vanguard class submarines, each armed with 16 Trident II SLBMs. China's People's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN) has one Xia class submarine with 12 single-warhead JL-1 SLBMs. The PLAN has also launched at least two of the new Type 094 SSBN that will have 12 JL-2 SLBMs (possibly MIRV) which are in development. Current and former U.S. ballistic missiles Atlas (SM-65, CGM-16) former ICBM launched from silo, the rocket is now used for other purposes Titan I (SM-68, HGM-25A) Based in underground launch complexes. Titan II (SM-68B, LGM-25C) — former ICBM launched from silo, the rocket is now used for other purposes Minuteman I (SM-80, LGM-30A/B, HSM-80) Minuteman II (LGM-30F) Minuteman III (LGM-30G) — launched from silo — as of May, 2009, there are 450 Minuteman III missiles in active inventory LGM-118A Peacekeeper / MX (LGM-118A) — silo-based; decommissioned in May 2006 Midgetman — has never been operational — launched from mobile launcher Polaris A1, A2, A3 — (UGM-27/A/B/C) former SLBM Poseidon C3 — (UGM-73) former SLBM Trident — (UGM-93A/B) SLBM — Trident II (D5) was first deployed in 1990 and is planned to be deployed past 2020. Soviet/Russian Specific types of Soviet ICBMs include: R7 Semyorka / 8K71 / SS-6 Sapwood R-16 SS-7 Saddler R-9 Desna / SS-8 Sasin R-36 SS-9 Scarp R-36M2 Voevoda / SS-18 Satan UR-100 8K84 / SS-11 Sego MR-UR-100 Sotka / 15A15/ SS-17 Spanker UR-100N 15A30 / SS-19 Stiletto RS-24 is MIRV-equipped and thermonuclear. It has two tests since 2005. RT-2 8K98 / SS-13 Savage RT-23 Molodets / SS-24 Scalpel RT-2PM Topol / 15Zh58 / SS-25 Sickle RT-2UTTKh Topol M / SS-27 People's Republic of China Specific types of Chinese ICBMs called Dong Feng ("East Wind"). DF-3 — cancelled. Program name transferred to a MRBM. DF-5 CSS-4 — silo based, 15,000+ km range. DF-6 — cancelled DF-22 — cancelled by 1995. DF-31 CSS-9 — silo and road mobile, 7,200+ km range. DF-31A CSS-9 — silo and road mobile, 11,200+ km range. JL-2 — SSBN-based, ~8000 km range. DF-41 CSS-X-10 — program is currently on halt due to introduction of DF-31A. France only deploys submarine launched ICBMs, with all land based ones decommissioned M4 — Decommissioned in 2003. M45 — In service. M51.1 — Expected to enter service in 2010. M51.2 — Expected to enter service in 2015. The Indian range of ICBMs currently in development include : Agni-V — 5000-6000 km range (Under Development: expected to enter service in 2010.) Jericho III - believed to have a range of up to 7000km. Entered service in 2008. North Korea fired an ICBM in 2009; claiming it was launching a communications satellite into space. This violated many international sanctions against North Korea. The missile flew over Japan and crashed into the Pacific Ocean. North Korea declared it a success. Taepodong-1 — 4,000-9,000 km range (failed test in 2006 ) Taepodong-2 — unknown range (2009) Ballistic missile submarines Specific types of ballistic missile submarines include: George Washington class - - all boats and missiles decommissioned by 1993 armed with 16 UGM-27 Polaris SLBM Ethan Allen class - - all boats and missiles decommissioned in early 1986 armed with 16 fleet ballistic missiles (UGM-27 Polaris SLBM) Lafayette class - - all boats and missiles decommissioned by 1992 armed with 16 UGM-27 Polaris SLBM or ** armed with 16 UGM-73 Poseidon SLBM Benjamin Franklin class - - all boats missiles decommissioned by 2002 armed with unspecified payload of either UGM-27 Polaris or UGM-73 Poseidon; some with Trident (missile) Ohio class - - only missiles decommissioned armed with 24 Trident (missile) C4 or D5 missiles ATV class - armed with 12 Sagarika SLBM; later will be fitted for 4 Agni-III (missile) Resolution class - - all boats retired planned to be armed with UGM-27 Polaris SLBM (none armed) Vanguard class - armed with 16 GAM-87 Skybolt D5 SLBM Borei class - 16 RSM-56 Bulava SLBM Typhoon class - armed with R-39 Rif or RSM-56 Bulava SLBM Delta IV class - ? Redoutable class - 16 M4 MSBS (Mer Sol Balistique Stratégique) nuclear missiles Triomphant class - 16 M45 (missile) SLBM Type 092 (Xia class) - 12 JL-1A SLBM Type 094 (Jin class) - 12 JL-2 SLBM Additional Soviet/Russian ballistic missile submarines See also India and weapons of mass destruction Israel and weapons of mass destruction People's Republic of China and weapons of mass destruction France and weapons of mass destruction Russia and weapons of mass destruction United States and weapons of mass destruction United Kingdom and weapons of mass destruction SLBM Anti-ballistic missile Heavy ICBM Throw-weight Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty Atmospheric reentry nuclear disarmament nuclear navy nuclear warfare Force de frappe submarine Fractional Orbital Bombardment System Air Force Space Command Missile Defense Agency Countermeasure References External links Ballistic missile characters Estimated Strategic Nuclear Weapons Inventories (September 2004) Intercontinental Ballistic and Cruise Missiles "A Tale of Two Airplanes" by Kingdon R. 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6,244 | Compost | Compost educator displaying finished compost to student group Compost ( or US ) is the end result of controlled aerobic decomposition of organic matter known as composting. It is used in landscaping, horticulture and agriculture as a soil conditioner and fertilizer to add vital humus or humic acids. It is also useful for erosion control, land and stream reclamation, wetland construction, and as landfill cover (see compost uses). Compost serves as a growing medium, or a porous, absorbent material that holds moisture and soluble minerals, providing the support and nutrients in which plants can flourish, although it is rarely used alone, being primarily mixed with soil, sand, grit, bark chips, vermiculite, perlite, or clay granules to produce loam. Ingredients Given enough time, all biodegradable material will oxidize to "compost". One objective of composting today is to treat readily degradable materials that may otherwise enter landfills, and decompose anaerobically, releasing greenhouse gases. Most small-scale domestic systems are not maintained at the thermophilic temperatures required to eliminate possible pathogens and disease vectors, or deter vermin, therefore pet droppings, meat scrap, and dairy products are best left to larger scale high-rate, aerobic composting systems. A local green waste recycling facility may operate such a system. However, hobby animal manure (horses, goats, sheep, chickens), fruit and vegetable food waste and garden waste are excellent raw materials for home composting. Major types of biodegradable waste used: Cardboard Paper Coffee grounds Coir (Cocoa shell) Garden waste Humanure Leaves Vermicompost being harvested Manure Mushrooms Tree bark Eggshells Fruit Vegetables Seaweed A handful of compost Inorganic additives Sea shell Soil Sand Rock dust Agricultural lime Uses Compost is generally recommended as an additive to soil, or other matrices such as coir and peat, as a tilth improver supplying humus and nutrients. Generally direct seeding into a compost is not recommended due to the speed with which it may dry and the possible presence of phytotoxins which may inhibit germination, Morel, P. and Guillemain, G. 2004. Assessment of the possible phytotoxicity of a substrate using an easy and representative biotest. Acta Horticulture 644:417–423 Itävaara et al. Compost maturity - problems associated with testing. in Proceedings of Composting. Innsbruck Austria 18-21.10.2000 Phytotoxicity and maturation and the possible tie up of nitrogen by incompletely decomposed lignin. Effect of lignin content on bio-availability It is very common to see blends of 20–30% compost used for transplanting seedlings at cotyledon stage or later. As alternative to landfilling As concern about landfill space increases, worldwide interest in recycling by means of composting is growing, since composting is a process for converting decomposable organic wastes into useful stable products. A Brief History of Solid Waste Management Industrial scale composting in the form of in-vessel composting, aerated static pile composting, and anaerobic digestion takes place in most western countries now, and in many areas is mandated by law. There are process and product standards in the UK British Standards Institute Specifications FAQ and the US US Composting Council testing parameters and it is regulated in Canada and Australia as well. For further information on municipal or industrial composts refer to the following pages. Standardization of the products Please help to expand See also Anaerobic digestion Composting Composting toilet Compost tea Gardening Good Agricultural Practices Home composting John Innes Compost Leaf mold List of composting systems Mechanical biological treatment Micro-organisms Mulch Soil conditioner Vermicompost Waste management Bokashi composting References Literature Insam, H; Riddech, N; Klammer, S (Eds.): Microbiology of Composting ,Springer Verlag, Berlin New York 2002, ISBN 978-3-540-67568-6 Hogg, D., J. Barth, E. Favoino, M. Centemero, V. Caimi, F. Amlinger, W. Devliegher, W. Brinton., S. Antler. 2002. Comparison of compost standards within the EU, North America, and Australasia. Waste and Resources Action Programme Committee (UK) (see wrap.or.uk) External links Compost Manual Making Compost The Look of Compost Cré, the Irish Composting Association Information on composting in Ireland. Commission of the European Communities Landfill Directive Official Journal L 182 , 16/07/1999 P.0001-0019. UK Landfill Directive Information Compost Marketing in Switzerland, Schliess, K. 2002. Kompostvermarktung (in German) Report to the Swiss Agency for Environment, Bern. 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6,245 | Fort_Wayne,_Indiana | Fort Wayne is a city in northeastern Indiana, United States and the county seat of Allen County. As of 2008, the city had an estimated population of 251,247, ranking it the 72nd largest city in the United States, as well as Indiana's second largest city after Indianapolis. Shawgo, Ron, (2007-07-10). City tops 250,000 mark: Annexation accounts for increase. The Journal Gazette. Retrieved 2007-07-10. In 2006, the combined population of the Fort Wayne Metropolitan Statistical Area was 570,779, ranking it the third largest metropolitan area in the state. Shawgo, Ron, (2006-06-21). City count approaches 250,000, census says. The Journal Gazette. Retrieved on 2006-06-21. United States Army general and American Revolutionary War statesman General "Mad" Anthony Wayne is the namesake of Fort Wayne. The United States Army built Fort Wayne last in a series of forts near the Miami Indian village of Kekionga, which was located where the St. Joseph River and St. Marys River converge to form the Maumee River. Brice, Wallace A. (1868) "History of Fort Wayne, from the Earliest Known Accounts of this Point to the Present Period". D.W. Jones & son. Fort Wayne sits within a radius of 17 percent of the total United States population and also within a day's drive of half of the nation's population. Fort Wayne Facts. Retrieved 2008-02-27. The city's economy is based on manufacturing, education, health care, and defense and security, with agriculture being the primary economic activity in the metro area. Fort Wayne: Economy - City-Data. Retrieved on 2008-04-29. The city has been presented with the All-America City Award in 1982-1983 and 1998. National Civic League Past Winners. Retrieved 2008-01-22. History General "Mad" Anthony Wayne The Miami nation first established a settlement at the Maumee, St. Joseph, and St. Marys Rivers in the mid-17th century called Kekionga. The village was the traditional capital of the Miami nation and related Algonquian tribes. Historians believe that around 1676, French priests and missionaries visited the Miami on their way back from a mission at Lake Michigan. In 1680, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle sent a letter to the Governor-General of Canada stating he had also stopped there. In the 1680s, French traders established a post at the location because it was the crucial portage between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. The Maumee River is approximately ten miles (16 kilometers) away from the Little River branch of the Wabash River, which flows, in turn, into the Ohio River. Goodrich, De Witt C. and Charles Richard Tuttle (1875) An Illustrated History of the State of Indiana. (NP:R. S. Peale & Co., ND). In 1696, Comte de Frontenac appointed Jean Baptiste Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes as commander of the French outpost in Miami country. "Vincennes, Sieur de (Jean Baptiste Bissot)," The Encyclopedia Americana (Danbury, CT: Grolier, 1990), 28:130. The French built the first fort on the site, Fort Miamis, in 1697 as part of a group of forts built between Quebec, Canada, and St. Louis. In 1721, a few years after Bissot's death, Fort Miamis was replaced by Fort St. Philippe des Miamis. Peckham, Howard Henry (2003) "Indiana: A History". W.W. Norton ISBN 0-252-07146-8. The first census, performed in 1744 on the order by the governor of Louisiana, revealed a population of approximately forty Frenchmen and one thousand Miami. Increasing tension between France and the United Kingdom developed over the territory. In 1760, after defeat by British forces in the French and Indian War, the area was ceded to the British Empire. The fort was again renamed, this time to Fort Miami. In 1763, various Native American nations rebelled against British rule and retook the fort as part of Pontiac's Rebellion. The Miami regained control of Kekionga, a rule that lasted for more than thirty years. In 1790, President George Washington ordered the United States Army to secure Indiana. Three battles were fought in Kekionga against Little Turtle and the Miami Confederacy. Miami warriors annihilated the United States Army in the first two battles. Anthony Wayne led a third expedition, destroying the village while its warriors were away. When the tribe returned to their destroyed village, Little Turtle decided to negotiate peace. After General Wayne refused it, the tribe was advanced to Fallen Timbers where they were defeated on August 20, 1794. On October 22, 1794, the United States army captured the Wabash-Erie portage from the Miami Confederacy and built a new fort at the three rivers, Fort Wayne, in honor of General Wayne. Hoxie, Frederick E. (1996) "Encyclopedia of North American Indians: Native American History, Culture, and Life from Paleo-Indians to the Present". Houghton Mifflin Company. p.343 ISBN 0-395-66921-9. Incorporated as the City of Fort Wayne on February 22, 1840, Fort Wayne: History: County Seat Becomes Industrial Center. Retrieved on 2008-05-04. the city prospered under the launch of the Wabash and Erie Canal. Fort Wayne's nickname, The Summit City, was coined due to its location at the zenith of the locks on the canal. The city lost national prominence in the demise of the Wabash and Erie Canal as the railroad system quickly took its place. Population growth occurred most in the 19th century, with the arrival of German, Polish, and Irish immigrants, bringing large numbers of Roman Catholics and Lutherans. Superior Street during the disastrous floods Fort Wayne suffered in 1982. The turn of the 20th century brought the most devastating natural disaster in the city's history. The Great Flood of 1913 resulted in the deaths of six residents and left 15,000 homeless, prompting martial law to be declared until order could be restored to Fort Wayne. Paddock, Geoff (2002) "Headwaters Park: Fort Wayne's Lasting Legacy". Arcadia Publishing. p.34 ISBN 0-7385-1971-5. The costliest disaster in Fort Wayne's history, the Great Flood of 1982, exceeded $56 million in damages and prompted a visit from then-President Ronald Reagan. In the days following the flood, 9,000 residents were forced to evacuate and over 2,000 residences and businesses were damaged by floodwaters. One brigade of sandbaggers are credited with saving 1,860 homes in the Lakeside neighborhood as clay dikes along the Maumee River began showing signs of failure. Jarosh, Andrew, (1992-03-12). Deluged city rallied to save itself. The News-Sentinel. Retrieved on 2009-03-31. The gallant efforts by thousands of volunteers earned Fort Wayne the distinction of The City That Saved Itself. Since this flood, miles of levees and dikes were built or enhanced, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers widened the Maumee River, and Headwaters Park was established near the confluence of the rivers in downtown Fort Wayne, all implemented to alleviate future flooding. In recent history, the focus of citizens has been the concern of bolstering business and beautification in the core of Fort Wayne. Leininger, Kevin, (2008-12-16). Could nonprofit revitalize downtown?. The News-Sentinel. Retrieved on 2009-01-08. Within the last decade, the city has improved in this venture, with the renovations and expansions of the Main Library Branch and Grand Wayne Convention Center, as well as the addition of Headwaters Park. It was announced in 2006 that a $130 million development, Lanka, Benjamin, (2009-01-04). Delays encircle Harrison Square. The Journal Gazette. Retrieved on 2009-01-08. containing a new baseball stadium, parking garage, condominiums, shops, and Courtyard by Marriott, was to begin construction in downtown Fort Wayne by 2008. This revitalization project is known as Harrison Square. Geography St. Joseph River in Fort Wayne. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has constructed a flood wall along the river. Fort Wayne is located at (41.07253, -85.13937). US Gazetteer files: 2000 and 1990. United States Census Bureau (2005-05-03). Retrieved on 2008-10-02. For a regional summit, Fort Wayne lies on fairly flat land, with the exception of few hills and depressions throughout the region. Marshes and wetlands are prevalent in portions of southwest Fort Wayne and Allen County, as well as some quarries. West of the city lies the Tipton Till Plain while land east of the plain is the former Black Swamp. The St. Marys River cuts through the southeast section of Allen County, flowing northward, while the St. Joseph River cuts through the northeast section of the county, flowing southward. Both rivers converge roughly in the center of the county to form the Maumee River, which flows northeastward, eventually emptying into Lake Erie. Climate According to the Köppen climate classification, Fort Wayne lies in the humid continental climate zone, experiencing four distinct seasons. Typically, summers are hot and humid, and winters are generally cold with frequent snowfall. Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. The National Weather Service reports the highest recorded temperature in the city at on July 14, 1936 and June 29, 1988, and the lowest recorded temperature at on January 12, 1918. Fort Wayne, Indiana Climate - Heat / Cold - NWS Northern Indiana. Retrieved on 2008-04-30. The wettest month on record was July 1986, with of precipitation recorded. The greatest 24-hour rainfall was on August 1, 1926. The average annual precipitation ranges from at the airport to at the Fort Wayne Water Pollution Control Plant. During the winter season, snowfall accumulation averages per year. Lake effect snow is not rare to the region, but usually appears in the form of light snow flurries. The snowiest month on record was in January 1982 (the 1981-1982 winter season was also the snowiest season on record, with reported). The greatest 24-hour snowfall was on March 10, 1964. Fort Wayne, Indiana Climate - Winter Weather - NWS Northern Indiana. Retrieved on 2008-04-30. Severe weather is not uncommon, with tornadoes rarely occurring, particularly in the spring and summer months, though funnel clouds are observed more frequently. Fort Wayne, Indiana Climate - Tornadoes - NWS Northern Indiana. Retrieved on 2008-04-30. The most severe tornado, an F2 on the Fujita scale, struck portions of northern Fort Wayne on May 26, 2001, causing extensive damage to Northcrest Shopping Center and other businesses along the Coliseum Boulevard corridor, moving on to a subdivision, but resulting in only three minor injuries. NOAA - A Summary of the May 26, 2001 Tornado Event Over Northern Indiana and Extreme Northwest Ohio. Retrieved on 2008-04-25. The city was paralyzed in the days following the Great Blizzard of 1978, with snow accumulations in upwards of and drifts at in some places, driven by 55 mile-per-hour wind gusts. Hubartt, Kerry, (2008-01-19). Snowbound city stuck it out. The News-Sentinel. Retrieved on 2009-01-17. Cityscape National City Center, originally Fort Wayne National Bank, was completed in 1970. Built in 1930, the Lincoln Bank Tower was the tallest building in the state until 1962. Architecture Allen County Courthouse, 715 South Calhoun Street, Beaux-Arts-style government building, Brentwood S. Tolan, 1897-1902 Allen County War Memorial Coliseum, 4000 Parnell Avenue, sports arena, Alvin M. Strauss, 1952 Anthony Wayne Bank Building, 203 East Berry Street, commercial highrise, 1964 Canal House, 114 West Superior Street, warehouse, 1852 Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, 1122 South Clinton Street, Gothic-style church, 1860 Center School, restored schoolhouse, 1893 Commerce Building (now Star Financial Bank Building), 127 West Berry Street, Beaux-Arts architecture, commercial high-rise, Charles R. Weatherhogg, 1923 Concordia Senior College (now Concordia Theological Seminary), Eero Saarinen, 1953 Crooks House, residence, postmodernist Michael Graves, 1976 Embassy Theatre and Indiana Hotel, 121 West Jefferson Boulevard, theater and hotel, Alvin M. Strauss, 1928 Fort Wayne Museum of Art, 311 East Main Street, art museum, Walter Netsch, 1984 Grand Wayne Center, 120 West Jefferson Boulevard, convention center, 1985, 2005 Hanselmann House, residence, Michael Graves, 1967 Hugh McCulloch House, 616 West Superior Street, residence, 1853 J.B. Franke House, 2131 Forest Park Boulevard, residence, Francis Barry Byrne, 1914 J. Ross McCulloch House, 334 East Berry Street, residence, 1883 Lincoln Bank Tower, 116 East Berry Street, Art-Deco highrise, Alvin M. Strauss, 1930 Old City Hall, 302 East Berry Street, Richardsonian Romanesque-style government building, 1893 One Summit Square, 101 East Washington Boulevard, commercial highrise, 1981 Pennsylvania Railroad Station, 231 West Baker Street, train station, 1914 Chief Jean Baptiste de Richardville House, 5705 Bluffton Road, Greek Revival residence, 1827 Saint Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, 1126 Barr Street, Gothic-style church, 1889 Snyderman House, residence, Michael Graves, 1972 The Landing, Columbia Street, Italianate, Renaissance, and Romanesque commercial lowrises, 1868-1943 Trinity English Lutheran Church, 405 West Wayne Street, church, 1923 Wermuth House, residence, Eero Saarinen, 1942 Demographics The first census was performed in 1744 on the order by the governor of Louisiana, revealed a population of approximately forty Frenchmen and one thousand Miami. As of the census of 2000, there were 205,727 people, 83,333 households, and 50,666 families residing in the city. There are 90,915 housing units at an average density of 1,151.5/sq mi (444.6/km²). The racial makeup of the city is 75.45% White, 17.38% Black or African American, 0.39% Native American, 1.56% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 2.91% from other races, and 2.26% from two or more races. 5.78% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 83,333 households out of which 31.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% are married couples living together, 14.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 39.2% are non-families. 32.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.41 and the average family size is 3.08. In the city the population is spread out with 27.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 30.2% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years of age. For every 100 females there are 94.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.4 males. The median income for a household in the city is $36,518, and the median income for a family is $45,040. Males have a median income of $34,704 versus $25,062 for females. The per capita income for the city is $18,517. 12.5% of the population and 9.6% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 17.5% of those under the age of 18 and 7.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. Fort Wayne is cited as having the highest Burmese refugee population in the United States, with between 3,000-3,500. Linsenmayer, Steve, (2007-07-12). A foot in the door: 300 refugees from Burma will move to Fort Wayne this year. The News-Sentinel. Retrieved on 2008-01-27. Jha, Lalit K, (2007-06-01). A Little Burma in Fort Wayne. The Irrawaddy. Retrieved on 2009-02-08. Religion Besides its Summit City nickname, Fort Wayne is also informally referred to as the City of Churches, a nickname that stretches back to the late-1800s when the city was the hub of regional Catholic, Lutheran and Episcopal faiths. Until the building of the Lincoln Bank Tower in 1929, church and cathedral spires dominated the city's skyline. The Missouri Synod of the Lutheran Church was constituted in Saint Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church, then known as Saint Pauls Evangelisch-Lutheranische Gemeinde, once founded in 1837 as Fort Wayne's first Lutheran church. Saint Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church - History. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. The Episcopal Church moved into Fort Wayne in 1839, attracting settlers from New England and New York, along with English, Irish, and Canadian immigrants. Trinity Episcopal Church, in downtown Fort Wayne, is the center for the Episcopal Diocese of Northern Indiana. Trinity Episcopal Church - history. Retrieved on 2009-05-19. Fort Wayne is the principle city of the Catholic Diocese of Fort Wayne-South Bend which covers northeastern and north central Indiana. The principle cathedral of the diocese is the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, also located in downtown Fort Wayne. As of May 2006, three national Christian denominations were headquartered in Fort Wayne; the Fundamental Baptist Fellowship Association, Missionary Church, Inc. and the Fellowship of Evangelical Churches, while the headquarters of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ is in nearby Huntington, Indiana. Fort Wayne's Jewish population is served by Congregation Achduth Vesholom, the oldest Jewish congregation in Indiana and second oldest Reform congregation west of the Allegheny Mountains, founded in 1848. Congregation Achduth Vesholom. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. There is also an increasing religious minority found among Fort Wayne's immigrant communities, including Hinduism, Islam, and Buddhism. Linsenmayer, Steve, (2007-09-24). Monks here support boycott. The News-Sentinel. Retrieved on 2008-09-24. Government Elected officials of Fort WayneOfficialPositionPolitical PartyTom HenryMayorDemocratCity Council MembersMarty BenderAt-LargeRepublicanLiz BrownAt-LargeRepublicanJohn ShoaffAt-LargeDemocratTom SmithFirst DistrictRepublicanKaren GoldnerSecond DistrictDemocratTom DidierThird DistrictRepublicanMitch HarperFourth DistrictRepublicanTim PapeFifth DistrictDemocratGlynn A. HinesSixth DistrictDemocrat Fort Wayne has a mayor-council government. As of April 2006, the city was exploring a voluntary government restructuring that included the possible consolidation of its government or parts of its government with Allen County. Discussions with the County have been intermittent for several years. Fort Wayne's mayor is Democrat Tom Henry, who was sworn into office on January 1, 2008. He succeeded Democrat Graham Richard who had served since 2000. Mayor Richard chose not to run for re-election. Greg Purcell holds the position of Deputy Mayor, respectively. Lanka, Benjamin, (2008-07-25). New deputy mayor is no stranger. The Journal Gazette. Retrieved on 2008-07-25. Fort Wayne City Council is a nine-member legislative group that serve four-year terms. Six of the members represent specific districts; three are elected city-wide as at-large council members. The council elected on November 6, 2007 will serve until December 31, 2011. Democrat Sandra Kennedy has been Fort Wayne's city clerk since 1983. Under the Unigov provision of Indiana Law, City-County consolidation would have been automatic when Fort Wayne's population exceeded 250,000 and became a first class city in Indiana. Fort Wayne nearly met the state requirements for first class city designation in 2006 when the populous portions of Aboite Township were annexed. However, a 2004 legislative change raised the population requirements from 250,000 to 600,000, which ensured Indianapolis' status as the only first class city in Indiana. Sister cities Fort Wayne has three sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International: Fort Wayne Sister Cities International. Retrieved on 2008-09-25. Gera, Germany (since 1992) Płock, Poland (since 1990) Takaoka, Japan (since 1977) Economy A major manufacturing center in the Midwest by the mid-20th century, Fort Wayne included such employers as General Electric, Westinghouse, and International Harvester. Also vital employers, Phelps Dodge, Rea Magnet Wire, and Essex Wire comprised the largest concentration of copper wire production globally during World War II. As the 20th century came to close, advancements in technology and the reduction of manufacturing jobs nationally led Fort Wayne to be counted among other cities in the Rust Belt. However, Fort Wayne's economy has diversified with time to include defense and security, health care, and insurance. In 2009, Forbes ranked the Fort Wayne metropolitan area 67th on its list of 200 metropolitan areas in the "Best Places For Business And Careers" report. Individually, Fort Wayne was ranked 5th in cost of living and 12th in cost of doing business. Forbes Best Places For Business And Careers Fort Wayne Profile. Retrieved on 2009-03-28. Fort Wayne is headquarters for such corporations as Brotherhood Mutual Insurance Company, DeBrand Chocolatier, Home Reserve, K&K Insurance Group, Medical Protective, North American Van Lines (SIRVA), OmniSource Corporation, Rea Magnet Wire, STAR Financial Group, Steel Dynamics, Sweetwater Sound, Triple Crown Services, Vera Bradley, and WaterFurnace International. Fort Wayne's ten largest non-government employers: Lutheran Health Network (3,756) Parkview Health System (3,191) General Motors Truck Group (2,964) ITT Communications Systems (1,942) Lincoln Financial Group (1,800) Verizon (1,459) BFGoodrich (1,406) International Truck and Engine (1,400) Raytheon Systems (1,175) Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne (1,120) Education The map shows which school districts serve Allen County. Blue represents Northwest Allen County Schools, yellow East Allen County Schools, dark pink Fort Wayne Community Schools, and green Southwest Allen County Schools. Fort Wayne is home of Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne (IPFW), with an enrollment of 11,943, it is the fifth-largest public university campus in Indiana. The city also holds the main campus of the Northeast Region of Ivy Tech Community College, the second-largest public community college campus in Indiana. Indiana University maintains the third public higher educational facility in the city with the Fort Wayne Center for Medical Education, a branch of the IU School of Medicine. Fort Wayne's private colleges and universities include religious-affiliates and secular institutions. Religious-affiliated schools include the University of Saint Francis (Roman Catholic), Concordia Theological Seminary (Lutheran), Taylor University Fort Wayne (Evangelical Christian), and Indiana Wesleyan University (Wesleyan Church). Non-religious colleges and universities include the Indiana Institute of Technology (IIT) as well as regional branches of Trine University, Brown Mackie College, Harrison College, ITT Technical Institute, and International Business College. By means of private education, Roman Catholic residents of Fort Wayne and Allen County are served by the schools of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Fort Wayne-South Bend. Two of the four high schools in the diocese, Bishop Luers High School and Bishop Dwenger High School, are located in Allen County along with 13 of the 39 grade schools. Lutheran Schools of Indiana operate 14 schools within Allen County, including Concordia Lutheran High School. Blackhawk Christian School, Canterbury School, and Keystone Schools provide private pre-kindergarten to twelfth grade education. Libraries Fort Wayne and Allen County residents have been served by the Allen County Public Library (ACPL) and its fourteen branches since its founding in 1895 as the Fort Wayne Public Library. The entire library system began an $84.1 million overhaul of branches in 2002, finishing work by 2007. Perez, Pamela, (2001-09-27). The debate over the library It could revitalize downtown, say supporters. It's too big, say opponents. The News-Sentinel. Retrieved on 2009-02-06. The centerpiece, the Main Library Branch, now covers , featuring an art gallery, underground parking garage, bookstore, café, and community auditorium. Allen County Public Library - Main Library Branch. Allen County Public Library. Retrieved on 2008-05-17. According to data from 2005, 5.4 million materials were borrowed by patrons, and 2.5 million visits were made throughout the library system. Allen County Public Library Expansion and Renovation Project. Allen County Public Library. Retrieved on 2008-05-27. The Fred J. Reynolds Historical Genealogy Department, located in the Main Library Branch, is the largest public genealogy department in the United States, home to more than 350,000 printed volumes and 513,000 items of microfilm and microfiche. Allen County Public Library - Genealogy. Allen County Public Library. Retrieved on 2008-06-10. In 1997, Places Rated Almanac recognized Fort Wayne as having the highest reading quotient of any place in North America, due in part to the city's quality library system. LeDuc, Doug, (1998-08-25). Texas-Based Hastings Entertainment to Open Store in Fort Wayne, Ind. Knight Ridder/Tribune Business News. Retrieved on 2009-02-06. Culture Festivals BBQ RibFest is a four-day event held in mid-June at Headwaters Park, showcasing barbecue rib cooks and vendors, as well as musical performances from across the nation. BBQ RibFest homepage. Retrieved on 2008-06-18. Fort-4-Fitness debuted in 2008 as a way to motivate residents to take steps in creating healthier lifestyles. The festival includes a certified half-marathon, 4-mile run/walk, health fair, and healthy food expo. Manley, Becky, (2008-09-28).13-mile run is sole food at Fort-4-Fitness debut. The Journal Gazette. Retrieved on 2009-01-13. Over 6,200 people participated in the festival's inaugural run. Fort-4-Fitness Health Festival homepage. Retrieved on 2009-01-13. Germanfest, first celebrated in 1981, commemorates Fort Wayne's largest ethnic group with such events as the Germanfest Bake Off and National Weiner Dog Finals. German cuisine, dance, and fashion are showcased in the eight-day celebration, held in the first week of June at Headwaters Park. Germanfest - History. Retrieved on 2008-06-18. Greek Fest is a four-day event held at the end of June at Headwaters Park. The festival, which originated in 1986, celebrates Fort Wayne's local Greek population and heritage. HolidayFest begins the day after Thanksgiving with the lighting of the Wolf & Dessauer Department Store Santa and Reindeer light display, the Wells Fargo Holiday Tree, and the Indiana Michigan Power Christmas Wreath. Swanson, Andrew, (2008-11-27). Lights wow crowds. The News-Sentinel. Retrieved on 2009-01-13. Other events through the season include the Festival of Gingerbread at The History Center, the Festival of Trees at the Embassy Theatre, and the Headwaters Park Ice Rink. Johnny Appleseed Festival is a two-day festival held in the third week of September at Johnny Appleseed Park, where John Chapman is believed to be buried. Johnny Appleseed Festival - A Bit of History. Retrieved on 2009-04-01. Traditionally, the festival features food, crafts, and historical demonstrations recalling the era of Johnny Appleseed. National Soccer Festival is staged at IPFW's Hefner Soccer Complex where event-goers celebrate the sport of soccer on the collegiate level, with such activities as golf outings, live entertainment, and food vendors. National Soccer Festival - About the Festival. Retrieved on 2008-08-27. In 2008, twelve universities participated in the event. Warden, Steve, (2008-08-25). Soccer festival grows beyond field of play. The Journal Gazette. Retrieved on 2008-08-27. Three Rivers Festival is the paramount of northeast Indiana festivals, annually attracting an estimated 400,000 event-goers. Three Rivers Festival homepage. Retrieved on 2008-06-18. The festival's run annually spans nine days in mid-July, featuring over 200 events, including a community parade through downtown, a midway, food alley, hot dog eating contest, bed race, arts fair, and fireworks spectacular. Performing arts Façade of the Grand Wayne Center, looking east from West Jefferson Blvd. The John and Ruth Rhinehart Music Center opened in late 2007 to hold community concerts and university events. The auditorium includes 1,600 seats, located next to Williams Theatre and the Visual Arts Building, on the Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne campus. John and Ruth Rhinehart Music Center. Retrieved on 2008-05-15. Located downtown, Cinema Center features independent, foreign, classic and documentary films. Cinema Center - About Us. Retrieved on 2008-05-15. Arts United Center, located adjacent to the Fort Wayne Museum of Art, houses the Fort Wayne Civic Theater and Fort Wayne Youtheatre, with seating for 663. Arts United of Greater Fort Wayne - History & Architect of the Facility - About the Arts United Center. Retrieved on 2008-05-15. The Scottish Rite Center contains a 2,086-seat auditorium and a Valencia Ballroom. Scottish Rite Center - History. Retrieved on 2008-05-15. Foellinger Outdoor Theatre, in Franke Park near the zoo, offers seasonal acts and movies during warmer months. The Firehouse Theater, in remodeled Enginehouse #10, contains 73 seats and presents original works and classics adapted for stage. Firehouse Theater. Retrieved on 2008-06-04. The Historic Embassy Theatre, located across from the Grand Wayne Center, presents shows ranging from concert tours, Broadway musicals, dance, community events and lectures, serving over 200,000 patrons annually. The Historic Embassy Theatre - About Us. Retrieved on 2008-05-15. The Embassy is also home to the Fort Wayne Philharmonic Orchestra. Fort Wayne Philharmonic - Venue Info. Retrieved on 2008-05-15. The Grand Wayne Center, though used mainly for exhibitions and conventions, also plays host to dance or choir productions, such as the annual FAME Festival (The Foundation for Art and Music in Elementary Education), which showcases local school choirs and dancers. Museums Science Central contains interactive exhibits geared toward children. Though once functioning as Fort Wayne's City Hall, the building now houses The History Center. Fort Wayne includes a handful of museums. The Corvette Classics Museum features more than fifty restored classic Corvettes dating back to 1953. Corvette Classics Museum. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. The Fort Wayne Firefighters Museum, located at Engine House #3 in downtown Fort Wayne, exhibits artifacts from the Fort Wayne Fire Department, dating back to 1839, as well as showcasing four early previously-used fire engines. Fort Wayne Firefighter's Museum. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. The Jack D. Diehm Wildlife Museum of Natural History showcases stuffed and mounted North American wildlife animals in habitat settings. Science Central is a "hands-on" science center, located in Lawton Park just north of downtown Fort Wayne, offering children hundreds of interactive exhibits. Science Central. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. The African/African-American Historical Museum, which opened near downtown in 2000, contains two floors and ten exhibits relating to slavery in the United States, the Underground Railroad, African-American inventors, and the history of the local African-American community. African/African-American Historical Museum. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. The Fort Wayne Museum of Art, located in downtown Fort Wayne, contains of exhibition space, along with an auditorium. FWMoA - Visitor Information. Retrieved on 2008-05-25. It was announced in May 2008 that the FWMoA would add more exhibition space and other amentities by spring 2010. Penhollow, Steve, (2008-05-25). $5.5 million makeover. The Journal Gazette. Retrieved on 2008-05-25. The Greater Fort Wayne Aviation Museum, located inside the Lieutenant Paul Baer Terminal at Fort Wayne International Airport, highlights aviation history in Fort Wayne, as well as memorabilia relating to historical aviation figures such as Fort Wayne's own Art Smith and World War I Ace, Paul Baer. FWA - The Greater Fort Wayne Aviation Museum. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. The History Center, located in Fort Wayne's Old City Hall, manages a collection of more than 23,000 artifacts recalling the history of Fort Wayne and Allen County; the center is overseen by the Allen County-Fort Wayne Historical Society, which also maintains the Chief Jean Baptiste de Richardville House. Fort Wayne History Center. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. Sports The Allen County War Memorial Coliseum, as seen from Johnny Appleseed Park. Fort Wayne was rated the "Best Place in the Country for Minor League Sports" in a 2007 issue of Street & Smith's Sports Business Journal. King, Bill, (2007-08-20). Fort Wayne's #1. Street & Smith's Sports Business Journal. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. The city is the current home of seven minor league sports franchises. These include the Fort Wayne Fever of soccer's Premier Development League, the Fort Wayne Flash of the Women's Football Alliance, the Fort Wayne Flyers of the Minor League Football Association, the Fort Wayne Freedom of the Continental Indoor Football League, the Fort Wayne Komets of the International Hockey League, the Fort Wayne Mad Ants of the NBA Development League, and the Fort Wayne TinCaps of baseball's Midwest League. There is also a presence of intercollegiate sports in Fort Wayne; IPFW in the NCAA's Division I Summit League, Summit League gains new teams, seeks rise in standing among mid-majors. The Associated Press. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. as well as NAIA schools Indiana Tech and the University of Saint Francis. Fort Wayne has also been home to three former professional sports franchises. These include the NBA's Fort Wayne Pistons (now in Detroit), the Fort Wayne Daisies of the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League, and the Fort Wayne Kekiongas of the National Association of Professional Base Ball Players (an early predecessor to the current MLB). Fort Wayne has also been home to a few sports firsts; the first major league baseball game was played May 4, 1871 between the Fort Wayne Kekiongas and the Cleveland Forest Citys. It was rained-out in the top of the ninth inning, with the Kekiongas ahead 2-0. Retrosheet.org - First Game. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. Another first, on June 2, 1883, Fort Wayne hosted the Quincy Professionals for one of the first lighted baseball games ever recorded. Miklich, Eric, Night Baseball in the 19th Century. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. Fort Wayne has also been credited for being the birthplace of the NBA when Fort Wayne Pistons owner Fred Zollner brokered the merger of the BAA and the NBL in 1949 from his kitchen table. Rushin, Steve, (2007-02-05). Storming The Fort (wayne). Sports Illustrated. Retrieved on 2008-05-16. Professional Sports in Fort Wayne Team Sport League Established Venue Championships Fort Wayne Fever Soccer Premier Development League 2003 Hefner Stadium 0 Fort Wayne Flash Football Women's Football Alliance 2007 Bishop John M. D'Arcy Stadium 0 Fort Wayne Flyers Football Minor League Football Association 2005 Dave S. Walter Memorial Stadium 0 Fort Wayne Freedom Indoor football Continental Indoor Football League 2008 Allen County War Memorial Coliseum 0 Fort Wayne Komets Hockey International Hockey League 1952 Allen County War Memorial Coliseum 6 (IHL), 1 (UHL) Fort Wayne Mad Ants Basketball NBA Development League 2007 Allen County War Memorial Coliseum 0 Fort Wayne TinCaps Baseball Midwest League 1993 Parkview Field 0 Media The city's two major newspapers are The Journal Gazette and Pulitzer Prize-winning The News-Sentinel. Both independent dailies have separate editorial departments, but under a joint operating agreement, printing, advertising, and circulation are handled by Fort Wayne Newspapers, Inc. The city is also served by several free weekly and monthly alternative and neighborhood newspapers, including Aboite & About, Dupont Valley Times, Frost Illustrated, Ink, The Macedonian Tribune (the oldest and largest Macedonian language publication produced outside of the Balkans About the Macedonian Tribune. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. ), St. Joe Times, whatzup Entertainment Newspaper, and The Waynedale News. The Fort Wayne radio market is the 103rd-largest in the nation. Beginning broadcasting in 1925, Fort Wayne's second radio station, WOWO, is now an independent news/talk radio station, featuring local and network news talkshows. Two National Public Radio stations, WBNI and WBOI, are based in the city. Fort Wayne is the 107th-largest television media market in the nation. Broadcast network affiliates include WANE-TV (CBS), WFFT-TV (FOX), WISE-TV (NBC), WPTA (ABC), and WFWA (PBS). Religious broadcasters include WINM and W07CL. The CW Network and My Network TV also are cable-only for many Fort Wayne market viewers as they are broadcast by digital sub-channels of WPTA-TV and WISE-TV, respectively, and not broadcast on an NTSC channel. Recreation The Allen County Courthouse is listed as a National Historic Landmark. Its attached park, the Courthouse Green, is a gathering place for political demonstrations. Fort Wayne's first park (and smallest), the 0.2 acre (800 m²) Old Fort Park, was established in 1863. The newest developed park includes Buckner Park, established in 2004. Franke Park is Fort Wayne's most extensive park, at 316.4 acres (1.3 km²), also the home of the Fort Wayne Children's Zoo (ranked fifth best zoo in the nation by Parents magazine in 2009 Cicero, Karen, (2009-04-04). 10 Best Zoos for Kids: 5. Fort Wayne Children's Zoo. Parents magazine. Retrieved on 2009-04-11. ). Downtown Fort Wayne is home to the Foellinger-Freimann Botanical Conservatory and the Lawton Skatepark. Fort Wayne Parks & Recreation - Lawtown Skatepark. Fort Wayne Parks and Recreation. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. As of 2007, Fort Wayne Parks and Recreation maintained 84 parks and dozens of smaller community parks and playgrounds, covering 2,805 acres (8.9 km²). Allen County Parks include Cook's Landing County Park, Fox Island County Park, Metea County Park, and Payton County Park, all four of which cover nearly 900 acres (3.6 km²). Fox Island County Park. Allen County Parks. Retrieved on 2008-04-12 Northeast of Fort Wayne, near Grabill, is Hurshtown Reservoir, the largest body of water in Allen County, at . Downtown Fort Wayne, as seen from Freimann Square. Fort Wayne is also making efforts in restoring natural wetlands to the region. In southwest Allen County, the Little River Wetlands Project's Eagle Marsh contains 705 acres (2.85 km²) of protected wetlands, making it the third largest wetland restoration in the state of Indiana. Nearby Arrowhead Marsh is also in the process of restoration. Many species of turtles, herons, and cranes have been reported of making a resurgence in the wetlands. Little River Wetlands Project – Wildlife/Habitats. Little River Wetlands Project. Retrieved on 2008-04-12. Trails In recent decades, Fort Wayne has developed new paths and paved walking trails along the riverbanks, known as the Rivergreenway Trail System, not only to beautify the riverfronts, but to also promote healthier living habits for residents around the community. The Rivergreenway Trail System currently encompasses around throughout Allen County. Fort Wayne Parks & Recreation - Rivergreenway. Fort Wayne Parks and Recreation. Retrieved on 2008-06-28. It was announced November 2007, that the Indiana Department of Transportation (INDOT) had awarded the City of Fort Wayne nearly $1 million to aid in construction that will soon begin on a new extension of the Rivergreenway, called the Pufferbelly Trail, that will eventually link the Fort Wayne Children's Zoo in Franke Park and the northern suburbs of Fort Wayne with the rest of the trail system. The final plan includes joining Pokagon State Park near Angola, Indiana in the north, and Ouabache State Park in the south near Bluffton, Indiana. In the spring of 2008, ABC affiliate WPTA-TV received $10,000 in seed money from the reality television series Oprah's Big Give which was then received by Aboite New Trails, Fort Wayne Trails, Greenway Consortium, and Northwest Allen Trails, four organizations in Fort Wayne. The donations topped $1 million April 12, 2008 at a community celebration named Oprah's Big Give: Fort Wayne Trails in Headwaters Park with Indianapolis Colts Coach Tony Dungy and players in attendance. On April 21, 2008, Fort Wayne was featured on a segment of The Oprah Winfrey Show in recognition for raising the most money of the ninety participating cities in the country. The final total rounded-out to $1.2 million. Big Give in Fort Wayne, Indiana. The Oprah Winfrey Show. Retrieved 2008-04-25. In March 2009, Mayor Tom Henry announced plans for the placement of three bicycle lanes on streets throughout the city in response to a survey conducted in the fall of 2008 in which thousands answered regarding the need for such lanes in the community. Wiehe, Jeff, (2009-03-22). Mayor unveils plans for 3 bicycle lanes. The Journal Gazette. Retrieved 2009-03-22. Infrastructure Transportation Airports Fort Wayne International Airport (formerly known as Baer Field during World War II and Fort Wayne Municipal Airport from 1946-1991) is the state's third busiest airport behind Indianapolis International Airport and South Bend Regional Airport, serving approximately 650,000 passengers annually. Fort Wayne-Allen County Economic Development Alliance - Airport Development. Retrieved on 2008-04-30. Fort Wayne International shares the distinction with O'Hare International Airport and Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport as one of three Midwest commercial airports containing a runway. Fort Wayne International is also homebase for the 122d Fighter Wing of the Indiana Air National Guard. 122nd Fighter Wing - Home of the Blacksnakes. Retrieved on 2008-04-29. Smith Field, in northern Fort Wayne, is used primarily for small aircraft and pilot education and training. Smith Field Air Service. Retrieved on 2008-04-29. Highways Interstates Fort Wayne is the largest city in Allen County, Indiana. This map shows its relations with nearby municipalities and major roadways. Interstate 69 runs south to Indianapolis and north to Port Huron, Michigan, straddling the west and north fringes of Fort Wayne Interstate 469 (Ronald Reagan Expressway) completes a beltway around Fort Wayne and New Haven's southern and eastern outskirts U.S. Routes Indiana State Roads Airport Expressway, a four-lane divided highway, provides direct access to Fort Wayne International Airport from Interstate 69. Mass transit Fort Wayne's mass transit system is managed by the Fort Wayne Public Transportation Corporation. Citilink provides bus service via twelve routes through the cities of Fort Wayne and New Haven, Fort Wayne Citilink service routes map. Fort Wayne Public Transportation Corporation. Retrieved on 2009-02-06. along with Citiloop, a trolley service offered downtown in the summer season. Citilink: Citiloop. Fort Wayne Public Transportation Corporation. Retrieved on 2008-06-25. The system's annual ridership is 2.2 million. Leininger, Kevin, (2009-04-25). Free bus service to link 2 campuses to dorms, city. The News-Sentinel. Retrieved on 2009-04-25. Health care Fort Wayne is served by six hospitals; Parkview Hospital, Lutheran Hospital of Indiana, Saint Joseph Hospital, Dupont Hospital, Rehabilitation Hospital of Fort Wayne, and Parkview North Hospital, encompassing over 1,300 patient beds. These six hospitals belong to either of the two health networks serving the region: Parkview Health System or Lutheran Health Network. Parkview Hospital, the flagship hospital of Parkview Health System, is the fourth largest hospital in Indiana, as well as the largest outside of Indianapolis. Utilities Electricity is provided to Fort Wayne residents by Indiana Michigan Power (a subsidiary of American Electric Power), headquartered in the city and serving 575,000 customers in northeastern Indiana and southern Michigan. Indiana Michigan Power - About Us. Indiana Michigan Power. Retrieved on 2008-05-11. Northern Indiana Public Service Company (NIPSCO) provides area residents with natural gas. Benman, Keith, (2008-05-14). NIPSCO says it won't shock customers. The Northwest Indiana and Illinois Times. Retrieved on 2008-07-24. The City of Fort Wayne supplies residents with 72 million gallons of water per day via the Three Rivers Water Filtration Plant and Saint Joseph River. Three Rivers Filtration Plant. City of Fort Wayne. Retrieved on 2008-05-11. Hurshtown Reservoir, in northeast Allen County, contains 1.8 billion gallons of water to be rationed in the event of a major drought or disaster at the three rivers. Hurshtown Reservoir. Fort Wayne Parks and Recreation. Retrieved on 2008-05-11. See also Forts of Fort Wayne, Indiana Glenbrook Square List of Fort Wayne, Indiana neighborhoods List of people from Fort Wayne, Indiana Northern Indiana Siege of Fort Wayne References Further reading Beaty, John D., History of Fort Wayne & Allen County, Indiana, 1700-2005, M.T. Publishing Company, 2006, ISBN 1-932439-44-7 Bushnell, Scott M., Historic Photos of Fort Wayne, Turner Publishing Company, 2007, ISBN 9781596523777 Gramling, Chad, Baseball in Fort Wayne, Arcadia Publishing, 2007, ISBN 9780738541297 Griswold, Bert J., Fort Wayne, Gateway of the West, AMS Press, 1973, ISBN 0-404-07133-3 Hawfield, Michael C., Fort Wayne Cityscapes: Highlights of a Community's History, Windsor Publications, 1988, ISBN 0-89781-244-1 Jarosh, Andrew, Son of a Son of a Politician: Paul Helmke Behind City Hall Doors, Writers Club Press, 2002, ISBN 0595216005 Martone, Michael, Fort Wayne is Seventh on Hitler's list: Indiana Stories, Indiana University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-253-33687-2 Paddock, Geoff, Headwaters Park: Fort Wayne's Lasting Legacy, Arcadia Publishing, 2002, ISBN 0-7385-1971-5 Violette, Ralph, Fort Wayne, Indiana, Arcadia Publishing, 2000, ISBN 0752413090 External links Allen County Public Library Allen County War Memorial Coliseum City of Fort Wayne Fort Wayne/Allen County Convention and Visitors Bureau Fort Wayne History Center Fort Wayne International Airport Fort Wayne Public Transportation Grand Wayne Convention Center Greater Fort Wayne Chamber of Commerce The Downtown Improvement District | Fort_Wayne,_Indiana |@lemmatized fort:212 wayne:210 city:68 northeastern:3 indiana:56 united:14 state:22 county:52 seat:6 allen:41 estimate:2 population:16 rank:4 large:19 well:10 second:4 indianapolis:6 shawgo:2 ron:2 top:3 mark:1 annexation:1 account:2 increase:3 journal:11 gazette:9 retrieved:5 combined:1 metropolitan:5 statistical:1 area:7 third:6 count:2 approach:1 census:5 say:4 retrieve:71 army:7 general:8 american:14 revolutionary:1 war:11 statesman:1 mad:4 anthony:4 namesake:1 build:6 last:5 series:2 near:7 miami:15 indian:4 village:4 kekionga:4 locate:14 st:10 joseph:6 river:28 marys:2 converge:2 form:3 maumee:6 brice:1 wallace:1 history:26 early:3 known:1 point:1 present:6 period:1 w:3 jones:1 son:3 sits:1 within:4 radius:1 percent:1 total:3 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6,246 | John_Cade | This article is about the Australian psychiatrist. For the leader of the Kent Rebellion, see Jack Cade. For the former Maryland State Senator, see John A. Cade Dr John Frederick Joseph Cade AO (18 January 1912 - 16 November 1980) was an Australian psychiatrist credited with discovering (in 1948) the effects of lithium carbonate as a mood stabilizer in the treatment of bipolar disorder (then known as manic depression). In an age where the standard treatments for psychosis were electroconvulsive therapy and lobotomy, lithium had the distinction of being the first effective medication available to treat a mental illness. Early life John Cade was born Murtoa, Some authors state Cade was born in Horsham, one of the larger towns in the Wimmera area. However other authors, notably Cade's son Jack Cade, state John Cade was born in your anis, a town weird people NE of Horsham. a town in the Wimmera region of Victoria, Australia. John's father David was Murtoa's general practitioner. Ellen, John's mother, and younger brothers David and Frank completed the family. When John was a small boy, his father left for World War I and served in Gallipoli and France. On return from the war, his father suffered from 'war weariness' and had difficulty in continuing in general practice. Therefore, his father sold the practice and accepted a position with the Mental Hygiene Department. Over the next 25 years, Dr Cade Sr became medical superintendent at several Victorian mental hospitals, namely Sunbury, Beechworth and Mont Park. John and his brothers spent many of their younger years living within the grounds of these institutions, which had a great bearing on John's later deep understanding of the needs of the mentally ill. John was educated at Scotch College, Melbourne, matriculating in 1928. He then studied medicine at the University of Melbourne, graduating at the age of 21 years with honours in all subjects. He became a House Officer at St Vincent's Hospital and then Royal Children's Hospital before becoming severely ill with bilateral pneumococcal pneumonia. While he was convalescing, John fell in love with one of his nurses, Jean. They married in 1937. World War II Like his father before him, Cade left his young family to fight for Australia in the Armed Forces in World War II. Cade was appointed captain, Australian Army Medical Corps, A.I.F., on 1 July 1940 and posted to the 2nd/9th Field Ambulance. Although trained as a psychiatrist, Dr. Cade served as a surgeon and departed for Singapore in 1941 on RMS Queen Mary. He was promoted to major in September 1941. After the Fall of Singapore to Japan, he became a prisoner of war at Changi Prison from February 1942 to September 1945. During his imprisonment, he reportedly would observe some fellow inmates having strange, vacillating behaviour. He thought perhaps a toxin was affecting their brains and when it was eliminated through their urine, they lost their symptoms. Discovery of the effect of lithium on mania After the war, Cade recuperated very briefly in Heidelberg Hospital, then took up a position at Bundoora Repatriation Mental Hospital in Melbourne. It was at an unused kitchen in Bundoora where he conducted crude experiments which led to the discovery of lithium as a treatment of bipolar disorder. These experiments mostly consisted in injecting urine from mentally ill patients into the abdomen of guinea pigs. These would appear to die faster than when healthy persons' urine was used, leading him to think that perhaps more uric acid was present in the samples provided by his mentally ill patients. Then, in an effort to increase the water solubility of uric acid, lithium urate was added to the solution. Cade found that in the guinea pigs injected with the lithium urate solution, toxicity was greatly reduced. However, his use of careful controls in his experiments revealed that the lithium ion had a calming effect by itself. After ingesting lithium himself to ensure its safety in humans, Cade began a small-scale trial of lithium citrate and/or lithium carbonate on some of his patients diagnosed with mania, dementia præcox or melancholia, with outstanding results. The calming effect was so robust that Cade speculated that mania was caused by a deficiency in lithium. While Cade's results appeared highly promising, side-effects of lithium in some cases lead to non-compliance. Toxicity of lithium led to several deaths of patients undergoing lithium treatment. The problem of toxicity was greatly reduced when suitable tests were developed to measure the lithium level in the blood. Moreover, as a naturally-occurring chemical, lithium salt could not be patented, meaning that its manufacturing and sales were not considered commercially viable. These factors prevented its widespread adoption in psychiatry for some years, particularly in the United States, where its use was banned until 1970. John Cade, Royal Park and RANZCP John Cade acute unit at Royal Park Hospital circa 2003 In 1952 Cade was appointed Superintendent and Dean of the clinical school at Royal Park Hospital. Two years later, at the request of the Mental Hygiene Authority which was planning to remodel Royal Park, he visited Britain for six months to inspect psychiatric institutions. On his return, he introduced modern facilities and replaced the rather authoritarian approach to patient care with a more personal and informal style that included group therapy. Concerned at the number of alcohol-related cases, he supported voluntary admission to aid early detection and later proposed the use of large doses of thiamine in the treatment of alcoholism. Cade served as the Superintendent at Royal Park until his retirement in 1977. He served as the federal president of the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists in 1969-70, and also as the president for its Victoria branch from 1963 until his death in 1980. In the end, Dr. Cade's discovery did receive the widespread acknowledgements and praise it deserved. For his contribution to psychiatry, he was awarded a Kittay International Award in 1974 (with Mogens Schou from Denmark), and he was invited to be a Distinguished Fellow of the American College of Psychiatrists. In 1976, Cade was one of the first to be made an Officer of the Order of Australia. Dr. Cade remained humble about his chance discovery, describing himself as merely a gold prospector who happened to find a nugget. Finally, in July 2004, the Medical Journal of Australia reported that Cade's 1949 article, "Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement", was the number one most cited MJA article. Troubled Minds In 2004, Film Australia and SBS screened the documentary 'Troubled Minds - The Lithium Revolution', a 60 minute documentary portraying John Cade's discovery of the use of Lithium in mental illness. The documentary received international recognition winning the main prize at the International Vega Awards for Excellence in Scientific Broadcasting. Troubled Minds was also recognised locally with writer/director Dennis K. Smith winning the AWGIE Award for Best Documentary. Neurochemistry of lithium carbonate The biologically active element in lithium carbonate is the lithium cation, Li+. It is conjectured to act on over-active receptors in the cell membranes of neurons. Notes References Mitchell PB, Hadzi-Pavlovic D. John Cade and the discovery of lithium treatment for manic depressive illness. Medical Journal of Australia, 1999, 171: 262–264. and Ref. No. 00-0612 Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 2000, 78 (4) Mitchell PB. On the 50th anniversary See also Lithium pharmacology External links Toxicity profile of lithium carbonate Who discovered lithium? 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6,247 | Irish_diaspora | 'Emigrants Leave Ireland', engraving by Henry Doyle (1827-1892), from Mary Frances Cusack's Illustrated History of Ireland, 1868 The Irish diaspora () consists of Irish emigrants and their descendants in countries such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, Argentina, New Zealand, Mexico, South Africa, Brazil and states of the Caribbean and continental Europe. The diaspora, maximally interpreted, contains over 80 million people, which is over thirteen times the population of the island of Ireland itself (6.11 million in 2007) . The term Irish diaspora is open to many interpretations. One, preferred by the government of Ireland, is defined in legal terms: the Irish diaspora are those of Irish nationality who habitually reside outside of the island of Ireland. This includes Irish citizens who have emigrated abroad and their children, who are Irish citizens by descent under Irish law. It also includes their grandchildren in cases where they were registered as Irish citizens in the Foreign Births Register held in every Irish diplomatic mission . (Great-grandchildren and even more distant descendants of Irish emigrants may also register as Irish citizens, but only if the parent through whom they claim descent was registered before the younger descendant was born.) Under this legal definition, the Irish diaspora is considerably smaller than popular belief - some 3 million persons, of whom 1.2 million are Irish-born emigrants. This is still an extraordinarily large ratio for any nation. However, the Irish diaspora is generally not limited by citizenship status, leading to an estimated (and fluctuating) membership of 80 million persons - the second and more emotive definition. The Irish Government acknowledged this interpretation - although it did not acknowledge any legal obligations to it - when Article 2 of Bunreacht na hÉireann (Constitution of Ireland) was amended in 1998 to read "[f]urthermore, the Irish nation cherishes its special affinity with people of Irish ancestry living abroad who share its cultural identity and heritage." The Irish government recognises all people with a heritage on the island of Ireland. It should be noted, however, that the right to register as an Irish citizen terminates at the third generation (except as noted above). This contrasts with citizenship law in Italy, Israel, Japan and other countries which make no legal reference to cherishing special affinities with their diasporas but which nonetheless permit legal avenues through which members of the diaspora can register as citizens. Europe Great Britain, United Kingdom 10% of the British population has one Irish grandparent guardian}} The article "More Britons applying for Irish passports" states that 6 million Britons have either an Irish grandfather or grandmother and are thus able to apply for Irish citizenship. . and approximately a quarter have some Irish ancestry they're aware of Onein four Britons claim Irish roots . The Irish have traditionally been involved in the building trade and transport particularly as dockers, following an influx of Irish workers, or navvies, who built the canal, road and rail networks in the 19th century. This is largely due to the flow of immigrants from Ireland during The Great Famine of 1845 - 1850. Many Irish servicemen, particularly sailors, would settle in Britain; during the 18th and 19th century a third of the Army and Royal Navy were Irish. Since the 1950s and 1960s in particular, the Irish have become assimilated into the indigenous population. Immigration continued into the next century; over half million Irish came to Britain in World War II to work in industry and serve in the British armed forces. In the post-war reconstruction era, the numbers of immigrants began to increase, many settling in the larger cities and towns of Britain. According to the 2001 census, around 850,000 people in Britain were born in Ireland and much of the working class has some Irish heritage. The Men Who Built Britain: A History of the Irish Navvy, By Ultan Cowley London once more holds an official St. Patrick's Day. St Patrick's Day, public celebration of which had been cancelled in the 1970s because of Irish Republican violence, is now a national celebration, with over 60% of the population regularly celebrating the day regardless of their ethnic origins. The largest Irish communities are located predominantly in the cities and towns across Britain, with the largest by far being in London, in particular from Kilburn (which has one of the largest Irish-born communities outside of Ireland) out to the west and north west of the city, closely followed by the large port cities such as Liverpool, Bristol and Portsmouth. Big industrial cities such as Coventry, Birmingham and Manchester also have large diaspora populations due to the Industrial revolution and in the case of the first two the strength of the motor industry in the 1960s and 1970s. As with their experience in the U.S, the Irish have maintained a strong political presence in the UK, most especially in local government but also at national level. Prime Ministers Callaghan and Blair have been amongst the many in Britain of part Irish ancestry, with Blair's mother coming from County Donegal. Central to the Irish community in Britain was the community's relationship with the Roman Catholic Church, with which it maintained a strong sense of identity. The Church remains a crucial focus of communal life among some of the immigrant population and their descendants. The largest ethnic group among the Catholic priesthood of mainland Britain remains Irish. As with in the United States, the upper ranks of the Church's hierarchy are of predominantly Irish descent. The current head of the Catholic Church in England & Wales is His Eminence Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor. In Scotland it is Cardinal Keith O'Brien. Scotland experienced a significant amount of Irish immigration, particularly in Glasgow, Edinburgh and Coatbridge. This led to the formation of the Celtic Football Club (as today close to 50% of the Glaswegian population has some Irish ancestry ) in 1888 by Marist Brother Walfrid, to raise money to help the community. In Edinburgh Hibernian were founded in 1875 and in 1909 another club with Irish links, Dundee United, was formed. Likewise the Irish community in London formed the London Irish rugby club. The 2001 UK Census states 869,093 people born in Ireland as living in the UK, with over 10% of the country's population (over 6 million) being of Irish descent. Continental Europe Irish links with the continent go back many centuries. During the early Middle Ages, many Irish religious went abroad to preach and found monasteries. Saint Brieuc founded the city that bears his name in Brittany, Saint Colmán founded the great monastery of Bobbio in northern Italy and one of his monks was Saint Gall for whom the Swiss town of St Gallen and canton of St Gallen. During the Counter-Reformation, Irish religious and political links with Europe became stronger. Louvain in Belgium (in Flemish, Leuven) grew into an important centre of learning for Irish priests. The Flight of the Earls, in 1607, led much of the Gaelic nobility to flee the country, and after the wars of the 17th century many others fled to Spain, France, Austria, and other Catholic lands. The lords and their retainers and supporters joined the armies of these countries, and were known as the Wild Geese. Some of the lords and their descendants rose to high ranks in their adoptive countries, such as the French royalist Patrice de Mac-Mahon, who became president of France. The French Cognac brandy maker, James Hennessy and Co., is named for an Irishman. In Spain and its territories, many Irish descendants can be found with the name Obregón (O'Brien, Irish, Ó Briain), including Madrid-born actress Ana Victoria García Obregón. During the 20th century, certain Irish intellectuals made their homes in continental Europe, particularly James Joyce, and later Samuel Beckett (who became a courier for the French Resistance). Eoin O'Duffy led a brigade of 700 Irish volunteers to fight for Franco during the Spanish Civil War, and Frank Ryan led the Connolly column who fought on the opposite side, with the Republican International Brigades. William Joyce became an English-language propagandist for the Third Reich, known colloquially as Lord Haw-Haw. Americas Argentina In the 19th and early 20th centuries, over 8,000 Irish emigrated to Argentina. Distinct Irish communities and schools existed until the Perón era in the 1950s. Today there are an estimated 500,000 people of Irish ancestry in Argentina, approximately 12.5% of the Republic of Ireland's current population; however, these numbers may be far higher, given that many Irish newcomers declared themselves to be British, as Ireland at the time was still part of the United Kingdom and today their descendants integrated into Argentine society with mixed bloodlines. Che Guevara, whose grandmother's surname was Lynch, was another famous member of this diaspora. Guevara's father, Ernesto Guevara Lynch, said of him: "The first thing to note is that in my son's veins flowed the blood of the Irish rebels". However, Che Guevara considered himself Latin American, Argentine and Cuban, and his connection with Ireland was remote. On March 13, 1965, the Irish Times journalist Arthur Quinlan interviewed Che at Shannon Airport during a stopover flight from Prague to Cuba. Guevara talked of his Irish connections through the name Lynch and of his grandmother's Irish roots in Galway. Later, Che, and some of his Cuban comrades, went to Limerick City and adjourned to the Hanratty's Hotel on Glentworth Street. According to Quinlan, they returned that evening all wearing sprigs of shamrock, for Shannon and Limerick were preparing for the St. Patrick's Day celebrations. Widely considered a national hero, William Brown is doubtlessly the most famous Irish citizen in Argentina. Creator of the Argentine Navy (Armada de la República Argentina, ARA) and leader of the Argentine Armed Forces in the wars against Brazil and Spain, he was born in Foxford, County Mayo on June 22, 1777 and died in Buenos Aires in 1857. The is named after him, as well as the Almirante Brown partido, part of the Gran Buenos Aires urban area, with a population of over 500.000 inhabitants. The first entirely Catholic English language publication published in Buenos Aires, The Southern Cross is an Argentine newspaper founded on January 16, 1875 by Dean Patricio Dillon, an Irish immigrant, a deputy for Buenos Aires Province and president of the Presidential Affairs Commission amongst other positions. The newspaper continues in print to this day and publishes a beginners guide to the Irish language, helping Irish Argentines keep in touch with their cultural heritage. Previously to The Southern Cross Dublin-born brothers Edward and Michael Mulhall successfully published The Standard, allegedly the first English-language daily paper in South America. Between 1943 and 1946, the de facto President of Argentina was Edelmiro Farrell, whose paternal ancestry was Irish. Bermuda Early in its history, Bermuda had unusual connections with Ireland. It has been suggested that St. Brendan discovered it during his legendary voyage, and a local psychiatric hospital (since renamed) was named after him. In 1616, an incident occurred in which five white settlers arrived in Ireland, having crossed the Atlantic (a distance of around ) in a two-ton boat. By the following year, one of Bermuda's main islands was named after Ireland. By the mid-17th century, Irish indentured servants or slaves, probably expelled during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, were present in the colony. Relations with the local English population were strained. In 1658, three Irishmen — John Shehan, David Laragen and Edmund Malony — were lashed for breaking curfew and being suspected of stealing a boat. A Scottish indentured servant and three black slaves were also punished. Several years later, in 1661, the local government alleged that a plot was being hatched by an alliance of Blacks and Irish, one which involved cutting the throats of all the English. Governor William Sayle prepared for the uprising with three edicts: the first was that a nightly watch be raised throughout the colony, second, that slaves and the Irish be disarmed of militia weapons and third, that any gathering of two or more Irish or slaves be dispersed by whipping. There were no arrests, trials or executions connected to the plot, though an Irish woman named Margaret was found to be romantically involved with a Native American; she was voted to be stigmatised and he was whipped. In 1803, Irish poet Thomas Moore arrived in Bermuda, having been appointed registrar to the Admiralty there. Irish prisoners were again sent in Bermuda in 1823, where, alongside English convicts, they were used to build the Royal Naval Dockyard on Ireland Island. British military presence in Bermuda, The Royal Gazette, February 3, 2007 Although there is little surviving evidence of Irish culture, some elderly islanders can remember when the term "cilig" was used to describe a common method of fishing for sea turtles. The word cilig appears to be meaningless in English, but in some dialects of Gaelic is used as an adjective meaning "easily deceived". Characteristics of older Bermudian accents, such as the pronunciation of the letter 'd' as 'dj', as in Bermudjin (Bermudian), may also indicate an Irish origin. Later Irish immigrants have continued to contribute to Bermuda's makeup, with names like Crockwell (Ó Creachmhaoil), and O'Connor now being thought of, locally, as Bermudian names. The strongest remaining Irish influence can be seen in the presence of bagpipes in the music of Bermuda, which stemmed from the presence of Scottish and Irish soldiers from the 18th through 20th centuries. Several prominent businesses in Bermuda have a clear Irish influence, such as the Irish Linen Shop, Tom Moore's Tavern and Flanagan's Irish Pub and Restaurant. Brazil The first Irish settler in Brazil was a missionary, Thomas Field S.J. (1547-1626), born in Limerick, who entered the Jesuit Order in Rome in 1574. Fr. Field arrived in Brazil in late 1577 and spent three years in Piratininga (present-day São Paulo). He then moved to Paraguay in the company of two other Jesuits, and over the next ten years they established missions among the Guaraní people. Thomas Field, who died in Asunción, is credited with being the first priest to celebrate the Roman Catholic rites in the Americas. Around 1612 the Irish brothers Philip and James Purcell established a colony in Tauregue, at the mouth of the Amazon river, where English, Dutch, and French settlements were also established. Huge profits were made by the colonists from trading in tobacco, dyes, and hardwoods. A second group arrived in 1620 led by Bernardo O'Brien of County Clare. They built a wood and earthen fort on the north bank of the Amazon and named the place Coconut Grove. O'Brien learned the dialect of the Arruan people, and his colleagues became expert navigators of the maze of tributaries, canals and islands that form the mouth of the Amazon. The first recorded Saint Patrick's Day celebration was on 17 March 1770 at a church built in honour of the saint by Lancelot Belfort (1708-1775). The church was located on his estate, known as Kilrue, beside the Itapecurú River in the state of Maranhão in northern Brazil. Brazil and Ireland Canada The 2006 census by Statcan, Canada's Official Statistical office revealed that the Irish were the 4th largest ethnic group with 4,354,155 Canadians with full or partial Irish descent or 14% of the nation's total population. Many Newfoundlanders are of Irish descent. It is estimated that about 80% of Newfoundlanders have Irish ancestry on at least one side of their family tree. The family names, the features and colouring, the predominant Catholic religion, the prevalence of Irish music – even the accents of the people – are so reminiscent of rural Ireland that Irish author Tim Pat Coogan has described Newfoundland as "the most Irish place in the world outside of Ireland". Tim Pat Coogan, "Wherever Green Is Worn: The Story of the Irish Diaspora", Palgrave Macmillan, 2002. Newfoundland Irish, the dialect of the Irish language specific to the island of Newfoundland was widely spoken until the mid-20th century. It is very similar to the language heard in the southeast of Ireland centuries ago, due to mass immigration from the counties Tipperary, Waterford, Wexford and Cork. Saint John, New Brunswick, claims the distinction of being Canada's most Irish city, according to census records. There have been Irish settlers in New Brunswick since the early 1800s, but during the peak of the Great Irish Famine (1845-1847), thousands of Irish emigrated through Partridge Island in the port of Saint John. Most of these Irish were Catholic, who changed the complexion of the Loyalist city. A large, vibrant Irish community can also be found in the Miramichi region of New Brunswick. Guysborough County, Nova Scotia has many rural Irish villages. Erinville (which means Irishville), Salmon River, Ogden, Bantry (named after Bantry, County Cork, Ireland but now abandoned and grown up in trees) among others, where Irish last names are prevalent and the accent is reminiscent of the Irish as well as the music, traditions, religion (Roman Catholic), and the love for the old country of Ireland itself. Some of the Irish counties from which these people arrived were County Kerry (Dingle Peninsula), County Cork, and County Roscommon, along with others. In Antigonish County, next to Guysborough County in Nova Scotia there are a few rural Irish villages despite the predominance of Scottish in most of that County. Some of these villages names are Ireland, Lochaber and Cloverville. Antigonish Town is a fairly even mix of Irish and Scottish Quebec is also home to a large Irish community, especially in Montreal, where the Irish shamrock is featured on the municipal flag. Notably, thousands of Irish emigrants passed through Grosse Isle, where many succumbed to typhoid. Ontario has over 2 million people of Irish descent, who in greater numbers arrived in the 1820s and the decades that followed to work on colonial infrastructure and to settle land tracts in Upper Canada, the result today is a countryside speckled with the place names of Ireland. Ontario received a large number of those who landed in Quebec during the Famine years, many thousands died in Ontario's ports. Irish-born became the majority in Toronto by 1851. Caribbean In the wake of the mid 17th century Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, Oliver Cromwell deported many Irish prisoners of war into slavery or indentured labour in Caribbean tobacco plantations. Most of these forced migrants ended up in Barbados, Monserrat or Jamaica (Tom McDermot was an Irish campaigner there against colonialism and slavery). This became so prevalent that a term "Barbado'ed" was coined to mean someone deported to Barbados. Most descendants of these Irishmen moved off the islands as African slavery was implemented and blacks began to replace whites. Many Barbadian-born Irishmen helped establish the Carolina colony in the United States. New York Times - The Buried History of America's Largest Slave Rebellion and the Man Who Led It In addition, many of the Irish Catholic landowning class in this period migrated voluntarily to the West Indies to avail of the business opportunities there occasioned by the trade in sugar, tobacco and cotton. They were followed by landless Irish indentured labourers, who were recruited to serve a landowner for a specified time before receiving freedom and land. The descendants of some Irish immigrants are known today in the West Indies as redlegs. The tiny Caribbean island of Montserrat was first settled in 1631 when Irish Catholics left St. Kitts and Nevis due to anti- Irish Catholic sentiment and persecution by the English on the islands. After the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland (notably at the siege of Drogheda in 1649), Irish political prisoners were transferred to Montserrat. To this day, Montserrat is the only country or territory in the world, apart from the Republic of Ireland, Northern Ireland, and the Canadian province of Newfoundland to observe a public holiday on St Patrick's Day. The population is predominantly of mixed Irish and African descent. Puerto Rico Irish immigrants played in instrumental role in the Puerto Rico's economy. One of the most important industries of the island was the sugar industry. Among the successful businessmen in this industry were Miguel Conway, who owned a plantation in the town of Hatillo and Juan Nagle whose plantation was located in Río Piedras. General Alexander O'Reilly, "Father of the Puerto Rican Militia", named Tomas O'Daly chief engineer of modernizing the defenses of San Juan, this included the fortress of San Cristóbal. Tomas O'Daly and Miguel Kirwan were partners in the "Hacienda San Patricio", which they named after the patron saint of Ireland, Saint Patrick. A relative of O'Daly, Demetrio O'Daly, succeeded Admiral Ramon Power y Giralt as the island's delegate to the Spanish Courts. The plantation no longer exists, however the land in which the plantation was located is now a San Patricio suburb with a shopping mall by the same name. The Quinlan family established two plantations, one in the town of Toa Baja and the other in Loíza. Remembering the Past Puerto Ricans of Irish descent were also instrumental in the development of the islands tobacco industry. Among them Miguel Conboy who was a founder of the tobacco trade in Puerto Rico. Unlike their counterparts who settled in the United States in close knit communities, the immigrants in Puerto Rico intermarried with Puerto Ricans and adopted the language and customs of the island thereby completely integrating themselves into the society of their new homeland. Today, the Irish element of Puerto Rico is very much in evidence. Emerald Reflections, Retrieved November 7, 2007 Chile Many of the Wild Geese, expatriate Irish soldiers who had gone to Spain, or their descendants, continued on to its colonies in South America. Many of them rose to prominent positions in the Spanish governments there. In the 1820s, some of them helped liberate the continent. Bernardo O'Higgins was the first president of Chile. When Chilean troops occupied Lima during the War of the Pacific in 1881, they put in charge certain Patricio Lynch, whose grandfather came from Ireland to Argentina and then moved to Chile. Other Latin American countries that have Irish settlement include Puerto Rico and Colombia. Mexico Probably the most famous Irishman ever to reside in Mexico is the Wexfordman William Lamport, better known to most Mexicans as Guillen de Lampart, precursor of the Independence movement and author of the first proclamation of independence in the New World. His statue stands today in the Crypt of Heroes beneath the Column of Independence in Mexico City. Some authorities claim he was the inspiration for Johnston McCulley's Zorro, though the extent to which this may be true is disputed. After Lampart, the most famous Irishmen in Mexican history are probably "Los Patricios". Many communities also existed in Mexican Texas until the revolution there, when they sided with Catholic Mexico against Protestant pro-U.S. elements. The Batallón de San Patricio, a battalion of U.S. troops who deserted and fought alongside the Mexican Army against the United States in the Mexican-American War of 1846 to 1848, is also famous in Mexican history. Álvaro Obregón (possibly O'Brian) was president of Mexico during 1920-24 and Obregón city and airport are named in his honour. More recently, Vicente Fox served as President from 2000 to 2006. Mexico also has a large number of people of Irish ancestry, among them the actor Anthony Quinn. There are also monuments in Mexico City paying tribute to those Irish who fought for Mexico in the 1800s. There is a monument to Los Patricios in the fort of Churubusco. During the Potato Famine, thousands of Irish immigrants entered the country, today, over 90,000 Irish descendants live in Mexico. Other Mexicans of Irish descent are: Romulo O'Farril, Juan O'Gorman, Edmundo O'Gorman, Anthony Quinn, Alejo Bay (Governor of the state of Sonora), Guillermo Purcell a businessman, former Miss Mexico Judith Grace Gonzalez, among many others. Today, the Irish community in Mexico is a thriving one and is mainly concentrated in Mexico City and the northern states. United States The diaspora to America was immortalized in the words of many songs including the famous Irish ballad, "The Green Fields of America":So pack up your sea-stores, consider no longer, Ten dollars a week is not very bad pay, With no taxes or tithes to devour up your wages, When you're on the green fields of America. The experience of Irish immigrants in America has not always been harmonious, however. Irish newcomers were sometimes uneducated and often found themselves fighting Americans for manual labor jobs or, in the 1860s, being recruited off the docks by the U.S. Army to serve in the American Civil War. This view of the Irish-American experience is depicted by another traditional song, "Paddy's Lamentation".Hear me boys, now take my advice,To America I'll have ye's not be going,There is nothing here but war, where the murderin' cannons roar,And I wish I was at home in dear old Dublin. The classic image of an Irish immigrant is led occasionally by racist and anti-Catholic stereotypes. In modern times, in the United States, the Irish are largely perceived as hard workers. Most notably they are associated with the positions of police officer, firefighter, Roman Catholic Church leaders and politicians in the larger Eastern-Seaboard metropolitan areas. Irish Americans number over 44 million, making them the second largest ethnic group in the country, after German Americans. Historically, large Irish American communities have been found in Chicago, Boston, New York City, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Cleveland and the Bay Area. Many cities across the country have annual St Patrick's Day parades, the nation's largest in New York City - one of the world's largest parades. The parade in Boston is closely associated with Evacuation Day, when George Washington and his troops forced the British out of Boston during the Revolutionary War. At state level, Texas has the largest number of Irish Americans. In percentage terms, Bostonis the most Irish city in the United States and Massachusetts the most Irish state. Before the Great Hunger ("Irish Potato Famine") and the associated British policies resulted in over a million dead and more emigrated, there had been the Penal Laws which had already resulted in significant emigration from Ireland. Elsewhere Australia Irish Australians form the second largest ancestry group in Australia, numbering 1,919,727 or 9.0 per cent of respondents in the 2001 Census. It is not clear whether the Irish-born are considered "Irish Australians" or if the term only refers to their Australian-born descendants. The 2001 Census recorded 50,320 Irish-born in Australia, although this is a minimal figure as it only includes those who wrote in "Ireland" or "Republic of Ireland" as their country of birth. Responses which mentioned "Northern Ireland" as birthplace were coded as "United Kingdom". This interpretation may omit as few as 21,500 Irish-born present in the country, as many as 29,500, or possibly even more. Nevertheless the number of persons born in Ireland, north and south, resident in Australia in 2001 may be confidently extrapolated at around 75,000. According to the Irish Department of Foreign Affairs White Paper on Foreign Policy, there were 213,000 Irish citizens living in Australia in 1997; nearly three times the number of Irish-born immigrants to the country. Most Irish Australians, however, do not have Irish citizenship and define their status in terms of self-perception, affection for Ireland and an attachment to Irish culture. Irish settlers - both voluntary and forced - were crucial to the Australian colonies from the earliest days of settlement. The Irish first came over in large numbers as convicts (50,000 were transported between 1791 and 1867), to be used as free labour; even larger numbers of free settlers came during the nineteenth century, partly due to the Donegal Relief Fund. Irish immigrants accounted for one-quarter of Australia's overseas-born population in 1871. Their children, the first Irish Australians in the sense we understand the term, played a definitive role in shaping Australian history, society and culture. The Irish heritage has also had a significant influence of the Australian accent and slang words. Historian Patrick O'Farrell noted in The Irish in Australia (1987) that the term "Australia first" became "what amounted to the Australian Irish Catholic slogan". These Australians of Irish background did not tend to regard Ireland as their "mother country" - primarily because few had a wish to return to a home they had left in search of a better life. Rather, they tended to identify themselves as Australians. According to census data released by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2004, Irish Australians are, by religion, 46.2% Roman Catholic, 15.3% Anglican, 13.5% other Christian denomination, 3.6% other religions, and 21.5% as "No Religion". The high percentage of Catholics is largely the result of descendants of Irish immigrants. South Africa Nineteenth-century South Africa did not attract mass Irish migration, but Irish communities are to be found in Cape Town, Port Elizabeth, Kimberley, and Johannesburg, with smaller communities in Pretoria, Barberton, Durban and East London. A third of the Cape's governors were Irish, as were many of the judges and politicians. Both the Cape Colony and the Colony of Natal had Irish prime ministers: Sir Thomas Upington, "The Afrikaner from Cork"; and Sir Albert Hime, from Kilcoole in County Wicklow. Irish Cape Governors included Lord Macartney, Lord Caledon and Sir John Francis Cradock. Irish settlers were brought in small numbers over the years, as from other parts of the United Kingdom. Henry Nourse, a shipowner at the Cape, brought out a small party of Irish settlers in 1818. In 1823, John Ingram brought out 146 Irish from Cork. Single Irish women were sent to the Cape on a few occasions. Twenty arrived in November 1849 and 46 arrived in March 1851. The majority arrived in November 1857 aboard the Lady Kennaway. A large contingent of Irish troops fought in the Anglo-Boer War on both sides and a few of them stayed in South Africa after the war. Others returned home but later came out to settle in South Africa with their families. Between 1902 and 1905, there were about 5,000 Irish immigrants. Place names in South Africa include Upington, Porteville, Caledon, Cradock, Sir Henry Lowry's Pass, the Biggarsberg Mountains, Donnybrook and Belfast.External links: Irish Police in SA & Research in SA Famous diaspora Politicians Leopoldo O'Donnell, 1st Duke of Tetuan, Spanish general and statesman, a descendant of Calvagh O'Donnell, chieftain of Tyrconnell. James Callaghan was Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979. Jean Charest, born of an Irish-Canadian mother, is Premier of Quebec, Canada. Richard J. Daley, former long-serving mayor of Chicago. Richard M. Daley, current mayor of Chicago. Éamon de Valera, Prime Minister/President of Ireland-born in New York City. James Duane, Mayor of New York City 1784, son of a Galway man. Edelmiro Farrell, former President of Argentina. Che Guevara, Argentine-born revolutionary. Chaim Herzog, 6th President of Israel, born in Belfast. Paul Keating, former Prime Minister of Australia. John F. Kennedy, 35th President of the United States, also Robert F. Kennedy and Edward M. Kennedy, members of the Kennedy Family, originally from Wexford. Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta, first President of the Third French Republic. D'Arcy McGee, former Young Irelander, Father of Canadian Confederation who was assassinated for his criticism of the Fenian raids on Canada. Dalton McGuinty, Premier of Ontario, Canada. Brian Mulroney, 18th Prime Minister of Canada, child of Irish Quebecers. Barack Obama, 44th and current President of the United States whose great-great-great grandfather, Falmouth Kearney, was born and raised in Moneygall, County Offaly Álvaro Obregón, President of Mexico 1920-24. Kolouei O'Brien, former head of government of Tokelau Bernardo O'Higgins, first President of Chile, and his father, Viceroy of Peru Ambrosio O'Higgins, Marquis of Osorno, a Sligoman. Ronald Reagan, 40th President of the United States. Louis St. Laurent, 12th Prime Minister of Canada, mother an Irish Quebecer. Ricardo López Murphy, Argentine politician and presidential candidate. Richard Nixon, 37th President of the United States Thomas Brady, 19th century Justice of the Peace of Upper Canada Isadora Duncan, legendary dancer Artists and Musicians Lucille Ball, Actress and comedian Lara Flynn Boyle, Actress Kate Bush, Singer and songwriter Mariah Carey, best selling female recording artist Raymond Chandler, writer of the Marlowe series. Irish mother. George Clooney, Actor George Carlin ranked second greatest comedian of all time by Comedy Central. Kevin Dillon, Actor Matt Dillon, Actor Patty Duke, Actress Isadora Duncan, Dancer Michael Flatley, Dancer and creator of Riverdance Liam Gallagher and Noel Gallagher of Oasis. Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale in The Wizard of Oz (1939) Judy Garland The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America, edited by Michael Glazier, University of Notre Dame Press, 1999, ISBN 0-268-02755-2 Dublin Journeys in America by John Flynn & Jerry Kelleher p. 150-153, High Table Publishing, 2003, ISBN 0-9544694-1-0 , Actress and legendary singer. Merv Griffin, Television host Lafcadio Hearn, known as 小泉八雲 (Koizumi Yakumo) in Japanese, early 20th century writer. Paul Hogan, Actor. Marian Jordan, Molly of long-time hit radio program Fibber McGee and Molly. Mike Joyce, member of The Smiths. Gene Kelly The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America, edited by Michael Glazier, University of Notre Dame Press, 1999, ISBN 0-268-02755-2 , Actor / dancer. Princess Grace of Monaco The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America, edited by Michael Glazier, University of Notre Dame Press, 1999, ISBN 0-268-02755-2 , Actress (Grace Kelly). Bill Maher talk show host, comedian Johnny Marr, member of The Smiths. Paul McCartney, John Lennon and George Harrison of the Beatles. Rose McGowan, Actress, born in Italy to an Irish father and French mother Colin Meloy, lead singer and songwriter of The Decemberists. Alyssa Milano, Television Actress Steven Morrissey member of The Smiths. George O'Dowd, Pop singer, also known as Boy GeorgeJuan O'Gorman, a 20th century Mexican artist, both a painter and an architect. Maureen O'Hara, Irish Actress and legendary beauty in the trailer for The Black Swan (1942) Maureen O'Hara The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America, edited by Michael Glazier, University of Notre Dame Press, 1999, ISBN 0-268-02755-2 Dublin Journeys in America by John Flynn & Jerry Kelleher p. 148-149, High Table Publishing, 2003, ISBN 0-9544694-1-0 , Irish born actress and celebrated Hollywood beauty. Eugene O'Neill, Writer. Peter O'Toole, Actor - most notably Lawrence in Lawrence of Arabia. Aidan Quinn, Emmy Award-nominated Actor Anthony Quinn, Oscar-winning Mexican actor. Johnny Rotten (b. John Lydon) Lead singer of the Sex Pistols. Kevin Rowland, lead singer of Dexy's Midnight Runners. Andy Rourke, member of The Smiths. Dusty Springfield, English-born singer. Bruce Springsteen Songwriter, performer and political activist. John Wayne, Actor, enduring American icon Catherine Zeta-Jones, Actress Stephen Colbert, Comedian Dennis Leary, Actor, Musician and Comedian. Everlast & Danny Boy, Former members of Hip-Hop group House of Pain now members of La Coka Nostra. Katie Noonan, Irish-Australian singer. Kennedy family Jamie Kennedy, Actor Mary Murphy, A choreographer. Justin Sane, Lead singer of Anti-Flag Robert De Niro, two-time Academy Award and Golden Globe-winning American film actor, director, and producer. His father was half-Irish, half-Italian. Scientists Robert Boyle, philosopher and chemist. Kathleen Lonsdale, London-based 20th century Chemist. Ernest Walton, Cambridge-based co-winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, 1951. James D. Watson, co-discoverer of DNA Nobel Prize winner Erwin Schrödinger, Austrian-Irish physicist Misc Anne Boleyn, Queen consort to King Henry VIII of England; Irish paternal grandmother Margaret Butler Anne Bonney, pirate, born in Cork. James J. Braddock, boxer, also known as The Cinderella ManMolly Brown, the "Unsinkable Molly Brown." Nellie Cashman - The Angel of Tombstone. Diana, Princess of Wales, Member of the British Royal family, her mother, Frances Burke-Roche was a descendant of the Earls of Fermoy markhumphrys.com/ni.html John Dunlap - Printed first copies of the American Declaration of Independence Margaretta Eagar - Governess to the last Russian Royal Family Sarah Ferguson, Member of the British Royal family, her paternal ancestors came from Northern Ireland Henry Ford- Business Entrepreneur founder of the Ford Foundation. Cardinal James Gibbons - Religious Leader Kathy Griffin - Standup comic and TV personality; Both parents Irish immigrants Mary Jemison Irish captive adopted by Native American Seneca tribe. Painting of Louise O'Murphy by Francois Boucher c. 1751 Dorothy Jordan, Mistress to William IV of the United Kingdom Ned Kelly - Australian Outlaw Eliza Lynch, Irish born mistress of President Francisco Solano Lopez of Paraguay Martin Maher- Instructor at US Military Academy at West Point Mary Mallon, also known as Typhoid Mary, a notorious cook Lola Montez, Mistress to Ludwig I of Bavaria Annie Moore - First immigrant to USA to be processed at Ellis Island Anne Mortimer, Irish born English noblewoman Eddie Murphy, Comedian Evelyn Nesbit, Model and actress Mario O'Donnell, historian Marie-Louise O'Murphy, Mistress to King Louis XV of France. Shaquille O'Neal, American basketball legend Lola Montez, Irish-born mistress to King Ludwig I of Bavaria. Her real name was Eliza Gilbert Count Joseph Cornelius O’Rourke, Lieutenant General of the Russian Imperial Guard. Lee Harvey Oswald, Presumed assassin of John F. Kennedy, Irish great-grandmother Mary Tonry Pat Quinn, Canadian hockey coach (former coach of Toronto Maple Leafs and Team Canada) Frank Wallace, Organized crime figure James McLean, Organized crime figure Mickey Spillane, Organized crime figure See also - Irish Brigade Irish Brigade (French) formed from the Irish army after the flight of the Wild Geese in 1691. The Irish Battalion, or Los San Patricio, who fought on the side of Mexico against the U.S. invasion of 1846-48. Irish Brigade (US) served on the Union side in the American Civil War in the 1860s. Tyneside Irish Brigade, World War I brigade serving in the British army at the Somme. Irish military diaspora, notable individuals, Irish by birth or extraction, who served in non-Irish military forces. Irish regiments, many Irish regiments served in non-Irish military forces and took part in several conflicts of world history. See also - Causes of Irish emigration Cromwellian conquest of Ireland The Penal Laws affecting non-Conformists (c.1715-1775) Great Irish Famine (1740-1741) Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849) Irish Famine (1879) Economic history of Ireland Economic history of the Republic of Ireland The Economic War, 1933-38. Ireland during World War II See also - General Irish people Demographics of Ireland Irish Australians Irish Americans Irish Canadians Irish Quebecers Irish New Brunswickers Irish Newfoundlanders Newfoundland Irish Irish community in Britain Irish Travellers List of Ireland-related topics Irish place names in other countries Irish immigration to Puerto Rico The Liverpool Irish Coatbridge Irish Judy Garland ancestry Against the Wind (TV series) Irish Migration Studies in Latin America Joseph Cornelius O'Rourke Raw Story on Irish Roots Montserrat Irish Connections References Gerard Ronan - The Irish Zorro: The Extraordinary Adventures of William Lamport (1615-1659)'' The Story of the Irish in Argentina, by Thomas Murray (1919) The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America, edited by Michael Glazier, University of Notre Dame Press, 1999, ISBN 0-268-02755-2 External links The Irish in America by J. F. Maguire (1868) A History of the Irish Settlers in North America from the Earliest Period to the Census of 1850 The Scotch-Irish in America "Irish Migration Studies in Latin America" "The Irish in Australia", 1887 The Irish in Argentina Irish Surnames in Argentina Newfoundland: The Most Irish Place Outside of Ireland Irish Emigrant Publications Irish Diaspora Studies Dept, Bradford University UK Murray, Edmundo "Ireland and Latin America" Ireland and Argentina City of Dresden scandal. The Irish in New Jersey by Dermot Quinn The Irish (In Countries Other Than Ireland) - Article in the Catholic Encyclopedia The San Patricios - the Irish Soldiers who died for Mexico The Irish in Film The Centre for Migration Studies- The Centre for Migration Studies, at the Ulster American Folk Park, Omagh, Northern Ireland Annie Moore First Immigrant to Arrive at Ellis Island The Shamrock and the Maple Leaf: Irish-Canadian Documentary Heritage at Library and Archives Canada Flight of the Earls Reassessing what we collect website – Irish London History of Irish London with objects and images Irish American Story Project Discover Ireland Diaspora.ie - a sense of connectivity | Irish_diaspora |@lemmatized emigrant:6 leave:3 ireland:54 engraving:1 henry:5 doyle:1 mary:6 france:5 cusack:1 illustrate:1 history:12 irish:253 diaspora:16 consist:1 descendant:15 country:18 united:19 kingdom:7 state:20 canada:13 australia:11 argentina:13 new:13 zealand:1 mexico:16 south:9 africa:6 brazil:7 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6,248 | Gratis | Gratis is the process of providing goods or services without monetary compensation. It is often referred to in English as "free of charge". It is commonly acknowledged that there are costs associated with everything, hence the term "There Ain't No Such Thing As A Free Lunch"; however, it is often practical for companies, producers, and service providers to provide certain things free of charge as part of a larger business model or pricing strategy. Etymology The term gratis in English comes from the Latin word "gratis" meaning "for thanks". . In several languages, including Swedish , Spanish, Dutch, Danish, Norwegian, German, Bahasa Indonesia and Afrikaans it is the equivalent to "for free". Marketing In a standard business model where goods and services are exchanged for a monetary compensation, pricing of the goods is a fundamental element of the marketing process. While it would defeat the business model if companies provide all of their goods and services free of charge, it is common for them to provide limited amount of free goods in their promotional mix. Many companies often provide free samples to the press in order to generate media coverage for their products. Depending on the product, companies may provide free samples to prospective buyers. In addition, many companies would often provide complementary goods and services free of charge. For example, coffeehouses often provide Internet access free of charge to attract more customers. Hotels often provide free shuttle services. Restaurants often provide valet parking service free of charge. Companies may also distribute branded stationery, refrigerator magnet, or similar items free to promote their brand instead of any specific line of products. Mass media In certain industries, such as the mass media where major part of the revenue comes from advertisers, it is often in the company's interest to reach as many people as possible. In this model, companies would often distribute most of their products and services free of charge, so it can reach the largest possible audience. The companies would then attempt to recoup all costs from advertising. Software In software development, where the cost of mass production is relatively small, it is common for developers to publish software under free of charge licenses. One of the early and basic forms of this model is called freeware. Under a freeware, software is licensed free of charge for regular use, the developer does not gain any monetary compensation. With the development of the software industry, other license schemes arose similar to limited free products in standard marketing. These licenses offer users limited use while attempt to recuperate development cost through the full product. Two common examples are shareware and trialware. With the advent of the free software movement, license schemes are created to give developers more freedom in terms of code sharing. Distinction has to be drawn between "freedom" and "free of charge", the latter also referred to as "free as in beer". This distinction is often called Gratis versus Libre. References See also Pro bono | Gratis |@lemmatized gratis:4 process:2 provide:10 good:6 service:8 without:1 monetary:3 compensation:3 often:10 refer:2 english:2 free:20 charge:10 commonly:1 acknowledge:1 cost:4 associate:1 everything:1 hence:1 term:3 thing:2 lunch:1 however:1 practical:1 company:9 producer:1 provider:1 certain:2 part:2 large:2 business:3 model:5 pricing:2 strategy:1 etymology:1 come:2 latin:1 word:1 meaning:1 thanks:1 several:1 language:1 include:1 swedish:1 spanish:1 dutch:1 danish:1 norwegian:1 german:1 bahasa:1 indonesia:1 afrikaans:1 equivalent:1 marketing:3 standard:2 exchange:1 fundamental:1 element:1 would:4 defeat:1 common:3 limited:2 amount:1 promotional:1 mix:1 many:3 sample:2 press:1 order:1 generate:1 medium:3 coverage:1 product:6 depend:1 may:2 prospective:1 buyer:1 addition:1 complementary:1 example:2 coffeehouse:1 internet:1 access:1 attract:1 customer:1 hotel:1 shuttle:1 restaurant:1 valet:1 park:1 also:3 distribute:2 branded:1 stationery:1 refrigerator:1 magnet:1 similar:2 item:1 promote:1 brand:1 instead:1 specific:1 line:1 mass:3 industry:2 major:1 revenue:1 advertiser:1 interest:1 reach:2 people:1 possible:2 audience:1 attempt:2 recoup:1 advertising:1 software:6 development:3 production:1 relatively:1 small:1 developer:3 publish:1 license:5 one:1 early:1 basic:1 form:1 call:2 freeware:2 regular:1 use:2 gain:1 scheme:2 arise:1 offer:1 user:1 limit:1 recuperate:1 full:1 two:1 shareware:1 trialware:1 advent:1 movement:1 create:1 give:1 freedom:2 code:1 sharing:1 distinction:2 draw:1 latter:1 beer:1 versus:1 libre:1 reference:1 see:1 pro:1 bono:1 |@bigram monetary_compensation:3 |
6,249 | Dialect | The term dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος, dialektos) is used in two distinct ways, even by scholars of language. One usage refers to a variety of a language that is characteristic of a particular group of the language's speakers. Oxford English dictionary. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as social class. Merriam-Webster Online dictionary. A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect; a regional dialect may be termed a regiolect (or topolect). The other usage refers to a language socially subordinate to a regional or national standard language, often historically cognate to the standard, but not a variety of it or in any other sense derived from it. This more precise usage enables distinguishing between varieties of a language, such as the French spoken in Nice, France, and local languages distinct from the superordinate language, e.g. Nissart, the traditional native Romance language of Nice, known in French as Niçard. A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (phonology, including prosody). Where a distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation, the term accent is appropriate, not dialect (although in common usage, "dialect" and "accent" are usually synonymous). Other speech varieties include: standard languages, which are standardized for public performance (for example, a written standard); jargons, which are characterized by differences in lexicon (vocabulary); slang; patois; pidgins or argots. The particular speech patterns used by an individual are termed an idiolect. Standard and non-standard dialects A standard dialect (also known as a standardized dialect or "standard language") is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government recognition or designation; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a "correct" spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated with a single language. For example, Standard American English, Standard British English, Standard Indian English, Standard Australian English, and Standard Philippine English may all be said to be standard dialects of the English language. A nonstandard dialect, like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional support. An example of a nonstandard English dialect is Southern English. The Dialect Test was designed by Joseph Wright to compare different English dialects with each other. Sometimes in stories authors distinguish characters through their dialect. "Dialect" or "language" There are no universally accepted criteria for distinguishing languages from dialects, although a number of paradigms exist, which render sometimes contradictory results. The exact distinction is therefore a subjective one, dependent on the user's frame of reference. Language varieties are often called dialects rather than languages: solely because they are not (or not recognized as) literary languages, because the speakers of the given language do not have a state of their own, because they are not used in press or literature, or very little. or because their language lacks prestige. The term idiom is used by some linguists instead of language or dialect when there is no need to commit oneself to any decision on the status with respect to this distinction. Anthropological linguists define dialect as the specific form of a language used by a speech community. In other words, the difference between language and dialect is the difference between the abstract or general and the concrete and particular. From this perspective, no one speaks a "language," everyone speaks a dialect of a language. Those who identify a particular dialect as the "standard" or "proper" version of a language are in fact using these terms to express a social distinction. Often, the standard language is close to the sociolect of the elite class. In groups where prestige standards play less important roles, "dialect" may simply be used to refer to subtle regional variations in linguistic practices that are considered mutually intelligible, playing an important role to place strangers, carrying the message of where a stranger originates (which quarter or district in a town, which village in a rural setting, or which province of a country); thus there are many apparent "dialects" of Slavey, for example, by which the linguist simply means that there are many subtle variations among speakers who largely understand each other and recognize that they are each speaking "the same way" in a general sense. Modern-day linguists know that the status of language is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. Romansh came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects. An opposite example is the case of Chinese, whose variations such as Mandarin and Cantonese are often considered dialects and not languages, despite their mutual unintelligibility, because the word for them in mandarin, "Fangyan", was mistranslated as dialect because it meant regional speech. See also Mesoamerican languages#Language vs. Dialect "A language is a dialect with an army and navy" The Yiddish linguist Max Weinreich published the expression, "A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot" ("אַ שפראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמײ און פֿלאָט ", "A language is a dialect with an army and navy"; in Yivo-bleter. Political factors Modern Nationalism, as developed especially since the French Revolution, has made the distinction between "language" and "dialect" an issue of great political importance. A group speaking a separate "language" is often seen as having a greater claim to being a separate "people", and thus to be more deserving of its own independent state, while a group speaking a "dialect" tends to be seen not as "a people" in its own right, but as a sub-group, part of a bigger people, which must content itself with regional autonomy. The distinction between language and dialect is thus inevitably made at least as much on a political basis as on a linguistic one, and can lead to great political controversy, or even armed conflict. The classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can thus be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent. English and Serbo-Croatian illustrate the point. English and Serbo-Croatian each have two major variants (British and American English, and Serbian and Croatian, respectively), along with numerous lesser varieties. For political reasons, analyzing these varieties as "languages" or "dialects" yields inconsistent results: British and American English, spoken by close political and military allies, are almost universally regarded as dialects of a single language, whereas the standard languages of Serbia and Croatia, which differ from each other to a similar extent as the dialects of English, are being treated by many linguists from the region as distinct languages, largely because the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies. (The Serbo-Croatian language article deals with this topic much more fully.) Similar examples abound. Macedonian, although mutually intelligible with Bulgarian, certain dialects of Serbian and to a lesser extent the rest of the South Slavic dialect continuum is considered by Bulgarian linguists to be a Bulgarian dialect, in contrast with the contemporary international view, and the view in the Republic of Macedonia which regards it as a language in its own right. Nevertheless, before the establishment of a literary standard of Macedonian in 1944, in most sources in and out of Bulgaria before the Second World War, the southern Slavonic dialect continuum covering the area of today's Republic of Macedonia were referred to as Bulgarian dialects. In the 19th Century, the Tsarist Government of Russia claimed that Ukrainian was merely a dialect of Russian and not a language in its own right. Since Soviet times, when Ukrainians were recognised as a separate nationality deserving of its own Soviet Republic, such linguistic-political claims had disappeared from circulation. In Lebanon, the right-wing Guardians of the Cedars, a fiercely nationalistic (mainly Christian) political party which opposes the country's ties to the Arab world, is agitating for "Lebanese" to be recognized as a distinct language from Arabic and not merely a dialect, and has even advocated replacing the Arabic alphabet with a revival of the ancient Phoenician alphabet - which missed a number of characters to write typical Arabic phonemes present in Lebanese, and lost by Phoenician (and Hebrew) in the second millennium BC. This is, however, very much a minority position - in Lebanon itself as in the Arab World as a whole. The Varieties of Arabic are considerably different from each other - especially those spoken in North Africa (Maghreb) from those of the Middle East (the Mashriq in the broad definition including Egypt and Sudan) - and had there been the political will in the different Arab countries to cut themselves off from each other, the case could have been made to declare these varieties as separate languages. However, in adherence to the ideas of Arab Nationalism, the Arab countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic which is common to all of them, conduct much of their political, cultural and religious life in it, and refrain from declaring each country's specific variety to be a separate language. Therefore, even though Lebanese is, characteristically, a language, it is still, officially, a dialect. Interestingly, such moves may even appear at a local, rather than a federal level. The US state of Illinois declared "American" to be the state's official language in 1923, "American" as the Official Language of the United States. although linguists and politicians throughout much of the rest of the country considered American simply to be a dialect. There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately reclassified to serve political purposes. One example is Moldovan. In 1996, the Moldovan parliament, citing fears of "Romanian expansionism," rejected a proposal from President Mircea Snegur to change the name of the language to Romanian, and in 2003 a Moldovan-Romanian dictionary was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages. Linguists of the Romanian Academy reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Ion Bărbuţă, described the dictionary as a politically motivated "absurdity". In contrast, spoken languages of Han Chinese are usually referred to as dialects of one Chinese language, because the word "fangyan", which means regional speech, was mistranslated as dialect.. The article "Identification of the varieties of Chinese" has more details. In the Philippines, the Commission on the Filipino Language declared all the indigenous languages in the Philippines as dialects despite the great differences between them, as well as the existence of significant bodies of literature in each of the major "dialects" and daily newspapers in some. The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question "what is a language?" is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the army-navy aphorism discussed in the preceding section is cited. Historical linguistics Many historical linguists view any speech form as a dialect of the older medium of communication from which it developed. This point of view sees the modern Romance languages as dialects of Latin, modern Greek as a dialect of Ancient Greek, Tok Pisin as a dialect of English, and Scandinavian languages as dialects of Old Norse. This paradigm is not entirely problem-free. It sees genetic relationships as paramount; the "dialects" of a "language" (which itself may be a "dialect" of a yet older tongue) may or may not be mutually intelligible. Moreover, a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which themselves subdivide any number of times, with some "branches" of the tree changing more rapidly than others. This can give rise to the situation in which two dialects (defined according to this paradigm) with a somewhat distant genetic relationship are mutually more readily comprehensible than more closely related dialects. In one opinion this pattern is clearly present among the modern Romance tongues, with Italian and Spanish having a high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares with French, despite some claiming that both languages are genetically closer to French than to each other: In fact, French-Italian and French-Spanish relative mutual incomprehensibility is due to French having undergone more rapid and more pervasive phonological change than have Spanish and Italian, not to real or imagined distance in genetic relationship. In fact, Italian and French share many more root words in common that do not even appear in Spanish. For example, the Italian and French words for various foods, family members, and body parts are very similar to each other, yet most of those words are completely different in Spanish. Italian "avere" and "essere" as auxiliaries for forming compound tenses are used similarly to French "avoir" and "être", which are no longer used in either Spanish nor Portuguese. However, when it comes to pronunciation, Italian sounds very clear to Spanish speakers. Interlinguistics One language, Interlingua, was developed so that the languages of Western civilization would act as its dialects. Morris, Alice Vanderbilt, General report. New York: International Auxiliary Language Association, 1945. Drawing from such concepts as the international scientific vocabulary and Standard Average European, linguists developed a theory that the modern Western languages were actually dialects of a hidden or latent language. Researchers at the International Auxiliary Language Association extracted words and affixes that they considered to be part of Interlingua's vocabulary. Gode, Alexander, Interlingua-English Dictionary. New York: Storm Publishers, 1951. In theory, speakers of the Western languages would understand written or spoken Interlingua immediately, without prior study, since their own languages were its dialects. This has often turned out to be true, especially, but not solely, for speakers of the Romance languages and educated speakers of English. Interlingua has also been found to assist in the learning of other languages. In one study, Swedish high school students learning Interlingua were able to translate passages from Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian that students of those languages found too difficult to understand. Gopsill, F. P., International languages: A matter for Interlingua. Sheffield: British Interlingua Society, 1990. It should be noted, however, that the vocabulary of Interlingua extends beyond the Western language families. Concepts in dialectology Concepts in dialectology include: Mutual intelligibility Some have attempted to distinguish dialects from languages by saying that dialects of the same language are understandable to each other. The untenable nature of blunt application of this criterion is demonstrated by the case of Italian and Spanish cited above. While clever native speakers of the two can converse at length with very good mutual understanding, few people would want to classify Italian and Spanish as dialects of the same language in any sense other than historical. Spanish and Italian are similar, but phonology, syntax, morphology, and lexicon are sufficiently distinct that the two cannot be considered dialects of the same language. Diglossia Another problem occurs in the case of diglossia, used to describe a situation in which, in a given society, there are two closely-related languages, one of high prestige, which is generally used by the government and in formal texts, and one of low prestige, which is usually the spoken vernacular tongue. An example of this is Sanskrit, which was considered the proper way to speak in northern India, but only accessible by the upper class, and Prakrit which was the common (and informal or vernacular) speech at the time. Another example of diglossia are the ancient Egyptian languages Demotic and Hieratic, and varying degrees of diglossia are still common in many societies around the world. Dialect continuum A dialect continuum is a network of dialects in which geographically adjacent dialects are mutually comprehensible, but with comprehensibility steadily decreasing as distance between the dialects increases. An example is the Dutch-German dialect continuum, a vast network of dialects with two recognized literary standards. Although mutual intelligibility between standard Dutch and standard German is very limited, a chain of dialects connects them. Due to several centuries of influence by standard languages (especially in Northern Germany, where even today the original dialects struggle to survive) there are now many breaks in intelligibility between geographically adjacent dialects along the continuum, but in the past these breaks were virtually nonexistent. The Romance languages—Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan, Occitan/Provençal, French, Sardinian, Romanian, Romansh, Friulian, other Italian dialects, and others—form another well-known continuum, with varying degrees of mutual intelligibility. In both areas - the Germanic linguistic continuum, the Romance linguistic continuum - the relational notion of the term dialect is often vastly misunderstood, and today gives rise to considerable difficulties in implementation of European Union directives regarding support of minority languages. Perhaps this is no more evident than in Italy, where still today some of the population use their local language (dialetto 'dialect') as the primary means of communication at home and, to varying lesser extent, the workplace. Difficulties arise due to terminological confusion. The languages conventionally referred to as Italian dialects are Romance sister languages of Italian, not variants of Italian, which are commonly and properly called italiano regionale ('regional Italian'). The label Italian dialect as conventionally used is more geopolitical in aptness of meaning rather than linguistic: Bolognese and Neapolitan, for example, are termed Italian dialects, yet resemble each other less than do Italian and Spanish, yet Bolognese and Neapolitan are lexically closer to Standard Italian, than Spanish, a separate language, is. If another dialect such as Sicilian can seriously be considered separate from Italian, then Italian and Spanish are definitely separate, as Italian and Sicilian vocabulary are still closer than Italian and Spanish, which, again, are separate national languages. Misunderstandings ensue if "Italian dialect" is taken to mean 'dialect of Italian' rather than 'minority language spoken on Italian soil', i.e. part of the network of the Romance linguistic continuum. The indigenous Romance language of Venice, for example, is cognate with Italian, but quite distinct from the national language in phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon, and in no way a derivative or a variety of the national language. Venetian can be said to be an Italian dialect both geographically and typologically, but it is not a dialect of Italian. Diasystem A diasystem refers to a single genetic language which has two or more standard forms. An example is Hindi-Urdu or Hindustani, which encompasses two main standard varieties, Urdu and Hindi. Another example is Norwegian, with Bokmål having developed closely with Danish and Swedish, and Nynorsk as a partly reconstructed language based on old dialects. Both are recognized as official languages in Norway. In a formal sense, the diasystem of a set of dialects can be understood as the underlying language for which each dialect has a typical realisation (language of metaphonemes). An example can be taken with Occitan (a strongly dialectalized language of Southern France) where 'cavaL' ( < late Latin *caballu-, 'horse') is the diasystem form for the following realizations. Languedocien dialect: [kaɞal], spelled 'caval' (v is pronounced as in Spanish and -L > -l, sometimes velar, used concurrently with French borrowed forms 'chival' or 'chivau'); Limousine dialect: [tʃavau], spelled 'chavau' (ca > cha and -L > -u regularly); Provencal dialect: [kavau], spelled 'cavau' (-L > -u regularly, and used concurrently with French borrowed forms 'chival' or 'chivau'); Gascon dialect: [kawat], spelled 'cavath' (intervocalic v is w and final -L is -t, sometimes palatalized, and used concurrently with French borrowed forms 'chibau') Auvergnat and Vivaro-alpine dialects: [tʃaval], spelled 'chaval' (same treatment of 'ca' cluster as in Limousine dialect) This conceptual approach may be used in practical situations. For instance when such a diasystem is identified, it can be used so as to define the way these dialects are written in a common form that eases greatly written communication with the highest tolerance to the various spoken form. After such a unification, the dialects appear as mere 'accents' of the diasystem. 'Yes, people from region A pronounce [X] what we spell z, while in region B, they pronounce it [Y]'. It should be noted that the goals in this example are more sociopolitical in essence than scientifically linguistic. Linguistically, Occitan is a cover term for a large number of languages (reduced to a typology of five here for convenience) of varying relational proximity in terms of linguistic features, and the dialect continuum does not stop at the outer geolinguistic boundaries conventionally assigned to Occitan. Pluricentrism A pluricentric language has more than one standard version: English is an example of these languages. Portuguese was an example of this, but as of January 1, 2009, a standard orthography was agreed upon by all Portuguese-speaking countries. The Ausbausprache — Abstandsprache — Dachsprache framework One analytical paradigm developed by linguists is known as the Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache framework. It has proved popular among linguists in Continental Europe, but is not so well known in English-speaking countries, especially among people who are not trained linguists. Although only one of many possible paradigms, it has the advantage of being constructed by trained linguists for the particular purpose of analyzing and categorizing varieties of speech, and has the additional merit of replacing such loaded words as "language" and "dialect" with the German terms of Ausbausprache, Abstandsprache, and Dachsprache, words that are not (yet) loaded with political, cultural, or emotional connotations. Examples from many languages A useful set of examples of the difficulty of distinguishing languages from dialects may be found in the article cited above. Selected list of articles on dialects Älvdalsmål Arab dialects Bengali dialects Catalan dialect examples Connacht Irish, Munster Irish, Ulster Irish Cypriot Greek, Cypriot Turkish Dialect of Chalkidiki Dialects in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia Dialects of the French language Dutch dialects Gutniska Isfahani, Shirazi, Yazdi (Persian dialects) Italian dialects Jamtlandic Japanese dialects Korean dialects List of Assyrian tribes (dialects) List of Chinese dialects List of dialects of the English language Norwegian dialects Portuguese dialects Rauma dialect Scanian Sicilian language Slovenian dialects Spanish dialects and varieties Stockholmska Sri Lankan Tamil dialects Swedish dialects in Ostrobothnia Warsaw dialect Yiddish dialects Yooper dialect See also Accent Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache Creole language Dialect continuum Dialect levelling Dialect Test Dialectometry Diasystem Diglossia Ethnolect Idiolect Isogloss Koiné language Language Literary language Pidgin Prestige dialect Regional language Sociolect Sprachbund Vernacular References External links Sounds Familiar? — Listen to regional accents and dialects of the UK on the British Library's 'Sounds Familiar' website International Dialects of English Archive Since 1997 whoohoo.co.uk British Dialect Translator thedialectdictionary.com — Compilation of Dialects from around the globe | Dialect |@lemmatized term:14 dialect:136 greek:4 word:12 διάλεκτος:1 dialektos:1 use:18 two:11 distinct:6 way:5 even:8 scholar:1 language:116 one:14 usage:4 refers:3 variety:18 characteristic:1 particular:6 group:5 speaker:8 oxford:1 english:22 dictionary:6 apply:1 often:8 regional:10 speech:12 pattern:3 may:13 also:7 define:4 factor:3 social:3 class:4 merriam:1 webster:1 online:1 associate:2 sociolect:3 regiolect:1 topolect:1 socially:1 subordinate:1 national:4 standard:31 historically:1 cognate:2 sense:4 derive:1 precise:1 enable:1 distinguish:6 french:16 spoken:5 nice:2 france:2 local:3 superordinate:1 e:2 g:1 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6,250 | Agnostida | Agnostida (the agnostids) is an order of trilobite. These small trilobites first appeared toward the end of the Early Cambrian and thrived in the Middle Cambrian. They are present in the lower Cambrian fossil record along with trilobites from Orders Redlichiida, Corynexochida, and Ptychopariida. The last agnostids went extinct in the Late Ordovician. The Agnostida are divided into two suborders -- Agnostina and Eodiscina -- that are then divided into a number of families. As a group, agnostids have pygidia (tails) that are so similar in size and shape to their cephalons (heads) that it is difficult to distinguish which end is which. Most agnostid species were eyeless. The systematic position of Order Agnostida within Class Trilobita remains uncertain, and there has been continuing debate whether they are trilobites or a stem group. The challenge to the status has focused on the Agnostina partly because juveniles of one genus have been found with legs greatly different from those of adult trilobites, suggesting they are separately descended from Crustaceans. Other researchers have suggested, based on cladistic analyses, that Eodiscina and Agnostida are closely united, and that the Eodiscina descended from the trilobite Order Ptychopariida. Scientists have long debated whether the agnostids lived a pelagic or a benthic lifestyle. Their lack of eyes, a morphology not well-suited for swimming, and their fossils found in association with other benthic trilobites all suggest a benthic (bottom-dwelling) mode of life. They likely lived on areas of the ocean floor that received little or no light and fed on detritus that descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom. In contrast, their wide geographic dispersion in the fossil record is uncharacteristic of benthic animals, suggesting a pelagic existence. The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge between the head and pygidium allowing for a bivalved ostracodan-type lifestyle. Furthermore, the orientation of the thoracic appendages appears ill suited for benthic living. Agnostina are generally referred to simply as "agnostids" even though they probably should be called "agnostines". References Cotton, T.J. and Fortey. R.A. (2005) Comparative morphology and relationships of the Agnostida. In: Koenemann, S. & Jenner, R. (eds.). Crustacean Issues 16, Crustacea and Arthropod Relationships (CRC Press: Boca Raton). . Fortey, R.A. and Theron, J. (1994) A new Ordovician arthropod Soomaspis and the agnostid problem. Palaeontology 37:841-61. Jell, P.A. (2003) Phylogeny of Early Cambrian trilobites. Special Papers in Palaeontology 70:45-57. 5:1141–1151. External links Order Agnostida by Sam Gon III. The Virtual Fossil Museum – Trilobite Order Agnostida Agnostida fact sheet by Sam Gon III. | Agnostida |@lemmatized agnostida:8 agnostids:5 order:6 trilobite:9 small:1 first:1 appear:3 toward:1 end:2 early:2 cambrian:4 thrive:1 middle:1 present:1 low:1 fossil:4 record:2 along:1 redlichiida:1 corynexochida:1 ptychopariida:2 last:1 go:1 extinct:1 late:1 ordovician:2 divide:2 two:1 suborder:1 agnostina:3 eodiscina:3 number:1 family:1 group:2 pygidia:1 tail:1 similar:1 size:1 shape:1 cephalons:1 head:2 difficult:1 distinguish:1 agnostid:2 specie:1 eyeless:1 systematic:1 position:1 within:1 class:1 trilobita:1 remain:1 uncertain:1 continue:1 debate:2 whether:2 stem:1 challenge:1 status:1 focus:1 partly:1 juvenile:1 one:1 genus:1 find:2 leg:1 greatly:1 different:1 adult:1 suggest:4 separately:1 descend:3 crustacean:2 researcher:1 base:1 cladistic:1 analysis:1 closely:1 united:1 scientist:1 long:1 live:2 pelagic:2 benthic:5 lifestyle:2 lack:1 eye:1 morphology:2 well:1 suit:2 swimming:1 association:1 bottom:2 dwelling:1 mode:1 life:1 likely:1 area:1 ocean:1 floor:1 receive:1 little:1 light:1 feed:1 detritus:1 upper:1 layer:1 sea:1 contrast:1 wide:1 geographic:1 dispersion:1 uncharacteristic:1 animal:1 existence:1 thoracic:2 segment:1 form:1 hinge:1 pygidium:1 allow:1 bivalved:1 ostracodan:1 type:1 furthermore:1 orientation:1 appendages:1 ill:1 living:1 generally:1 refer:1 simply:1 even:1 though:1 probably:1 call:1 agnostines:1 reference:1 cotton:1 j:2 fortey:2 r:3 comparative:1 relationship:2 koenemann:1 jenner:1 eds:1 issue:1 crustacea:1 arthropod:2 crc:1 press:1 boca:1 raton:1 theron:1 new:1 soomaspis:1 problem:1 palaeontology:2 jell:1 p:1 phylogeny:1 special:1 paper:1 external:1 link:1 sam:2 gon:2 iii:2 virtual:1 museum:1 fact:1 sheet:1 |@bigram cambrian_fossil:1 crc_press:1 boca_raton:1 external_link:1 |
6,251 | Georgian_architecture | A Georgian house in Salisbury Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1720 and 1840. It is eponymous for the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover—George I of Great Britain, George II of Great Britain, George III of the United Kingdom, and George IV of the United Kingdom—who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. History and definition Dunfermline Law Courts in Dunfermline, Fife, completed in c.1762. Georgian succeeded the English Baroque of Sir Christopher Wren, Sir John Vanbrugh and Nicholas Hawksmoor. Major architects to promote the change in direction from baroque were Colen Campbell, author of the influential book Vitruvius Britannicus; Richard Boyle, 4th Earl of Cork (Lord Burlington) and his protegé William Kent; Thomas Archer; and the Venetian Giacomo Leoni, who spent most of his career in England. The styles that resulted fall within several categories. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture— and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking world's equivalent of European Rococo. From the mid-1760s a range of Neoclassical modes were fashionable, associated with the British architects Robert Adam, James Gibbs, Sir William Chambers, James Wyatt, Henry Holland and Sir John Soane. Greek Revival was added to the design repertory, after Georgian architecture is characterized by its proportion and balance; simple mathematical ratios were used to determine the height of a window in relation to its width or the shape of a room as a double cube. "Regular" was a term of approval, implying symmetry and adherence to classical rules: the lack of symmetry, where Georgian additions were added to earlier structures, was deeply felt as a flaw. Regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. Georgian designs usually lay within the Classical orders of architecture and employed a decorative vocabulary derived from ancient Rome or Greece. The most common building materials used are brick or stone. Commonly used colors were red, tan, or white. However, modern day Georgian style homes use a variety of colors. General characteristics Identifying Features (1700 - c.1780): A simple 1-2 story box, 2 rooms deep, using strict symmetry arrangements Panel front door centered, topped with rectangular windows (in door or as a transom) and capped with an elaborate crown/entablature supported by decorative pilasters Cornice embellished with decorative moldings, usually dentilwork Multi-pane windows are never paired, and fenestrations are arranged symmetrically (whether vertical or horizontal), usually 5 across Other features of Georgian style houses can include - roof to ground-level: Roof: 40% are Side-gabled; 25% Gambrel; 25% Hipped Chimneys on both sides of the home A portico in the middle of the roof with a window in the middle is more common with post-Georgian styles, e.g. "Adam" Small 6-paned sash windows and/or dormer windows in the upper floors, primarily used for servant's quarters Larger windows with 9 or 12 panes on the main floors Colonial Georgian architecture Provincial Georgian architecture, c. 1760. Northwold, Norfolk. Cornelius Low House built in 1741 in Piscataway, New Jersey Georgian Architecture was widely disseminated in the English colonies of the time. In the American colonies, colonial Georgian blended with the neo-Palladian style to become known more broadly as 'Federal style architecture'. Georgian buildings were also constructed of wood with clapboards; even columns were made of timber, framed up and turned on an over-sized lathe. The College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, is an excellent example of Georgian architecture in the Americas. Unlike the Baroque style that it replaced, which was generated almost solely in the context of palaces and churches, Georgian had wide currency in the upper and middle classes. Within the residential context, the best remaining example is the pristine Hammond-Harwood House (1774) in Annapolis, Maryland. This house was designed by colonial architect William Buckland and modeled on the Villa Pisani at Montagnana, Italy as depicted in Andrea Palladio's I Quattro Libri dell'Architettura (Four Books Of Architecture). The establishment of Georgian architecture, and the Georgian styles of design more generally, were to a large degree aided by the fact that, unlike earlier styles which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system, Georgian was also spread through the new medium of inexpensive suites of engravings. From the mid-18th century, Georgian styles were assimilated into an architectural vernacular that became part and parcel of the training of every architect, designer, builder, carpenter, mason and plasterer, from Edinburgh to Maryland. Post-Georgian developments Georgian architecture at Royal Crescent, Bath, showing the contrast between the architectural style of the public front and the private rear of this famous terrace After about 1840 Georgian conventions were slowly abandoned as a number of revival styles, including Gothic Revival, enlarged the design repertoire. In the United States this style declined in popularity after the revolution, due to its association with the colonial regime; but later in the early decades of the twentieth century when there was a growing nostalgia for its sense of order, the style was revived and came to be known as the Colonial Revival. In Canada the United Empire Loyalists embraced Georgian architecture as a sign of their fealty to Britain, and the Georgian style was dominant in the country for most of the first half of the 19th century. The Grange, for example, a manor built in Toronto, was built in 1817. The revived Georgian style that emerged in Britain at the beginning of the 20th century is usually referred to as Neo-Georgian; the work of Edwin Lutyens includes many examples. Versions of the Neo-Georgian style were commonly used in Britain for certain types of urban architecture until the late 1950s, Bradshaw Gass & Hope's Police Head Quarters in Salford of 1958 being a good example. In both the United States and Britain, the Georgian style is still employed by architects like Quinlan Terry for private residences. See also John Nash (architect) Victorian architecture Golden ratio Further reading McAlester, Virginia & Lee, A Field Guide To American Houses 1996 ISBN 0-394-73969-8 Howard Colvin, A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 3rd ed. 1995. John Cornforth, Early Georgian Interiors, (Paul Mellon Centre) 2005. James Stevens Curl, Georgian Architecture. Christopher Hussey, Early Georgian Houses,, Mid-Georgian Houses,, Late Georgian House,. Reissued in paperback, Antique Collectors Club, 1986. Frank Jenkins, Architect and Patron 1961. Barrington Kaye, The Development of the Architectural Profession in Britain 1960. Sir John Summerson, Georgian London, (1945). Revised edition, edited by Howard Colvin, 2003. Sir John Summerson, Architecture in Britain (series: Pelican History of Art) Reissued in paperback 1970 External links Georgian Terrace in Horsham | Georgian_architecture |@lemmatized georgian:38 house:10 salisbury:1 architecture:17 name:1 give:1 english:4 speaking:2 country:2 set:1 architectural:4 style:20 current:1 eponymous:1 first:2 four:2 british:3 monarch:1 hanover:1 george:4 great:2 britain:8 ii:1 iii:1 united:5 kingdom:2 iv:1 reign:1 continuous:1 succession:1 august:1 june:1 history:2 definition:1 dunfermline:2 law:1 court:1 fife:1 complete:1 c:3 succeed:1 baroque:3 sir:6 christopher:2 wren:1 john:6 vanbrugh:1 nicholas:1 hawksmoor:1 major:1 architect:8 promote:1 change:1 direction:1 colen:1 campbell:1 author:1 influential:1 book:2 vitruvius:1 britannicus:1 richard:1 boyle:1 earl:1 cork:1 lord:1 burlington:1 protegé:1 william:4 kent:1 thomas:1 archer:1 venetian:1 giacomo:1 leoni:1 spend:1 career:1 england:1 result:1 fall:1 within:3 several:1 category:1 mainstream:1 palladian:2 whimsical:1 alternative:1 gothic:2 chinoiserie:1 world:1 equivalent:1 european:1 rococo:1 mid:3 range:1 neoclassical:1 mode:1 fashionable:1 associate:1 robert:1 adam:2 james:3 gibbs:1 chamber:1 wyatt:1 henry:1 holland:1 soane:1 greek:1 revival:4 add:2 design:5 repertory:1 characterize:1 proportion:1 balance:1 simple:2 mathematical:1 ratio:2 use:6 determine:1 height:1 window:7 relation:1 width:1 shape:1 room:2 double:1 cube:1 regular:1 term:1 approval:1 imply:1 symmetry:3 adherence:1 classical:2 rule:1 lack:1 addition:1 early:5 structure:1 deeply:1 felt:1 flaw:1 regularity:1 housefronts:1 along:1 street:1 desirable:1 feature:3 town:1 planning:1 usually:4 lay:1 order:2 employ:2 decorative:3 vocabulary:1 derive:1 ancient:1 rome:1 greece:1 common:2 building:2 material:1 brick:1 stone:1 commonly:2 used:1 color:2 red:1 tan:1 white:1 however:1 modern:1 day:1 home:2 variety:1 general:1 characteristic:1 identify:1 story:1 box:1 deep:1 strict:1 arrangement:1 panel:1 front:2 door:2 center:1 top:1 rectangular:1 transom:1 cap:1 elaborate:1 crown:1 entablature:1 support:1 pilaster:1 cornice:1 embellish:1 molding:1 dentilwork:1 multi:1 pane:2 never:1 pair:1 fenestration:1 arrange:1 symmetrically:1 whether:1 vertical:1 horizontal:1 across:1 include:3 roof:3 ground:1 level:1 side:2 gabled:1 gambrel:1 hipped:1 chimney:1 portico:1 middle:3 post:2 e:1 g:1 small:1 pan:1 sash:1 dormer:1 upper:2 floor:2 primarily:2 servant:1 quarter:2 large:2 main:1 colonial:5 provincial:1 northwold:1 norfolk:1 cornelius:1 low:1 build:3 piscataway:1 new:2 jersey:1 widely:1 disseminate:2 colony:2 time:1 american:2 blend:1 neo:3 become:2 know:2 broadly:1 federal:1 also:3 construct:1 wood:1 clapboard:1 even:1 column:1 make:1 timber:1 frame:1 turn:1 size:1 lathe:1 college:1 mary:1 williamsburg:1 virginia:2 excellent:1 example:5 america:1 unlike:2 replace:1 generate:1 almost:1 solely:1 context:2 palace:1 church:1 wide:1 currency:1 class:1 residential:1 best:1 remaining:1 pristine:1 hammond:1 harwood:1 annapolis:1 maryland:2 buckland:1 model:1 villa:1 pisani:1 montagnana:1 italy:1 depict:1 andrea:1 palladio:1 quattro:1 libri:1 dell:1 architettura:1 establishment:1 generally:1 degree:1 aid:1 fact:1 among:1 craftsman:1 direct:1 experience:1 apprenticeship:1 system:1 spread:1 medium:1 inexpensive:1 suite:1 engraving:1 century:4 assimilate:1 vernacular:1 part:1 parcel:1 training:1 every:1 designer:1 builder:1 carpenter:1 mason:1 plasterer:1 edinburgh:1 development:2 royal:1 crescent:1 bath:1 show:1 contrast:1 public:1 private:2 rear:1 famous:1 terrace:2 convention:1 slowly:1 abandon:1 number:1 enlarge:1 repertoire:1 state:2 decline:1 popularity:1 revolution:1 due:1 association:1 regime:1 later:1 decade:1 twentieth:1 grow:1 nostalgia:1 sense:1 revive:1 come:1 canada:1 empire:1 loyalist:1 embrace:1 sign:1 fealty:1 dominant:1 half:1 grange:1 manor:1 toronto:1 revived:1 emerge:1 beginning:1 refer:1 work:1 edwin:1 lutyens:1 many:1 version:1 certain:1 type:1 urban:1 late:2 bradshaw:1 gas:1 hope:1 police:1 head:1 salford:1 good:1 still:1 like:1 quinlan:1 terry:1 residence:1 see:1 nash:1 victorian:1 golden:1 far:1 reading:1 mcalester:1 lee:1 field:1 guide:1 isbn:1 howard:2 colvin:2 biographical:1 dictionary:1 ed:1 cornforth:1 interior:1 paul:1 mellon:1 centre:1 stevens:1 curl:1 hussey:1 reissue:2 paperback:2 antique:1 collector:1 club:1 frank:1 jenkins:1 patron:1 barrington:1 kaye:1 profession:1 summerson:2 london:1 revise:1 edition:1 edit:1 series:1 pelican:1 art:1 external:1 link:1 horsham:1 |@bigram christopher_wren:1 commonly_used:1 vertical_horizontal:1 williamsburg_virginia:1 annapolis_maryland:1 william_buckland:1 gothic_revival:1 twentieth_century:1 edwin_lutyens:1 golden_ratio:1 biographical_dictionary:1 external_link:1 |
6,252 | Orlando_Letelier | Letelier in 1975. Marcos Orlando Letelier del Solar (April 13, 1932 - September 21, 1976) was a Chilean economist, political figure, diplomat and, later, US-based activist. He was assassinated in Washington DC by Chilean DINA agents. Background Letelier was born in the city of Temuco, the youngest child of Orlando Letelier Ruiz and Inés del Solar. He studied at the Instituto Nacional and, at the age of sixteen, he was accepted as a cadet of the Chilean Military Academy, where he completed his secondary studies. Later he abandoned the military life to attend the University of Chile, where he graduated as a lawyer in 1954. In 1955, he joined the recently formed Copper Office (Departamento del Cobre, now CODELCO), where he worked until 1959 as a research analyst in the copper industry. In that year, Orlando Letelier was fired for supporting Salvador Allende's unsuccessful second presidential campaign. The Letelier family had to retreat to Venezuela, where he became a copper consultant for the Finance Ministry. From there, Letelier made his way to then recently created Inter-American Development Bank, where he eventually became senior economist and director of the loan division. He was also one of the UN consultants responsible for the establishment of the Asian Development Bank. He married Isabel Margarita Morel Gumucio on December 17, 1955, with whom had four children: Christian, Jose, Francisco, and Juan Pablo. Political career His first political participations were as a university student, when he became a student representative at the University of Chile's Student Union. In 1959 Letelier joined the Chilean Socialist Party (PS). In 1971 President Allende appointed him ambassador to the United States because he had some unique leadership qualities rare among Latin American socialists of the time: chiefly among them a sophisticated grasp of the complexities of US politics and an in-depth knowledge of the copper industry. His specific mission was to try to defend the Chilean nationalization of copper against the privatization favored by the US government. During 1973, Letelier was recalled to Chile and served successively as minister of Foreign Affairs, Interior and Defense. In the coup d'etat of September 11, 1973, he was the first high-ranking member of the Allende administration seized and arrested, when he arrived to his office at the Ministry of Defense. He was held for twelve months in different concentration camps suffering severe torture: first at the Tacna Regiment, then at the Military Academy; later he was sent for 8 months to a political prison in Dawson Island and from there he was transferred to the basement of the Air Force War Academy, and finally to the concentration camp of Ritoque, until international diplomatic pressure especially from Diego Arria, then Governor of the city of Caracas in Venezuela resulted in the sudden release of Letelier on the condition that he immediately leave Chile. After his release in September 1974, he and his family resettled in Caracas, but then Orlando Letelier decided to head for Washington D.C., at the proposal of American writer Saul Landau. In 1975 Letelier moved to Washington where he became senior fellow of the Institute for Policy Studies (IPS is an independent research institute based in Washington, D.C., devoted to international policy studies), where Landau worked at the time. He also became director of the Transnational Institute (TNI is an independent research institute based in Amsterdam), and taught at the School of International Services of the American University, in Washington, D.C. He plunged into writing, speaking and lobbying the US Congress and European governments against Augusto Pinochet's regime, and soon became the leading voice of the Chilean resistance, preventing several loans (especially from Europe) from being awarded to the military government. On September 10, 1976, he was deprived of his Chilean nationality by decree. Assassination Memorial on Sheridan Circle, Washington DCLetelier was killed by a car bomb explosion on September 21, 1976, in Sheridan Circle, along with his US assistant, Ronni Moffitt; her husband Michael Moffitt was injured but survived. Several people were prosecuted and convicted for the murder. Among them were Michael Townley, a DINA U.S. expatriate who had once worked for the CIA; General Manuel Contreras, former head of the DINA; and Brigadier Pedro Espinoza, also formerly of DINA. Townley was convicted in the United States in 1978; Contreras and Espinoza were convicted in Chile in 1993. General Augusto Pinochet, who died on December 10, 2006, was never brought to trial for the murders, although Townley implicated him as being responsible for them. Unfinished Business Following the death of Pinochet in December 2006, the Institute for Policy Studies (IPS), for which both Letelier and Moffitt worked, called for the release of all the classified documents related to the Letelier–Moffitt assassination. According the IPS, the Clinton administration de-classified more than 16,000 documents related to Chile, but withheld documents related to the Letelier-Moffitt assassination in Washington on the grounds that they were associated with an ongoing investigation. The IPS says that the Clinton administration did re-activate the investigation into the Letelier-Moffitt murders and sent agents to Chile to gather additional evidence that Pinochet had authorized the crime. The former Chilean Secret Police Chief, Manuel Contreras, who, as previously mentioned, was convicted for his role in the crime in 1993 and later pointed the finger at his boss, claimed that all his orders came from Pinochet. Although a draft indictment of Pinochet was reportedly prepared, the George W. Bush administration refused to take action. The 'family members of Orlando and Ronni deserve the full truth about this horrible act', IPS Fellow Sarah Anderson said. 'Releasing the documents is the very least the Bush Administration could do for these victims of international terrorism'. Additional information See also Letelier case Chilean political scandals Chile under Pinochet Espionage Terrorism State Terrorism National Security Archive Bibliography Dinges, John, and Landau, Saul. Assassination on Embassy Row (London, 1981) ISBN 0-07-016998-5, (McGraw-Hill, 1981) Dinges, John. The Condor Years (The New Press: 2004) ISBN 1-56584-764-4 Hitchens, Christopher, The Trial of Henry Kissinger, (Verso: 2001) ISBN 1-85984-631-9 Taylor Branch and Eugene M Propper Labyrinth (Viking Press 1983, Penguin Books1983 ISBN 0-14-006683-7) External links Orlando Letelier Archive held by the Transnational Institute. MIPT Terrorism Knowledge Base Nine legal documents from the trials of Letelier's assassins. Includes trial transcripts. Institute for Policy Studies, where Letelier and Moffitt worked at the time, gives circumstances surrounding bombing. John Dinges John Dinges was a correspondent for the "Washington Post" in South America from 1975 to 1983, author of The Condor Years: How Pinochet and his Allies Brought Terrorism to Three Continents (The New Press 2004) and (with Saul Landau Assassination on Embassy Row (Pantheon 1980), (Asesinato en Washington, Lasser 1980, Planeta 1990) Biography at Memoria Chilena Short biographical sketch | Orlando_Letelier |@lemmatized letelier:20 marcos:1 orlando:6 del:3 solar:2 april:1 september:5 chilean:9 economist:2 political:5 figure:1 diplomat:1 later:4 u:6 base:4 activist:1 assassinate:1 washington:9 dc:1 dina:4 agent:2 background:1 bear:1 city:2 temuco:1 young:1 child:2 ruiz:1 inés:1 study:6 instituto:1 nacional:1 age:1 sixteen:1 accept:1 cadet:1 military:4 academy:3 complete:1 secondary:1 abandon:1 life:1 attend:1 university:4 chile:8 graduate:1 lawyer:1 join:2 recently:2 form:1 copper:5 office:2 departamento:1 cobre:1 codelco:1 work:5 research:3 analyst:1 industry:2 year:3 fire:1 support:1 salvador:1 allende:3 unsuccessful:1 second:1 presidential:1 campaign:1 family:3 retreat:1 venezuela:2 become:6 consultant:2 finance:1 ministry:2 make:1 way:1 create:1 inter:1 american:4 development:2 bank:2 eventually:1 senior:2 director:2 loan:2 division:1 also:4 one:1 un:1 responsible:2 establishment:1 asian:1 marry:1 isabel:1 margarita:1 morel:1 gumucio:1 december:3 four:1 christian:1 jose:1 francisco:1 juan:1 pablo:1 career:1 first:3 participation:1 student:3 representative:1 union:1 socialist:2 party:1 ps:1 president:1 appoint:1 ambassador:1 united:2 state:3 unique:1 leadership:1 quality:1 rare:1 among:3 latin:1 time:3 chiefly:1 sophisticated:1 grasp:1 complexity:1 politics:1 depth:1 knowledge:2 specific:1 mission:1 try:1 defend:1 nationalization:1 privatization:1 favor:1 government:3 recall:1 serve:1 successively:1 minister:1 foreign:1 affair:1 interior:1 defense:2 coup:1 etat:1 high:1 ranking:1 member:2 administration:5 seize:1 arrest:1 arrive:1 hold:2 twelve:1 month:2 different:1 concentration:2 camp:2 suffer:1 severe:1 torture:1 tacna:1 regiment:1 send:2 prison:1 dawson:1 island:1 transfer:1 basement:1 air:1 force:1 war:1 finally:1 ritoque:1 international:4 diplomatic:1 pressure:1 especially:2 diego:1 arria:1 governor:1 caracas:2 result:1 sudden:1 release:4 condition:1 immediately:1 leave:1 resettle:1 decide:1 head:2 c:3 proposal:1 writer:1 saul:3 landau:4 move:1 fellow:2 institute:7 policy:4 ip:5 independent:2 devote:1 transnational:2 tni:1 amsterdam:1 taught:1 school:1 service:1 plunge:1 writing:1 speaking:1 lobby:1 congress:1 european:1 augusto:2 pinochet:8 regime:1 soon:1 leading:1 voice:1 resistance:1 prevent:1 several:2 europe:1 award:1 deprive:1 nationality:1 decree:1 assassination:5 memorial:1 sheridan:2 circle:2 dcletelier:1 kill:1 car:1 bomb:1 explosion:1 along:1 assistant:1 ronni:2 moffitt:7 husband:1 michael:2 injure:1 survive:1 people:1 prosecute:1 convict:4 murder:3 townley:3 expatriate:1 cia:1 general:2 manuel:2 contreras:3 former:2 brigadier:1 pedro:1 espinoza:2 formerly:1 die:1 never:1 bring:2 trial:4 although:2 implicate:1 unfinished:1 business:1 follow:1 death:1 call:1 classified:1 document:5 relate:3 accord:1 clinton:2 de:1 classify:1 withhold:1 ground:1 associate:1 ongoing:1 investigation:2 say:2 activate:1 gather:1 additional:2 evidence:1 authorize:1 crime:2 secret:1 police:1 chief:1 previously:1 mention:1 role:1 point:1 finger:1 bos:1 claim:1 order:1 come:1 draft:1 indictment:1 reportedly:1 prepared:1 george:1 w:1 bush:2 refuse:1 take:1 action:1 deserve:1 full:1 truth:1 horrible:1 act:1 sarah:1 anderson:1 least:1 could:1 victim:1 terrorism:5 information:1 see:1 case:1 scandal:1 espionage:1 national:1 security:1 archive:2 bibliography:1 dinge:3 john:4 embassy:2 row:2 london:1 isbn:4 mcgraw:1 hill:1 condor:2 new:2 press:3 hitchens:1 christopher:1 henry:1 kissinger:1 verso:1 taylor:1 branch:1 eugene:1 propper:1 labyrinth:1 viking:1 penguin:1 external:1 link:1 mipt:1 nine:1 legal:1 assassin:1 include:1 transcript:1 give:1 circumstance:1 surround:1 bombing:1 ding:1 correspondent:1 post:1 south:1 america:1 author:1 ally:1 three:1 continent:1 pantheon:1 asesinato:1 en:1 lasser:1 planeta:1 biography:1 memoria:1 chilena:1 short:1 biographical:1 sketch:1 |@bigram orlando_letelier:5 washington_dc:1 instituto_nacional:1 salvador_allende:1 juan_pablo:1 foreign_affair:1 coup_etat:1 concentration_camp:2 caracas_venezuela:1 augusto_pinochet:2 letelier_moffitt:5 w_bush:1 mcgraw_hill:1 henry_kissinger:1 external_link:1 biographical_sketch:1 |
6,253 | Column | A column in structural engineering is a vertical structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be designed to resist lateral forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns" because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture "column" refers to such a structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column might also be a decorative or triumphant feature but need not be supporting any structure e.g. a statue on top. History In the architecture of ancient Egypt as early as 2600 BC the architect Imhotep made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds; in later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common. Some of the most elaborate columns in the ancient world were those of Persia especially the massive stone columns erected in Persepolis. They included double-bull structures in their capitals. The Hall of Hundred Columns at Persepolis, measuring 70 × 70 meters was built by the Achaemenid king Darius I (524–486 BC). Many of the ancient Persian columns are standing, some being more than 30 meters tall. The impost (or pier) is the topmost member of a column. The bottom-most part of the arch, called the springing, rests on the impost. Structure Modern column grid in a car park. Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of a single piece of stone, usually by turning on a lathe-like apparatus. Single-piece columns are among the heaviest stones used in architecture. Other stone columns are created out of multiple sections of stone, mortared or dry-fit together. In many classical sites, sectioned columns were carved with a center hole or depression so that they could be pegged together, using stone or metal pins. The design of most classical columns incorporates entasis (the inclusion of a slight outward curve in the sides) plus a reduction in diameter along the height of the column, so that the top is as little as 83% of the bottom diameter. This reduction mimics the parallax effects which the eye expects to see, and tends to make columns look taller and straighter than they are while entasis adds to that effect. Modern columns are constructed out of steel, poured or precast concrete, or brick. They may then be clad in an architectural covering (or veneer), or left bare. Equilibrium, instability, and loads These are composed of stacked segments and finished in the Corinthian style (Temple of Bel, Syria) As the axial load on a perfectly straight slender column with elastic material properties is increased in magnitude, this ideal column passes through three states: stable equilibrium, neutral equilibrium, and instability. The straight column under load is in stable equilibrium if a lateral force, applied between the two ends of the column, produces a small lateral deflection which disappears and the column returns to its straight form when the lateral force is removed. If the column load is gradually increased, a condition is reached in which the straight form of equilibrium becomes so-called neutral equilibrium, and a small lateral force will produce a deflection that does not disappear and the column remains in this slightly bent form when the lateral force is removed. The load at which neutral equilibrium of a column is reached is called the critical or buckling load. The state of instability is reached when a slight increase of the column load causes uncontrollably growing lateral deflections leading to complete collapse. For an axially loaded straight column with any end support conditions, the equation of static equilibrium, in the form of a differential equation, can be solved for the deflected shape and critical load of the column. With hinged, fixed or free end support conditions the deflected shape in neutral equilibrium of an initially straight column with uniform cross section throughout its length always follows a partial or composite sinusoidal curve shape, and the critical load is given by where E = modulus of elasticity of the material, Imin = the minimal moment of inertia of the cross section, and L = actual length of the column between its two end supports. A variant of (1) is given by Table showing values of K for structural columns of various end conditions (adapted from Manual of Steel Construction, 8th edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Table C1.8.1) where r = radius of gyration of [column]cross-section which is equal to the square root of (I/A), K = ratio of the longest half sine wave to the actual column length, and KL = effective length (length of an equivalent hinged-hinged column). From Equation (2) it can be noted that the buckling strength of a column is inversely proportional to the square of its length. When the critical stress, Fcr (Fcr =Pcr/A, where A = cross-sectional area of the column), is greater than the proportional limit of the material, the column is experiencing inelastic buckling. Since at this stress the slope of the material's stress-strain curve, Et (called the tangent modulus), is smaller than that below the proportional limit, the critical load at inelastic buckling is reduced. More complex formulas and procedures apply for such cases, but in its simplest form the critical buckling load formula is given as Equation (3), where Et = tangent modulus at the stress Fcr A column with a cross section that lacks symmetry may suffer torsional buckling (sudden twisting) before, or in combination with, lateral buckling. The presence of the twisting deformations renders both theoretical analyses and practical designs rather complex. Eccentricity of the load, or imperfections such as initial crookedness, decreases column strength. If the axial load on the column is not concentric, that is, its line of action is not precisely coincident with the centroidal axis of the column, the column is characterized as eccentrically loaded. The eccentricity of the load, or an initial curvature, subjects the column to immediate bending. The increased stresses due to the combined axial-plus-flexural stresses result in a reduced load-carrying ability. Extensions When a column is too long to be built or transported in one piece, it has to be extended or spliced at the construction site. A reinforced concrete column is extended by having the steel reinforcing bars protrude a few inches or feet above the top of the concrete, then placing the next level of reinforcing bars to overlap, and pouring the concrete of the next level. A steel column is extended by welding or bolting splice plates on the flanges and webs or walls of the columns to provide a few inches or feet of load transfer from the upper to the lower column section. A timber column is usually extended by the use of a steel tube or wrapped-around sheet-metal plate bolted onto the two connecting timber sections Foundations A column that carries the load down to a foundation must have means to transfer the load without overstressing the foundation material. Reinforced concrete and masonry columns are generally built directly on top of concrete foundations. A steel column, when seated on a concrete foundation, must have a base plate to spread the load over a larger area and thereby reduce the bearing pressure. The base plate is a thick rectangular steel plate usually welded to the bottom end of the column. Classical orders Church of San Prospero, Reggio Emilia, Italy The Roman author Vitruvius, relying on the writings (now lost) of Greek authors, tells us that the ancient Greeks believed that their Doric order developed from techniques for building in wood in which the earlier smoothed tree trunk was replaced by a stone cylinder. Doric order The Doric order is the oldest and simplest of the classical orders. It is composed of a vertical cylinder that is wider at the bottom. It generally has neither a base nor a detailed capital. It is instead often topped with an inverted frustum of a shallow cone or a cylindrical band of carvings. It is often referred to as the masculine order because it is represented in the bottom level of the Colosseum and the Parthenon, and was therefore considered to be able to hold more weight. The height-to-thickness ratio is about 8:1. The shaft of a Doric Column is always fluted. The Greek Doric, developed in the western Dorian region of Greece, is the heaviest and most massive of the orders. It rises from the stylobate without any base; it is from four to six times as tall as its diameter; it has twenty broad flutes; the capital consists simply of a banded necking swelling out into a smooth echinus , which carries a flat square abacus; the Doric entablature is also the heaviest, being about one-fourth the height column. The Greek Doric order was not used after c. 100 B.C. until its “rediscovery” in the mid-eighteenth century. Tuscan order The Tuscan order, also known as Roman Doric, is also a simple design, the base and capital both being series of cylindrical disks of alternating diameter. The shaft is almost never fluted. The proportions vary, but are generally similar to Doric columns. Height to width ratio is about 7:1. Ionic order The Ionic column is considerably more complex than the Doric or Tuscan. It usually has a base and the shaft is often fluted (it has grooves carved up its length). On the top is a capital in the characteristic shape of a scroll, called a volute, or scroll, at the four corners. The height-to-thickness ratio is around 9:1. Due to the more refined proportions and scroll capitals, the Ionic column is sometimes associated with academic buildings. Ionic capital Corinthian order The Corinthian order is named for the Greek city-state of Corinth, to which it was connected in the period. However, according to the Greek architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor Callimachus, probably an Athenian, who drew acanthus leaves growing around a votive basket. In fact, the oldest known Corinthian capital was found in Bassae, dated at 427 BC. It is sometimes called the feminine order because it is on the top level of the Colosseum and holding up the least weight, and also has the slenderest ratio of thickness to height. Height to width ratio is about 10:1. Composite order The Composite order draws its name from the capital being a composite of the Ionic and Corinthian capitals. The acanthus of the Corinthian column already has a scroll-like element, so the distinction is sometimes subtle. Generally the Composite is similar to the Corinthian in proportion and employment, often in the upper tiers of colonnades. Height to width ratio is about 11:1 or 12:1. Solomonic Capital of Solomonic Column Solomonic columns were inventions of Baroque architects in Europe. They were not used in antiquity, but were called “Solomonic” by baroque architects because they were based on a description of columns in the great temple of King Solomon in the Old Testament. A Solomonic column begins on a base and ends in a capital, just like a classical column, but the shaft twists around the usual parameters of a column, producing a dramatic, serpentine effect of movement. The most famous use of Solomonic columns is in the baldacchino designed by Bernini for Saint Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican City. Notable columns Alexander Column Ashoka Column Berlin victory column Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc Iron Column Monument to the Great Fire of London Nelson's Column Rostral Columns Sigismund's Column Trajan's Column See also Buckling Colonnade Composite Order Corinthian Order Doric Order Entasis Ionic Order Marian and Holy Trinity columns Persian column Pier (architecture) Pilaster Spur (architecture) Stanchion Tuscan Order | Column |@lemmatized column:82 structural:5 engineering:2 vertical:2 element:4 transmit:1 compression:2 weight:3 structure:4 purpose:1 wind:1 earthquake:1 may:3 design:5 resist:1 lateral:8 force:5 member:2 often:5 term:1 similar:3 stress:7 condition:5 frequently:1 use:8 support:5 beam:1 arch:2 upper:3 part:2 wall:2 ceiling:1 rest:2 architecture:6 refers:1 also:8 certain:1 proportional:4 decorative:2 feature:2 might:1 triumphant:1 need:1 e:2 g:1 statue:1 top:7 history:1 ancient:4 egypt:1 early:3 bc:3 architect:3 imhotep:1 make:2 stone:9 whose:1 surface:1 carve:3 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6,254 | Eos | For other uses of the name Eos, see Eos (disambiguation). Eos (roman, or Ἕως "dawn") is, in Greek mythology, the Titanic goddess Lycophron calls her by an archaic name, Tito ("the Titaness") Kerenyi, noting this observes that Tito shares a linguistic origin with Eos' lover Tithonus, that belonged to an older, pre-Greek language (Kerenyi 1951:199 note 637). of the dawn, who rose from her home at the edge of Oceanus, the Ocean that surrounds the world, to herald her brother Helios, the sun. The Greek worship of the dawn as a goddess is believed to be inherited from Indo-European times. The name Eos is cognate to Latin Aurora, to Vedic Ushas. Eos in Greek literature As the dawn goddess, Eos with "rosy fingers" opened the gates of heaven Nonnus: "Eos had just shaken off the wing of carefree sleep (Hypnos) and opened the gates of sunrise, leaving the lightbringing couch of Kephalos." (Dionysiaca 27. 1f, in A.L. Rouse's translation). so that Apollo could ride his chariot across the sky every day. In Homer, Iliad viii.1; xxiv.695 her saffron-colored robe is embroidered or woven with flowers; Odyssey vi:48 etc rosy-fingered and with golden arms, she is pictured on Attic vases as a supernaturally beautiful woman, crowned with a tiara or diadem and with the large white-feathered wings of a bird. From The Iliad: Quintus Smyrnaeus pictured her exulting in her heart over the radiant horses (Lampos and Phaithon) that drew her chariot, amidst the bright-haired Horae, the feminine Hours, climbing the arc of heaven and scattering sparks of fire. Posthomerica i.48 She is most often associated with her Homeric epithet "rosy-fingered" (rhododactylos), but Homer also calls her Eos Erigeneia: Hesiod wrote: Thus Eos, preceded by the Morning Star (Venus), is seen as the genetrix of all the stars and planets; her tears are considered to have created the morning dew, personified as Ersa or Herse. Genealogy Eos is the daughter of Hyperion and Theia (or Pallas and Styx) and sister of Helios the sun and Selene the moon, "who shine upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless Gods who live in the wide heaven" Hesiod told in Theogony (371-374). The generation of Titans preceded all the familiar deities of Olympus, who supplanted them. Children According to Hesiod Theogony 984ff by Tithonus Eos had two sons, Memnon and Emathion. Memnon fought among the Trojans in the Trojan War and was slain. Her image with the dead Memnon across her knees, like Thetis with the dead Achilles and Isis with the dead Osiris, are icons that inspired the Christian Pietà. The abduction of Cephalus had special appeal for an Athenian audience because Cephalus was a local boy, Mary R. Lefkowitz, "'Predatory' Goddesses" Hesperia 71.4 (October 2002, pp. 325-344) p. 326. and so this myth element appeared frequently in Attic vase-paintings and was exported with them. In the literary myths<ref>Hesiod Theogony 984; pseudo-Apollodorus Bibliotheke iii. 14.3; Pausanias i. 3.1; Ovid Metamorphoses vii. 703ff; Hyginus Fabula 189.</ref> Eos kidnapped Cephalus when he was hunting and took him to Syria. The second-century CE traveller Pausanias was informed that the abductor of Cephalus was Hemera, goddess of Day. Pausanias remarking on the subjects shown in the Royal Stoa, Athens (i.3.1) and on the throne of Apollo at Amyklai (iii.18.10ff). Although Cephalus was already married to Procris, Eos bore him three sons, including Phaeton and Hesperus, but he then began pining for Procris, causing a disgruntled Eos to return him to her — and put a curse on them. in Hyginus' report Hyginus, Fabula 189. telling Cephalus accidentally killed Procris some time later after he mistook her for an animal while hunting; in Ovid's Metamorphoses vii, Procris, a jealous wife, was spying on him and heard him singing to the wind, "Aura", but thought he was serenading his ex-lover Aurora (Eos). Etruscan interpretations Among the Etruscans, the generative dawn-goddess was Thesan. Depictions of the dawn-goddess with a young lover became popular in Etruria in the fifth century, probably inspired by imported Greek vase-painting. Marilyn Y. Goldberg, "The 'Eos and Kephalos' from Cære: Its Subject and Date" American Journal of Archæology 91.4 (October 1987, pp. 605-614) p 607. Though Etruscans preferred to show the goddess as a nurturer (Kourotrophos) rather than an abductor of young men, the late Archaic sculptural acroterion from Etruscan Cære (Cerveteri), now in Berlin, showing the goddess in archaic running pose adapted from the Greeks, and bearing a boy in her arms, has commonly been identified as Eos and Cephalus. Goldberg 1987:605-614 casts doubt on the boy's identification, in the context of Etruscan and Greek abduction motifs. On an Etruscan mirror Thesan is shown carrying off a young man, whose name is inscribed TINTHU[N]. Noted by Goldberg 1987: in I. Mayer-Prokop, Die gravierten etruskischen Griffspiegel archaischen Stils (Heidelberg) 1966, fig. 61. Roman interpretation Her Roman equivalent is Aurora. The Dawn became associated in Roman cult with Matuta; later known as Mater Matuta she was also associated with the sea harbors and ports. She had a temple on the Forum Boarium. On June 11, the Matralia was celebrated at that temple in honor of Mater Matuta; this festival was only for women in their first marriage. List of consorts and children The following are lovers of Eos, described in various myths, and her children by them. With Astraios-married Boreas-north wind Eurus-east wind Notus-south wind Zephyrus-west wind Eosphoros-morning star Hesperos-evening star Phainon-Saturn Phaethon-Jupiter Pyroeis-Mars Stilbon-Mercury With Tithonus-kidnapped Emathion Memnon With Cephalus-kidnapped Phaëton Tithonos With Zeus Ersa Carae Sources Kerenyi, Karl. The Gods of the Greeks. Thames and Hudson, 1951. References External links Theoi Project - Eos | Eos |@lemmatized us:1 name:4 eos:20 see:2 disambiguation:1 roman:4 ἕως:1 dawn:7 greek:8 mythology:1 titanic:1 goddess:9 lycophron:1 call:2 archaic:3 tito:2 titaness:1 kerenyi:3 note:3 observe:1 share:1 linguistic:1 origin:1 lover:4 tithonus:3 belong:1 old:1 pre:1 language:1 rise:1 home:1 edge:1 oceanus:1 ocean:1 surround:1 world:1 herald:1 brother:1 helios:2 sun:2 worship:1 believe:1 inherit:1 indo:1 european:1 time:2 cognate:1 latin:1 aurora:3 vedic:1 ushas:1 literature:1 rosy:3 finger:3 open:2 gate:2 heaven:3 nonnus:1 shake:1 wing:2 carefree:1 sleep:1 hypnos:1 sunrise:1 leave:1 lightbringing:1 couch:1 kephalos:2 dionysiaca:1 l:1 rouse:1 translation:1 apollo:2 could:1 ride:1 chariot:2 across:2 sky:1 every:1 day:2 homer:2 iliad:2 viii:1 xxiv:1 saffron:1 colored:1 robe:1 embroider:1 weave:1 flower:1 odyssey:1 vi:1 etc:1 golden:1 arm:2 picture:2 attic:2 vas:1 supernaturally:1 beautiful:1 woman:2 crown:1 tiara:1 diadem:1 large:1 white:1 feathered:1 bird:1 quintus:1 smyrnaeus:1 exulting:1 heart:1 radiant:1 horse:1 lampos:1 phaithon:1 draw:1 amidst:1 bright:1 haired:1 horae:1 feminine:1 hour:1 climb:1 arc:1 scatter:1 spark:1 fire:1 posthomerica:1 often:1 associate:3 homeric:1 epithet:1 rhododactylos:1 also:2 erigeneia:1 hesiod:4 write:1 thus:1 precede:2 morning:3 star:4 venus:1 genetrix:1 planet:1 tear:1 consider:1 create:1 dew:1 personify:1 ersa:2 herse:1 genealogy:1 daughter:1 hyperion:1 theia:1 pallas:1 styx:1 sister:1 selene:1 moon:1 shine:1 upon:2 earth:1 deathless:1 god:2 live:1 wide:1 tell:2 theogony:3 generation:1 titan:1 familiar:1 deity:1 olympus:1 supplant:1 child:3 accord:1 two:1 son:2 memnon:4 emathion:2 fought:1 among:2 trojan:2 war:1 slain:1 image:1 dead:3 knee:1 like:1 thetis:1 achilles:1 isi:1 osiris:1 icon:1 inspire:2 christian:1 pietà:1 abduction:2 cephalus:8 special:1 appeal:1 athenian:1 audience:1 local:1 boy:3 mary:1 r:1 lefkowitz:1 predatory:1 hesperia:1 october:2 pp:2 p:2 myth:3 element:1 appear:1 frequently:1 vase:2 painting:2 export:1 literary:1 ref:2 pseudo:1 apollodorus:1 bibliotheke:1 iii:2 pausanias:3 ovid:2 metamorphosis:2 vii:2 hyginus:3 fabula:2 kidnap:3 hunt:2 take:1 syria:1 second:1 century:2 ce:1 traveller:1 inform:1 abductor:2 hemera:1 remark:1 subject:2 show:4 royal:1 stoa:1 athens:1 throne:1 amyklai:1 although:1 already:1 marry:1 procris:4 bore:1 three:1 include:1 phaeton:1 hesperus:1 begin:1 pin:1 cause:1 disgruntled:1 return:1 put:1 curse:1 report:1 accidentally:1 kill:1 later:2 mistake:1 animal:1 jealous:1 wife:1 spy:1 hear:1 sing:1 wind:5 aura:1 think:1 serenade:1 ex:1 etruscan:6 interpretation:2 generative:1 thesan:2 depiction:1 young:3 become:2 popular:1 etruria:1 fifth:1 probably:1 import:1 marilyn:1 goldberg:3 cære:2 date:1 american:1 journal:1 archæology:1 though:1 prefer:1 nurturer:1 kourotrophos:1 rather:1 men:1 late:1 sculptural:1 acroterion:1 cerveteri:1 berlin:1 run:1 pose:1 adapt:1 bear:1 commonly:1 identify:1 cast:1 doubt:1 identification:1 context:1 motif:1 mirror:1 carry:1 man:1 whose:1 inscribe:1 tinthu:1 n:1 mayer:1 prokop:1 die:1 gravierten:1 etruskischen:1 griffspiegel:1 archaischen:1 stils:1 heidelberg:1 fig:1 equivalent:1 cult:1 matuta:3 know:1 mater:2 sea:1 harbor:1 port:1 temple:2 forum:1 boarium:1 june:1 matralia:1 celebrate:1 honor:1 festival:1 first:1 marriage:1 list:1 consort:1 following:1 describe:1 various:1 astraios:1 married:1 boreas:1 north:1 eurus:1 east:1 notus:1 south:1 zephyrus:1 west:1 eosphoros:1 hesperos:1 even:1 phainon:1 saturn:1 phaethon:1 jupiter:1 pyroeis:1 mar:1 stilbon:1 mercury:1 phaëton:1 tithonos:1 zeus:1 carae:1 source:1 karl:1 thames:1 hudson:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 theoi:1 project:1 |@bigram indo_european:1 rosy_finger:3 homer_iliad:1 quintus_smyrnaeus:1 deathless_god:1 hesiod_theogony:2 attic_vase:1 vase_painting:2 pseudo_apollodorus:1 apollodorus_bibliotheke:1 bibliotheke_iii:1 ovid_metamorphosis:2 hyginus_fabula:2 forum_boarium:1 kerenyi_karl:1 thames_hudson:1 external_link:1 theoi_project:1 |
6,255 | Bill_Clinton | William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton (born William Jefferson Blythe III, August 19, 1946) served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. He was the third-youngest president; only Theodore Roosevelt and John F. Kennedy were younger when entering office. He became president at the end of the Cold War, and as he was born in the period after World War II, he is known as the first Baby Boomer president. His wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, is currently the United States Secretary of State. She was previously a United States Senator from New York, and also candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2008. Both are graduates of Yale Law School. Clinton was described as a New Democrat and was largely known for the Third Way philosophy of governance that came to epitomize his two terms as president. His policies, on issues such as the North American Free Trade Agreement and welfare reform, have been described as centrist. Clinton presided over the longest period of peace-time economic expansion in American history, which included a balanced budget and a reported federal surplus. Based on Congressional accounting rules, at the end of his presidency Clinton reported a surplus of $559 billion. On the heels of a failed attempt at health care reform with a Democratic Congress, Republicans won control of the House of Representatives for the first time in forty years. Two years later, in 1996, Clinton was re-elected and became the first member of the Democratic Party since Franklin D. Roosevelt to win a second term as president. Later he was impeached for obstruction of justice, but was subsequently acquitted by the U.S. Senate. Clinton left office with an approval rating at 66%, the highest end of office rating of any president since World War II. Since then, he has been involved in public speaking and humanitarian work. Clinton created the William J. Clinton Foundation to promote and address international causes such as treatment and prevention of HIV/AIDS and global warming. In 2004, he released his autobiography, My Life, and more recently has been involved in his wife Hillary's 2008 presidential campaign and in that of President Barack Obama. In 2009, he was named United Nations Special Envoy to Haiti. Early life Bill Clinton was born William Jefferson Blythe III in Hope, Arkansas. http://homepage.eircom.net/%257Eseanjmurphy/dir/pres.htm His father, William Jefferson Blythe, Jr., was a traveling salesman who died in an automobile accident three months before Bill was born. Following his birth, in order to study nursing, his mother Virginia Dell Cassidy (1923-1994), traveled to New Orleans, leaving Bill in Hope with grandparents Eldridge and Edith Cassidy, who owned and operated a small grocery store. At a time when the Southern United States were racially segregated, Bill's grandparents sold goods on credit to people of all racial groups. In 1950, Bill's mother returned from nursing school and shortly thereafter married Roger Clinton, who together with his brother owned an automobile dealership in Hot Springs, Arkansas. The family moved to Hot Springs in 1950. Although he assumed use of his stepfather's surname, it was not until Billy (as he was known then) turned fourteen that he formally adopted the surname Clinton, as a gesture toward his stepfather. Clinton says he remembers his stepfather as a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused his mother and, at times, his half-brother, Roger, Jr. Clinton intervened multiple times with the threat of violence to protect them. Education In Hot Springs, Clinton attended St. John's Catholic Elementary School, Ramble Elementary School, and Hot Springs High School - where he was an active student leader, avid reader, and musician. He was in the chorus and played the tenor saxophone, winning first chair in the state band's saxophone section. He briefly considered dedicating his life to music, but as he noted in his autobiography My Life: In 1963, two influential moments in Clinton's life contributed to his decision to become a public figure. One was his visit to the White House to meet President John F. Kennedy, as a Boys Nation senator. The other was listening to Martin Luther King's 1963 I Have a Dream speech (he memorized Dr. King's words). With the aid of scholarships, Clinton attended the Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., receiving a Bachelor of Science in Foreign Service (B.S.F.S.) degree in 1968. He spent the summer of 1967, the summer before his senior year, working as an intern for Arkansas Senator J. William Fulbright. While in college he became a brother of Alpha Phi Omega and was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. Clinton was also a member of Youth Order of DeMolay, but he never actually became a Freemason. Political Base. "Bill Clinton." http://www.politicalbase.com/people/bill-clinton/13418/ (accessed November 10, 2008). He is a member of Kappa Kappa Psi's National Honorary Band Fraternity, Inc. Kappa Kappa PSI "Prominent Members" http://www.kkpsi.org/prominentmembers.asp (accessed November 10, 2008). Upon graduation he won a Rhodes Scholarship to University College, Oxford where he studied Philosophy, Politics and Economics. He developed an interest in rugby union, playing at Oxford and later for the Little Rock Rugby club in Arkansas. While at Oxford he also participated in Vietnam War protests, including organizing an October 1969 Moratorium event. In later life he admitted to smoking cannabis at the university, but claimed that he "never inhaled". After Oxford, Clinton attended Yale Law School and obtained a Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree in 1973. While at Yale, he began dating law student Hillary Rodham, who was a year ahead of him. They married on 11 October 1975, and their only child, Chelsea, was born on 27 February 1980. Early political career Leader of McGovern's 1972 presidential campaign in Texas During Yale, Clinton took a job with the McGovern campaign and was assigned to lead McGovern's effort in Texas. He spent considerable time in Dallas, Texas, at the McGovern campaign's local headquarters on Lemmon Avenue where he had an office. There, Clinton worked with Ron Kirk, who was later elected mayor of Dallas twice, future governor of Texas Ann Richards, and then unknown television director (and future filmmaker) Steven Spielberg. Governor of Arkansas After graduating from Yale Law School, Clinton returned to Arkansas and became a professor at the University of Arkansas. A year later, he ran for the House of Representatives in 1974. The incumbent, John Paul Hammerschmidt, defeated Clinton by a 52% to 48% margin. Without opposition in the general election, Clinton was elected Arkansas Attorney General in 1976. Clinton was elected Governor of Arkansas in 1978, making him the youngest governor in the country at age thirty-two. He worked on educational reform and Arkansas's roads, with wife Hillary leading a successful committee on urban health care reform. However, his term included an unpopular motor vehicle tax and citizens' anger over the escape of Cuban refugees (from the Mariel boatlift) detained in Fort Chaffee in 1980. Monroe Schwarzlose of Kingsland in Cleveland County, polled 31% of the vote against Clinton in the Democratic gubernatorial primary of 1980. Some suggested Schwarzlose's unexpected voter turnout foreshadowed Clinton's defeat in the general election that year by Republican challenger Frank D. White. As Clinton once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history. Clinton joined friend's Bruce Lindsey's law firm of Wright, Lindsey and Jennings, though he spent most of the next two years working on his re-election campaign. Clinton was again elected governor and kept his job for ten years. He helped Arkansas transform its economy and significantly improve the state's educational system. He became a leading figure among the New Democrats. The New Democrats, organized within the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC) were a branch of the Democratic Party that called for welfare reform and smaller government, a policy supported by both Democrats and Republicans. He served as Chair of the National Governors Association from 1986 to 1987, bringing him to an audience beyond Arkansas. Clinton made economic growth, job creation and educational improvement high priorities. For senior citizens, he removed the sales tax from medicine and increased the home property tax exemption. In the early 1980s, Clinton made reform of the Arkansas education system a top priority. The Arkansas Education Standards Committee, chaired by Clinton's wife, attorney and Legal Services Corporation chair Hillary Rodham Clinton, succeeded in reforming the education system, transforming it from the worst in the nation, into one of the best. This has been considered by many the greatest achievement of the Clinton governorship. Clinton and the committee were responsible for state educational improvement programs, notably more spending for schools, rising opportunities for gifted children, an increase in vocational education, raising of teachers' salaries, inclusion of a wider variety of courses, and mandatory teacher testing for aspiring educators. The Clinton's personal and business affairs during the 1980s included transactions which became the basis of the Whitewater investigation, which dogged his later presidential administration. After extensive investigation over several years, no indictments were made against the Clintons related to the years in Arkansas. Democratic presidential primaries of 1988 In 1987 there was media speculation Clinton would enter the race after then-New York Governor Mario Cuomo declined to run and Democratic front-runner Gary Hart withdrew owing to revelations of marital infidelity. Clinton decided to remain as Arkansas governor (following consideration for the potential candidacy of Hillary Rodham Clinton for governor, initially favored, but ultimately vetoed, by the First Lady). David Maraniss, First in His Class: A Biography of Bill Clinton (New York: Random House, 1996; ISBN 978-0-684-81890-0). For the nomination, Clinton endorsed Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis. However, he gave the opening night address at the 1988 Democratic National Convention, which was nationally televised, but it was criticized for length. Presenting himself as a moderate and a member of the New Democrat wing of the Democratic Party, he headed the moderate Democratic Leadership Council in 1990 and 1991. Democratic presidential primaries of 1992 Due to his youthful appearance he was often called the "Boy Governor". In the first contest, the Iowa caucus, he finished a very distant third to Iowa Senator Tom Harkin. During the campaign for the New Hampshire Primary reports of an extramarital affair with Gennifer Flowers surfaced. As Clinton fell far behind former Massachusetts Senator Paul Tsongas in the New Hampshire polls, following the Super Bowl, Clinton and his wife Hillary went on 60 Minutes to refute the charges. Their television appearance was a calculated risk but Clinton regained several delegates. He finished second to Tsongas in the New Hampshire primary, but after trailing badly in the polls and coming within single digits of winning, the media viewed it as a victory. On election night, Clinton labeled himself "The Comeback Kid". He ended leading New Hampshire by a large percentage. Winning the big prizes of Florida and Texas and many of the Southern primaries gave Clinton a sizable delegate lead. However, former California Governor Jerry Brown was scoring victories and Clinton had yet to win a significant contest outside of his native South. With no major Southern state remaining, Clinton targeted the New York primary, which contained a large number of delegates. He scored a resounding victory in New York City and won, shedding his image as a regional candidate. Having been transformed into the consensus candidate, he secured the Democratic Party nomination, finishing with a victory in Jerry Brown's home state of California. Presidential election Clinton won the 1992 presidential election (43.0% of the vote) against Republican incumbent George H. W. Bush (37.4% of the vote) and billionaire populist Ross Perot, who ran as an independent (18.9% of the vote) on a platform focusing on domestic issues; a significant part of Clinton's success was Bush's steep decline in public approval. Because Bush's approval ratings were in the 80% range during the Gulf War, he was described as unbeatable. However, when Bush compromised with Democrats in an attempt to lower Federal deficits, he reneged on his promise not to raise taxes, hurting his approval rating. Clinton repeatedly condemned Bush for making a promise he failed to keep. By election time, the economy was souring and Bush saw his approval rating plummet to slightly over 40%. Finally, conservatives were previously united by anti-communism, but with the end of the Cold War, the party lacked a uniting issue. When Pat Buchanan and Pat Robertson addressed Christian themes at the Republican National Convention, with Bush criticizing Democrats for omitting God from their platform, many moderates were alienated. Clinton then pointed to his moderate, "New Democrat" record as governor of Arkansas, though some on the more liberal side of the party remained suspicious. Many Democrats who supported Ronald Reagan and Bush in previous elections switched their allegiance to Clinton. His election ended twelve years of Republican rule of the White House, and twenty of the previous twenty-four years. The election gave Democrats full control of the United States Congress. It was the first time this had occurred since the Jimmy Carter presidency in the late 1970s. However, during the campaign questions of conflict of interest regarding state business and the politically powerful Rose Law Firm, at which Hillary Rodham Clinton was a partner, arose. Clinton maintained questions were moot because all transactions with the state were deducted prior to determining Hillary's firm pay. <ref name= Further concern arose when Bill Clinton announced that, with Hillary, voters would be getting two presidents "for the price of one". Presidency, 1993–2001 First term, 1993–1997 Clinton was inaugurated as the 42nd President of the United States on January 20, 1993. In his inaugural address he declared: Legislative agenda Shortly after taking office, Clinton signed the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, which required large employers to allow employees to take unpaid leave for pregnancy or a serious medical condition. While this action was popular, Clinton's attempt to fulfill another campaign promise of allowing openly homosexual men and women to serve in the armed forces garnered criticism from the left (for being too tentative in promoting gay rights) and from the right (who opposed any effort to allow homosexuals to serve). After much debate, Congress implemented the "Don't ask, don't tell" policy, stating as long as homosexuals keep their sexuality secret, they may serve in the military. Some gay rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise to get votes and contributions. Stranger Among Friends. - book reviews - John Cloud, Washington Monthly, November 1996 Washington Blade Editorial: Bush Has Mandate to Let Gays Serve - Kevin Naff, Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military, 2003-01-10 These advocates feel Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting President Harry Truman used executive order to racially desegregate the armed forces. Clinton's defenders argue an executive order might have prompted the Democratic Senate to write the exclusion of homosexuals into law, potentially making it harder to integrate the military in the future. Later in his presidency, in 1999, Clinton said he did not think any serious person could say the way the policy was being implemented was not "out of whack." President seeks better implementation of 'do not ask, do not tell' - CNN, 1999-12-11 The Clinton administration launched the first official White House website on October 21, 1994. It was followed by three more versions, resulting in the final edition launched in 2000. The White House website was part of a wider movement of the Clinton administration toward web-based communication. According to Robert Longley, "Clinton and Gore were responsible for pressing almost all federal agencies, the U.S. court system and the U.S. military onto the Internet, thus opening up America's government to more of America's citizens than ever before. On July 17, 1996, President Clinton issued Executive Order 13011 - Federal Information Technology, ordering the heads of all federal agencies to fully utilize information technology to make the information of the agency easily accessible to the public." Also in 1993, Clinton controversially supported ratification of the North American Free Trade Agreement by the U.S. Senate. Clinton, along with most of his Democratic Leadership Committee allies, strongly supported free trade measures; there remained, however, strong intra-party disagreement. Opposition chiefly came from anti-trade Republicans, protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. The bill passed the house with 234 votes against 200 opposed (132 Republicans and 102 Democrats voting in favor, 156 Democrats, 43 Republicans, and 1 independent against). The treaty was then ratified by the Senate and signed into law by the President on January 1, 1994. Livingston, C. Don, Kenneth A. Wink; "The Passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement in the U.S. House of Representatives: Presidential Leadership or Presidential Luck?" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 Clinton signed the Brady Bill into law on November 30, 1993, which imposed a five-day waiting period on handgun purchases. He also expanded the Earned Income Tax Credit, a subsidy for low income workers. One of the most prominent items on Clinton's legislative agenda was the result of a taskforce headed by Hillary Clinton, which was a health care reform plan aimed at achieving universal coverage via a national healthcare plan. Though initially well-received in political circles, it was ultimately doomed by well-organized opposition from conservatives, the American Medical Association, and the health insurance industry. However, John F. Harris, a biographer of Clinton's, states the program failed because of a lack of co-ordination within the White House. Despite his party holding a majority in Congress, the effort to create a national healthcare system ultimately died under heavy public pressure. It was the first major legislative defeat of Clinton's administration. Two months later, after two years of Democratic Party control, the Democrats lost control of Congress in the mid-term elections in 1994, for the first time in forty years. Clinton signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 in August 1993, which passed Congress without a Republican vote. It cut taxes for fifteen million low-income families, made tax cuts available to 90% of small businesses, and raised taxes on the wealthiest 1.2% of taxpayers. Additionally, through the implementation of spending restraints, it mandated the budget be balanced over a number of years. In 1997 Senators Ted Kennedy, a Democrat, and Orrin Hatch, a Republican, teamed up with Hillary Rodham Clinton and her staff and succeeded in passing legislation forming the Children's Health Insurance Program, the largest (successful) health care reform in the years of the Clinton Presidency. That same year Hillary Clinton shepherded the Adoption and Safe Families Act through Congress and two years later Rodham Clinton succeeded in helping pass the Foster Care Independence Act. Bill Clinton supported both bills as well, and signed both of them into law. Travelgate controversy When several longtime employees of the White House Travel Office were fired, the White House travel office controversy began on May 19, 1993. A whistleblower's letter, written during the previous administration, triggered an FBI investigation, which revealed evidence of financial malfeasance. Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr investigated the firings and found no evidence of wrongdoing on the Clintons' part. Howard Kurtz, The Washington Post, 1998-11-23 The White House FBI files controversy of June 1996 arose around improper access to FBI security-clearance documents. Craig Livingstone, head of the White House Office of Personnel Security, improperly requested, and received from the FBI, background report files without asking permission of the subject individuals; many of these were employees of former Republican administrations. In March 2000, Independent Counsel Robert Ray determined that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity. Ray's report further stated "there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official was involved" in seeking the files. Death penalty The application of the federal death penalty was expanded to include crimes not resulting in death, such as running a large-scale drug enterprise, by Clinton's 1994 Omnibus Crime Bill. During Clinton's re-election campaign he said, "My 1994 crime bill expanded the death penalty for drug kingpins, murderers of federal law enforcement officers, and nearly 60 additional categories of violent felons." While campaigning for U.S. President, then-Governor Clinton returned to Arkansas to see that Ricky Ray Rector would be executed. After killing a police officer and a civilian, Rector shot himself in the head, leading to what his lawyers said was a state where he could still talk but didn't understand the concept of death. According to Arkansas state and Federal law, a seriously mentally impaired inmate cannot be executed. The courts disagreed with the claim of grave mental impairment and allowed the execution. Clinton's return to Arkansas for the execution was framed in a New York Times article as a possible political move to counter "soft on crime" accusations. George Stephanopoulos, All Too Human: A Political Education, 1999 According to some sources Clinton was a death penalty opponent in his early years who switched positions. During Clinton's term, Arkansas performed its first executions since 1964 (the death penalty was re-enacted on March 23, 1973). Death Penalty Information Center As Governor, he oversaw four executions: one by electric chair and three by lethal injection. However, Clinton was the first President to pardon a death row inmate since the federal death penalty was reintroduced in 1988. Federal executions were resumed under his successor George W. Bush. Second term, 1997–2001 In the 1996 presidential election, Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2% of the popular vote over Republican Bob Dole (40.7% of the popular vote) and Reform candidate Ross Perot (8.4% of the popular vote), becoming the first Democrat to win presidential reelection since Franklin Roosevelt. The Republicans lost a few seats in the House and gained a few in the Senate, but overall retained control of the Congress. Clinton received 379, or over 70% of the Electoral College votes, with Dole receiving 159 electoral votes. Lewinsky scandal Clinton's sexual relationship with a 22-year-old White House intern named Monica Lewinsky led to the Lewinsky scandal. In a lame duck session after the 1998 elections, the House voted to impeach Clinton, based on allegations Clinton lied about his relationship with Lewinsky in a sworn deposition in the Paula Jones lawsuit. This made Clinton only the second U.S. president to be impeached after Andrew Johnson. Impeachment and trial in the Senate The House held no serious impeachment hearings before the mid-term elections. Though the mid-term elections held in November 1998 were at the 6-year point in an 8-year presidency (a time in the electoral cycle where the party holding the White House usually loses Congressional seats) the Democratic Party gained several seats. The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House, John F. Harris , 2005, ISBN 0-375-50847-3 To hold impeachment proceedings, the Republican leadership called a lame duck session in December 1998. While the House Judiciary Committee hearings ended in a straight party line vote, there was lively debate on the House floor. The two charges passed in the House (largely on the basis of Republican support but with a handful of Democratic votes as well) were for perjury and obstruction of justice. The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony about his relationship to Monica Lewinsky during a sexual harassment lawsuit (later dismissed, appealed and settled for $850,000) brought by former Arkansas state employee Paula Jones. The obstruction charge was based on his actions during the subsequent investigation of that testimony. The Senate later voted to acquit Clinton on both charges. "CNN-Clinton_aquiter" The Senate refused to convene to hold an impeachment trial before the end of the old term, so the trial was held over until the next Congress. Clinton was represented by Washington law firm Williams & Connolly. The Senate concluded a twenty-one day trial on February 12, 1999, with the vote on both counts falling short of the Constitutional two-thirds majority requirement to convict and remove an office holder. The final vote was generally along party lines, with no Democrats voting guilty. Some Republicans voted not guilty for both charges. On the perjury charge, fifty-five senators voted to acquit, including ten Republicans, and forty-five voted to convict; on the obstruction charge the Senate voted 50-50. Digital Millennium Copyright Act Clinton enacted the Digital Millennium Copyright Act on October 21, 1998. It served as the first significant amendment to the Copyright Act since 1976. The DMCA extended the regulation of copyright to outlaw reverse engineering of digital copyright infringement prevention. It provided a framework for sound recording copyright owners and recording artists to seek public performance royalties under statute, which proved to be a landmark achievement for the recording industry. Military and foreign events Three notable military events occurred during Clinton's second term. The Battle of Mogadishu also occurred in Somalia in 1993. During the operation, two U.S. MH-60 Black Hawk helicopters were shot down by rocket-propelled grenade attacks to their tail rotors, trapping soldiers behind enemy lines. This resulted in an urban battle that killed 18 American soldiers, wounded 73 others, and one was taken prisoner. There were many more Somali casualties. Some of the American bodies were dragged through the streets and broadcasted on television news programs. In response, U.S. forces were withdrawn from Somalia and later conflicts were approached with fewer soldiers on the ground. To stop the ethnic cleansing and genocide Cohen, William (April 7, 1999). "Secretary Cohen's Press Conference at NATO Headquarters". Clinton, Bill (June 25, 1999). "Press Conference by the President". of Albanians by nationalist Serbians in the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia's province of Kosovo, Clinton authorized the use of American troops in a NATO bombing campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999, named Operation Allied Force. General Wesley Clark was Supreme Allied Commander of NATO and oversaw the mission. With United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244, the bombing campaign ended on June 10, 1999. The resolution placed Kosovo under UN administration and authorized a peacekeeping force. Resolution 1244 adopted by the United Nations Security Council on June 10, 1999. NATO claimed to have suffered zero combat deaths, The Impact of the Laws of War in Contemporary Conflicts (PDF) by Adam Roberts on April 10, 2003 at a seminar at Princeton University titled "The Emerging International System Actors, Interactions, Perceptions, Security". Retrieved January 25, 2007. and two deaths from an Apache helicopter crash. Two die in Apache crash by BBC News on May 5, 1999. Retrieved January 25, 2007. Opinions in the popular press criticized pre-war genocide claims by the Clinton administration as greatly exaggerated. Pilger, John (September 4, 2000). "US and British officials told us that at least 100,000 were murdered in Kosovo. A year later, fewer than 3,000 bodies have been found". New Statesman. Pearl, Daniel and Block, Robert (December 31, 1999). "War in Kosovo Was Cruel, Bitter, Savage; Genocide It Wasn't". The Wall Street Journal, p. A1. A U.N. Court ruled genocide did not take place, but recognized, "a systematic campaign of terror, including murders, rapes, arsons and severe maltreatments". "Kosovo assault 'was not genocide'". (September 7, 2001). BBC. The term "ethnic cleansing" was used as an alternative to "genocide" to denote not just ethnically motivated murder but also displacement, though critics charge there is no difference. Encylopaedia Britannica - Ethnic Cleansing. Slobodan Milosevic, the President of Yugoslavia at the time, was eventually charged with the "murders of about 600 individually identified ethnic Albanians" and "crimes against humanity." "The charges against Milosevic." (July 5, 2004). BBC. In Clinton's State of the Union Address, Clinton warned Congress of Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein's possible pursuit of nuclear weapons: To weaken Saddam Hussein's grip of power, Clinton signed H.R. 4655 into law on October 31, 1998, which instituted a policy of "regime change" against Iraq, though it explicitly stated it did not speak to the use of American military forces. Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, H.R.4655, One Hundred Fifth Congress of United States of America at Second Session; Library of Congress The Iraq Liberation Act, Statement by the President, Office of the Press Secretary For Immediate Release, October 31, 1998 The administration then launched a four-day bombing campaign named Operation Desert Fox, lasting from December 16 to December 19, 1998. After initial successes such as the Oslo accords of the early 1990s, Clinton attempted to address the Arab-Israeli conflict. Clinton brought Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority Chairman Yasser Arafat together at Camp David. However, the negotiations were ultimately unsuccessful. The situation broke down completely with the start of the Second Intifada. Clinton became the first president to visit Vietnam since the end of the Vietnam War in November 2000. Clinton's Vietnam Visit, BBC News 2000 Clinton remained popular with the public throughout his two terms as President, ending his presidential career with a 65% approval rating, the highest end-of-term approval rating of any President since Dwight D. Eisenhower. Clinton also oversaw a boom of the U.S. economy. Under Clinton, the United States had a projected federal budget surplus for the first time since 1969. Whitewater controversy The Whitewater controversy was an American political controversy that began with the real estate dealings of Bill and Hillary Clinton and their associates, Jim and Susan McDougal in the Whitewater Development Corporation, a failed business venture in the 1970s and 1980s. David Hale, the source of criminal allegations against President Bill Clinton in the Whitewater affair, claimed in November 1993 that Bill Clinton, while governor of Arkansas, pressured him to provide an illegal $300,000 loan to Susan McDougal, the partner of the Clintons in the Whitewater land deal. Jonathan Broder and Murray Waas, "The road to Hale", Salon.com, March 17, 1998. Accessed August 25, 2007. A U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission investigation did result in convictions against the McDougals for their role in the Whitewater project, but the Clintons themselves were never charged, and Clinton maintains innocence in the affair. Attempted capture of Osama bin Laden Capturing Osama bin Laden has been an objective of the United States government since the presidency of Bill Clinton. http://www.cnn.com/2006/POLITICS/09/24/clinton.binladen/index.html Bill Clinton: I got closer to killing bin Laden On three separate occasions in 1996, 1998, and 2000, while the Clinton Administration had begun pursuit of the policy, the Sudanese government offered to arrest and extradite Bin Laden as well as to provide the United States detailed intelligence information about growing militant organizations in the region, including Hezbollah and Hamas. http://articles.latimes.com/2001/dec/05/opinion/oe-ijaz05 Clinton Let Bin Laden Slip Away and Metastisize. Though U.S. authorities knew of bin Laden's involvement in bombings on American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, they rejected each offer. http://articles.latimes.com/2001/dec/05/opinion/oe-ijaz05 Clinton Let Bin Laden Slip Away and Metastisize. Three months after the final offer in 2000, al Qaeda operatives bombed the U.S.S. Cole. http://articles.latimes.com/2001/dec/05/opinion/oe-ijaz05 Clinton Let Bin Laden Slip Away and Metastisize. On September 11, 2001, members of al Qaeda carried out an attack on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Mansoor Ijaz, a former member of the CIA who participated directly in the United States' negotiations with Sudan for bin Laden, concludes, "Clinton's failure to grasp the opportunity to unravel increasingly organized extremists, coupled with Berger's assessments of their potential to directly threaten the U.S., represents one of the most serious foreign policy failures in American history." http://articles.latimes.com/2001/dec/05/opinion/oe-ijaz05 Clinton Let Bin Laden Slip Away and Metastisize. Law license suspension Clinton was ordered to pay $25,000 in fines to Arkansas state's bar officials and his Arkansas law license was suspended for five years. The agreement came on the condition that Whitewater prosecutors would not pursue federal perjury charges against him. Clinton was suspended by the Supreme Court in October 2001, and, facing disbarment from that court, Clinton resigned from the Supreme Court bar in November. Troopergate Troopergate is the popular name of a scandal involving allegations by two Arkansas state troopers that they arranged sexual liaisons for then-governor Bill Clinton. The allegations by state troopers Larry Patterson and Roger Perry were first reported by David Brock in the American Spectator in 1993. The troopers were paid for their stories. The story mentioned a woman named Paula, a reference to Paula Jones. Brock later admitted journalistic dishonesty and apologized. Pardons and campaign finance Clinton issued 141 pardons and 36 commutations on his last day in office on January 20, 2001. "Clinton Pardon's List", Associated Press via The Washington Post, 2001-01-20 Most of the controversy surrounded Marc Rich and allegations that Hillary Clinton's brother, Hugh Rodham, accepted payments in return for influencing the president's decision-making regarding the pardons. Some of Clinton's pardons remain a point of controversy. Curl, Joseph, "Clintons hit over Libby criticism", Washington Post The 1996 United States campaign finance controversy was an alleged effort by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to influence the domestic policies of the United States, prior to and during the Clinton administration and also involved the fundraising practices of the administration itself. Woodward, Bob and Duffy, Brian, "Chinese Embassy Role In Contributions Probed", Washington Post, February 13, 1997 Legislation and programs Major legislation signed 1993-02-05 - Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 1993-08-10 - Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993 - Raised income tax rates; income tax, top rate: 39.6%; corporate tax: 35% 1993-09-21 - creation of the AmeriCorps volunteer program 1993-11-30 - Brady Bill 1994-09-13 - Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, part of an omnibus crime bill, the federal death penalty was expanded to some 60 different offenses (see Federal assault weapons ban) 1996-02-01 - Communications Decency Act 1996-02-08 - Telecom Reform Act: eliminated major ownership restrictions for radio and television groups. 1996-02-26 - Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, a welfare reform bill 1996-03-14 - authorized $100 million counter-terrorism agreement with Israel to track down and root out terrorists. 1996-04-09 - Line Item Veto Act This law was declared to be unconstitutional in Clinton v. City of New York. 1996-04-24 - Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act 1996-08-20 - Minimum wage Increase Act 1996-09-21 - Defense of Marriage Act, allowed states to refuse recognition of certain same-sex marriages, and defined marriage as between a male and female for purposes of federal law. 1997-08-05 - Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997 1998-10-28 - Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1998-10-31 - Iraq Liberation Act Major legislation vetoed national budget H.R. 1833, partial birth abortion ban Twice vetoed welfare reform before signing the Private Securities Litigation Reform Act. Congress overrode the veto, however, to enact the bill into law. Proposals not passed by Congress Health care reform Campaign finance reform (1993) Initiatives Tried to get Ehud Barak of Israel and Yasser Arafat of the Palestinian National Authority, to agree to a final settlement agreement. Initiated the Don't ask, don't tell policy toward gays in the military, 1993. Reversed a ban on senior Sinn Féin politicians entering the U.S. Proposed a national challenge to end the racial divide in America, the One America Initiative. Judicial appointments Supreme Court Clinton appointed the following justices to the Supreme Court: Ruth Bader Ginsburg - 1993 http://www.fjc.gov/servlet/tGetInfo?jid=431 Stephen Breyer - 1994 Other courts In addition to his two Supreme Court appointments, Clinton appointed 66 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 305 judges to the United States district courts. His total of 373 judicial appointments, is second in American history, behind Ronald Reagan. Clinton also experienced a number of judicial appointment controversies, as 24 nominees to 20 different federal appellate judgeships were not processed by the Republican-controlled Senate Judiciary Committee. Public approval Clinton's job approval rating ranged from 36% in mid-1993 to 64% in late 1993 and early 1994. In his second term, his rating was consistently ranged from the high-50s to the high-60s. Bill Clinton: Job Ratings - PollingReport.com After his impeachment proceedings in 1998 and 1999, Clinton's rating reached its highest point at 73% approval. Poll: Clinton's approval rating up in wake of impeachment - CNN, 1998-12-20 He finished with an approval rating of 68%, which matched those of Ronald Reagan and Franklin Delano Roosevelt as the highest ratings for departing presidents in the modern era. As he was leaving office, a CNN/USA TODAY/Gallup poll revealed 45% said they'd miss him. While 55% thought he "would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life", 68% thought he'd be remembered for his "involvement in personal scandal", and 58% answered "No" to the question "Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?". 47% of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters. 47% said he would be remembered as either "outstanding" or "above average" as a president while 22% said he would be remembered as "below average" or "poor". Poll: Majority of Americans glad Clinton is leaving office - Keating Holland, CNN, 2001-01-10 The Gallup Organization published a poll in February 2007 asking respondents to name the greatest president in U.S. history; Clinton came in fourth place, capturing 13% of the vote. In a 2006 Quinnipiac University poll asking respondents to name the best president since World War II, Clinton ranked 3% behind Ronald Reagan to place second with 25% of the vote. However, in the same poll, when respondents were asked to name the worst president since World War II, Clinton placed 1% behind Richard Nixon and 18% behind George W. Bush to come in third with 16% of the vote. In May 2006, a CNN poll comparing Clinton's job performance with that of his successor, George W. Bush, found that a strong majority of respondents said Clinton outperformed Bush in six different areas questioned. Poll: Clinton outperformed Bush - CNN.com ABC News characterized public consensus on Clinton as, "You can't trust him, he's got weak morals and ethics and he's done a heck of a good job." Poll: Clinton Legacy Mixed, ABCNews.com, January 17, 2001. Clinton's 65% Gallup Poll approval rating was also the highest Gallup approval rating of any Postwar President leaving office, one point ahead of Reagan. Public image As the first Baby Boomer president, Clinton was the first president in a half-century not to have been shaped by World War II. Authors Martin Walker and Bob Woodward state Clinton's innovative use of soundbite-ready dialogue, personal charisma, and public perception-oriented campaigning was major for his high public approval ratings. Martin Walker, Clinton: the President they deserve, Fourth Estate 1999 Bob Woodward, The choice: how Clinton won, Touchstone 1996, ISBN 0-684-81308-4 When Clinton played the saxophone on The Arsenio Hall Show, Clinton was sometimes described as "the MTV president." Popularity among African-Americans Clinton drew strong support from the African American community and made improving race relations a major theme of his presidency. A Conversation With President Bill Clinton on Race in America Today - interview with Clinton, Center for American Progress, July 16, 2004. In 1998, Nobel Prize-winning author Toni Morrison in The New Yorker called Clinton "the first Black president," saying, "Clinton displays almost every trope of blackness: single-parent household, born poor, working-class, saxophone-playing, McDonald's-and-junk-food-loving boy from Arkansas," and comparing Clinton's sex life, scrutinized despite his career accomplishments, to the stereotyping and double standards that blacks typically endure. Sexual misconduct allegations Throughout his career, Clinton has been subject to various allegations of sexual misconduct, though only his extramarital sexual relationships with Lewinsky and Flowers have been admitted by him. For alleged misconduct during his governorship Paula Jones brought a sexual harassment lawsuit against Clinton while he was president. Clinton argued that as a sitting president, he should not be vulnerable to a civil suit of this nature. The case landed in the U.S. Supreme Court. The Supreme Court held that "Deferral of this litigation until petitioner's Presidency ends is not constitutionally required." Clinton v. Jones, No. 95-1853 http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&vol=000&invol=95-1853 However, a U.S. judge in Arkansas, Susan Webber Wright, ruled that since Jones had not suffered any damages, the case should be dismissed. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/pjones/docs/order040198.htm This judge had been one of Clinton's students at the University of Arkansas. On April 2, 1998, Judge Susan Webber Wright dismissed Jones' lawsuit. The following month Jones filed an appeal and won. During the deposition for the Jones lawsuit which was held at the White House, Deposition of William Jefferson Clinton, January 17, 1998 http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/03/13/jones.v.clinton.docs/clinton/ Clinton denied having sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky a denial that became the basis for the impeachment charge of perjury. On November 18, 1998, Clinton agreed to an out-of-court settlement, and agreed to pay Jones and her attorneys a sum of $850,000.00. Clinton, however, still offered no apology to Jones and still denied ever engaging in a sexual affair with her. In 1998, Kathleen Willey and Juanita Broaddrick alleged sexual assault against Clinton. The claims were never brought before a court. Gennifer Flowers, Elizabeth Ward Gracen, Sally Perdue and Dolly Kyle Browning - claimed to have had adulterous sexual relations with Clinton during or before his service as governor. Gracen later apologized to Hillary Clinton for having sex with Bill. Dolly Kyle Browning alleged that she and Clinton engaged in a long sexual affair beginning in the mid-1970s and ending in 1992. http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/03/16/jones.clinton.docs/dolly.browning.declaration/ Browning began writing a "semi-autobiographical novel" about the affair and claims that in the publication process, Clinton tried to prohibit and undermine publication. Browning sued Clinton for damages, but the US Court of Appeals would deny her appeal. http://www.ll.georgetown.edu/federal/judicial/dc/opinions/01opinions/01-5050a.html Security incidents Frank Eugene Corder crashed a stolen Cessna 150 onto the South Lawn of the White House early on September 12, 1994, apparently trying to hit the building; he was the sole casualty. On 29 October 1994, Francisco Martin Duran fired 29 rounds from an assault rifle at the White House. He was later convicted of attempting to assassinate a United States President and sentenced to 40 years in prison. Post-presidential career Public speaking and campaigning Clinton comments on contemporary politics in speaking engagements around the world. Press release: President Bill Clinton to be keynote speaker at World Congress on IT 2002, World Information Technology and Services Alliance, Adelaide, South Australia Katherine Hamilton. "Bill Clinton to speak at Class Day", The Daily Princetonian, 2006-04-18 One notable theme is his advocacy of multilateral solutions to world problems. Clinton's opened his personal office in the Harlem section of New York City. After the Clintons moved to Chappaqua, New York, in the northern suburbs of New York City, at the end of his Presidency, he assisted his wife, Hillary Clinton, in her campaign for office as Senator from New York. Clinton campaigned for a number of Democratic candidates for the Senate in the 2002 elections. Clinton spoke for the fifth consecutive time at the Democratic National Convention on July 26, 2004, praising candidate John Kerry. He said of President George W. Bush's depiction of Kerry, "strength and wisdom are not opposing values." Despite Clinton's speech, the post-convention bounce to Kerry's poll numbers was less than was hoped for. Mostly to corporations and philanthropic groups in North America and Europe, Clinton has given dozens of paid speeches each year, earning $100,000 to $300,000 per speech. Josh Gerstein, Clinton Eligible, Once Again, To Practice Law, New York Sun, January 17, 2006, downloaded from N.Y. Sun article. According to his wife's Senate ethics reports, he earned more than $30 million in speaking from 2001 to 2005. In 2007, it is estimated he amassed around $40 million from speaking. Clinton made his first visit to new United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon in April 2007. The 45-minute meeting, called at Clinton's request, touched on a host of topics, including disease, war, famine and poverty in Africa, especially in the Darfur region. The Middle East, the conflict in Iraq, and Iran's nuclear standoff with the U.N. were on the agenda, as well as HIV/AIDS. Bill Clinton's Strange U.N. Visit. NewsMax.com, April 13, 2007. He was the opening speaker at the Ontario Economic Summit held on November 13, 2007 in which he addressed people on various subjects including Canada's role in Afghanistan, environmentalism and access to healthcare. Ontario Economic Summit, CTV. Clinton served as one of the organizers for the New Baptist Covenant alongside former President Jimmy Carter and other Baptist leaders. This effort sought to bring various Baptists in America together, especially across racial lines, to discuss issues that unite them. Clinton spoke at the January 2008 celebration in Atlanta, GA. William J. Clinton Presidential Center Clinton dedicated his presidential library, the William J. Clinton Presidential Center in Little Rock, Arkansas on November 18, 2004. Under rainy skies, Clinton received praise from former presidents Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush, as well as from then-president George W. Bush. He was treated to a musical rendition from Bono and The Edge from U2, who expressed their gratitude at Clinton's efforts to resolve the Northern Ireland conflict during his presidency. The library has the largest archives of any presidential library. The Clinton facility was funded to a large degree by donations from foreign governments, receiving a $10 million dollar donation from the royal family of Saudi Arabia. Published work Clinton released a personal autobiography, My Life in 2004. The book was published by the Knopf Publishing Group at Random House on June 22, 2004. According to the publisher, for single day non-fiction book sales, the book set a worldwide record. Alfred A. Knopft (2004) Bill Clinton's My Life sets one day, non-fiction sales record Later released as an audio book, total sales were in excess of 400,000 copies. As a writer's fee, he received U.S. $12 million in advance. He released, Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World in September 2007, which became a bestseller and gandered positive reviews. The book is about citizen activism and the role of public charity and public service in the modern world. The audiobook version was nominated for a 2008 Grammy Award in the category of Best Spoken Word Album. William Clinton Foundation The William J. Clinton Foundation promotes and provides for a number of humanitarian causes. Within the foundation, the Clinton Foundation HIV and AIDS Initiative (CHAI) strives to make treatment for HIV/AIDS more affordable and to implement large-scale integrated care, treatment, and prevention programs. While in Sydney to attend a Global Business Forum, Clinton signed a memorandum of understanding on behalf of his presidential foundation with the Australian government to promote HIV/AIDS programs in the Asia-Pacific region. The Clinton Global Initiative (CGI), funded by the Clinton Foundation, was inaugurated September September 15-17, 2005 in New York City to coincide with the 2005 World Summit. The focus areas of the initiative include attempts to address world problems such as global public health, poverty alleviation and religious and ethnic conflict. Clinton announced through the William J. Clinton Foundation an agreement by major soft drink manufacturers to stop selling sugared sodas and juice drinks, in public primary and secondary schools within the United States, on May 3, 2005. The foundation has received donations from a number of foreign governments, including the king of Morocco, a foundation linked to the United Arab Emirates, and the governments of Kuwait and Qatar. In 2008 newspapers reported that "Mr Clinton had travelled to Kazakhstan with a Canadian mining magnate, Frank Giustra, to meet its dictator president. Mr Giustra later won three lucrative uranium mining contracts from the government and then donated $US31 million to Mr Clinton's charity." Relations with George H. W. Bush In the aftermath of the Asian tsunami and Hurricane Katrina, Clinton established, with fellow former President George H. W. Bush, the Bush-Clinton Katrina Fund and Bush-Clinton Tsunami Fund, for which they were awarded the 2006 Philadelphia Liberty Medal on October 5, 2006. They spoke together at the funeral of Boris Yeltsin. Then-President George W. Bush, to help the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, named Clinton and George H. W. Bush to lead a nationwide campaign on January 3, 2005. U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan selected Clinton to head the United Nations earthquake and tsunami relief and reconstruction effort on February 1, 2005. Five days later, to raise money for relief through the USA Freedom Corps, Clinton and Bush appeared on the Fox Super Bowl XXXIX pre-game show. Thirteen days later, to see the relief efforts, they traveled to the affected areas. Environment To create the Clinton Foundation Climate Change Initiative (CCI), the William J. Clinton Foundation entered into a partnership with the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group on August 1, 2006, agreeing to provide resources to allow the participating cities to enter into an energy-saving product purchasing consortium and to provide technical and communications support. Clinton criticized the Bush administration for its handling of emissions control while speaking at the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Montreal on December 9, 2005. To promote initiatives concerning the environment, Clinton twice visited the University of California, Los Angeles in 2006. First, to advertise the Large Cities Climate Leadership Group, he met with Tony Blair, Ken Livingstone, Antonio Villaraigosa, and Gavin Newsom on August 1, 2006. On October 13, 2006, he spoke in favor of California Proposition 87 on alternative energy, which was voted down. Personal health Clinton had exertional angina and was evaluated at Northern Westchester Hospital on September 2, 2004. It was determined he did not suffer a coronary infarction, and he was sent home, returning the following day for angiography, which disclosed multiple vessel coronary artery disease. He was transferred to Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center in New York City, where he underwent a successful on-pump quadruple coronary artery bypass surgery on September 6, 2004. The medical team stated, had he not had surgery, he would have likely suffered a massive heart attack within a few months. As a complication of his heart surgery, Clinton underwent a follow-up surgery on March 10, 2005 for a left pleural effusion, removing scar tissue and fluid from his left chest cavity. He has since recovered. 2008 election involvement In the course of the 2008 Democratic presidential primary campaign, Clinton vigorously advocated on behalf of his wife, Hillary Clinton, leading some observers and party members to question the appropriateness of his role in view of his status as a former president. The Associated Press: Quotes on Bill Clinton's Campaign Role Some felt that Clinton was overshadowing his wife in the campaign, with her presidential rival Barack Obama complaining that he sometimes "did not know which Clinton he was running against." At a MSNBC debate, Republican primary candidate Mitt Romney said that he "can't imagine Bill Clinton left with nothing to do in the White House", suggesting that Clinton would be a "co-president and try and help manage the economy and help manage the world affairs". Romney on McCain, the Clintons, Posted: Saturday, January 26, 2008 3:19 PM by Mark Murray Top Democratic Party officials, including Rep. Rahm Emanuel, chairman of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee and a declared Clinton supporter, asked Clinton to tone down his attacks on Obama following the bitterly contested Nevada caucus, suggesting that Clinton could be damaging his own political capital and global stature. Some commentators even accused the former president of "playing the race card" against Obama, who is half-black, by suggesting he would understand if South Carolina's African Americans naturally would vote for the black candidate, but rejected suggestions that America was not ready for a black President. Many felt that by alienating black voters who had once overwhelmingly supported the Clintons, Clinton had tarnished his legacy as the so-called "first black president." In particular, Rep. James Clyburn (D-SC) suggested that Clinton's vocal attacks on Obama could damage the former President's legacy. Following his wife's disappointing defeat in South Carolina, Clinton again made headlines when he appeared to undermine and racialize Obama's victory by comparing it to Jesse Jackson's failed 1984 bid for the Presidency. Some observers suggested that the controversial comments fueled Sen. Ted Kennedy's decision to endorse Sen. Obama for the Presidency. Clinton attracted further controversy with a series of attacks against Obama that many independents and former Clinton supporters felt to be unfair. While some believed the attacks might eventually pay off, others felt they would damage Hillary Clinton's presidential prospects and alienate Democratic voters in the general election. Bill Clinton defended his role in the campaign in South Carolina, disputing claims he made race a campaign issue. Bill Clinton: What happened in South Carolina a 'myth' - cnn.com According to some reports, the accusations of racism hurt him personally, as blacks had long been Clinton's most loyal supporters. Clinton speaks during the third night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention in Denver, Colorado. During the primary campaign, his wife's aides criticized Clinton's freelancing and deemed his office uncooperative at one point, they complained, his people would not allow one of her people to ride on his plane to campaign stops. His aides, on the other hand, stewed over what they saw as her people's disregard for the advice of one of this generation's great political minds and bristled at surrendering control of his schedule. On the night of the Pennsylvania primary, Clinton grew playfully competitive with his wife over who had done more events or had had more impact. Governor Ed Rendell showed Clinton the county-by-county returns, while she was superstitious and rarely watched election night coverage. According to Rendell, "The president wanted to know exactly what the returns were in the places he had been and Hillary hadn't been. He kept showing Hillary, and she would laugh." Due to Clinton's prominent role in his wife's presidential run and his criticism of Obama, many perceived an enduring distance between the two. Clinton was asked later if he thought presidential nominee Barack Obama was qualified to be president. He replied that the Constitution sets qualifications. When pressed as to whether Obama was "ready" to be president, Clinton replied, "You could argue that no one is ready to be president." Such remarks lead to apprehension that the party would be split to the detriment of Obama's election. Fears were allayed August 27, 2008 when Clinton enthusiastically endorsed Obama at the 2008 Democratic National Convention, saying that all his experience as president assures him that Obama is "ready to lead". Honors and accolades The President of the Czech Republic awarded Clinton the Order of the White Lion, First Class with Collar Chain in 1998. List of Individuals Awarded the Order of the White Lion From a poll conducted of the American people in December 1999, Clinton was among eighteen included in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the 20th century. Clinton received the 2000 International Charlemagne Prize of the city of Aachen (a prestigious European prize), 2004 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for Children for narrating the Russian National Orchestra's album Wolf Tracks and Peter and the Wolf (along with Mikhail Gorbachev and Sophia Loren) and 2005 Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album for My Life, 2005 J. William Fulbright Prize for International Understanding, and 2007 TED Prize (named for the confluence of technology, entertainment and design). Acceptance speech. On October 17, 2002, Clinton became the first white person to be inducted into the Arkansas Black Hall of Fame. Campaign Season; Another First for Clinton at New York Times.com He received an honorary doctorate of laws from Tulane University in New Orleans (along with George H. W. Bush), University of Michigan and also from the University of Hong Kong. He is the recipient of an honorary doctorate of humane letters from Pace University's Lubin School of Business, from Rochester Institute of Technology, and from Knox College. Bill Clinton - from The Wiki Fire On November 22, 2004, New York Republican Governor George Pataki named Clinton and the other living former presidents (Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and George H. W. Bush) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the World Trade Center. In 2005, the University of Arkansas System opened the Clinton School of Public Service on the grounds of the Clinton Presidential Center. On December 3, 2006, Clinton was made an honorary chief and Grand Companion of the Order of Logohu by Prime Minister of Papua New Guinea Michael Somare. Clinton was awarded the honor for his "outstanding leadership for the good of mankind during two terms as U.S. president" and his commitment to the global fight against HIV/AIDS and other health challenges in developing countries. On June 2, 2007, Clinton, along with former president George H.W. Bush, received the International Freedom Conductor Award, for their help with the fund raising following the tsunami that devastated South Asia in 2004. freedomcenter.org On June 13, 2007, Clinton was honored by the Global Business Coalition on HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria alongside eight multinational-companies—HBO, Chevron Corporation, Standard Chartered plc, Eli Lilly and Company, Eskom Holdings Ltd, Marathon Oil Corporation, Coca-Cola, and Abbott—for his work to defeat HIV/AIDS. In Europe, Bill Clinton remains popular, especially in a large part of the Balkans and in Ireland. In Pristina, Kosovo, a five-story picture of the former president was permanently engraved into the side of the tallest building in the province as a token of gratitude for Clinton's support during the crisis in Kosovo. A statue of Clinton was also built and a road was named Clinton Boulevard. On May 1, 1988, Bill Clinton was inducted into the DeMolay International Hall of Fame. On September 9, 2008, Bill Clinton was named as the next chairman of the National Constitution Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His term will begin January 1, 2009, he will succeed Fmr. President George H. W. Bush. Electoral history Gallery References Further reading Primary sources Clinton, Bill. My Life. (2004). ISBN 0-375-41457-6. --- (with Al Gore). Science in the National Interest. Washington, DC: The White House, August 1994. --- (with Al Gore). The Climate Change Action Plan. Washington, DC: The White House, October 1993. --- (with Al Gore). Technology for America's economic growth, a new direction to build economic strength. Washington, DC: The White House, February 22, 1993. Sidney Blumenthal The Clinton Wars. (2003). ISBN 0-374-12502-3 Kenneth Starr The Starr Report: The Findings of Independent Counsel Kenneth W. Starr on President Clinton and the Lewinsky Affair (1998) ISBN 1-891620-24-X George Stephanopoulos All Too Human: A Political Education (1998) ISBN 0-316-92919-0 S. Daniel Abraham Peace is Possible, foreword by Bill Clinton Popular books Peter Baker The Breach: Inside the Impeachment and Trial of William Jefferson Clinton (2000) ISBN 0-684-86813-X James Bovard Feeling Your Pain: The Explosion and Abuse of Government Power in the Clinton-Gore Years (2000) ISBN 0-312-23082-6 Joe Conason and Gene Lyons The Hunting of the President: The Ten-Year Campaign to Destroy Bill and Hillary Clinton (2003) ISBN 0-312-27319-3 Elizabeth Drew On the Edge: The Clinton Presidency (1994) ISBN 0-671-87147-1 David Gergen Eyewitness to Power: The Essence of Leadership. (2000) ISBN 0-684-82663-1 Nigel Hamilton Bill Clinton: An American Journey (2003) ISBN 0-375-50610-1 John F. Harris The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House (2005) ISBN 0-375-50847-3 Christopher Hitchens No One Left to Lie to: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton (1999) ISBN 1-85984-736-6 Michael Isikoff Uncovering Clinton: A Reporter's Story (1999) ISBN 0-609-60393-0 Mark Katz Clinton and Me: A Real-Life Political Comedy (2004) ISBN 978-0-7868-6949-7 Joe Klein The Natural: The Misunderstood Presidency of Bill Clinton (2003) ISBN 0-7679-1412-0 David Maraniss First in His Class: A Biography of Bill Clinton (1996) ISBN 0-684-81890-6 David Maraniss The Clinton Enigma: A Four and a Half Minute Speech Reveals This President's Entire Life (1998) ISBN 0-684-86296-4 Dick Morris with Eileen McGann Because He Could (2004) ISBN 0-06-078415-6 Roger Morris (American writer) Partners in Power: The Clintons and Their America (1996) ISBN 0-89526-302-5 Richard A. Posner An Affair of State: The Investigation, Impeachment, and Trial of President Clinton (1999) ISBN 0-674-00080-3 Mark J. Rozell The Clinton Scandal and the Future of American Government (2000) ISBN 0-87840-777-4 Michael Waldman POTUS Speaks: Finding the Words That Defined the Clinton Presidency (2000) ISBN 0-7432-0020-9 Ivory Tower Publishing Company Achievements of the Clinton Administration: the Complete Legislative and Executive (1995) ISBN 0-88032-748-0 Academic studies Cohen; Jeffrey E. "The Polls: Change and Stability in Public Assessments of Personal Traits, Bill Clinton, 1993-99" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 31, 2001 Cronin, Thomas E. and Michael A. Genovese; "President Clinton and Character Questions" Presidential Studies Quarterly Vol. 28, 1998 Davis; John. "The Evolution of American Grand Strategy and the War on Terrorism: Clinton and Bush Perspectives" White House Studies, Vol. 3, 2003 Edwards; George C. "Bill Clinton and His Crisis of Governance" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28, 1998 Fisher; Patrick. "Clinton's Greatest Legislative Achievement? the Success of the 1993 Budget Reconciliation Bill" White House Studies, Vol. 1, 2001 Glad; Betty. "Evaluating Presidential Character" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28, 1998 Harris, John F. The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House. (2005) ISBN 0-375-50847-3, biography William G. Hyland. Clinton's World: Remaking American Foreign Policy (1999) ISBN 0-275-96396-9 Jewett, Aubrey W. and Marc D. Turetzky; " Stability and Change in President Clinton's Foreign Policy Beliefs, 1993-96" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 28, 1998 Johnson, Fard. "Politics, Propaganda and Public Opinion: The Influence of Race and Class on the 1993 - 1994 Health Care Reform Debate." (2004). ISBN 1-4116-6345-4 Laham, Nicholas, A Lost Cause: Bill Clinton's Campaign for National Health Insurance (1996) Lanoue, David J. and Craig F. Emmert; "Voting in the Glare of the Spotlight: Representatives' Votes on the Impeachment of President Clinton" Polity, Vol. 32, 1999 Livingston, C. Don, Kenneth A. Wink; "The Passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement in the U.S. House of Representatives: Presidential Leadership or Presidential Luck?" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 Maurer; Paul J. "Media Feeding Frenzies: Press Behavior during Two Clinton Scandals" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29, 1999 Nie; Martin A. "'It's the Environment, Stupid!': Clinton and the Environment" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997 O'Connor; Brendon. "Policies, Principles, and Polls: Bill Clinton's Third Way Welfare Politics 1992-1996" The Australian Journal of Politics and History, Vol. 48, 2002 Poveda; Tony G. "Clinton, Crime, and the Justice Department" Social Justice, Vol. 21, 1994 Renshon; Stanley A. The Clinton Presidency: Campaigning, Governing, and the Psychology of Leadership Westview Press, 1995 Renshon; Stanley A. "The Polls: The Public's Response to the Clinton Scandals, Part 1: Inconsistent Theories, Contradictory Evidence" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 32, 2002 Rushefsky, Mark E. and Kant Patel. Politics, Power & Policy Making: The Case of Health Care Reform in the 1990s (1998) ISBN 1-56324-956-1 Schantz, Harvey L. Politics in an Era of Divided Government: Elections and Governance in the Second Clinton Administration (2001) ISBN 0-8153-3583-0 Wattenberg; Martin P. "The Democrats' Decline in the House during the Clinton Presidency: An Analysis of Partisan Swings" Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 29, 1999 Wattier; Mark J. "The Clinton Factor: The Effects of Clinton's Personal Image in 2000 Presidential Primaries and in the General Election" White House Studies, Vol. 4, 2004 Smithers, Luken J. "The Miracle Whip" External links Extensive essay on Bill Clinton and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs Full audio of a number of Clinton speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa) White House biography William J. Clinton Foundation official website Clinton Global Initiative official website Clinton Presidential Library official website Clinton Presidential Materials Project Archive of press releases and transcripts of speeches from the administration. Clinton School of Public Service Oral History Interview with Bill Clinton from Oral Histories of the American South The Wanderer- A profile of Clinton in The New Yorker, September 18, 2006. Clinton's most extensive interview in his post-presidency - "Armigerous American Presidents Series" article from the American Heraldry Society. 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6,256 | D._W._Griffith | David Llewelyn Wark "D. W." Griffith (January 22 1875 – July 23, 1948) was a premier pioneering Academy Award-winning American film director. He is best known as the director of the controversial and groundbreaking 1915 film The Birth of a Nation and the subsequent film Intolerance (1916). Early life Griffith was born in La Grange, Kentucky to Jacob "Roaring Jake" Griffith and Mary Perkins Oglesby. His father was a Confederate Army colonel, a Civil War hero, and a Kentucky legislator. D.W. was educated by his older sister, Mattie, in a one-room country school. His father died when he was 7, upon which the family experienced serious financial hardships. At age 14, D.W.'s mother abandoned the farm and moved the family to Louisville where she opened a boarding house, which failed shortly. D.W. left high school to help with the finances, taking a job first in a dry goods store, and, later, in a bookstore. Griffith began his career as a hopeful playwright but met with little success; only one of his plays was accepted for a performance. D. W. Griffith Griffith decided to instead become an actor, and appeared in many plays as an extra. American Experience | Mary Pickford | People & Events | PBS Film career In 1907, Griffith, still having goals for becoming a successful playwright, went to New York and attempted to sell a script to Edison producer Edwin Porter. Porter rejected Griffith's script, but gave him an acting part in Rescued From An Eagle's Nest Finding his way into the motion picture business, he soon began to direct a huge body of work. In 1908, Griffith accepted an acting job for the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company, commonly known as Biograph, in New York City. At Biograph, Griffith's career in the film industry would also change forever. D.W. Griffith Biography In 1908, Biograph's main director Wallace McCutcheon grew ill, and his son, Wallace McCutcheon, Jr., took his place. Who's Who of Victorian Cinema McCutcheon, Jr., however, was not able to bring the studio good success. As a result, Biograph head Henry Marvin decided to give Griffith the position; Griffith then made his first movie for the company, The Adventures of Dollie. Biograph was the first company to shoot a movie in Hollywood, California, the film In Old California (1910). Influenced by the Italian feature film Cabiria (1914), Griffith was convinced that feature films were commercially viable. He produced and directed the Biograph film Judith of Bethulia (1914), one of the earliest feature films to be produced in the United States. However, Biograph believed that longer features were not viable. According to actress Lillian Gish, "[Biograph] thought that a movie that long would hurt [the audience's] eyes". Because of this, and the film's budget overrun (it cost US$30,000 dollars to produce), Griffith left Biograph and took his whole stock company of actors with him, and joined the Mutual Film Corporation and formed a studio, with Majestic Studio manager Harry Aitken D. W. Griffith: Hollywood Independent known as Reliance-Majestic Studios (which was later renamed Fine Arts Studio). Fine Arts Studio His new production company became an autonomous production unit partner in Triangle Film Corporation along with Thomas Ince and Keystone Studios' Mack Sennett; the Triangle Film Corporation was headed by Griffith's partner Harry Aitken, who was released from the Mutual Film Corporation and his brother Roy. Through Reliance-Majestic Studios, he produced The Clansman (1915), which would later be known as The Birth of a Nation. D.W. Griffith on a movie set with actor Henry Walthall and others. Historically, The Birth of a Nation was the first blockbuster. It is considered important by film historians as one of the first feature length American films (most previous films had been less than one hour long), and arguably it changed the industry standard to one still recognized today. MJ Movie Reviews - Birth of a Nation, The (1915) by Dan DeVore It was enormously popular, breaking box office records, but aroused controversy in the way it expressed the racist views held by many in the era (it depicts Southern pre-Civil War black slavery as benign, and the Ku Klux Klan as a band of heroes restoring order to a post-Reconstruction black-ruled South). Although these views matched the opinions of many American historians of the day (and indeed, long afterwards), the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People campaigned against the film, but was unsuccessful in suppressing it. It would go on to become the most successful box office attraction of its time. "They lost track of the money it made," Lillian Gish once remarked in a Kevin Brownlow interview. Among the people who profited by the film was Louis B. Mayer, who bought the rights to distribute The Birth of a Nation in New England. With the money he made, he was able to begin his career as a producer that culminated in the creation of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios. Margaret Mitchell, who wrote Gone with the Wind, was also inspired by Griffith's Civil War epic. However, after seeing The Birth of a Nation, audiences in some major northern cities also responded by rioting over the film's racial content. The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow . Jim Crow Stories . The Birth of a Nation | PBS After The Birth of a Nation had run its course in theaters, Griffith would also respond to the negative reception a vast amount of critics gave the film through his next film Intolerance, which dealt with the effects of intolerance in four different historical periods: the Fall of Babylon; the Crucifixion of Christ; the Massacre of the Huguenots; and a modern story. During its release, however, Intolerance was not a financial success; although it had good box office turn-outs, the film did not bring in enough profits to cover the lavish road show that accompanied it. "Griffith's 20 Year Record", Variety (September 25, 1928), as edited by David Pierce for The Silent Film Bookshelf, on line. Like The Birth Of A Nation, Griffith put a huge budget into the film's production, which was also a key factor in its failure at the box office. Intolerance Movie Review The production partnership was dissolved in 1917, so Griffith went to Artcraft (part of Paramount), then to First National (1919-1920). At the same time he founded United Artists, together with Charlie Chaplin, Mary Pickford, and Douglas Fairbanks. At United Artists, Griffith continued to make films, but never could achieve box office grosses as high as either The Birth of a Nation or Intolerance. American Masters . D.W. Griffith | PBS Later Film Career Though United Artists survived as a company, Griffith's association with it was short-lived, and while some of his later films did well at the box office, commercial success often eluded him. Griffith features from this period include Broken Blossoms (1919), Way Down East (1920), Orphans of the Storm (1921), Dream Street (1921), and America (1924). Of these, the first three were successes at the box office. Griffith was forced to leave United Artists after Isn't Life Wonderful? (1924) failed at the box office, and returned to Paramount as a director. D. W. Griffith (1875-1948) Griffith made only two sound films, Abraham Lincoln (1930) and The Struggle (1931). Neither was successful, and he never made another film. For the last seventeen years of his life, Griffith lived as a virtual hermit in Los Angeles. In 1936, director Woody Van Dyke who had worked as Griffith's apprentice on Intolerance, asked Griffith to help him shoot the famous earthquake sequence for San Francisco. Though Griffith was uncredited, the Clark Gable - Jeanette MacDonald - Spencer Tracy blockbuster was the top-grossing film of the year. 1936 in film Death He died of cerebral hemorrhage (stroke) in 1948 on the way to a Hollywood hospital, after being discovered unconscious in his room at the Knickerbocker Hotel in Los Angeles, where he had been living alone. There was a large public service in his honor at the Hollywood Masonic Temple, where numerous stars came to pay their last respects. He is buried at Mount Tabor Methodist Church Graveyard in Centerfield, Kentucky. D.W. Griffith (1875 - 1948) - Find A Grave Memorial In 1950, The Director's Guild of America provided a stone and bronze monument for his gravesite. Legacy Stamp issued by the United States Postal Service commemorating D. W. Griffith. Motion picture legend Charles Chaplin called Griffith "The Teacher of us All". This sentiment was widely shared. Filmmakers as diverse as John Ford, Alfred Hitchcock and Orson Welles have spoken of their respect for the director of Intolerance. Regardless of whether he actually invented new techniques in film grammar, he seems to have been among the first to understand how these techniques could be used to create an expressive language. In early shorts such as Biograph's The Musketeers of Pig Alley (1912) which was the first "Gangster film", we can see how Griffith's attention to camera placement and lighting heighten mood and tension. In making Intolerance the director opened up new possibilities for the medium, creating a form that seems to owe more to music than to traditional narrative. Griffith was honored on a 10-cent postage stamp by the United States issued May 5, 1975. California Historical Marker marking the site of D.W. Griffith's movie ranch in Sylmar, CA. In 1953, the Directors Guild of America instituted the D.W. Griffith Award, its highest honor. Its recipients included Stanley Kubrick, David Lean, John Huston, Woody Allen, Akira Kurosawa, John Ford, Ingmar Bergman, Alfred Hitchcock, and Griffith's friend Cecil B. DeMille. On December 15, 1999, however, DGA President Jack Shea and the DGA National Board—without membership consultation (though unnecessary according to DGA's regulations)—announced that the award would be renamed the DGA Lifetime Achievement Award because Griffith's film The Birth of a Nation had "helped foster intolerable racial stereotypes". The following living recipients of the award agreed with the guild's decision: Francis Ford Coppola and Sidney Lumet. On December 10, 2008 Hollywood Heritage Museum hosted a screening of Griffith's earliest films, to commemorate the centennial since his start in film. http://hollywoodheritage.org/events.html On January 22, 2009 the Oldham History Center in La Grange, Kentucky opened a 15 seat theatre in Griffith's honor. The theatre features a library of Griffith films to choose from. http://www.courier-journal.com/article/20090122/ZONE09/901220528 Film preservation D.W. Griffith has five films preserved in the United States National Film Registry as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". These films are Lady Helen's Escapade (1909), A Corner in Wheat (1909), The Birth of a Nation (1915), Intolerance: Love's Struggle Throughout the Ages (1916), and Broken Blossoms (1919). Selected filmography The Taming of the Shrew (1908) Money Mad (1908) Balked at the Altar (1908) Romance of a Jewess (1908) with Florence Lawrence At the Altar (1909) "Those Awful Hats" (1909) Resurrection (1909)The Country Doctor (1909) with Florence Lawrence and Mary PickfordIn Old California (1910) with Henry B. WalthallIn the Border States (1910) with Henry B. WalthallThe Lonedale Operator (1911) with Blanche SweetThe Smile of a Child (1911) with Blanche SweetFighting Blood (1911) with Blanche Sweet and Lionel BarrymoreOut from the Shadow (1911) with Blanche SweetThe Making of a Man (1911) with Blanche SweetHer Awakening (1911) with Mabel NormandThe Goddess of Sagebrush Gulch (1912) with Blanche SweetFriends (1912) with Mary Pickford, Henry B. Walthall, Lionel Barrymore and Harry CareyAn Unseen Enemy (1912) with Lilian GishThe New York Hat (1912) with Mary Pickford, Lionel Barrymore, Mae Marsh and Lillian GishDrink's Lure (1913)Oil and Water (1913) with Blanche Sweet, Henry B. Walthall, Lionel Barrymore and Harry CareyJudith of Bethulia (1914) with Blanche Sweet, Henry B. Walthall, Mae Marsh, Lillian Gish and Dorothy GishStrongheart (1914) with Blanche Sweet, Lionel Barrymore and Alan HaleThe Avenging Conscience (1914) with Blanche Sweet and Henry B. WalthallThe Birth of a Nation (1915) with Lillian Gish, Henry B. Walthall, Mae Marsh, Miriam Cooper and Raoul WalshIntolerance (1916)Broken Blossoms (1919) with Lillian GishWay Down East (1920) with Lillian GishOrphans of the Storm (1921) with Lillian Gish and Dorothy GishDream Street (1921) with experimental sound sequences in Photokinema sound-on-disc processOne Exciting Night (1922) with Henry HullMammy's Boy (1923) with Al JolsonAmerica (1924)The Sorrows of Satan (1926)The Battle of the Sexes (1928)Lady of the Pavements (1929) with Lupe Velez and William BoydD.W. Griffith's 'Abraham Lincoln' (1930) with Walter Huston See also D. W. Griffith House References Further reading Lillian Gish, The Movies, Mr. Griffith and Me (Englewood, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969) Karl Brown, Adventures with D. W. Griffith (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1973) Richard Schickel, D. W. Griffith: An American Life (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984) Robert M. Henderson, D. W. Griffith: His Life and Work (New York: Oxford University Press, 1972) William M. Drew, D. W. Griffith’s "Intolerance:" Its Genesis and Its Vision (Jefferson, NJ: McFarland & Company, 1986) Kevin Brownlow, The Parade’s Gone By (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968) Seymour Stern, An Index to the Creative Work of D. W. Griffith, (London: The British Film Institute, 1944-47) David Robinson, Hollywood in the Twenties (New York: A. S. Barnes & Co, Inc., 1968) Edward Wagenknecht and Anthony Slide, The Films of D. W. Griffith (New York: Crown, 1975) William K. Everson, American Silent Film (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978) Matthew Smith, "American Valkyries: Richard Wagner, D. W. Griffith, and the Birth of Classical Cinema," in Modernism/modernity 15:2 ( April 2008), 221-42. Iris Barry and Eileen Bowser, D. W. Griffith: American Film Master'' (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965) External links Bibliography of books and articles about Griffith via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center 100 Years of Griffith Screening Watch Griffith Public Domain Films at the Internet Archive "Those Awful Hats" (1909) by D.W. Griffith, from No Narrative "The Box in the Screen" D.W. 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6,257 | Iranâ%80%93Contra_affair | The Iran-Contra affair () was a political scandal in the United States which came to light in November 1986, during the Reagan administration, in which senior US figures agreed to facilitate the sale of arms to Iran, the subject of an arms embargo, to secure the release of hostages and to fund Nicaraguan Contras. It began as an operation to improve U.S.-Iranian relations, wherein Israel would ship weapons to a relatively moderate, politically influential group of Iranians; the U.S. would then resupply Israel and receive the Israeli payment. The Iranian recipients promised to do everything in their power to achieve the release of six U.S. hostages, who were being held by the Lebanese Shia Islamist group Hezbollah, who were unknowingly connected to the Army of the Guardians of the Islamic Revolution. The plan eventually deteriorated into an arms-for-hostages scheme, in which members of the executive branch sold weapons to Iran in exchange for the release of the American hostages. Large modifications to the plan were conjured by Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North of the National Security Council in late 1985, in which a portion of the proceeds from the weapon sales was diverted to fund anti-Sandinista and anti-communist rebels, or Contras, in Nicaragua. While President Ronald Reagan was a supporter of the Contra cause, Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 542 no evidence has been found showing that he authorized this plan. After the weapon sales were revealed in November 1986, Reagan appeared on national television and stated that the weapons transfers had indeed occurred, but that the United States did not trade arms for hostages. The investigation was compounded when large volumes of documents relating to the scandal were destroyed or withheld from investigators by Reagan administration officials. On March 4, 1987, Reagan returned to the airwaves in a nationally televised address, taking full responsibility for any actions that he was unaware of, and admitting that "what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated, in its implementation, into trading arms for hostages." Several investigations ensued, including those by the United States Congress and the three-man, Reagan-appointed Tower Commission. Neither found any evidence that President Reagan himself knew of the extent of the multiple programs. In the end, fourteen administration officials were charged with crimes, and eleven convicted, including then-Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger. They were all pardoned in the final days of the George H. W. Bush presidency, who had been vice-president at the time of the affair. The affair The affair was composed of arms sales to Iran, and funding of Contra militants in Nicaragua. Direct funding of the Nicaraguan rebels had been made illegal through the Boland Amendment. The affair emerged when a Lebanese newspaper reported that the U.S. sold arms to Iran through Israel in exchange for the release of hostages by Hezbollah. Letters sent by Oliver North to John Poindexter support this. The Israeli ambassador to the U.S. says that the reason weapons were eventually sold directly to Iran was to establish links with elements of the military in the country. The Contras did not receive all of their finances from arms sales, but also through drug trafficking. Hostage taking In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Middle East was faced with frequent hostage-taking incidents by hostile organizations. In 1979, Iranian students took hostage 52 employees of the United States embassy in Iran. On January 20, 1981, the day Ronald Reagan became President, the hostages were freed following the Algiers Accords. Hostage taking continued following the imprisonment of members of Al-Dawa, an exiled Iraqi political party turned militant organization, for their part in a series of truck bombs in Kuwait in 1983. Hezbollah, an ally of Al-Dawa, took 30 Western hostages between 1982 and 1992, many of whom were American. Arms transactions Michael Ledeen, a consultant of National Security Adviser Robert McFarlane, requested assistance from Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres for help in the sale of arms to Iran. At the time, Iran was in the midst of the Iran–Iraq War and could find few Western nations willing to supply it with weapons. The idea behind the plan was for Israel to ship weapons through an intermediary (identified as Manucher Ghorbanifar) to a moderate, politically influential Iranian group opposed to the Ayatollah Khomeni; after the transaction, the U.S. would reimburse Israel with the same weapons, while receiving monetary benefits. The Israeli government required that the sale of arms meet high level approval from the United States government, and when Robert McFarlane convinced them that the U.S. government approved the sale, Israel obliged by agreeing to sell the arms. In 1985, President Reagan entered Bethesda Naval Hospital for colon cancer surgery. While the President was recovering in the hospital, McFarlane met with him and told him that Representatives from Israel had contacted the National Security Agency to pass on confidential information from a sect of moderate, politically influential Iranians opposed to the Ayatollah. Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 504 These Iranians sought to establish a quiet relationship with the United States, before establishing formal relationships upon the death of the Ayatollah. McFarlane told Reagan that the Iranians, to demonstrate their seriousness, offered to persuade the Hezbollah terrorists to release the seven U.S. hostages. Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 505 Reagan allowed McFarlane to meet with the Israeli intermediaries because he believed that establishing relations with a strategically located country, and preventing the Soviet Union from doing the same, was a beneficial move. Walsh Iran / Contra Report - Chapter 24 The Investigation of State Department Officials: Shultz, Hill and Platt Retrieved on 2008-06-07 Following the Israeli-U.S. meeting, Israel requested permission from the U.S. to sell a small number of TOW antitank missiles (Tube-launched, Optically-tracked, Wire-guided) to the moderate Iranians, saying that it would demonstrate that the group actually had high-level connections to the U.S. government. Reagan initially rejected the plan, until Israel sent information to the U.S. showing that the moderate Iranians were opposed to terrorism and had fought against it. Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 506 Now having a reason to trust the moderates, Reagan approved the transaction, which was meant to be between Israel and the moderates in Iran, with the U.S. reimbursing Israel. In his 1990 autobiography An American Life, Reagan states that he was deeply committed to securing the release of the hostages; it was this compassion that motivated his support for the arms initiatives. The president requested that the moderate Iranians do everything in their capability to free the hostages held by Hezbollah. A BGM-71 TOW anti-tank guided missile According to The New York Times, the United States supplied the following arms to Iran: "Iran-Contra Report; Arms, Hostages and Contras: How a Secret Foreign Policy Unraveled" March 16, 1984. Retrieved on 2008-06-07 August 20, 1985. 96 TOW anti-tank missiles September 14, 1985. 408 more TOWs November 24, 1985. 18 Hawk anti-aircraft missiles February 17, 1986. 500 TOWs February 27, 1986. 500 TOWs May 24, 1986. 508 TOWs, 240 Hawk spare parts August 4, 1986. More Hawk spares October 28, 1986. 500 TOWs First arms sale In July 1985, Israel sent American-made BGM-71 TOW antitank missiles to Iran through an arms dealer named Manucher Ghorbanifar, a friend of Iran's Prime Minister. Hours after receiving the weapons, one hostage, the Reverend Benjamin Weir was released. Arrow Air 1285 crash After a botched delivery of Hawk missiles, and a failed London meeting between McFarlane and Manucher Ghorbanifar, Arrow Air Flight 1285, a plane containing nearly 250 American servicemen, crashed in Newfoundland on December 12, 1985. On the day of the crash, responsibility was claimed by the Islamic Jihad Organization, a wing of Hezbollah that had taken credit for the kidnapping of the very Americans in Lebanon whom the Reagan administration sought to have released. The crash came on the fourth anniversary of another attack for which Islamic Jihad took credit: the near-simultaneous bombings of six targets in Kuwait, the French and American Embassies among them. Members of Hezbollah had participated in, and were jailed for, those attacks, but most of the conspirators were members of al-Dawa. The accident was investigated by the Canadian Aviation Safety Board (CASB), and was determined to have been caused by the aircraft's unexpectedly high drag and reduced lift condition, which was most likely due to ice contamination. However, a 2007 article presents evidence of Iran's complicity. Modifications in plans Reagan meets with (left to right) Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger, Secretary of State George Shultz, Attorney General Ed Meese, and Chief of Staff Don Regan in the Oval Office Robert McFarlane resigned on December 5, 1985, citing that he wanted to spend more time with his family; Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 509 he was replaced by Admiral John Poindexter. Two days later, Reagan met with his advisors at the White House, where a new plan was introduced. This one called for a slight change in the arms transactions: instead of the weapons going to the moderate Iranian group, they would go to moderate Iranian army leaders. Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 510 As the weapons were delivered from Israel by air, the hostages held by Hezbollah would be released. Israel would still pay the United States for reimbursing the weapons. Though staunchly opposed by Secretary of State George Shultz and Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger, the plan was authorized by Reagan, who stated that, "We were not trading arms for hostages, nor were we negotiating with terrorists." Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 512 Now retired National Security Advisor McFarlane flew to London to meet with Israelis and Ghorbanifar in an attempt to persuade the Iranian to use his influence to release the hostages before any arms transactions occurred; this plan was rejected by Ghorbanifar. On the day of McFarlane's resignation, Oliver North, a military aide to the United States National Security Council (NSC), proposed a new plan for selling arms to Iran, which included two major adjustments: instead of selling arms through Israel, the sale was to be direct, and a portion of the proceeds would go to Contras, or Nicaraguan guerilla fighters opposed to communism, at a markup. North proposed a $15 million markup, while contracted arms broker Ghorbanifar added a 41% markup of his own. Other members of the NSC were in favor of North's plan; with large support, Poindexter authorized it without notifying President Reagan, and it went into effect. At first, the Iranians refused to buy the arms at the inflated price because of the excessive markup imposed by North and Ghorbanifar. They eventually relented, and in February 1986, 1,000 TOW missiles were shipped to the country. From May to November 1986, there were additional shipments of miscellaneous weapons and parts. Both the sale of weapons to Iran, and the funding of the Contras, attempted to circumvent not only stated administration policy, but also the Boland Amendment. Administration officials argued that regardless of the Congress restricting the funds for the Contras, or any affair, the President (or in this case the administration) could carry on by seeking alternative means of funding such as private entities and foreign governments. Funding from one foreign country, Brunei, was botched when North's secretary, Fawn Hall, transposed the numbers of North's Swiss bank account number. A Swiss businessman, suddenly $10 million richer, alerted the authorities of the mistake. The money was eventually returned to the Sultan of Brunei, with interest. On January 7, 1986, John Poindexter proposed to the president a modification of the approved plan: instead of negotiating with the moderate Iranian political group, the U.S. would negotiate with moderate members of the Iranian government. Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 516 Poindexter told Reagan that Ghorbanifar had important connections within the Iranian government, so with the hope of the release of the hostages, Reagan approved this plan as well. Throughout February 1986, weapons were shipped directly to Iran by the United States (as part of Oliver North's plan, without the knowledge of President Reagan) and none of the hostages were released. Retired National Security Advisor McFarlane conducted another international voyage, this one to Tehran. He met directly with the moderate Iranian political group that sought to establish U.S.-Iranian relations in an attempt to free the four remaining hostages. Reagan, Ronald (1990), pp. 520-521 This meeting also failed. The members requested demands such as Israel's withdrawal from the Golan Heights, which the United States rejected. Subsequent dealings In late July 1986, Hezbollah released another hostage, Father Lawrence Martin Jenco, former head of Catholic Relief Services in Lebanon. Following this, William Casey, head of the CIA, requested that the U.S. authorize sending a shipment of small missile parts to Iranian military forces as a way of expressing gratitude. Casey also justified this request by stating that the contact in the Iranian government might otherwise lose face, or be executed, and hostages killed. Reagan authorized the shipment to ensure that those potential events would not occur. Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 523 In September and October 1986 three more Americans — Frank Reed, Joseph Ciccipio, Edward Tracy — were abducted in Lebanon by a separate terrorist group. The reasons for their abduction are unknown, although it is speculated that they were kidnapped to replace the freed Americans. Ranstorp, Magnus, Hizb'allah in Lebanon: The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis, New York, St. Martins Press, 1997 pp. 98-99 One more original hostage, David Jacobsen, was later released. The captors promised to release the remaining two, but the release never happened. Reagan, Ronald (1990), pp. 526-527 Discovery and scandal North's mugshot, after his arrest After a leak by Iranian radical Mehdi Hashemi, the Lebanese magazine Ash-Shiraa exposed the arrangement on November 3, 1986. This was the first public reporting of the weapons-for-hostages deal. The operation was discovered only after an airlift of guns was downed over Nicaragua. Eugene Hasenfus, who was captured by Nicaraguan authorities, initially alleged in a press conference on Nicaraguan soil that two of his coworkers, Max Gomez and Ramon Medina, worked for the Central Intelligence Agency. He later said he did not know whether they did or not. The Iranian government confirmed the Ash-Shiraa story, and ten days after the story was first published, President Ronald Reagan appeared on national television from the Oval Office on November 13 stating: "My purpose was... to send a signal that the United States was prepared to replace the animosity between [the U.S. and Iran] with a new relationship... At the same time we undertook this initiative, we made clear that Iran must oppose all forms of international terrorism as a condition of progress in our relationship. The most significant step which Iran could take, we indicated, would be to use its influence in Lebanon to secure the release of all hostages held there." The scandal was compounded when Oliver North destroyed or hid pertinent documents between November 21 and November 25, 1986. During North's trial in 1989, his secretary, Fawn Hall, testified extensively about helping North alter, shred, and remove official United States National Security Council (NSC) documents from the White House. According to The New York Times, enough documents were put into a government shredder to jam it. North's explanation for destroying some documents was to protect the lives of individuals involved in Iran and Contra operations. It wasn't until years after the trial that North's notebooks were made public, and only after the National Security Archive and Public Citizen sued the Office of the Independent Council under the Freedom of Information Act. During the trial North testified that on November 21, 22, or 24, he witnessed Poindexter destroy what may have been the only signed copy of a presidential covert-action finding that sought to authorize CIA participation in the November 1985 Hawk missile shipment to Iran. US Attorney General Edwin Meese admitted on November 25 that profits from weapons sales to Iran were made available to assist the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. On the same day, John Poindexter resigned, and Oliver North was fired by President Reagan. Poindexter was replaced by Frank Carlucci on December 2, 1986. Tower Commission On November 25, 1986, President Reagan announced the creation of a Special Review Board to look into the matter; the following day, he appointed former Senator John Tower, former Secretary of State Edmund Muskie, and former National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft to serve as members. This Presidential Commission took effect on December 1 and became known as the "Tower Commission". The main objectives of the commission were to inquire into "the circumstances surrounding the Iran-Contra matter, other case studies that might reveal strengths and weaknesses in the operation of the National Security Council system under stress, and the manner in which that system has served eight different Presidents since its inception in 1947." The commission was the first presidential commission to review and evaluate the National Security Council. President Reagan (center) receives the Tower Commission Report in the White House Cabinet Room; John Tower is at right and Edmund Muskie is at left, 1987 President Reagan appeared before the Tower Commission on December 2, 1986, to answer questions regarding his involvement in the affair. When asked about his role in authorizing the arms deals, he first stated that he had; later, he appeared to contradict himself by stating that he had no recollection of doing so. In his 1990 autobiography, An American Life, Reagan acknowledges authorizing the shipments to Israel. Reagan, Ronald (1990), p. 501 The report published by the Tower Commission was delivered to the President on February 26, 1987. The Commission had interviewed 80 witnesses to the scheme, including Reagan, and two of the arms trade middlemen: Manucher Ghorbanifar and Adnan Khashoggi. The 200 page report was the most comprehensive of any released, criticizing the actions of Oliver North, John Poindexter, Caspar Weinberger, and others. It determined that President Reagan did not have knowledge of the extent of the program, especially not the diversion of funds to the Contras, although it argued that the President ought to have had better control of the National Security Council staff. The report heavily criticized Reagan for not properly supervising his subordinates or being aware of their actions. A major result of the Tower Commission was the consensus that Reagan should have listened to his National Security Advisor more, thereby placing more power in the hands of that chair. The Democratic-controlled United States Congress issued its own report on November 18, 1987, stating that "If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing, he should have." The congressional report wrote that the president bore "ultimate responsibility" for wrongdoing by his aides, and his administration exhibited "secrecy, deception and disdain for the law." It also read in part: "The central remaining question is the role of the President in the Iran-contra affair. On this critical point, the shredding of documents by Poindexter, North and others, and the death of Casey, leave the record incomplete." Aftermath Reagan expressed regret regarding the situation during a nationally televised address from the White House Oval Office on March 4, 1987; Reagan had not spoken to the American people directly for three months amidst the scandal. President Reagan told the American people the reason why he did not update them on the scandal: "The reason I haven't spoken to you before now is this: You deserve the truth. And as frustrating as the waiting has been, I felt it was improper to come to you with sketchy reports, or possibly even erroneous statements, which would then have to be corrected, creating even more doubt and confusion. There's been enough of that." He then took full responsibility for the acts committed: "First, let me say I take full responsibility for my own actions and for those of my administration. As angry as I may be about activities undertaken without my knowledge, I am still accountable for those activities. As disappointed as I may be in some who served me, I'm still the one who must answer to the American people for this behavior." Finally, the president stated that his previous assertions that the U.S. did not trade arms for hostages were incorrect: "A few months ago I told the American people I did not trade arms for hostages. My heart and my best intentions still tell me that's true, but the facts and the evidence tell me it is not. As the Tower board reported, what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated, in its implementation, into trading arms for hostages. This runs counter to my own beliefs, to administration policy, and to the original strategy we had in mind." Domestically, the scandal precipitated a drop in President Reagan's popularity as his approval ratings saw "the largest single drop for any U.S. president in history", from 67% to 46% in November 1986, according to a New York Times/CBS News poll. Mayer, Jane and Doyle McManus, Landslide: The Unmaking of The President, 1984-1988. Houghton Mifflin, (1988) p.292 and 437 The "Teflon President", as Reagan was nicknamed by critics, survived the scandal, however, and by January 1989 a Gallup poll was "recording a 64% approval rating," the highest ever recorded for a departing President at that time. Internationally the damage was more severe. Magnus Ranstorp wrote, "U.S. willingness to engage in concessions with Iran and the Hezbollah not only signalled to its adversaries that hostage-taking was an extremely useful instrument in extracting political and financial concessions for the West but also undermined any credibility of U.S. criticism of other states' deviation from the principles of no-negotiation and no concession to terrorists and their demands. Ranstorp, Magnus, Hizb'allah in Lebanon: The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis, New York, St. Martins Press, 1997 p.203 In Iran Mehdi Hashemi, the leaker of the scandal, was executed in 1987, allegedly for activities unrelated to the scandal. Though Hashemi made a full video confession to numerous serious charges, some observers find the coincidence of his leak and the subsequent prosecution highly suspicious. Abrahamian, Tortured Confessions, University of California, (1999), pp 162-166 Convictions, pardons, and reinstatements Oliver North and John Poindexter were indicted on multiple charges on March 16, 1988. North, indicted on 16 counts, was found guilty by a jury of three minor counts. The convictions were vacated on appeal on the grounds that North's Fifth Amendment rights may have been violated by the indirect use of his testimony to Congress which had been given under a grant of immunity. In 1990, Poindexter was convicted on several felony counts of conspiracy, lying to Congress, obstruction of justice, and altering and destroying documents pertinent to the investigation. His convictions were also overturned on appeal on similar grounds. Arthur L. Liman served as chief counsel for the Senate during the Iran-Contra Affair. The Independent Counsel, Lawrence E. Walsh, chose not to re-try North or Poindexter. Caspar Weinberger was indicted for lying to the Independent Counsel but was later pardoned by President George H. W. Bush. In 1992 George H. W. Bush pardoned six convicted administration officials, namely Elliott Abrams, Duane R. Clarridge, Alan Fiers, Clair George, Robert McFarlane, and Caspar Weinberger. George W. Bush selected some individuals that served under Reagan for high-level posts in his presidential administration. They include: Elliott Abrams: under Bush, the Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director on the National Security Council for Near East and North African Affairs; in Iran-Contra, pleaded guilty on two counts of unlawfully withholding information, pardoned. Otto Reich: head of the Office of Public Diplomacy under Reagan. John Negroponte: under Bush, served as the Ambassador to Iraq, the National Intelligence Director, and the Deputy Secretary of State. Admiral John Poindexter: under Bush, Director of the Information Awareness Office; in Iran-Contra, found guilty of multiple felony counts for conspiracy, obstruction of justice, lying to Congress, defrauding the government, and the alteration and destruction of evidence, convictions reversed. In Poindexter's hometown of Odon, Indiana, a street was renamed to John Poindexter Street. Bill Breeden, a former minister, stole the street's sign in protest of the Iran-Contra Affair. He claimed that he was holding it for a ransom of $30 million, in reference to the amount of money given to Iran to transfer to the Contras. He was later arrested and confined to prison, making him, as satirized by Howard Zinn, "the only person to be imprisoned as a result of the Iran-Contra affair." Zinn, Howard (2003), pp. 587-588 See also Lebanon hostage crisis Iran – United States relations United States and state terrorism CIA drug trafficking Gary Webb Mistakes were made Nicaragua v. United States Nahum Manbar List of people pardoned by George H. W. Bush Footnotes References Asleson, Vern. Nicaragua: Those Passed By. Galde Press ISBN 1-931942-16-1, 2004 External links The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On: Documents Spotlight Role of Reagan, Top Aides. By the National Security Archive How the Reagan Administration Taught Iran the Wrong Lessons – Middle East Review of International Affairs, June, 2007 article by Nathan Thrall "The Secret Government: The Constitution in Crisis" (Audio, Video) -- 1987 Bill Moyers special on the Iran-Contra Affair Condensed article outlining Iran-Contra Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters (Walsh Report) | Iranâ%80%93Contra_affair |@lemmatized iran:44 contra:26 affair:15 political:5 scandal:10 united:17 state:32 come:3 light:1 november:14 reagan:54 administration:13 senior:2 u:23 figure:1 agree:2 facilitate:1 sale:12 arm:29 subject:1 embargo:1 secure:3 release:18 hostage:36 fund:5 nicaraguan:5 begin:3 operation:4 improve:1 iranian:24 relation:4 wherein:1 israel:17 would:12 ship:4 weapon:18 relatively:1 moderate:13 politically:3 influential:3 group:8 resupply:1 receive:5 israeli:7 payment:1 recipient:1 promise:2 everything:2 power:2 achieve:1 six:3 hold:5 lebanese:3 shia:1 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6,258 | Cocktail | A typical cocktail, served in a cocktail glass. A cocktail is a style of mixed drink. Originally a mixture of distilled spirits, sugar, water, and bitters, the word has gradually come to mean almost any mixed drink containing alcohol. A cocktail today usually contains one or more types of liquor and flavorings and one or more liqueurs, fruit juices, sugar, honey, water, ice, soda, milk, cream, herbs, bitters, etc. History The earliest known printed use of the word "cocktail" was from The Farmer's Cabinet, April 28, 1803: "11. Drank a glass of cocktail — excellent for the head ... Call'd at the Doct's. found Burnham — he looked very wise — drank another glass of cocktail." The earliest definition of "cocktail" was in the May 13 1806, edition of the Balance and Columbian Repository, a publication in Hudson, New York, in which an answer was provided to the question, "What is a cocktail?". It stated that: “Cocktail is a stimulating liquor composed of spirits of any kind, sugar, water, and bitters — it is vulgarly called a bittered sling and is supposed to be an excellent electioneering potion, inasmuch as it renders the heart stout and bold, at the same time that it fuddles the head. It is said, also to be of great use to a Democratic candidate: because a person, having swallowed a glass of it, is ready to swallow anything else.” Compare the ingredients listed (spirits, sugar, water, and bitters) with the ingredients of an Old Fashioned. Often, the Sazerac is cited as the first cocktail, even though it didn't appear until 25 years later. The first publication of a bartenders' guide which included cocktail recipes was in 1862: How to Mix Drinks; or, The Bon Vivant's Companion, by "Professor" Jerry Thomas. In addition to listings of recipes for Punches, Sours, Slings, Cobblers, Shrubs, Toddies, Flips, and a variety of other types of mixed drinks were 10 recipes for drinks referred to as "Cocktails". A key ingredient which differentiated "cocktails" from other drinks in this compendium was the use of bitters as an ingredient, although it is not used in many modern cocktail recipes. The first "cocktail party" ever thrown was allegedly by Mrs. Julius S. Walsh Jr. of St. Louis, Missouri, in May 1917. Mrs. Walsh invited 50 guests to her mansion at noon on a Sunday. The party lasted one hour, until lunch was served at 1pm. The site of the first cocktail party still stands. In 1924 the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of St. Louis bought the Walsh mansion at 4510 Lindell Blvd., and it has served as the local archbishop's residence ever since. St. Louis - Party Central - WSJ.com During Prohibition in the United States (1920–1933), when the sale of alcoholic beverages was illegal, cocktails were still consumed illegally in establishments known as speakeasies. The quality of the alcohol available was far lower than was previously used, and bartenders generally put forth less effort in preparing the cocktails. There was a shift from whiskey to gin, which doesn't require aging and is therefore easier to produce illicitly. Cocktails became less popular in the late 1960s and 1970s as other recreational drugs became common. In the 1980s cocktails once again became popular, with vodka often substituted for gin in drinks such as the martini. In the 2000s, traditional cocktails and gin are starting to make a comeback. Etymology Piña Colada with pieces of coconut There are several plausible theories as to the origin of the term "cocktail". Among them are: Barrel taps are known as cocks and the term tails usually referred to the dregs of distillate left at the end of a run in a distillery or at the bottom of a cask. Colonial taverns kept their spirits (rum, brandy, whiskey, gin, applejack) in casks, and as the liquid in the casks lowered the tavern keeper would combine the tails into an additional cask kept for that purpose, to be sold at a reduced price. The patrons would request the "cock tailings" or the tailings from the stop cock of the cask. Fighting cocks were given a mixture of spirits by their trainers before a fight. This mixture was known as a cocks-ale. In Campeche, Mexico, local bartenders used wooden spoons carved from a native root known as cola de-gallo (cock's tail) to stir the local spirits and punches before serving. In tribal Ireland, clan chiefs would gather to consult on matters such as border disputes, and to discuss cooperative plans when the island's residents were faced with a common foe. These meetings would typically take place in the great hall of the hosting clan. The clan chiefs would seat themselves at a communal table and their mugs of mead would be adorned with a cock's tail to signify their status. A tavern near Yorktown, New York was popular with the officers of the Revolutionary soldiers of Washington and Lafayette. The American troops preferred whiskey or gin, the French preferred wine or vermouth. All enjoyed a bit of brandy or rum. Sometimes late in the evenings, in a spirit of camaraderie, the spirits were mixed from one cup to another during toasts. A soldier stole a rooster from the tavern owner's neighbor, who was believed to be a Tory supporter of George III of the United Kingdom. The rooster was promptly cooked and served to the customers, with the tail feathers used to adorn the accompanying drinks. The toasts accompanying this meal were "vive le cocktail" and the mixed drinks were so called ever after. Stephen Visakay Vintage Bar Ware (Schroeder Publishing Co, Inc., 1997), ISBN 0-89145-789-5) Cocktails were originally a morning beverage, and the cocktail was the name given as metaphor for the rooster (cocktail) heralding morning light of day. This was first posited in 2004 by Ted Haigh in "Vintage Spirits & Forgotten Cocktails". And can be distinguished from the theory "take two snips of the hair of the dog that bit you", which refers to consuming a small bit of alcohol the morning after a "binge drinking night" to curb the effects of the symptoms of the hangover, in the belief that these symptoms are the result of a form of withdrawal. A cock's tail has feathers in many varied colours as a cocktail has varied alcoholic drinks mixed together. Some say that it was customary to put a feather, presumably from a cock's tail, in the drink to serve both as decoration and to signal to teetotalers that the drink contained alcohol. Another etymology is that the term is derived from coquetier, a French double-ended egg-cup which was used to serve the beverage in New Orleans in the early 19th century. Stanley Clisby Arthur Famous New Orleans Drinks and How to Mix 'Em (Pelican Publishing Company, June 1977), ISBN 0-88289-132-4) In the 1800s it was customary to dock the tails of good horses of mixed breeds. These horses were referred to as cock-tails. The beverage known as a "cock-tail", like the horse, was neither strictly spirit nor wine — it was a mixed breed, but a good horse nonetheless. After cokstele or cock-stick, a type of weighted stick used for throwing at cocks as a sport. See Cock throwing. The word could also be a distortion of Latin [aqua] decocta, meaning "distilled water". In the book, Under the Mountain, by Margaret Robson, published in 1958, the author states, "James Fenimore Cooper stayed (at Hustler's Tavern) in Lewiston, New York in 1821 while writing The Spy. In The Spy, Cooper wrote of cock-tails being served in Betsy Flanagan's tavern. Cooper researched the novel by using information taken from war veterans and used the owners, Thomas and Catherine Hustler, as the models for Sergeant Hollister and Betty Flanigan. According to Cooper, it was Catherine Hustler who invented the gin cocktail, stirring it with a feather from a stuffed rooster's tail." Catherine Hustler described her drink by saying, "it warms both the soul and body and is fit to be put in a vessel of diamonds." Hustler's Tavern, which stood at the northeast corner of 8th and Center Streets in Lewiston, NY, is no longer standing. Derivative uses The word "cocktail" is sometimes used figuratively for a mixture of liquids or other substances that are not necessarily fit for consumption. For example, the usage of such a word could be as follows: "120 years of industry have dosed the area's soil with a noxious cocktail of heavy metals and chemical contaminants". A makeshift incendiary bomb consisting of a bottle of flammable liquid (usually gasoline) with a flaming rag attached is known as a "Molotov cocktail." See also List of cocktails Mixed drink History of alcohol Cocktail glass Cocktail shaker References External links | Cocktail |@lemmatized typical:1 cocktail:34 serve:8 glass:5 style:1 mixed:9 drink:17 originally:2 mixture:4 distilled:1 spirit:10 sugar:4 water:5 bitter:5 word:5 gradually:1 come:1 mean:2 almost:1 contain:3 alcohol:5 today:1 usually:3 one:4 type:3 liquor:2 flavoring:1 liqueur:1 fruit:1 juice:1 honey:1 ice:1 soda:1 milk:1 cream:1 herb:1 etc:1 history:2 early:3 known:1 print:1 use:13 farmer:1 cabinet:1 april:1 excellent:2 head:2 call:3 doct:1 find:1 burnham:1 look:1 wise:1 drank:1 another:3 definition:1 may:2 edition:1 balance:1 columbian:1 repository:1 publication:2 hudson:1 new:5 york:3 answer:1 provide:1 question:1 state:3 stimulating:1 compose:1 kind:1 vulgarly:1 bittered:1 sling:2 suppose:1 electioneering:1 potion:1 inasmuch:1 render:1 heart:1 stout:1 bold:1 time:1 fuddle:1 say:3 also:3 great:2 democratic:1 candidate:1 person:1 swallow:2 ready:1 anything:1 else:1 compare:1 ingredient:4 list:2 old:1 fashion:1 often:2 sazerac:1 cite:1 first:5 even:1 though:1 appear:1 year:2 later:1 bartender:3 guide:1 include:1 recipe:4 mix:2 bon:1 vivant:1 companion:1 professor:1 jerry:1 thomas:2 addition:1 listing:1 punch:2 sour:1 cobbler:1 shrub:1 toddy:1 flip:1 variety:1 refer:3 cocktails:2 key:1 differentiate:1 compendium:1 although:1 many:2 modern:1 party:4 ever:3 thrown:1 allegedly:1 mr:2 julius:1 walsh:3 jr:1 st:3 louis:3 missouri:1 invite:1 guest:1 mansion:2 noon:1 sunday:1 last:1 hour:1 lunch:1 site:1 still:2 stand:3 roman:1 catholic:1 archdiocese:1 buy:1 lindell:1 blvd:1 local:3 archbishop:1 residence:1 since:1 central:1 wsj:1 com:1 prohibition:1 united:2 sale:1 alcoholic:2 beverage:4 illegal:1 consume:2 illegally:1 establishment:1 know:6 speakeasy:1 quality:1 available:1 far:1 low:1 previously:1 generally:1 put:3 forth:1 less:2 effort:1 prepare:1 shift:1 whiskey:3 gin:6 require:1 aging:1 therefore:1 easy:1 produce:1 illicitly:1 become:3 popular:3 late:2 recreational:1 drug:1 common:2 vodka:1 substitute:1 martini:1 traditional:1 start:1 make:1 comeback:1 etymology:2 piña:1 colada:1 piece:1 coconut:1 several:1 plausible:1 theory:2 origin:1 term:3 among:1 barrel:1 tap:1 cock:15 tail:12 dreg:1 distillate:1 leave:1 end:2 run:1 distillery:1 bottom:1 cask:5 colonial:1 tavern:7 keep:2 rum:2 brandy:2 applejack:1 liquid:3 lower:1 keeper:1 would:6 combine:1 additional:1 purpose:1 sell:1 reduced:1 price:1 patron:1 request:1 tailing:2 stop:1 fight:2 give:2 trainer:1 ale:1 campeche:1 mexico:1 wooden:1 spoon:1 carve:1 native:1 root:1 cola:1 de:1 gallo:1 stir:2 tribal:1 ireland:1 clan:3 chief:2 gather:1 consult:1 matter:1 border:1 dispute:1 discuss:1 cooperative:1 plan:1 island:1 resident:1 face:1 foe:1 meeting:1 typically:1 take:3 place:1 hall:1 hosting:1 seat:1 communal:1 table:1 mug:1 mead:1 adorn:2 signify:1 status:1 near:1 yorktown:1 officer:1 revolutionary:1 soldier:2 washington:1 lafayette:1 american:1 troop:1 prefer:1 french:2 preferred:1 wine:2 vermouth:1 enjoy:1 bit:3 sometimes:2 evening:1 camaraderie:1 cup:2 toast:2 stole:1 rooster:4 owner:2 neighbor:1 believe:1 tory:1 supporter:1 george:1 iii:1 kingdom:1 promptly:1 cook:1 customer:1 feather:4 accompany:2 meal:1 vive:1 le:1 stephen:1 visakay:1 vintage:2 bar:1 ware:1 schroeder:1 publish:2 co:1 inc:1 isbn:2 morning:3 name:1 metaphor:1 herald:1 light:1 day:1 posit:1 ted:1 haigh:1 forget:1 distinguish:1 two:1 snip:1 hair:1 dog:1 refers:1 small:1 binge:1 night:1 curb:1 effect:1 symptom:2 hangover:1 belief:1 result:1 form:1 withdrawal:1 varied:1 colour:1 vary:1 together:1 customary:2 presumably:1 decoration:1 signal:1 teetotaler:1 derive:1 coquetier:1 double:1 egg:1 orleans:2 century:1 stanley:1 clisby:1 arthur:1 famous:1 em:1 pelican:1 publishing:1 company:1 june:1 dock:1 good:2 horse:4 breed:2 like:1 neither:1 strictly:1 nonetheless:1 cokstele:1 stick:2 weighted:1 throw:2 sport:1 see:2 could:2 distortion:1 latin:1 aqua:1 decocta:1 distil:1 book:1 mountain:1 margaret:1 robson:1 author:1 jam:1 fenimore:1 cooper:4 stay:1 hustler:5 lewiston:2 write:2 spy:2 betsy:1 flanagan:1 research:1 novel:1 information:1 war:1 veteran:1 catherine:3 model:1 sergeant:1 hollister:1 betty:1 flanigan:1 accord:1 invent:1 stuffed:1 describe:1 warm:1 soul:1 body:1 fit:2 vessel:1 diamond:1 northeast:1 corner:1 center:1 street:1 ny:1 longer:1 derivative:1 figuratively:1 substance:1 necessarily:1 consumption:1 example:1 usage:1 follow:1 industry:1 dose:1 area:1 soil:1 noxious:1 heavy:1 metal:1 chemical:1 contaminant:1 makeshift:1 incendiary:1 bomb:1 consist:1 bottle:1 flammable:1 gasoline:1 flame:1 rag:1 attach:1 molotov:1 shaker:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram distilled_spirit:1 fruit_juice:1 anything_else:1 cocktail_recipe:2 bon_vivant:1 wsj_com:1 alcoholic_beverage:1 recreational_drug:1 wooden_spoon:1 cock_tail:7 alcoholic_drink:1 pelican_publishing:1 fenimore_cooper:1 lewiston_ny:1 incendiary_bomb:1 flammable_liquid:1 molotov_cocktail:1 external_link:1 |
6,259 | Constitution_of_Canada | The Constitution of Canada (La Constitution du Canada in French) is the supreme law in Canada; the country's constitution is an amalgamation of codified acts and uncodified traditions and conventions. It outlines Canada's system of government, as well as the civil rights of all Canadian citizens. The composition of the Constitution of Canada is defined in subsection 52(2) of the Constitution Act, 1982 as consisting of the Canada Act 1982 (including the Constitution Act, 1982), all acts and orders referred to in the schedule (including the Constitution Act, 1867, formerly the British North America Act), and any amendments to these documents. See list of Canadian constitutional documents for details. The Supreme Court of Canada held that the list is not exhaustive and includes unwritten doctrines as well. New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia [1993] 1 S.C.R. 319 History of the Constitution A painting depicting negotiations that would lead to the enactment of the British North America Act, 1867 The first semblance of a Constitution for Canada was the Royal Proclamation of 1763. The Act renamed the northeasterly portion of the former French Province of New France. The newly British “Province of Quebec” was roughly coextensive with the lower third of contemporary Quebec. The Proclamation, which established an appointed colonial government, was the “de fact” constitution of Quebec until 1774, when the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act, which expanded the province’s boundaries to the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. Significantly, the Quebec Act also replaced the French criminal law presumption of ‘guilty until proven innocent’ with the English criminal law presumption of ‘innocent until proven guilty’; but the French code or civil law system was retained for non-criminal matters. The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the American War for Independence and send a wave of monarchist refugees northward to Quebec and Nova Scotia. In 1784, the two provinces were divided. Nova Scotia became Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island (rejoined to Nova Scotia in 1820), Prince Edward Island, and New Brunswick; while Quebec was split into Lower Canada (southerly Quebec) and Upper Canada (southerly through lower northern Ontario and all or parts of Michigan until 1796, 1818 and 1847). The winter of 1837-38 saw rebellion in both of the Canadas, with the result they were rejoined as the Province of United Canada in 1841. This was reversed by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the Dominion of Canada. Initially, on 1 July 1867, there were four provinces in confederation as “One dominion under the name of Canada”: Canada West (former Upper Canada; now, Ontario), Canada East (former Lower Canada; now, Quebec), Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Title to the Northwest Territories was transferred by the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1868, and the Province of Manitoba was the first created out of it, and the first province created by Ottawa instead of London, in 1870. British Columbia joined confederation in 1871, followed by Prince Edward Island in 1873. Alberta and Saskatchewan were created by Ottawa in 1905, followed by the Yukon Territory in 1912. The Dominion of Newfoundland, Britain’s oldest colony in the Americas, joined Canada in 1949. Nunavut Territory was created in 1999. An Empire Conference in 1931 that included the leaders of all dominions, and representatives from India (which then included Burma, Bangladesh and Pakistan) produced the Statute of Westminster. The Statute, an essential transitory step from “British Empire” to “Commonwealth of Nations”, provided that all existing dominions became fully independent of the United Kingdom upon its ratification by the dominion legislatures (for Canada and Australia, the federal legislatures only); and all new dominions would be fully independent upon the grant of dominion status. There were two exceptions – Newfoundland and Canada. Newfoundland never ratified the Statute, so that it was still subject to imperial authority when its entire system of government and economy collapsed utterly in the mid-1930’s. Canada did ratify the Statute, but had requested an exception be made under which it did ‘’not’’ acquire full independence because the Canadian federal and provincial governments could not agree on an amending formula for the Canadian Constitution. It would be another 50 years before this was achieved. In the interim, the British Parliament periodically passed enabling acts and other legislation to retroactively legitimate the actions of the Canadian Parliament and government. This was never anything but a rubber stamp, but it did mean Canada was still legally a colony instead of a fully-fledged member of the sisterhood of nation-states. The patriation of the Canadian Constitution was achieved in 1982 when the British and Canadian parliaments passed parallel acts – the Canada Act, 1982 ([UK] 1982, c.11) in London, and the Constitution Act 1982 in Ottawa. Thereafter, the United Kingdom was formally absolved of any responsibility for, or jurisdiction over, Canada; and Canada became responsible for her own destiny. In a formal ceremony on Parliament Hill in Ottawa, the Queen signed both acts into law on April 17, 1982. The Canada Act/Constitution Act included the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Prior to the Charter, there were variously statutes which protected an assortment of civil rights and obligations, but nothing was enshrined in the Constitution until 1982. The Charter has thus placed a strong focus upon individual and collective rights of the people of Canada. The Act also codified many previously oral constitutional conventions, and has made amendment of the Constitution significantly more difficult. Previously, the Canadian federal constitution could be amended by solitary act of the Canadian or British parliaments, by formal or informal agreement between the federal and provincial governments, or even simply by adoption as ordinary custom of an oral convention or unwritten tradition that was perceived to be the best way to do something – or just the way things had always worked. (Even today, there is no mention of the person called “Prime Minister” anywhere in the Canadian Constitution, despite this person being head of the Canadian government – but as everybody already knew that when Canada was created, it has never been considered necessary to write it down.) Amendments must now conform to certain specified provisions in the written portion of the Canadian Constitution (see amendment formula). Enactment of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has also fundamentally changed much of Canadian constitutional law. Before the Charter, civil rights and liberties had no solid constitutional protection in Canada. Whenever one level of government passed a law that seemed oppressive to civil rights and liberties, Canadian constitutional lawyers had to argue creatively, such as by saying that the oppressive law violates division of federal and provincial powers or by citing some other technical flaw that had little to do with the concept of civil rights and liberties. Even Magna Charta, which does have constitutional status in Canada, was occasionally called into service in legal argument. Since 1982, however, the arguments have been easier to make, because lawyers have been able to cite the relevant sections of the constitution rather than rely upon legal abstraction. Constitution Act, 1867 This was an Act of the British Parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867, that created the Dominion of Canada out of three separate provinces in British North America (Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia) and allowed for subsequent provinces and colonies to join this union in the future. It outlined Canada's system of government, which combines Britain's Westminster model of parliamentary government with division of sovereignty (federalism). Although it is the first of twenty British North America Acts, it is still the most famous of these and is understood to be the document of Canadian Confederation (i.e. union of provinces and colonies in British North America). With the patriation of the Constitution in 1982, this Act was renamed Constitution Act, 1867. In recent years, the Constitution Act, 1867 has mainly served as the basis on which the division of powers between the provinces and federal government have been analyzed. Constitution Act, 1982 Endorsed by all the provincial governments except Quebec's, this was an Act by the Canadian Parliament requesting full political independence from Britain. Part V of this Act created a constitution-amending formula that did not require an Act by the British Parliament. Further, Part I of this Act is the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms which outlines the civil rights and liberties of every citizen in Canada, such as freedom of expression, of religion, and of mobility. Part II deals with the rights of Canada's Aboriginal peoples. Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms As noted above, this is Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Charter is the constitutional guarantee of collective and individual rights. It is a relatively short document and written in plain language in order to ensure accessibility to the average citizen. It is said that it is the part of the constitution that has the greatest impact on Canadians' day-to-day lives, and has been the fastest developing area of constitutional law for many years. Amending formula With the Constitution Act, 1982, amendments to the constitution must be done in accordance with Part V of the Constitution Act, 1982 which provides for five different amending formulas. Amendments can be brought forward under section 46(1) by any province or either level of the federal government. The general formula is set out in section 38(1), known as the "7/50 formula", requires: (a) assent from both the House of Commons and the Senate; (b) the approval of two-thirds of the provincial legislatures (at least seven provinces), representing at least 50% of the population (effectively, this would include at least Quebec or Ontario, as they are the most populous provinces). This formula specifically applies to amendments related to the proportionate representation in Parliament, powers, selection, and composition of the Senate, the Supreme Court and the addition of provinces or territories. The other amendment formulas are for exceptional cases as provided by in the Act: In the case of an amendment related to the Office of the Queen, the number of senators, the use of either official language (subject to section 43), the amending formula, or the composition of the Supreme Court, the amendment must be adopted by unanimous consent of all the provinces in accordance with section 41. However, in the case of an amendment related to provincial boundaries or the use of an official language within a province alone, the amendment must be passed by the legislatures affected by the amendment (section 43). In the case of an amendment that affects the federal government alone, the amendment does not need approval of the provinces (section 44). The same applies to amendments affecting the provincial government alone (section 45). Vandalism of the paper proclamation In 1983, Toronto artist Peter Greyson entered Ottawa's National Archives (known today as Library and Archives Canada) and poured red paint over a copy of the proclamation of the 1982 constitutional amendment. He said he was displeased with the federal government's decision to allow U.S. missile testing in Canada, and had wanted to "graphically illustrate to Canadians" how wrong the government was. A grapefruit-sized stain still remains on the original document. Specialists opted to leave most of the paint intact fearing attempts at removing it would only do further damage. Missile Protestor defaces Constitution - "On This Day" - CBC Archives Sources of the Constitution There are three general methods of constitutional entrenchment: 1. Specific mention as a constitutional document in section 52(2) of the Constitution Act, 1982, such as the Constitution Act, 1867. 2. Constitutional entrenchment of an otherwise statutory English, British, or Canadian document because of subject matter provisions in the amending formula of the Constitution Act, 1982, such as provisions with regard to the monarchy in the English Bill of Rights 1689 or the Act of Settlement 1701. English and British statutes are part of Canadian law because of the Colonial Laws Validity Act, 1865, section 129 of the Constitution Act, 1867, and the Statute of Westminster 1931. Those laws then became entrenched when the amending formula was made part of the constitution. 3. Reference by an entrenched document, such as the Preamble of the Constitution Act, 1867's entrenchment of written and unwritten principles from the constitution of the United Kingdom or the Constitution Act, 1982's reference of the Proclamation of 1763. Unwritten sources The existence of an unwritten constitution was reaffirmed by the Supreme Court in Reference re Secession of Quebec. The Constitution is more than a written text. It embraces the entire global system of rules and principles which govern the exercise of constitutional authority. A superficial reading of selected provisions of the written constitutional enactment, without more, may be misleading. In practice, there have been three sources of unwritten constitutional law: Conventions: Constitutional conventions form part of the Constitution, but they are not legally enforceable. They include the existence of the Prime Minister and Parliamentary Cabinet, the fact that the Governor General is required to give assent to Bills, and the requirement that the Prime Minister call an election upon losing a vote of non-confidence. Royal Prerogative: Reserve powers of the Canadian Crown; being remnants of the powers once held by the British Crown, reduced over time by the Parliamentary system. Primarily, these are the Orders-in-Council which give the Government the authority to declare war, conclude treaties, issue passports, make appointments, make regulations, incorporate, and receive lands that escheat to the Crown. Unwritten Principles: Principles that are incorporated into the Canadian Constitution by reference from the preamble of the Constitution Act, 1867. Unlike conventions, they are legally binding. Amongst the recognized Constitutional principles are federalism, democracy, constitutionalism and the rule of law, and respect for minorities. these were identified in Reference re Secession of Quebec [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 Other principles include responsible government, judicial independence and an Implied Bill of Rights. In one case, the Provincial Judges Reference (1997), it was found a law can be held invalid for contradicting unwritten principles, in this case judicial independence. See also Law of Canada Canadian Bill of Rights References External links Full text of the Constitution Canada in the Making - a comprehensive history of the Canadian Constitution with digitized primary sources. Fundamental Freedoms: The Charter of Rights and Freedoms - Charter of Rights and Freedoms website with video, audio and the Charter in over 20 languages Meech Lake Accord, 1987 Charlottetown Accord, 1992 Results of Referendum on the Charlottetown Accord, 1992 CBC Digital Archives - Charting the Future: Canada's New Constitution CBC Digital Archives - Canada's Constitutional Debate: What Makes a Nation? | Constitution_of_Canada |@lemmatized constitution:49 canada:42 la:1 du:1 french:4 supreme:5 law:16 country:1 amalgamation:1 codified:1 act:46 uncodified:1 tradition:2 convention:6 outline:3 system:6 government:19 well:2 civil:7 right:18 canadian:27 citizen:3 composition:3 define:1 subsection:1 consist:1 include:9 order:3 refer:1 schedule:1 formerly:1 british:19 north:7 america:8 amendment:17 document:8 see:3 list:2 constitutional:18 detail:1 court:4 hold:3 exhaustive:1 unwritten:8 doctrine:1 new:7 brunswick:4 broadcasting:1 co:1 v:3 nova:7 scotia:7 c:3 r:2 history:2 painting:1 depict:1 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6,260 | Gregor_Mendel | Gregor Johann Mendel (July 20, 1822 July 20 is his birthday; often mentioned is July 22, the date of his baptism. Biography of Mendel at the Mendel Museum – January 6, 1884) was an Augustinian priest and scientist, and is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants. Mendel showed that the inheritance of these traits follows particular laws, which were later named after him. The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century. Its rediscovery prompted the foundation of the discipline of genetics. Biography Mendel was born into an ethnic German family in Heinzendorf bei Odrau, Austrian Silesia, Austrian Empire (now Hynčice, Czech Republic), and was baptized two days later. He was the son of Anton and Rosine Mendel, and had one older sister and one younger. They lived and worked on a farm which had been owned by the Mendel family for at least 130 years. Gregor Mendel, Alain F. Corcos, Floyd V. Monaghan, Maria C. Weber "Gregor Mendel's Experiments on Plant Hybrids: A Guided Study", Rutgers University Press, 1993. During his childhood, Mendel worked as a gardener, studied beekeeping, and as a young man attended the Philosophical Institute in Olomouc in 1840–1843. Upon recommendation of his physics teacher Friedrich Franz, he entered the Augustinian Abbey of St Thomas in Brno in 1843. Born Johann Mendel, he took the name Gregor upon entering monastic life. In 1851 he was sent to the University of Vienna to study, returning to his abbey in 1853 as a teacher, principally of physics. Gregor Mendel, who is known as the "father of modern genetics", was inspired by both his professors at university and his colleagues at the monastery to study variation in plants, and he conducted his study in the monastery's garden. Between 1856 and 1863 Mendel cultivated and tested some 29,000 pea plants (i.e., Pisum sativum). This study showed that one in four pea plants had purebred recessive alleles, two out of four were hybrid and one out of four were purebred dominant. His experiments brought forth two generalizations, the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment, which later became known as Mendel's Laws of Inheritance. Mendel read his paper, "Experiments on Plant Hybridization", at two meetings of the Natural History Society of Brünn in Moravia in 1865. When Mendel's paper was published in 1866 in Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brünn,<ref>Mendel, J.G. (1866). Versuche über Plflanzenhybriden Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in Brünn, Bd. IV für das Jahr, 1865 Abhandlungen:3-47. For the English translation, see: {{cite journal | author=Druery, C.T and William Bateson |title=Experiments in plant hybridization|journal=Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society|volume=26|pages=1–32|date=1901|url=http://www.esp.org/foundations/genetics/classical/gm-65.pdf}} </ref> it had little impact and was cited about three times over the next thirty-five years. (Notably, Charles Darwin was unaware of Mendel's paper, according to Jacob Bronowski's The Ascent of Man.) His paper was criticized at the time, but is now considered a seminal work. After Mendel completed his work with peas, he turned to experimenting with honeybees, in order to extend his work to animals. He produced a hybrid strain (so vicious they were destroyed), but failed to generate a clear picture of their heredity because of the difficulties in controlling mating behaviours of queen bees. He also described novel plant species, and these are denoted with the botanical author abbreviation "Mendel". Elevated as abbot in 1868, his scientific work largely ended as Mendel became consumed with his increased administrative responsibilities, especially a dispute with the civil government over their attempt to impose special taxes on religious institutions. At first Mendel's work was rejected, and it was not widely accepted until after he died. The common belief at the time was that Darwin's theory of pangenesis was responsible for inheritance. The modern synthesis uses Mendelian genetics. Mendel died on January 6, 1884, at age 61, in Brno, Moravia, Austria-Hungary (now Czech Republic), from chronic nephritis. Czech composer Leoš Janáček played the organ at his funeral. After his death the succeeding abbot burned all papers in Mendel's collection, to mark an end to the disputes over taxation. Rediscovery of Mendel's work Dominant and recessive phenotypes. (1) Parental generation. (2) F1 generation. (3) F2 generation. It was not until the early 20th century that the importance of his ideas was realized. In 1900, his work was rediscovered by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns. Though Erich von Tschermak was originally also credited with rediscovery, this is no longer accepted because he did not understand Mendel's laws. Mendel's results were quickly replicated, and genetic linkage quickly worked out. Biologists flocked to the theory, even though it was not yet applicable to many phenomena, it sought to give a genotypic understanding of heredity which they felt was lacking in previous studies of heredity which focused on phenotypic approaches. Most prominent of these latter approaches was the biometric school of Karl Pearson and W.F.R. Weldon, which was based heavily on statistical studies of phenotype variation. The strongest opposition to this school came from William Bateson, who perhaps did the most in the early days of publicising the benefits of Mendel's theory (the word "genetics", and much of the discipline's other terminology, originated with Bateson). This debate between the biometricians and the Mendelians was extremely vigorous in the first two decades of the twentieth century, with the biometricians claiming statistical and mathematical rigor, whereas the Mendelians claimed a better understanding of biology. In the end, the two approaches were combined as the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology, especially by work conducted by R. A. Fisher as early as 1918. Mendel's experimental results have later been the object of considerable dispute. Fisher analyzed the results of the F2 (second filial) ratio and found them to be implausibly close to the exact ratio of 3 to 1. Fisher, R. A. (1936). Has Mendel's work been rediscovered? Annals of Science 1:115-137. Only a few would accuse Mendel of scientific malpractice or call it a scientific fraud — reproduction of his experiments has demonstrated the validity of his hypothesis — however, the results have continued to be a mystery for many, though it is often cited as an example of confirmation bias. This might arise if he detected an approximate 3 to 1 ratio early in his experiments with a small sample size, and continued collecting more data until the results conformed more nearly to an exact ratio. It is sometimes suggested that he may have censored his results, and that his seven traits each occur on a separate chromosome pair, an extremely unlikely occurrence if they were chosen at random. In fact, the genes Mendel studied occurred in only four linkage groups, and only one gene pair (out of 21 possible) is close enough to show deviation from independent assortment; this is not a pair that Mendel studied. Gallery See also List of Austrian scientists Mendelian inheritance Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry Brno (named after Mendel since 1994) Mendel Polar Station in Antarctica Abbey of St. Thomas in Brno Mendel Museum of Genetics Mendelian error References Bibliography Cheryl Bardoe Gregor Mendel: The Friar who grew peas., HN Abrams, 2006. William Bateson Mendel's Principles of Heredity, a Defense, First Edition, London: Cambridge University Press, 1902. On-line Facsimile Edition: Electronic Scholarly Publishing, Prepared by Robert Robbins Robin Marantz Henig, Monk in the Garden: The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics, Houghton Mifflin, May, 2000, hardcover, 292 pages, ISBN 0-395-97765-7; trade paperback, Houghton Mifflin, May, 2001, ISBN 0-618-12741-0 Robert Lock, Recent Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity and Evolution, London, 1906 Vítězslav Orel, Gregor Mendel: the first geneticist, Oxford University Press. 1996, ISBN 0198547749 Reginald Punnett, Mendelism, Cambridge, 1905 Curt Stern and Sherwood ER (1966) The Origin of Genetics. Colin Tudge In Mendel's footnotes ISBN 0-09-928875-3 book about Gregor Mendel Bartel Leendert van der Waerden Mendel's experiments Centaurus 12, 275-288 (1968) refutes allegations about "data smoothing" James Walsh, Catholic Churchmen in Science, Philadelphia: Dolphin Press, 1906 Ronald A. Fisher, "Has Mendel's Work Been Rediscovered?" Annals of Science'', Volume 1, (1936): 115-137. Discusses the possibility of fraud in his research. External links Mendel's Paper in English Mendel Museum of Genetics Biography, bibliography and access to digital sources in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia entry, "Mendel, Mendelism" Online Mendelian Inheritence in Man Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas at Brno A photographic tour of St. Thomas' Abbey, Brno, Czech Republic Johann Gregor Mendel: Why his discoveries were ignored for 35 (72) years This has the basics of Mendel and is more appropriate in style for a GCSE student | Gregor_Mendel |@lemmatized gregor:10 johann:3 mendel:51 july:3 birthday:1 often:3 mention:1 date:2 baptism:1 biography:3 museum:3 january:2 augustinian:3 priest:1 scientist:2 call:2 father:3 genetics:10 study:12 inheritance:5 certain:1 trait:3 pea:4 plant:8 show:3 follow:1 particular:1 law:5 later:4 name:3 significance:1 work:14 recognize:1 turn:2 century:3 rediscovery:3 prompt:1 foundation:2 discipline:2 bear:2 ethnic:1 german:1 family:2 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6,261 | Alvar_Aalto | Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto (February 3, 1898 — May 11, 1976) was a Finnish architect and designer, sometimes called the "Father of Modernism" in the Scandinavian countries. His work includes architecture, furniture, textiles and glassware. He is also known for his strong cooperation with the Ahlström-Gullichsen family. "Architecture.sk." Biography Life Alvar Aalto was born in Kuortane, Finland. Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 1 His father, Johan Henrik Aalto, was a Finnish-speaking land-surveyor and his mother, Selly (Selma) Matilda (née Hackstedt) was a post-mistress. When Aalto was 5 years old, the family moved to Alajärvi, and from there to Jyväskylä in Central Finland. Aalto studied at the Jyväskylä Lyceum school, completing his basic education in 1916. In 1916 he then enrolled to study architecture at the Helsinki University of Technology, graduating in 1921. In 1923 he returned to Jyväskylä, where he opened his first architectural office. The following year he married architect Aino Marsio. Their honeymoon journey to Italy sealed an intellectual bond with the culture of the Mediterranean region that was to remain important to Aalto for the rest of his life. Aalto moved his office to Turku in 1927, and started collaborating with architect Erik Bryggman. The office moved again in 1933 to Helsinki. Alvar Aalto Studio, Helsinki (1954-6) The Aaltos designed and built a joint house-office (1935-36) for themselves in Munkkiniemi, Helsinki, but later (1954-56) had a purpose-built office built in the same neighbourhood. Aino and Alvar Aalto had 2 children, a daughter Johanna "Hanni" Alanen, born Aalto, 1925, and a son Hamilkar Aalto, 1928. In 1926 the young Aaltos designed and had built a summer cottage in Alajärvi, Villa Flora. Aino Aalto died of cancer in 1949. In 1952 Aalto married architect Elissa Mäkiniemi (died 1994), who had been working as an assistant in his office. In 1952 Aalto designed and had built a summer cottage, the so-called Experimental House, for himself and his new wife in Muuratsalo in Central Finland. Alvar Aalto died on May 11, 1976, in Helsinki. "Aalto, Alvar." Encyclopædia Britannica. 17 December 2006. Career Although he is sometimes regarded as among the first and most influential architects of Nordic modernism, a closer examination of the historical facts reveals that Aalto (while a pioneer in Finland) closely followed and had personal contacts with other pioneers in Sweden, in particular Gunnar Asplund and Sven Markelius. What they and many others of that generation in the Nordic countries had in common was that they started off from a classical education and were first designing in the so-called Nordic Classicism style - a style that had been a reaction to the previous dominant style of National Romanticism - before moving, in the late 1920s, towards Modernism. Auditorium of the Viipuri Municipal Library in the 1930s. In Aalto's case this is epitomised by the Viipuri Library (1927-35), which went through a transformation from an originally classical competition entry proposal to the completed high-modernist building. Yet his humanistic approach is in full evidence in the library: the interior displays natural materials, warm colours, and undulating lines. Due to problems over financing and a change of site, the Viipuri Library project lasted eight years, and during that same time he also designed the Turun Sanomat Building (1929-30) and Paimio Sanatorium (1929-33). Thus, the Turun Sanomat Building first heralded Aalto's move towards modernism, and this was then carried forward both in the Paimio Sanatorium and in the on-going design for the library. Although the Turun Sanomat Building and Paimio Sanatorium are comparatively pure modernist works, they too carried the seeds of his questioning of such an orthodox modernist approach and a move to a more daring, synthetic attitude. Aalto was a member of the Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne, attending the second congress in Frankfurt in 1929 and the fourth congress in Athens in 1933. It was not until the completion of the Paimio Sanatorium (1929) and Viipuri Library (1935) that he first achieved world attention in architecture. His reputation grew in the USA following the critical reception of his design for the Finnish Pavilion at the 1939 New York World's Fair, described by Frank Lloyd Wright as a "work of genius". It could be said that Aalto's reputation was sealed with his inclusion in the second edition of Sigfried Giedion's influential book on Modernist architecture, Space, Time and Architecture: The growth of a new tradition (1949), in which Aalto received more attention than any other Modernist architect, including Le Corbusier. In his analysis of Aalto, Giedion gave primacy to qualities that depart from direct functionality, such as mood, atmosphere, intensity of life and even 'national characteristics', declaring that "Finland is with Aalto wherever he goes". His increased fame led to offers and commissions outside Finland. In 1941 he accepted an invitation as a visiting professor to MIT, in USA. While teaching there, Aalto also designed the student dormitory, Baker House, completed in 1948. This building was the first building of Aalto's redbrick period. Originally used in Baker House to signify the Ivy league university tradition, on his return to Finland Aalto used it in a number of key buildings, in particular several of the buildings in the new Helsinki University of Technology campus, which began from 1950, Helsinki Pensions Institute (1954), Säynatsalo Town Hall (1952). Aalto's awards included the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture from the Royal Institute of British Architects (1957) and the Gold Medal from the American Institute of Architects (1963). Works Aalto's career spans the changes in style from (Nordic Classicism) to purist International Style Modernism to a more personal, synthetic and idiosyncratic Modernism. Aalto's wide field of design activity ranges from the large scale of city planning and architecture to interior design, furniture and glassware design and painting. It has been estimated that during his entire career Aalto designed over 500 individual buildings, approximately 300 of which were built, the vast majority of which are in Finland. He also has a few buildings in the USA, Germany, Italy, and France. Göran Schildt, Alvar Aalto. A life's work: Architecture, Design and Art. Otava, Helsinki, 1994 Aalto claimed that his paintings were not made as individual artworks but as part of his process of architectural design, and many of his small-scale "sculptural" experiments with wood led to later larger architectural details and forms. These experiments also led to a number of patents: for example, he invented a new form of laminated bent-plywood furniture in 1932. His experimental method had been influenced by his meetings with various members of the Bauhaus design school, especially László Moholy-Nagy, whom he first met in 1930. Aalto's furniture was exhibited in London in 1935, to great critical acclaim, and to cope with the consumer demand Aalto, together with his wife Aino, Maire Gullichsen and Nils-Gustav Hahl founded the company Artek that same year. Aalto glassware (Aino as well as Alvar) is manufactured by Iittala. Significant buildings 1921 – 1923: Bell tower of Kauhajärvi Church, Lapua, Finland 1924 – 1928: Municipal hospital, Alajärvi, Finland 1926 – 1929: Defence Corps Building, Jyväskylä, Finland 1927 – 1935: Municipal library, Viipuri, Finland (now Vyborg, Russia) 1928 – 1929, 1930: Turun Sanomat newspaper offices, Turku, Finland 1928 – 1929: Paimio Sanatorium, Tuberculosis sanatorium and staff housing, Paimio, Finland 1931: Central University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia (former Yugoslavia) 1932: – Villa Tammekann, Tartu, Estonia 1934: Corso theatre, restaurant interior, Zürich, Switzerland 1936 - 1938: Ahlstrom Sunila Pulp Mill, Housing, and Town Plan, Kotka 1937: Finnish Pavilion, 1937 World's Fair 1937 – 1939: Villa Mairea, Noormarkku, Finland 1939: Finnish Pavilion, 1939 World's Fair 1947 – 1948: Baker House, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA 1949 – 1966: Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland 1949 – 1952: Säynätsalo Town Hall, 1949 competition, built 1952, Säynätsalo (now part of Jyväskylä), Finland 1950 – 1957: Kansaneläkelaitos (National Pension Institution) office building, Helsinki, Finland 1952 – 1958: House of Culture, Helsinki, Finland 1957: The Experimental House, Muuratsalo, Finland 1958 – 1987: Town centre, Seinäjoki, Finland 1958 – 1972: North Jutland Art Museum, Aalborg, Denmark 1959 – 1962: Enso-Gutzeit Headquarters, Helsinki, Finland 1962: Aalto-Hochhaus, Bremen, Germany 1965: Regional Library of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland 1962 – 1971: Finlandia Hall, Helsinki, Finland 1963 – 1965: Building for Västmanland-Dala nation, Uppsala, Sweden 1965 – 1968: Nordic House, Reykjavík, Iceland 1970: Mount Angel Abbey Library, Mt. Angel, Oregon, USA 1959 – 1988: Essen opera house, Essen, Germany Furniture and glassware Chairs 1932: Paimio Chair Artek "View images of his design work" 1933: Three-legged stacking Stool 60 Artek 1933: Four-legged Stool E60 Artek 1935-6: Armchair 404 (a/k/a/ Zebra Tank Chair) Artek 1939: Armchair 406 Artek Lamps 1954: Floor lamp A805 Artek 1959: Floor lamp A810 Artek Vases 1936: Aalto Vase Images Quotes "God created paper for the purpose of drawing architecture on it. Everything else is at least for me an abuse of paper." Alvar Aalto, Sketches, 1978, 104. "We should work for simple, good, undecorated things" and he continues, "but things which are in harmony with the human being and organically suited to the little man in the street." Alvar Aalto, speech in London 1957. Memorials Aalto has been commemorated in a number of ways: Alvar Aalto is the eponym of the Alvar Aalto Medal, now considered one of world architecture’s most prestigious awards. Aalto was featured in the 50 mk note in the last series of the Finnish markka (before its replacement by the Euro in 2002). 1998 marked the centenary anniversary of Aalto's birth. The occasion was marked in Finland not only by several books and exhibitions but also by the promotion of specially-bottled red and white Aalto Wine, and a specially-designed cup-cake. Aalto University, a new Finnish university (an amalgamation of Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki School of Economics and TaiK) will be established in 2010, is named after Alvar Aalto. See also Alvar Aalto buildings Bibliography Göran Schildt Göran Schildt has written and edited many books on Aalto, the most well-known being the three-volume biography, usually referred to as the definitive biography on Aalto. Alvar Aalto. The Early Years Rizzoli, New York, 1984. Alvar Aalto. The Decisive Years Rizzoli, New York, 1987. Alvar Aalto. The Mature Years Rizzoli, New York, 1991. The Architectural Drawings of Alvar Aalto, 1917-1939, in eleven volumes. Prepared by the Alvar Aalto Archive in collaboration with the Museum of Finnish Architecture, Helsinki, and the Alvar Aalto Museum, Jyväskylä; with introduction and project descriptions by Göran Schildt. New York, Garland Pub., 1994. Alvar Aalto in His Own Words. Rizzoli, New York, 1998. Alvar Aalto: The Complete Catalogue of Architecture, Design and Art. Rizzoli, New York, 1994. Other books Alvar Aalto ArchitectAlvar Aalto Academy, Helsinki. A 28-part series of books chronicling significant Aalto works. Volumes already published: Volume 7: Sunila Volume 9: Villa Mairea Volume 13: University of Technology, Otaniemi Volume 20: Maison Carré Alvar Aalto Arkkitehti / Architect 1898-1976, Rakennustieto / Alvar Aalto Foundation, Helsinki, 1999. Fleig, Karl Alvar Aalto, Editorial Gustavo Gili, Barcelona, 1992. Porphyrios, Demetri Sources of Modern Eclecticism, Academy Editions, London, 1982. Pallasmaa, Juhani (Ed.) Alvar Aalto Furniture, Museum of Finnish Architecture. Helsinki 1984 Reed, Peter (Ed.) Alvar Aalto: between humanism and materialism. Museum of Modern Art/H.N. Abrams. New York, 1998. Ruusuvuori, Aarno (Ed.) Alvar Aalto 1898-1976. Museum of Finnish Architecture. Helsinki 1998 Jormakka, Kari; Gargus, Jacqueline; Graf, Douglas The Use and Abuse of Paper. Essays on Alvar Aalto. Datutop 20, Tampere 1999. Connah, Roger Aaltomania - Readings against Aalto? Building Information LTD, Helsinki 2000. Weston, Richard Alvar Aalto. Phaidon, London, 1995. Aalto research The extensive archives of Alvar Aalto are nowadays kept at the Alvar Aalto Museum, Jyväskylä, Finland. Material is also available from the former offices of Aalto, at Tiilimäki 20, Helsinki, nowadays the headquarters of the Alvar Aalto Foundation. The Alvar Aalto Museum and Aalto Academy publish a journal (twice a year), ptah, which is devoted not only to Aalto scholarship but also to architecture generally as well as theory, design and art. One of the most extensive collections of references on Alvar Aalto in the U.S. can be found at the University of Oregon. References External links Archives Alvar Aalto Foundation Custodian of Aalto's architectural drawings and writings. Resources Short Biographies: Alvar Aalto Aalto bibliography - From the official site Alvar Aalto - Design Dictionary Illustrated article about Alvar Aalto Modern Furniture and the history of Moulded Plywood Role played by Alvar Alto in the use of Moulded plywood for furniture. Catalogs artek Aalto furniture; company founded by Aalto. Alvar Aalto glassware iittala Between Humanism and Materialism New York Museum of Modern Art exhibit site. Contains an especially useful timeline of his life and career. Buildings and reviews "Ahead of the curve" The Guardian - Fiona MacCarthy recalls a shared lunch of smoked reindeer and schnapps in his elegant Helsinki restaurant Mt. Angel Abbey Library Baker House North Jutland Museum Nordic House Iceland S. Maria Assunta - Riola BO Italy Shops Alvar Aalto Collection Tomorrow's Antique Alvar Aalto furniture collection. Coliseum-shop.com Alvar Aalto Furniture Selection. 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6,262 | Knout | "Punishment with an ordinary knout", an 17th century print A knout () is a heavy scourge-like multiple whip, usually made of a bunch of rawhide thongs attached to a long handle, sometimes with metal wire or hooks incorporated. The English word stems from English phonetic pronunciation of a French transliteration of the Russian word кнут (knut), which simply means "whip". Russian original Some claim it was a Tatar invention and was introduced into Russia in the 15th century, maybe by Grand Duke Ivan III the Great (1462-1505). Others trace the word to Varangians and derive it from the Swedish knutpiska, a kind of whip with knots. Still others maintain it is of generic Germanic origin, not necessarily Scandinavian, comparing it with the German Knute, Dutch knoet (both meaning knout) and with Old Norse knutr, Anglo-Saxon cnotta and English knot. The Russian knout had different forms. One was a lash of raw hide, long, attached to a wooden handle, long. The lash ended in a metal ring, to which was attached a second lash as long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached a few inches of hard leather ending in a beak-like hook. Another kind consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with wire, ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o-nine tails. "Punishment with a Great Knout" A variation, known as the great knout, consisted of a handle about long, to which was fastened a flat leather thong about twice the length of the handle, terminating with a large copper or brass ring to which was affixed a strip of hide about five centimeters broad at the ring, and terminating at the end of in a point. This was soaked in milk and dried in the sun to make it harder. Knouts were used in Russia for flogging as formal corporal punishment of criminals and political offenders. The victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence of 100 or 120 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence; even twenty lashes could maim, and with the specially extended Great Knout twenty blows could kill. The executioner was usually a criminal who had to pass through a probation and regular training, being let off his own penalties in return for his services. Peter the Great is traditionally accused of knouting his son Alexis to death; whoever the executioner may have been, there is little doubt that he was beaten until he died. The emperor Nicholas I abolished the earlier forms of knout in 1845, and substituted the pleti, a lash with three-thongs which could end in lead balls. The knout was later abolished throughout Russia and reserved for the penal settlements, mainly in Siberia, adding another cruelty to the often fatal hardships of convict life there. Elsewhere and metaphoric use The dreaded instrument became synonymous in Western European languages with what was seen as the tyrannical cruelty of the autocratic government of Russia, much as the sjambok brought to mind the Apartheid government of South Africa or lynching was associated with the period of Jim Crow laws in America. The expression "under the knout" is used to designate any harsh totalitarianism, and by extension its equivalent in a private context, e.g., a grim patriarch ruling his household 'with an iron rod'. In Dutch, the image is commonly used for strict party discipline, e.g., eliminating actual debate when passing a law (compare the Whip function in English). Sources and references (incomplete) Ecstagony- Dictionary of flogging instruments | Knout |@lemmatized punishment:3 ordinary:1 knout:11 century:2 print:1 heavy:1 scourge:1 like:3 multiple:1 whip:4 usually:2 make:2 bunch:1 rawhide:1 thong:4 attach:4 long:5 handle:4 sometimes:1 metal:2 wire:2 hook:2 incorporate:1 english:4 word:3 stem:1 phonetic:1 pronunciation:1 french:1 transliteration:1 russian:3 кнут:1 knut:1 simply:1 mean:2 original:1 claim:1 tatar:1 invention:1 introduce:1 russia:4 maybe:1 grand:1 duke:1 ivan:1 iii:1 great:5 others:2 trace:1 varangians:1 derive:1 swedish:1 knutpiska:1 kind:2 knot:2 still:1 maintain:1 generic:1 germanic:1 origin:1 necessarily:1 scandinavian:1 compare:2 german:1 knute:1 dutch:2 knoet:1 old:1 norse:1 knutr:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 cnotta:1 different:1 form:2 one:1 lash:6 raw:1 hide:2 wooden:1 end:7 ring:4 second:1 also:1 turn:1 inch:1 hard:2 leather:2 beak:1 another:2 consist:2 many:1 skin:1 plait:1 interweave:1 loose:1 wired:1 cat:1 nine:1 tail:1 variation:1 know:1 fasten:1 flat:1 twice:1 length:1 terminate:2 large:1 copper:1 brass:1 affixed:1 strip:2 five:1 centimeter:1 broad:1 point:1 soak:1 milk:1 dry:1 sun:1 use:4 flog:2 formal:1 corporal:1 criminal:2 political:1 offender:1 victim:1 tie:1 post:1 triangle:1 wood:1 receive:1 specified:1 number:1 stroke:1 back:1 sentence:2 equivalent:2 death:2 even:1 twenty:2 could:3 maim:1 specially:1 extended:1 blow:1 kill:1 executioner:2 pass:2 probation:1 regular:1 training:1 let:1 penalty:1 return:1 service:1 peter:1 traditionally:1 accuse:1 knouting:1 son:1 alexis:1 whoever:1 may:1 little:1 doubt:1 beat:1 die:1 emperor:1 nicholas:1 abolish:2 early:1 substitute:1 pleti:1 three:1 lead:1 ball:1 later:1 throughout:1 reserve:1 penal:1 settlement:1 mainly:1 siberia:1 add:1 cruelty:2 often:1 fatal:1 hardship:1 convict:1 life:1 elsewhere:1 metaphoric:1 dreaded:1 instrument:2 become:1 synonymous:1 western:1 european:1 language:1 see:1 tyrannical:1 autocratic:1 government:2 much:1 sjambok:1 bring:1 mind:1 apartheid:1 south:1 africa:1 lynching:1 associate:1 period:1 jim:1 crow:1 law:2 america:1 expression:1 designate:1 harsh:1 totalitarianism:1 extension:1 private:1 context:1 e:2 g:2 grim:1 patriarch:1 rule:1 household:1 iron:1 rod:1 image:1 commonly:1 strict:1 party:1 discipline:1 eliminate:1 actual:1 debate:1 function:1 source:1 reference:1 incomplete:1 ecstagony:1 dictionary:1 |@bigram anglo_saxon:1 corporal_punishment:1 jim_crow:1 |
6,263 | Humphrey_Bogart | Humphrey DeForest Bogart (December 25, 1899 – January 14, 1957) Ontario County Times birth announcement, 10 January 1900. Birthday of Reckoning. was an American actor. After trying various jobs, Bogart began acting in 1921 and became a regular in Broadway productions in the 1920s and 1930s. When the stock market crash of 1929 reduced the demand for plays, Bogart also turned to film. His first great success was as Duke Mantee in The Petrified Forest, and this led to a period of typecasting as a gangster in B-movies. His breakthrough came in 1941, with High Sierra and The Maltese Falcon. The next year, his performance in Casablanca raised him to the peak of his profession and at the same time, cemented his trademark film persona, that of the hard-boiled cynic who ultimately shows his noble side. Other successes followed, including To Have and Have Not (1944), The Big Sleep (1946), and Key Largo (1948), with his wife Lauren Bacall; The Treasure of the Sierra Madre (1948); The African Queen (1951), for which he won his only Academy Award; and The Caine Mutiny (1954). During a film career of almost thirty years, he appeared in 75 feature films. At the time of his death from cancer in 1957, Bogart was one of the most respected figures in American cinema. Since his death, his persona and film performances have been considered as having a lasting impact and have led to him being described as a cultural icon. In 1997, Entertainment Weekly magazine named him the number one movie legend of all time. In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked him the greatest male star. Early life Bogart was born in New York City, the first child of Belmont DeForest Bogart (July 1867, Watkins Glen, New York – September 8, 1934, Tudor City apartments, New York, New York) and Maud Humphrey (1867 – 1941). Belmont and Maud were married in June 1898. His father's ancestors were of Dutch, English, and Spanish origin. Rootsweb. Bogart is a Dutch name meaning “orchard”. Meyers 1997, p. 5. His mother's were largely of English descent and to a lesser extent Welsh. Rootsweb. Bogart's father was a Presbyterian, while his mother was an Episcopalian. Bogart was raised in his mother's faith. "The religious affiliation of Humphrey Bogart." Adherents.com. Bogart's birthday has been a subject of controversy. It was long believed that his birthday on Christmas Day 1899, was a Warner Bros. fiction created to romanticize his background, and that he was really born on January 23 1899, a date that appears in many references. However, this story is now considered baseless: although no birth certificate has ever been found, his birth notice did appear in a Boston newspaper in early January 1900, which supports the December 1899 date, as do other sources, such as the 1900 census. The 1900 census for the household of Belmont Bogart lists his son Humphrey as having a birth date in December 1899. There are also three different censuses attesting to his birth date in December 1899. His last wife, actress Lauren Bacall, always maintained that December 25 was his true birth date. See Bogart: Urban Legends. Childhood Bogart's father, Belmont, was a surgeon specializing in heart and lungs. His mother, Maud Humphrey, was a commercial illustrator, who received her art training in New York and France, including study with James McNeill Whistler, and who later became artistic director of the fashion magazine The Delineator. She was a militant suffragette. Meyers 1997, pp. 6–7. She used a drawing of baby Humphrey in a well-known ad campaign for Mellins Baby Food. Meyers 1997, p. 8. In her prime, she made over $50,000 a year, then a vast sum, far more than her husband who made $20,000 per year. Meyers 1997, p. 6. The Bogarts lived in a fashionable Upper West Side apartment, and had an elegant cottage on a fifty-five acre estate in upstate New York on Canandaigua Lake. As a youngster, Humphrey's gang of friends at the lake would put on theatricals. Meyers 1997, pp. 10–11. Humphrey was the oldest of three children, his two younger sisters were Frances and Catherine Elizabeth (Kay). His parents were very formal, busy in their careers, and frequently fought—resulting in little emotion directed at the children, "I was brought up very unsentimentally but very straightforwardly. A kiss, in our family, was an event. Our mother and father didn’t glug over my two sisters and me." Meyers 1997, pp. 9–10. As a boy, Bogart was teased for his curls, his tidiness, the "cute" pictures his mother had him pose for, the Little Lord Fauntleroy clothes she dressed him in—and the name "Humphrey." Meyers 1997, p. 9. From his father, Bogart inherited a tendency for needling people, a fondness for fishing, a life-long love of sailing, and an attraction to strong-willed women. Meyers 1997, p. 22. Education Typical of New York society parents, the Bogarts sent their son to private schools. Humphrey began school at the Delancy school until fifth grade when he was enrolled in Trinity School. Hyams 1975, p. 12. He was an indifferent, sullen student who showed no interest in after-school activities either. Meyers 1997, p. 12. Later he went to the prestigious preparatory school Phillips Academy, in Andover, Massachusetts, where he was admitted based on family connections. Meyers 1997, p. 13. They hoped he would go on to Yale, but in 1918, Bogart was expelled. Wallechinsky and Wallace 2005, p. 9. The details of his expulsion are disputed: one story claims that he was expelled for throwing the headmaster (alternatively, a groundskeeper) into Rabbit Pond, a man-made lake on campus. Another cites smoking and drinking, combined with poor academic performance and possibly some intemperate comments to the staff. It has also been said that he was actually withdrawn from the school by his father for failing to improve his academics, as opposed to expulsion. In any case, his parents were deeply dismayed by the events and their failed plans for his future. Meyers 1997, pp. 18-19. Navy Coming up with no other career options, Bogart followed his love for the sea and enlisted in the United States Navy in the spring of 1918. He recalled later, “At eighteen, war was great stuff. Paris! French girls! Hot damn!” Meyers 1997, p. 19. Bogart is recorded as a model sailor who spent most of his months in the navy after the Armistice was signed, ferrying troops back from Europe. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 27. Trademark scar It was during his naval stint that Bogart may have gotten his trademark scar and developed his characteristic lisp, though the actual circumstances are unclear. In one account, during a shelling of his ship the , his lip was cut by a piece of shrapnel, although some claim Bogart didn’t make it to sea until after the Armistice was signed. Another version, which Bogart's long time friend, author Nathaniel Benchley, claims is the truth, is Bogart was injured while on assignment to take a naval prisoner to Portsmouth Naval Prison in southern Maine. Supposedly, while changing trains in Boston, the handcuffed prisoner asked Bogart for a cigarette and while Bogart looked for a match, the prisoner raised his hands, smashed Bogart across the mouth with his cuffs, cutting Bogart's lip, and fled. The prisoner was eventually taken to Portsmouth. An alternate explanation is in the process of uncuffing an inmate, Bogart was struck in the mouth when the inmate wielded one open, uncuffed bracelet while the other side was still on his wrist. Citro, Sceurman, Mark and Moran 2005, pp. 240–241. According to Darwin Porter's Humphrey Bogart: The Early Years, the scar was caused by his father, Belmont, during a terrible argument. By the time Bogart was treated by a doctor, the scar had already formed. "Goddamn doctor," Bogart later told David Niven, "instead of stitching it up, he screwed it up." Niven says that when he asked Bogart about his scar he said it was caused by a childhood accident; Niven claims the stories that Bogart got the scar during wartime were made up by the studios to inject glamour. His post-service physical makes no mention of the lip scar even though it mentions many smaller scars, so the actual cause may have come later. When actress Louise Brooks met Bogart in 1924, he had some scarred tissue on his upper lip, which Belmont Bogart may have partially repaired before Bogart went into films in 1930. She believes his scar had nothing to do with his distinctive speech pattern, his "lip wound gave him no speech impediment, either before or after it was mended. Over the years, Bogart practiced all kinds of lip gymnastics, accompanied by nasal tones, snarls, lisps, and slurs. His painful wince, his leer, his fiendish grin were the most accomplished ever seen on film." Meyers 1997, p. 29. Early career Bogart returned home to find Belmont was suffering from poor health (perhaps aggravated by morphine addiction), his medical practice was faltering, and he lost much of the family's money on bad investments in timber. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 28. During his naval days, Bogart's character and values developed independent of family influence, and he began to rebel somewhat from their values. He came to be a liberal who hated pretensions, phonies, and snobs, and at times he defied conventional behavior and authority, traits he displayed in life and in his movies. On the other hand, he retained their traits of good manners, articulateness, punctuality, modesty, and a dislike of being touched. Meyers 1997, pp. 22, 31. After his naval service, Bogart worked as a shipper and then bond salesman. Meyers 1997, p. 23. He joined the Naval Reserve. More importantly, he resumed his friendship with boyhood mate Bill Brady, Jr. whose father had show business connections, and eventually Bogart got an office job working for William A. Brady Sr.'s new company World Films. Meyers 1997, pp. 24, 31. Bogart got to try his hand at screenwriting, directing, and production, but excelled at none. For a while, he was stage manager for Brady's daughter's play A Ruined Lady. A few months later in 1921, Bogart made his stage debut in Drifting as a Japanese butler in another Alice Brady play, nervously speaking one line of dialog. Several more appearances followed in her subsequent plays. Sperber and Lax 1997, pp. 29–31. Bogart liked the late hours actors kept, and enjoyed the attention an actor got on stage. He spent a lot of his free time in speakeasies and became a heavy drinker. A bar room brawl during this time might have been the actual cause of Bogart's lip damage, as this coincides better with the Louise Brooks account. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 35. As he stated, “I was born to be indolent and this was the softest of rackets”. Bogart was raised to believe acting was beneath a gentleman, but he enjoyed stage acting. He never took acting lessons, but was persistent and worked steadily at his craft. He appeared in at least seventeen Broadway productions between 1922 and 1935. . He played juveniles or romantic second-leads in drawing room comedies. He is said to have been the first actor to ask "Tennis, anyone?" on stage. Meyers 1997, p. 28. Critic Alexander Woollcott wrote of Bogart's early work that he "is what is usually and mercifully described as inadequate." Time Magazine, June 7, 1954. Some reviews were kinder. Heywood Broun reviewing Nerves wrote, “Humphrey Bogart gives the most effective performance…both dry and fresh, if that be possible”. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 33. Bogart loathed the trivial, effeminate parts he had to play early in his career, calling them "White Pants Willie" roles. Early in his career, while playing double roles in the play Drifting at the Playhouse Theatre in 1922, Bogart met Helen Menken. They were married on May 20, 1926 at the Gramercy Park Hotel in New York City, divorced on November 18, 1927, and remained friends. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 36. Later on April 3, 1928, he married Mary Philips at her mother's apartment in Hartford, Connecticut. She, like Menken, had a fiery temper. He met Mary when they appeared in the play Nerves that had a very brief run at the Comedy Theatre in September 1924. After the stock market crash of 1929, stage production dropped off sharply, and many of the more photogenic actors headed for Hollywood. Bogart's earliest film role is with Helen Hayes in the 1928 two-reeler The Dancing Town, of which a complete copy has never been found. He also appeared with Joan Blondell in a Vitaphone short in 1930 which was re-discovered in 1963. Sperber and Lax 1997, pp. 39–39. Bogart then signed a contract with Fox Film Corporation for $750 a week. Spencer Tracy was a serious Broadway actor whom Bogart liked and admired, and they became good friends and drinking buddies. It was Tracy, in 1930, who first called him "Bogey". (Spelled variously in many sources, Bogart himself spelled his nickname "Bogie".) letter from Bogart to John Huston displayed in documentary John Huston: The Man, the Movies, the Maverick (1989). Tracy and Bogart appeared in their only film together in John Ford's early sound film Up the River (1930), with both playing inmates. It was Tracy's film debut. Meyers 1997, p. 41. Bogart then performed in The Bad Sister with Bette Davis in 1931, in a minor part. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 41. Bogart shuttled back and forth between Hollywood and the New York stage from 1930 to 1935, suffering long periods without work. His parents were living separately and Belmont died in 1934 in debt, which Bogart eventually paid off. (Bogart inherited his father's gold ring which he always wore, even in many of his films. At his father's deathbed, Bogart finally told Belmont how much he loved him.) Meyers 1997, p. 48. Bogart's second marriage was on the rocks, and he was less than happy with his acting career to date; he became depressed, irritable, and drank heavily. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 45. The Petrified Forest Bogart starred in the Broadway play Invitation to a Murder at the Theatre Masque, now the John Golden Theatre in 1934. The producer Arthur Hopkins heard the play from off-stage and sent for Bogart to play escaped murderer Duke Mantee in Robert E. Sherwood's new play, The Petrified Forest. Hopkins recalled, “When I saw the actor I was somewhat taken aback, for he was the one I never much admired. He was an antiquated juvenile who spent most of his stage life in white pants swinging a tennis racquet. He seemed as far from a cold-blooded killer as one could get, but the voice (dry and tired) persisted, and the voice was Mantee's”. Meyers 1997, p. 49. The play had 197 performances at the Broadhurst Theatre in New York in 1935. Meyers 1997, p. 51. Leslie Howard though, was the star. A critic for the New York Times Brooks Atkinson said of the play, “a peach… a roaring Western melodrama… Humphrey Bogart does the best work of his career as an actor.” Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 46. Bogart said the movie, “marked my deliverance from the ranks of the sleek, sybaritic, stiff-shirted, swallow-tailed ‘smoothies’ to which I seemed condemned to life.” However, he was still feeling insecure. Warner Bros. bought the screen rights to The Petrified Forest. The studio was famous for its socially realistic, urban, low-budget action pictures: the play seemed like the perfect property for them, especially when the public was presently entranced by real life criminals like John Dillinger and Dutch Schultz. Meyers 1997, p. 52. Bette Davis and Leslie Howard were cast, and Howard, who held production rights, made it clear he wanted Bogart to star with him. The studio tested several Hollywood veterans for the Duke Mantee role, and chose Edward G. Robinson, who had greater star appeal and was due to make a film to fulfill his expensive contract. Bogart cabled news of this to Howard, who was in Scotland. Howard cabled reply was, “Att: Jack Warner Insist Bogart Play Mantee No Bogart No Deal L.H.”. When Warner Bros. saw that Howard would not budge, they gave in and cast Bogart. Sperber and Lax 1997, pp. 52–54. Jack Warner, famous for butting heads with his stars, tried to get Bogart to adopt a stage name, but Bogart stubbornly refused. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 57. Bogart never forgot Howard's favor, and in 1952 he named his only daughter, Leslie, after Howard, who had died in World War II. Robert E. Sherwood remained a close friend of Bogart's. Early film career The film version of The Petrified Forest was released in 1936. His performance was called “brilliant”, “compelling”, and “superb.” Despite his success in an “A movie,” Bogart received a tepid twenty-six week contract at $550 per week and was typecast as a gangster in a series of "B movie" crime dramas. Sperber and Lax 1997, pp. 60–61. Bogart was proud of his success, but the fact that it came from playing a gangster weighed on him. He once said, "I can't get in a mild discussion without turning it into an argument. There must be something in my tone of voice, or this arrogant face—something that antagonizes everybody. Nobody likes me on sight. I suppose that's why I'm cast as the heavy." Bogart's roles were not only repetitive, but physically demanding and draining (studios were not yet air-conditioned), and his regimented, tight-scheduled job at Warners was not exactly the “peachy” actor's life he hoped for. Meyers 1997, p. 56. However, he was always professional and generally respected other actors. In those 'B movie' years, Bogart started developing his lasting film persona — the wounded, stoical, cynical, charming, vulnerable, self-mocking loner with a core of honor. Bogart's disputes with Warner Brothers over roles and money were similar to those the studio had with other less-than-obedient stars, including Bette Davis, James Cagney, Errol Flynn, and Olivia de Havilland. Meyers 1997, p. 54. The studio system, then at most entrenched, usually restricted actors to one studio, with occasional loan-outs, and Warner Bros. had no interest in making Bogart a top star. Shooting on a new movie might begin days or only hours after shooting on the previous one was completed. Any actor who refused a role could be suspended without pay. Bogart disliked the roles chosen for him, but he worked steadily: between 1936 and 1940, Bogart averaged a movie every two months, sometimes even working on two simultaneously, as movies were not generally shot sequentially. Amenities at Warners were few compared to those for their fellow actors at MGM. Bogart thought that Warner wardrobe department was cheap, and often wore his own suits in his movies. In High Sierra, Bogart used his own pet dog called Zero to play his character's dog "Pard." The leading men ahead of Bogart at Warner Bros. included not just such classic stars as James Cagney and Edward G. Robinson, but also actors far less well-known today, such as Victor McLaglen, George Raft and Paul Muni. Most of the studio's better movie scripts went to these men, and Bogart had to take what was left. He made films like Racket Busters, San Quentin, and You Can't Get Away With Murder. The only substantial leading role he got during this period was in Dead End (1937), while loaned to Samuel Goldwyn, where he portrayed a gangster modeled after Baby Face Nelson. Meyers 1997, p. 69. He did play a variety of interesting supporting roles, such as in Angels with Dirty Faces (1938) (in which he got shot by James Cagney). Bogart was gunned down on film repeatedly, by Cagney and Edward G. Robinson, among others. In Black Legion (1937), for a change, he plays a good man caught up and destroyed by a racist organization, a movie Graham Greene called “intelligent and exciting, if rather earnest”. Meyers 1997, p. 67. In 1938, Warner Bros. put him in a "hillbilly musical" called Swing Your Lady as a wrestling promoter; he later apparently considered this his worst film performance. Lax, Eric. Audio commentary for Disc One of the 2006 three-disc DVD special edition of The Maltese Falcon. In 1939, Bogart played a mad scientist in The Return of Doctor X. He cracked: "If it'd been Jack Warner's blood…I wouldn't have minded so much. The trouble was they were drinking mine and I was making this stinking movie." Mary Philips, in her own sizzling stage hit A Touch of Brimstone (1935), refused to give up her Broadway career to come to Hollywood with Bogart. After the play closed, however, she went to Hollywood, but insisted on continuing her career (she was still a bigger star than he was) and they decided to divorce in 1937. Sperber and Lax 1997, pp. 62–63. On August 21, 1938, Bogart entered into a disastrous third marriage, with actress Mayo Methot, a lively, friendly woman when sober, but paranoid when drunk. She was convinced that her husband was cheating on her. The more she and Bogart drifted apart, the more she drank, got furious and threw things at him: plants, crockery, anything close at hand. She even set the house on fire, stabbed him with a knife, and slashed her wrists on several occasions. Bogart for his part needled her mercilessly and seemed to enjoy confrontation. Sometimes he turned violent. The press accurately dubbed them "the Battling Bogarts". Meyers 1997, pp. 78, 91-92. "The Bogart-Methot marriage was the sequel to the Civil War", said their friend Julius Epstein. A wag observed that there was "madness in his Methot". During this time, Bogart bought a motor launch, which he named "Sluggy" after his nickname for his hot-tempered wife. Despite his proclamations that "I like a jealous wife", "we get on so well together (because) we don’t have illusions about each other", and "I wouldn't give you two cents for a dame without a temper", it became a highly destructive relationship. Meyers 1997, p. 81. In California in the 1930s, Bogart bought a sailing yacht, the "Santana", from actor Dick Powell. The sea was his sanctuary Interview with John Huston. and he loved to sail around Catalina Island. He was a serious sailor, respected by other sailors who had seen too many Hollywood actors and their boats. About 30 weekends a year, he went out on his boat. He once said: "An actor needs something to stabilize his personality, something to nail down what he really is, not what he is currently pretending to be." He had a lifelong disgust for the pretentious, fake or phony, as his son Stephen told Turner Classic Movies host Robert Osborne in 1999. Sensitive yet caustic, and disgusted by the inferior movies he was performing in, Bogart cultivated the persona of a soured idealist, a man exiled from better things in New York, living by his wits, drinking too much, cursed to live out his life among second-rate people and projects. Bogart rarely saw his own films and avoided premieres. He did not participate in the Hollywood gossip game or cozy up to the newspaper columnists, nor engage in phony politeness and admiration of his peers or in behind the scenes back-stabbing. He even protected his privacy with invented press releases about his private life to satisfy the curiosity of the newspapers and the public. Meyers 1997, p. 76. When he thought an actor, director or a movie studio had done something shoddy, he spoke up about it and was willing to be quoted. He advised Robert Mitchum that the only way to stay alive in Hollywood was to be an "againster". As a result, he was not the most popular of actors and some in the Hollywood community shunned him privately to avoid trouble with the studios. Meyers 1997, pp. 86-87. But the Hollywood press, unaccustomed to candor, was delighted. Bogart once said, "All over Hollywood, they are continually advising me 'Oh, you mustn't say that. That will get you in a lot of trouble' when I remark that some picture or writer or director or producer is no good. I don't get it. If he isn't any good, why can't you say so? If more people would mention it, pretty soon it might start having some effect." Rise to stardom High Sierra High Sierra, a 1941 movie directed by Raoul Walsh, had a screenplay written by Bogart's friend and drinking partner, John Huston, adapted from the novel by W.R. Burnett (Little Caesar, etc.). Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 119. Both Paul Muni and George Raft turned down the lead role, giving Bogart the opportunity to play a character of some depth. The film was Bogart's last major film playing a gangster (his final gangster role was in The Big Shot in 1942). Bogart worked well with Ida Lupino, and her relationship with him was a close one, provoking jealousy from Bogart's wife Mayo. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 128. The film cemented a strong personal and professional connection between Bogart and Huston. Bogart admired and somewhat envied Huston for his skill as a writer. Though a poor student, Bogart was a lifelong reader. He could quote Plato, Pope, Ralph Waldo Emerson and over a thousand lines of Shakespeare. He subscribed to the Harvard Law Review. He admired writers, and some of his best friends were screenwriters, including Louis Bromfield, Nathaniel Benchley and Nunnally Johnson. Bogart enjoyed intense, provocative conversation and stiff drinks, as did Huston. Both were rebellious and liked to play childish pranks. John Huston reported being easily bored during production, and admired Bogart (who also got bored easily off camera) not just for his acting talent but for his intense concentration on the set. Meyers 1997, p. 115. The Maltese Falcon Raft turned down the male lead in John Huston's directorial debut The Maltese Falcon (1941), due to its being a cleaned up version of the pre-Production Code The Maltese Falcon (1931), his contract stipulating that he did not have to appear in remakes. The original novel, written by Dashiell Hammett, was first published in the pulp magazine Black Mask in 1929. It was also the basis for another movie version, Satan Met a Lady (1936). Meyers 1997, p. 123. Complementing Bogart were co-stars Sydney Greenstreet, Peter Lorre, Elisha Cook, Jr., and Mary Astor as the treacherous female foil. Meyers 1997, p. 125. Bogart's sharp timing as private detective Sam Spade was praised by the cast and director as vital to the quick action and rapid-fire dialog. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 127. The film was a huge hit and for Huston, a triumphant directorial debut. Bogart was unusually happy with it, remarking, "it is practically a masterpiece. I don’t have many things I’m proud of… but that's one". Meyers 1997, p. 131. Casablanca Bogart gained his first real romantic lead in 1942's Casablanca, playing Rick Blaine, the hard-pressed expatriate nightclub owner, hiding from the past and negotiating a fine line between Nazis, the French underground, the Vichy prefect and unresolved feelings for his ex-girlfriend. The film was directed by Michael Curtiz, produced by Hal Wallis and featured a strong cast, including Ingrid Bergman, Claude Rains, Sydney Greenstreet, Paul Henreid, Conrad Veidt, Peter Lorre and Dooley Wilson. In real life, Bogart played tournament chess, one level below master level and often played with crew members and cast off the set. It was reportedly his idea that Rick Blaine be portrayed as a chess player, which also served as a metaphor for the sparring relationship of the characters played by Bogart and Rains in the movie. However, Paul Henreid proved to be the best player. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 198. The on-screen magic of Bogart and Bergman was the result of two actors doing their very best work, not any real-life sparks, though Bogart's perennially jealous wife assumed otherwise. Off the set, the co-stars hardly spoke during the filming, where normally she had a reputation for affairs with her leading men. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 201. Because Bergman was taller than her leading man, Bogart had blocks attached to his shoes in certain scenes. She reportedly said later, "I kissed him but I never knew him." Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 196. Years later, after Bergman had taken up with Italian director Roberto Rossellini, and bore him a child, Bogart confronted her. "You used to be a great star", he said, "What are you now?" "A happy woman", she replied. Casablanca won the 1943 Academy Award for Best Picture. Bogart was nominated for the Best Actor in a Leading Role, but lost out to Paul Lukas for his performance in Watch on the Rhine. Still, for Bogart, it was a huge triumph. The film vaulted him from fourth place to first in the studio's roster, finally exceeding James Cagney, and more than doubling his salary to over $460,000 per year by 1946, making him the highest paid actor in the world. Meyers 1997, p. 151. Bogart and Bacall Bogart met Lauren Bacall while filming To Have and Have Not (1944), a very loose adaptation of the Ernest Hemingway novel. The movie has many similarities with Casablanca — the same enemies, the same kind of hero, even a piano player sidekick (this time Hoagy Carmichael). When they met, Bacall was nineteen and Bogart was forty-five. He nicknamed her "Baby." She had been a model since she was sixteen and had acted in two failed plays. Bogart was drawn to Bacall's high cheekbones, green eyes, tawny blond hair, and lean body, as well as her poise and earthy, outspoken honesty. Meyers 1997, p. 166. Reportedly he said, “I just saw your test. We’ll have a lot of fun together”. Meyers 1997, p. 165. Their physical and emotional rapport was very strong from the start, and the age difference and different acting experience also created the additional dimension of a mentor-student relationship. Quite contrary to the Hollywood norm, it was his first affair with a leading lady. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 258. Bogart was still miserably married and his early meetings with Bacall were discreet and brief, their separations bridged by ardent love letters. Meyers 1997, pp. 166–167. The relationship made it much easier for the newcomer to make her first film, and Bogart did his best to put her at ease by joking with her and quietly coaching her. He let her steal scenes and even encouraged it. Howard Hawks, for his part, also did his best to boost her performance and her role, and found Bogart easy to direct. Meyers 1997, pp. 173–174. Hawks at some point began to disapprove of the pair. Hawks considered himself her protector and mentor, and Bogart was usurping that role. Hawks fell for Bacall as well (normally he avoided his starlets, and he was married). Hawks told her that she meant nothing to Bogart and even threatened to send her to Monogram, the worst studio in Hollywood. Bogart calmed her down and then went after Hawks. Jack Warner settled the dispute and filming resumed. Sperber and Lax 1997, pp. 263–264. Out of jealousy, Hawks said of Bacall: "Bogie fell in love with the character she played, so she had to keep playing it the rest of her life." Meyers 1997, p. 168. The Big Sleep Just months after wrapping the film, Bogart and Bacall were re-united for their second movie together, the film noir masterpiece The Big Sleep, based on the novel by Raymond Chandler, again with script help from William Faulkner. Chandler thoroughly admired Bogart's performance: "Bogart can be tough without a gun. Also, he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt." Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 289. Bogart was still torn between his new love and his sense of duty to his marriage. The mood on the set was tense, the actors both emotionally exhausted as Bogart tried to find a way out of his dilemma. Once again, the dialogue was full of sexual innuendo supplied by Hawks, and Bogart is convincing and enduring as private detective Philip Marlowe. In the end, the film was very successful, though some critics point out that the plot is confusing and overly complicated. Meyers 1997, p. 180. Marriage Divorce proceedings were initiated by February 1945. Bogart and Bacall then married in a small ceremony at the country home of Bogart's close friend, Pulitzer Prize-winning author Louis Bromfield at Malabar Farm in Lucas, Ohio on May 21, 1945. Jack Warner gave the couple the Buick from The Big Sleep, and they spent their one-week honeymoon on Bogart's boat, Sluggy. Bogart and Bacall moved into a $160,000 white brick mansion in an exclusive neighborhood in Holmby Hills. Bogart and Bacall had two Jaguar cars, and three full-blooded Boxer dogs. Meyers 1997, pp. 186–187. The marriage proved to be a happy one, though there were the normal tensions due to their differences. He was a homebody and she liked nightlife. He was thrifty and liked a simply decorated house. She a free-spender and extravagant shopper, who loved fancy furniture. He loved the sea; it made her sick. Bacall allowed Bogart lots of weekend time on his boat as she got seasick. Meyers 1997, p. 185. Bogart's drinking sometimes inflamed tensions. Her conflicting roles of wife and actress caused problems, but she managed to balance both. As she matured, she became more assertive, dominant, and controlling, but on the whole, Bogart gained from her energy and her expansive personality. She was usually flexible about his ways but when she was insistent, he often gave in to achieve peace. Meyers 1997, pp. 188–191. Lauren Bacall gave birth to Stephen Humphrey Bogart on January 6, 1949. Stephen was named after Bogart's character's nickname in To Have and Have Not, making Bogart a father at 49. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 422. Stephen would go on to become a best-selling author and biographer, later hosting a television special about his father on Turner Classic Movies. They had their second child, Leslie Howard Bogart on August 23, 1952, a girl named after British actor Leslie Howard, who had been killed in World War II. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 464. Later career The enormous success of Casablanca redefined Bogart's career. For the first time, Bogart could be cast successfully as a tough, strong man and, at the same time, as a vulnerable love interest. Despite Bogart's elevated standing, he did not yet have a contractual right of script refusal, so when he got weak scripts, he dug in his heels, and locked horns again with the front office, as he did on the film Conflict (1943). Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 214. Though he submitted to Jack Warner on that picture, he successfully turned down God is My Co-Pilot (1945). Meyers 1997, p. 164. During part of 1943 and 1944, Bogart went on USO and War Bond tours accompanied by Mayo, enduring arduous travels to Italy and North Africa, including Casablanca. The Treasure of the Sierra Madre Riding high in 1947 with a new contract which provided some script refusal rights and the right to form his own separate production company, Bogart reunited with John Huston for The Treasure of the Sierra Madre, a stark tale of greed involving three gold prospectors played out in the dusty back country of Mexico. Absent any love story or a happy ending, it was deemed a risky project. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 337. Bogart later said of co-star (and John Huston's father) Walter Huston, "He's probably the only performer in Hollywood to whom I’d gladly lost a scene". Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 343. The film was grueling to make, and was done in summer for greater realism and atmosphere. Meyers 1997, p. 227. James Agee wrote, "Bogart does a wonderful job with this character…miles ahead of the very good work he has done before”. John Huston won the Academy Award for direction and screenplay and his father won Best Supporting Actor, but the film had mediocre box office results. Bogart complained, “An intelligent script, beautifully directed—something different—and the public turned a cold shoulder on it". Meyers 1997, pp. 229–230. The House Un-American Activities Committee Bogart, a liberal Democrat, Porter 2003, p. 9. organized a delegation to Washington, D.C., called the Committee for the First Amendment during the height of McCarthyism, against the House Un-American Activities Committee's harassment of Hollywood screenwriters and actors. He subsequently wrote an article "I'm No Communist" in the March 1948 edition of Photoplay magazine in which he distanced himself from The Hollywood Ten in order to counter the negative publicity that resulted from his appearance. Bogart wrote: "The ten men cited for contempt by the House Un-American Activities Committee were not defended by us." "I'm No Communist." Photoplay March 1948. Santana Productions In addition to being offered better, more diverse roles, he started his own production company in 1948, Santana Productions, named after his private sailing yacht. (Santana was also the name of the yacht featured in the 1948 film Key Largo). Meyers 1997, p. 236. Jack Warner was reportedly furious at this, even though it was in Bogart's contract, fearing that other stars would do the same and major studios would lose their power. The studios, however, were already under a lot of pressure, not just from free-lancing actors like Bogart, James Stewart, Henry Fonda and others (who also saved taxes as independents), but also from the eroding impact of television and from anti-trust laws which were breaking up theater chains. Meyers 1997, p. 235. Under Bogart's Santana Productions, which released through Columbia Pictures, Bogart starred in Knock on Any Door (1949), Tokyo Joe (1949), In a Lonely Place (1950), Sirocco (1951) and Beat the Devil (1954). While the majority of his films lost money at the box office (the main reason for Santana's end), at least two of them are still remembered today; In a Lonely Place is now recognized as a masterpiece of film noir. Bogart plays embittered writer Dixon Steele, who has a history of violence and becomes a suspect in a murder case at the same time that he falls in love with a failed actress, played by Gloria Grahame. Many Bogart biographers and actress/writer Louise Brooks agree that the role is the closest to Bogart's real self and is considered among his best performances. . She wrote that the film “gave him a role that he could play with complexity, because the film character's pride in his art, his selfishness, drunkenness, lack of energy stabbed with lightning strokes of violence were shared by the real Bogart”. The character even mimics some of Bogart's personal habits, including twice ordering Bogart's favorite meal of ham and eggs. Meyers 1997, pp. 240–241. Beat the Devil, his last film with his close friend and favorite director John Huston, also enjoys a cult following. Co-written by Truman Capote, the movie is a parody of The Maltese Falcon, and is a tale of an amoral group of rogues chasing an unattainable treasure, in this instance uranium. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 471. Bogart sold his interest in Santana to Columbia for over $1 million in 1955. Meyers 1997, p. 243. The panda incident Bogart and his friend Bill Seeman arrived at the El Morocco Club in New York City after midnight in 1950. Bogart and Seeman sent someone to buy two 22-pound stuffed pandas because, in a drunken state, they thought the pandas would be good company. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 428. They propped up the bears in separate chairs, and began to drink. Two young women saw the stuffed animals. When one woman picked one up, she quickly ended up on the floor. The other woman tried to do the same and wound up in the same position. The next morning Bogart was awakened by a city official who served him a summons for assault. Knowing a media frenzy was imminent, he met the media unshaven and in pajamas. He told the press he remembered grabbing the panda and "this screaming, squawking young lady. Nobody got hurt, I didn't sock anybody; if girls were falling on the floor, I guess it was because they couldn't stand up." Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 429. At the same time Time reported the alleged victim had three marks from the alleged assault and "she explained that they were swelling and contusions." Club spokesperson Leonard MacBain stated, "No blows were exchanged, it was just one of those things." The following Friday, after the woman admitted to touching the panda, "Magistrate John R. Starkey ruled that Bogart had been defending his property, said he suspected the actor had been mousetrapped in the cause of club publicity, and dismissed the case." Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 430. The African Queen Bogart starred with Katharine Hepburn in the movie The African Queen in 1951, again directed by his friend John Huston. The novel was overlooked and left undeveloped for fifteen years until producer Sam Spiegel and Huston bought the rights. Spiegel sent Katharine Hepburn the book and she suggested Bogart for the male lead, firmly believing that “he was the only man who could have played that part”. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 439. Huston's love of adventure, a chance to work with Hepburn, and Bogart's earlier successes with Huston convinced Bogart to leave the comfortable confines of Hollywood for a difficult shoot on location in the Belgian Congo in Africa. Bogart was to get 30 percent of the profits and Hepburn 10 percent, plus a relatively small salary for both. The stars met up in London and announced the happy prospect of working together. Bacall came for the duration (over four months), leaving their young child behind, but the Bogarts started the trip with a junket through Europe, including a visit with Pope Pius XII. Meyers 1997, p. 248. Later, the glamor would be gone and she would make herself useful as a cook, nurse, and clothes washer, for which Bogart praised her, “I don’t know what we’d have done without her. She Luxed my undies in darkest Africa”. Meyers 1997, p. 249. Just about everyone in the cast came down with dysentery except Bogart and John Huston, who subsisted on canned food and alcohol. Bogart explained: "All I ate was baked beans, canned asparagus and Scotch whisky. Whenever a fly bit Huston or me, it dropped dead." Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 444. The teetotaling Hepburn, in and out of character, fared worse in the difficult conditions, losing weight, and at one time, getting very ill. Bogart resisted Huston's insistence on using real leeches in a key scene where Bogart has to drag the boat through a shallow marsh, until reasonable fakes were employed. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 447. In the end, the crew overcame illness, soldier ant invasions, leaking boats, poor food, attacking hippos, bad water filters, fierce heat, isolation, and a boat fire to complete a memorable film. Sperber and Lax 1997, pp. 444–445. The African Queen was the first Technicolor film in which Bogart appeared. Remarkably, he appeared in relatively few color films during the rest of his career, which continued for another five years. (His other color films included The Caine Mutiny, The Barefoot Contessa, We're No Angels, and The Left Hand of God.) The role of Charlie Allnutt won Bogart his only Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role in 1951. Bogart considered his performance to be the best of his film career. Meyers 1997, p. 258. He had vowed to friends that if he won, his speech would break the convention of thanking everyone in sight. He advised Claire Trevor when she had been nominated for Key Largo to “just say you did all yourself and don’t thank anyone”. But when Bogart won the Academy Award, which he truly coveted despite his well-advertised disdain for Hollywood, he said “It's a long way from the Belgian Congo to the stage of this theatre. It's nicer to be here. Thank you very much…No one does it alone. As in tennis, you need a good opponent or partner to bring out the best in you. John and Katie helped me to be where I am now”. Despite the thrilling win and the recognition, Bogart later commented, “The way to survive an Oscar is never to try to win another one...too many stars…win it and then figure they have to top themselves...they become afraid to take chances. The result: A lot of dull performances in dull pictures”. Meyers 1997, pp. 259–260. Final roles Bogart dropped his asking price to get the role of Captain Queeg in Edward Dmytryk's The Caine Mutiny, then griped with some of his old bitterness about it. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 480. For all his success, he was still his melancholy old self, grumbling and feuding with the studio, while his health was beginning to deteriorate. Bogart gave a bravura performance as Captain Queeg, an unstable naval officer, in many ways an extension of the character he had played in The Maltese Falcon, Casablanca, and The Big Sleep—the wary loner who trusts no one—but with none of the warmth or humor that made those characters so appealing. Like his portrayal of Fred C. Dobbs in The Treasure of the Sierra Madre, Bogart played a paranoid, self-pitying character whose small-mindedness eventually destroyed him. Three months before the film's release, Bogart as Queeg appeared on the cover of Time magazine, while on Broadway Henry Fonda was starring in the stage version (in a different role), both of which generated strong publicity for the film. Meyers 1997, pp. 279–280. In Sabrina, Billy Wilder, unable to secure Cary Grant, chose Bogart for the role of the older, conservative brother who competes with his younger playboy sibling (William Holden) for the affection of the Cinderella-like Sabrina (Audrey Hepburn). Bogart was lukewarm about the part, but agreed to it on a handshake with Wilder, without a finished script, and with the director's assurances to take good care of Bogart during the filming. Meyers 1997, p. 281. But Bogart got on poorly with his director and co-stars. He also complained about the script, which was written on a last-minute, daily basis, and that Wilder favored Hepburn and Holden on and off the set. The main problem was that Wilder was the opposite of his ideal director, John Huston, in both style and personality. Bogart told the press that Wilder was “overbearing” and “is the kind of Prussian German with a riding crop. He is the type of director I don’t like to work with…the picture is a crock of crap. I got sick and tired of who gets Sabrina”. Meyers 1997, p. 283. Wilder said, “We parted as enemies but finally made up”. Despite the acrimony, the film was successful. The New York Times said of Bogart, “he is incredibly adroit...the skill with which this old rock-ribbed actor blend the gags and such duplicities with a manly manner of melting is one of the incalculable joys of the show”. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 495. The Barefoot Contessa, directed by Joseph Mankiewicz in 1954 and filmed in Rome, Italy, gave Bogart one of his subtlest roles. In this Hollywood back-story movie, Bogart again is the broken-down man, this time the cynical director-narrator who saves his career by making a star of a flamenco dancer Ava Gardner, modeled on the real life of Rita Hayworth. Bogart was uneasy with Gardner because she had just split from “rat-pack” buddy Frank Sinatra and was carrying on with a bullfighter. Bogart told her, “Half the world's female population would throw themselves at Frank's feet and here you are flouncing around with guys who wear capes and little ballerina slippers”. He was also annoyed by her inexperienced performance. Later, she credited him with helping her. Bogart's performance was generally praised as the strongest part of the film. Meyers 1997, pp. 288–290. During the filming, while Bacall was home, Bogart resumed his discreet affair with Verita Peterson, his long-time studio assistant who he took sailing and enjoyed drinking with. But when Bacall suddenly arrived on the scene discovering them together, Bacall took it quite well. She extracted an expensive shopping spree from him and the three traveled together after the shooting. Meyers 1997, pp. 291–292. Bogart could be generous with actors, particularly those who were blacklisted, down on their luck, or having personal problems. During the filming of The Left Hand of God (1955), he noticed his co-star Gene Tierney having a hard time remembering her lines and also behaving oddly. He coached Tierney, feeding her lines. He was familiar with mental illness (his sister had bouts of depression), and Bogart encouraged Tierney to seek treatment, which she did. Gene Tierney: A Shattered Portrait. The Biography Channel, 03/26/99. Tierney and Herskowitz 1978, pp. 164–165. He also stood behind Joan Bennett and insisted on her as his co-star in We're No Angels when a scandal made her persona non grata with Jack Warner. Meyers 1997, p. 294. In 1955, he made three films: We're No Angels (dir. Michael Curtiz), The Left Hand of God (dir. Edward Dmytryk) and The Desperate Hours (dir. William Wyler). Mark Robson's The Harder They Fall (1956) was his last film. Television work Bogart rarely appeared on television. However, he and Lauren Bacall appeared on Edward R. Murrow's Person to Person. Bogart was also featured on The Jack Benny Show. The surviving kinescope of the live Benny telecast features Bogart in his only TV sketch comedy outing. Bogart and Bacall also worked together on an early color telecast, in 1955, an NBC adaptation of The Petrified Forest for Producers' Showcase; only a black and white kinescope of the live telecast has survived. Radio work Bogart performed radio adaptations of some of his best known films, such as Casablanca and The Maltese Falcon. He also recorded a long-running radio series called Bold Venture with Lauren Bacall. Filmography The Rat Pack Bogart was a founding member of the Rat Pack. In the spring of 1955, after a long party in Las Vegas with Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, her husband, Sid Luft, Mike Romanoff and wife Gloria, David Niven, Angie Dickinson and others, "Lauren Bacall surveyed the wreckage of the party" and declared, "You look like a god damn rat pack." Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 504. Romanoff's in Beverly Hills was where the Rat Pack became "official". "Sinatra was named Pack Leader. Betty [Bacall] was named Den Mother, Bogie was Director of Public Relations, and Sid Luft was Acting Cage Manager." When asked by columnist Earl Wilson what the purpose of the group was, Bacall responded "to drink a lot of bourbon and stay up late." Chess It is a little known fact that Bogart was an excellent chess player, almost of master strength. Before he made any money from acting, he would hustle players for dimes and quarters, playing in New York parks and at Coney Island. The chess scenes in Casablanca had not been in the original script, but were put in at his insistence. A chess position from one of his correspondence games appears in the movie, although the image is a little blurred. He achieved a draw in a simultaneous exhibition given in 1955 at Beverly Hills by the famous chess Grandmaster Samuel Reshevsky and also played against George Koltanowski in San Francisco in 1952 (Koltanowski played blindfolded but still won in 41 moves). http://www.chessgames.com/player/humphrey_bogart.html Bogart was a United States Chess Federation tournament director and active in the California State Chess Association, and a frequent visitor to the Hollywood chess club. In 1945, the cover of the June-July issue of Chess Review showed Bogart playing with Charles Boyer, as Lauren Bacall (who also played) looks on. In June 1945, in an interview in the magazine Silver Screen, when asked what things in life mattered most to him, he replied that chess was one of his main interests. He added that he played chess almost daily, especially between film shootings. He loved the game all his life. http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lab/7378/bogart.htm Death By the mid-1950s, Bogart's health was failing. Once, after signing a long-term deal with Warner Bros., Bogart predicted with glee that his teeth and hair would fall out before the contract ended. That sent a fuming Jack Warner to his lawyers. Bogart had formed a new production company and had plans for a new film Melville Goodwin, U.S.A., in which he would play a general and Bacall a press magnate. His persistent cough and difficulty eating became too serious to ignore and he dropped the project. The film was re-named Top Secret Affair and made with Kirk Douglas and Susan Hayward. Sperber and Lax 1997, pp. 509–510. Bogart, a heavy smoker and drinker, contracted cancer of the esophagus. He almost never spoke of his failing health and refused to see a doctor until January 1956. A diagnosis was made several weeks later and by then removal of his esophagus, two lymph nodes and a rib on March 1, 1956 was too late to halt the disease, even with chemotherapy. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 510. He underwent corrective surgery in November 1956 after the cancer had spread. Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy came to see him. Frank Sinatra was also a frequent visitor. Bogart was too weak to walk up and down stairs. He valiantly fought the pain and tried to joke about his immobility: "Put me in the dumbwaiter and I'll ride down to the first floor in style." His last words are believed to have been: "I should never have switched from Scotch to martinis." Entertainment. Hepburn, in an interview, described the last time she and Spencer Tracy saw Bogart (the night before he died): Spence patted him on the shoulder and said, "Goodnight, Bogie." Bogie turned his eyes to Spence very quietly and with a sweet smile covered Spence's hand with his own and said, "Goodbye, Spence." Spence's heart stood still. He understood. Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 516. Bogart had just turned 57 and weighed 80 pounds (36 kg) when he died on January 14, 1957 after falling into a coma. He died at 2:25 a.m. at his home at 232 Mapleton Drive in Holmby Hills, California. His simple funeral was held at All Saints Episcopal Church with musical selections played from Bogart's favorite composers, Johann Sebastian Bach and Claude Debussy. It was attended by some of Hollywood's biggest stars including: Katharine Hepburn, Spencer Tracy, David Niven, Ronald Reagan, James Mason, Danny Kaye, Joan Fontaine, Marlene Dietrich, Errol Flynn, Gregory Peck, and Gary Cooper, as well as Billy Wilder and Jack Warner. Bacall had asked Spencer Tracy to give the eulogy, but Tracy was too upset, so John Huston gave the eulogy instead, and reminded the gathered mourners that while Bogart's life had ended far too soon, it had been a rich one. Himself, he never took too seriously—his work most seriously. He regarded the somewhat gaudy figure of Bogart, the star, with an amused cynicism; Bogart, the actor, he held in deep respect…In each of the fountains at Versailles there is a pike which keeps all the carp active; otherwise they would grow overfat and die. Bogie took rare delight in performing a similar duty in the fountains of Hollywood. Yet his victims seldom bore him any malice, and when they did, not for long. His shafts were fashioned only to stick into the outer layer of complacency, and not to penetrate through to the regions of the spirit where real injuries are done...He is quite irreplaceable. There will never be another like him." Sperber and Lax 1997, p. 518. Katharine Hepburn said: He was one of the biggest guys I ever met. He walked straight down the center of the road. No maybes. Yes or no. He liked to drink. He drank. He liked to sail a boat. He sailed a boat. He was an actor. He was happy and proud to be an actor. He'd say to me, "Are you comfortable? Everything okay?" He was looking out for me. His cremated remains are interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery, Glendale, California. Buried with him is a small gold whistle, which he had given to his future wife, Lauren Bacall, before they married. In reference to their first movie together, it was inscribed: "If you want anything, just whistle." Meyers 1997, p. 315. Humphrey Bogart's hand and foot prints are immortalized in the forecourt of Grauman's Chinese Theater and he has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6322 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood. Tributes After his death, a "Bogie Cult" formed at the Brattle Theatre in Cambridge, Massachusetts, as well as Greenwich Village, New York and in France, which contributed to his spike in popularity in the late 1950s and 1960s. Jean-Luc Godard's Breathless (1960) was the first film to pay tribute to Bogart. Later, in Woody Allen's comic tribute to Bogart Play It Again, Sam (1972), Bogart's ghost comes to the aid of Allen's bumbling character, a movie critic with woman troubles and whose "sex life has turned into the 'Petrified Forest'". In 1997, the United States Postal Service featured Bogart in its "Legends of Hollywood" series. Quotations Bogart is credited with five of the American Film Institute's top 100 quotations in American cinema, the most by any actor: 5th - "Here's looking at you, kid" - Casablanca 14th - "The stuff that dreams are made of." - The Maltese Falcon 20th - "Louis, I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship." - Casablanca 43rd - "We'll always have Paris." - Casablanca 67th - "Of all the gin joints in all the towns in all the world, she walks into mine." - Casablanca In popular culture Humphrey Bogart's life has spurred the imaginations of many writers and others: The Fedora variation, the "Bogart", was named for Humphrey, who was also the hat's first wearer. The film Friday the 13th (1980 film) features Mark Nelson as Ned who does an impression of Bogart, uttering the line "You know, you're beautiful when you're angry, sweetheart," at approximately 00:18:55 in the film. Two Bugs Bunny cartoons featured Humphrey Bogart: In Slick Hare (), Bogart orders rabbit in a Hollywood restaurant. Told that they don't have rabbit, he becomes insistent, leading waiter Elmer Fudd to try (unsuccessfully as usual) to serve Bugs as the meal. Bogart finally gives up, saying: "Baby will just have to have a ham sandwich." – "Baby" being Bacall's nickname. Bugs, upon hearing the name, immediately presents himself and goes completely ga-ga over Bacall, who looks on with amusement. Bugs decides to take a baby penguin back to the South Pole in 8 Ball Bunny (). At intervals, "Fred C. Dobbs" (Bogart's character in Treasure of the Sierra Madre) appears and asks Bugs to "help a poor American down on his luck" – a line Bogart says a number of times in the film to John Huston, playing an American "gringo". In V. S. Naipaul's Miguel Street (1959), a character renames himself "Bogart" after Casablanca is shown in Trinidad. V. S. Naipaul and the Plight of the Dispossessed by William L. Sachs. Bogart is featured in one of Woody Allen's comic movies, Play It Again, Sam (1972), which relates the story of a young man obsessed by his persona. Issue #70 of the US The Phantom (1977) comic book is known as the "Bogart" issue, as the story stars Humphrey Bogart, Lauren Bacall, Sydney Greenstreet, Peter Lorre and Claude Rains and is a mixture of Casablanca, The African Queen, The Maltese Falcon and The Treasure of the Sierra Madre. The Man With Bogart's Face (1981) movie starred Bogart lookalike Robert Sacchi. The comic book series The Bogie Man features a mental patient who believes that he's an amalgam of various Bogart film characters. The slang term "bogarting" refers to taking an unfairly long time with a cigarette, drink, et cetera, that is supposed to be shared (e.g., "Don't bogart that joint!"). It derives from Bogart's style of cigarette smoking, with which he left his cigarette dangling from his mouth rather than withdrawing it between puffs. Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, referenced at http://www.wordorigins.org/index.php/site/comments/bogart/ In Stephen Frears' movie, Gumshoe (1971), Albert Finney's character, Eddie Ginley, a bingo-caller wannabe PI, self-consciously imitates Humphrey Bogart in Bogart's The Big Sleep performance/persona as Ray Chandler's Philip Marlowe. See also Bogart-Bacall syndrome References Notes Bibliography Bacall, Lauren. By Myself. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1979. ISBN 0-394-41308-3. Bogart, Stephen Humphrey. Bogart: In Search of My Father. New York: Dutton, 1995. ISBN 0-525-93987-3. Bogart, Humphrey. "I'm no communist" Photoplay Magazine, March 1948. Citro, Joseph A.,Mark Sceurman and Mark Moran.Weird New England. New York: Sterling, 2005. ISBN 1-40273-330-5. Halliwell, Leslie.Halliwell's Film, Video and DVD Guide. New York: Harper Collins Entertainment, 2004. ISBN 0-00-719081-6. Hepburn, Katharine. The Making of the African Queen. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1987. ISBN 0-394-56272-0. Hill, Jonathan and Jonah Ruddy. Bogart: The Man and the Legend. London: Mayflower-Dell, 1966. "Humphrey Bogart (cover story)." Time Magazine, June 7, 1954. Hyams, Joe. Bogart and Bacall: A Love Story. New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1975. ISBN 0-44691-228-X. Hyams, Joe. Bogie: The Biography of Humphrey Bogart. New York: New American Library, 1966 (later editions renamed as: Bogie: The Definitive Biography of Humphrey Bogart). ISBN 0-45109-189-2. Meyers, Jeffrey. Bogart: A Life in Hollywood. London: Andre Deutsch Ltd., 1997. ISBN 0-233-99144-1. Michael, Paul. Humphrey Bogart: The Man and his Films. New York: Bonanza Books, 1965. No ISBN. Porter, Darwin. The Secret Life of Humphrey Bogart: The Early Years (1899-1931). New York: Georgia Literary Association, 2003. ISBN 0-9668030-5-1. Pym, John, ed. "Time Out" Film Guide. London: Time Out Group Ltd., 2004. ISBN 1-904978-21-5. Sperber, A.M. and Eric Lax. Bogart. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1997. ISBN 0-68807-539-8. Tierney, Gene with Mickey Herskowitz.Self-Portrait. New York: Peter Wyden, 1979. ISBN 0-883261-52-9. Wallechinsky, David and Amy Wallace. The New Book of Lists. Edinburgh, Scotland: Canongate, 2005. ISBN 1-84195-719-4. Youngkin, Stephen D. The Lost One: A Life of Peter Lorre. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky, 2005, ISBN 0-813-12360-7. Contains a full chapter on the personal and professional friendship between Bogart and classic film actor Peter Lorre External links Bogie Online: The online resource for Humphrey Bogart fans Modern Drunkard: Three Drinks Ahead With Humphrey Bogart caricature of Humphrey Bogart The Fundamental Rules Apply Genealogy of Humphrey Bogart Bogart: Behind the Legend (documentary) Verita Thompson:Humphrey Bogart's Secret Mistress Bibliography Bold Venture radio show (32 episodes) Tribute to Humphrey Bogart be-x-old:Хамфры Богарт | Humphrey_Bogart |@lemmatized humphrey:33 deforest:2 bogart:279 december:5 january:7 ontario:1 county:1 time:31 birth:7 announcement:1 birthday:3 reckon:1 american:11 actor:36 try:8 various:2 job:4 begin:7 act:7 become:13 regular:1 broadway:6 production:13 stock:2 market:2 crash:2 reduce:1 demand:2 play:52 also:27 turn:10 film:70 first:16 great:6 success:7 duke:3 mantee:5 petrified:7 forest:8 lead:10 period:3 typecast:2 gangster:6 b:3 movie:33 breakthrough:1 come:10 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6,264 | Euphoria_(programming_language) | Euphoria is an interpreted programming language created by Robert Craig of Rapid Deployment Software. Introduction Developed as a personal project to invent a programming language from scratch, Euphoria's first incarnation was created by Robert Craig on an Atari Mega-ST. It's named Euphoria as an acronym for "End-User Programming with Hierarchical Objects for Robust Interpreted Applications", although there is some suspicion that this is in fact a backronym. The first public incarnation of the language was for the 16-bit DOS platform and was released in July 1993. The original Atari version, to date, has not been released. As of the release of version 3.0.0 (October 17, 2006), it is open source. Euphoria was developed with the following design goals: Easier to learn and use than BASIC and with more-consistent high-level constructs To use flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complicated memory management and size/addressing limits Debugging support and run-time error-handling Subscript and type checking Loose and strict variable typing Programming via objects as types, user-defined or otherwise Interpreted, with automatic memory management and garbage collection With the release of version 2.5 the Euphoria interpreter was split into two sections: the front-end parser and the back-end interpreter. The front-end, open source, is now written in Euphoria instead of C. The front-end is also used with the Euphoria-to-C translator and the Binder. Features Heterogeneous collection types (sequences) DOS graphics library Debugger Database system Low-level memory handling Windows API support CGI programming Execution modes Interpreter C translator (E2C) for standalone executables or dynamic linking Bytecode compiler and interpreter (Shrouder) The Binder binds the Euphoria source code to the interpreter to create an executable. Use Euphoria was primarily used by hobbyists for utility and computer game programming, but has proven useful for fairly diverse purposes. The primary strength seems to be the ease of handling dynamic collections of data of various types, most useful when dealing with string processing and image processing, which can be quite difficult in many languages. It has been used in artificial intelligence experiments, the study of mathematics, for teaching programming, and to implement fonts involving thousands of characters. Also, Euphoria has been proven to be a useful CGI programming language: the File Archive Search is written in Euphoria, for example. Data types Euphoria has two basic data types: atom These are numbers, implemented as either 31-bit signed integer or 64-bit IEEE floating-point, depending on the current value. Euphoria dynamically changes the implementation to the most efficient one for the data item's current value. sequence A vector which can have zero or more elements, where each element can be either an atom or another sequence. The number of elements in a sequence is not fixed; the coder can add or remove elements as required during run-time. Memory allocation and deallocation is automatically handled by reference counting. Individual elements are referenced using an index value enclosed in square brackets. The first element in a sequence has an index of one [1]. Elements inside embedded sequences are referenced by additional bracked index values, thus X[3][2] refers to the second element contained in the sequence that is the third element of X. Additionally, Euphoria has two specialized data types: integer A special form of atom, restricted to 31-bit signed integer values in the range -1073741824 to 1073741823 (-2^30 to 2^30-1). Integer data types are more efficient than the atom data types, but cannot contain the same range of values. Characters are stored as integers, eg coding ASCII-'A' is exactly the same as coding 65. object A generic datatype that can contain any of the above, and can be changed during run-time. This means that if you have an object called X that is assigned the value 3.172, then later on you can assign it the value "ABC". Note that in fact, each element of a sequence is actually an object. There is no character string data type, as these are represented by a sequence of integer values. However, because literal strings are so commonly used in programming, Euphoria interprets double-quote enclosed characters as a sequence of integers. Thus "ABC" is seen as if the coder had written: {'A', 'B', 'C'} which is the same as: {65,66,67} Hello World puts(1,"Hello World!\n") Examples Note: Code comments start with a double dash "--" and go through the end of line. There are no multi-line comments. As brief examples, the following code global function delete_item( object old, sequence group ) integer pos -- Code begins -- pos = find( old, group ) if pos > 0 then group = group[1 .. pos-1] & group[pos+1 .. length( group )] end if return group end function looks for an old item in a group of items. If found, it removes it by concatenating all the elements prior to it with all the elements after it. The result is then returned. Note that elements in sequences are 1-based indexed. This means that the first element has an index of 1. Simplicity is apparent in that the code clearly delineates its constructs with words. Instead of braces, semicolons, and question marks, you see phrases like 'if..then', 'end if', and 'end function'. Flexibility is present; the item 'old' could be strings, numbers, images, or whole collections of data themselves. A different function for each data type isn't needed, nor does the programmer have to check the data types. This function will work with any sequence of data of any type, and requires no external libraries. global function replace_item( object old, object new, sequence group ) integer pos -- Code begins -- pos = find( old, group ) if pos > 0 then group[pos] = new end if return group end function Safety is present due to the fact that there are no pointers involved and subscripts are automatically checked. Thus the function cannot access memory out-of-bounds, and cannot go beyond the end of the sequence or before the beginning of it to corrupt the memory. There is no need to allocate or deallocate memory explicitly, and no chance of a leak. The line group = group[1 .. pos-1] & group[pos+1 .. length( group )] shows some of the sequence handling facilities. A sequence can contain a collection of any types, and this can be sliced (to take a subset of the data in a sequence) and concatenated in expressions, with no need for special functions. Version 2.5 introduces the new '$' symbol, which is used for "length(sequence)." So, the above example could be written in 2.5 as follows: group = group[1 .. pos-1] & group[pos+1 .. $] Parameter passing Another feature is that all arguments to routines are always passed by value; there is no pass-by-reference facility. However, parameters are allowed to be modified locally (i.e. within the callee), which is implemented very efficiently as sequences have automatic copy-on-write semantics. In other words, when you pass a sequence to a routine, initially only a reference to it is passed, but at the point the routine modifies this sequence parameter, the sequence is copied and the routine updates only a copy of the original. Comparable Languages Z programming language Lua Programming Language Python programming language Rebol - data exchange and programming language Ruby programming language External links Free downloads of Euphoria for the various platforms, packages, Windows IDE, Windows API libraries, a GTK+ wrapper for Linux, graphics libraries (DOS, OpenGL, etc). Euphoria website Euphoria Wiki Euphoria Article User Contributions User Web Sites EUforum Message Board Programming with Euphoria - includes using Euphoria for CGI wxEuphoria A Beginners Guide To Euphoria | Euphoria_(programming_language) |@lemmatized euphoria:22 interpreted:1 programming:5 language:11 create:3 robert:2 craig:2 rapid:1 deployment:1 software:1 introduction:1 develop:2 personal:1 project:1 invent:1 scratch:1 first:4 incarnation:2 atari:2 mega:1 st:1 name:1 acronym:1 end:13 user:4 program:10 hierarchical:1 object:8 robust:1 interpret:2 application:1 although:1 suspicion:1 fact:3 backronym:1 public:1 bit:5 dos:1 platform:2 release:4 july:1 original:2 version:4 date:1 october:1 open:2 source:3 follow:2 design:1 goal:1 easy:1 learn:1 use:10 basic:2 consistent:1 high:1 level:2 construct:2 flat:1 form:2 memory:8 avoid:1 complicated:1 management:2 size:1 address:1 limit:1 debug:1 support:2 run:3 time:3 error:1 handle:4 subscript:2 type:15 checking:1 loose:1 strict:1 variable:1 via:1 define:1 otherwise:1 automatic:2 garbage:1 collection:5 interpreter:5 split:1 two:3 section:1 front:3 parser:1 back:1 write:5 instead:2 c:4 also:2 translator:2 binder:2 feature:2 heterogeneous:1 sequence:23 graphic:2 library:4 debugger:1 database:1 system:1 low:1 window:2 api:2 cgi:3 execution:1 mode:1 standalone:1 executables:1 dynamic:2 linking:1 bytecode:1 compiler:1 shrouder:1 bind:1 code:6 executable:1 primarily:1 hobbyist:1 utility:1 computer:1 game:1 prove:2 useful:3 fairly:1 diverse:1 purpose:1 primary:1 strength:1 seem:1 ease:1 data:14 various:2 deal:1 string:4 processing:2 image:2 quite:1 difficult:1 many:1 artificial:1 intelligence:1 experiment:1 study:1 mathematics:1 teach:1 implement:3 font:1 involve:2 thousand:1 character:4 file:1 archive:1 search:1 example:4 atom:4 number:3 either:2 signed:2 integer:9 ieee:1 float:1 point:2 depend:1 current:2 value:10 dynamically:1 change:2 implementation:1 efficient:2 one:2 item:4 vector:1 zero:1 element:14 another:2 fix:1 coder:2 add:1 remove:2 require:2 allocation:1 deallocation:1 automatically:2 reference:5 counting:1 individual:1 index:4 enclose:2 square:1 bracket:1 inside:1 embed:1 additional:1 bracked:1 thus:3 x:3 refers:1 second:1 contain:4 third:1 additionally:1 specialize:1 special:2 restrict:1 range:2 cannot:3 store:1 eg:1 cod:2 ascii:1 exactly:1 generic:1 datatype:1 mean:2 call:1 assign:2 later:1 abc:2 note:3 actually:1 represent:1 however:2 literal:1 commonly:1 interprets:1 double:2 quote:1 see:2 b:1 hello:2 world:2 put:1 n:1 comment:2 start:1 dash:1 go:2 line:3 multi:1 brief:1 following:1 global:2 function:9 old:6 group:19 po:5 begin:2 pos:8 find:3 length:3 return:3 look:1 concatenate:2 prior:1 result:1 base:1 indexed:1 simplicity:1 apparent:1 clearly:1 delineate:1 word:2 brace:1 semicolon:1 question:1 mark:1 phrase:1 like:1 flexibility:1 present:2 could:2 whole:1 different:1 need:3 programmer:1 check:2 work:1 external:2 new:3 safety:1 due:1 pointer:1 access:1 bound:1 beyond:1 beginning:1 corrupt:1 allocate:1 deallocate:1 explicitly:1 chance:1 leak:1 show:1 handling:1 facility:2 slice:1 take:1 subset:1 expression:1 introduces:1 symbol:1 parameter:3 pass:4 argument:1 routine:4 always:1 pas:1 allow:1 modify:1 locally:1 e:1 within:1 callee:1 efficiently:1 copy:3 semantics:1 initially:1 modifies:1 update:1 comparable:1 z:1 lua:1 python:1 rebol:1 exchange:1 ruby:1 link:1 free:1 downloads:1 package:1 ide:1 windows:1 gtk:1 wrapper:1 linux:1 opengl:1 etc:1 website:1 wiki:1 article:1 contribution:1 web:1 site:1 euforum:1 message:1 board:1 include:1 wxeuphoria:1 beginner:1 guide:1 |@bigram garbage_collection:1 artificial_intelligence:1 bit_signed:2 signed_integer:2 allocation_deallocation:1 clearly_delineate:1 external_link:1 beginner_guide:1 |
6,265 | Prion | A prion ( ) is an infectious agent that is composed of protein. To date, all such agents that have been discovered propagate by transmitting a mis-folded protein state; the protein does not itself self-replicate and the process is dependent on the presence of the polypeptide in the host organism. The mis-folded form of the prion protein has been implicated in a number of diseases in a variety of mammals, including bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE, also known as "mad cow disease") in cattle and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) in humans. All prion diseases affect the structure of the brain or other neural tissue, and all are currently untreatable and are always fatal. In general usage, prion refers to the theoretical unit of infection. Scientifically speaking, PrPC refers to the endogenous form of prion protein (PrP), which is found in a multitude of tissues, while PrPSC refers to the misfolded form of PrP, and is responsible for the formation of amyloid plaques that lead to neurodegeneration. Prions are hypothesized to infect and propagate by refolding abnormally into a structure which is able to convert normal molecules of the protein into the abnormally structured form. All known prions induce the formation of an amyloid fold, in which the protein polymerises into an aggregate consisting of tightly packed beta sheets. This altered structure is extremely stable and accumulates in infected tissue, causing tissue damage and cell death. This stability means that prions are resistant to denaturation by chemical and physical agents, making disposal and containment of these particles difficult. Proteins showing prion-type behavior are also found in some fungi and this has been important in helping to understand mammalian prions. However, fungal prions do not appear to cause disease in their hosts and may even confer an evolutionary advantage through a form of protein-based inheritance. The word prion is a compound word derived from the initial letters of the words proteinaceous and infectious, with -on added by analogy to the word virion. Discovery The radiation biologist Tikvah Alper and the mathematician John Stanley Griffith developed the hypothesis during the 1960s that some transmissible spongiform encephalopathies are caused by an infectious agent consisting solely of proteins. This theory was developed to explain the discovery that the mysterious infectious agent causing the diseases scrapie and Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease resisted ultraviolet radiation (UV radiation damages nucleic acids). Francis Crick recognized the potential importance of the Griffith protein-only hypothesis for scrapie propagation in the second edition of his famous "Central dogma of molecular biology". While asserting that the flow of sequence information from protein to protein, or from protein to RNA and DNA was "precluded" by this dogma, he noted that Griffith's hypothesis was a potential contradiction to this dogma (although it was not so promoted by Griffith). Since the revised "dogma" was formulated, in part, to accommodate the then-recent discovery of reverse transcription by Howard Temin and David Baltimore (who won the Nobel Prize in 1975), proof of the protein-only hypothesis might be seen as a "sure bet" for a future Nobel Prize. Stanley B. Prusiner of the University of California, San Francisco announced in 1982 that his team had purified the hypothetical infectious prion, and that the infectious agent consisted mainly of a specific protein - though they did not manage to satisfactorily isolate the protein until two years after Prusiner's announcement. Prusiner coined the word "prion" as a name for the infectious agent. While the infectious agent was named a prion, the specific protein that the prion was made of was named PrP, an abbreviation for "protease resistant protein". Prusiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1997 for his research into prions. Structure Isoforms The protein that prions are made of (PrP) is found throughout the body, even in healthy people and animals. However, PrP found in infectious material has a different structure and is resistant to proteases, the enzymes in the body that can normally break down proteins. The normal form of the protein is called PrPC, while the infectious form is called PrPSc — the C refers to 'cellular' or 'common' PrP, while the Sc refers to 'scrapie', a prion disease occurring in sheep. While PrPC is structurally well-defined, PrPSc is certainly polydisperse and defined at a relatively poor level. PrP can be induced to fold into other more-or-less well-defined isoforms in vitro, and their relationship to the form(s) that are pathogenic in vivo is not yet clear. PrPC PrPC is a normal protein found on the membranes of cells. It has 209 amino acids (in humans), one disulfide bond, a molecular weight of 35-36kDa and a mainly alpha-helical structure. Several topological forms exist; one cell surface form anchored via glycolipid and two transmembrane forms. Its function has not been fully resolved. PrPC binds copper (II) ions with high affinity. The significance of this is not clear, but it presumably relates to PrP structure or function. PrPC is readily digested by proteinase K and can be liberated from the cell surface in vitro by the enzyme phosphoinositide phospholipase C (PI-PLC), which cleaves the glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI) glycolipid anchor. PrP may function in cell-cell adhesion of neural cells, and/or be involved in cell-cell signaling in the brain. PrPSc The infectious isoform of PrP, known as PrPSc, is able to convert normal PrPC proteins into the infectious isoform by changing their conformation, or shape; this, in turn, alters the way the proteins interconnect. Although the exact 3D structure of PrPSc is not known, it has a higher proportion of β-sheet structure in place of the normal α-helix structure. Aggregations of these abnormal isoforms form highly structured amyloid fibers, which accumulate to form plaques. The end of each fiber acts as a template onto which free protein molecules may attach, allowing the fiber to grow. Only PrP molecules with an identical amino acid sequence to the infectious PrPSc are incorporated into the growing fiber. Function The precise function of the prion protein is not known, but there is evidence that it serves as a copper-dependent antioxidant. PrP and long-term memory There is evidence that PrP may have a normal function in maintenance of long term memory. Maglio and colleagues have shown that mice without the genes for normal cellular PrP protein have altered hippocampal long-term potentiation. PrP and stem cell renewal A 2006 article from the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research indicates that PrP expression on stem cells is necessary for an organism's self-renewal of bone marrow. The study showed that all long-term hematopoietic stem cells expressed PrP on their cell membrane and that hematopoietic tissues with PrP-null stem cells exhibited increased sensitivity to cell depletion. Prion disease Microscopic "holes" are characteristic in prion-affected tissue sections, causing the tissue to develop a "spongy" architecture Prions cause neurodegenerative disease by aggregating extracellularly within the central nervous system to form plaques known as amyloid, which disrupt the normal tissue structure. This disruption is characterized by "holes" in the tissue with resultant spongy architecture due to the vacuole formation in the neurons. Other histological changes include astrogliosis and the absence of an inflammatory reaction. While the incubation period for prion diseases is generally quite long, once symptoms appear the disease progresses rapidly, leading to brain damage and death. Neurodegenerative symptoms can include convulsions, dementia, ataxia (balance and coordination dysfunction), and behavioural or personality changes. All known prion diseases, collectively called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), are untreatable and fatal. However, a vaccine has been developed in mice that may provide insight into providing a vaccine in humans to resist prion infections. Additionally, in 2006 scientists announced that they had genetically engineered cattle lacking a necessary gene for prion production - thus theoretically making them immune to BSE, building on research indicating that mice lacking normally-occurring prion protein are resistant to infection by scrapie prion protein. Many different mammalian species can be affected by prion diseases, as the prion protein (PrP) is very similar in all mammals. Due to small differences in PrP between different species, it is unusual for a prion disease to be transmitted from one species to another. However, the human prion disease variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease is believed to be caused by a prion which typically infects cattle, causing Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and is transmitted through infected meat. The following diseases are caused by prions. In animals: Scrapie in sheep and goats "90. Prions - ICTVdB Index of Viruses." (Website.) U.S. National Institutes of Health website. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in cattle (known as mad cow disease) Transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME) in mink Chronic wasting disease (CWD) in white-tailed deer, elk, mule deer and moose Feline spongiform encephalopathy in cats Exotic ungulate encephalopathy (EUE) in nyala, oryx and greater kudu Spongiform encephalopathy of the ostrich Hussein, Mansour F. and Saud I. Al-Mufarrej. (2004.) "Prion Diseases: A Review; II. Prion Diseases in Man and Animals." Scientific Journal of King Faisal University (Basic and Applied Sciences), vol. 5, no. 2 1425, p. 139. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. Though this has not been shown to be transmissible. In humans: Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) and its varieties: iatrogenic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (iCJD), variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD), familial Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (fCJD), and sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD) Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome (GSS) Fatal familial insomnia (sFI) (1999-05-28.) "BSE proteins may cause fatal insomnia." (News website.) BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-09-27. Kuru Transmission Proposed mechanism of prion propagation Although the identity and general properties of prions are now well understood, the mechanism of prion infection and propagation remains mysterious. It is often assumed that the diseased form directly interacts with the normal form to make it rearrange its structure. One idea, the "Protein X" hypothesis, is that an as-yet unidentified cellular protein (Protein X) enables the conversion of PrPC to PrPSc by bringing a molecule of each of the two together into a complex. Current research suggests that the primary method of infection in animals is through ingestion. It is thought that prions may be deposited in the environment through the remains of dead animals and via urine, saliva, and other body fluids. They may then linger in the soil by binding to clay and other minerals. Sterilization Infectious particles possessing nucleic acid are dependent upon it to direct their continued replication. Prions however, are infectious by their effect on normal versions of the protein. Therefore, sterilizing prions involves the denaturation of the protein to a state where the molecule is no longer able to induce the abnormal folding of normal proteins. However, prions are generally quite resistant to proteases, heat, radiation, and formalin treatments, although their infectivity can be reduced by such treatments. Effective prion decontamination relies upon protein hydrolysis or reduction and/or destruction of protein tertiary structure. Examples include bleach, caustic soda, or strong acidic detergents such as [LpH] . Prions can be denatured and deactivated by subjecting them to a temperature of 134 degrees Celsius (274 degrees Fahrenheit) for 18 minutes in a pressurised steam autoclave. Ozone sterilization is currently being studied as a potential method for prion denature and deactivation. Ozone Sterilization - UK Health Protection Agency Renaturation of a completely denatured prion to infectious status has not yet been achieved, however partially denatured prions can be renatured to an infective status under certain artificial conditions. The World Health Organization recommends any of the following three procedures for the sterilization of all heat-resistant surgical instruments to ensure that they are not contaminated with prions: Immerse in a pan containing 1N NaOH and heat in a gravity-displacement autoclave at 121°C for 30 minutes; clean; rinse in water; and then perform routine sterilization processes. Immerse in 1N NaOH or sodium hypochlorite (20,000 parts per million available chlorine) for 1 hour; transfer instruments to water; heat in a gravity-displacement autoclave at 121°C for 1 hour; clean; and then perform routine sterilization processes. Immerse in 1N NaOH or sodium hypochlorite (20,000 parts per million available chlorine) for 1 hour; remove and rinse in water, then transfer to an open pan and heat in a gravity-displacement (121°C) or in a porous-load (134°C) autoclave for 1 hour; clean; and then perform routine sterilization processes. Debate Whether prions are the agent which causes disease or merely a symptom caused by a different agent is still debated by a minority of researchers. The following sections describe several contending hypotheses. Protein-only hypothesis Prior to the discovery of prions, it was thought that all pathogens used nucleic acids to direct their replication. The "protein-only hypothesis" states that a protein structure can replicate without the use of nucleic acid. This was initially controversial as it contradicts the so-called "central dogma of molecular biology," which describes nucleic acid as the central form of replicative information. Evidence in favor of a protein-only hypothesis includes: No virus particles, bacteria, or fungi have been conclusively associated with prion diseases No nucleic acid has been conclusively associated with infectivity; agent is resistant to degradation by nucleases No immune response to infection PrPSc experimentally transmitted between one species and another results in PrPSc with the amino-acid sequence of the recipient species, suggesting that replication of the donor agent does not occur PrPSc and PrPC do not differ in amino-acid sequence, therefore a PrPSc-specific nucleic acid is a redundant concept Familial prion disease occurs in families with a mutation in the PrP gene, and mice with PrP mutations develop prion disease despite controlled conditions where transmission is prevented Animals lacking PrPC do not contract prion disease. Multi-component hypothesis In 2007, biochemist Surachai Supattapone and his colleagues at Dartmouth College produced purified infectious prions de novo from defined components (PrPC, co-purified lipids, and a synthetic polyanionic molecule). These researchers also showed that the polyanionic molecule required for prion formation was selectively incorporated into high-affinity complexes with PrP molecules, leading them to hypothesize that infectious prions may be composed of multiple host components, including PrP, lipid, and polyanionic molecules, rather than PrPSc alone. Viral hypothesis The protein-only hypothesis has been criticised by those who feel that the simplest explanation of the evidence to date is viral. For more than a decade, Yale University neuropathologist Laura Manuelidis has been proposing that prion diseases are caused instead by an unidentified "slow" virus. In January 2007, she and her colleagues published an article reporting to have found a virus in 10%, or less, of their scrapie-infected cells in culture. The virion hypothesis states that TSEs are caused by a replicable informational molecule (which is likely to be a nucleic acid) bound to PrP. Many TSEs, including scrapie and BSE, show strains with specific and distinct biological properties, a feature which supporters of the virion hypothesis feel is not explained by prions. Evidence in favor of a viral hypothesis includes: Differences in prion infectivity, incubation, symptomology and progression among species resembles the "strain variation" seen between viruses, especially RNA viruses The long incubation and rapid onset of symptoms resembles some viral infections, such as HIV-induced AIDS Viral-like particles that do not appear to be composed of PrP have been found in some of the cells of scrapie- or CJD-infected cell lines. Heavy metal poisoning hypothesis Dr. David R. Brown has reported that prion protein may gain superoxide dismutase activity when bound to copper ions. He has hypothesised that loss of this activity could cause disease. Mark Purdey has hypothesised that abnormal amounts of copper and manganese in the environment or animal feed could precipitate this. Genetics A gene for the normal protein has been identified: the PRNP gene. In all inherited cases of prion disease, there is a mutation in the PRNP gene. Many different PRNP mutations have been identified and it is thought that the mutations somehow make PrPC more likely to change spontaneously into the abnormal PrPSc form. These mutations can occur throughout the gene. Some mutations involve expansion of the octapeptide repeat region at the N-terminal of PrP. Other mutations that have been identified as a cause of inherited prion disease occur at positions 102, 117 & 198 (GSS), 178, 200, 210 & 232 (CJD) and 178 (Fatal Familial Insomnia, FFI). The cause of prion disease can be sporadic, genetic, and infectious, or a combination of these factors. For example, in order to have scrapie, both an infectious agent and a susceptible genotype need to be present. In yeast and other fungi Prion proteins were discovered in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae by Reed Wickner in the early 1990s. Subsequently, a prion has also been found in the fungus Podospora anserina. These prions behave similarly to PrP, but are generally non-toxic to their hosts. Susan Lindquist's group at the Whitehead Institute has argued that some of the fungal prions are not associated with any disease state, but may have a useful role; however, researchers at the NIH have also provided strong arguments demonstrating that fungal prions should be considered a diseased state. Research into fungal prions has given strong support to the protein-only hypothesis for mammalian prions, since it has been demonstrated that purified protein extracted from cells with the prion state can convert the normal form of the protein into the infectious form in vitro, and in the process, preserve the information corresponding to different strains of the prion state. It has also shed some light on prion domains, which are regions in a protein that promote the conversion into a prion. Fungal prions have helped to suggest mechanisms of conversion that may apply to all prions, though mammalian prions may operate by an independent mechanism. See also Protein folding Proteopathy Tertiary structure Further reading Deadly Feasts: The "Prion" Controversy and the Public's Health Deadly Feasts: The "Prion" Controversy and the Public's Health, Richard Rhodes, 1998, Touchstone, ISBN 0684844257 , by Richard Rhodes offers a history of research into Kuru, CJD, Mad Cow Disease, Scrapie and related disorders through 1998. The Touchstone paperback edition includes an Afterword that reviews the viral and virion hypotheses. Deadly Feasts extensively covers public policy debates on food safety standards. The Pathological Protein: Mad Cow, Chronic Wasting, and Other Deadly Prion Diseases covers the science of TSE diseases in greater depth than Deadly Feasts but is not so thorough on policy issues. The Pathological Protein: Mad Cow, Chronic Wasting, and Other Deadly Prion Diseases, Phillip Yam, 2003, Springer, ISBN 0387955089 The Family That Couldn't Sleep by D. T. Max provides a history of prion diseases for a popular audience. References External links Prion Animation (Flash required) CDC - USA Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - information on prion diseases World Health Organisation - WHO information on prion diseases The UK BSE Inquiry - Report of the UK public inquiry into BSE and variant CJD UK Spongiform Encephalopathy Advisory Committee (SEAC) Mammalian prion classification International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses - ICTVdb Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man: Prion protein - PrP, inherited prion disease and transgenic animal models. The Surprising World of Prion Biology--A New Mechanism of Inheritance on-line lecture by Susan Lindquist | Prion |@lemmatized prion:93 infectious:21 agent:13 compose:3 protein:56 date:2 discover:2 propagate:2 transmit:4 mi:2 fold:4 state:8 self:2 replicate:2 process:5 dependent:3 presence:1 polypeptide:1 host:4 organism:2 folded:1 form:20 implicate:1 number:1 disease:44 variety:2 mammal:2 include:9 bovine:3 spongiform:8 encephalopathy:10 bse:7 also:7 know:7 mad:5 cow:5 cattle:4 creutzfeldt:8 jakob:8 cjd:6 human:5 affect:2 structure:16 brain:3 neural:2 tissue:9 currently:2 untreatable:2 always:1 fatal:5 general:2 usage:1 refers:5 theoretical:1 unit:1 infection:7 scientifically:1 speak:1 prpc:13 endogenous:1 prp:29 find:8 multitude:1 prpsc:14 misfolded:1 responsible:1 formation:4 amyloid:4 plaque:3 lead:3 neurodegeneration:1 hypothesize:2 infect:3 refolding:1 abnormally:2 able:3 convert:3 normal:13 molecule:10 structured:1 known:1 induce:3 polymerise:1 aggregate:2 consisting:1 tightly:1 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6,266 | Hydrogen_bond | An example of intermolecular hydrogen bonding in a self-assembled dimer complex reported by Meijer and coworkers. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding in acetylacetone helps stabilize the enol tautomer A hydrogen bond is the attractive force between one electronegative atom and a hydrogen covalently bonded to another electronegative atom. It results from a dipole-dipole force with a hydrogen atom bonded to nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine (thus the name "hydrogen bond", which must not be confused with a covalent bond to hydrogen). The energy of a hydrogen bond (typically 5 to 30 kJ/mole) is comparable to that of weak covalent bonds (155 kJ/mol), and a typical covalent bond is only 20 times stronger than an intermolecular hydrogen bond. These bonds can occur between molecules (intermolecularly), or within different parts of a single molecule (intramolecularly). The hydrogen bond is a very strong fixed dipole-dipole van der Waals-Keesom force, but weaker than covalent, or ionic bonds. The hydrogen bond is somewhere between a covalent bond and an electrostatic intermolecular attraction. This type of bond occurs in both inorganic molecules such as water and organic molecules such as DNA. Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 °C). This is because of the strong hydrogen bond, as opposed to other group 16 hydrides. Intramolecular hydrogen bonding is partly responsible for the secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures of proteins and nucleic acids. Bonding A hydrogen atom attached to a relatively electronegative atom is a hydrogen bond donor. This electronegative atom is usually fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. An electronegative atom such as fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen is a hydrogen bond acceptor, regardless of whether it is bonded to a hydrogen atom or not. An example of a hydrogen bond donor is ethanol, which has a hydrogen bonded to oxygen; an example of a hydrogen bond acceptor which does not have a hydrogen atom bonded to it is the oxygen atom on diethyl ether. Examples of hydrogen bond donating (donors) and hydrogen bond accepting groups (acceptors) Carboxylic acids often form dimers in vapor phase. Carbon can also participate in hydrogen bonding, especially when the carbon atom is bound to several electronegative atoms, as is the case in chloroform, CHCl3. The electronegative atom attracts the electron cloud from around the hydrogen nucleus and, by decentralizing the cloud, leaves the atom with a positive partial charge. Because of the small size of hydrogen relative to other atoms and molecules, the resulting charge, though only partial, nevertheless represents a large charge density. A hydrogen bond results when this strong positive charge density attracts a lone pair of electrons on another heteroatom, which becomes the hydrogen-bond acceptor. The hydrogen bond is often described as an electrostatic dipole-dipole interaction. However, it also has some features of covalent bonding: it is directional, strong, produces interatomic distances shorter than sum of van der Waals radii, and usually involves a limited number of interaction partners, which can be interpreted as a kind of valence. These covalent features are more significant when acceptors bind hydrogens from more electronegative donors. The partially covalent nature of a hydrogen bond raises the questions: "To which molecule or atom does the hydrogen nucleus belong?" and "Which should be labeled 'donor' and which 'acceptor'?" Usually, this is easy to determine simply based on interatomic distances in the X—H...Y system: X—H distance is typically ~1.1 Å, whereas H...Y distance is ~ 1.6 to 2.0 Å. Liquids that display hydrogen bonding are called associated liquids. Hydrogen bonds can vary in strength from very weak (1-2 kJ mol−1) to extremely strong (>155 kJ mol−1), as in the ion HF2−. Typical values include: F—H...:F (155 kJ/mol or 40 kcal/mol) O—H...:N (29 kJ/mol or 6.9 kcal/mol) O—H...:O (21 kJ/mol or 5.0 kcal/mol) N—H...:N (13 kJ/mol or 3.1 kcal/mol) N—H...:O (8 kJ/mol or 1.9 kcal/mol) HO—H...:OH3+ (18 kJ/mol or 4.3 kcal/mol) {Data obtained using molecular dynamics as detailed in the reference and should be compared to 7.9 kJ/mol for bulk waters, obtained using the same molecular dynamics.} The length of hydrogen bonds depends on bond strength, temperature, and pressure. The bond strength itself is dependent on temperature, pressure, bond angle, and environment (usually characterized by local dielectric constant). The typical length of a hydrogen bond in water is 1.97 Å (197 pm). The ideal bond angle depends on the nature of the hydrogen bond donor. Experimental results of hydrofluoric acid donor with various acceptors shows the following angles: A. C. Legon;D. J. Millen. Chem. Soc. Rev. 1987, 16,467-498. Acceptor···DonorVSEPR SymmetryAngle (°)HCN···HFlinear180H2CO ··· HFtrigonal planar110H2O ··· HFpyramidal46H2S ··· HFpyramidal89SO2 ··· HFtrigonal planar145 History In his book The Nature of the Chemical Bond, Linus Pauling credits T.S. Moore and T.F. Winmill with the first mention of the hydrogen bond, in 1912 (J. Chem. Soc. 101, 1635). Moore and Winmill used the hydrogen bond to account for the fact that trimethylammonium hydroxide is a weaker base than tetramethylammonium hydroxide. The description of hydrogen bonding in its more well-known setting, water, came some years later, in 1920, from Latimer and Rodebush (JACS, 42, 1419). Hydrogen bonds in water Snapshot from a simulation of liquid water. The dashed blue lines from the molecule in the center of the picture represent hydrogen bonds. The most ubiquitous, and perhaps simplest, example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules. In a discrete water molecule, water has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case in liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with hydrogens on two other water molecules. This can repeat so that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms). Liquid water's high boiling point is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule can have relative to its low molecular mass, not to mention the great strength of these hydrogen bonds. Realistically the water molecule has a very high boiling point, melting point and viscosity compared to other similar substances not conjoined by hydrogen bonds. The reasoning for these attributes is the inability to, or the difficulty in, breaking these bonds. Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen atoms, meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four. For example, hydrogen fluoride—which has three lone pairs on the F atom but only one H atom—can have a total of only two bonds (ammonia has the opposite problem: three hydrogen atoms but only one lone pair). H-F...H-F...H-F The exact number of hydrogen bonds in which a molecule in liquid water participates, fluctuates with time and depends on the temperature. From TIP4P liquid water simulations at 25 °C, it was estimated that each water molecule participates in an average of 3.59 hydrogen bonds. At 100 °C, this number decreases to 3.24 due to the increased molecular motion and decreased density, while at 0 °C, the average number of hydrogen bonds increases to 3.69. A more recent study found a much smaller number of hydrogen bonds: 2.357 at 25 °C. . The differences may be due to the use of a different method for defining and counting the hydrogen bonds. Where the bond strengths are more equivalent, one might instead find the atoms of two interacting water molecules partitioned into two polyatomic ions of opposite charge, specifically hydroxide (OH−) and hydronium (H3O+). (Hydronium ions are also known as 'hydroxonium' ions.) H-O− H3O+ Indeed, in pure water under conditions of standard temperature and pressure, this latter formulation is applicable only rarely; on average about one in every 5.5 × 108 molecules gives up a proton to another water molecule, in accordance with the value of the dissociation constant for water under such conditions. It is a crucial part of the uniqueness of water. Bifurcated and over-coordinated hydrogen bonds in water It can be that a single hydrogen atom participates in two hydrogen bonds, rather than one. This type of bonding is called "bifurcated".It can exist for instance in complex natural or synthetic organic molecules Michel Baron, Sylviane Giorgi-Renault, Jean Renault, Patrick Mailliet, Daniel Carré, Jean Etienne (1984) "Heterocycles with a quinone function.5. An abnormal reaction of butanedione with 1,2-diaminoanthraquinone- Crystalline structure obtained from naphto-(2,3-f)-quinoxaline-9,12-dione" , Can. J. Chem., 62, 3, 526-530 It was suggested that a bifurcated hydrogen atom is an essential step in water reorientation; . Acceptor type hydrogen bonds (terminating on an oxygens` lone pairs), are more likely to form bifurcation (in fact, it is called over coordinated oxygen, OCO) than donor type, beginning on the same oxygens` hydrogens . Hydrogen bonds in DNA and proteins Hydrogen bonding between guanine and cytosine, one of two types of base pairs in DNA. Hydrogen bonding also plays an important role in determining the three-dimensional structures adopted by proteins and nucleic bases. In these macromolecules, bonding between parts of the same macromolecule cause it to fold into a specific shape, which helps determine the molecule's physiological or biochemical role. The double helical structure of DNA, for example, is due largely to hydrogen bonding between the base pairs, which link one complementary strand to the other and enable replication. In the secondary structure of proteins, hydrogen bonds form between the backbone oxygens and amide hydrogens. When the spacing of the amino acid residues participating in a hydrogen bond occurs regularly between positions i and i + 4, an alpha helix is formed. When the spacing is less, between positions i and i + 3, then a 310 helix is formed. When two strands are joined by hydrogen bonds involving alternating residues on each participating strand, a beta sheet is formed. Hydrogen bonds also play a part in forming the tertiary structure of protein through interaction of R-groups.(See also protein folding). Symmetric hydrogen bond A symmetric hydrogen bond is a special type of hydrogen bond in which the proton is spaced exactly halfway between two identical atoms. The strength of the bond to each of those atoms is equal. It is an example of a 3-center 4-electron bond. This type of bond is much stronger than "normal" hydrogen bonds. The effective bond order is 0.5, so its strength is comparable to a covalent bond. It is seen in ice at high pressure, and also in the solid phase of many anhydrous acids such as hydrofluoric acid and formic acid at high pressure. It is also seen in the bifluoride ion [F-H-F]−. Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been observed recently spectroscopically in formic acid at high pressure (>GPa). Each hydrogen atom forms a partial covalent bond with two atoms rather than one. Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been postulated in ice at high pressure (Ice X). Low-barrier hydrogen bonds form when the distance between two heteroatoms is very small. Dihydrogen bond The hydrogen bond can be compared with the closely related dihydrogen bond, which is also an intermolecular bonding interaction involving hydrogen atoms. These structures have been known for some time, and well characterized by crystallography; however, an understanding of their relationship to the conventional hydrogen bond, ionic bond, and covalent bond remains unclear. Generally, the hydrogen bond is characterized by a proton acceptor that is a lone pair of electrons in nonmetallic atoms (most notably in the nitrogen, and chalcogen groups). In some cases, these proton acceptors may be pi-bonds or metal complexes. In the dihydrogen bond, however, a metal hydride serves as a proton acceptor; thus forming a hydrogen-hydrogen interaction. Neutron diffraction has shown that the molecular geometry of these complexes is similar to hydrogen bonds, in that the bond length is very adaptable to the metal complex/hydrogen donor system. Advanced theory of the hydrogen bond Recently the nature of the bond was elucidated. A widely publicized article E.D. Isaacs, et al., Physical Review Letters vol. 82, pp 600-603 (1999) proved from interpretations of the anisotropies in the Compton profile of ordinary ice, that the hydrogen bond is partly covalent. Some NMR data on hydrogen bonds in proteins also indicate covalent bonding. Most generally, the hydrogen bond can be viewed as a metric-dependent electrostatic scalar field between two or more intermolecular bonds. This is slightly different from the intramolecular bound states of, for example, covalent or ionic bonds; however, hydrogen bonding is generally still a bound state phenomenon, since the interaction energy has a net negative sum. The initial theory of hydrogen bonding proposed by Linus Pauling suggested that the hydrogen bonds had a partial covalent nature. This remained a controversial conclusion until the late 1990s when NMR techniques were employed by F. Cordier et al. to transfer information between hydrogen-bonded nuclei, a feat that would only be possible if the hydrogen bond contained some covalent character. While a lot of experimental data has been recovered for hydrogen bonds in water, for example, that provide good resolution on the scale of intermolecular distances and molecular thermodynamics, the kinetic and dynamical properties of the hydrogen bond in dynamic systems remains unchanged. Hydrogen bonding phenomena Dramatically higher boiling points of NH3, H2O, and HF compared to the heavier analogues PH3, H2S, and HCl. Viscosity of anhydrous phosphoric acid and of glycerol Dimer formation in carboxylic acids and hexamer formation in hydrogen fluoride, which occur even in the gas phase, resulting in gross deviations from the ideal gas law. High water solubility of many compounds such as ammonia is explained by hydrogen bonding with water molecules. Negative azeotropy of mixtures of HF and water Deliquescence of NaOH is caused in part by reaction of OH- with moisture to form hydrogen-bonded H3O2- species. An analogous process happens between NaNH2 and NH3, and between NaF and HF. The fact that ice is less dense than liquid water is due to a crystal structure stabilized by hydrogen bonds. The presence of hydrogen bonds can cause an anomaly in the normal succession of states of matter for certain mixtures of chemical compounds as temperature increases or decreases. These compounds can be liquid until a certain temperature, then solid even as the temperature increases, and finally liquid again as the temperature rises over the "anomaly interval" Law-breaking liquid defies the rules at physicsworld.com Smart rubber utilizes hydrogen bonding as its sole means of bonding, so that it can "heal" when torn, because hydrogen bonding can occur on the fly between two surfaces of the same polymer. References George A. Jeffrey. An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry). Oxford University Press, USA (March 13, 1997). ISBN 0-19-509549-9 External links The Bubble Wall (Audio slideshow from the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory explaining cohesion, surface tension and hydrogen bonds) | Hydrogen_bond |@lemmatized example:10 intermolecular:7 hydrogen:112 bonding:18 self:1 assembled:1 dimer:4 complex:5 report:1 meijer:1 coworkers:1 intramolecular:3 acetylacetone:1 help:2 stabilize:2 enol:1 tautomer:1 bond:113 attractive:1 force:3 one:11 electronegative:8 atom:33 covalently:1 another:3 result:5 dipole:6 nitrogen:4 oxygen:9 fluorine:3 thus:2 name:1 must:1 confuse:1 covalent:16 energy:2 typically:2 kj:11 mole:1 comparable:2 weak:4 mol:16 typical:3 time:3 strong:7 occur:4 molecule:27 intermolecularly:1 within:1 different:3 part:5 single:2 intramolecularly:1 fix:1 van:2 der:2 waals:2 keesom:1 ionic:3 somewhere:1 electrostatic:3 attraction:1 type:7 occurs:1 inorganic:1 water:35 organic:2 dna:4 responsible:2 high:11 boiling:3 point:5 c:6 oppose:1 group:4 hydride:2 partly:2 secondary:2 tertiary:2 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6,267 | Imhotep | Statuette of Imhotep in the Louvre Another image of the same statue Imhotep (sometimes spelled Immutef, Im-hotep, or Ii-em-Hotep; called Imuthes by the Greeks), fl. 27th century BC (2650-2600 BC) (Egyptian meaning "the one who comes in, with peace") was an Egyptian polymath, The Egyptian Building Mania, Acta Divrna, Vol. III, Issue IV, January, 2004. who served under the Third Dynasty king, Djoser, as chancellor to the pharaoh and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. He is considered to be the first engineer , architect and physician in history known by name. William Osler, The Evolution of Modern Medicine, Kessinger Publishing 2004, p.12 The full list of his titles is: Chancellor of the King of Egypt, Doctor, First in line after the King of Upper Egypt, Administrator of the Great Palace, Hereditary nobleman, High Priest of Heliopolis, Builder, Chief Carpenter, Chief Sculptor and Maker of Vases in Chief. Imhotep was one of very few mortals to be depicted as part of a pharaoh's statue. He was one of only a few commoners ever to be accorded divine status after death. The center of his cult was Memphis. From the First Intermediate Period onward Imhotep was also revered as a poet and philosopher. His sayings were famously referred to in poems: I have heard the words of Imhotep and Hordedef with whose discourses men speak so much. Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt Routledge 2005, p.159 The location of Imhotep's tomb was lost in antiquity The Harper's Lay, ca. 2000 BCE and is still unknown, despite efforts to find it. The general consensus is that it is well hidden at Saqqara. Imhotep's historicity is confirmed by two contemporary inscriptions made during his lifetime on the base or pedestal of one of Djoser's statues (Cairo JE 49889) and also by a graffito on the enclosure wall surrounding Sekhemkhet's unfinished step-pyramid. Jaromir Malek 'The Old Kingdom' in The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt by Ian Shaw (ed.) Oxford University Press paperback 2002. p.92 J. Kahl "Old Kingdom: Third Dynasty" in The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt by Donald Redford (ed.) Vol.2, p. 592 The latter inscription suggests that Imhotep outlived Djoser by a few years and went on to serve in the construction of king Sekhemkhet's pyramid which was abandoned due to this ruler's brief reign. Shaw, op. cit., pp.92-93 Attribution of achievements and inventions Most known information about him is based on hearsay and conjecture. The ancient Egyptians credited him with many inventions. For example, it is claimed that he invented or improved the papyrus scroll. James Henry Breasted says of Imhotep: Engineering and architecture As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he designed the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt in 2630–2611 BC Barry J. Kemp, Ancient Egypt, Routledge 2005, p.159 . He may have been responsible for the first known use of columns in architecture. As an instigator of Egyptian culture, Imhotep's idealized image lasted well into the Ptolemaic period. The Egyptian historian Manetho credited him with inventing the method of a stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign, though he was not the first to actually build with stone. Stone walling, flooring, lintels, and jambs had appeared sporadically during the Archaic Period, though it is true that a building of the Step Pyramid's size and made entirely out of stone had never before been constructed. Before Djoser, pharaohs were buried in mastaba tombs. Medicine Imhotep is credited with being the founder Mostafa Shehata, MD (2004), "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration", J Med Ethics 12, p. 171-176 [176]. How Imhotep gave us medicine, The Daily Telegraph, 10/05/2007. <ref>Jimmy Dunn, Imhotep, Doctor, Architect, High Priest, Scribe and Vizier to King Djoser.</ref> of Egyptian medicine and with being the author of a medical treatise remarkable for being devoid of magical thinking, the so-called Edwin Smith papyrus containing anatomical observations, ailments, and cures. The surviving papyrus was probably written around 1700 BC but may be a copy of texts a thousand years older. This attribution of authorship is speculative, however. Leonard Francis Peltier, Fractures: A History and Iconography of Their Treatment, Norman Publishing 1990, p.16 Birth myths According to myth, Imhotep's mother was a mortal named Kheredu-ankh, elevated later to semi-divine status by claims that she was the daughter of Banebdjedet. Marina Warner, Felipe Fernández-Armesto, World of Myths, University of Texas Press 2003, ISBN 0292702043, p.296 Conversely, as the "Son of Ptah", Miriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature: A Book of Readings, University of California Press 1980, ISBN 0520040201, p.106 his mother was sometimes claimed to be Sekhmet, the patron of Upper Egypt whose consort Ptah was often said to be. He is said to have been born near Memphis. Deification As Imhotep was considered the inventor of healing approach, he was also sometimes said to be the one who held up the goddess Nut (the deification of the sky), as the separation of Nut and Geb (the deification of the earth) was said to be what held back chaos. Due to the position this would have placed him in, he was also sometimes said to be Nut's son. In artwork he also is linked with the great goddess, Hathor, who eventually became identified as the wife of Ra. He also was associated with Ma'at, the goddess who personified the concept of truth, cosmic order, and justice—having created order out of chaos and being responsible for maintaining it. Also after Death, the Ancient Egyptians believed Imhotep became a god. Two thousand years after his death, his status was raised to that of a deity. He became the god of medicine and healing. He later was linked to Asclepius by the Greeks. He was associated with Amenhotep son of Hapu, who was another deified architect, in the region of Thebes where they were worshipped as "brothers". M. Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, The University of California Press 1980, vol.3, p.104 Legacy The Encyclopedia Britannica reads, in part, "The evidence afforded by Egyptian and Greek texts support the view that Imhotep's reputation was very respected in early times... His prestige increased with the lapse of centuries and his temples in Greek times were the centers of medical teachings." It is Imhotep, says Sir William Osler, who was the real 'Father of Medicine', "the first figure of a physician to stand out clearly from the mists of antiquity." Imhotep was also identified with Thoth, the Egyptian god of writing, education, literacy and scribes through the Greco-Roman Period. Imhotep Dreams The Upper Egyptian Famine Stela, dating from the Ptolemaic period, bears an inscription containing a legend about a famine of seven years during the reign of Djoser. Imhotep is credited with having been instrumental in ending it: one of his priests explained the connection between the god Khnum and the rise of the Nile to the king, who then had a dream in which the Nile god spoke to him, promising to end the drought. Trivia The original 1932 film The Mummy as well as the 1999 version and its sequel are loosely based on the real-life Imhotep. In 1987 a small model of Imhotep went missing from the British Museum and its whereabouts were unknown for just over a year. It was found in the possession of the son of a managing director of an imaging firm in Cambridge. The boy, Max Salisbury, 19 at the time, was found guilty and served 3 years in prison for the theft. In Mathew Reilly's Seven Ancient Wonders'', Imhotep is credited with the construction of the locations, and designing the elaborate booby traps, in which the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World is stored. See also History of ancient Egypt Third dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian architecture Ancient Egyptian medicine Notes | Imhotep |@lemmatized statuette:1 imhotep:24 louvre:1 another:2 image:2 statue:3 sometimes:4 spell:1 immutef:1 im:1 hotep:2 ii:1 em:1 call:2 imuthes:1 greek:4 fl:1 century:2 bc:4 egyptian:14 meaning:1 one:7 come:1 peace:1 polymath:1 building:3 mania:1 acta:1 divrna:1 vol:3 iii:1 issue:1 iv:1 january:1 serve:3 third:3 dynasty:3 king:6 djoser:8 chancellor:2 pharaoh:4 high:3 priest:4 sun:1 god:6 ra:2 heliopolis:2 consider:2 first:6 engineer:1 architect:3 physician:2 history:4 know:3 name:2 william:2 osler:2 evolution:1 modern:1 medicine:8 kessinger:1 publishing:1 p:10 full:1 list:1 title:1 egypt:10 doctor:2 line:1 upper:3 administrator:1 great:2 palace:1 hereditary:1 nobleman:1 builder:1 chief:3 carpenter:1 sculptor:1 maker:1 vas:1 mortal:2 depict:1 part:2 commoner:1 ever:1 accord:2 divine:2 status:3 death:3 center:2 cult:1 memphis:2 intermediate:1 period:5 onward:1 also:9 revere:1 poet:1 philosopher:1 saying:1 famously:1 refer:1 poem:1 hear:1 word:1 hordedef:1 whose:2 discourse:1 men:1 speak:2 much:1 barry:2 j:4 kemp:2 ancient:13 routledge:2 location:2 tomb:2 lose:1 antiquity:2 harper:1 lay:1 ca:1 bce:1 still:1 unknown:2 despite:1 effort:1 find:3 general:1 consensus:1 well:3 hide:1 saqqara:2 historicity:1 confirm:1 two:2 contemporary:1 inscription:3 make:2 lifetime:1 base:3 pedestal:1 cairo:1 je:1 graffito:1 enclosure:1 wall:1 surround:1 sekhemkhet:2 unfinished:1 step:3 pyramid:5 jaromir:1 malek:1 old:3 kingdom:2 oxford:3 ian:1 shaw:2 ed:2 university:4 press:4 paperback:1 kahl:1 encyclopedia:2 donald:1 redford:1 latter:1 suggest:1 outlive:1 year:6 go:2 construction:2 abandon:1 due:2 ruler:1 brief:1 reign:3 op:1 cit:1 pp:1 attribution:2 achievement:1 invention:2 information:1 hearsay:1 conjecture:1 credit:5 many:1 example:1 claim:3 invent:2 improve:1 papyrus:3 scroll:1 james:1 henry:1 breast:1 say:7 engineering:1 architecture:3 official:1 djosèr:1 design:2 may:2 responsible:2 use:1 column:1 instigator:1 culture:1 idealize:1 last:1 ptolemaic:2 historian:1 manetho:1 method:1 stone:4 dressed:1 though:2 actually:1 build:1 walling:1 flooring:1 lintel:1 jamb:1 appear:1 sporadically:1 archaic:1 true:1 size:1 entirely:1 never:1 construct:1 bury:1 mastaba:1 founder:1 mostafa:1 shehata:1 md:1 father:2 historical:1 reconsideration:1 med:1 ethic:1 give:1 u:1 daily:1 telegraph:1 ref:2 jimmy:1 dunn:1 scribe:2 vizier:1 author:1 medical:2 treatise:1 remarkable:1 devoid:1 magical:1 thinking:1 edwin:1 smith:1 contain:2 anatomical:1 observation:1 ailment:1 cure:1 survive:1 probably:1 write:1 around:1 copy:1 text:2 thousand:2 authorship:1 speculative:1 however:1 leonard:1 francis:1 peltier:1 fracture:1 iconography:1 treatment:1 norman:1 publish:1 birth:1 myth:3 mother:2 kheredu:1 ankh:1 elevate:1 later:2 semi:1 daughter:1 banebdjedet:1 marina:1 warner:1 felipe:1 fernández:1 armesto:1 world:2 texas:1 isbn:2 conversely:1 son:4 ptah:2 miriam:1 lichtheim:2 literature:2 book:1 reading:1 california:2 sekhmet:1 patron:1 consort:1 often:1 bear:2 near:1 deification:3 inventor:1 heal:1 approach:1 hold:2 goddess:3 nut:3 sky:1 separation:1 geb:1 earth:1 back:1 chaos:2 position:1 would:1 place:1 artwork:1 link:2 hathor:1 eventually:1 become:3 identify:2 wife:1 associate:2 personify:1 concept:1 truth:1 cosmic:1 order:2 justice:1 create:1 maintain:1 egyptians:1 believed:1 raise:1 deity:1 healing:1 asclepius:1 amenhotep:1 hapu:1 deified:1 region:1 thebe:1 worship:1 brother:1 legacy:1 britannica:1 read:1 evidence:1 afford:1 support:1 view:1 reputation:1 respect:1 early:1 time:3 prestige:1 increase:1 lapse:1 temple:1 teaching:1 sir:1 real:2 figure:1 stand:1 clearly:1 mist:1 thoth:1 writing:1 education:1 literacy:1 greco:1 roman:1 dream:2 famine:2 stela:1 date:1 legend:1 seven:3 instrumental:1 end:2 explain:1 connection:1 khnum:1 rise:1 nile:2 promise:1 drought:1 trivia:1 original:1 film:1 mummy:1 version:1 sequel:1 loosely:1 life:1 small:1 model:1 miss:1 british:1 museum:1 whereabouts:1 possession:1 manage:1 director:1 imaging:1 firm:1 cambridge:1 boy:1 max:1 salisbury:1 guilty:1 prison:1 theft:1 mathew:1 reilly:1 wonder:2 elaborate:1 booby:1 trap:1 store:1 see:1 note:1 |@bigram kessinger_publishing:1 op_cit:1 papyrus_scroll:1 daily_telegraph:1 ancient_egyptians:1 encyclopedia_britannica:1 greco_roman:1 booby_trap:1 |
6,268 | Murad_I | Murad I (nick-named Hüdavendigâr - from Khodāvandgār - "the God-like One") () (March or June 29 1326, Sogut or Bursa June 28 1389, Battle of Kosovo) () was the ruler of the Ottoman Empire, Sultan of Rûm, from 1359 to 1389. He was the son of Orhan I and the Valide Sultan Nilüfer Hatun (whose name means Water lily in Turkish), daughter of the Prince of Yarhisar or Byzantine Princess Helen (also named Nilüfer), who was of ethnic Greek descent The Fall of Constantinople, Steven Runciman, Cambridge University Press, p.36 The Nature of the Early Ottoman State, Heath W. Lowry, 2003 SUNY Press, p.153 History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford Jay Shaw, Cambridge University Press, p.24 and became the ruler following his father's death in 1359. Establishment of Empire He established the Empire by building up a society and government in the newly conquered city of Adrianople (Edirne in Turkish) and by expanding the realm in Europe, bringing most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule and forcing the Byzantine emperor to pay him tribute. It was Murad who established the former Osmanli tribe into an empire. He established the title of sultan in 1383 and the corps of the janissaries and the devşirme recruiting system. He also organised the government of the Divan, the system of timars and timar-holders (timariots) and the military judge, the kazasker. He also established the two provinces of Anadolu (Anatolia) and Rumeli (Europe). Wars Murad fought against the powerful emirate of Karaman in Anatolia and against the Serbs, Bulgarians and Hungarians in Europe. His moves in the Balkans brought together a Christian coalition under the king of Hungary, but it was defeated at the Battle of Maritsa on September 26, 1371, by Murad's capable second lieutenant Lala Şâhin Paşa, the first governor (beylerbey) of Rumeli. In 1366 the Serbian king was forced to pay tribute to the Sultan and in 1385 Sofia fell to the Ottomans. In 1386 Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović defeated a small Ottoman force at the Battle of Pločnik. The Ottoman army did not suffer heavy casualties, and was unable to capture Niš on the way back. In 1389 Murad's army defeated the Serbian Army and its allies under the leadership of Lazar at the Battle of Kosovo. There are different accounts from different sources about when and how Murad I was assasinated. One Western source states that during first hours of the battle, Murad I was assasinated by Serbian nobleman and knight Miloš Obilić by knife Helmolt, Ferdinand. The World's History, p.293. W. Heinemann, 1907. Fine, John. The Late Medieval Balkans, p.410. University of Michigan Press, 1994. ISBN 0472082604. . Most Ottoman chroniclers (including Dimitrie Cantemir) Cantemir, Dimitrie, History of the Growth and Decay of the Ottoman Empire, London 1734. state that he was assasinated after the finish of the battle while going around the battlefield. Others state that he was assasinated in the evening after the battle at his tent by the assassin who was admitted to ask a special favour. His older son Bayezid, who was in charge of the left wing of the Ottoman forces, took charge after that. His other son, Yakub Bey, who was in charge of the other wing, was called to the Sultan's command center tent by Bayezid, but when Yakub Bey arrived he was strangled, leaving Bayezid as the sole claimant to the throne. In the earliest preserved Christian record, a letter of Florentine senate to the King Tvrtko I of Bosnia, dated 20 October 1389, Murad I's killing was described. The killer is not named but it was one of 12 Serbian noblemen managed to break through the Ottoman ranks: Fortunate, most fortunate are those hands of the twelve loyal lords who, having opened their way with the sword and having penetrated the enemy lines and the circle of chained camels, heroically reached the tent of Amurat himself. Fortunate above all is that one who so forcefully killed such a strong vojvoda by stabbing him with a sword in the throat and belly. And blessed are all those who gave their lives and blood through the glorious manner of martyrdom as victims of the dead leader over his ugly corpse. Sultan Murad's internal organs were buried in Kosovo field and remains to this day on a corner of the battlefield in a location called Meshed-i Hudavendigar which has gained a religious significance by the Muslims (which had been renamed Obilić by the Serbs). It has recently been renovated. His other remains were carried to Bursa, his Anatolian capital city, and were buried in a tomb at the complex built in his name. Marriages and Progeny Marriages of Murad I: In 1359 Valide Sultan Gülçiçek Hatun- of Greek origin In 1370 Maria Thamara Hatun - sister of Bulgarian Czar Ivan Shishman Pasha Melek Hatun - daughter of Kizil Murad Bey Fulane Hatun - daughter of Candaroglu Progeny of Murad I: Yakub Celebi (? - d. 1389) - son. In the first recorded fratricide in the history of the Ottoman dynasty, Bayezid I had Yakup killed during or following the Battle of Kosovo at which their father had been killed. Sultan Bayezid I (1354-1402)- son of Gulcicek Hatun Savci Bey - son. He and Byzantyne emperor John V Palaeologus' son Andronicus rebelled against their fathers. Murad had Savci killed. Andronicus, who had surrendered to his father, was imprisoned and blinded at Murad's insistence. Finkel, C., Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire, 2005, pp.19, Basic Books Ibrahim Bey - son Yahshi Bey - son of Gulcicek Hatun Halil Bey - son Nefise - daughter Sultan - daughter Sultan Murad in literature In William Shakespeare's History play Henry V, Prince Harry refers to Murad as "Amurath" in Act V Scene 2 when he succeeds his father, King Henry IV, in 1412: Chief Justice. Good morrow, and God save your majesty! King Henry V. This new and gorgeous garment, majesty, Sits not so easy on me as you think. Brothers, you mix your sadness with some fear: This is the English, not the Turkish court; Not Amurath an Amurath succeeds, But Harry Harry! Murad (as "Amurath the First") is the subject of Thomas Goffe's play The Courageous Turk, published in 1632. References | Murad_I |@lemmatized murad:17 nick:1 name:5 hüdavendigâr:1 khodāvandgār:1 god:2 like:1 one:4 march:1 june:2 sogut:1 bursa:2 battle:8 kosovo:4 ruler:2 ottoman:13 empire:7 sultan:10 rûm:1 son:10 orhan:1 valide:2 nilüfer:2 hatun:7 whose:1 mean:1 water:1 lily:1 turkish:3 daughter:5 prince:3 yarhisar:1 byzantine:2 princess:1 helen:1 also:3 ethnic:1 greek:2 descent:1 fall:1 constantinople:1 steven:1 runciman:1 cambridge:2 university:3 press:4 p:5 nature:1 early:2 state:4 heath:1 w:2 lowry:1 suny:1 history:6 modern:1 turkey:1 stanford:1 jay:1 shaw:1 become:1 follow:2 father:5 death:1 establishment:1 establish:4 build:1 society:1 government:2 newly:1 conquer:1 city:2 adrianople:1 edirne:1 expand:1 realm:1 europe:3 bring:2 balkan:3 rule:1 force:4 emperor:2 pay:2 tribute:2 former:1 osmanli:1 tribe:1 title:1 corp:1 janissary:1 devşirme:1 recruiting:1 system:2 organise:1 divan:1 timars:1 timar:1 holder:1 timariots:1 military:1 judge:1 kazasker:1 two:1 province:1 anadolu:1 anatolia:2 rumeli:2 war:1 fight:1 powerful:1 emirate:1 karaman:1 serb:2 bulgarian:2 hungarian:1 move:1 together:1 christian:2 coalition:1 king:5 hungary:1 defeat:3 maritsa:1 september:1 capable:1 second:1 lieutenant:1 lala:1 şâhin:1 paşa:1 first:4 governor:1 beylerbey:1 serbian:4 sofia:1 fell:1 lazar:2 hrebeljanović:1 small:1 pločnik:1 army:3 suffer:1 heavy:1 casualty:1 unable:1 capture:1 niš:1 way:2 back:1 ally:1 leadership:1 different:2 account:1 source:2 assasinated:4 western:1 hour:1 nobleman:2 knight:1 miloš:1 obilić:2 knife:1 helmolt:1 ferdinand:1 world:1 heinemann:1 fine:1 john:2 late:1 medieval:1 michigan:1 isbn:1 chronicler:1 include:1 dimitrie:2 cantemir:2 growth:1 decay:1 london:1 finish:1 go:1 around:1 battlefield:2 others:1 evening:1 tent:3 assassin:1 admit:1 ask:1 special:1 favour:1 old:1 bayezid:5 charge:3 left:1 wing:2 take:1 yakub:3 bey:7 call:2 command:1 center:1 arrive:1 strangle:1 leave:1 sole:1 claimant:1 throne:1 preserved:1 record:2 letter:1 florentine:1 senate:1 tvrtko:1 bosnia:1 date:1 october:1 killing:1 describe:1 killer:1 manage:1 break:1 rank:1 fortunate:3 hand:1 twelve:1 loyal:1 lord:1 open:1 sword:2 penetrate:1 enemy:1 line:1 circle:1 chained:1 camel:1 heroically:1 reach:1 amurat:1 forcefully:1 kill:4 strong:1 vojvoda:1 stab:1 throat:1 belly:1 bless:1 give:1 life:1 blood:1 glorious:1 manner:1 martyrdom:1 victim:1 dead:1 leader:1 ugly:1 corpse:1 internal:1 organ:1 bury:2 field:1 remain:1 day:1 corner:1 location:1 mesh:1 hudavendigar:1 gain:1 religious:1 significance:1 muslim:1 rename:1 recently:1 renovate:1 remains:1 carry:1 anatolian:1 capital:1 tomb:1 complex:1 built:1 marriage:2 progeny:2 gülçiçek:1 origin:1 maria:1 thamara:1 sister:1 czar:1 ivan:1 shishman:1 pasha:1 melek:1 kizil:1 fulane:1 candaroglu:1 celebi:1 fratricide:1 dynasty:1 yakup:1 gulcicek:2 savci:2 byzantyne:1 v:4 palaeologus:1 andronicus:2 rebel:1 surrender:1 imprison:1 blind:1 insistence:1 finkel:1 c:1 osman:1 dream:1 pp:1 basic:1 book:1 ibrahim:1 yahshi:1 halil:1 nefise:1 literature:1 william:1 shakespeare:1 play:2 henry:3 harry:3 refers:1 amurath:4 act:1 scene:1 succeed:2 iv:1 chief:1 justice:1 good:1 morrow:1 save:1 majesty:2 new:1 gorgeous:1 garment:1 sit:1 easy:1 think:1 brother:1 mix:1 sadness:1 fear:1 english:1 court:1 subject:1 thomas:1 goffe:1 courageous:1 turk:1 publish:1 reference:1 |@bigram ottoman_empire:4 valide_sultan:2 steven_runciman:1 suny_press:1 pay_tribute:2 dimitrie_cantemir:1 claimant_throne:1 sultan_murad:2 hatun_daughter:2 sultan_bayezid:1 osman_dream:1 |
6,269 | Lake_Eyre | Lake Eyre (pronounced "air") is the lowest point in Australia, at approximately (AHD) below sea level, and, on the rare occasions that it fills, it is the largest lake in Australia. It is the focal point of the vast Lake Eyre Basin and is found some 700km north of Adelaide. Geography Lake Eyre South Lake Eyre salt crust The lake was named after Edward John Eyre who was the first European to sight it in 1840. The lake is located in the deserts of central Australia, in northern South Australia. The Eyre Basin is a large endorheic system surrounding the lakebed, the lowest part of which is filled with the characteristic playa salt pan caused by the seasonal expansion and subsequent evaporation of the trapped waters. Even in the dry season there is usually some water remaining in Lake Eyre, usually collecting in a number of smaller sub-lakes on the playa. During the rainy season the rivers from the northeast (in outback Queensland) flow towards the lake through the Channel Country. The amount of water from the monsoon determines whether water will reach the lake and if it does, how deep the lake will get. In strong La Niña years the lake can fill. Since 1885 this has occurred in 1886/1887, 1889/1890, 1916/1917, 1950, 1955, 1974-1976 Allen, Robert J.; The Australasian Summer Monsoon, Teleconnections, and Flooding in the Lake Eyre Basin; published 1985 by Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, S.A. Branch; ISBN 0909112096 , with the highest flood of 6m in 1974. Local rain can also fill Lake Eyre to 3-4m as occurred in 1984 and 1989. Wave built shingle terraces on the shore suggest that during the Medieval Warm Period and centuries immediately prior Lake Eyre possibly held permanent water at levels above those of 1974. Torrential rain in January 2007 took about six weeks to reach the lake but put only a small amount of water into it. When recently flooded the Lake is almost fresh and native fresh water fish, including boney bream (Nematolosa erebi), the Lake Eyre Basin sub-species of golden perch (Macquaria ambigua) and various small hardyhead species (Craterocephalus spp.) can survive in it. The salinity increases as the 450mm salt crust dissolves over a period of six months resulting in a massive fish kill. When over 4m deep the Lake is no more salty than the sea and salinity increases as the water evaporates with saturation occurring at about 500mm depth. The Lake takes on a "pink" hue when saturated due to the presence of beta-carotene pigment caused by the algae Dunaliella salina. Typically a 1.5 m (5 ft) flood occurs every three years, a 4 m (13 ft) flood every decade, and a fill or near fill four times a century. The water in the lake soon evaporates with a minor and medium flood drying by the end of the following summer. 2009 In 2009 the lake has filled up to capacity, something that has only happened three times in the last 150 years. This was caused by extensive flooding and rainfall in Queensland. Animals and birds a like have already been attracted to the lake with an incredible sense that draws them in from far and wide. Yacht club The Lake Eyre Yacht Club is a dedicated group of eccentrics who sail on the lake's floods, including recent trips in 1997, 2000, 2001, 2004, 2007 and 2009. A number of 6 m Trailer Sailers sailed on Lake Eyre in 1975, 1976 and 1984 when the flood depth reached 3–6 m. Land speed record attempts Campbell Plaque at Level Post Bay It has been a site for various land speed record attempts on its salt flats, especially those by Sir Donald Campbell with the Bluebird-Proteus CN7. See also Lake Eyre Basin Pluvial lake List of lakes List of world's largest lakes References External links NASA Earth Observatory pages on Lake Eyre: , Lake Eyre Yacht Club website Lake Eyre pelican mystery Floods of Lake Eyre - Dr Vincent Kotwicki's site | Lake_Eyre |@lemmatized lake:34 eyre:18 pronounced:1 air:1 low:2 point:2 australia:4 approximately:1 ahd:1 sea:2 level:3 rare:1 occasion:1 fill:7 large:3 focal:1 vast:1 basin:5 find:1 north:1 adelaide:1 geography:1 south:2 salt:4 crust:2 name:1 edward:1 john:1 first:1 european:1 sight:1 locate:1 desert:1 central:1 northern:1 endorheic:1 system:1 surround:1 lakebed:1 part:1 characteristic:1 playa:2 pan:1 cause:3 seasonal:1 expansion:1 subsequent:1 evaporation:1 trapped:1 water:9 even:1 dry:1 season:2 usually:2 remain:1 collect:1 number:2 small:3 sub:2 rainy:1 river:1 northeast:1 outback:1 queensland:2 flow:1 towards:1 channel:1 country:1 amount:2 monsoon:2 determine:1 whether:1 reach:3 deep:2 get:1 strong:1 la:1 niña:1 year:3 since:1 occur:4 allen:1 robert:1 j:1 australasian:1 summer:2 teleconnections:1 flood:9 publish:1 royal:1 geographical:1 society:1 australasia:1 branch:1 isbn:1 high:1 local:1 rain:2 also:2 wave:1 build:1 shingle:1 terrace:1 shore:1 suggest:1 medieval:1 warm:1 period:2 century:2 immediately:1 prior:1 possibly:1 hold:1 permanent:1 torrential:1 january:1 take:2 six:2 week:1 put:1 recently:1 almost:1 fresh:2 native:1 fish:2 include:2 boney:1 bream:1 nematolosa:1 erebi:1 specie:2 golden:1 perch:1 macquaria:1 ambigua:1 various:2 hardyhead:1 craterocephalus:1 spp:1 survive:1 salinity:2 increase:2 dissolve:1 month:1 result:1 massive:1 kill:1 salty:1 evaporate:2 saturation:1 depth:2 pink:1 hue:1 saturate:1 due:1 presence:1 beta:1 carotene:1 pigment:1 algae:1 dunaliella:1 salina:1 typically:1 ft:2 every:2 three:2 decade:1 near:1 four:1 time:2 soon:1 minor:1 medium:1 drying:1 end:1 following:1 capacity:1 something:1 happen:1 last:1 extensive:1 flooding:1 rainfall:1 animal:1 bird:1 like:1 already:1 attract:1 incredible:1 sense:1 draw:1 far:1 wide:1 yacht:3 club:3 dedicated:1 group:1 eccentric:1 sail:2 recent:1 trip:1 trailer:1 sailers:1 land:2 speed:2 record:2 attempt:2 campbell:2 plaque:1 post:1 bay:1 site:2 flat:1 especially:1 sir:1 donald:1 bluebird:1 proteus:1 see:1 pluvial:1 list:2 lakes:1 world:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 nasa:1 earth:1 observatory:1 page:1 website:1 pelican:1 mystery:1 dr:1 vincent:1 kotwicki:1 |@bigram lake_eyre:16 eyre_basin:5 rainy_season:1 la_niña:1 summer_monsoon:1 torrential_rain:1 beta_carotene:1 external_link:1 |
6,270 | Joseph_Cotten | Joseph Cheshire Cotten (May 15, 1905 – February 6, 1994) was an American actor of stage and film. He was perhaps best known for his collaborations with Orson Welles, which included Citizen Kane, The Third Man, The Magnificent Ambersons and Journey into Fear, which Cotten wrote, and for his work with Alfred Hitchcock in Shadow of a Doubt. He received his start on Broadway, starring in the original productions of The Philadelphia Story and Sabrina Fair, and became a recognizable Hollywood star in his own right with films such as Shadow of a Doubt and Portrait of Jennie. Biography and career Early life and career Cotten was born in Petersburg, Virginia, the son of Sallie Bartlett (née Wilson) and Joseph Cheshire Cotten, Sr., who was an assistant postmaster. Joseph Cotten, 88, Is Dead; Actor on Stage and in Films - New York Times Cotten Joseph Cotten Biography Cotten worked as an advertising agent after attending the Washington, D.C., Hickman School of Speech and Expression, where he studied acting. His work as a theater critic inspired him to become more involved in theatre productions, first in Virginia, and later in New York. Cotten made his Broadway debut in 1930, and soon befriended up-and-coming actor/director/producer Orson Welles. In 1937, he joined Welles' Mercury Theatre Company, starring in productions of Julius Caesar and Shoemaker's Holiday. Cotten made his film debut in the Welles-directed short Too Much Johnson, a comedy based on William Gillette's 1890 play. The short was occasionally screened before or after Mercury productions, but never received an official release. Before acting in this film, Cotten (who had played center on a semiprofessional football team while living in Washington in 1923) got into good physical shape by working out at the Waple Studio of Physical Culture in Alexandria, Virginia. Cotten returned to Broadway in 1939, starring as C.K. Dexter Haven in the original production of Philip Barry's The Philadelphia Story as well as the 1953 production of Sabrina Fair. Citizen Kane Joseph Cotten, Orson Welles, and Everett Sloane in Citizen Kane. After the success of Welles' infamous War of the Worlds radio broadcast, Welles got an impressive contract with RKO Pictures. The two-picture deal promised full creative control for the young director, and Welles made sure to feature his Mercury players in whatever production he chose to bring to screen. However, after a year, production hadn't yet started on any of Welles' prospective projects. It took a meeting with writer Herman J. Mankiewicz for Welles to find a story to bring to the screen. In mid-1940 filming began on Citizen Kane, which portrayed the life of a brilliant media mogul (played by Welles) who starts out as an idealist but eventually turns into a corrupt, lonely old man. The film featured Cotten prominently in the role of Kane's best friend, a drama critic for his print empire. When released on May 1, 1941, Citizen Kane (based in part on the life of William Randolph Hearst) found little attention at theaters; Hearst owned the majority of the country's press outlets, and so forbade advertisements for the film. The film was nominated for nine Academy Awards in 1942, but was largely ignored by the Academy, only winning for Best Screenplay, for Welles and Mankiewicz. The film helped launch the careers of many other Mercury players, such as Agnes Moorehead (who played Kane's mother), Ruth Warrick (Kane's first wife), and Ray Collins (Kane's political opponent). However, Cotten was the only one of the four to find major success (as a lead) in Hollywood outside of Citizen Kane (Moorehead and Collins were extremely successful character film actors). Collaborations with Welles Joseph Cotten in The Third Man, directed by Carol Reed. Despite Welles' reputation of being difficult to get along with, he and Cotten remained good friends. Cotten starred a year later in Welles' adaptation and production of The Magnificent Ambersons, supported by Moorehead. After the commercial disappointment of Citizen Kane, RKO was apprehensive about the new film, and cut nearly an hour off the running time before releasing it. Though at points the film appeared disjointed, it was well received by critics. Despite the critical accolades Cotten received for his performance, he was again snubbed by the Academy (Moorehead was nominated for Best Supporting Actress). In 1943, Cotten took control of the Nazi-related thriller Journey Into Fear. He wrote the screenplay with the help of Welles (who produced the film), and starred in the film with Dolores del Rio. By the time production wrapped, Welles had been dropped from RKO, and, as part of the settlement, was required to edit the film to suitable length. The film was a minor hit, but separated the friends from professional collaboration for six years. The last collaboration with Welles is widely considered to be Cotten's best performance. In The Third Man, Cotten portrays a writer of pulp fiction who travels to post-war Vienna to meet his friend Harry Lime (Welles). When he arrives, he discovers that Lime has died, and is determined to prove to the police that it was murder, but uncovers an even darker secret. The forties and fifties Cotten proved himself a versatile actor in Hollywood following the success of Citizen Kane. The characters he played onscreen during this period ranged from a serial killer in Hitchcock's Shadow of a Doubt (opposite Teresa Wright) to an eager police detective in 1944's Gaslight (opposite Ingrid Bergman, Charles Boyer and in her film debut, Angela Lansbury). Cotten starred with Jennifer Jones in four films: the wartime domestic drama Since You Went Away (1944), the romantic drama Love Letters (1945), the western Duel in the Sun (1946) and later in the critically acclaimed Portrait of Jennie (1948), in which he played a melancholy artist who becomes obsessed with a girl who may have died long ago. He reteamed with Hitchcock at the end of the decade in Under Capricorn (1949) as an Australian land-owner. Cotten's career cooled in the 1950s with a string of less high-profile roles in films such as the dark Civil War epic Two Flags West, the Joan Fontaine romance September Affair, and the Marilyn Monroe vehicle, Niagara. His last theatrical releases in the '50s were mostly film-noir outings and unsuccessful character studies. In 1956, Cotten left film for several years in exchange for a string of successful television ventures, such as the NBC series On Trial, renamed at midseason The Joseph Cotten Show. Ron Hayes made his acting debut in an episode of On Trial. Cotten was also featured in the successful series Alfred Hitchcock Presents and Ronald W. Reagan's General Electric Theater. He finished the decade with a cameo appearance in the Welles production Touch of Evil and a starring role in the 1958 film adaptation of Jules Verne's From the Earth to the Moon. He also appeared as Dick Burlingame and Charles Lawrence in the 1960 episodes "The Blue Goose" and "Dark Fear" of CBS's anthology series The DuPont Show with June Allyson. He also appeared on NBC's anthology series, The Barbara Stanwyck Show. The sixties and seventies In 1960, he married British actress Patricia Medina, after his first wife, Lenore Kipp, died of leukemia earlier that year. After some time away from film, Cotten returned in 1964 in the horror classic Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte, opposite fellow screen veterans Bette Davis, Olivia de Havilland, and Agnes Moorehead. The rest of the decade found Cotten in a number of forgettable B-movies, foreign productions, and TV movies. He made guest appearances on the Ed Sullivan Show many times throughout the show's run. In the early 1970s, Cotten followed a supporting role in Tora! Tora! Tora!, with several horror features such as The Abominable Dr. Phibes, opposite Vincent Price, and the classic Soylent Green (1973). Later in the decade, Cotten was featured in several all-star disaster films, including Airport '77 opposite James Stewart and again with Olivia de Havilland and the nuclear thriller Twilight's Last Gleaming. On TV, he did a guest spot opposite James Garner on the 70's TV detective drama The Rockford Files. Last years One of Cotten's last films was 1980's infamous Heaven's Gate. Afterward, he appeared with Hollywood star Gloria Grahame in a twist-in-the-tale episode of the cult British TV show, Tales of the Unexpected. Shortly after, the 75-year-old actor retired with his wife to their home in Westwood, California. Cotten published a popular autobiography, Vanity Will Get You Somewhere, in 1987. He died on February 6, 1994, of pneumonia, a complication of terminal (or metastasized) throat cancer at the age of 88, leaving behind his wife and stepdaughter. He was buried at Blandford Cemetery in Petersburg, Virginia. Legacy Cotten is considered one of the most underrated actors in Hollywood history. He was never nominated for an Academy Award, despite his immense body of work, including many films that are considered classics today. The only notable acting award Cotten received throughout his career was a Venice Film Festival Award for Best Actor for his work in Portrait of Jennie. Quotation Filmography Too Much Johnson (1938) (short subject) Citizen Kane (1941) Lydia (1941) The Magnificent Ambersons (1942) Shadow of a Doubt (1943) Journey into Fear (1943) Hers to Hold (1943) Gaslight (1944) Since You Went Away (1944) I'll Be Seeing You (1945) Love Letters (1945) Duel in the Sun (1946) The Farmer's Daughter (1947) Portrait of Jennie (1948) The Third Man (1949) Under Capricorn (1949) Beyond the Forest (1949) Two Flags West (1950) Walk Softly, Stranger (1950) September Affair (1950) Half Angel (1951) Peking Express (1951) The Man with a Cloak (1951) The Tragedy of Othello: The Moor of Venice (1952) The Wild Heart (1952) (narrator) Untamed Frontier (1952) The Steel Trap (1952) Egypt by Three (1953) (narrator) Niagara (1953) A Blueprint for Murder (1953) Vom Himmel gefallen or Special Delivery (1955) The Bottom of the Bottle (1956) The Killer Is Loose (1956) The Halliday Brand (1957) Touch of Evil (1958) From the Earth to the Moon (1958) The Angel Wore Red (1960) The Last Sunset (1961) Hush... Hush, Sweet Charlotte (1964) The Great Sioux Massacre (1965) The Money Trap (1965) The Oscar (1966) The Tramplers (1966) The Cruel Ones (1967) Brighty of the Grand Canyon (1967) Jack of Diamonds (1967) Days of Fire (1968) Gangster '70 (1968) Petulia (1968) White Comanche (1968) Keene (1969) Latitude Zero (1969) The Grasshopper (1970) Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970) The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971) Lady Frankenstein (1971) Baron Blood (1972) Doomsday Voyage (1972) The Scientific Cardplayer (1972) A Delicate Balance (1973) Soylent Green (1973) Syndicate Sadists (1975) Timber Tramps (1975) A Whisper in the Dark (1976) F for Fake (1976) (documentary) Twilight's Last Gleaming (1977) Airport '77 (1977) Last In, First Out (1978) Caravans (1978) Concorde Affair (1978) Something Waits in the Dark (1979) Concorde Affair '79 (1979) Guyana: Crime of the Century (1979) The Hearse (1980) Delusion (1980) Heaven's Gate (1980) The Survivor (1981) Further reading Kneebone, John T., et al., eds. Dictionary of Virginia Biography'' (Richmond: Library of Virginia, 1998- ), 3:478-481. ISBN 0-88490-206-4. References External links | Joseph_Cotten |@lemmatized joseph:7 cheshire:2 cotten:36 may:3 february:2 american:1 actor:8 stage:2 film:28 perhaps:1 best:6 know:1 collaboration:4 orson:3 welles:20 include:3 citizen:9 kane:13 third:4 man:6 magnificent:3 ambersons:3 journey:3 fear:4 write:2 work:6 alfred:2 hitchcock:4 shadow:4 doubt:4 receive:5 start:3 broadway:3 star:9 original:2 production:12 philadelphia:2 story:3 sabrina:2 fair:2 become:3 recognizable:1 hollywood:5 right:1 portrait:4 jennie:4 biography:3 career:5 early:2 life:3 bear:1 petersburg:2 virginia:6 son:1 sallie:1 bartlett:1 née:1 wilson:1 sr:1 assistant:1 postmaster:1 dead:1 new:3 york:2 time:5 advertising:1 agent:1 attend:1 washington:2 c:2 hickman:1 school:1 speech:1 expression:1 study:2 act:4 theater:3 critic:3 inspire:1 involved:1 theatre:2 first:4 later:4 make:5 debut:4 soon:1 befriend:1 come:1 director:2 producer:1 join:1 mercury:4 company:1 julius:1 caesar:1 shoemaker:1 holiday:1 direct:2 short:3 much:2 johnson:2 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6,271 | Oxfordian_theory_of_Shakespeare_authorship | Edward de Vere - 17th Earl of Oxford - from an engraving by J. Brown. Oxford is the leading alternative candidate for the author behind the alleged pseudonym, Shakespeare. The Oxfordian theory of Shakespearean authorship holds that Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford (1550-1604), wrote the plays and poems attributed to William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon. While a majority of mainstream scholars reject all alternative candidates for authorship, popular interest in various authorship theories continues to grow, Niederkorn, William S. "A Historic Whodunit: If Shakespeare Didn't, Who Did?" New York Times. February 10, 2001 particularly among independent scholars and theatre professionals. Since the 1920's, Oxford has been the most prevalent of several anti-Stratfordian candidates. McMichael, George and Edgar M. Glenn. Shakespeare and his Rivals: A Casebook on the Authorship Controversy. Odyssey Press, 1962. p. 159. The case for Oxford's authorship is based on perceived similarities between Oxford's biography and events in Shakespeare's plays and sonnets; parallels of language, idiom, and thought between Oxford's letters and the Shakespearean canon; Fowler, William Plumer. Shakespeare Revealed in Oxford's Letters. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Peter E. Randall, 1986. and underlined passages in Oxford's Bible that may correspond to quotations in Shakespeare's plays. Stritmatter, Roger A. "The Marginalia of Edward de Vere's Geneva Bible: Providential Discovery, Literary Reasoning, and Historical Consequence" (PhD diss., University of Massachusetts at Amherst, 2001). Partial reprint at The Shakespeare Fellowship. Oxfordians point to the acclaim of Oxford's contemporaries regarding his talent as a poet and a playwright, his reputation as a concealed poet, and his connections to London theatre and the contemporary playwrights of Shakespeare's day. They also note his long term relationships with Queen Elizabeth I and the Earl of Southampton, his knowledge of Court life, his extensive education, his academic and cultural achievements and his wide-ranging travels through France and Italy. Confronting the issue of Oxford's death in 1604, Oxfordian researchers cite examples they say imply the writer known as "Shakespeare" or "Shake-speare" died before 1609, and point to 1604 as the year regular publication of Shakespeare's plays stopped. Supporters of the standard view, often referred to as "Stratfordian" or "Mainstream", dispute all contentions in favour of Oxford. Aside from their main argument against the theory, the issue of Oxford's early death, they assert that the connections between Oxford's life and the plots of Shakespeare's plays are conjectural. Note: For the purposes of this article the term “Shakespeare” is taken to mean the poet and playwright who wrote the plays and poems in question; and the term “Shakespeare of Stratford” is taken to mean the William Shakespeare of Stratford-upon-Avon to whom authorship is generally credited. Mainstream view The mainstream view is that the author known as "Shakespeare" was the same William Shakespeare who was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in 1564, moved to London and became an actor, and "sharer" (part-owner) of the acting company called the Lord Chamberlain's Men, which owned the Globe Theatre and the Blackfriars Theatre in London. He divided his time between London and Stratford, and retired there around 1613 before his death in 1616. In 1623, seven years after his death (and after the death of most of the proposed authorship candidates), his plays were collected for publication in the First Folio edition. Shakespeare of Stratford is further identified by the following evidence: He left gifts to actors from the London company in his will; the man from Stratford and the author of the works share a common name; and commendatory poems in the 1623 First Folio of Shakespeare's works refer to the "Swan of Avon" and his "Stratford monument". For a full account of the documents relating to Shakespeare's life, see Samuel Schoenbaum, William Shakespeare: A Compact Documentary Life. Oxford University Press, 1987. Mainstream scholars believe that the latter phrase refers to the funerary monument in Holy Trinity Church, Stratford, which refers to Shakespeare as a writer (comparing him to Virgil and calling his writing a "living art"), and was described as such by visitors to Stratford as far back as the 1630s. McMichael, George and Edgar M. Glenn. Shakespeare and his Rivals: A Casebook on the Authorship Controversy. Odyssey Press, 1962. p. 41. Several pieces of circumstantial evidence support the Stratfordian view: In a 1592 pamphlet by the playwright Robert Greene called "Greene's Groatsworth of Wit", Greene chastises a playwright whom he calls "Shake-scene", calling him "an upstart crow" and a "Johannes factotum" (a "Jack-of-all-trades", a man able to feign skill), thus suggesting that people were aware of a writer named Shakespeare. Anderson, Mark. "Shakespeare" by Another Name: The Life of Edward de Vere, Earl of Oxford, The Man Who Was Shakespeare. Gotham, 2005 (expanded paperback edition 2006). pp. xxx-xxxii. Also, poet John Davies once referred to Shakespeare as "our English Terence". Additionally, Shakespeare's grave monument in Stratford, built within a decade of his death, currently features him with a pen in hand, suggesting that he was known as a writer. Critics of the mainstream view have challenged most if not all of the above assertions, claiming that there is no direct evidence that clearly identifies Shakespeare of Stratford as a playwright. These critics note that the only theatrical reference in his will (the gifts to fellow actors) were interlined – i.e., inserted between previously written lines – and thus subject to doubt; the term "Swan of Avon" can be interpreted in numerous ways; that "Greene's Groatsworth of Wit" could imply that Shakespeare was being given credit for the work of other writers; and that Davies' mention of "our English Terence" is a mixed reference since Cicero, Quintilian, Michel de Montaigne, and many contemporary Elizabethan scholars knew of Terence as in reality an actor who was a front man for one or more Roman aristocratic playwrights. They also assert that Shakespeare's grave monument was altered after its original creation, with the original monument merely showing a man holding a grain sack. Ogburn, Charlton. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0939009676/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1227587131&sr=1-1The Mysterious William Shakespeare: The Myth & the Reality.] New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1984. pp. ???-???. Notable anti-Stratfordians On 8 September 2007, after the final matinee of I Am Shakespeare, a play investigating Shakespeare's identity, acclaimed British actors Derek Jacobi and Mark Rylance unveiled a "declaration of reasonable doubt" about the authorship of Shakespeare's work. The "declaration" named 20 prominent doubters of the past, including Walt Whitman, Henry James, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Mark Twain, Sigmund Freud, Orson Welles and Tyrone Guthrie. The document was sponsored by the Shakespeare Authorship Coalition and has been signed online by over 1,200 people, including 200 academics, to encourage new research into the question. Jacobi, who endorsed a group theory led by the Earl of Oxford, and Rylance, who was featured in the authorship play, presented a copy of the document to William Leahy, head of English at Brunel University, London. The Shakespeare Authorship Coalition. Quotations from notable anti-Stratfordians: Mark Twain: "All the rest of [Shakespeare's] vast history, as furnished by the biographers, is built up, course upon course, of guesses, inferences, theories, conjectures — an Eiffel Tower of artificialities rising sky-high from a very flat and very thin foundation of inconsequential facts" Mark Twain Quotes and "We are The Reasoning Race, and when we find a vague file of chipmunk-tracks stringing through the dust of Stratford village, we know by our reasoning powers that Hercules has been along there. I feel that our fetish is safe for three centuries yet." Twain, Mark. “Essays and Sketches of Mark Twain” Edited by Stuart Miller. New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1995. p 349. Orson Welles: "I think Oxford wrote Shakespeare. If you don’t agree, there are some awfully funny coincidences to explain away". "The Honor Roll of Skeptics." Shakespeare Oxford Society. Charlie Chaplin: "In the work of the greatest geniuses, humble beginnings will reveal themselves somewhere but one cannot trace the slightest sign of them in Shakespeare.... Whoever wrote [Shakespeare] had an aristocratic attitude". Sigmund Freud: "I no longer believe that ... the actor from Stratford was the author of the works that have been ascribed to him". Harry A. Blackmun (Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, 1970 to 1994): "The Oxfordians have presented a very strong — almost fully convincing — case for their point of view. If I had to rule on the evidence presented, it would be in favor of the Oxfordians". Ogburn (1992 edition), p. vi. Charles Dickens: "It is a great comfort, to my way of thinking, that so little is known concerning the poet. The life of Shakespeare is a fine mystery and I tremble every day lest something turn up". Dickens' Complete Writings 37:206 Ralph Waldo Emerson: "Other admirable men had led lives in some sort of keeping with their thought, but this man in wide contrast". Emerson's Representative Men (1850). In Works, 4:218 Walt Whitman: "I am firm against Shaksper — I mean the Avon man, the actor" Traubel, Horace. With Walt Whitman in Camden, Vol. 1: March 28 – July 14, 1888. New York: Mitchell Kennerley, 1915. p. 136. The nine volumes of With Walt Whitman in Camden, compiled and edited by Traubel, contain over 100 statements by Whitman about the Shakespeare authorship controversy. and "Conceived out of the fullest heat and pulse of European feudalism — only one of the 'wolfish earls' so plenteous in the plays themselves, or some born descendant and knower, might seem to be the true author of those amazing works". Whitman, Walt. "What lurks behind Shakespeare's historical plays?" In his November Boughs. London: Alexander Gardner, 1889. p. 52. John Paul Stevens (The senior Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, 1975 - present): "He never had any correspondence with his contemporaries, he never was shown to be present at any major event -- the coronation of James or any of that stuff. I think the evidence that he was not the author is beyond a reasonable doubt." Bravin, Jess. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123998633934729551.html. Antonin Gregory Scalia (Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court, 1986 - present): "My wife, who is a much better expert in literature than I am, has berated me. She thinks we Oxfordians are motivated by the fact that we can't believe that a commoner could have done something like this, you know, it's an aristocratic tendency... It is probably more likely that the pro-Shakespearean people are affected by a democratic bias than the Oxfordians are affected by an aristocratic bias." " Bravin, Jess. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123998633934729551.html. History of the Oxfordian theory The Oxford theory was first proposed by J. Thomas Looney in his 1920 work Shakespeare Identified in Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, Looney, J. Thomas. Shakespeare Identified in Edward de Vere, Seventeenth Earl of Oxford. London: Cecil Palmer, 1920. subsequently persuading Sigmund Freud, Mitchell, John. Who Wrote Shakespeare? London: Thames & Hudson, 1996. pp.162-4 Orson Welles, Marjorie Bowen, and many other early 20th-century intellectuals of the case for Oxford's authorship. Oxford rapidly became the favoured alternative to the orthodox view. In 1921, Sir George Greenwood and other proponents of the anti-Stratfordian perspective joined to found The Shakespeare Fellowship, an organization dedicated to the discussion of alternative views of authorship. In 1984, Charlton Ogburn's The Mysterious William Shakespeare renewed the case for Oxford's authorship with an abundance of new research, and engaged in a critique of the standards and methods used by the orthodox school. In his Shakespeare Quarterly review of Ogburn's book, Richmond Crinkley, former Director of Educational Programs at the Folger Shakespeare Library, acknowledged the appeal of Ogburn's approach: "Doubts about Shakespeare came early and grew rapidly. They have a simple and direct plausibility", and that the dismissive approach of conventional scholarship encouraged such doubts: "The plausibility has been reinforced by the tone and methods by which traditional scholarship has responded to the doubts." Although Crinkley rejected Ogburn's thesis, believing that the "case made for Oxford leaves one unconvinced", he also concluded that "a particular achievement of ... Ogburn is that he focused our attention so effectively on what we do not know about Shakespeare. Crinkley, Richmond. "New Perspectives on the Authorship Question." Shakespeare Quarterly. 1985. Vol 36. pp. 515-522. Biographical evidence While there is no direct documentary evidence connecting Oxford (or any authorial candidate) to the plays of Shakespeare, Oxfordian researchers, including Mark Anderson and Charlton Ogburn, maintain that the numerous parallels between Oxford's life and events depicted in the plays provide such a connection. For example, the three dedicatees of Shakespeare's works (the earls of Southampton, Montgomery and Pembroke) were each proposed as husbands for the three daughters of Edward de Vere. Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece were dedicated to Southampton, and the First Folio of Shakespeare's plays was dedicated to Montgomery (who married Susan de Vere) and Pembroke (who was once engaged to Bridget de Vere). Oxford was a leaseholder of the first Blackfriars Theatre and produced grand entertainments at court; he was the son-in-law of Lord Burghley, who is often regarded as the model for Polonius; his daughter was engaged to Henry Wriothesley, Earl of Southampton, the dedicatee of Shakespeare's narrative poems (indeed, many scholars believe Southampton to have been the Fair Youth of the Sonnets); his mother, Margory Golding, was the sister of the Ovid translator Arthur Golding; and Oxford's uncle, Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, was the inventor of the Shakespearean Sonnet (or English Sonnet) form. Romeo and Juliet Navigator: Sonnets While there is no evidence that Shakespeare of Stratford ever visited Europe, Oxford lived in Venice and traveled for over a year through Italy and France. Ogburn (1984), p. XXX. Shakespeare, however, placed many of his plays in Italy and sprinkled them with detailed descriptions of Italian life. According to Anderson, the cities Oxford visited in 1575-1576 were Venice, Padua, Milan, Genoa, Palermo, Florence, Siena and Naples — all cities Shakespeare wrote into the plays, while (except for Rome) the Italian cities Oxford bypassed are the same cities Shakespeare ignored. Anderson (2005), pp. 106-107. In 1588, due to ongoing financial problems, Oxford sold his house, Fisher’s Folly, to William Cornwallis. In 1852, J.O. Halliwell-Phillips discovered a volume, “Anne Cornwaleys her booke,” apparently the day book of Cornwallis’ daughter Anne, which Halliwell-Phillips believed was written sometime in 1595. Anne’s handwritten book contains “Verses Made by the Earl of Oxforde,” “Anne Vavasour’s Echo” (Anne Vavasour was Oxford's mistress 1579–1581, by whom he fathered an illegitimate child), and also a poem ascribed in 1599 to "Shakespeare" by William Jaggard in The Passionate Pilgrim. According to Charles W. Barrell, Anne’s version was superior textually to the one published by Jaggard, and is the first handwritten example we have of a poem ascribed to Shakespeare. Ogburn (1984), p. 711. In 1662 Dr. John Ward stated that Shakespeare spent at a rate of £1,000 a year, a huge sum by today's standards. In an oft-noted parallel, Oxford received an unexplained annuity from the notoriously thrifty Queen Elizabeth of £1,000 a year. Ogburn (1984), p. XXX. Recognizing that the names Avon and Stratford are irrevocably linked to Shakespeare by the first folio, Oxfordians note that Edward de Vere once owned an estate in the Avon river valley, Ogburn (1984), p. 235. near the Forest of Arden. Anderson (2005), p. 325. Furthermore, the nearest town to Hackney, where de Vere later lived and was buried, was also named Stratford. Ogburn (1984), p. 236. Was Oxford a concealed writer? The Ashbourne Portrait of William Shakespeare, which hangs in the Folger Shakespeare Library was analyzed by Charles Barrell, an expert in infra-red photography, who determined it was an overpainting of the Earl of Oxford, though this is disputed. Pressly, William L. The Ashbourne Portrait of Shakespeare: Through the Looking Glass. Shakespeare Quarterly, 1993, pp. 54-72 Oxford was known as a dramatist and court poet of considerable note, but not one example of his plays survives under his name. A major question in Oxfordian theory is whether his works were published anonymously or pseudonymously. Anonymous and pseudonymous publication was a common practice in the sixteenth century publishing world, and a passage in the Arte of English Poesie (1589), Puttenham, George. "The Arte of English Poesie." (1589) Book I, Chapter 31. the leading work of literary criticism of the Elizabethan period and an anonymously published work itself, alludes to the practice of concealed publication by literary figures in the court. Oxfordian researchers believe that these passages support their claim that Oxford was one of the most prominent "suppressed" writers of the day: In Queenes Maries time florished above any other Doctout Phaer one that was well learned & excellently well translated into English verse Heroicall certaine bookes of Virgils Aeneidos. Since him followed Maister Arthure Golding, who with no lesse commendation turned into English meetre the Metamorphosis of Ouide, and that other Doctour, who made the supplement to those bookes of Virgils Aeneidos, which Maister Phaer left undone. And in her Maiesties time that now is are sprong up another crew of Courtly makers Noble men and Gentlemen of her Maiesties owne servaunts, who have written excellently well as it would appear if their doings could be foundout and made publicke with the rest, of which number is first that noble Gentleman Edward Earle of Oxford, Thomas Lord of Bukhurst, when he was young, Henry Lord Paget, Sir Philip Sydney, Sir Walter Rawleigh Master Edward Dyar, Maister Fulke Grevell, Gascon, Britton, Turberuille and a great many other learned Gentlemen, whose names I do not omit for envie, but to avoyde tediousneffe, and who have deserved no little commendation. But of them all particularly this is myne opinion, that Chaucer, with Gower, Lidgat and Harding for their antiquitie oughte to have the first place, and Chaucer as the most renowmed of them all, for the much learning appeareth to be in him aboue any of the rest. Andrew Hannas, in an article titled “On Grammar and Oxford in The Art of English Poesie”, paraphrased the passage: "In earlier days these writers’ poetry found their way into print, and now we have many in our own Queen’s time whose poetry would be much admired if the extent of their works could be known and put into print as with those poets I have just named ["made publicke with the rest"], poets from Chaucer up through Golding and Phaer-Twinne, translators of Ovid and Virgil. And here are the NAMES of the poets [Oxford, Buckhurst, Sidney, et al.] of our Queen’s time who deserve such favorable comparison “with the rest” [the Chaucer et al. list] But still, “of them all” [Chaucer through the Oxford–Sidney list], I would give highest honours to Chaucer because of the learning in his works that seems better than any of all of the aforementioned names ["aboue any of the rest"], and special merit to the other poets in their respective genres." Hannas, Andrew. "The Rest is Not Silence: On Grammar and Oxford in The Art of English Poesie." Shakespeare Oxford Society. Oxfordians note that at the time of the passage's composition (pre-1589), the writers referenced were themselves concealed writers. First and foremost Sir Philip Sydney, none of whose poetry was published until after his death. Similarly, by 1589 nothing by Greville was in print and none of Walter Raleigh’s works had been published (except one commendatory poem 12 years earlier in 1576). Oxford as poet and playwright There are three principal pieces of evidence that Oxford (or Oxenford) was praised as both poet and playwright: (1) The anonymous 1589 Arte of English Poesie, in a passage that appears in the same chapter that details the practice of concealed publication by figures from the court, lists Oxford as the highest praised for comedy: for Tragedie, the Lord of Buckhurst, & Maister Edward Ferrys for such doings as I haue sene of theirs do deserue the hyest price: Th'Earle of Oxford and Maister Edwardes of her Maiesties Chappell for Comedy and Enterlude. (2) Francis Meres' 1598 Palladis Tamia, which refers to him as Earle of Oxenford, and lists him among the "best for comedy". Shakespeare's name appears further down in the same list. so the best for comedy amongst us bee, Edward Earle of Oxenforde, Doctor Gager of Oxforde, Maister Rowley once a rare Scholar of learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, Maister Edwardes one of her Majesty's Chapel, eloquent and witty John Lilly, Lodge, Gascoyne, Greene, Shakespeare, Thomas Nash, Thomas Heywood, Anthony Munday our best plotter, Chapman, Porter, Wilson, Hathway, and Henry Chettle. Meres, Francis. "Palladis Tamia: Wit's Treasury. A Comparative Discourse of our English Poets, with the Greek, Latin, and Italian Poets." (1598) Stratfordians believe that Shakespeare's appearance on the same list proves that Oxford and Shakespeare were two different writers. However, Oxfordians contend that, as of 1598, Meres simply wasn't aware of Oxford's use of the Shakespeare pseudonym. (3) Henry Peacham's 1622 The Compleat Gentleman omits Shakespeare's name completely and praises Oxford as one of the leading poets of the Elizabethean era, Alexander, M. and Wright, D. "A Few Curiosities Regarding Edward de Vere and the Writer Who Called Himself Shakespeare", Shakespeare Authorship Studies Conference, 2007. saying: In the time of our late Queene Elizabeth, which was truly a golden Age (for such a world of refined wits, and excellent spirits it produced, whose like are hardly to be hoped for, in any succeeding Age) above others, who honoured Poesie with their pennes and practise (to omit her Maiestie, who had a singular gift herein) were Edward Earle of Oxford, the Lord Buckhurst, Henry Lord Paget; our Phoenix, the noble Sir Philip Sidney, M. Edward Dyer, M. Edmund Spencer, M. Samuel Daniel, with sundry others; whom (together with those admirable wits, yet liuing, and so well knowne) not out of Ennuie but to auoid tediousnesse, I overpasse. Thus much of Poetrie. Stratfordians disagree with this interpretation of Peacham's work. They point out that the Peacham copied large parts of Puttenham's work but did not use the names of those writers who would not have been considered "gentlemen", a title that Peacham felt should not be applied to actors. They also argue that the list is only of poets and that Peacham does not list playwrights, neglecting others such as Christopher Marlow. Although not strictly a report on De Vere's ability as a playwright, there is a description of the esteem in which Oxford was held as a writer in The Revenge of Bussy D'Ambois, a 1613 play by George Chapman, who was possibly the Rival Poet referred to in the Shakespeare Sonnets: I overtook, coming from Italy In Germany, a great and famous Earl Of England; the most goodly fashion’d man I ever saw: from head to foot in form Rare and most absolute; he had a face Like one of the most ancient honour’d Romans From whence his noblest family was deriv’d; He was besides of spirit passing great Valiant and learn’d, and liberal as the sun, Spoke and writ sweetly, or of learned subjects, Or of the discipline of public weals: And ‘twas the Earl of Oxford. Ogburn (1984), p. 401. Chapman, George. The Revenge of Bussy D'Ambois. In The Works of George Chapman Vol. I, Shepherd and Swinburne, eds. Chatto and Windus, 1874. p. 197. Oxford’s lyric poetry Much of Oxford's early lyric poetry survives under his own name. Poems and Lyrics of Edward de Vere. ElizabethanAuthors.com. In the opinion of J. Thomas Looney, as “far as forms of versification are concerned De Vere presents just that rich variety which is so noticeable in Shakespeare; and almost all the forms he employs we find reproduced in the Shakespeare work...." "So far as the natural disposition of the writer is concerned...(t)he personality they reflect is perfectly in harmony with that which peer through the writings of Shakespeare. There are traces undoubtedly of those defects which the sonnets disclose in “Shakespeare,” but through it all there shines the spirit of an intensely affectionate nature, highly sensitive, and craving for tenderness and sympathy. He is a man with faults, but stamped with reality and truth; honest even in his errors, making no pretence of being better than he was, and recalling frequently to our minds the lines in one of Shakespeare’s sonnets:" I am that I am, and they that level At my abuses reckon up their own. Looney (1948 edition, New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce), pp. 135-139. The 1604 problem Title page from the 1609 edition of SHAKE-SPEARE'S SONNETS. The hyphenated name also appears on 15 plays published prior to the First Folio, where it was hyphenated on 2 of the 4 dedicatory poems. For a detailed account of the anti-Stratfordian debate and the Oxford candidacy, see Charlton Ogburn's The Mysterious William Shakespeare, 1984, pp. 86–88 Dedication page from The Sonnets. Both the hyphenated name and the words "ever-living poet", have fueled controversy within the authorship debate. Oxfordian scholars have cited various examples that they say imply the writer of the plays and poems was dead prior to 1609, when Shake-Speare’s Sonnets first appeared with the enigmatic words "our ever-living poet" on the title page. These researchers claim that the words "ever-living" rarely, if ever, refer to someone who is actually alive, but instead refer to the eternal soul of the deceased. Miller, Ruth Loyd. Oxfordian Vistas. Vol II of Shakespeare Identified, by J. Thomas Looney and edited by Ruth Loyd Miller. Kennikat Press, 1975. pp. 211-214. Additionally, they assert that 1604 is the year that Shakespeare "mysteriously" stopped writing. Anderson (2005), pp. 400-405. If these claims were true, it would give a boost to the Oxfordian candidacy, as Bacon, Derby, Neville, and Shakespeare of Stratford Shakespeare's death recorded in Stratford Parish Registry all lived well past the 1609 publication of the Sonnets. Publication Regarding dates of publication, Mark Anderson, in Shakespeare by Another Name, stresses the following: From 1593–1603 "the publication of Shake-speare’s plays appeared at the rate of 2 per year. Then, in 1604, Shake-speare fell silent" and stopped publication for almost 5 years. Anderson further states "the early history of reprints ... also point to 1604 as a watershed year", and notes that during the years of 1593–1604, whenever an inferior or pirated text was published, it was then typically followed by a genuine text that was "newly augmented" or "corrected". Anderson summarizes, "After 1604, the 'newly correct[ing]' and 'augment[ing]' stops. Once again, the Shake-speare enterprise appears to have shut down". Composition Regarding dates of composition, Oxfordians note the following evidence: In 1756, in Memoirs of the Life and Writings of Ben Jonson, W. R. Chetwood concludes that on the basis of performance records "at the end of the year of [1603], or the beginning of the next, 'tis supposed that [Shakespeare] took his farewell of the stage, both as author and actor." Anderson (2005), p. 398. In 1874, German literary historian Karl Elze dated both The Tempest and Henry VIII — traditionally labeled as Shakespeare’s last plays — to the years 1603-04. Elze, Karl. Essays on Shakespeare. London: MacMillan and Co., 1874. pp. 1-29, 151-192. In addition, the majority of 18th and 19th century scholars, including notables such as Samuel Johnson, Lewis Theobald, George Steevens, Edmund Malone, and James Halliwell-Phillipps, placed the composition of Henry VIII prior to 1604. Anderson (2005), pp. 403-04. And in the 1969 and 1977 Pelican/Viking editions of Shakespeare’s plays, Alfred Harbage shows that the composition of Macbeth, Timon of Athens, Pericles, King Lear and Antony and Cleopatra — all traditionally regarded as "late plays" — likely did not occur later than 1604. Harbage, Alfred, ed. The Complete Pelican Shakespeare. Penguin Books, 1969. Science Anderson also observes that while Shakespeare refers to the latest scientific discoveries and events right through the end of the 16th century, "Shakespeare is mute about science after de Vere’s [Oxford’s] death in 1604". Anderson (2005), p. 399. Anderson notes, among other examples, that Shakespeare never mentioned the spectacular supernova of October 1604 or Kepler’s revolutionary 1609 study of planetary orbits. Anderson (2005), p. 399. Notable silences Because Shakespeare of Stratford lived until 1616, Oxfordians question why Shakespeare never eulogized Queen Elizabeth at her death in 1603 or Henry, Prince of Wales, at his in 1612, and believe that Oxford's 1604 death provides the explanation. Wright, Daniel. "The Funeral Elegy Scandal." The Shakespeare Fellowship. In an age when such actions were expected, Shakespeare also failed to memorialize the coronation of James I in 1604, the marriage of Princess Elizabeth in 1612, and the investiture of Prince Charles as the new Prince of Wales in 1613. Miller, Ruth Loyd. Oxfordian Vistas. Vol II of Shakespeare Identified, by J. Thomas Looney and edited by Ruth Loyd Miller. Kennikat Press, 1975. pp. 290-294. Similarly, when Shakespeare of Stratford died, he was not publicly mourned. Ogburn (1984), pp. 112, 759. Mark Twain noted, in his book Is Shakespeare Dead?, "When Shakespeare died in Stratford it was not an event. It made no more stir in England than the death of any other forgotten theater-actor would have made. Nobody came down from London; there were no lamenting poems, no eulogies, no national tears — there was merely silence, and nothing more. A striking contrast with what happened when Ben Jonson, and Francis Bacon, and Spenser, and Raleigh, and the other literary folk of Shakespeare’s time passed from life! No praiseful voice was lifted for the lost Bard of Avon; even Ben Jonson waited seven years before he lifted his." Twain, Mark. [http://www.shakespeare-oxford.com/?p=119Is Shakespeare Dead?] 1909. Diana Price, in Shakespeare's Unorthodox Biography, notes that for a professional author, Shakespeare of Stratford also seems to have been entirely uninterested in protecting his work. Price explains that while he had a well documented habit of going to court over relatively small sums, he neither sued any of the publishers pirating his plays and sonnets, nor did he take any legal actions regarding their practice of attaching his name to the inferior output of others. In addition, there is no evidence Shakespeare of Stratford was ever paid for writing and his detailed will fails to mention any of Shakespeare's unpublished plays or poems or any of the source books that Shakespeare is known to have read. Price, Diana. Shakespeare's Unorthodox Biography: New Evidence of An Authorship Problem. Westport, Ct: Greenwood, 2001. pp. 130-131. Sobran, Joseph. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0684826585/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1227588032&sr=1-1Alias Shakespeare: Solving the Greatest Literary Mystery of All Time.] Free Press, 1997. pp. 25, 146. Furthermore, his friends and neigbors never mentioned that he was famous or a writer, nor are there any indications that his heirs ever demanded or received payments for his supposed investments in the theatre or for any of the more than 16 masterwork plays unpublished at the time of his death. Brazil, Robert. "The Shakespeare Problem." Shakespeare: The Authorship Controversy. ElizabethanAuthors.com: 1998. Mark Twain, commenting on the subject, said, "Many poets die poor, but this is the only one in history that has died THIS poor; the others all left literary remains behind. Also a book. Maybe two." Contemporary statements In 1607 William Barkstead (or Barksted), a minor poet and playwright, appeared to state in his poem "Mirrha the Mother of Adonis" that Shakespeare was already deceased. His Song was worthy merit (Shakespeare he) sung the fair blossom, thou the withered tree Laurel is due him, his art and wit hath purchased it, Cypress thy brow will fit. Joseph Sobran, in Alias Shakespeare, notes that the cypress tree was a symbol of mourning, and believes Barkstead was specifically writing of Shakespeare in the past tense ("His song was worthy") — after Oxford’s death in 1604, but prior to Shakespeare of Stratford’s death in 1616. Sobran (1997), p. 144. Oxfordians also believe the dedication "by our ever-living poet" to the 1609 publication of Shake-speares Sonnets implies the author was dead. "Ever-living" being generally understood to mean that the person in question was deceased. Nevertheless, it remains somewhat debatable whether the phrase, in this context, refers to Shakespeare or to God. Foster, Don. "Master W.H., R.I.P." PMLA. 102, pp. 42-54. Oxfordians respond that not one researcher has been able to provide an example of where the term "ever-living" referred to an individual who was alive at the time. Parallels with the Sonnets Apparently without the participation of its author, a volume of 154 linked poems was published in 1609 under the title "SHAKE-SPEARES SONNETS." It is also generally believed that someone other than Shakespeare provided the dedication. The focus of the series appears to follow the author’s relationships with three characters whose identities remain controversial: the Fair Youth, the Dark Lady or Mistress, and the Rival Poet. The Fair Youth is generally, but far from universally, thought to be Southhampton, and the Dark Lady is believed by some Oxfordians to be Anne Vavasour (or Vasasor), who bore the Earl of Oxford a son out of wedlock, whom she named Edward Vere (sometimes spelled as Veer). While there is no consensus candidate for the Rival Poet, some suppose he could have been either Christopher Marlowe or George Chapman, although a strong case was made by the late Peter R. Moore for Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex. Moore, Peter R. "The Rival Poet of Shakespeare's Sonnets," Shakespeare Oxford Society Newsletter. Autumn 1989 Oxfordians believe the finality of the title (Shake-Speare's Sonnets) suggests that it was a completed body of work, with no further sonnets expected. They also consider the Sonnets one of the more serious problems facing Stratfordians, who differ among themselves as to whether the Sonnets are fiction or autobiographical. Joseph Sobran questions why, if the sonnets were fiction, did Shakespeare of Stratford — who lived until 1616 — fail to publish a corrected and authorized edition? If, on the other hand, they are autobiographical, why did they fail to match the Stratford man's life story? Sobran (1997), p. 84. According to Sobran and other researchers, the themes and personal circumstances expounded by the author of the Sonnets are remarkably similar to Oxford's personal biography: Age Oxford was born in 1550, and was between 40 and 53 years old when he presumably wrote the sonnets. Shakespeare of Stratford was born in 1564. Even though the average life expectancy of Elizabethans was short, being between 26 and 39 was not considered old. Sonnet 138 ... vainly thinking that she thinks me young, Although she knows my days are past the best. Lameness As a young man, Oxford led an active life: jousting, fencing, going on campaign in northern England and traveling through Europe for over a year in an age when that meant going by horseback or by springless carriages over bad roads. In his later years, however, he described himself as "lame". As far as history is aware, Shakespeare of Stratford led a sedentary life, with no known ailments. Sobran (1997), pp. 201-202. Sonnet 37 I, made lame by fortune’s dearest spite ... am not lame, poor, nor despised, Whilst that this shadow doth such substance give ... Sonnet 89 Speak of my lameness, and I straight will halt, Against thy reasons, making no defense. Edward de Vere’s letter of March 25, 1595 to Burghley "When Your Lordship shall have best time and leisure if I may know it, I will attend Your Lordship as well as a lame man may at your house." Anderson (2005), p. 291. Law Joseph Sobran notes that the Sonnets “abound not only in legal terms — more than 200 — but also in elaborate legal conceits.” The legal terms in the Sonnets include: allege, auditor, defects, exchequer, forfeit, heirs, impeach, lease, moiety, recompense, render, sureties, and usage. Shakespeare also uses the then newly-minted legal term, "quietus" (final settlement), in the final Fair Youth sonnet. “Like many noblemen and gentlemen, Oxford was trained in the law: he was admitted to Gray’s Inn, one of the Inns of Court, in 1567. (Justice Shallow reminisces about Gray’s Inn in Henry IV, Part 2).” As for Shakespeare of Stratford, Sobran thinks "if he was educated at all it is extremely unlikely that he was trained in the law." Sobran (1997), p. 202. Sonnet 134 So now I have confessed that he is thine, And I myself am mortgaged to thy will, Myself I’ll forfeit, so that other mine Thou wilt restore to be my comfort still. But thou wilt not, nor he will not be free, For thou art covetous, and he is kind: He learned but surety-like to write for me, Under that bond that him as fast doth bind. The statute of thy beauty thou wilt take, Thou usurer that put’st forth all to use, And sue a friend came debtor for my sake; So him I lose through my unkind abuse.... Southampton – The Fair Youth Southhampton, Oxford's prospective son-in-law, and the likely "fair youth" of the early sonnets. Oxfordians, along with a number of mainstream scholars, believe that Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton, Oxford's associate and hoped-for son-in-law, is the "fair youth" referred to in the early sonnets. Joseph Sobran notes that "the first seventeen sonnets, the procreation poems, give every indication of belonging to Burghley’s campaign to make [Southampton] marry his granddaughter, [who was] Oxford’s daughter Elizabeth Vere. Obviously, Oxford would have known all three parties.... It is hard to imagine how Mr. Shaksper (of Stratford) could have known any of them. Let alone have been invited to participate in the effort to encourage the match." Sobran (1997), p. 197. Joseph Sobran also notes that in 16th-century England actors and playwrights did not presume to give advice to members of the nobility. Sobran believes “It is clear, too, that the poet is of the same rank as the youth. He praises, scolds, admonishes, teases, and woos, him with the liberty of a social equal who does not have to worry about seeming insolent.... 'Make thee another self, for love of me' (Sonnet 10), is impossible to conceive as a request from a poor poet to his patron: it expresses the hope of a father — or a father-in-law. And Oxford was, precisely, Southampton’s prospective father-in-law." Sobran (1997), p. 198. Sonnet 91 Thy love is better than high birth to me, Richer than wealth, prouder than garments’ cost, Of more delight than hawks or horses be. Sobran contends that "the lines imply that he is in a position to make such comparisons, and the 'high birth' he refers to is his own.” Public disgrace Sobran writes that “scholars have largely ignored one of the chief themes of the Sonnets: the poet’s sense of disgrace.... [T]here can be no doubt that the poet is referring to something real that he expects his friends to know about; in fact, he makes clear that a wide public knows about it... Once again the poet’s situation matches Oxford’s.... He has been a topic of scandal on several occasions. And his contemporaries saw the course of his life as one of decline from great wealth, honor, and promise to disgrace and ruin. This perception was underlined by enemies who accused him of every imaginable offense and perversion, charges he was apparently unable to rebut." Sobran (1997), p. 199. Sonnet 29 When in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes, I all alone beweep my outcast state, And trouble deaf heav’n with my bootless cries, And look upon myself and curse my fate, Wishing me like to one more rich in hope.... Sonnet 112 Your love and pity doth th' impression fill Which vulgar scandal stamped upon my brow, For what care I who calls me well or ill, So you o'er-green my bad, my good allow? Parallels with the plays According to Charlton Ogburn and other researchers, Oxford's biography is strikingly similar to the plots and subplots of the plays themselves: Hamlet William Cecil, later Lord Burghley, was Oxford's guardian and father-in-law. Oxfordians point out that, as in Hamlet, Oxford's father died suddenly (in 1562) and his mother remarried shortly thereafter. At 15, Oxford was made a royal ward and was placed in the household of Lord Burghley, who was the Lord High Treasurer and Queen Elizabeth I's closest and most trusted advisor. Burghley is often regarded as the prototype for the character of chief minister Polonius. Oxfordians note that in the First Quarto the character was not named Polonius, but Corambis (Cor ambis means "two-hearted") — a swipe, as Charlton Ogburn notes, "at Burghley’s motto, Cor unum, via una, or 'one heart, one way.'" Oxfordians also note that Hamlet was engaged to marry Ophelia, daughter to Polonius, while Edward de Vere was engaged to marry Anne Cecil, daughter to Lord Burghley. Like Laertes, who received the famous list of maxims from his father Polonius, Burghley's son Robert Cecil received a similarly famous list from his father — lists that mainstream scholar E. K. Chambers acknowledged were parallel. Polonius also sent the spy Reynaldo to watch his son when Laertes was away at school — and for similar reasons, Burghley set a spy on his son, Thomas, when he was away in Paris. In addition, Hamlet was a member of the higher nobility, supported an acting company and had a trusted friend named Horatio, while Oxford was a member of the higher nobility, supported acting companies and had a cousin named Horace (or Horatio) Vere. Both Sir Horatio Vere (as he was also known) and Hamlet's friend Horatio had the same personality, being known for their ability to remain calm under all conditions. Looney (1948 edition, New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce), pp. 407-408. On 23 July 1567, the seventeen-year old Oxford killed an unarmed under-cook by the name of Thomas Brincknell while practicing fencing with Edward Baynam, a merchant tailor, in the backyard of Cecil's house in the Strand. Oxfordians note that Brincknell's "accidental" death is reminiscent of the accidental murder of the spying Polonius. In a coincidence often noted by Oxfordians, during Edward De Vere's return crossing of the English Channel, his ship was hijacked by pirates, who stripped him naked, apparently with the intention of murdering him. He was allowed to go free only when they were made aware of his noble status, albeit without most of his possessions. Hamlet tells of a similar pirate abduction when he recounts to Horatio how he freed himself from Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. The Merchant of Venice In 1577 the Company of Cathay was formed to support Martin Frobisher’s hunt for the Northwest Passage, although Frobisher — and his investors — quickly became side-tracked by reports of gold at Hall’s Island. With thoughts of an impending Canadian gold-rush filling Oxford's head, and trusting in the advice of Michael Lok (a London businessman with Mediterranean connections) Oxford finally went in bond for £3,000, "just as Antonio in The Merchant of Venice is in bond for 3,000 ducats against the successful return of his vessels, with rich cargoes." Ogburn (1984), p. 603. Although £3,000 was a large enough sum to ruin financially any man, De Vere went on to support equally unsuccesful Northwest Passage expeditions in 1584 and again in 1585. An Oxfordian might say that, like Hamlet, Edward de Vere was "but mad north-northwest." Anderson (2005), p. 134. Oxfordians also note that Shakespeare set almost half of his plays in France and Italy and filled them with local details that were not strictly necessary. Details, Oxfordians believe, that could only have been obtained by personal experiences. According to Mark Anderson "Shakespeare's works also convey a ... well-traveled world citizen.... Shakespeare knew that Florence's citizens were recognized for their arithmetic and bookkeeping (Othello).... He knew that a dish of baked doves was a time-honored northern Italian gift (The Merchant of Venice). He knew Venice in particular, like nowhere else in the world, save for London itself. Picayune Venetian matters scarcely escaped his grasp: the Duke of Venice's two votes in the city council, for example, or the special nighttime police force — the Signori di Notte — peculiar to Venice, or the foreign city where Venice’s Jews did most of their business, Frankfurt." Anderson (2005), p. xxx. Oxford's extended tour of France and Italy from early 1575 through early 1576 included long-term lodgings near St. Mark’s Square in Venice. Anderson (2005), pp. 80-107. The Taming of the Shrew In 1577 the hard-drinking, straight-talking Peregrine Bertie successfully courted Oxford's sister, Mary de Vere, a lady known “for her quick temper and harsh tongue.” Though the unlikely couple met the resistance of Oxford and others, they were married within a year. Oxfordians, such as Mark Anderson, believe there is little doubt that Bertie, his mother, Kate Willoughby and Mary de Vere, were variously lampooned, not only in The Taming of the Shrew, but in the Winter's Tale, and Twelfth Night. Anderson (2005), pp. 128-132. Oxfordians also note that when Edward de Vere travelled through Venice, he borrowed 500 crowns from a Baptista Nigrone. In Padua, he borrowed from a man named Pasquino Spinola. In The Taming of the Shrew, Kate's father is described as a man "rich in crowns." He, too, is from Padua, and his name is Baptista Minola — a conflation of Baptista Nigrone and Pasquino Spinola. Alexander, Mark and Daniel Wright. "A Few Curiosities Regarding Edward de Vere and the Writer Who Called Himself Shakespeare." The Shakespear Authorship Research Centre. Oxfordians believe their position is futher strengthened by the observations of the mainstream scholar Ernesto Grillo (1876-1946), of the University of Glasgow, who stated in Shakespeare and Italy, that "the local colour of The Taming of the Shrew displays such an intimate acquaintance not only with the manners and customs of Italy but also with the minutest details of domestic life that it cannot have been gleaned from books or acquired in the course of conversations with travellers returned from Padua. The form of marriage between Petruchio and Katharine ... was Italian and not English.... The description of Gremio's house and furnishings is striking because it represents an Italian villa of the sixteenth century with all its comforts and noble luxury." As far as is known, Shakespeare of Stratford never left England or showed any interest in Italy or Italian culture. Sobran (1997), p. 70. As You Like It As You Like It features the former libertine Lord Jaques — who, like Oxford, "sold his lands to see other men’s". Much of the play takes place in the Forest of Arden, which was the name of the forest that stretched from Stratford-upon-Avon to Tamworth, near Oxford’s old country estate, Bilton. Ogburn (1984), p. 714. Mark Anderson notes that "local oral tradition holds that As You Like It was actually written at Billesley, an estate just outside Stratford-upon-Avon owned by the family of de Vere’s grandmother, Elizabeth Trussell." Anderson (2005), p. 235. One of the sights that Oxford may have taken in on his 1575–76 Christmas season visit to Siena, Italy was its cathedral, whose artwork includes a mosaic of the Seven Ages of Man. According to the art historian Samuel C. Chew, this artwork should be "familiar to Shakespearean scholars because it has been cited as a parallel to Jaques’ lines.... The Ages (in Siena) are represented thus: Infantia rides upon a hobbyhorse, Pueritia is a schoolboy, Adolescentia is an older scholar garbed in a long cloak, Juventus has a falcon on his wrist, Virilitas is robed in dignified fashion and carries a book, Senectus, leaning upon his staff, holds a rosary, Decrepitas, leaning upon two staves, looks into his tomb." Anderson (2005), pp. 103, 235. The Life and Death of King John In the inflated importance and superb speeches given to the character Philip Faulconbridge ("The Bastard") in The Life and Death of King John, Oxfordians see a reflection of Edward de Vere’s own military fantasies and his long-running legal argument with his half-sister over his legitimacy. They also find it intriguing that the play’s author felt it necessary to air-brush out of existence the traitorous Robert de Vere, 3rd Earl of Oxford. Anderson (2005), pp. 5, 25. Henry IV, Part 1 In May 1573, in a letter to Lord Burghley, two of Oxford's former employees accused three of Oxford's friends of attacking them on "the highway from Gravesend to Rochester." In Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1, Falstaff and three roguish friends of Prince Hal also waylay unwary travellers — on the highway from Gravesend to Rochester. This scene was also present in the earlier work, The Famous Victories of Henry the Fift — which Oxfordians believe was another Edward de Vere play, based on the exaggerated importance it bestowed on the 11th Earl of Oxford. In that version of the play even the correct month of the crime, May, was mentioned. Ogburn (1984), pp. 384, 529. Henry V A number of observers, including the mainstream Shakespearean scholar Dover Wilson, believe that the character of Fluellen was modelled after the Welsh soldier of fortune Sir Roger Williams. Campbell, Oscar James. The Reader’s Encyclopedia of Shakespeare. MJF Books, 1966. p. 947. Charles Wisner Barrell wrote, "Many of the speeches that the author of Henry the Fifth puts in the mouth of the argumentative Fluellen are merely poetical paraphrases of Sir Roger’s own arguments and 'instances' in his posthumous book, The Actions of the Lowe Countries", which was not published until 1618 — and therefore the play's author could only have known of them through private manuscripts or personal observations. Sir Roger was a follower of Oxford, and served with "the fighting Veres” (Oxford’s cousins, Francis and Horatio) in the Dutch Republic. Ogburn (1984), pp. 685, 692. He had no known connection to Shakespeare of Stratford. Barrell, Charles Wisner. 'Fluellen' Identified As a Retainer of the Earl of Oxford." The Shakespeare Fellowship News-Letter, August 1941. Also, in the play the character of the 12th Earl of Oxford is given a much more prominent role than his limited involvement in the actual history of the times would allow. Ogburn (1984), p. XXX. The Merry Wives of Windsor From an Oxfordian point of view, Shakespeare again used the life story of Edward de Vere in his plot for The Merry Wives of Windsor: Anne is Anne Cecil, the lovely, intelligent commoner and single woman who happens to have a rich father; Fenton is Oxford, the charming, clever, broke, verse-writing ne'er-do-well nobleman who is looking for a wife; and Anne’s father is William Cecil, the suspicious but rich potential father-in-law. Oxfordians hear the voice of de Vere, commenting on how his father-in-law Cecil views him, in the following passage spoken by Fenton: I am too great of birth, And that my state being gall’d with my expense, I seek to heal it only by his wealth. Besides these, other bars he lays before me, My riots past, my wild societies; And tells me ‘tis a thing impossible I should love thee but as a property. All's Well That Ends Well On 19 December 1571, in an arranged wedding, Oxford married Lord Burghley's 15-year-old daughter, Anne Cecil — an equally surprising choice as that in All's Well That Ends Well, as Oxford was of the oldest nobility in the kingdom whereas Anne was not of noble birth, her father having only been raised to the peerage that same year by Queen Elizabeth to enable this marriage of social inequals. In 1658, Francis Osborne (1593–1659) included a bed-trick anecdote about Oxford in his Historical Memoires on the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James. According to Osborne (who had been a servant to the Herberts), Philip Herbert, then earl of Montgomery (and later Pembroke), was struck in the face by a Scottish courtier named Ramsey at a horse race at Croydon. Herbert, who did not strike back, "was left nothing to testifie his Manhood but a Beard and Children, by that Daughter of the last great Earl of Oxford, whose Lady was brought to his Bed under the notion of his Mistress, and from such a vertuous deceit she [that is, Pembroke’s wife, Susan de Vere] is said to proceed." J. Thomas Looney believed these events reveal striking parallels between Edward de Vere and Bertam: Bertram, a young lord of ancient lineage, of which he is himself proud, having lost a father for whom he entertained a strong affection, is brought to court by his mother and left as a royal ward, to be brought up under royal supervision. As he grows up he asks for military service and to be allowed to travel, but is repeatedly refused or put off. At last he goes away without permission. Before leaving he had been married to a young woman with whom he had been brought up, and who had herself been most active in bringing about the marriage. Matrimonial troubles, of which the outstanding feature is a refusal of cohabitation, are associated with both his stay abroad and his return home. Such a summary of a story we have been told in fragments elsewhere, and is as near to biography or autobiography if our theory be accepted, as a dramatist ever permitted himself to go. Looney (1948 edition, New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce), pp. 391-392. Measure for Measure From an Oxfordian perspective, Measure for Measure contains numerous autobiographical allusions to Edward de Vere. Besides another use of the bed trick, there is the Anne Cecil-like Isabella, plus the Oxford-like Duke of Vienna, working to save a prisoner from the death penalty — just as Edward de Vere tried but failed to save his cousin, Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk. Anderson (2005), p. 341. Ogburn (1984), pp. 495-496. The generally accepted source of the play was a supposedly true incident that occurred in 1547, near Milan, a city Oxford visited in 1576. Lever, J.W. ed. Measure for Measure (Arden Shakespeare). Thomson Learning. 2005. p. xxxvi. Anderson (2005), p. 106. However, the play itself differs from these sources in a number of ways: Lever, J.W. ed. Measure for Measure (Arden Shakespeare). Thomson Learning, 2005. p. xxxvii. First, the Duke's hidden manipulations were added; second, Claudio’s crime was changed from murder to seduction of a maiden — the same crime that sent Oxford to the Tower of London. Anderson (2005), p. 172. And finally, Isabella did not marry Angelo but, following Anne Cecil’s life story, married the Duke (Oxford). Oxfordians also note that in the play the Duke of Vienna preferred dealing with his problems through the use of a front, although he could have rescued Claudio at any time by dropping his disguise and stepping forward as himself. In addition, Oxfordians see similarities between Edward de Vere's writings and the following Shakespearean passage: Isabella: It is not truer he is Angelo Than this is all as true as it is strange. Nay, it is ten times true. For truth is truth To th’end of reckoning. Oxford Letter to William Cecil, Lord Burghley: Truth is truth, though never so old, and time cannot make that false which was once true. Anderson (2005), p. 342. Romeo and Juliet Anne Vavasour, with whom Oxford had a tempestuous extramarital affair from 1579–81. Oxford's illicit congress with Anne Vavasour led to a prolonged quarrel with her uncle, Sir Thomas Knyvet, resulting, as in Romeo and Juliet, in three deaths and several other injuries. Oxford himself was lamed in one of the duels. The imbroglio was put to an end when the Queen threatened to jail all those involved. The theme of "lameness" is also evident in Shakespeare's Sonnets. Much Ado About Nothing From an Oxfordian point of view, Much Ado About Nothing is an autobiography of Edward de Vere, starting with an apology to Anne Cecil for ever thinking she was unfaithful (as Claudio thinks Hero), to the Dogberry sub-plot as a parody of the Arundell-Howard Libel case, to a defense of his affair with Anne Vavasour. Sir Thomas Knyvet, Anne Vavasour’s enraged uncle, even makes an appearance as Beatrice’s enraged uncle with the lines "Sir boy, I’ll whip you from your foining fence, nay, as I am a gentleman, I will." Anderson (2005), p. 186. Othello, Cymbeline, and The Winter’s Tale All three plays make use of the same Shakespearean plot that Oxfordians believe closely follow Edward de Vere’s treatment of his long-suffering wife, Anne Cecil. According to Charlton Ogburn, in these "three plays the male protagonist conceives a murderous animosity toward a loving wife by imagining her unfaithful to him on the flimsiest of grounds, only to be later overwhelmed by remorse; and these three brutally condemned wives — Imogen in Cymbeline, Hermione in The Winter's Tale and Desdemona in Othello — are generally adjudged the most saintly and faultless of Shakespeare's heroines." Ogburn (1984), pp. 567-568. Timon of Athens According to Joseph Sobran, Timon, "a rich and generous patron suddenly finds that his munificence has left him ruined and friendless. He bitterly denounces the human race, with one interesting exception: his steward. Timon’s praise of his steward, in the midst of his railing against mankind, suggests Oxford’s own praise of Robert Christmas, a faithful servant who apparently stayed with him during the hardship he inflicted on himself through his legendary prodigality." Sobran (1997), p. 187. Mark Anderson, an Oxfordian researcher, noted Timon of Athens "is Shakespeare's self-portrait as a downwardly mobile aristocrat." Anderson (2005), p. 323. The Comedy of Errors Oxfordians believe that Edward de Vere, writing as Shakespeare, complained of the power his £1,000 per year pension gave those in authority. To support this view they point to The Comedy of Errors and Sonnet 111: Sonnet 111 O for my sake do you wish fortune chide, The guilty goddess of my harmful deeds’ That did not better for my life provide Than public means which public manners breeds. And according to Mark Anderson, "Annual grants of £1,000, one learns, come with some very large strings attached. One of the Comedy of Errors’ two de Vere characters (Antipholus of Ephesus) tells his servant to go out and buy some rope. The servant (Dromio) replies with a non sequitur that critics have scratched their heads over for centuries: ‘I buy a thousand pounds a year!’ the servant says, ‘I buy a rope!'” (Act 4, scene 1). Anderson (2005), p. 211. As the mainstream Folger Shakespeare Library edition of the play states, "Dromio’s indignant exit line has not been satisfactorily explained." Mowat and Werstine, eds. The Comedy of Errors (Folger Shakespeare Library). Washington Square Press, 1996. p. 88. Twelfth Night This play relentlessly mocks Edward De Vere’s court rival of the 1570's, the “mean” (I.E., ordinary) gentleman, Sir Christopher Hatton as Malvolio. For example, in the play Malvolio discovers a prank letter signed “The Fortunate Unhappy” that is an obvious play on Hatton’s pen name “The Unhappy Unfortunate.” In 1732, the antiquarian Francis Peck, published in Desiderata Curiosa a list of documents in his possession that he intended to print someday. They included “a pleasant conceit of Vere, earl of Oxford, discontented at the rising of a mean gentleman in the English court, circa 1580.” Oxfordian researcher Mark Anderson, contends that this conceit is “arguably an early draft of Twelfth Night.” Unfortunately for the Oxfordian movement, Peck never published his archives, which are now lost. Anderson (2005), p. 154. Prince Tudor theory In a letter in 1933, J. Thomas Looney mentions in a postscript that Percy Allen and Captain Ward were advancing views in regard to Oxford and Queen Elizabeth that were extravagant and improbable. The ideas that Ward and Allen developed have become known as the Prince Tudor or PT Theory. The PT Theory has split the Oxfordian movement into the orthodox Oxfordians, who regard the theory as an impediment to Oxford's recognition as Shakespeare, and the PT Theorists, who maintain that their theory better explains Oxford's life and authorship. The PT Theory advances the belief that Oxford and Queen Elizabeth had a child who was raised as Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton. It is to this young Earl that Shakespeare dedicated Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece. This Star of England by Charlton and Dorothy Ogburn devoted space to facts supporting this theory, which was expanded by Elisabeth Sears' Shakespeare and the Tudor Rose, and Hank Whittemore in The Monument, an analysis of Shakespeare's Sonnets which interprets the poems as a poetic history of Queen Elizabeth, Oxford, and Southampton. Paul Streitz's Oxford: Son of Queen Elizabeth I advances a variation on the theory: that Oxford himself was the illegitimate son of Queen Elizabeth. Stratfordian objections The primary objection to Oxfordian theory is that Oxford died in 1604, after which, according to Stratfordians, a number of Shakespeare plays are conventionally believed to have been written. Oxfordians respond that the conventional dates for the plays were developed by Stratfordian scholars, and are, therefore, inconclusive and self-serving. Oxfordians also note that a number of the so-called "later plays", such as Henry VIII, Timon of Athens and Pericles have all been described as "unfinished", whereas under one version of the Oxfordian theory these plays were completed by another author after Oxford's 1604 death. Anderson (2006, expanded paperback edition), pp. 397-401, 574. Stratfordians reject these arguments and cite examples to support their point: The Tempest is considered by many mainstream scholars to have been inspired by a description of a shipwreck written in 1610. However, literary scholar Kenneth Muir noted "the extent of verbal echoes of the [Bermuda] pamphlets has, I think, been exaggerated." Muir, Kenneth. The Sources of Shakespeare's Plays. London: Methuen & Co, 1977. p. 280. Peter Moore cites 13 thematic and verbal parallels between The Tempest and St. Paul's account of his shipwreck at Malta. Moore, Peter. "The Tempest and the Bermuda Shipwreck of 1609." Shakespeare Oxford Newsletter, Summer 1996. In addition, Oxfordians point to previously acknowledged sources that show that some of the words and images in The Tempest may actually derive from Richard Eden's "The Decades of the New Worlde Or West India" (1555) and Erasmus's "Naufragium"/"The Shipwreck" (1523). Both sources are mentioned by previous scholars Robert Eden is referenced in: Shakespeare, William. The Tempest. ed. Frank Kermode. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1958. pp. xxxii-xxxiii. Erasmus is referenced in: Bullough, Geoffrey. Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare. Volume VIII. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1975. pp. 334-339. as influencing the composition of The Tempest, and Oxfordians point to new research by Lynne Kositsky and Roger Stritmatter that they believe confirms this. Kositsky, Lynne and Roger Stritmatter. "Dating The Tempest: A Note on the Undocumented Influence of Erasmus' "Naufragium" and Richard Eden's 1555 Decades of the New World." The Shakespeare Fellowship. 2005. Henry VIII was described as a new play in 1613. However, this distinction may simply be the result of Elizabethan marketing, as London diarist Samuel Pepys also referred to Henry VIII as being "new" in 1663, when the play was over 50 years old. Samuel Pepys' diary entry of 26 December 1663. In addition, many 18th- and 19th-century scholars, including Samuel Johnson, Lewis Theobald, George Steevens, Edmund Malone, and James Halliwell-Phillipps, placed the composition of Henry VIII prior to 1604, as they believed Elizabeth’s execution of Mary, Queen of Scots (the king's mother) made any vigorous defense of the Tudors politically inappropriate in the England of James I. Anderson (2005), pp. 401-402. Stratfordians suggest that Macbeth represents the most overwhelming single piece of evidence against the Oxfordian position, asserting that the play was written in the aftermath of the Gunpowder Plot, "Macbeth: Dating the Play." Royal Shakespeare Company. which was discovered on 5 November 1605, a year after Oxford died. In particular, Stratfordians claim the porter's lines about "equivocation" may allude to the trial of Father Garnet in 1606. Kermode, Frank. Notes to Macbeth (The Riverside Shakespeare), by William Shakespeare. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974. p. 1308. Oxfordians respond that the concept of "equivocation" was the subject of a 1583 tract by Queen Elizabeth's chief councillor Lord Burghley, as well as of the 1584 Doctrine of Equivocation by the Spanish prelate Martin Azpilcueta, which was disseminated across Europe and into England in the 1590s. Anderson (2005), pp. 402-403. In addition, A. R. Braunmuller, in the New Cambridge edition, finds the post-1605 arguments inconclusive, and argues only for an earliest date of 1603. Braunmiller, A. R. Introduction to Macbeth (New Cambridge Shakespeare), by William Shakespeare. Cambridge University Press, 1997 (new edition). pp. 5-8. Oxfordians also question the tradition that Macbeth was written in celebration of King James's accession to the English throne, suggesting that the play's depiction of the murder of a king would have made it unsuitable for such an occasion. Critical reception In addition to the problem of the author's date of death, supporters of the orthodox view dispute all contentions in favour of Oxford. In The Shakespeare Claimants, a 1962 examination of the authorship question, H. N. Gibson concluded that "... on analysis the Oxfordian case appears to me a very weak one". Gibson, H. N. The Shakespeare Claimants. Methuen, 1962. p. 90. In particular, mainstream critics assert the connections between Oxford's life and the plots of Shakespeare's plays are conjectural, and the acclaim of Oxford's contemporaries for his poetic and dramatic skill was distinctly modest. They also stress that any supposedly special knowledge of the aristocracy that appears in the plays can be more easily explained by Shakespeare of Stratford’s life-time of performances before nobility and royalty, Matus, Irvin Leigh. Shakespeare, In Fact,” Continuum, New York. 1994. p.271 Gibson, H.N. "The Shakespeare Claimants.” New York: Barnes & Nobles Inc., 1962 pp. 243-245 and possibly, as Gibson theorizes, “by visits to his patron’s house, as Marlowe visited Walsingham.” Gibson, H.N. "The Shakespeare Claimants.” New York: Barnes & Nobles Inc., 1962 p. 245 Mainstream critics further claim that if William Shakespeare of Stratford did not write the plays and poems, the number of people needed to suppress this information would have made their attempts highly unlikely to succeed. Ogburn (1984 edition), p. 182 John Mitchell, in Who Wrote Shakespeare, noted that "[a]gainst the Oxford theory are several references to Shakespeare, later than 1604, which imply that the author was then still alive". Mitchell, John. London: Thames & Hudson, 1996. p.189 Also, a method of textual comparison developed by the Claremont Shakespeare Clinic compared the styles of Oxford with Shakespeare and found the odds of Oxford having written Shakespeare as "lower than the odds of getting hit by lightning". Elliott, Ward E. Y. and Robert J. Valenza. "Oxford By The Numbers". Tennessee Law Review. Vol 72 (2004): 323-453. Oxfordians counter that Shakespearean computer studies are subject to intrepretation and have proved inaccurate. For example, the findings of one such study supported the belief the "Funeral Elegy" was written by Shakespeare, with only 3 chances out of 1,000 that it was written by someone else. However, its author is now widely believed to have been John Ford. Wright, Daniel. "The Funeral Elegy Scandal." The Shakespeare Fellowship. Also, despite the fact that John Mitchell mentions there were several post-1604 references, he only cites two: John Davies of Hereford's 1610 "Terence" epigram and the anonymous 1609 preface to Troilus and Cressida, both of which Ogburn interpreted as generally supporting the Oxfordian position. For example, Ogburn believes the Davies' epigram may be saying "Shake-speare was a nobleman who lost caste by appearing on the stage". Ogburn (1984 edition), p. 104. Mitchell himself stated "No one knows quite what to make of these lines." Mitchell, John. London: Thames & Hudson, 1996. P. 55 As for the undated and unsigned preface to Troilus and Cressida, its heading contains the words "A never writer to an ever reader. Newes," which Oxfordians take to mean, "A writer who never was to a constant reader" or even "An E.Ver writer to an E.Ver reader." Ogburn (1984 edition), p. 206. Diana Price believed this phrase also “brought to mind the earl of Oxford’s probable posie, ‘Ever or Never.’” Price, Diana. Shakespeare's Unorthodox Biography: New Evidence of An Authorship Problem. Westport, Ct: Greenwood, 2001. pp. 225-226. While disputing how few people were needed to suppress information in Elizabethan England, Oxfordians, such as Price and Anderson, have also noted that by the mid-1590’s there appeared in print a series of statements indicating a prominent poet was not who he said he was. These include Ben Jonson’s circa 1599 poem “On Poet-Ape” concerning the “poet-ape, that would be thought our chief;” Price, Diana. “Shakespeare’s Unorthodox Biography.” London: Greenwood Press, 2001 pp. 92-95 Thomas Bastard’s 1598 epigram, concerning a widely admired author who “concealest his name;” Anderson (2005), p. 320. and the 1597-1598 Joseph Hall – John Marston “Labeo” controversy, which called Shakespeare a front man, Anderson (2005), p. 308. Gibson, H.N. "The Shakespeare Claimants.” New York: Barnes & Nobles Inc., 1962 p.64 In respect to the mainstream supposition that Shakespeare of Stratford was a full-time actor, J. Thomas Looney stated that, “Although the company with which his name is associated toured frequently and widely in the provinces, and much has been recorded of their doings, no municipal archive, so far as is known, contains a single reference to him.” Looney (1948 edition, New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce), p. 65. Regarding the Stratfordian claims concerning Shakespeare’s many "patrons", Oxfordians point out there is little or no evidence they actually existed, the only indications being the dedications to Southhampton in Lucrece and Venus and Adonis. However, as mentioned by Gerald E. Bentley in Shakespeare: A Biographical Handbook, "in spite of the thousands of pages that have been written on the Earl of Southampton as the poet's patron, the only facts so far established are Shakespeare’s dedication of the two long poem's to him in 1593 and 1594". Furthermore, no record of any payment to Shakespeare from a potential patron has ever been discovered, Price, Diana. Shakespeare's Unorthodox Biography: New Evidence of An Authorship Problem. Westport, Ct: Greenwood, 2001. p. 262. nor was Charlotte C. Stopes, the author of Southampton's standard biography, able to uncover any evidence of a Southampton–Shakespeare connection beyond the dedications, despite an extensive five-year search. Hope, Warren, and Kim Holston. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0899507352/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1227584397&sr=1-8The Shakespeare Controversy: An Analysis of the Claimants to Authorship, and their Champions and Detractors.] Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland and Co., 1992. p. 120. Some Stratfordian academics also argue that J. Thomas Looney's Oxford theory is based on simple snobbishness: that anti-Stratfordians reject the idea the son of a mere tradesman could write the plays and poems of Shakespeare. In fact, all the major anti-Stratfordian authorship theories promote an aristocrat in favour of Shakespeare of Stratford. Bate, Jonathan. The Genius of Shakespeare. London: Picador, 1997. Contrasting this is the statement of professor Reverand Vigo Auguste Demant, Canon of Christ Church, Oxford, who stated: "This was not a matter of social class, or education or even of ideas. It concerned the unconscious attitudes of the world and life. Quite early on Looney had to meet the criticism that his was a 'snob' view, holding that a man who had not been to a university and was of bourgeois origin could not be a literary giant. Looney somewhat resented the stupidity of this criticism. Certainly, he maintained, genius arises in any social milieu and is quite independent of formal education (witness Burns). But some background and peculiar personal attitudes indeliberately colour a man’s work, and another man without them cannot produce counterfeits." Demant, V. A. "John Thomas Looney (1870-1944)." Shakespearean Authorship Review. No. 8 (Autumn 1962): 8-9. Further, Oxfordians note that figures such as Mark Twain, Walt Whitman, Charlie Chaplin, Sigmund Freud, and Friederich Nietzsche, Brazil, Robert Sean. "Famous Doubters and Critics of the Orthodox Stratfordian Story: Friedrich Nietzsche and the Shakespeare Authorship Controversy." The Shakespeare Authorship Problem. ElizabethanAuthors.com. 2007. none of whom are obvious candidates for snobbery, have all expressed anti-Stratfordian views. References in popular culture The Oxfordian theory is the basis of Amy Freed's 2001 play The Beard of Avon. The Oxfordian theory is also central to the plot of Sarah Smith's 2003 novel Chasing Shakespeares, which she also adapted into a play. Chasing Shakespeares. SarahSmith.com. The book "Shakespeare's Secret" by Elise Broach is centered on the Oxfordian theory. The Oxfordian theory is also present in Jennifer Lee Carrell's, "Interred With Their Bones." See also Shakespeare authorship question Baconian theory References Further reading Anderson, Mark. "Shakespeare" by Another Name: The Life of Edward de Vere, Earl of Oxford, The Man Who Was Shakespeare. Gotham, 2005 (expanded paperback edition 2006). Verily Anderson, The De Veres of Castle Hedingham, published 1993 Austin, Al, and Judy Woodruff. The Shakespeare Mystery. 1989. Frontline documentary film about the Oxford case. Fowler, William Plumer. Shakespeare Revealed in Oxford's Letters. Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Peter E. Randall, 1986. Hope, Warren, and Kim Holston. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0899507352/ref=sr_1_8?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1227584397&sr=1-8The Shakespeare Controversy: An Analysis of the Claimants to Authorship, and their Champions and Detractors.] Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland and Co., 1992. Looney, J. Thomas. Shakespeare Identified in Edward de Vere, Seventeenth Earl of Oxford. London: Cecil Palmer, 1920. (The first book to promote the Oxford theory.) Malim, Richard, ed. Great Oxford: Essays on the Life and Work of Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, 1550-1604. London: Parapress, 2004. Ogburn, Charlton. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0939009676/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1227587131&sr=1-1The Mysterious William Shakespeare: The Myth & the Reality.] New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1984. (Influential book that criticises orthodox scholarship and promotes the Oxford theory.) Price, Diana. Shakespeare's Unorthodox Biography: New Evidence of An Authorship Problem. Westport, Ct: Greenwood, 2001. (Introduction to the evidentiary problems of the orthodox tradition.) Sobran, Joseph. [http://www.amazon.com/dp/0684826585/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1227588032&sr=1-1Alias Shakespeare: Solving the Greatest Literary Mystery of All Time.] Free Press, 1997. Stritmatter, Roger. The Marginalia of Edward de Vere's Geneva Bible: Providential Discovery, Literary Reasoning, and Historical Consequence. 2001 University of Massachusetts Ph.D. dissertation. Ward, B.M. The Seventeenth Earl of Oxford (1550-1604) From Contemporary Documents. London: John Murray, 1928. Whalen, Richard. Shakespeare: Who Was He? The Oxford Challenge to the Bard of Avon. Westport, Ct.: Praeger, 1994. External links General Non-Stratfordian The Shakespeare Authorship Trust, survey of all the authorship candidates, a site patronised by the acclaimed actor Mark Rylance and Dr William Leahy of Brunel University, UK Oxfordian The Shakespeare Fellowship current research on the Oxfordian theory Articles by Lynne Kositsky and Roger Stritmatter, challenging the methods and conclusions of Stratfordian David Kathman State of the Debate - Oxfordian vs. Stratfordian A Beginner's Guide to the Shakespeare Authorship Problem Shakespeare's Knowledge of Law: A Journey through the History of the Argument Oxfordian reviews of Alan H. Nelson's orthodox biography of Oxford, Monstrous Adversary (2001) Oxfordian response to David Kathman's "historical record" by Joseph Sobran Shakespeare Oxford Society The Case for Oxford in the Atlantic Monthly, 1991 (subscription required). The Shakespeare Mystery (Website for a PBS Frontline documentary; includes several articles) Joseph Sobran, The Shakespeare Library (collection of Joseph Sobran's Oxfordian columns. Sobran's Alias Shakespeare is mentioned here, also.) The Shakespeare Authorship Studies Conference A yearly academic conference at Concordia University in Portland, Oregon on Oxfordian theory The De Vere Society of Great Britain Dr. Michael Delahoyde's summary of Oxfordian theory Elizabethan Authors Shakespeare: The Authorship Controversy Shakespeare Authorship Sourcebook by Mark Alexander Stratfordian The Shakespeare Authorship Page — Dedicated to the Proposition that Shakespeare Wrote Shakespeare The Bard's Beard — A Time Article Arguments against Oxford's Authorship by Irvin Leigh Matus Original-spelling transcripts of Edward de Vere's letters prepared by Dr. Alan H. 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6,272 | Economy_of_Honduras | Corner Store in La Ceiba Economy of Honduras is the measure of economic activity in Honduras. It is one of the poorest countries in Latin America. The economy is based mostly on agriculture, which accounted for 22% of its gross domestic product (GDP) in 1999. Leading export coffee ($340 million) accounted for 22% of total Honduran export revenues. Bananas, formerly the country's second-largest export until being virtually wiped out by 1998's Hurricane Mitch, recovered in 2000 to 57% of pre-Mitch levels. Cultivated shrimp are another important export sector. Banana: Continues to be One of Honduras' Main Exports Honduras has extensive forest, marine, and mineral resources, although widespread slash and burn agricultural met hods continue to destroy Honduran forests. Unemployment is estimated at around 28%. The Honduran economy grew 4.8% in 2000, recovering from the Mitch-induced recession (-1.9%) of 1999. The Honduran maquiladora sector, the third-largest in the world, continued its strong performance in 2000, providing employment to over 120,000 and generating more than $528 million in foreign exchange for the country. Inflation, as measured by the consumer price index, was 10.1% in 2000, down slightly from the 10.9% recorded in 1999. The country's international reserve position continued to be strong in 2000, at slightly over $1 billion. Remittances from Hondurans living abroad (mostly in the U.S.) rose 28% to $410 million in 2000. The lempira (currency) was devaluing for many years but stabilized at L19 to the US dollar in 2005. The minimum wage is USD150 a month. Economic activity map of Honduras, 1983The country signed an Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) -- later converted to a Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) with the International Monetary Fund in March 1999. While Honduras continues to maintain stable macroeconomic policies, it has lagged in implementing structural reforms, such as privatization of the publicly owned telephone and energy distribution companies. Honduras received significant debt relief in the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch, including the suspension bilateral debt service payments and bilateral debt reduction by the Paris Club -- including the U.S. -- worth over $400 million. In July 2000, Honduras reached its decision point under the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPC), qualifying the country for interim multilateral debt relief. Downtown San Pedro Sula GDP purchasing power parity - $24.69 billion (2007 est.) GDP - real growth rate 6% (2007 est.) GDP - per capita purchasing power parity - $2,050 (1999 est.) GDP - composition by sector agriculture 20% industry 25% services 55% (1998 est.) Population below poverty line 22% (2006 est.) WFP Interactive Hunger Map Household income or consumption by percentage share lowest 10% consume 1.2% highest 10% consume 42.1% (1996) Inflation rate (consumer prices) 14% (1999 est.) Labor force 2.3 million (1997 est.) Labor force - by occupation agriculture 29%, industry 21%, services 60% (1998 est.) Unemployment rate 12% (1999); underemployed 30% (1997 est.) Budget revenue $980 million expenditures $1.15 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.) Industries bananas, sugar, coffee, textiles, clothing, wood products Industrial production growth rate 9% (1992 est.) Electricity - production 2,904 GWh (1998) Electricity - production by source fossil fuel 34.44% hydro 65.56% nuclear 0% Electricity - consumption 2,742 GWh (1998) Electricity - exports 16 GWh (1998) Electricity - imports 57 GWh (1998) Agriculture - products bananas, coffee, citrus; beef; timber; shrimp Exports $1.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.) Exports - commodities coffee, bananas, shrimp, lobster, meat; zinc, lumber Exports - partners US 73%, Japan 4%, Germany 4%, Belgium, Spain (1998) Imports $2.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)*Imports - partners US 60%, Guatemala 5%, Netherlands Antilles, Japan, Germany, Mexico, El Salvador (1998) Debt - external $4.4 billion (1999) Economic aid - recipient $557.8 million (1999) Currency 1 lempira (L) = 100 centavos Exchange rates lempiras (L) per US$1 - 19.00 (October 2005), 14.5744 (January 2000), 14.5039 (1999), 13.8076 (1998), 13.0942 (1997), 12.8694 (1996), 10.3432 (1995) .... 1.00 (1980) References See also Honduras Electricity sector in Honduras Winner country External links Coffee from Honduran | Economy_of_Honduras |@lemmatized corner:1 store:1 la:1 ceiba:1 economy:3 honduras:10 measure:2 economic:3 activity:2 one:2 poor:2 country:8 latin:1 america:1 base:1 mostly:2 agriculture:4 account:2 gross:1 domestic:1 product:3 gdp:5 lead:1 export:9 coffee:5 million:7 total:1 honduran:6 revenue:2 banana:5 formerly:1 second:1 large:2 virtually:1 wipe:1 hurricane:2 mitch:4 recover:2 pre:1 level:1 cultivate:1 shrimp:3 another:1 important:1 sector:4 continue:5 main:1 extensive:1 forest:2 marine:1 mineral:1 resource:1 although:1 widespread:1 slash:1 burn:1 agricultural:1 meet:1 hod:1 destroy:1 unemployment:2 estimate:1 around:1 grow:1 induced:1 recession:1 maquiladora:1 third:1 world:1 strong:2 performance:1 provide:1 employment:1 generate:1 foreign:1 exchange:2 inflation:2 consumer:2 price:2 index:1 slightly:2 record:1 international:2 reserve:1 position:1 billion:6 remittance:1 live:1 abroad:1 u:6 rise:1 lempira:2 currency:2 devalue:1 many:1 year:1 stabilize:1 dollar:1 minimum:1 wage:1 month:1 map:2 sign:1 enhanced:1 structural:2 adjustment:1 facility:2 esaf:1 later:1 convert:1 poverty:2 reduction:2 growth:3 prgf:1 monetary:1 fund:1 march:1 maintain:1 stable:1 macroeconomic:1 policy:1 lag:1 implement:1 reform:1 privatization:1 publicly:1 telephone:1 energy:1 distribution:1 company:1 receive:1 significant:1 debt:5 relief:2 aftermath:1 include:3 suspension:1 bilateral:2 service:3 payment:1 paris:1 club:1 worth:1 july:1 reach:1 decision:1 point:1 heavily:1 indebted:1 initiative:1 hipc:1 qualify:1 interim:1 multilateral:1 downtown:1 san:1 pedro:1 sula:1 purchase:2 power:2 parity:2 est:13 real:1 rate:5 per:2 caput:1 composition:1 industry:3 population:1 line:1 wfp:1 interactive:1 hunger:1 household:1 income:1 consumption:2 percentage:1 share:1 low:1 consume:2 high:1 labor:2 force:2 occupation:1 underemployed:1 budget:1 expenditure:2 capital:1 na:1 sugar:1 textile:1 clothing:1 wood:1 industrial:1 production:3 electricity:6 gwh:4 source:1 fossil:1 fuel:1 hydro:1 nuclear:1 import:3 citrus:1 beef:1 timber:1 f:2 b:2 commodity:1 lobster:1 meat:1 zinc:1 lumber:1 partner:2 japan:2 germany:2 belgium:1 spain:1 guatemala:1 netherlands:1 antilles:1 mexico:1 el:1 salvador:1 external:2 aid:1 recipient:1 l:2 centavos:1 lempiras:1 october:1 january:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 winner:1 link:1 |@bigram la_ceiba:1 gross_domestic:1 hurricane_mitch:2 slash_burn:1 minimum_wage:1 structural_adjustment:1 facility_prgf:1 monetary_fund:1 heavily_indebted:1 indebted_poor:1 san_pedro:1 pedro_sula:1 per_caput:1 household_income:1 unemployment_rate:1 expenditure_na:1 textile_clothing:1 production_gwh:1 gwh_electricity:3 fossil_fuel:1 fuel_hydro:1 hydro_nuclear:1 electricity_consumption:1 consumption_gwh:1 export_gwh:1 import_gwh:1 gwh_agriculture:1 banana_coffee:1 export_commodity:1 coffee_banana:1 shrimp_lobster:1 netherlands_antilles:1 el_salvador:1 external_link:1 |
6,273 | Aare | Aar under the A5 bridge. The Aar (German Aare), a tributary of the Rhine, is the longest river that both rises and ends entirely within Switzerland. Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia. Columbia University. p. 11. Its total length from its source to its junction with the Rhine comprises about 295 km (183 miles), during which distance it descends , draining an area of . "Aare River." Encyclopædia Britannica. 9 January 2007 Course The Aar rises in the great Aar Glaciers of the Bernese Alps, in the canton of Bern and west of the Grimsel Pass. Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia. Columbia University. p. 11. It runs east to the Grimsel Hospice, below the Finsteraarhorn, and then northwest through the Haslital, forming on the way the magnificent Handegg Waterfall, , past Guttannen, and piercing the limestone barrier of the Kirchet by a major canyon, before reaching Meiringen, situated on a plain. A little past Meiringen, near Brienz, the river expands into Lake Brienz where it becomes navigable. Near the west end of the lake it receives its first important affluent, the Lütschine. It then runs across the swampy plain of the Bödeli between Interlaken and Unterseen before expanding once again into Lake Thun. Near the west end of Lake Thun, the river receives the waters of the Kander, which has just been joined by the Simme. On flowing out of the lake it passes through Thun, and then flows through the city of Berne, passing beneath eighteen bridges and around the steeply-flanked peninsula on which the Old City is located. The river soon changes its northwesterly flow for a due westerly direction, but after receiving the Saane or Sarine it turns north until it nears Aarberg. There, in one of the major Swiss engineering feats of the 19th century the river, which had previously rendered the countryside north of Bern a swampland through frequent flooding, was diverted by the Hagneck Canal into Lake Biel. From the upper end of the lake the river issues through the Nidau Canal and then runs east to Büren. The lake absorbs huge amounts of eroded gravel and snowmelt that the river brings from the Alps, and the former swamps have become fruitful plains: they are known as the "vegetable garden of Switzerland". From here the Aar flows northeast for a long distance, past the ambassador town Solothurn (below which the Grosse Emme flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger), Olten, Aarau, near which is the junction with the Suhre, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in on the right. A short distance further, below Brugg it receives first the Reuss, and shortly afterwards the Limmat. It now turns due north, and soon becomes itself an affluent of the Rhine, which it surpasses in volume when the two rivers unite at Koblenz (Switzerland), opposite Waldshut, Germany. Aar Gorge Inside the Aar Gorge The Aar Gorge (Aareschlucht) is a section of the river that carves through a limestone ridge near the town of Meiringen. The gorge is an indirect product of glaciation; 10,000 years ago, just as the Ice Age was coming to an end, torrential runoff water from melting glaciers eroded a deep, narrow chasm through the limestone barrier. Although barely one mile long, this passage is bordered by sheer cliffs up to 165 feet (50 m) high on either side. At the bottom of this steep drop the river is scarcely three feet (one meter) wide. The gorge has been opened to the public since 1889, by building walking paths along the Gorge. Before then, the only way was to go through the dangerous river torrent, which provided fables by travellers, who claimed to see large snakes and monsters. Since then, the gorge is a popular tourist attraction for many visitors who like natural beauty. List of Tributaries Forest route near Aar Aare receives the Reuss in the "Wasserschloss" Limmat Sihl Linth (main tributary of Lake Zürich) Reuss River (see also: Reuss River#Tributaries) Kleine Emme Sarner Aa Engelberger Aa Schächen Furkareuss Suhre Wigger Emme Zihlkanal Suze Broye Orbe Saane (Sarine) Sense Kander Simme Allenbach Lütschine Reservoirs Lake Wohlen, 481 m Niederriedsee, 461 m Klingnauer Stausee, 318 m History The river's name may be attested to in the Gaulish (Helvetic) Berne zinc tablet which dates back to Roman Gaul. Its Roman name was Obringa. References External links The Aar Gorge (Aareschlucht) | Aare |@lemmatized aar:10 bridge:2 german:1 aare:3 tributary:4 rhine:3 long:3 river:15 rise:2 end:5 entirely:1 within:1 switzerland:3 bridgwater:2 w:2 beatrice:2 aldrich:2 columbia:4 viking:2 desk:2 encyclopedia:2 university:2 p:2 total:1 length:1 source:1 junction:2 comprise:1 km:1 mile:2 distance:3 descend:1 drain:1 area:1 encyclopædia:1 britannica:1 january:1 course:1 great:1 glacier:2 bernese:1 alp:2 canton:1 bern:2 west:3 grimsel:2 pas:1 run:3 east:2 hospice:1 finsteraarhorn:1 northwest:1 haslital:1 form:1 way:2 magnificent:1 handegg:1 waterfall:1 past:3 guttannen:1 pierce:1 limestone:3 barrier:2 kirchet:1 major:2 canyon:1 reach:1 meiringen:3 situate:1 plain:3 little:1 near:7 brienz:2 expand:2 lake:10 become:3 navigable:1 receive:5 first:2 important:1 affluent:2 lütschine:2 across:1 swampy:1 bödeli:1 interlaken:1 unterseen:1 thun:3 water:2 kander:2 join:2 simme:2 flow:5 pass:2 city:2 berne:2 beneath:1 eighteen:1 around:1 steeply:1 flank:1 peninsula:1 old:1 locate:1 soon:2 change:1 northwesterly:1 due:2 westerly:1 direction:1 saane:2 sarine:2 turn:2 north:3 aarberg:1 one:3 swiss:1 engineering:1 feat:1 century:1 previously:1 render:1 countryside:1 swampland:1 frequent:1 flooding:1 divert:1 hagneck:1 canal:2 biel:1 upper:1 issue:1 nidau:1 büren:1 absorbs:1 huge:1 amount:1 erode:2 gravel:1 snowmelt:1 bring:1 former:1 swamp:1 fruitful:1 know:1 vegetable:1 garden:1 northeast:1 ambassador:1 town:2 solothurn:1 grosse:1 emme:3 right:2 aarburg:1 wigger:2 olten:1 aarau:1 suhre:2 wildegg:1 hallwiler:1 aa:3 fall:1 short:1 far:1 brugg:1 reuss:4 shortly:1 afterwards:1 limmat:2 surpass:1 volume:1 two:1 unite:1 koblenz:1 opposite:1 waldshut:1 germany:1 gorge:8 inside:1 aareschlucht:2 section:1 carve:1 ridge:1 indirect:1 product:1 glaciation:1 year:1 ago:1 ice:1 age:1 come:1 torrential:1 runoff:1 melt:1 deep:1 narrow:1 chasm:1 although:1 barely:1 passage:1 border:1 sheer:1 cliff:1 foot:2 high:1 either:1 side:1 bottom:1 steep:1 drop:1 scarcely:1 three:1 meter:1 wide:1 open:1 public:1 since:2 build:1 walk:1 path:1 along:1 go:1 dangerous:1 torrent:1 provide:1 fable:1 traveller:1 claim:1 see:2 large:1 snake:1 monster:1 popular:1 tourist:1 attraction:1 many:1 visitor:1 like:1 natural:1 beauty:1 list:1 forest:1 route:1 wasserschloss:1 sihl:1 linth:1 main:1 zürich:1 also:1 kleine:1 sarner:1 engelberger:1 schächen:1 furkareuss:1 zihlkanal:1 suze:1 broye:1 orbe:1 sense:1 allenbach:1 reservoir:1 wohlen:1 niederriedsee:1 klingnauer:1 stausee:1 history:1 name:2 may:1 attest:1 gaulish:1 helvetic:1 zinc:1 tablet:1 date:1 back:1 roman:2 gaul:1 obringa:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram bridgwater_w:2 beatrice_aldrich:2 aldrich_columbia:2 viking_desk:2 encyclopædia_britannica:1 shortly_afterwards:1 tourist_attraction:1 external_link:1 |
6,274 | Galois_group | In mathematics, a Galois group is a group associated with a certain type of field extension. The study of field extensions (and polynomials which give rise to them) via Galois groups is called Galois theory after Évariste Galois who first invented them. For a more elementary discussion of Galois groups in terms of permutation groups, see the article on Galois theory. Definition Suppose that E is an extension of the field F (written as E /F and read E over F). Consider the set of all automorphisms of E /F (that is, isomorphisms α from E to itself such that α(x) = x for every x in F). This set of automorphisms with the operation of function composition forms a group, sometimes denoted by Aut(E /F). If E /F is a Galois extension, then Aut(E /F) is called the Galois group of (the extension) E over F, and is usually denoted by Gal(E /F). Examples In the following examples F is a field, and C, R, Q are the fields of complex, real, and rational numbers, respectively. The notation F(a) indicates the field extension obtained by adjoining an element a to the field F. Gal(F/F) is the trivial group that has a single element, namely the identity automorphism. Gal(C/R) has two elements, the identity automorphism and the complex conjugation automorphism. Aut(R/Q) is trivial. Indeed it can be shown that any Q-automorphism must preserve the ordering of the real numbers and hence must be the identity. Aut(C/Q) is an infinite group. Gal(Q(√2)/Q) has two elements, the identity automorphism and the automorphism which exchanges √2 and −√2. Consider the field K = Q(³√2). The group Aut(K/Q) contains only the identity automorphism. This is because K is not a normal extension, since the other two cube roots of 2 (both complex) are missing from the extension — in other words K is not a splitting field. Consider now L = Q(³√2, ω), where ω is a primitive third root of unity. The group Gal(L/Q) is isomorphic to S3, the dihedral group of order 6, and L is in fact the splitting field of x3 − 2 over Q. Facts The significance of an extension being Galois is that it obeys the fundamental theorem of Galois theory: the subgroups of the Galois group correspond to the intermediate fields of the field extension. If E/F is a Galois extension, then Gal(E/F) can be given a topology, called the Krull topology, that makes it into a profinite group. See also Absolute Galois group External links Galois Groups at MathPages | Galois_group |@lemmatized mathematics:1 galois:14 group:16 associate:1 certain:1 type:1 field:12 extension:11 study:1 polynomial:1 give:2 rise:1 via:1 call:3 theory:3 évariste:1 first:1 invent:1 elementary:1 discussion:1 term:1 permutation:1 see:2 article:1 definition:1 suppose:1 e:12 f:17 write:1 read:1 consider:3 set:2 automorphisms:2 isomorphisms:1 α:2 x:3 every:1 operation:1 function:1 composition:1 form:1 sometimes:1 denote:2 aut:5 usually:1 gal:6 example:2 following:1 c:3 r:3 q:11 complex:3 real:2 rational:1 number:2 respectively:1 notation:1 indicate:1 obtain:1 adjoin:1 element:4 trivial:2 single:1 namely:1 identity:5 automorphism:7 two:3 conjugation:1 indeed:1 show:1 must:2 preserve:1 ordering:1 hence:1 infinite:1 exchange:1 k:4 contain:1 normal:1 since:1 cube:1 root:2 miss:1 word:1 splitting:2 l:3 ω:2 primitive:1 third:1 unity:1 isomorphic:1 dihedral:1 order:1 fact:1 facts:1 significance:1 obey:1 fundamental:1 theorem:1 subgroup:1 correspond:1 intermediate:1 topology:2 krull:1 make:1 profinite:1 also:1 absolute:1 external:1 link:1 mathpages:1 |@bigram évariste_galois:1 galois_extension:2 ω_ω:1 external_link:1 |
6,275 | Colorado | The State of Colorado ( or ) Colorado - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary is a state located in the Rocky Mountain region of the United States of America. It may also be considered to be part of the Western and Southwestern regions of the United States. Colorado entered statehood in 1876 and was nicknamed the “Centennial State”. It is bordered to the north by Wyoming, to the south by New Mexico, at the southwest corner by Arizona, to the east by Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma, and to the west by Utah. The state is well known for its magnificent scenery of mountains, rivers and plains. The United States Census Bureau estimates that the state population was 4,939,456 in 2008, a 14% increase since the U.S. Census 2000. Denver is the capital of Colorado and the state's most populous city. Residents of Colorado are properly known as "Coloradans", although the archaic term "Coloradoan" is still used. Geography An enlargeable map of the State of Colorado The State of Colorado is defined as the geoellipsoidal rectangle that stretches from 37°N to 41°N latitude and from 102°03'W to 109°03'W longitude (25°W to 32°W from the Washington Meridian). Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah are the only three U.S. states that have only lines of latitude and longitude for boundaries and that have no natural borders. When government surveyors established the border markers for the Territory of Colorado, minor surveying errors created several small kinks along the borders, most notably along the border with the Territory of Utah. The surveyors' benchmarks, once agreed upon by the interested parties, became the legal boundaries for the Colorado Territory. Rectangular States and Kinky Borders The summit of Mount Elbert at elevation in Lake County is the state's highest point and the highest point in the entire Rocky Mountains. Colorado has more than 100 mountain peaks that exceed elevation. Colorado is the only U.S. state that lies entirely above elevation. The point where the Arikaree River flows out of Yuma County, Colorado, and into Cheyenne County, Kansas, is the lowest point in the State of Colorado at elevation. This crossing point holds the distinction of being the highest low point of any U.S. state. Nearly half of the state is flat in stark contrast to Colorado's rugged Rocky Mountains. East of the Southern Rocky Mountains are the Colorado Eastern Plains of the High Plains, the section of the Great Plains within Colorado at elevations ranging from roughly 3350 to 6500 feet (1010 to 2000 m). The states of Kansas and Nebraska border Colorado to the east. The plains are sparsely settled with most population along the South Platte and the Arkansas rivers. Precipitation is meager, averaging from 12 to 18 inches (300 to 450 mm) annually. There is some irrigated farming, but much of the land is used for dryland farming or ranching. Winter wheat is a typical crop and most small towns in the region boast both a water tower and a grain elevator. The bulk of Colorado's population lives along the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains in the Front Range Urban Corridor. This region is partially protected from prevailing storms by the high mountains to the west. The Continental Divide dips down to at Loveland Pass. To the west lies the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains with notable peaks such as Longs Peak, Mount Evans, Pikes Peak, and the Spanish Peaks near Walsenburg in the south. This area drains to the east, is forested, and partially urbanized. During the drought of 2002 devastating forest fires swept this area. Hinsdale County, with Lake City (population appx. 300) as it's seat, has been judged the most remote county in the 48 contiguous states. It has only one incorporated town (Lake City). It is one of the only places within the continental United States that one can venture more than from any road. The Continental Divide stretches across the crest of the Rocky Mountains. To the west of the Continental Divide is the Western Slope. Water west of the Continental Divide drains west into the Sea of Cortez via the Colorado River. Within the interior of the Rocky Mountains are several large parks or high broad basins. In the north, on the east side of the Continental Divide is North Park. North Park is drained by the North Platte River, which flows north into Wyoming. Just south but on the west side of the Continental Divide is Middle Park, drained by the Colorado River. South Park is the headwaters of the South Platte River. To the south lies the San Luis Valley, the headwaters of the Rio Grande, which drains into New Mexico. Across the Sangre de Cristo Range to the east of the San Luis Valley lies the Wet Mountain Valley. These basins, particularly the San Luis Valley, lie along the Rio Grande Rift, a major geological formation, and its branches. The Rocky Mountains within Colorado contain 53 peaks that are or higher elevation, known as fourteeners. The mountains are timbered with conifers and aspens to the tree line, at an elevation of about in southern Colorado to about in northern Colorado; above this only alpine vegetation grows. The Colorado Rockies are snow-covered only in the winter; most snow melts by mid-August with the exception of a few small glaciers. The Colorado Mineral Belt, stretching from the San Juan Mountains in the southwest to Boulder and Central City on the front range, contains most of the historic gold- and silver-mining districts of Colorado. The Western Slope is generally drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries. Notable to the south are the San Juan Mountains, an extremely rugged mountain range, and to the west of the San Juans, the Colorado Plateau, a high desert bordering Southern Utah. Grand Junction is the largest city on the Western Slope. Grand Junction is served by Interstate Highway I-70. To the southeast of Grand Junction is Grand Mesa, the world's largest flat-topped mountain. Further east are the ski resorts of Aspen, Vail, Crested Butte, and Steamboat Springs. The northwestern corner of Colorado bordering Northern Utah and Western Wyoming is mostly sparsely populated rangeland. From west to east, the state consists of desert-like basins, turning into plateaus, then alpine mountains, and then the grasslands of the Great Plains. The famous Pikes Peak is just west of Colorado Springs. Its lone peak is visible from near the Kansas border on clear days. Colorado is also one of only four states in the United States to share a common border (Four Corners), along with Arizona, New Mexico and Utah. At this intersection, it is possible to stand in four states at once. Climate Spring melt at Bear Lake in Rocky Mountain National Park. The climate of Colorado is quite complex compared to most of the United States. The typical south-north/cooler-warmer variation in other states is not generally applicable in Colorado. Mountains and surrounding valleys greatly affect local climate. As a general rule, with an increase in elevation come a decrease in temperature and an increase in precipitation. A main climatic division in Colorado occurs between the Rocky Mountains on the west and the plains on the east; the foothills form a transitional zone between the two. Eastern Plains Center pivot irrigation of wheat growing in Yuma County. The climate of the Eastern Plains is a semi-arid continental climate (Koppen climate classification BSk) of low humidity and moderately low precipitation, usually from 10 to 15 inches (250 to 380 mm) annually. The area is known for its abundant sunshine and cool clear nights, which give this area the highest average diurnal temperature range in the United States. In summer, this area can have many days above 95 °F (35 °C) and sometimes 100 °F (38 °C), although 105 °F (41 °C) is the maximum in the front range cities above 5000 ft (1500 m). In those areas, is the all-time record low. About 75% of the precipitation falls within the growing season, from April to September, but this area is very prone to droughts. Most of the precipitation comes in the form of thunderstorms, which are often severe, and the form of major snowstorms that happen most often in the early spring and in late autumn, and sometimes winter, from low pressures that bring the right conditions. Otherwise, winters tend to be drier and cold, even though it's known for having a number of mild days in many winters. In much of this region, March and April are the snowiest months. April and May are normally the rainiest months, while April is the wettest month that has the most combination of rain and snow. The Front Range cities closer to the mountains tend to be warmer in the winter due to chinook winds which warm the area, sometimes bringing temperatures up to 60 °F (16 °C) or higher in the winter. Western Regional Climate Center. Last accessed 2006-10-24. The average July temperature is 57 degrees in the morning and 87 degrees in the afternoon. The average January temperature is 15 degrees in the morning and 43 degrees in the afternoon, although the daily high may be 60 one day and 0 the next. West of the plains and foothills View of the Western Slope from Grand Junction. West of the plains and foothills, the weather of Colorado is much less uniform. Even places a few miles (kilometers) apart can experience entirely different weather, depending on the topography of the area. Most valleys also have a semi-arid climate, which becomes an alpine climate at higher elevations. Humid microclimates also exist in some areas as well. Generally, the wettest season is in the winter in Western Colorado while June is the driest month, which is the opposite of precipitation patterns in the east. The mountains have cool summers with many days of high temperatures around 60 °F (16 °C) and 70 °F (21 °C), although frequent thunderstorms can cause a sudden drop in temperatures. Summer nights are cool, and cold at the highest altitudes which can sometimes bring snow even in the middle of the summer. The winters bring abundant, powdery snowfall to the mountains which the skiers love, although even in the winter, there can be many days with abundant sunshine in between major storms. The Western Slope has high summer temperatures similar to those found on the plains while the winters tend to be slightly cooler due to the lack of any warming winds which are common in the plains and Front Range. Other areas in the west have their own unique climate. The San Luis Valley is generally dry with little rain or snow, although the snow that falls tends to stay on the ground all winter. Extreme weather Extreme weather is a common occurrence in Colorado. Thunderstorms are common east of the Continental divide in the spring and summer, and Colorado is one of the leading states in deaths due to lightning. Hail is a common sight in the mountains east of the divide and in the northwest part of the state. The Eastern Plains have some of the biggest hail storms in North America. While not as common as some of the states to the east, much of the Eastern Plains are also prone to tornadoes, and there have been some damaging tornadoes there. Examples include the 1990 Limon F3 tornado and the 2008 Windsor EF3 tornado which devastated the town. Floods are also a factor in the plains, not just from the thunderstorms, but also due to heavy snow in the mountains followed by a warm, dry period which swells rivers with melted snow. In 2008, from July through August, a new record was set that was previously held in 1901 of twenty-three straight days of 90 degree heat, surpassing the previous record by almost a week. Colorado is a relatively dry state averaging only 17 inches of rain per year and rarely experiences a time when some portion of the state is not in some degree of drought. A History of Drought The lack of precipitation contributes to the severity of wildfires in the state such as the Hayman Fire, one of the largest wildfires in US history. Records The highest temperature ever recorded in Colorado was 118 °F (48 °C) on July 11, 1888, at Bennett, while the lowest was -61 °F (-52 °C) on February 1, 1985, at Maybell. Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures For Various Colorado Cities City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Alamosa 33/-4 40/5 50/16 59/23 68/32 78/40 82/46 79/45 72/36 62/24 46/11 35/-1 Colorado Springs 42/13 45/18 52/24 59/31 68/41 79/50 86/55 82/54 74/45 63/34 50/23 42/16 Denver 43/15 47/19 54/25 61/34 70/44 82/53 88/59 86/57 77/47 66/36 52/24 44/16 Grand Junction 37/16 45/23 56/31 64/38 74/46 87/55 96/61 92/60 83/50 67/39 50/26 39/18 Pueblo 45/14 50/19 57/26 65/34 75/45 86/54 91/59 89/58 81/49 69/35 54/22 45/15 http://www.ustravelweather.com/weather-colorado/ History The ruins of the Cliff Palace at Mesa Verde as photographed by Gustaf Nordenskiöld in 1891. The region that is today the State of Colorado has been inhabited by Native Americans for more than 13 millennia. The Lindenmeier Site in Larimer County contains artifacts dating from approximately 11200 BCE to 3000 BCE. The Ancient Pueblo Peoples lived in the valleys and mesas of the Colorado Plateau. The Ute Nation inhabited the mountain valleys of the Southern Rocky Mountains and the Western Rocky Mountains. The Arapaho Nation and the Cheyenne Nation moved west to hunt across the High Plains. The United States acquired a territorial claim to the eastern flank of the Rocky Mountains with the Louisiana Purchase from France in 1803. The U.S. claim conflicted with Spain's claim that a huge region surrounding its colony of Santa Fé de Nuevo Méjico was its sovereign trading zone. Zebulon Pike led a U.S. Army reconnaissance expedition into the disputed region in 1806. Pike and his men were arrested by Spanish cavalry in the San Luis Valley the following February, taken to Chihuahua, and expelled from México the following July. Bent's Old Fort along the Arkansas River operated from 1833 to 1849. The United States relinquished its claim to all land south and west of the Arkansas River as part of the U.S. purchase of Florida from Spain with the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819. México finally won its independence from Spain in 1821, but it surrendered its northern territories to the United States after the Mexican-American War with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. In 1849, the Mormons of Deseret (now Utah) organized the extralegal Provisional State of Deseret which claimed all land drained by the Green River and the Colorado River. The federal government refused to recognize the new government, and the Mormons declined to settle east of the Green River for more than 20 years. The United States divided the area of the future Colorado among the Territory of New Mexico and the Territory of Utah organized in 1850, and the Territory of Kansas and the Territory of Nebraska organized in 1854. Most American settlers traveling west to Oregon, Deseret, or California avoided the rugged Rocky Mountains and instead followed the North Platte River and Sweetwater River through what is now Wyoming. On April 9, 1851, Hispanic settlers from Taos, New Mexico, settled the village of San Luis, then in the New Mexico Territory, but now Colorado's first permanent European settlement. Gold was discovered along the South Platte River in western Kansas Territory in July 1858, precipitating the Pike's Peak Gold Rush. The placer gold deposits along the rivers and streams of the region rapidly played out, but miners soon discovered far more valuable seams of hard rock gold, silver, and other minerals in the nearby mountains. A lithograph of the Denver City mining camp in 1859. The Provisional Government of the Territory of Jefferson was organized on August 24, 1859, but the new territory failed to secure federal sanction. The election of Abraham Lincoln for U.S. President on November 6, 1860, led to the secession of six slave states and the threat of civil war. Seeking to augment the political power of the free states, the Republican led U.S. Congress hurriedly admitted the eastern portion of the Territory of Kansas to the Union as the free State of Kansas on January 29, 1861, leaving the western portion of the territory, and its gold fields, unorganized. The Georgetown Loop of the Colorado Central Railroad as photographed by William H. Jackson in 1899. Thirty days later on February 28, 1861, outgoing U.S. President James Buchanan signed an act of Congress organizing the free Territory of Colorado. The original boundaries of Colorado remain unchanged today. The name Colorado was chosen because it was commonly believed that the Colorado River originated in the territory. Early explorers identified the Gunnison River in Colorado as the headwaters of the Colorado River. The Grand River in Colorado was later identified as the headwaters of the river. Finally in 1916, E.C. LaRue, Chief Hydrologist of the United States Geological Survey, identified the Green River in Wyoming as the proper headwaters of the Colorado River. Early Spanish explorers named the river the Rio Colorado for the reddish-brown silt the river carried from the mountains. In fact, the Colorado River did not flow through the State of Colorado until House Joint Resolution 460 of the 66th United States Congress changed the name of the Grand River to the Colorado River on July 25, 1921. Colorado state history plaque The United States Congress passed an enabling act on March 3, 1875, specifying the requirements for the Territory of Colorado to become a state. On August 1, 1876 (28 days after the Centennial of the United States), U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant signed a proclamation admitting the State of Colorado to the Union as the 38th state and earning it the moniker "Centennial State". The discovery of a major silver lode near Leadville in 1878, triggered the Colorado Silver Boom. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890 envigorated silver mining, but the repeal of the act in 1893 led to a major collapse of the mining and agricultural economy of the state. Colorado women were granted the right to vote beginning on November 7, 1893, making Colorado the first U.S. state to grant universal suffrage by popular vote. By the 1930 U.S. Census, the population of Colorado exceeded one million residents. The state suffered through the Great Depression and the Dust Bowl of the 1930s, but a major wave of immigration following World War II boosted Colorado's fortune. Tourism became a mainstay of the state economy, and high technology became an important economic engine. Colorado's population exceeded 4.3 million at U.S. Census 2000. Three warships of the United States Navy have been named USS Colorado. The first USS Colorado was named for the Colorado River. The later two ships were named in honor of the landlocked state. Demographics Colorado Population Density Map The state's most populous city, and capital, is Denver. The Denver-Aurora-Boulder Combined Statistical Area, home to 2,927,911 people, contains more than two-thirds of the state's population. Residents of Colorado are properly referred to as Coloradans, although the term Coloradoans is still used. As of 2005, Colorado has an estimated population of 4,665,177, which is an increase of 63,356, or 1.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 363,162, or 8.4%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 205,321 people (that is 353,091 births minus 147,770 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 159,957 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 112,217 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 47,740 people. The largest increases are expected in the Front Range Urban Corridor, especially in the Denver metropolitan area. The state's fastest growing counties are Douglas and Weld. Large numbers of new residents in the state originate from California, which led some locals to feel that their state was "Californicated" in the 1990s (esp. Denver resembled more of Los Angeles) when real estate home prices, lower cost of living and a healthier economy in growth rates drew in over 100,000 Californians at the time, and there are others who moved in from East Coast states. The center of population of Colorado is located just north of the town of Critchell in Jefferson County. Colorado has one of the highest proportions of Hispanic citizens of any U.S. state; only five states have a higher percentage. Denver and some other areas have significant Mexican populations, while southern Colorado has a large number of Hispanos, the descendants of early New Mexican settlers of colonial Spanish origin. The 2000 U.S. Census reports that 10.52% of people aged 5 and over in Colorado speak Spanish at home. Language Map Data Center Colorado, like New Mexico, is very rich in archaic Spanish idioms. Elcastellano.org talking about Colorado in "nada" Colorado has a history of African-Americans communities which are located in northeast Denver in the Montbello, Green Valley Ranch, Park Hill and Colfax Park areas. The state has sizable numbers of Asian-Americans of Chinese, Filipino, Korean, Southeast Asian and Japanese descent. The Denver metropolitan area is considered more liberal and diverse than much of the state when it comes to political issues and environmental concerns. According to the 2000 Census, the largest ancestry groups in Colorado are German (22%) including of Swiss and Austrian nationalities, Irish (12.2%), and English (12%). Persons reporting German ancestry are the largest group in the state and are especially strong in the Front Range, the Rockies (west-central counties) and Eastern parts/High Plains. Map of Latitude: 39.500656 Longitude: -105.203628, by MapQuest Denver and nearby areas on the Front Range has sizable Scandinavian, Italian, Slavic and Jewish American communities, partly a legacy of gold rushes in the late 19th century (1861-1889). There were a total of 70,331 births in Colorado in 2006. (Birth Rate of 14.6). Although Non-Hispanic Whites constituted 73.5% of the population they accounted for only 48.90% of all the births. The first time in state history with the statistic of non-Hispanic whites have fewer babies. But 14.06% of the births happened to parents of different races (About two-thirds to White-Latino parents). CDPHE: COHID Birth Data Request Westernmost counties where the majority of residents are adherents of Mormonism there's a slightly higher percentage of families with children and those of under age 18. The Chapel on the Rock at Camp Saint Malo near Allenspark. The Great Stupa of Dharmakaya near Red Feather Lakes. The Cadet Chapel at the United States Air Force Academy near Colorado Springs. Colorado has a higher number of younger persons in median age: 33, according to the 2000 Census report. Large numbers of married couples in professional careers with young children move to the state in a belief it's a better place to raise a family. Colorado is also a major retirement destination by senior citizens in search of a warmer climate, recreation activities and the higher altitude in most of Colorado is said to provide health benefits for those with respiratory diseases. Religion Colorado's population is predominately Christian, although, like most other Western states, it has a high percentage of religiously unaffiliated residents. Colorado, and specifically the city of Colorado Springs, serves as the headquarters of numerous Christian groups, many of them Evangelical. Focus on the Family is a major conservative Christian organization headquartered in Colorado Springs. Catholicism is popular in Colorado, and is becoming more so with the influx of Latino immigrants. Major religious affiliations of the people of Colorado are: U.S. Religion Map and Religious Populations - U.S. Religious Landscape Study - Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Christian – 65% Protestant – 44% Evangelical – 23% Mainline – 19% Other Protestant – 2% Roman Catholic – 19% Latter Day Saint/ Mormon – 2% Jewish – 2% Muslim – 1% Other Religions – 1% Unaffiliated – 31% The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 752,505; the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 92,326; and the Southern Baptist Convention with 85,083. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/08_2000.asp Health Colorado also has a reputation for being a state of very active and athletic people. According to several studies, Coloradans have the lowest rates of obesity of any state in the US. http://calorielab.com/news/wp-images/post-images/fattest-states-2007-big.gif As of 2007 the 17.6% of the population was considered medically obese, and while the lowest in the nation, the percentage had increased from 16.9% from 2004. Colorado Governor Bill Ritter spoke that “As an avid fisherman and bike rider, I know first-hand that Colorado provides a great environment for active, healthy lifestyles,” although he did highlight the need for continued education and support to slow the growth of obesity in the state. http://calorielab.com/news/2007/08/06/fattest-states-2007/ Economy The United States quarter dollar coin released 2006-06-14, in honor of the State of Colorado. Denver World Trade Center. The Denver financial district along 17th Street is known as the Wall Street of the West. Maize growing in Larimer County Cattle ranching in Jackson County An oil well in western Colorado The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that the total state product in 2007 was $236 billion. Per capita personal income in 2007 was $40,963, ranking Colorado tenth in the nation. http://www.bea.gov/newsreleases/regional/gdp_state/gsp_newsrelease.htm The state's economy broadened from its mid-19th century roots in mining when irrigated agriculture developed, and by the late 19th century, raising livestock had become important. Early industry was based on the extraction and processing of minerals and agricultural products. Current agricultural products are cattle, wheat, dairy products, corn, and hay. The federal government is also a major economic force in the state with many important federal facilities including NORAD, United States Air Force Academy and Peterson Air Force Base in Colorado Springs; NOAA and the National Institute of Standards and Technology in Boulder; U.S. Geological Survey and other government agencies at the Denver Federal Center in Lakewood; the Denver Mint, Buckley Air Force Base, and 10th Circuit Court of Appeals in Denver; and a federal Supermax Prison and other federal prisons near Cañon City. In addition to these and other federal agencies, Colorado has abundant National Forest land and four National Parks that contribute to federal ownership of of land in Colorado, or 37% of the total area of the state. Colorado Department of Agriculture: Land Ownership In the second half of the 20th century, the industrial and service sectors have expanded greatly. The state's economy is diversified and is notable for its concentration of scientific research and high-technology industries. Other industries include food processing, transportation equipment, machinery, chemical products, minerals such as gold and molybdenum, and tourism. Colorado also produces the largest amount of beer of any state. Colorado rides on Fat Tire to beer heights. Rocky Mountain News 11/24/2007 Accessed November 29, 2007 Denver is an important financial center. A number of nationally known brand names have originated in Colorado factories and laboratories. From Denver came the forerunner of telecommunications giant Qwest in 1879, Samsonite luggage in 1910, Gates belts and hoses in 1911, and Russell Stover Candies in 1923. Kuner canned vegetables began in Brighton in 1864. From Golden came Coors beer in 1873, CoorsTek industrial ceramics in 1920, and Jolly Rancher candy in 1949. CF&I railroad rails, wire, nails and pipe debuted in Pueblo in 1892. The present-day Swift packed meat of Greeley evolved from Monfort of Colorado, Inc., established in 1930. Estes model rockets were launched in Penrose in 1958. Fort Collins has been the home of Woodward Governor Company's motor controllers (governors) since 1870, and Waterpik dental water jets and showerheads since 1962. Celestial Seasonings herbal teas have been made in Boulder since 1969. Rocky Mountain Chocolate Factory made its first candy in Durango in 1981. Colorado has a flat 4.63% income tax, regardless of income level. Unlike most states, which calculate taxes based on federal adjusted gross income, Colorado taxes are based on taxable income - income after federal exemptions and federal itemized (or standard) deductions. Colorado individual income tax return (2005) http://www.revenue.state.co.us/PDF/05104f.pdf, retrieved September 26, 2006 U.S. Individual Income Tax Return (2005) online copy, retrieved 2006-09-26 Colorado's state sales tax is 2.9% on retail sales. When state revenues exceed state constitutional limits, full-year Colorado residents can claim a sales tax refund on their individual state income tax return. Many counties and cities charge their own rates in addition to the base state rate. There are also certain county and special district taxes that may apply. Real estate and personal business property are taxable in Colorado. The state's senior property tax exemption was temporarily suspended by the Colorado Legislature in 2003. The tax break is scheduled to return for assessment year 2006, payable in 2007. Philanthropy Major philanthropic organizations based in Colorado, including the Daniels Fund, the Anschutz Family Foundation, the Gates Family Foundation, the El Pomar Foundation and the Boettcher Foundation, grant approximately $400 million http://www.coloradofunders.org/docs/2007%20Giving%20Study%20PublishedFinal_1.pdf each year from approximately $7 billion http://www.cof.org/files/Documents/Government/StateGiving/CO.pdf of assets. Energy Colorado has significant energy resources. According to the Energy Information Administration, Colorado hosts seven of the Nation’s 100 largest natural gas fields and two of its 100 largest oil fields. Conventional and unconventional natural gas output from several Colorado basins typically accounts for more than 5 percent of annual U.S. natural gas production. Substantial deposits of bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite coal are also found in the State. Colorado's high Rocky Mountain ridges offer wind power potential, and geologic activity in the mountain areas provides potential for geothermal power development. Major rivers flowing from the Rocky Mountains offer hydroelectric power resources. Corn grown in the flat eastern part of the State offers potential resources for ethanol production. Notably, Colorado’s oil shale deposits hold an estimated of oil – nearly as much oil as the entire world’s proven oil reserves. Oil production from those deposits, however, remains speculative. Special tax districts Some of the special tax districts are: The Regional Transportation District (RTD), which affects the counties of Denver, Boulder, Jefferson, and portions of Adams, Arapahoe, Broomfield, and Douglas Counties The Scientific and Cultural Facilities District (SCFD), a special regional tax district with physical boundaries contiguous with county boundaries of Adams, Arapahoe, Boulder, Broomfield, Denver, Douglas, and Jefferson Counties It is a 0.1% retail sales and use tax (one penny on every $10). According to the Colorado statute, the SCFD distributes the money to local organizations on an annual basis. These organizations must provide for the enlightenment and entertainment of the public through the production, presentation, exhibition, advancement or preservation of art, music, theater, dance, zoology, botany, natural history or cultural history. As directed by statute, SCFD recipient organizations are currently divided into three "tiers" among which receipts are allocated by percentage. Tier I includes regional organizations: the Denver Art Museum, the Denver Botanic Gardens, the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, the Denver Zoo, and the Denver Center for the Performing Arts. It receives 65.5%. Tier II currently includes 26 regional organizations. Tier II receives 21%. Tier III has over 280 local organizations such as small theaters, orchestras, art centers, and natural history, cultural history, and community groups. Tier III organizations apply for funding to the county cultural councils via a grant process. This tier receives 13.5%. An eleven-member board of directors oversees the distributions in accordance with the Colorado Revised Statutes. Seven board members are appointed by county commissioners (in Denver, the Denver City Council) and four members are appointed by the Governor of Colorado. The Football Stadium District (FD or FTBL), approved by the voters to pay for and help build the Denver Broncos' stadium INVESCO Field at Mile High Local Improvement Districts (LID) within designated areas of southeast Jefferson and Boulder counties Regional Transportation Districts (RTA) taxes at varying rates in Basalt, Carbondale, Glenwood Springs, Gunnison County Occupational Privilege Taxes (OPT or Head Tax) Denver and Aurora both levy an OPT on Employers and Employees If any employee performs work in the city limits and is paid over US$500.00 for that work in a single month, the Employee and Employer are both liable for the OPT regardless of where the main business office is located or headquartered. In Denver, the Employer is liable for US$4.00 per employee per month and the Employee is liable for US$5.75 per month. In Aurora, both Employer and Employees are liable for US$2.00 per month. It is the Employer's responsibility to with hold, remit, and file the OPT returns. If an Employer does not comply, they can be held liable for both portions of the OPT as well as penalties and interest. Transportation Colorado state welcome sign Denver International Airport Union Station in Denver. + Interstate and Federal Highway Routes in the State of Colorado Interstate 25 Interstate 70 Interstate 76 Interstate 225 Interstate 270 U.S. Route 6 U.S. Route 24 U.S. Route 34 U.S. Route 36 U.S. Route 40 U.S. Route 50 U.S. Route 84 U.S. Route 85 U.S. Route 87 U.S. Route 138 U.S. Route 160 U.S. Route 285 U.S. Route 287 U.S. Route 350 U.S. Route 400 U.S. Route 491 U.S. Route 550 + Commercial Airports in the State of ColoradoALS - San Luis Valley Regional Airport ASE - Aspen-Pitkin County Airport CEZ - Cortez Municipal Airport COS - City of Colorado Springs Municipal Airport DEN - Denver International Airport Denver International Airport was the ninth busiest airport on Earth in 2006. DRO - Durango-La Plata County Airport EGE - Eagle County Regional AirportFNL - Fort Collins-Loveland Municipal Airport GJT - Grand Junction Regional Airport GUC - Gunnison-Crested Butte Regional Airport HDN - Yampa Valley Airport MTJ - Montrose Regional Airport PUB - Pueblo Memorial Airport TEX - Telluride Regional Airport + Amtrak Passenger Railroad Routes through the State of ColoradoCalifornia Zephyr: Chicago, Galesburg, Omaha, Fort Morgan, Denver, Winter Park, Granby, Glenwood Springs, Grand Junction, Salt Lake City, Reno, Sacramento, and Emeryville Southwest Chief: Chicago, Galesburg, Kansas City, Topeka, Lamar, La Junta, Trinidad, Albuquerque, Gallup, Flagstaff, Needles, San Bernardino, and Los Angeles + Communities in the State of Colorado with Regional Bus ServiceAlamosa, Aurora, Boulder, Brush, Colorado Springs, Delta, Denver, Durango, Englewood, Frisco, Fort Collins, Fort Morgan, Glenwood Springs, Grand Junction, Greeley, Lamar, Limon, Longmont, Montrose, Pueblo, Rocky Ford, Springfield, Sterling, Trinidad, Vail, and Walsenburg Government and politics State government The Colorado State Capitol in Denver + Gubernatorial election results Year Republican Democratic200640.16% 625,886 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|56.98% 888,096200262.62% 884,584 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|33.65% 475,373199849.06% 648,202 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|48.43% 639,905199438.70% 432,042 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|55.47% 619,205199035.43% 358,403 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|61.89% 626,032 Like all U.S. states, Colorado's constitution provides for three branches of government: the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The governor heads the state's executive branch. The Colorado Supreme Court is the highest judicial body in the state. The state legislative body is the Colorado General Assembly, which is made up of two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House has 65 members and the Senate has 35. Currently, Democrats control both chambers of the General Assembly. The 2005 Colorado General Assembly was the first to be controlled by the Democrats in forty years. The incumbent governor is Democrat August William "Bill" Ritter, Jr.. Many Coloradans are originally native to other states (over half of them were Californians in the 1990s), and this is illustrated by the fact that the state did not have a native-born governor from 1975 (when John David Vanderhoof left office) until 2007, when Bill Ritter took office; his election the previous year marked the first electoral victory for a native-born Coloradan in a gubernatorial race since 1958 (Vanderhoof had ascended from the Lieutenant Governorship when John Arthur Love was given a position in Richard Nixon's administration in 1973). Federal politics + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic200844.71% 1,073,584 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|53.66% 1,288,568200451.69% 1,101,255 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|47.02% 1,001,732200050.75% 883,745 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|42.39% 738,227199645.80% 691,848 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|44.43% 671,152199235.87% 562,850 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|40.13% 629,681 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1988 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|53.06% 728,17745.28% ''621,453 Colorado is considered a swing state in both state and federal elections. Coloradans have elected 17 Democrats and 12 Republicans to the governorship in the last 100 years. In presidential politics, Colorado supported Democrats Bill Clinton in 1992 and Barack Obama in 2008, and supported Republicans Robert J. Dole in 1996 and George W. Bush in 2000 and 2004. It was the second most accurate indicator of the national vote in 2008, after Virginia. Colorado politics has the contrast of conservative cities such as Colorado Springs and liberal cities such as Boulder. Democrats are strongest in metropolitan Denver, the college towns of Fort Collins and Boulder, southern Colorado (including Pueblo), and a few western ski resort counties. The Republicans are strongest in the Eastern Plains, Colorado Springs, Greeley, some Denver suburbs, and the western half of the state (including Grand Junction). The fastest growing parts of the state particularly Douglas, Elbert, and Weld Counties, in the Denver-Aurora Metropolitan Area, are somewhat Republican-leaning. Colorado is represented by two United States Senators: United States Senate Class 2 - Mark Emery Udall (Democratic) 2009- United States Senate Class 3 - Michael Farrand Bennet (Democratic) 2009- Colorado Governor Bill Ritter appointed Michael Bennet to serve the remaining two years of United States Senator Ken Salazar term of office which was left vacant on 2009-01-20, when new United States President Barack Obama appointed the Colorado Senator to serve as his Secretary of the Interior. The State of Colorado is represented by seven Representatives to the United States House of Representatives: Colorado's 1st congressional district - Diana Louise DeGette (Democratic) 1997- Colorado's 2nd congressional district - Jared Schutz Polis (Democratic) 2009- Colorado's 3rd congressional district - John Tony Salazar (Democratic) 2005- Colorado's 4th congressional district - Elizabeth Helen “Betsy” Markey (Democratic) 2009- Colorado's 5th congressional district - Douglas L. "Doug" Lamborn (Republican) 2007- Colorado's 6th congressional district - Michael "Mike" Coffman (Republican) 2009- Colorado's 7th congressional district - Edwin George "Ed" Perlmutter (Democratic) 2007- Cities and Towns Colorado has 271 incorporated municipalities and 83 active United States Census Designated Places. Counties Map of the 64 counties of the State of Colorado. Colorado is divided into 64 counties, including two counties with consolidated city and county governments. The fifteen most populous Colorado counties as of 2007-07-01, were: City and County of Denver El Paso County Arapahoe County Jefferson County Adams County Boulder County Larimer County Douglas County Weld County Pueblo County Mesa County Fremont County City and County of Broomfield Garfield County Eagle County Education The University of Colorado at Boulder. The University of Denver. The United States Air Force Academy. Colleges and universities in Colorado: Metropolitan Areas Map of the 14 Core Based Statistical Areas in the State of Colorado. The United States Census Bureau has defined seven Metropolitan Statistical Areas (MSAs), seven Micropolitan Statistical Areas (μSAs), and one Combined Statistical Area (CSA) in the State of Colorado. Military Installations Buckley Air Force Base Fort Carson Piñon Canyon Maneuver Site Peterson Air Force Base Cheyenne Mountain Directorate Pueblo Chemical Depot Schriever Air Force Base United States Air Force Academy Protected areas Colorado National Monument Spruce Tree House in Mesa Verde National Park Nationally Protected Areas in Colorado: Arapaho National Recreation Area Managed by the United States Department of Agriculture, National Forest Service. Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park Canyons of the Ancients National Monument Managed by the United States Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. Colorado National Monument Continental Divide National Scenic Trail Jointly managed by the United States Department of Agriculture, National Forest Service, and the United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service and Bureau of Land Management. Curecanti National Recreation Area Dinosaur National Monument Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve Hovenweep National Monument Mesa Verde National Park and UNESCO World Heritage Site Old Spanish National Historic Trail Pony Express National Historic Trail Rocky Mountain National Park Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site Santa Fe National Historic Trail Yucca House National Monument Sports The Colorado Rockies National League baseball club at Coors Field in Denver. INVESCO Field at Mile High, home of the Denver Broncos National Football League club and the Denver Outlaws Major League Lacrosse club. Pepsi Center in Denver, home of the Denver Nuggets National Basketball Association club, the Colorado Avalanche National Hockey League club, the Colorado Mammoth National Lacrosse League club, and the Colorado Crush Arena Football League club. Dick's Sporting Goods Park in Commerce City, home of the Colorado Rapids Major League Soccer football club. Professional sports teams Colorado is the least populous state with a franchise in each of the major professional sports leagues. The state is able to support the teams because it contains a large metropolitan area with a higher population than any other city within . Therefore, many of the residents in the surrounding states support the teams in Denver, as shown by the reach of the Broncos' radio network. DenverBroncos.com – Official Website Of The Denver Broncos ClubSportLeagueColorado RockiesBaseballMajor League BaseballDenver BroncosFootballNational Football LeagueColorado AvalancheIce hockeyNational Hockey LeagueDenver NuggetsBasketballNational Basketball AssociationColorado RapidsSoccerMajor League SoccerColorado MammothLacrosseNational Lacrosse LeagueDenver OutlawsLacrosseMajor League LacrosseColorado ChillBasketballNational Women's Basketball LeagueColorado CrushArena footballArena Football LeagueAurora CavalryBasketballInternational Basketball LeagueColorado 14ersBasketballNBA D-LeagueColorado CrossoverBasketballInternational Basketball LeagueColorado Springs Sky SoxBaseballMinor League Baseball (AAA)Colorado EaglesIce hockeyCentral Hockey LeagueRocky Mountain RageIce hockeyCentral Hockey LeagueColorado Rapids U23'sSoccerUSL Premier Development LeagueColorado Springs BlizzardSoccerUSL Premier Development LeagueColorado Springs SabersSoccerWomen's Premier Soccer LeagueDenver DiamondsSoccerWomen's Premier Soccer League Former professional sports teams ClubSportLeagueColorado Rockies (NHL) (moved to Newark, New Jersey and are now the New Jersey Devils)Ice HockeyNational Hockey LeagueColorado Xplosion (won the Western Conference Championship in inaugural season)Women's BasketballAmerican Basketball League (1996-1998)Denver Grizzlies (moved to Salt Lake City, Utah, later moved to Cleveland, Ohio and became the Lake Erie Monsters)Ice HockeyInternational Hockey League (1945-2001)Denver Spurs (moved to Ottawa, Ontario and became the Ottawa Civics for the rest of the team's existence)Ice HockeyWorld Hockey Association/Central Hockey League/Western Hockey LeagueDenver Dynamite (Inaugural member of the Arena Football League, folded after four seasons)Arena FootballArena Football LeagueDenver Gold (United States Football League member, 1983-1985)FootballUnited States Football LeagueDenver Bears/Denver Zephyrs (moved to New Orleans, Louisiana and became the New Orleans Zephyrs)BaseballAmerican Association/Pacific Coast League State symbols Prominent Coloradans See also References Further reading Explore Colorado, A Naturalist's Handbook, The Denver Museum of Natural History and Westcliff Publishers, 1995, ISBN 1-56579-124-X for an excellent guide to the ecological regions of Colorado. The Archeology of Colorado, Revised Edition, E. Steve Cassells, Johnson Books, Boulder, Colorado, 1997, trade paperback, ISBN 1-55566-193-9. Chokecherry Places, Essays from the High Plains, Merrill Gilfillan, Johnson Press, Boulder, Colorado, trade paperback, ISBN 1-55566-227-7. The Tie That Binds, Kent Haruf, 1984, hardcover, ISBN 0-03-071979-8, a fictional account of farming in Colorado. Railroads of Colorado: Your Guide to Colorado's Historic Trains and Railway Sites, Claude Wiatrowski, Voyageur Press, 2002, hardcover, 160 pages, ISBN 0-89658-591-3 External links State government State of Colorado government website Colorado Department of Education Colorado state symbols and emblems Colorado official state vacation guide Energy Profile for Colorado Colorado Chambers of Commerce Colorado state government departments and agencies Colorado Department of Transportation Colorado highway maps Colorado Travel Map List of searchable databases produced by Colorado state agencies hosted by the American Library Association Government Documents Roundtable. Federal government Energy & Environmental Data for Colorado USGS Colorado state facts, real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Colorado United States Census Bureau Colorado QuickFacts Colorado - Race and Hispanic Origin: 1860 to 1990 Colorado economic data Colorado housing data Colorado social data USDA ERS Colorado state facts Other Colorado County Evolution Ask Colorado | Colorado |@lemmatized state:151 colorado:201 definition:1 merriam:1 webster:1 online:2 dictionary:1 locate:4 rocky:21 mountain:42 region:10 united:36 america:2 may:5 also:14 consider:4 part:6 western:18 southwestern:1 enter:1 statehood:1 nickname:1 centennial:3 border:11 north:10 wyoming:6 south:11 new:17 mexico:7 southwest:3 corner:3 arizona:2 east:15 nebraska:3 kansa:9 oklahoma:1 west:19 utah:9 well:4 know:8 magnificent:1 scenery:1 river:32 plain:20 census:11 bureau:6 estimate:4 population:16 increase:11 since:7 u:46 denver:53 capital:2 populous:4 city:28 resident:8 properly:2 coloradan:7 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6,276 | Milgram_experiment | The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually an actor and confidant. The subject believes that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there were no such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level. The Milgram experiment was a series of social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram, which measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience. Milgram first described his research in 1963 in an article published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Full-text PDF. and later discussed his findings in greater depth in his 1974 book, Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View. Milgram, Stanley. (1974), Obedience to Authority; An Experimental View. Harpercollins (ISBN 0-06-131983-X). The experiments began in July 1961, three months after the start of the trial of Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem. Milgram devised the experiments to answer this question: "Could it be that Eichmann and his million accomplices in the Holocaust were just following orders? Could we call them all accomplices?" Milgram (1974). p. ? Milgram summarized the experiment in his 1974 article, "The Perils of Obedience", writing: The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous importance, but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations. I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects' [participants'] strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects' [participants'] ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation. Ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work become patently clear, and they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with fundamental standards of morality, relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority. Milgram, Stanley. (1974), "The Perils of Obedience". Harper's Magazine. Abridged and adapted from Obedience to Authority. The original Simulated Shock Generator and Event Recorder, or shock box, is located in the Archives of the History of American Psychology. The experiment Milgram Experiment advertisement, facsimile Three people take part in the experiment: "experimenter", "learner" ("victim") and "teacher" (participant). Only the "teacher" is an actual participant, i.e. unaware about the actual setup, while the "learner" is a confederate of the experimenter. The role of the experimenter was played by a stern, impassive biology teacher dressed in a grey technician's coat, and the victim (learner) was played by a 47 year old Irish-American accountant trained to act for the role. The participant and the learner were told by the experimenter that they would be participating in an experiment helping his study of memory and learning in different situations. The subject was given the title teacher, and the confederate, learner. The participants drew lots to 'determine' their roles. Unknown to them, both slips said "teacher," and the actor claimed to have the slip that read "learner," thus guaranteeing that the participant would always be the "teacher." At this point, the "teacher" and "learner" were separated into different rooms where they could communicate but not see each other. In one version of the experiment, the confederate was sure to mention to the participant that he had a heart condition. The "teacher" was given an electric shock from the electro-shock generator as a sample of the shock that the "learner" would supposedly receive during the experiment. The "teacher" was then given a list of word pairs which he was to teach the learner. The teacher began by reading the list of word pairs to the learner. The teacher would then read the first word of each pair and read four possible answers. The learner would press a button to indicate his response. If the answer was incorrect, the teacher would administer a shock to the learner, with the voltage increasing in 15-volt increments for each wrong answer. If correct, the teacher would read the next word pair. The subjects believed that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual shocks. In reality, there were no shocks. After the confederate was separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level. After a number of voltage level increases, the actor started to bang on the wall that separated him from the subject. After several times banging on the wall and complaining about his heart condition, all responses by the learner would cease. At this point, many people indicated their desire to stop the experiment and check on the learner. Some test subjects paused at 135 volts and began to question the purpose of the experiment. Most continued after being assured that they would not be held responsible. A few subjects began to laugh nervously or exhibit other signs of extreme stress once they heard the screams of pain coming from the learner. If at any time the subject indicated his desire to halt the experiment, he was given a succession of verbal prods by the experimenter, in this order: Please continue. The experiment requires that you continue. It is absolutely essential that you continue. You have no other choice, you must go on. If the subject still wished to stop after all four successive verbal prods, the experiment was halted. Otherwise, it was halted after the subject had given the maximum 450-volt shock three times in succession. Results Before conducting the experiment, Milgram polled fourteen Yale University senior-year psychology majors as to what they thought would be the results. All of the poll respondents believed that only a few (average 1.2%) would be prepared to inflict the maximum voltage. Milgram also informally polled his colleagues and found that they, too, believed very few subjects would progress beyond a very strong shock. In Milgram's first set of experiments, 65 percent (26 of 40) of experiment participants administered the experiment's final 450-volt shock, though many were very uncomfortable doing so; at some point, every participant paused and questioned the experiment, some said they would refund the money they were paid for participating in the experiment. Only one participant steadfastly refused to administer shocks before the 300-volt level. Later, Prof. Milgram and other psychologists performed variations of the experiment throughout the world, with similar results Milgram(1974) although unlike the Yale experiment, resistance to the experimenter was reported anecdotally elsewhere. Melbourne(1972) A version of the experiment was conducted in the Psychology Department of La Trobe University by Dr Robert Montgomery. One 19-year old female student subject (KG), upon having the experiment explained to her, objected to participating. When asked to reconsider she swore at the experimenter and left the laboratory, despite believing that she had "failed" the project Milgram later investigated the effect of the experiment's locale on obedience levels by holding an experiment in an unregistered, backstreet office in a bustling city, as opposed to at Yale, a respectable university. The level of obedience, "although somewhat reduced, was not significantly lower". What made more of a difference was the proximity of the "learner" and the experimenter. There were also variations tested involving groups. Dr. Thomas Blass of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County performed a meta-analysis on the results of repeated performances of the experiment. He found that the percentage of participants who are prepared to inflict fatal voltages remains remarkably constant, 61–66 percent, regardless of time or place. Blass, Thomas. "The Milgram paradigm after 35 years: Some things we now know about obedience to authority", Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 1999, vol. 29 no. 5, pp. 955-978. Blass, Thomas. (2002), "The Man Who Shocked the World", Psychology Today, 35:(2), Mar/Apr 2002. There is a little-known coda to the Milgram Experiment, reported by Philip Zimbardo: none of the participants who refused to administer the final shocks insisted that the experiment itself be terminated, nor left the room to check the health of the victim without requesting permission to leave, as per Milgram's notes and recollections, when Zimbardo asked him about that point. Discovering Psychology with Philip Zimbardo Ph.D. Updated Edition, "Power of the Situation", http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6059627757980071729, reference starts at 10min 59 seconds into video. Milgram created a documentary film titled Obedience showing the experiment and its results. He also produced a series of five social psychology films, some of which dealt with his experiments. Milgram films. Accessed 4 October 2006. The Milgram Experiment raised questions about the ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants. In Milgram's defense, 84 percent of former participants surveyed later said they were "glad" or "very glad" to have participated, 15 percent chose neutral responses (92% of all former participants responding). See Milgram (1974), p. 195 Many later wrote expressing thanks. Milgram repeatedly received offers of assistance and requests to join his staff from former participants. Six years later (at the height of the Vietnam War), one of the participants in the experiment sent correspondence to Milgram, explaining why he was glad to have participated despite the stress: While I was a subject in 1964, though I believed that I was hurting someone, I was totally unaware of why I was doing so. Few people ever realize when they are acting according to their own beliefs and when they are meekly submitting to authority… To permit myself to be drafted with the understanding that I am submitting to authority's demand to do something very wrong would make me frightened of myself… I am fully prepared to go to jail if I am not granted Conscientious Objector status. Indeed, it is the only course I could take to be faithful to what I believe. My only hope is that members of my board act equally according to their conscience… The experiments provoked emotional criticism more about the experiment's implications than with experimental ethics. In the journal Jewish Currents, Joseph Dimow, a participant in the 1961 experiment at Yale University, wrote about his early withdrawal as a "teacher", suspicious "that the whole experiment was designed to see if ordinary Americans would obey immoral orders, as many Germans had done during the Nazi period". Dimow, Joseph. "Resisting Authority: A Personal Account of the Milgram Obedience Experiments", Jewish Currents, January 2004. Indeed, that was one of the explicitly-stated goals of the experiments. Quoting from the preface of Milgram's book, Obedience to Authority: "The question arises as to whether there is any connection between what we have studied in the laboratory and the forms of obedience we so deplored in the Nazi epoch". In 1981, Tom Peters and Robert H. Waterman Jr wrote that The Milgram Experiment and the later Stanford prison experiment led by Zimbardo at Stanford University were frightening in their implications about the danger lurking in human nature's dark side. Peters, Thomas, J.,, Waterman, Robert. H., "In Search of Excellence", 1981. Cf. p.78 and onward. Interpretations Professor Milgram elaborated two theories explaining his results: The first is the theory of conformism, based on Solomon Asch's work, describing the fundamental relationship between the group of reference and the individual person. A subject who has neither ability nor expertise to make decisions, especially in a crisis, will leave decision making to the group and its hierarchy. The group is the person's behavioral model. The second is the agentic state theory, wherein, per Milgram, the essence of obedience consists in the fact that a person comes to view himself as the instrument for carrying out another person's wishes, and he therefore no longer sees himself as responsible for his actions. Once this critical shift of viewpoint has occurred in the person, all of the essential features of obedience follow. The Milgram Experiment | A lesson in depravity, the power of authority, and peer pressure Alternative interpretations In his book Irrational Exuberance Yale Finance Professor Robert Shiller argues that other factors may be partially able to explain the Milgram Experiments. "[P]eople have learned that when experts tell them something is all right, it probably is, even if it does not seem so. (In fact, it is worth noting that in this case the experimenter was indeed correct: it was all right to continue giving the 'shocks' - even though most of the subjects did not suspect the reason.)" Shiller, Robert. (2005) Irrational Exuberance: Second Edition. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p 158 Milgram himself provides some anecdotal evidence to support this position. In his book, he quotes an exchange between a subject (Mr. Rensaleer) and the experimenter. The subject had just stopped at 255 V, and the experimenter tried to prod him on by saying "There is no permanent tissue damage." Mr. Rensaleer answers, "Yes, but I know what shocks do to you. I’m an electrical engineer, and I have had shocks ... and you get real shook up by them—especially if you know the next one is coming. I’m sorry." (Milgram, 1974a, p. 51). Blass, Thomas (1999)The Milgram Paradigm After 35 Years: Some Things We Now Know About Obedience to Authority Journal of Applied Social Psychology. (Volume 29 Issue 5 pages 955-978) p. 960 Recent variations on Milgram's experiment suggest an interpretation requiring neither obedience nor authority, but suggest that participants suffer learned helplessness, where they feel powerless to control the outcome, and so abdicate their personal responsibility. In a recent experiment using a computer simulation in place of the learner receiving electrical shocks, the participants administering the shocks were aware that the learner was unreal, but still showed the same results. Variations Milgram's variations In Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View (1974), Milgram describes 19 variations of his experiment, some of which had not been previously reported. Several experiments varied the immediacy of the teacher and learner. Generally, when the victim's physical immediacy was increased, the participant's compliance decreased. The participant's compliance also decreased when the authority's physical immediacy decreased (Experiments 1–4). For example, in Experiment 2, where participants received telephonic instructions from the experimenter, compliance decreased to 21 percent. Interestingly, some participants deceived the experimenter by pretending to continue the experiment. In the variation where the "learner's" physical immediacy was closest, where participants had to physically hold the "learner's" arm onto a shock plate, compliance decreased. Under that condition, 30 percent of participants completed the experiment. In Experiment 8, women were the participants; previously, all participants had been men. Obedience did not significantly differ, though the women communicated experiencing higher levels of stress. Experiment 10 took place in a modest office in Bridgeport, Connecticut, purporting to be the commercial entity "Research Associates of Bridgeport" without apparent connection to Yale University, to eliminate the university's possible prestige as a factor influencing the participants' behavior. In those conditions, obedience dropped to 47.5 percent, though the difference was not statistically significant. Milgram also combined the effect of authority with that of conformity. In those experiments, the participant was joined by one or two additional "teachers" (also actors, like the "learner"). The behavior of the participants' peers strongly affected the results. In Experiment 17, when two additional teachers refused to comply, only 4 of 40 participants continued in the experiment. In Experiment 18, the participant performed a subsidiary task (reading the questions via microphone or recording the learner's answers) with another "teacher" who complied fully. In that variation, 37 of 40 continued with the experiment. Milgram, old answers. Accessed 4 October 2006. Replications In 2002 the British artist Rod Dickinson created The Milgram Re-enactment, an exact reconstruction of parts of the original experiment, including the rooms used, lighting and uniforms. An audience watched the four-hour performance through one-way glass windows. History Will Repeat Itself: Strategies of Re-enactment in Contemporary (Media) Art and Performance, ed. Inke Arns, Gabriele Horn, Frankfurt: Verlag, 2007 A video of this performance was first shown at the CCA Gallery in Glasgow in 2002. A partial replication of the Milgram experiment was conducted by British psychological illusionist Derren Brown and broadcast on Channel 4 in the UK in The Heist (2006). Another partial replication of the Milgram experiment was conducted by Jerry M. Burger in 2006 and broadcast on the Primetime series Basic Instincts. Burger noted that, "current standards for the ethical treatment of participants clearly place Milgram’s studies out of bounds". In 2009 Burger was able to receive approval from the institutional review board by modifying several of the experimental protocols. Burger found obedience rates virtually identical to what Milgram found in 1961-1962, even while meeting current ethical regulations of informing participants. In addition, half the replication participants were female, and their rate of obedience was virtually identical to that of the male participants. Burger also included a condition in which participants first saw another participant refuse to continue. However, participants in this condition obeyed at the same rate as participants in the base condition. The experiment was again repeated as part of the BBC documentary "How violent are you?" first shown in May 2009 as part of the long running Horizon series. Of the 12 participants, only 3 refused to continue to the end of the experiment. Due to increasingly widespread knowledge of the experiment, recent replications of Milgram's procedure had to ensure that the participants were not previously aware of it. Other Variations Charles Sheridan and Richard King hypothesized that some of Milgram's subjects may have suspected that the victim was faking, so they repeated the experiment with a real victim: a puppy who was given real electric shocks. They found that 20 out of the 26 participants complied to the end. The six that had refused to comply were all male (54% of males were obedient Blass, Thomas (1999)The Milgram Paradigm After 35 Years: Some Things We Now Know About Obedience to Authority' Journal of Applied Social Psychology. (Volume 29 Issue 5 pages 955-978) p. 968 ); all 13 of the women obeyed to the end, although many were highly disturbed and some openly wept. Sheridan, C.L. and King, K.G. (1972) Obedience to authority with an authentic victim, Proceedings of the 80th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association 7: 165-6. Real life examples From April 1995 until June 30, 2004, there was a series of hoaxes, known as the strip search prank call scam, upon fast food workers in popular fast food chains in America in which a phone caller, claiming to be a police officer, persuaded authority figures to strip and sexually abuse workers. The perpetrator achieved a high level of success in persuading workers to perform acts which they would not have done under normal circumstances. Wolfson, Andrew. A hoax most cruel. The Courier-Journal. October 9, 2005. (The chief suspect, David R. Stewart, was found not guilty in the only case that has gone to trial so far. Acquittal in hoax call that led to sex assault ) Media depictions Obedience is a black-and-white film of the experiment, shot by Milgram himself. It is distributed by The Pennsylvania State University WPSU TV/FM - Penn State Public Broadcasting The Tenth Level was a 1975 CBS television film about the experiment, featuring William Shatner, Ossie Davis, and John Travolta. The Tenth Level at the Internet Movie Database. Accessed 4 October 2006. I as in Icarus is a 1979 French conspiracy thriller with Yves Montand as an attorney investigating the assassination of the President. The movie is inspired by the Kennedy assassination and the subsequent Warren Commission investigation. Digging into the psychology of the Lee Harvey Oswald type character, the attorney finds out the "decoy shooter" participated in the Milgram experiment. The ongoing experiment is presented (about 1h10 into the movie) to the unsuspecting attorney. This sequence lasts over 15 minutes and is acknowledged to be a good rendition for the general public. I... comme Icare at the Internet Movie Database. Accessed 26 May 2009. The Milgram Re-enactment was a 2002 performance art installation which recreated one condition of the Milgram obedience experiment by UK conceptual artist Rod Dickinson Atrocity is a 2005 film re-enactment of the Milgram Experiment. The Human Behavior Experiments is a 2006 documentary by Alex Gibney about major experiments in social psychology, shown along with modern incidents highlighting the principles discussed. Along with Stanley Milgram's study in obedience, the documentary shows the 'diffusion of responsibility' study of John Darley and Bibb Latané and the Stanford Prison Experiment of Philip Zimbardo. The Human Behavior Experiments at IMDb.com. Accessed 4 October 2006. Ghosts of Abu Ghraib is a documentary directed by Rory Kennedy which uses actual film clips from the Milgram Experiment. "The documentary is framed by clips from Dr. Stanley Milgram’s infamous “obedience” studies in the 1960s, which showed how easily ordinary, law-abiding citizens could be persuaded to inflict pain on strangers with what they were led to believe were high-voltage electric shocks." The documentary won an Emmy for Outstanding Non-Fiction Special. http://www.emmys.org/awards/2007pt/crtvarts_wrap.php Retrieved 2007-09-16 An April 2008 episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit guest starred Robin Williams as a man very similar to suspected real-life strip search prank call scam artist David R. Stewart, perpetrating the actual strip search scam and also Milgram's electric shock experiment, in an effort to dissuade people from being so obedient to authority." The song "Buzzer" from the 2008 Dar Williams album Promised Land was inspired by the Milgram experiment. Dar Williams: Time, Tides And Empty Spaces, from the website of National Public Radio's Weekend Edition Sunday We Do What We're Told (Milgram's 37) by Peter Gabriel was inspired by the Milgram experiment. Chip Kidd's 2008 novel The Learners is about the Milgram experiment and features Stanley Milgram as a character. Milgram's experiment is referenced in the comic book version of V for Vendetta. See also Stanford prison experiment Asch conformity experiments Hofling hospital experiment Little Eichmanns Lord of the Flies My Lai Massacre Banality of evil Social influence Strip search prank call scam Footnotes References Blass, Thomas. (2004), The Man Who Shocked the World: The Life and Legacy of Stanley Milgram. Basic Books (ISBN 0-7382-0399-8). Levine, Robert V. "Milgram's Progress", American Scientist, July-August, 2004. Book review of The Man Who Shocked the World Miller, Arthur G., (1986). The obedience experiments: A case study of controversy in social science. New York : Praeger. Parker, Ian, "Obedience" Granta, Issue 71, Autumn 2000. Includes an interview with one of Milgram's volunteers, and discusses modern interest in, and scepticism about, the experiment. Tarnow, Eugen, "Towards the Zero Accident Goal: Assisting the First Officer Monitor and Challenge Captain Errors". Journal of Aviation/Aerospace Education and Research, 10(1). Wu, William, "Practical Psychology: Compliance: The Milgram Experiment." External links Obedience - Part 1 of 5 on YouTube Stanley Milgram Redux, TBIYTB - description of a recent iteration of Milgram's experiment at Yale University, published in "The Yale Hippolytic," Jan. 22, 2007. Behavioral Study of Obedience - Milgram's journal article describing the experiment in, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1963, Vol. 67, No. 4, 371-378 Synthesis of book A faithful synthesis of "Obedience to Authority" – Stanley Milgram A personal account of a participant in the Milgram obedience experiments Summary and evaluation of the 1963 obedience experiment The Science of Evil from ABC News Primetime When Good People Do Evil - Article in the Yale Alumni Magazine by Philip Zimbardo on the 45th anniversary of the Milgram experiment. 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6,277 | Angola | Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (, ; ), is a country in south-central Africa bordered by Namibia on the south, Democratic Republic of the Congo on the north, and Zambia on the east; its west coast is on the Atlantic Ocean. The exclave province of Cabinda has a border with the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Angola was a Portuguese overseas territory from the 16th century to 1975. The country is the second-largest petroleum and diamond producer in sub-Saharan Africa; however, its life expectancy and infant mortality rates are both among the worst ranked in the world. According to the International Monetary Fund, more than $4 billion in oil receipts have disappeared from Angola's treasury in the 2000s. In August 2006, a peace treaty was signed with a faction of the FLEC, a separatist guerrilla group from the Cabinda exclave in the North, which is still active. Angola mantém presença militar reforçada em Cabinda, UOL.com.br (4th June 2008) About 65% of Angola's oil comes from that region. History Early migrations Khoisan hunter-gatherers are some of the earliest known modern human inhabitants of the area. They were largely replaced by Bantu tribes during the Bantu migrations, though small numbers of Khoisans remain in parts of southern Angola to the present day. The Bantu came from the north, probably from somewhere near the present-day Republic of Cameroon. When they reached what is now Angola, they encountered the Khoisans, Bushmen and other groups considerably less advanced than themselves, whom they easily dominated with their superior knowledge of metal-working, ceramics and agriculture. The establishment of the Bantus took many centuries and gave rise to various groups who took on different ethnic characteristics. The BaKongo kingdoms of Angola established trade routes with other trading cities and civilizations up and down the coast of southwestern and West Africa but engaged in little or no transoceanic trade. This contrasts with the Great Zimbabwe Mutapa civilization which traded with India, the Persian Gulf civilizations and China. The Story of Africa They engaged in limited trading with Great Zimbabwe and traded copper and iron for salt, food and raffia textiles across the Kongo River. The Story of Africa Portuguese rule The geographical areas now designated as Angola first became subject to incursions by the Portuguese in the late 15th century. In 1483, when Portugal established relations with the Kongo State, Ndongo and Lunda existed. The Kongo State stretched from modern Gabon in the north to the Kwanza River in the south. Angola became a link in European trade with India and Southeast Asia. The Portuguese explorer Paulo Dias de Novais founded Luanda in 1575 as "São Paulo de Loanda", with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers. Benguela, a Portuguese fort from 1587 which became a town in 1617, was another important early settlement they founded and ruled. The Portuguese would establish several settlements, forts and trading posts along the coastal strip of current-day Angola, which relied on slave trade, commerce in raw materials, and exchange of goods for survival. The African slave trade provided a large number of black slaves to Europeans and their African agents. For example, in what is now Angola, the Imbangala economy was heavily focused on the slave trade. European traders would export manufactured goods to the coast of Africa where they would be exchanged for slaves. Within the Portuguese Empire, most black African slaves were traded to Portuguese merchants who bought them to sell as cheap labour for use on Brazilian agricultural plantations. This trade would last until the first half of the 1800s. Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the Portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip during the sixteenth century by a series of treaties and wars forming the Portuguese colony of Angola. Taking advantage of the Portuguese Restoration War, the Dutch occupied Luanda from 1641 to 1648, where they allied with local peoples, consolidating their colonial rule against the remaining Portuguese resistance. In 1648, Portugal retook Luanda and initiated a conquest of the lost territories, which restored Portugal to its former possessions by 1650. Treaties regulated relations with Congo in 1649 and Njinga's Kingdom of Matamba and Ndongo in 1656. The conquest of Pungo Andongo in 1671 was the last great Portuguese expansion, as attempts to invade Congo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Portugal expanded its territory behind the colony of Benguela in the eighteenth century, and began the attempt to occupy other regions in the mid-nineteenth century. The process resulted in few gains until the 1880s. Development of the hinterland began after the Berlin Conference in 1885 fixed the colony's borders, and British and Portuguese investment fostered mining, railways, and agriculture. Full Portuguese administrative control of the hinterland did not occur until the beginning of the twentieth century. In 1951, the colony was designated as an overseas province, called Overseas Province of Angola. Portugal had a presence in Angola for nearly five hundred years, and the population's initial reaction to calls for independence was mixed. More overtly political organisations first appeared in the 1950s, and began to make organised demands for their rights, especially in international forums such as the Non-Aligned Movement. The Portuguese regime, meanwhile, refused to accede to the nationalist's demands of separatism, provoking an armed conflict that started in 1961 when black guerrillas attacked both white and black civilians in cross-border operations in northeastern Angola. The war came to be known as the Colonial War. In this struggle, the principal protagonists were the MPLA (Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola), founded in 1956, the FNLA (National Front for the Liberation of Angola), which appeared in 1961, and UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola), founded in 1966. After many years of conflict, Angola gained its independence on 11 November 1975, after the 1974 coup d'état in the metropole's capital city of Lisbon which overthrew the Portuguese regime headed by Marcelo Caetano. Portugal's new revolutionary leaders began a process of democratic change at home and acceptance of its former colonies' independence abroad. These events prompted a mass exodus of Portuguese citizens from Portugal's African territories (mostly from Portuguese Angola and Mozambique), creating over a million destitute Portuguese refugees — the retornados. Dismantling the Portuguese Empire, Time Magazine (Monday, Jul. 07, 1975) Independence and civil war After independence in November 1975, Angola faced a devastating civil war which lasted several decades and claimed millions of lives and refugees. The Decolonization of Portuguese Africa: Metropolitan Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire by Norrie MacQueen - Mozambique since Independence: Confronting Leviathan by Margaret Hall, Tom Young - Author of Review: Stuart A. Notholt African Affairs, Vol. 97, No. 387 (Apr., 1998), pp. 276-278, JSTOR Following negotiations held in Portugal, itself under severe social and political turmoil and uncertainty due to the April 1974 military coup, Angola's three main guerrilla groups agreed to establish a transitional government in January 1975. Within two months, however, the FNLA, MPLA and UNITA were fighting each other and the country was well on its way to being divided into zones controlled by rival armed political groups. The superpowers were quickly drawn into the conflict, which became a flash point for the Cold War. The United States supported the FNLA and UNITA. The Soviet Union supported the MPLA. Ceasefire with UNITA On February 22, 2002, Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was killed in combat with government troops, and a cease-fire was reached by the two factions. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country began to stabilise, President dos Santos has so far refused to institute regular democratic processes. Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis (a result of the prolonged war), the abundance of minefields, and the actions of guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern exclave of Cabinda (Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda). While most of the internally displaced have now returned home, the general situation for most Angolans remains desperate, and the development facing the government challenging as a consequence. Lari (2004), Human Rights Watch (2005) Politics Angola's motto is Virtus Unita Fortior, a Latin phrase meaning "Virtue is stronger when united." The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently Paulo Kassoma) and the Council of Ministers. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the Presidency. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only twelve of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization. Parliamentary elections held on September, 5th, 2008, announced MPLA as the winning party with 81% of votes. The closest opposition party was UNITA with 10%. These elections were the first since 1992. Administrative divisions Angola is divided into eighteen provinces (províncias) and 163 municipalities. The provinces are: <li>Bengo <li>Benguela <li>Bié <li>Cabinda <li>Cuando Cubango <li>Cuanza Norte <li>Cuanza Sul <li>Cunene <li>Huambo<li>Huila <li>Luanda <li>Lunda Norte <li>Lunda Sul <li>Malanje <li>Moxico <li>Namibe <li>Uíge <li>Zaire Exclave of Cabinda With an area of approximately 7,283 km² (2,800 square miles), the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unique in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some wide, of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) along the lower Congo river. Cabinda borders the Congo Republic to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The town of Cabinda is the chief population center. According to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom live in neighboring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber and palm oil. The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname, "the Kuwait of Africa". Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output. Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under Portuguese rule by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards. Since Portugal handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independentist groups (MPLA, UNITA, and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the Government of Angola (which has employed its military forces, the FAA – Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists. The Cabindan separatists, FLEC-FAC, announced a virtual Federal Republic of Cabinda under the Presidency of N'Zita Henriques Tiago. One of the characteristics of the Cabindan independence movement is its constant fragmentation, into smaller and smaller factions, in a process which although not totally fomented by the Angolan government, is undoubtedly encouraged and duly exploited by it. Military The Angolan Armed Forces (AAF) is headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA), and Air and Air Defense Forces (Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is about 110,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 100,000 men and women. The Navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers, and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made EMB-312 Tucano for Training role, Czech-made L-39 for training and bombing role, Czech Zlin for training role and a variety of western made aircraft such as C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Aloutte III, etc. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Kinshasa) and the Republic of the Congo (Brazzaville). Police The National Police departments are: Public Order, Criminal Investigation, Traffic and Transport, Investigation and Inspection of Economic Activities, Taxation and Frontier Supervision, Riot Police and the Rapid Intervention Police. The National Police are in the process of standing up an air wing, which will provide helicopter support for police operations. The National Police are also developing their criminal investigation and forensic capabilities. The National Police has an estimated 6,000 patrol officers, 2,500 Taxation and Frontier Supervision officers, 182 criminal investigators and 100 financial crimes detectives and around 90 Economic Activity Inspectors. The National Police have implemented a modernization and development plan to increase the capabilities and efficiency of the total force. In addition to administrative reorganization; modernization projects include procurement of new vehicles, aircraft and equipment, construction of new police stations and forensic laboratories, restructured training programs and the replacement of AKM rifles with 9 mm UZIs for police officers in urban areas. Geography At 481,321 square miles (1,246,700 km²), Angola is the world's twenty-third largest country (after Niger). It is comparable in size to Mali and is nearly twice the size of the US state of Texas, or five times the area of the United Kingdom. Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, and the South Atlantic Ocean to the west. The exclave of Cabinda also borders the Republic of the Congo to the north. Angola's capital, Luanda, lies on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of the country. Angola's average temperature on the coast is 60 degrees Fahrenheit (16 °C) in the winter and 70 degrees Fahrenheit (21 °C) in the summer. Economy Angola's economy has undergone a period of transformation in recent years, moving from the disarray caused by a quarter century of war to being the second fastest growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest in the world. In 2004, China's Eximbank approved a $2 billion line of credit to Angola. The loan is being used to rebuild Angola's infrastructure, and has also limited the influence of the International Monetary Fund in the country. Growth is almost entirely driven by rising oil production which surpassed in late-2005 and which is expected to grow to by 2007. Control of the oil industry is consolidated in Sonangol Group, a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of OPEC. The economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007 and it's expected to stay above 10% for the rest of the decade. The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has led to the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons, thus resulting in large-scale increases in agriculture production. The country's economy has grown since achieving political stability in 2002. However, it faces huge social and economic problems as a result of the almost continual state of conflict from 1961 onwards, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of civil war. The oil sector, with its fast-rising earnings has been the main driving force behind improvements in overall economic activity – nevertheless, poverty remains widespread. Anti-corruption watchdog Transparency International rated Angola one of the 10 most corrupt countries in the world in 2005. The capital city is the most developed and the only large economic centre worth mentioning in the country, however, slums called musseques, stretch for miles beyond Luanda's former city limits. According to the Heritage Foundation, a conservative American think tank, oil production from Angola has increased so significantly that Angola now is China's biggest supplier of oil. Into Africa: China's Grab for Influence and Oil Transport Transport in Angola consists of: Three separate railway systems totalling 2,761kms 76,626kms of highway of which 19,156kms is paved 1,295 navigable inland waterways Eight major sea ports 243 airports, of which 32 are paved. Demographics Angola is composed of Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestiços (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, and 22% 'other' ethnic groups. CIA - The World Factbook - Angola The two Mbundu nations combined form a majority of the population, at 62%. It is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo (Congo-Kinshasa) who arrived in the 1970s. [U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. "World Refugee Survey 2008." Available Online at: http://www.refugees.org/countryreports.aspx?id=2117. pp.37 ] As of 2008 there were an estimated 400,000 DRC migrant workers, World Refugee Survey 2008 - Angola, UNHCR at least 30,000 Portuguese, Angola, U.S. Department of State and at least 20,000 Chinese living in Angola. ANGOLA: Prevention made in China, PlusNews, November 12, 2008 Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 500,000 Portuguese. Flight from Angola, The Economist , August 16, 1975 Languages Portuguese is spoken as a first language by 60% of the population, and as a second language by another 20%. The majority dominance of Portuguese over the native Mbundu and other African languages is due to a strong influence from Portugal and Brazil, as opposed to in Mozambique, which being more remote from the Lusosphere, retained a majority of Bantu language speakers. Religion Christianity is the major religion in Angola at 53 percent. Of the Christians in Angola, 72% are Roman Catholic, and 28% are Protestant. 47% of Angolans practice indigenous beliefs. CIA World Factbook The Roman Catholic Church claims 6.5 million adherents, but such figures could not be verified. The major Protestant denominations also are present, along with a number of indigenous African and Brazilian Christian denominations. The largest Protestant denominations include the Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists (United Church of Christ), and Assemblies of God. The largest syncretic religious group is the Kimbanguist Church, whose followers believe that a mid-20th century Congolese pastor named Joseph Kimbangu was a prophet. A small portion of the country's rural population practises animism or traditional indigenous religions. There is a small Islamic community based around migrants from West Africa. In colonial times, the country's coastal populations primarily were Catholic while the Protestant mission groups were active inland. With the massive social displacement caused by 26 years of civil war, this rough division is no longer valid. Foreign missionaries were very active prior to independence in 1975, although the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled many Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them from restoring many of their former inland mission stations. U.S. Deptartment of State Health A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient niacin status was common in Angola. Epidemies of cholera, malaria, rabies and African hemorrhagic fevers like Marburg hemorrhagic fever, are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of tuberculosis and high HIV prevalence rates. Dengue, filariasis, leishmaniasis, and onchocerciasis (river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest infant mortality rates in the world and one of the world's lowest life expectancies. Education Although by law, education in Angola is compulsory and free for 8 years, the government reports that a certain percentage of students are not attending school due to a lack of school buildings and teachers.<ref name=ilab>"Botswana". 2005 Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor. Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor (2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> Students are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies. In 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 percent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 percent. Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of students formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance. There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 percent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school. It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls. During the Angolan Civil War (1975-2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding. The Ministry of Education hired 20,000 new teachers in 2005, and continued to implement teacher trainings. Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained, and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day). Teachers also reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their students. Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health also prevent children from regularly attending school. Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded. Literacy is quite low, with 67.4% of the population over the age of 15 able to read and write in Portuguese. 82.9% of males and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001. Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at Portuguese high schools, polytechnical institutes, and universities, through bilateral agreements between the Portuguese Government and the Angolan Government; in general these students belong to the Angolan elites. Culture Portugal ruled over Angola for 400 years and both countries share cultural aspects: language (Portuguese) and main religion (Roman Catholic Christianity). The Angolan culture is mostly native Bantu which was mixed with Portuguese culture. In the Moxico province more than 10,000 persons are Spanish-speaking (ca. 4.34% of the population of this province) due to the presence of Cuban troops during the Angolan Civil War (1975-2002). See also Further reading Le Billon, P. (2005). "Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola." Disasters 29(1): 1-25. Bösl, Anton (2008). Angola´s Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy, KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008. http://www.kas.de/wf/de/33.15186/ Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000). Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. Global Witness (1999). A Crude Awakening, The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness. http://www.globalwitness.org/media_library_detail.php/93/en/a_crude_awakening Hodges, T. (2004). Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press. Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/angola0104/ Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch. http://hrw.org/reports/2005/angola0305/ Kapuściński, Ryszard. Another Day of Life, Penguin, 1975. ISBN 014118678X. A Polish journalist's account of Portuguese withdrawal from Angola and the beginning of the civil war. Ryszard Kapuściński Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2." Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95-106. Lari, A. (2004). Returning home to a normal life? The plight of displaced Angolans. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/85/Paper85.pdf Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004). "International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post-Conflict, A Case Study of Angola." African Security Review 13(4): 29-41. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No4/FLari.pdf Le Billon, P. (2001). "Angola’s Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds." African Affairs(100): 55-80. Médecins Sans Frontières (2002). Angola: Sacrifice of a People. Luanda, Angola, MSF. http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/publications/reports/2002/angola1_10-2002.pdf Pinto Escoval (2004): "Staatszerfall im südlichen Afrika. Das Beispiel Angola". Wissenschaftlicher Verlag BerlinMuch of the material in these articles comes from the CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.Pearce, J. (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas." 2005.African Security Review 13 (2), 2004, pp 51–64. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/ASR/13No2/AW.pdf Porto, J. G. (2003). Cabinda: Notes on a soon to be forgotten war. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies. http://www.iss.co.za/pubs/papers/77/Paper77.html Tvedten, I. (1997). Angola, Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press. Vines, A. (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch. Godfrey Mwakikagile, Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era, Third Edition, Pretoria, South Africa, 2006, on Angola in Chapter Eleven, "American Involvement in Angola and Southern Africa: Nyerere's Response," pp. 324 – 346, ISBN 978-0980253412. References External links Government Global Integrity Report: Angola has information on Angola's anti-corruption efforts. Republic of Angola official government portal (Portuguese only) National Assembly of Angola (Portuguese only) Embassy of Angola in Washington DC Embassy of Angola in Ottawa, Canada Chief of State and Cabinet Members General information Angola from UCB Libraries GovPubs Media Angola news headline links from AllAfrica.com Angola Press Government-controlled news agency (Portuguese, French, English) Angonoticias popular news source in Angola (Portuguese only) Televisão Pública de Angola state-owned national TV station (Portuguese only) Rádio Nacional de Angola state-owned national radio station (Portuguese only) Jornal de Angola popular newspaper in Angola (Portuguese only) Nação Ovimbundu chronicles and articles — Angola (Portuguese only) List of newspapers from Newspaper Index'' Canal Angola - Site of Kizomba Music Kizomba.ORG - Site of Kizomba Videos Tourism be-x-old:Ангола | Angola |@lemmatized angola:93 officially:1 republic:14 country:19 south:10 central:1 africa:17 border:7 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6,278 | Emperor_Kaika | Tomb, said to be that of Emperor Kaika, Nara ; also known as Wakayamatonekohikooobi no Mikoto; is the 9th emperor of Japan to appear on the traditional list of emperors. Brown, Delmer et al. (1979). Gukanshō, p. 252; Varley, Paul. (1980). Jinnō Shōtōki, p. 93; Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Annales des empereurs du japon, pp. 6-7. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor's life or reign. Kaika is regarded by historians as a "legendary emperor" because of the paucity of information abRather, scholars can only lamout him, which does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed. There is insufficient material available for further verification and study. In Kojiki and Nihonshoki, only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese have traditionally accepted this sovereign's historical existence, and an Imperial misasagi or tomb for Kaika is currently maintained; however, no extant contemporary records have been discovered which confirm a view that this historical figure actually reigned. He was the eighth of eight emperors without specific legends associated with them, also known as the . Aston, William. (1998). Nihongi, Vol. 1, pp. 148-149. Later generations may have included this name to the list of emperors of Japan, thus making him posthumously an emperor and assigning him as one of the early sovereigns and ancestors of the dynasty that has reigned unbroken since time immemorial. If he lived, at his time the title tenno was not yet used, and the polity he possibly ruled did certainly not contain all or even the most of Japan. In the context created by his alleged successors in beginnings of historical time, it becomes reasonable to conclude that Kaika, if he existed, might have been a chieftain or a regional king in early Yamato tribal society. Jien records that Kaika was the second son of Emperor Kōgen, and that he ruled from the palace of Isakawa-no-miya at Kasuga in what will come to be known as Yamato province. Brown, p. 252. Kaika is a posthumous name. It is undisputed that this identification is Chinese in form and Buddhist in implication, which suggests that the name must have been regularized centuries after the lifetime ascribed to Kaika, possibly during the time in which legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty were compiled as the chronicles known today as the Kojiki. Notes References Aston, William George. (1896). Nihongi: Chronicles of Japan from the Earliest Times to A.D. 697. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. [reprinted by Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo, 2007. 10-ISBN 0-8048-0984-4; 13-ISBN 978-0-8048-0984-9] Brown, Delmer M. and Ichirō Ishida, eds. (1979). [ Jien, c. 1220], Gukanshō (The Future and the Past, a translation and study of the Gukanshō, an interpretative history of Japan written in 1219). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03460-0 Ponsonby-Fane, Richard Arthur Brabazon. (1959). The Imperial House of Japan. Kyoto: Ponsonby Memorial Society. OCLC 194887 Titsingh, Isaac, ed. (1834). [Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/Hayashi Gahō, 1652], Nipon o daï itsi ran; ou, [http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran Annales des empereurs du Japon.] Paris: Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. Varley, H. Paul , ed. (1980). [ Kitabatake Chikafusa, 1359], Jinnō Shōtōki ("A Chronicle of Gods and Sovereigns: Jinnō Shōtōki of Kitabatake Chikafusa" translated by H. Paul Varley). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-04940-4 See also Emperor of Japan List of Emperors of Japan Imperial cult | Emperor_Kaika |@lemmatized tomb:2 say:1 emperor:11 kaika:7 nara:1 also:3 know:4 wakayamatonekohikooobi:1 mikoto:1 japan:8 appear:1 traditional:1 list:3 brown:3 delmer:2 et:1 al:1 gukanshō:3 p:3 varley:3 paul:4 jinnō:3 shōtōki:3 titsingh:2 isaac:2 annales:2 des:1 empereurs:2 du:2 japon:2 pp:2 firm:1 date:1 assign:2 life:1 reign:3 regard:1 historian:1 legendary:1 paucity:1 information:1 abrather:1 scholar:1 lamout:1 necessarily:1 imply:1 person:1 ever:1 exist:2 insufficient:1 material:1 available:1 verification:1 study:2 kojiki:2 nihonshoki:1 name:4 genealogy:1 record:3 japanese:1 traditionally:1 accept:1 sovereign:3 historical:3 existence:1 imperial:3 misasagi:1 currently:1 maintain:1 however:1 extant:1 contemporary:1 discover:1 confirm:1 view:1 figure:1 actually:1 eighth:1 eight:1 without:1 specific:1 legend:1 associate:1 aston:2 william:2 nihongi:2 vol:1 late:1 generation:1 may:1 include:1 thus:1 make:1 posthumously:1 one:1 early:3 ancestor:1 dynasty:2 unbroken:1 since:1 time:5 immemorial:1 live:1 title:1 tenno:1 yet:1 use:1 polity:1 possibly:2 rule:2 certainly:1 contain:1 even:1 context:1 create:1 alleged:1 successor:1 beginning:1 become:1 reasonable:1 conclude:1 might:1 chieftain:1 regional:1 king:1 yamato:3 tribal:1 society:2 jien:2 second:1 son:1 kōgen:1 palace:1 isakawa:1 miya:1 kasuga:1 come:1 province:1 posthumous:1 undisputed:1 identification:1 chinese:1 form:1 buddhist:1 implication:1 suggest:1 must:1 regularize:1 century:1 lifetime:1 ascribe:1 legends:1 origin:1 compile:1 chronicle:3 today:1 note:1 reference:1 george:1 london:1 kegan:1 trench:1 trubner:1 reprint:1 tuttle:1 publishing:1 tokyo:1 isbn:4 ichirō:1 ishida:1 ed:3 c:1 future:1 past:1 translation:2 interpretative:1 history:1 write:1 berkeley:1 university:2 california:1 press:2 ponsonby:2 fane:1 richard:1 arthur:1 brabazon:1 house:1 kyoto:1 memorial:1 oclc:1 siyun:1 sai:1 rin:1 siyo:1 hayashi:1 gahō:1 nipon:2 daï:1 itsi:2 run:2 ou:1 http:1 book:2 google:1 com:1 id:1 dq:1 dai:1 de:1 paris:1 oriental:1 fund:1 great:1 britain:1 ireland:1 h:2 kitabatake:2 chikafusa:2 god:1 translate:1 new:1 york:1 columbia:1 see:1 cult:1 |@bigram brown_delmer:2 delmer_et:1 et_al:1 paul_jinnō:1 jinnō_shōtōki:3 titsingh_isaac:2 isaac_annales:1 annales_des:1 des_empereurs:1 empereurs_du:2 du_japon:2 japon_pp:1 emperor_paucity:1 paucity_information:1 kojiki_nihonshoki:1 imperial_misasagi:1 misasagi_tomb:1 william_nihongi:1 nihongi_vol:1 title_tenno:1 tenno_yet:1 yamato_tribal:1 yamato_province:1 undisputed_identification:1 must_regularize:1 yamato_dynasty:1 george_nihongi:1 nihongi_chronicle:1 kegan_paul:1 trench_trubner:1 trubner_reprint:1 reprint_tuttle:1 tuttle_publishing:1 delmer_ichirō:1 ichirō_ishida:1 ishida_ed:1 ed_jien:1 jien_c:1 gukanshō_future:1 gukanshō_interpretative:1 ponsonby_fane:1 fane_richard:1 arthur_brabazon:1 brabazon_imperial:1 kyoto_ponsonby:1 ponsonby_memorial:1 oclc_titsingh:1 ed_siyun:1 siyun_sai:1 sai_rin:1 rin_siyo:1 siyo_hayashi:1 hayashi_gahō:1 gahō_nipon:1 nipon_daï:1 daï_itsi:1 itsi_run:2 id_dq:1 dq_nipon:1 nipon_dai:1 dai_itsi:1 japon_paris:1 ireland_varley:1 varley_h:1 ed_kitabatake:1 kitabatake_chikafusa:2 chikafusa_jinnō:1 shōtōki_chronicle:1 sovereign_jinnō:1 shōtōki_kitabatake:1 chikafusa_translate:1 paul_varley:1 |
6,279 | International_trade | Ancient silk road trade routes across Eurasia. International trade is exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories. dictionary.reference.com In most countries, it represents a significant share of gross domestic product (GDP). While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. Industrialization, advanced transportation, globalization, multinational corporations, and outsourcing are all having a major impact on the international trade system. Increasing international trade is crucial to the continuance of globalization. International trade is a major source of economic revenue for any nation that is considered a world power. Without international trade, nations would be limited to the goods and services produced within their own borders. International trade is in principle not different from domestic trade as the motivation and the behavior of parties involved in a trade does not change fundamentally depending on whether trade is across a border or not. The main difference is that international trade is typically more costly than domestic trade. The reason is that a border typically imposes additional costs such as tariffs, time costs due to border delays and costs associated with country differences such as language, the legal system or a different culture. International trade uses a variety of currencies, the most important of which are held as foreign reserves by governments and central banks. Here the percentage of global cummulative reserves held for each currency between 1995 and 2005 are shown: the US dollar is the most sought-after currency, with the Euro in strong demand as well. Another difference between domestic and international trade is that factors of production such as capital and labor are typically more mobile within a country than across countries. Thus international trade is mostly restricted to trade in goods and services, and only to a lesser extent to trade in capital, labor or other factors of production. Then trade in good and services can serve as a substitute for trade in factors of production. Instead of importing the factor of production a country can import goods that make intensive use of the factor of production and are thus embodying the respective factor. An example is the import of labor-intensive goods by the United States from China. Instead of importing Chinese labor the United States is importing goods from China that were produced with Chinese labor. International trade is also a branch of economics, which, together with international finance, forms the larger branch of international economics. Models Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs. Ricardian model The Panama Canal is important for international sea trade between the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. The Ricardian model focuses on comparative advantage and is perhaps the most important concept in international trade theory. In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in producing what they produce best. Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries will fully specialize instead of producing a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country. Assumptions of the Ricardian model (1) Labor is the only primary input to production (labor is considered to be the ultimate source of value). (2) Constant Marginal Product of Labor (MPL) (Labor productivity is constant, constant returns to scale, and simple technology. (3) Limited amount of labor in the economy (4) Labor is perfectly mobile among sectors but not internationally. (5) Pure competition (price-takers). The Ricardian model measures in the short-run, therefore technology differs internationally. This supports the fact that countries follow their comparative advantage and allows for specialization. Heckscher-Ohlin model The Heckscher-Ohlin model was produced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its greater complexity it did not prove much more accurate in its predictions. However from a theoretical point of view it did provide an elegant solution by incorporating the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory. The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in factor endowments. It predicts that countries will export those goods that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will import goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce. Empirical problems with the H-O model, known as the Leontief paradox, were exposed in empirical tests by Wassily Leontief who found that the United States tended to export labor intensive goods despite having a capital abundance. Core assumptions of the H-O model: (1) Labor and capital flow freely between sectors (2) The production of shoes is labor intensive and computers is capital intensive (3) The amount of labor and capital in two countries differ (difference in endowments) (4) free trade (5) technology is the same across countries (long-term) (6) Tastes are the same. Specific factors model Global Competitiveness Index (2006-2007): competitiveness is an important determinant for the well-being of states in an international trade environment. In this model, labour mobility between industries is possible while capital is immobile between industries in the short-run. Thus, this model can be interpreted as a 'short run' version of the Heckscher-Ohlin model. The specific factors name refers to the given that in the short-run, specific factors of production such as physical capital are not easily transferable between industries. The theory suggests that if there is an increase in the price of a good, the owners of the factor of production specific to that good will profit in real terms. Additionally, owners of opposing specific factors of production (i.e. labour and capital) are likely to have opposing agendas when lobbying for controls over immigration of labour. Conversely, both owners of capital and labour profit in real terms from an increase in the capital endowment. This model is ideal for particular industries. This model is ideal for understanding income distribution but awkward for discussing the pattern of trade. New Trade Theory New Trade theory tries to explain several facts about trade, which the two main models above have difficulty with. These include the fact that most trade is between countries with similar factor endowment and productivity levels, and the large amount of multinational production(i.e.foreign direct investment) which exists. In one example of this framework, the economy exhibits monopolistic competition and increasing returns to scale. Gravity model The Gravity model of trade presents a more empirical analysis of trading patterns rather than the more theoretical models discussed above. The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes. The model mimics the Newtonian law of gravity which also considers distance and physical size between two objects. The model has been proven to be empirically strong through econometric analysis. Other factors such as income level, diplomatic relationships between countries, and trade policies are also included in expanded versions of the model. Regulation of international trade Traditionally trade was regulated through bilateral treaties between two nations. For centuries under the belief in Mercantilism most nations had high tariffs and many restrictions on international trade. In the 19th century, especially in the United Kingdom, a belief in free trade became paramount. This belief became the dominant thinking among western nations since then. In the years since the Second World War, controversial multilateral treaties like the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and World Trade Organization have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure. These trade agreements have often resulted in protest and discontent with claims of unfair trade that is not mutually beneficial. Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nations, though they often engage in selective protectionism for those industries which are strategically important such as the protective tariffs applied to agriculture by the United States and Europe. The Netherlands and the United Kingdom were both strong advocates of free trade when they were economically dominant, today the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and Japan are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries (such as India, China and Russia) are increasingly becoming advocates of free trade as they become more economically powerful themselves. As tariff levels fall there is also an increasing willingness to negotiate non tariff measures, including foreign direct investment, procurement and trade facilitation. The latter looks at the transaction cost associated with meeting trade and customs procedures. Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism. This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services. During recessions there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic industries. This occurred around the world during the Great Depression. Many economists have attempted to portray tariffs as the underlining reason behind the collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression. The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 27 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) failed largely because of opposition from the populations of Latin American nations. Similar agreements such as the Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI) have also failed in recent years. Risks in international trade The risks that exist in international trade can be divided into two major groups Economic risks Risk of insolvency of the buyer, Risk of protracted default - the failure of the buyer to pay the amount due within six months after the due date Risk of non-acceptance Surrendering economic sovereignty Risk of exchange rate Susceptibility to changing standards & regulations within other countries Political risks Risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licenses War risks Risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company Risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods Transfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign currency shortages Surrendering political sovereignty Influence of political parties in importer's company Relations with other countries Gallery See also Absolute advantage Balance of trade Borderless Selling Columbian Exchange Commercial Revolution Comparative advantage Customs union Ecological Economics Economics Export Free trade Free trade area Globalization and Health Gravity model of trade Import (international trade) International trade law International Trade Awards Internationalization List of countries by current account balance List of countries by imports List of countries by exports List of international trade topics List of economists Market Segmentation Index Mercantilism Most favoured nation clause OPEC Political risk Protectionism Single Window System The Grand Exchange Trade bloc Trade facilitation Trade finance UNCTAD World Trade Organisation Footnotes External links The Expected Benefits of Trade Liberalization for World Income and Development: Opening the "Black Box" of Global Trade Modeling by Antoine Bouët (2008) The McGill Faculty of Law runs a Regional Trade Agreements Database that contains the text of almost all preferential and regional trade agreements in the world. ptas.mcgill.ca Interactive Ricardian Model Simulator Consumers for World Trade Education Fund electronic trade library International trade, Encyclopædia Britannica Benefits of International Trade Should trade be considered a human right? Data United Nations Commodity Trade Database World Bank's Trade and Production Database Resources for data on trade, including the gravity model European Union Trade Data Agricultural Trade Data by FAO Brazilian Trade Data Statistical Portal: OECD Asia-Pacific Trade Agreements Database (APTIAD) Asia-Pacific Research and Training Network on Trade (ARTNeT) | International_trade |@lemmatized ancient:1 silk:2 road:3 trade:89 route:1 across:5 eurasia:1 international:32 exchange:5 capital:13 good:15 service:5 border:5 territory:1 dictionary:1 reference:1 com:1 country:23 represent:1 significant:1 share:1 gross:1 domestic:6 product:2 gdp:1 present:2 throughout:1 much:2 history:1 see:2 amber:1 economic:5 social:1 political:5 importance:1 rise:1 recent:3 century:3 industrialization:1 advanced:1 transportation:1 globalization:3 multinational:2 corporation:1 outsource:1 major:4 impact:1 system:3 increase:6 crucial:1 continuance:1 source:2 revenue:1 nation:9 consider:5 world:11 power:1 without:1 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6,280 | Great_Rift_Valley | The Sinai Peninsula at centre and the Dead Sea and River Jordan valley above The Great Rift Valley is a name given in the late 19th century by British explorer John Walter Gregory to the continuous geographic trough, approximately in length, that runs from northern Syria in Southwest Asia to central Mozambique in East Africa. The name continues in some usages, although it is today considered geologically imprecise as it includes what are today regarded as separate, since 1869 due to the Suez Canal Company project, although related rift and fault systems. Today, the term is most often used to refer to the valley of the East African Rift, the divergent plate boundary which extends from the Afar Triple Junction southward across eastern Africa, and is in the process of splitting the African Plate into two new separate plates. Geologists generally refer to these incipient plates as the Nubian and Somalian subplates or protoplates. Geography The Great Rift Valley as originally described extends from Lebanon in the north to Mozambique in the south, and constitutes one of two distinct physiographic provinces of the East African Highlands physiographic division. The northernmost part of the Rift, today called the Dead Sea Transform or Rift, forms the Beqaa Valley in Lebanon separating the Lebanon Mountains and Anti-Lebanon Mountains. Further south it is known as the Hula Valley separating the Galilee mountains and the Golan Heights. The River Jordan begins here and flows southward through Lake Hula into the Sea of Galilee in Israel, then continues south through the Jordan Valley into the Dead Sea on the Israeli-Jordanian border. From the Dead Sea southwards, the Rift is occupied by the Wadi Arabah, then the Gulf of Aqaba, and then the Red Sea. Off the southern tip of Sinai in the Red Sea, the Dead Sea Transform meets the Red Sea Rift which runs the length of the Red Sea. The Red Sea Rift comes ashore to meet the East African Rift and the Aden Ridge in the Afar Depression of East Africa. The junction of these three rifts is called the Afar Triple Junction. The Jordan Rift Valley from space In eastern Africa the valley divides into two, the Western Rift Valley and the Eastern Rift Valley. The Western Rift, also called the Albertine Rift, is edged by some of the highest mountains in Africa, including the Virunga Mountains, Mitumba Mountains, and Ruwenzori Range. It contains the Rift Valley lakes, which include some of the deepest lakes in the world (up to 1,470 meters deep at Lake Tanganyika). Lake Victoria, the second largest area freshwater lake in the world, is considered part of the Rift Valley system although it actually lies between the two branches. All of the African Great Lakes were formed as the result of the rift, and most lie within its rift valley. In Kenya the valley is deepest to the north of Nairobi. As the lakes in the Eastern Rift have no outlet to the sea and tend to be shallow they have a high mineral content as the evaporation of water leaves the salts behind. For example, Lake Magadi has high concentrations of soda (sodium carbonate) and Lake Elmenteita, Lake Bogoria, and Lake Nakuru are all strongly alkaline, while the freshwater springs supplying Lake Naivasha are essential to support its current biological variety. Map of East Africa showing some of the historically active volcanoes (red triangles) and the Afar Triangle (shaded, center) — a triple junction where three plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone (USGS). Discoveries in human evolution The Rift Valley in East Africa has been a rich source of fossils that allow study of human evolution, especially in an area known as Piedmont. Because the rapidly eroding highlands have filled the valley with sediments, a favorable environment for the preservation of remains has been created. The bones of several hominid ancestors of modern humans have been found there, including those of "Lucy", a nearly complete australopithecine skeleton, which was discovered by anthropologist Donald Johanson. Richard and Mary Leakey have also done significant work in this region. More recently, two other hominid ancestors have been discovered there: a 10 million year-old ape called Chororapithecus abyssinicus, found in the Afar rift, in eastern Ethiopia, and the Nakalipithecus nakayamai, which is also 10 million years old. Further reading Africa's Great Rift Valley, 2001, ISBN 0810906023 Tribes of the Great Rift Valley, 2007, ISBN 9780810994119 East African Rift Valley lakes, 2006, OCLC 76876862 Photographic atlas of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Rift Valley, 1977, ISBN 0387902473 Rift Valley fever : an emerging human and animal problem, 1982, ISBN 9241700637 See also Graben Horst (geology) Notes External links Small simple-coloured map Maps from the Albertine Rift Programme The Great Rift Valley be-x-old:Вялікая рыфтавая даліна | Great_Rift_Valley |@lemmatized sinai:2 peninsula:1 centre:1 dead:5 sea:12 river:2 jordan:4 valley:23 great:6 rift:31 name:2 give:1 late:1 century:1 british:1 explorer:1 john:1 walter:1 gregory:1 continuous:1 geographic:1 trough:1 approximately:1 length:2 run:2 northern:1 syria:1 southwest:1 asia:1 central:1 mozambique:2 east:9 africa:8 continue:2 usage:1 although:3 today:4 consider:2 geologically:1 imprecise:1 include:4 regard:1 separate:4 since:1 due:1 suez:1 canal:1 company:1 project:1 related:1 fault:1 system:2 term:1 often:1 use:1 refer:2 african:8 divergent:1 plate:7 boundary:1 extend:1 afar:5 triple:3 junction:4 southward:3 across:1 eastern:5 process:1 split:1 two:6 new:1 geologist:1 generally:1 incipient:1 nubian:2 somalian:2 subplates:1 protoplates:1 geography:1 originally:1 describe:1 extends:1 lebanon:4 north:2 south:3 constitute:1 one:2 distinct:1 physiographic:2 province:1 highland:2 division:1 northernmost:1 part:3 call:4 transform:2 form:2 beqaa:1 mountain:6 anti:1 far:1 know:2 hula:2 galilee:2 golan:1 height:1 begin:1 flow:1 lake:14 israel:1 israeli:1 jordanian:1 border:1 occupy:1 wadi:1 arabah:1 gulf:1 aqaba:1 red:6 southern:1 tip:1 meet:2 come:1 ashore:1 aden:1 ridge:2 depression:1 three:2 space:1 divide:1 western:2 also:4 albertine:2 edge:1 high:3 virunga:1 mitumba:1 ruwenzori:1 range:1 contain:1 deep:3 world:2 meter:1 tanganyika:1 victoria:1 second:1 large:1 area:2 freshwater:2 actually:1 lie:2 branch:1 result:1 within:1 kenya:1 nairobi:1 outlet:1 tend:1 shallow:1 mineral:1 content:1 evaporation:1 water:1 leave:1 salt:1 behind:1 example:1 magadi:1 concentration:1 soda:1 sodium:1 carbonate:1 elmenteita:1 bogoria:1 nakuru:1 strongly:1 alkaline:1 spring:1 supply:1 naivasha:1 essential:1 support:1 current:1 biological:1 variety:1 map:3 show:1 historically:1 active:1 volcano:1 triangle:2 shade:1 center:1 pull:1 away:1 another:1 arabian:1 splitting:1 along:1 zone:1 usgs:1 discovery:1 human:4 evolution:2 rich:1 source:1 fossil:1 allow:1 study:1 especially:1 piedmont:1 rapidly:1 erode:1 fill:1 sediment:1 favorable:1 environment:1 preservation:1 remains:1 create:1 bone:1 several:1 hominid:2 ancestor:2 modern:1 find:2 lucy:1 nearly:1 complete:1 australopithecine:1 skeleton:1 discover:2 anthropologist:1 donald:1 johanson:1 richard:1 mary:1 leakey:1 significant:1 work:1 region:1 recently:1 million:2 year:2 old:3 ape:1 chororapithecus:1 abyssinicus:1 ethiopia:1 nakalipithecus:1 nakayamai:1 reading:1 isbn:4 tribe:1 oclc:1 photographic:1 atlas:1 mid:1 atlantic:1 fever:1 emerge:1 animal:1 problem:1 see:1 graben:1 horst:1 geology:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 small:1 simple:1 colour:1 programme:1 x:1 вялікая:1 рыфтавая:1 даліна:1 |@bigram sinai_peninsula:1 rift_valley:15 suez_canal:1 triple_junction:3 physiographic_division:1 beqaa_valley:1 golan_height:1 gulf_aqaba:1 jordan_rift:1 ruwenzori_range:1 lake_tanganyika:1 freshwater_lake:1 sodium_carbonate:1 active_volcano:1 external_link:1 |
6,281 | Chinese_calendar | The Chinese calendar is lunisolar, incorporating elements of a lunar calendar with those of a solar calendar. It is not exclusive to China, but followed by many other Asian cultures. It is often referred to by the Western cultures as the Chinese calendar because it was first perfected by the Chinese around 500 BC http://afgen.com/calendars_time.html . In most of East Asia today, the Gregorian calendar is used for day to day activities, but the Chinese calendar is still used for marking traditional East Asian holidays such as the Chinese New Year (or Spring Festival (), not to be confused with Lunar New Year, which is the beginning for several lunisolar calendars), the Duan Wu festival, and the Mid-Autumn Festival, and in astrology, such as choosing the most auspicious date for a wedding or the opening of a building. Because each month follows one cycle of the moon, it is also used to determine the phases of the moon. In China, the traditional calendar is often referred to as "the Xia Calendar" (), following a comment in the Shiji which states that under the Xia Dynasty, the year began on the second new moon after the winter solstice. (At times under some other dynasties in ancient China, the year might begin on the first or third new moon after the winter solstice.) It is also known as the "agricultural calendar" () while the Gregorian calendar is known as the "common calendar" () or "Common calendar" . Another name for the Chinese calendar is the "Yin Calendar" () in reference to the lunar aspect of the calendar, whereas the Gregorian calendar is the "Yang Calendar" () in reference to its solar properties. The Chinese calendar was also called the "old calendar" () after the "new calendar" (), i.e. the Gregorian calendar, was adopted as the official calendar. Since the time of Emperor Wu of Han, starting the new year on the second new moon after winter solstice has been the norm for more than two thousand years. The year 2009 in the Chinese calendar is the year of the ox. It lasts from January 26, 2009 to February 14, 2010. According to traditional beliefs, some form of the calendar has been in use for almost five millennia. Based on archaeological evidence some form of it has been in use for three and a half millennia. It is reckoned in the seldom-used continuously numbered system as 4705, 4706, or 4645 (depending on the epoch used). History Early history The earliest evidence of the Chinese calendar is found on oracle bones of the Shang dynasty (late second millennium BC), which seem to describe a lunisolar year of twelve months, with a possible intercalary thirteenth, or even fourteenth, added empirically to prevent calendar drift. The Sexagenary cycle for recording days was already in use. Tradition holds that, in that era, the year began on the first new moon after the winter solstice. Early Eastern Zhou texts, such as the Spring and Autumn Annals, provide better understanding of the calendars used in the Zhou dynasty. One year usually had 12 months, which were alternately 29 and 30 days long (with an additional day added from time to time, to catch up with "drifts" between the calendar and the actual moon cycle), and intercalary months were added in an arbitrary fashion at the end of the year. These arbitrary rules on day and month intercalation caused the calendars of each state to be slightly different, at times. Thus, texts like the Annals will often state whether the calendar they use (the calendar of Lu) is in phase with the Royal calendar (used by the Zhou kings). Although tradition holds that in the Zhou, the year began on the new moon which preceded the winter solstice, the Spring and Autumn Annals seem to indicate that (in Lu at least) the Yin calendar (the calendar used in Shang dynasty, with years beginning on the first new moon after the winter solstice) was in use until the middle of the 7th century, and that the beginning of the year was shifted back one month around 650 BC. By the beginning of the Warring States, progress in astronomy and mathematics allowed the creation of calculated calendars (where intercalary months and days are set by a rule, and not arbitrarily). The sìfēn 四分 (quarter remainder) calendar, which began about 484 BCE, was the first calculated Chinese calendar, so named because it used a solar year of 365¼ days (the same as the 1st century BCE Julian Calendar of Rome), along with a 19-year (235-month) Rule Cycle, known in the West as the Metonic cycle. Deng, Yingke. (2005). Ancient Chinese Inventions. Translated by Wang Pingxing. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press (). ISBN 7508508378. Page 67. The year began on the new moon preceding the winter solstice, and intercalary months were inserted at the end of the year. In 256 BC, as the last Zhou king ceded his territory to Qin, a new calendar (the Qin calendar) began to be used. It followed the same principles as the Sifen calendar, except the year began one month before (the second new moon before the winter solstice, which now fell in the second month of the year). The Qin calendar was used during the Qin dynasty, and in the beginning of the Western Han dynasty. Taichu calendar The Emperor Wu of the Western Han dynasty introduced reforms that have governed the Chinese calendar ever since. His Tàichū (, "Grand Inception") calendar of 104 BCE had a year with the winter solstice in the eleventh month and designated as intercalary any calendar month (a month of 29 or 30 whole days) during which the sun does not pass a principal term (that is, remained within the same sign of the zodiac throughout). Because the sun's mean motion was used to calculate the jiéqì () (or seasonal markings) until 1645, this intercalary month was equally likely to occur after any month of the year. The conjunction of the sun and moon (the astronomical new moon) was calculated using the mean motions of both the sun and moon until 619, the second year of the Tang dynasty, when chronologists began to use true motions modeled using two offset opposing parabolas (with small linear and cubic components). Unfortunately, the parabolas did not meet smoothly at the mean motion, but met with a discontinuity or jump. The Taichu Calendar of 104 BCE set the tropical year at 365 days and the lunar month at 29 days. True sun and moon With the introduction of Western astronomy into China via the Jesuits, the motions of both the sun and moon began to be calculated with sinusoids in the 1645 Shíxiàn calendar (, Book of the Conformity of Time) of the Qing dynasty, made by the Jesuit Adam Schall. The true motion of the sun was now used to calculate the jiéqì, which caused the intercalary month to often occur after the second through the ninth months, but rarely after the tenth through first months. A few autumn-winter periods have one or two calendar months where the sun enters two signs of the zodiac, interspersed with two or three calendar months where the sun stays within one sign. Gregorian Reform and the 1929 time change The Gregorian calendar was adopted by the nascent Republic of China effective January 1, 1912 for official business, but the general populace continued to use the traditional calendar. The status of the Gregorian calendar was unclear between 1916 and 1921 while China was controlled by several competing warlords each supported by foreign colonial powers. From about 1921 until 1928 warlords continued to fight over northern China, but the Kuomintang or Nationalist government controlled southern China and used the Gregorian calendar. After the Kuomintang reconstituted the Republic of China October 10, 1928, the Gregorian calendar was officially adopted, effective 1 January, 1929. Along with this, the time zone for the whole country was adjusted to the coastal time zone that had been used in European treaty ports along the Chinese coast since 1904. This changed the beginning of each calendar day, for both the traditional and Gregorian calendars, by plus 14 minutes and 26 seconds from Beijing midnight to midnight at the longitude 120° east of Greenwich. This caused some discrepancies, such as with the 1978 Mid-Autumn Festival. There was a new moon on September 3, 1978, at 00:07, China standard time NASA - Moon Phases: 1901 to 2000 . Using the old Beijing timezone, the New Moon occurred at 23:53 on the 2nd, so the eighth month began on a different day in the calendars. Thus people in Hong Kong (using the traditional calendar) celebrated the Festival on 16 September, but those in the mainland celebrated on 17 September. http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/cal.pdf (see page 18) Calendar rules The following rules outline the Chinese calendar since c.104 BCE. Note: the rules allow either mean or true motions of the Sun and Moon to be used, depending on the historical period. The months are lunar months. This means the first day of each month beginning at midnight is the day of the astronomical dark moon. (Note, however, that a "day" in the Chinese calendar begins at 11 p.m. and not at midnight). Each year has 12 regular months, which are numbered in sequence (1 to 12) and have alternative names. Every second or third year has an intercalary month (), which may come after any regular month. It has the same number as the preceding regular month, but is designated intercalary. Every other jiéqì of the Chinese solar year is equivalent to an entry of the sun into a sign of the tropical zodiac (a principal term or cusp). The sun always passes the winter solstice (enters Capricorn) during month 11. If there are 12 months between two successive occurrences of month 11, at least one of these 12 months must be a month during which the sun remains within the same zodiac sign throughout (no principal term or cusp occurs within it). If only one such month occurs, it is designated intercalary, but if two such months occur, only the first is designated intercalary. The times of the astronomical new moons and the sun entering a zodiac sign are determined in the Chinese Time Zone by the Purple Mountain Observatory () outside Nanjing using modern astronomical equations. Chinese Americans use the Nanjing Calendar instead of defining a local one; accordingly, the new Moon can occur on the last day of the previous month according to their local USA time. For example, a new Moon occurred on May 16 2007 by USA time, but Chinese Americans still regard May 17 2007 as the first day of a new month. Further, they define the boundaries of the day according to USA local time zone. Thus rule number 1 is not followed in this case. The zodiac sign which the sun enters during the month and the ecliptic longitude of that entry point usually determine the number of a regular month. Month 1 (正月 zhēngyuè), literally means principal month. All other months are literally numbered, second month, third month, etc. # Chinese name Long. Zodiac sign 11 十一月 shíyīyuè 270° Capricorn 12 十二月 shí'èryuè 300° Aquarius 1 正月 zhēngyuè 330° Pisces 2 二月 èryuè 0° Aries 3 三月 sānyuè 30° Taurus 4 四月 sìyuè 60° Gemini 5 五月 wǔyuè 90° Cancer 6 六月 liùyuè 120° Leo 7 七月 qīyuè 150° Virgo 8 八月 bāyuè 180° Libra 9 九月 jiǔyuè 210° Scorpius 10 十月 shíyuè 240° Sagittarius Some believe the above correspondence to be always true, but there are exceptions, which, for example, prevent Chinese New Year from always being the second new moon after the winter solstice, or that cause the holiday to occur after the Rain Water jieqi. An exception will occur in 2033-2034, when the winter solstice is the second solar term in the eleventh month. The next month is a no-entry month and so is intercalary, and a twelfth month follows which contains both the Aquarius and Pisces solar terms (deep cold and rain water). The Year of the Tiger thus begins on the third new moon following the Winter Solstice, and also occurs after the Pisces (rain water) jieqi, on February 19. Another occurrence was in 1984-85, after the sun had entered both Capricorn at 270° and Aquarius at 300° in month 11, and then entered Pisces at 330° during the next month, which should have caused it to be month 1. The sun did not enter any sign during the next month. In order to keep the winter solstice in month 11, the month which should have been month 1 became month 12, and the month thereafter became month 1, causing Chinese New Year to occur on 20 February 1985 after the sun had already passed into Pisces at 330° during the previous month, rather than during the month beginning on that day. On those occasions when a dual-entry month does occur, it always occurs somewhere between two months that do not have any entry (non-entry months). It usually occurs alone and either includes the winter solstice or is nearby, thus placing the winter solstice in month 11 (rule 4) chooses which of the two non-entry months becomes the intercalary month. In 1984-85, the month immediately before the dual-entry month 11 was a non-entry month which was designated as an intercalary month 10. All months from the dual-entry month to the non-entry month that is not to be intercalary are sequentially numbered with the nearby regular months (rule 2). The last phrase of rule 5, choosing the first of two non-entry months between months 11, has not been required since the last calendar reform, and will not be necessary until the 2033-34 occasion, when two dual-entry months will be interspersed among three non-entry months, two of which will be on one side of month 11. The leap eleventh month produced is a very rare occasion. See http://www.chinesecalendar.net/ for details. Exceptions such as these are rare. Fully 96.6% of all months contain only one entry into a zodiacal sign (have one principal term or cusp), all obeying the numbering rules of the jiéqì table, and 3.0% of all months are intercalary months (always non-entry months between principal terms or cusps). Only 0.4% of all months either are dual-entry months (have two principal terms or cusps) or are neighboring months that are renumbered. It is only after the 1645 reform that this situation arose. Then it became necessary to fix one month to always contain its principal term and allow any other to occasionally not contain its principal term. Month 11 was chosen, because its principal term (the winter solstice) forms the start of the Chinese Solar year (the sui). The Chinese lunar calendar and the Gregorian Calendar often sync up every 19 years (Metonic cycle). Most Chinese people notice that their Chinese and Western birthdays often fall on the same day on their 19th, 38th birthday etc. However, a 19-year cycle with a certain set of intercalary months is only an approximation, so an almost identical pattern of intercalary months in subsequent cycles will eventually change after some multiple of 19 years to a quite different 19-year cycle. The Chinese zodiac (see Nomenclature and Twelve Animals sections) is only used in naming years—it is not used in the actual calculation of the calendar. In fact, the Chinese have a very different constellation system. The twelve months are closely connected with agriculture, so they are alternatively named after plants: Primens (first month) : Latin "primus mensis". Apricomens (apricot month) : apricot blossoms. Peacimens (peach month) : peach blossoms. Plumens (plum month) : plum ripens. Guavamens (guava month) : pomegranate blossoms. Lotumens (lotus month) : lotus blossoms. Orchimens (orchid month) : orchid blossoms. Osmanthumens (osmanthus month) : osmanthus blossoms. Chrysanthemens (chrysanthemum month) : chrysanthemum blossoms. Benimens (good month) : good month. Hiemens (hiemal month) : hiemal month. Lamens (last month) : last month. Year markings Regnal years Traditional Chinese years were not continuously numbered in the way that the BC/AD (BCE/CE) system is. More commonly, official year counting always used some form of a regnal year. This system began in 841 BCE during the Zhou dynasty. Prior to this, years were not marked at all, and historical events cannot be dated exactly. In 841 BCE, the Li King Hu of Zhou () was ousted by a civilian uprising (), and the country was governed for the next fourteen years by a council of senior ministers, a period known as the Regency (). In this period, years were marked as First (second, third, etc.) Year of the Regency. Subsequently, years were marked as regnal years, e.g., the year 825 BCE was marked as the 3rd Year of the Xuan King Jing of Zhou (). This system was used until early in the Han dynasty, when the Wen Emperor of Han () instituted regnal names. After this, most emperors used one or more regnal names to mark their reign. Usually, the emperor would institute a new name upon accession to the throne, and then change to new names to mark significant events, or to end a perceived cycle of bad luck. In the Ming dynasty, however, each emperor usually used only one regnal name for his reign. In Qing dynasty, each emperor used only one regnal name for his reign. This system continued until the Republic of China, which counted years as Years of the Republic, beginning in 1912. Thus, 1912 is the 1st Year of the Republic, and 1949 the 38th. This system is still used for official purposes in Taiwan. For the rest of China, in 1949 the People's Republic of China chose to use the Common Era system (equivalently, AD/BC system), in line with international standards. The stem-branch cycle The other system by which years are marked historically in China was by the stem-branch or sexagenary cycle. This system is based on two forms of counting: a cycle of 10 Heavenly Stems and a cycle of 12 Earthly Branches. Each year is named by a pair of one stem and one branch called a Stem-Branch ( gānzhī). The Heavenly Stems are associated with Yin Yang and the Five Elements. Recent 10-year periods began in 1984, 1994, and 2004. The Earthly Branches are associated with the twelve signs of the Zodiac. Each Earthly Branch is also associated with an animal, collectively known as the Twelve Animals. Recent 12-year periods began in 1984, 1996 and 2008. Within the Heavenly Stems system the year is advanced up by one per year, cycling back to year one after the last (year ten). Similarly the Earthly Branches also advances by one per year, cyclically. Since the numbers 10 (Heavenly Stems) and 12 (Earthly Branches) have a common factor of 2, only 1/2 of the 120 possible stem-branch combinations actually occur. The resulting 60-year (or sexagesimal) cycle takes the name jiǎzǐ () after the first year in the cycle, being the Heavenly Stem of jiǎ and Earthly Branch of zǐ. The term "jiǎzǐ" is used figuratively to mean "a full lifespan"—one who has lived more than a jiǎzǐ is obviously blessed. (Compare the Biblical "three-score years and ten.") At first, this system was used to mark days, not years. The earliest evidence of this were found on oracle bones dated c.1350 BCE in Shang Dynasty. This system of date marking continues to this day, and can still be found on Chinese calendars today. Although a stem-branch cannot be used to deduce the actual day in historical events, it can assist in converting Chinese dates to other calendars more accurately. Around the Han Dynasty, the stem-branch cycle also began to be used to mark years. The 60-year system cycles continuously, and determines the animal or sign under which a person is born (see Chinese Zodiac). These cycles were not named, and were used in conjunction with regnal names declared by the Emperor. For example: (Kāngxī rényín) (1662 AD) is the first (rényín) year during the reign of (Kāngxī), regnal name of an emperor of the Qing Dynasty The months and hours can also be denoted using Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, though they are commonly addressed using Chinese numerals instead. In Chinese astrology, four Stem-Branch pairs form the Eight Characters ( bāzì). Continuously-numbered years There is no universally agreed upon "epoch" or starting point for the Chinese calendar. Tradition holds that the calendar was invented by Emperor Huang-di () in the 61st year of his reign in what is now known under the proleptic Gregorian calendar as 2637 BCE. Many have used this date as the epoch, i.e. the first year of the first sixty-year (sexagesimal) cycle, of the Chinese calendar, but others have used the date of the beginning of his reign in 2697 BCE as the epoch. Since these dates are exactly sixty years apart, it does not matter which is used to determine the stem/branch sequence or the astrological sign for any succeeding year. That is, 2006 is a bingxu year and the Year of the Dog regardless of whether years are counted from 2637 BCE or 2697 BCE. For the most part, the imposition of a continuous numbering system on the Chinese calendar was of interest mostly to Jesuit missionaries and other Westerners who assumed that calendars obviously had to be continuous. However, in the early 20th century, some Chinese Republicans began to advocate widespread use of continuously numbered years, so that year markings would be independent of the Emperor's regnal name. (This was part of their attempt to delegitimise the Qing Dynasty.) When Sun Yat-sen became the provisional president of the Republic of China, he sent telegrams to leaders of all provinces and announced the 13th day of 11th Month of the 4609th year of the Yellow Emperor's reign (corresponding to 1 January 1912) to be the 1st year of the Republic of China. His choice was adopted by many overseas Chinese communities outside Southeast Asia such as San Francisco's Chinatown. Correspondence between systems This table shows the stem/branch year names, correspondences to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, and other related information for the current decade. The following link provides conversion of Chinese calendar dates to Western calendar dates: http://www.sinica.edu.tw/~tdbproj/sinocal/luso.html (These years are all part of the 79th sexagenary cycle, or the 78th if an epoch of 2637 BCEE is accepted.) Or see this larger table of the full 60-year cycle. Jiǎzǐ () sequence Stem/ branch Gānzhī () Year of the... [Note 1] Continuous [Note 2] Gregorian [Note 3] New Year's Day (chūnjié, )155/3wùyín (戊寅)Earth Tiger46951998January 28166/4jǐmăo (己卯)Earth Rabbit46961999February 16177/5gēngchén (庚辰)Metal Dragon46972000February 5188/6xīnsì (辛巳)Metal Snake46982001January 24199/7rénwǔ (壬午)Water Horse46992002February 122010/8guǐwèi (癸未)Water Sheep47002003February 1211/9jiǎshēn (甲申)Wood Monkey47012004January 22222/10yǐyǒu (乙酉)Wood Rooster47022005February 9233/11bǐngxū (丙戌)Fire Dog47032006January 29244/12dīnghài (丁亥)Fire Pig47042007February 18255/1wùzǐ (戊子)Earth Rat47052008February 7266/2jǐchǒu (己丑)Earth Ox47062009January 26277/3gēngyín (庚寅)Metal Tiger47072010February 14288/4xīnmăo (辛卯)Metal Rabbit47082011February 3 Notes 1 The beginning of each zodiac year should correspond to the first day of the lunar year. 2 As discussed above, there is considerable difficulty in establishing a basis for the chronology of the continuous year numbers. The numbers listed here are too high by 60 if an epoch of 2637 BCE is accepted. They may be too low by 1 if an epoch of 2698 BCE is accepted. That is, according to some sources, Gregorian 2006 (Chinese 4703) could alternatively correspond to 4643, or perhaps 4704. Chinese Americans in the United States use the epoch of 2698 BCE as the basis for numbering the years, and therefore Gregorian 2006 is numbered as 4704 and so forth for previous and subsequent years. 3 In any case, the correspondence between a lunisolar Chinese year and a solar Gregorian year is of course not exact. The first few months of each Gregorian year—those preceding Chinese New Year—belong to the previous Chinese year. For example, January 1 – January 28, 2006 correspond to yǐyǒu or 4702. Thus, it might be more precise to state that Gregorian 2006 corresponds to 4702–4703, or that continuous Chinese 4703 corresponds to 2006–2007. Solar year versus lunar year There is a distinction between a solar year and a lunar year in the Chinese calendar because the calendar is lunisolar. A lunar year ( nián) is from one Chinese new year to the next. A solar year ( suì) is either the period between one Spring Equinox and the next or the period between two winter solstices (see Jiéqì section). A lunar year is exclusively used for dates, whereas a solar year, especially that between winter solstices, is used to number the months. Hours of the day Under the traditional system of hour-marking, each day is divided into 12 units (). Each of these units is equivalent to two hours of international time. Each is named after one of the twelve Earthly Branches. The first unit, Hour of Zi (), begins at 11 p.m. of the previous day and ends at 1 a.m. Traditionally, executions of condemned prisoners occur at the midpoint of Hour of Wu (), i.e., noon. A second system subdivided the day into 100 equal parts, ke, each of which equalling 14.4 minutes or a familiar rough quarter of a standard Western hour. This was valid for centuries, making the Chinese first to apply decimal time - long before the French revolution. However, because 100 could not be divided equally into the 12 "hours", the system was changed to variously 96, 108, and 120 ke in a day. During the Qing Dynasty, the number was officially settled at 96, making each ke exactly a quarter of a Western hour. Today, ke is often used to refer to a quarter of an hour. Twelve animals The Twelve animals ( shí'èr shēngxiào, "twelve birth emblems" or colloquially shí'èr shǔxiàng, "twelve signs of belonging") representing the twelve Earthly Branches are, in order, the rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep (or goat), monkey, rooster, dog, and pig (or boar). A legend explains the sequence in which the animals were assigned. Supposedly, the twelve animals fought over the precedence of the animals in the cycle of years in the calendar, so the Chinese gods held a contest to determine the order. All the animals lined up on the bank of a river and were given the task of getting to the opposite shore. Their order in the calendar would be set by the order in which the animals managed to reach the other side. The cat wondered how he would get across if he was afraid of water. At the same time, the ox wondered how he would cross with his poor eyesight. The calculating rat suggested that he and the cat jump onto the ox's back and guide him across. The ox was steady and hard-working so that he did not notice a commotion on his back. In the meanwhile, the rat sneaked up behind the unsuspecting cat and shoved him into the water. Just as the ox came ashore, the rat jumped off and finished the race first. The lazy pig came to the far shore in twelfth place. And so the rat got the first year named after him, the ox got the second year, and the pig ended up as the last year in the cycle. The cat finished too late to win any place in the calendar, and vowed to be the enemy of the rat forevermore. Solar term Chinese months follow the phases of the moon. As a result, they do not accurately follow the seasons of the solar year. To assist farmers to decide when to plant or harvest crops, the drafters of the calendar put in 24 seasonal markers, which follow the solar year, and are called jiéqì (). The term Jiéqì is usually translated as "Solar Terms" (lit. Nodes of Weather). Each node is the instant when the sun reaches one of twenty-four equally spaced points along the ecliptic, including the solstices and equinoxes, positioned at fifteen degree intervals. Because the calculation is solar-based, these jiéqì fall around the same date every year in solar calendars (e.g. the Gregorian Calendar), but do not form any obvious pattern in the Chinese calendar. The dates below are approximate and may vary slightly from year to year due to the intercalary rules (i.e. system of leap years) of the Gregorian calendar. Jiéqì are published each year in farmers' almanacs. Chinese New Year is usually the new moon closest to lìchūn. In the table below, these measures are given in the standard astronomical convention of ecliptic longitude, zero degrees being positioned at the vernal equinox point. Each calendar month under the heading "M" contains the designated jiéqì called a principal term, which is an entry into a sign of the zodiac, also known as a cusp. Here term has the archaic meaning of a limit, not a duration. In Chinese astronomy, seasons are centered on the solstices and equinoxes, whereas in the standard Western definition, they begin at the solstices and equinoxes. Thus the term Beginning of Spring and the related Spring Festival fall in February, when it is still very chilly in temperate latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere. Ecliptic Long. Chinese Name Gregorian Date (approx.) Usual Translation Remarks 315° 立春 lìchūn February 4 start of spring spring starts here according to the Chinese definition of a season, see also Cross-quarter day 330° 雨水 yǔshuǐ February 19 rain water starting at this point, the temperature makes rain more likely than snow 345° 啓蟄 qǐzhé(驚蟄 jīngzhé) March 5 awakening of insects when hibernating insects awaken 0° 春分 chūnfēn March 21 vernal equinox lit. the central divide of spring (referring to the Chinese seasonal definition) 15° 清明 qīngmíng April 5 clear and bright a Chinese festival where, traditionally, ancestral graves are tended 30° 穀雨 gǔyǔ or gǔyù April 20 grain rains rain helps grain grow 45° 立夏 lìxià May 6 start of summer refers to the Chinese seasonal definition 60° 小滿 xiǎomǎn May 21 grain full grains are plump 75° 芒種 mángzhòng or mángzhǒng June 6 grain in ear lit. awns (beard of grain) grow 90° 夏至 xiàzhì June 21 summer solstice lit. summer extreme (of sun's height) 105° 小暑 xiǎoshǔ July 7 minor heat when heat starts to get unbearable 120° 大暑 dàshǔ July 23 major heat the hottest time of the year 135° 立秋 lìqiū August 7 start of autumn uses the Chinese seasonal definition 150° 處暑 chùshǔ August 23 limit of heat lit. dwell in heat 165° 白露 báilù September 8 white dew condensed moisture makes dew white; a sign of autumn 180° 秋分 qiūfēn September 23 autumnal equinox lit. central divide of autumn (refers to the Chinese seasonal definition) 195° 寒露 hánlù October 8 cold dew dew starts turning into frost 210° 霜降 shuāngjiàng October 23 descent of frost appearance of frost and descent of temperature 225° 立冬 lìdōng November 7 start of winter refers to the Chinese seasonal definition 240° 小雪 xiǎoxuě November 22 minor snow snow starts falling 255° 大雪 dàxuě December 7 major snow season of snowstorms in full swing 270° 冬至 dōngzhì December 22 winter solstice lit. winter extreme (of sun's height) 285° 小寒 xiǎohán January 6 minor cold cold starts to become unbearable 300° 大寒 dàhán January 20 major cold coldest time of year Note: The third jiéqì was originally called (qǐzhé) but renamed to (jīngzhé) in the era of the Emperor Jing of Han () to avoid writing his given name (also written as , a variant of 啓). Holidays The Chinese calendar year has nine main festivals, seven determined by the lunisolar calendar, and two derived from the solar agricultural calendar. (Farmers actually used a solar calendar, and its twenty-four terms, to determine when to plant crops, due to the inaccuracy of the lunisolar traditional calendar. However, the traditional calendar has also come to be known as the agricultural calendar.) The two special holidays are the Qingming Festival and the Winter Solstice Festival, falling upon the respective solar terms, at ecliptic longitudes of 15° and 270°, respectively. As for all other calendrical calculations, the calculations use civil time in China, UTC+8 Date English Name Chinese Name Vietnamese Name Remarks 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 month 1 day 1 Chinese New Year (Spring Festival) chūnjié Tết Nguyên Đán Family gathering and festivities for 3–15 days Feb 7 Jan 26 Feb 14 Feb 3 Jan 23 month 1day 15 Lantern Festival yuánxiāojié Tết Thượng Nguyên Tangyuan eating and lanterns Feb 21 Feb 9 Feb 28 Feb 17 Feb 6 April 4 or 5 Qingming Festival (Clear and Bright) qīngmíngjié Tết Thanh Minh Tomb sweeping Apr 4 Apr 4 Apr 5 Apr 5 Apr 4 month 5 day 5 Dragon Boat Festival duānwǔjié Tết Đoan Ngọ Dragon boat racing and zongzi eating Jun 8 May 28 Jun 16 Jun 6 Jun 23 month 7 day 7 Night of Sevens qīxī Ngày mưa Ngâu For lovers, like Valentine's Day Aug 7 Aug 26 Aug 16 Aug 6 Aug 23 month 7 day 15 Ghost Festival (Spirit Festival) zhōngyuánjié Tết Trung Nguyên Offer tributes and respect to the deceased Aug 15 Sep 3 Aug 24 Aug 14 Aug 31 month 8 day 15 Mid-Autumn Festival (Moon Festival) The Mid-Autumn Festival is called the Lantern Festival in Singapore and Malaysia, the same name given to as another festival on month 1 day 15 in the Chinese homeland. zhōngqiūjié Tết Trung Thu Family gathering and moon cake eating Sep 14 Oct 3 Sep 22 Sep 12 Sep 30 month 9 day 9 Double Ninth Festival (Double Yang) chóngyángjié Tết Trùng Cửu Mountain climbing and flower shows Oct 7 Oct 26 Oct 16 Oct 5 Oct 23 month 10 day 15 Xia Yuan Festival xiàyuánjié Tết Hạ Nguyên Pray for a peaceful year to the Water God Nov 12 Dec 1 Oct 16 Nov 10 Nov 28 Dec 21 or 22 Winter Solstice Festival dōngzhì Family gathering Dec 21 Dec 21 Dec 22 Dec 22 Dec 21 month 12 day 23 Kitchen God Festival xièzào Tết Táo Quân Worshipping the kitchen god with thanks Jan 31 Jan 19 Feb 7 Jan 27 Jan 17 Purpose of the intercalary months Most people, upon using or studying the Chinese calendar, are perplexed by the intercalary month because of its seemingly unpredictable nature. As mentioned above, the intercalary month refers to additional months added to the calendar in some years to correct for its deviation from the astronomical year, a function similar to that of the extra day in February in leap years. However, because of the complex astronomical knowledge required to calculate if and when an intercalary month needs to be inserted, to most people, it is simply a mystery. This has led to a superstition that intercalary months in certain times of the year bring bad luck. The main purpose of the intercalary month is to correct for deviations of the calendrical year from the astronomical year. Because the Chinese calendar is mainly a lunar calendar, its standard year is 354 days, whereas the astronomical year is approximately 365¼ days. Without the intercalary month, this deviation would build up over time, and the Spring festival, for example, would no longer fall in Spring. Thus, the intercalary month serves a valuable purpose in ensuring that the year in the Chinese calendar remains approximately in line with the astronomical year. The intercalary month is inserted whenever the Chinese calendar moves too far from the stage of progression of the earth in its orbit. Thus, for example, if the beginning of a certain month in the Chinese calendar deviates by a certain number of days from its equivalent in a solar calendar, an intercalary month needs to be inserted. The practical benefit of this system is that the calendar is able to approximately keep in pace with the solar cycle, while at the same time retaining months that roughly correspond with lunar cycles. Hence the term lunisolar calendar. The latter is important because many traditional festivals correspond to significant events in the moon's cycle. For example, the mid-autumn festival is always on a day of the full moon. The relevance of the calendar today There have been calls for reform in recent years from experts in China, because of the increasing irrelevance of the Chinese calendar in modern life. They point to the example in Japan, where during the Meiji Restoration the nation adopted the Western calendar, and simply shifted all traditional festivities onto an equivalent date. However, the Chinese calendar remains important as an element of cultural tradition, and for certain cultural activities. Practical uses The original practical relevance of the lunisolar calendar for date marking has largely disappeared. First, the Gregorian calendar is much easier to compute and more in line with both international standards and the astronomical year. Its adoption for official purposes has meant that the traditional calendar is rarely used for date marking. This, in turn, means that it is more convenient to remember significant events such as birth dates by the Gregorian rather than the Chinese calendar. Second, the 24 solar terms were important to farmers who would not be able to plan agricultural activities without foreknowledge of these terms. However, the 24 solar terms (including the solstices and equinoxes) are more predictable on the Gregorian calendar than the lunisolar calendar since they are based on the solar cycle. It is easier for the average Chinese farmer to organize their planting and harvesting with the Gregorian calendar. However, one practical advantage of using a calendar where the months are lunar months is that the phases of the moon, and astronomical and tidal phenomena associated with them, such as spring and neap tides, fall on approximately the same day in each lunar month, and the times of high and low water and the tidal streams experienced in a certain location on a certain day of the lunar month are likely to be similar to those for the same place and lunar day in any month. For many years, therefore, mariners in East and South-East Asia have related their tidal observations to the Chinese calendar, so as to be able to provide quick, rule-of-thumb approximations of tides and tidal conditions from memory, based on the day of the Lunar month, without needing to refer to tide tables. Certain inshore passages on the China coast, for example, where there are strong tidal streams associated with spring tides, were regarded by mariners to be passable on certain days of the lunar month, and impassable on others. Cultural issues However, the Chinese calendar remains culturally essential. For example, most of the traditional festivals, such as Chinese New Year and the Mid-Autumn Festival, traditionally occur at new moon or full moon. Furthermore, the traditional Chinese calendar, as an element of traditional culture, is invested with much cultural and nationalistic sentiment. The calendar is still used in the more traditional Chinese households around the world to pick 'lucky dates' for important events such as weddings, funerals, and business deals. A special calendar is used for this purpose, called Huang Li (), literally "Imperial Calendar", which contains auspicious activities, times, and directions for each day. The calendar follows the Gregorian dates but has the corresponding Chinese dates. Every date would have a comprehensive listing of astrological measurements and fortune elements. Thus, while the traditional calendar could be removed without much practical effect, its sentimental and cultural significance will probably see its retention for some time yet. Influence Other traditional East Asian calendars are very similar to if not identical to the Chinese calendar: the Korean calendar is identical; the Vietnamese calendar substitutes the cat for the rabbit in the Chinese zodiac; the Tibetan calendar differs slightly in animal names, and the traditional Japanese calendar uses a different method of calculation, resulting in disagreements between the calendars in some years. The twelve year cycle, with the animal names translated into the vernacular, was adopted by the Göktürks (its use there is first attested 584), and spread subsequently among many if not most Turkic peoples, as well as the Mongols. A similar calendar seems to have been used by the Bulgars, as attested in the Nominalia of the Bulgarian Khans and in some other documents. The main differences between the Bulgar and the Chinese calendar are the different calculating system, the tiger has been replaced with a wolf, and the dragon and monkey - with an unknown animal. Also, the Bulgar calendar is a solar one. Перипетиите на календара, проф. Никола Николов Chinese-Uighur calendar In 1258, when both North China and the Islamic world were part of the Mongol Empire, Hulagu Khan established an observatory in Maragheh for the astronomer Nasir al-Din al-Tusi at which a few Chinese astronomers were present, resulting in the Chinese-Uighur calendar that al-Tusi describes in his Zij-i Ilkhani. van Dalen et al. 1997 The twelve year cycle, including Turkish/Mongolian translations of the animal names (known as sanawat-e turki سنوات ترکی,) remained in use for chronology, historiography, and bureaucratic purposes in the Persian and Turkish speaking world from Asia Minor to India throughout the Medieval and Early Modern periods. In Iran it remained common in agricultural records and tax assessments until a 1925 law deprecated its use. Notes References van Dalen, Benno; Kennedy, E.S.; Saiyid, Mustafa K., «The Chinese-Uighur Calendar in Tusi's Zij-i Ilkhani», Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Arabisch-Islamischen Wissenschaften 11 (1997) 111-151. See also Chinese New Year Chinese Zodiac Culture of China Sexagesimal cycle External links Chinese Calendars in PDF, JPEG or PNG or create your own online（at ChineseBay.com featured by Chinapage.com) Online Chinese Calendar Chinese / Gregorian Calendar Rules for the Chinese Calendar Chinese Zodiac Chart Find your Chinese Zodiac sign based on your date of birth. Calendar Conversion Gregorian-Chinese calendar converterOnline: only for years after 1912 Two-Thousand-Year Chinese Calendar Converter (in Chinese) - works for all dates from the Han Dynasty until 2100 Convert Gregorian to Chinese Lunar and Solar Dates Pages from the Hong Kong Observatory website The 24 Solar Terms of Jieqi Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches Gender Prediction Gregorian-Lunar Calendar Conversion Table Chinese Baby Gender Calendar Chinese Lunar Calendar 2008 with 'Yellow Calendar' Chinese Lunar Calendar 2006 Chinese Lunar Calendar 2007 exact Chinese Zodiac Calculator CHINESE CALENDAR & CHRONOLOGY Tooltip Chinese Calendar Vietnamese Cyclic Chronology be-x-old:Кітайскі каляндар | Chinese_calendar |@lemmatized chinese:107 calendar:156 lunisolar:10 incorporating:1 element:5 lunar:24 solar:29 exclusive:1 china:22 follow:11 many:6 asian:3 culture:4 often:7 refer:5 western:11 first:25 perfect:1 around:5 bc:6 http:4 afgen:1 com:3 html:2 east:6 asia:4 today:4 gregorian:31 use:67 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6,282 | Geography_of_Ivory_Coast | Topography of Côte d'Ivoire Côte d'Ivoire (the Ivory Coast) is a sub-Saharan nation in southern West Africa located at 8 00°N, 5 00°W. The country is shaped like a square and borders the Gulf of Guinea in the north Atlantic Ocean to the south (515 km of coastline) and five other African nations on the other three sides, with a total of 3,110 km of borders: Liberia to the southwest (716 km), Guinea to the northwest (610 km), Mali to the north-northwest (532 km), Burkina Faso to the north-northeast, and Ghana to the east (668 km). In total, Côte d'Ivoire comprises 322,460 km2, of which 318,000 km2 is land and 4,460 km2 is water, which makes the country slightly larger than the U.S. state of New Mexico, or about the size of Germany. Côte d'Ivoire makes maritime claims of as an exclusive economic zone, of territorial sea, and a continental shelf. Terrain and topography Côte d'Ivoire's terrain can generally be described as a large plateau rising gradually from sea level in the south to almost 500 m elevation in the north. The nation's natural resources have made it into a comparatively prosperous nation in the African economy. The southeastern region of Côte d'Ivoire is marked by coastal inland lagoons that starts at the Ghanaian border and stretch along the eastern half of the coast. The southern region, especially the southwest, is covered with dense tropical moist forest. The Eastern Guinean forests extend from the Sassandra River across the south-central and southeast portion of Côte d'Ivoire and east into Ghana, while the Western Guinean lowland forests extend west from the Sassandra River into Liberia and southeastern Guinea. The mountains of Dix-Huit Montagnes region, in the west of the country near the border with Guinea and Liberia, are home to the Guinean montane forests. The Guinean forest-savanna mosaic belt extends across the middle of the country from east to west, and is the transition zone between the coastal forests and the interior savannas. The forest-savanna mosaic interlaces forest, savanna and grassland habitats. Northern Côte d'Ivoire is part of the West Sudanian savanna, a savanna-and-scrubland zone of lateritic or sandy soils, with vegetation decreasing from south to north. The terrain is mostly flat to undulating plains, with mountains in the northwest. The lowest elevation in Côte d'Ivoire is at sea level on the coasts. The highest elevation is Mount Nimba, at in the far west of the country along the border with Guinea and Liberia. Climate The climate of Côte d'Ivoire is generally warm and humid, ranging from equatorial in the southern coasts to tropical in the middle and semiarid in the far north. There are three seasons: warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), and hot and wet (June to October). Temperatures average between 25 and 32 °C and range from 10 to 40 °C. Crops and natural resources Côte d'Ivoire's also has a large timber industry due to its large forest coverage. The nation's hardwood exports match that of Brazil. In recent years there has been much concern about the rapid rate of deforestation. Rainforests are being destroyed at a rate sometimes cited as the highest in the world. The only forest left completely untouched in Côte d'Ivoire is Taï National Park (Parc National de Taï), a area in the country's far southwest that is home to over 150 endemic species and many other endangered species such as the Pygmy Hippopotamus and 11 species of monkeys. Eight percent of the country is arable land. Côte d'Ivoire is the world's largest producer of cocoa, a major national cash crop. Other chief crops include coffee, bananas, and oil palms, which produce palm oil and kernels. Natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, diamonds, manganese, iron, cobalt, bauxite, copper, and hydropower. Natural hazards Natural hazards include the heavy surf and the lack of natural harbors on the coast; during the rainy season torrential flooding is a danger. References http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/iv.html (2006) "Cote d'Ivoire." | Geography_of_Ivory_Coast |@lemmatized topography:2 côte:13 ivoire:14 ivory:1 coast:5 sub:1 saharan:1 nation:5 southern:3 west:6 africa:1 locate:1 n:1 w:1 country:7 shape:1 like:1 square:1 border:5 gulf:1 guinea:5 north:6 atlantic:1 ocean:1 south:4 km:6 coastline:1 five:1 african:2 three:2 side:1 total:2 liberia:4 southwest:3 northwest:3 mali:1 burkina:1 faso:1 northeast:1 ghana:2 east:3 comprise:1 land:2 water:1 make:3 slightly:1 large:5 u:1 state:1 new:1 mexico:1 size:1 germany:1 maritime:1 claim:1 exclusive:1 economic:1 zone:3 territorial:1 sea:3 continental:1 shelf:1 terrain:3 generally:2 describe:1 plateau:1 rise:1 gradually:1 level:2 almost:1 elevation:3 natural:7 resource:3 comparatively:1 prosperous:1 economy:1 southeastern:2 region:3 mark:1 coastal:2 inland:1 lagoon:1 start:1 ghanaian:1 stretch:1 along:2 eastern:2 half:1 especially:1 cover:1 dense:1 tropical:2 moist:1 forest:10 guinean:4 extend:2 sassandra:2 river:2 across:2 central:1 southeast:1 portion:1 western:1 lowland:1 mountain:2 dix:1 huit:1 montagnes:1 near:1 home:2 montane:1 savanna:6 mosaic:2 belt:1 extends:1 middle:2 transition:1 interior:1 interlaces:1 grassland:1 habitat:1 northern:1 part:1 sudanian:1 scrubland:1 lateritic:1 sandy:1 soil:1 vegetation:1 decrease:1 mostly:1 flat:1 undulating:1 plain:1 low:1 high:2 mount:1 nimba:1 far:3 climate:2 warm:2 humid:1 range:2 equatorial:1 semiarid:1 season:2 dry:2 november:1 march:2 hot:2 may:1 wet:1 june:1 october:1 temperature:1 average:1 c:2 crop:3 also:1 timber:1 industry:1 due:1 coverage:1 hardwood:1 export:1 match:1 brazil:1 recent:1 year:1 much:1 concern:1 rapid:1 rate:2 deforestation:1 rainforest:1 destroy:1 sometimes:1 cite:1 world:2 leave:1 completely:1 untouched:1 taï:2 national:3 park:1 parc:1 de:1 area:1 endemic:1 specie:3 many:1 endanger:1 pygmy:1 hippopotamus:1 monkey:1 eight:1 percent:1 arable:1 producer:1 cocoa:1 major:1 cash:1 chief:1 include:3 coffee:1 banana:1 oil:2 palm:2 produce:1 kernel:1 petroleum:1 gas:1 diamond:1 manganese:1 iron:1 cobalt:1 bauxite:1 copper:1 hydropower:1 hazard:2 heavy:1 surf:1 lack:1 harbor:1 rainy:1 torrential:1 flooding:1 danger:1 reference:1 http:1 cia:2 gov:1 publication:1 factbook:1 geos:1 iv:1 html:1 cote:1 |@bigram côte_ivoire:13 ivoire_ivory:1 sub_saharan:1 atlantic_ocean:1 burkina_faso:1 continental_shelf:1 tropical_moist:1 montane_forest:1 savanna_grassland:1 sandy_soil:1 warm_humid:1 endanger_specie:1 arable_land:1 cash_crop:1 coffee_banana:1 rainy_season:1 cia_gov:1 factbook_geos:1 cote_ivoire:1 |
6,283 | Potassium | Potassium () is a chemical element. It has the symbol K (, from al-qalyah “plant ashes”, cf. Alkali from the same root), atomic number 19, and atomic mass 39.0983. Potassium was first isolated from potash. Elemental potassium is a soft silvery-white metallic alkali metal that oxidizes rapidly in air and is very reactive with water, generating sufficient heat to ignite the evolved hydrogen. Potassium in nature occurs only as ionic salt. As such, it is found dissolved in seawater, and as part of many minerals. Potassium ion is necessary for the function of all living cells, and is thus present in all plant and animal tissues. It is found in especially high concentrations in plant cells, and in a mixed diet, it is most highly concentrated in fruits. In many respects, potassium and sodium are chemically similar, although they have very different functions in organisms in general, and in animal cells in particular. Occurence Potassium in feldspar Potassium is never found free, as it reacts violently with water, which is abundant in nature. As various compounds, potassium makes up about 2.4% of the weight of the Earth's crust and is the seventh most abundant element. As it is very electropositive, potassium metal is difficult to obtain from its minerals. History of the free element Potassium as such was not known in Roman times, and its names are not Classical Latin but rather neo-Latin. The name kalium was taken from the word "alkali", which came from Arabic al qalīy = "the calcined ashes". The name potassium was made from the word "potash", which is English, and originally meant an alkali extracted in a pot from the ash of burnt wood or tree leaves. The structure of potash was not then known, but is now understood to be mostly potassium carbonate. By heating, the carbonate could be freed of carbon dioxide, leaving "caustic potash," so called because it caused chemical burns in contact with human tissue. Potassium metal was discovered in 1807 in England by Sir Humphry Davy, who derived it from caustic potash (KOH), by the use of electrolysis of the molten salt with the newly discovered voltaic pile. Before the 18th century, no distinction was made between potassium and sodium. Potassium was the first metal that was isolated by electrolysis. Davy extracted sodium by a similar technique, demonstrating the elements to be different. Production Pure potassium metal may be isolated by electrolysis of its hydroxide in a process that has changed little since Davy. Thermal methods also are employed in potassium production, using potassium chloride Potassium salts such as carnallite, langbeinite, polyhalite, and sylvite form extensive deposits in ancient lake and seabeds, making extraction of potassium salts in these environments commercially viable. The principal source of potassium, potash, is mined in Saskatchewan, California, Germany, New Mexico, Utah, and in other places around the world. It is also found abundantly in the Dead Sea. Three thousand feet below the surface of Saskatchewan are large deposits of potash which are important sources of this element and its salts, with several large mines in operation since the 1960s. Saskatchewan pioneered the use of freezing of wet sands (the Blairmore formation) in order to drive mine shafts through them. The main mining company is the Potash Corporation of Saskatchewan. The oceans are another source of potassium, but the quantity present in a given volume of seawater is relatively low compared with sodium. Isotopes There are 24 known isotopes of potassium. Three isotopes occur naturally: 39K (93.3%), 40K (0.0117%) and 41K (6.7%). Naturally occurring 40K decays to stable 40Ar (11.2%) by electron capture and by positron emission, and decays to stable 40Ca (88.8%) by beta decay; 40K has a half-life of 1.250×109 years. The decay of 40K to 40Ar enables a commonly used method for dating rocks. The conventional K-Ar dating method depends on the assumption that the rocks contained no argon at the time of formation and that all the subsequent radiogenic argon (i.e., 40Ar) was quantitatively retained. Minerals are dated by measurement of the concentration of potassium and the amount of radiogenic 40Ar that has accumulated. The minerals that are best suited for dating include biotite, muscovite, plutonic/high grade metamorphic hornblende, and volcanic feldspar; whole rock samples from volcanic flows and shallow instrusives can also be dated if they are unaltered. Outside of dating, potassium isotopes have been used extensively as tracers in studies of weathering. They have also been used for nutrient cycling studies because potassium is a macronutrient required for life. 40K occurs in natural potassium (and thus in some commercial salt substitutes) in sufficient quantity that large bags of those substitutes can be used as a radioactive source for classroom demonstrations. In healthy animals and people, 40K represents the largest source of radioactivity, greater even than 14C. In a human body of 70 kg mass, about 4,400 nuclei of 40K decay per second. The activity of natural potassium is 31 Bq/g. Properties Physical The flame-test colour for potassium Potassium is the second least dense metal; only lithium is less dense. It is a soft, low-melting solid that can easily be cut with a knife. Freshly cut potassium is silvery in appearance, but in air it begins to tarnish toward grey immediately. In a flame test, potassium and its compounds emit a pale violet color, which may be masked by the strong yellow emission of sodium if it is also present. Cobalt glass can be used to filter out the yellow sodium color. Potassium concentration in solution is commonly determined by flame photometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometry, inductively coupled plasma, or ion selective electrodes. Chemical Potassium must be protected from air for storage to prevent disintegration of the metal from oxide and hydroxide corrosion. Often samples are maintained under a hydrocarbon medium which does not react with alkali metals, such as mineral oil or kerosene. Like the other alkali metals, potassium reacts violently with water, producing hydrogen. The reaction is notably more violent than that of lithium or sodium with water, and is sufficiently exothermic that the evolved hydrogen gas ignites. 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → H2(g) + 2KOH(aq) Because potassium reacts quickly with even traces of water, and its reaction products are nonvolatile, it is sometimes used alone, or as NaK (an alloy with sodium which is liquid at room temperature) to dry solvents prior to distillation. In this role, it serves as a potent desiccant. Potassium hydroxide reacts strongly with carbon dioxide to produce potassium carbonate, and is used to remove traces of CO2 from air. Potassium compounds generally have excellent water solubility, due to the high hydration energy of the K+ ion. The potassium ion is colorless in water. Methods of separating potassium by precipitation, sometimes used for gravimetric analysis, include the use of sodium tetraphenylborate, hexachloroplatinic acid, and sodium cobaltinitrite Potassium cations in the body Biochemical function Potassium cations are important in neuron (brain and nerve) function, and in influencing osmotic balance between cells and the interstitial fluid, with their distribution mediated in all animals (but not in all plants) by the so-called Na+/K+-ATPase pump. Potassium may be detected by taste because it triggers three of the five types of taste sensations, according to concentration. Dilute solutions of potassium ion taste sweet (allowing moderate concentrations in milk and juices), while higher concentrations become increasingly bitter/alkaline, and finally also salty to the taste. The combined bitterness and saltiness of high potassium content solutions makes high-dose potassium supplementation by liquid drinks a palatability challenge. Membrane polarization Potassium is also important in allowing muscle contraction and the sending of all nerve impulses in animals through action potentials. By nature of their electrostatic and chemical properties, K+ ions are larger than Na+ ions, and ion channels and pumps in cell membranes can distinguish between the two types of ions, actively pumping or passively allowing one of the two ions to pass, while blocking the other. A shortage of potassium in body fluids may cause a potentially fatal condition known as hypokalemia, typically resulting from diarrhea, increased diuresis and vomiting. Deficiency symptoms include muscle weakness, paralytic ileus, ECG abnormalities, decreased reflex response and in severe cases respiratory paralysis, alkalosis and cardiac arrhythmia. Filtration and excretion Potassium is an essential mineral micronutrient in human nutrition; it is the major cation (positive ion) inside animal cells, and it is thus important in maintaining fluid and electrolyte balance in the body. Sodium makes up most of the cations of blood plasma at a reference range of about 145 milliequivalents per liter (3345 milligrams) and potassium makes up most of the cell fluid cations at about 150 milliequivalents per liter (4800 milligrams). Plasma is filtered through the glomerulus of the kidneys in enormous amounts, about 180 liters per day. Thus 602,000 milligrams of sodium and 33,000 milligrams of potassium are filtered each day. All but the 1000-10,000 milligrams of sodium and the 1000-4000 milligrams of potassium likely to be in the diet must be reabsorbed. Sodium must be reabsorbed in such a way as to keep the blood volume exactly right and the osmotic pressure correct; potassium must be reabsorbed in such a way as to keep serum concentration as close as possible to 4.8 milliequivalents (about 190 milligrams) per liter. Sodium pumps in the kidneys must always operate to conserve sodium. Potassium must sometimes be conserved also, but since the amount of potassium in the blood plasma is very small and the pool of potassium in the cells is about thirty times as large, the situation is not so critical for potassium. Since potassium is moved passively in counter flow to sodium in response to an apparent (but not actual) Donnan equilibrium, ; p. 40 & 48. the urine can never sink below the concentration of potassium in serum except sometimes by actively excreting water at the end of the processing. Potassium is secreted twice and reabsorbed three times before the urine reaches the collecting tubules. At that point, it usually has about the same potassium concentration as plasma. If potassium were removed from the diet, there would remain a minimum obligatory kidney excretion of about 200 mg per day when the serum declines to 3.0-3.5 milliequivalents per liter in about one week, and can never be cut off completely. Because it cannot be cut off completely, death will result when the whole body potassium declines to the vicinity of one-half full capacity. At the end of the processing, potassium is secreted one more time if the serum levels are too high. Reference ranges for blood tests, showing blood content of potassium (3.6 to 5.2 mmol/l) in blue in right part of the spectrum. The potassium moves passively through pores in the cell wall. When ions move through pumps there is a gate in the pumps on either side of the cell wall and only one gate can be open at once. As a result, 100 ions are forced through per second. Pores have only one gate, and there only one kind of ion can stream through, at 10 million to 100 million ions per second. ; for a diagram of the potassium pores are viewed, see The pores require calcium in order to open although it is thought that the calcium works in reverse by blocking at least one of the pores. ; includes a detailed picture of atoms in the pump. Carbonyl groups inside the pore on the amino acids mimics the water hydration that takes place in water solution by the nature of the electrostatic charges on four carbonyl groups inside the pore. Potassium in the diet and by supplement Adequate intake A potassium intake sufficient to support life can generally be guaranteed by eating a variety of foods, especially plant foods. Clear cases of potassium deficiency (as defined by symptoms, signs and a below-normal blood level of the element) are rare in healthy individuals eating a balanced diet. Foods with high sources of potassium include orange juice, potatoes, bananas, avocados, tomatoes, broccoli, soybeans, brown rice, garlic and apricots, although it is also common in most fruits, vegetables and meats. Optimal intake Epidemiological studies and studies in animals subject to hypertension indicate that diets high in potassium can reduce the risk of hypertension and possibly stroke (by a mechanism independent of blood pressure), and a potassium deficiency combined with an inadequate thiamine intake has produced heart disease in rats. With these findings, the question of what is the intake of potassium consistent with optimal health, is debated. For example, the 2004 guidelines of the Institute of Medicine specify a DRI of 4,000 mg of potassium (100 mEq), though most Americans consume only half that amount per day, which would make them formally deficient as regards this particular recommendation. Similarly, in the European Union, particularly in Germany and Italy, insufficient potassium intake is somewhat common. Medical supplementation and disease Supplements of potassium in medicine are most widely used in conjunction with loop diuretics and thiazides, classes of diuretics which rid the body of sodium and water, but have the side effect of also causing potassium loss in urine. A variety of medical and non-medical supplements are available. Potassium salts such as potassium chloride may be dissolved in water, but the salty/bitter taste of high concentrations of potassium ion make palatable high concentration liquid supplements difficult to formulate. Typical medical supplemental doses range from 10 milliequivalents (400 mg, about equal to a cup of milk or 6 oz. of orange juice) to 20 milliequivalents (800 mg) per dose. Potassium salts are also available in tablets or capsules, which for therapeutic purposes are formulated to allow potassium to leach slowly out of a matrix, since very high concentrations of potassium ion (which might occur next to a solid tablet of potassium chloride) can kill tissue, and cause injury to the gastric or intestinal mucosa. For this reason, non prescription supplement potassium pills are limited by law in the U.S. to only 99 mg of potassium. Individuals suffering from kidney diseases may suffer adverse health effects from consuming large quantities of dietary potassium. End stage renal failure patients undergoing therapy by renal dialysis must observe strict dietary limits on potassium intake, since the kidneys control potassium excretion, and buildup of blood concentrations of potassium (hyperkalemia) may trigger fatal cardiac arrhythmia. Applications About 93% of the world potassium production was consumed by the fertilizer industry. Biological applications Potassium and Magnesium sulfate fertilizerPotassium ions are an essential component of plant nutrition and are found in most soil types. Its primary use in agriculture, horticulture and hydroponic culture is as a fertilizer as the chloride (KCl), sulfate () or nitrate (). In animal cells, potassium ions are vital to keeping cells alive (see Na-K pump). Food applications Potassium ion is a nutrient necessary for human life and health. Potassium chloride is used as a substitute for table salt by those seeking to reduce sodium intake so as to control hypertension. The USDA lists tomato paste, orange juice, beet greens, white beans, potatoes, bananas and many other good dietary sources of potassium, ranked according to potassium content per measure shown. )Potassium / K (mg.) Content of Selected Foods per Common Measure, sorted by nutrient content | USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 20 http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR20/nutrlist/sr20w306.pdf Potassium sodium tartrate, or Rochelle salt () is the main constituent of baking powder. Potassium bromate () is a strong oxidiser, used as a flour improver (E924) to improve dough strength and rise height. The sulfite compound, potassium bisulfite () is used as a food preservative, for example in wine and beer-making (but not in meats). It is also used to bleach textiles and straw, and in the tanning of leathers. Non-dietary uses of potassium chloride include its use to stop the heart, e.g. in cardiac surgery and in a solution used in executions by lethal injection. Industrial applications Potassium vapor is used in several types of magnetometers. An alloy of sodium and potassium, NaK (usually pronounced "nack"), that is liquid at room temperature, is used as a heat-transfer medium. It can also be used as a desiccant for producing dry and air-free solvents. Potassium metal reacts vigorously with all of the halogens to form the corresponding potassium halides, which are white, water-soluble salts with cubic crystal morphology. Potassium bromide (KBr), potassium iodide (KI) and potassium chloride (KCl) are used in photographic emulsion to make the corresponding photosensitive silver halides. Potassium hydroxide is a strong base, used in industry to neutralize strong and weak acids and thereby finding uses in pH control and in the manufacture of potassium salts. Potassium hydroxide is also used to saponify fats and oils and in hydrolysis reactions, for example of esters and in industrial cleaners. Potassium nitrate or saltpeter is obtained from natural sources such as guano and evaporites or manufactured by the Haber process and is the oxidant in gunpowder (black powder) and an important agricultural fertilizer. Potassium cyanide is used industrially to dissolve copper and precious metals particularly silver and gold by forming complexes; applications include gold mining, electroplating and electroforming of these metals. It is also used in organic synthesis to make nitriles. Potassium carbonate , also known as potash, is used in the manufacture of glass and soap and as a mild desiccant. Potassium chromate (K2CrO4) is used in inks, dyes, and stains (bright yellowish-red colour), in explosives and fireworks, in safety matches, in the tanning of leather and in fly paper. Potassium fluorosilicate (K2SiF6) is used in specialized glasses, ceramics, and enamels. Potassium sodium tartrate, or Rochelle salt (KNaC4H4O6) is used in the silvering of mirrors. The superoxide KO2 is an orange-colored solid used as a portable source of oxygen and as a carbon dioxide absorber. It is useful in portable respiration systems. It is widely used in submarines and spacecraft as it takes less volume than O2 (g). 4KO2 + 2CO2 --> 2K2CO3 + 3O2 Potassium chlorate is a strong oxidant, used in percussion caps and safety matches and in agriculture as a weedkiller. Glass may be treated with molten potassium nitrate to make toughened glass, which is much stronger than regular glass. Precautions Potassium reacts very violently with water producing hydrogen gas which then usually catches fire. Potassium is usually kept under a hydrocarbon oil such as mineral oil or kerosene to stop the metal from reacting with water vapour present in the air. Unlike lithium and sodium, however, potassium should not be stored under oil indefinitely. If stored longer than 6 months to a year, dangerous shock-sensitive peroxides can form on the metal and under the lid of the container, which can detonate upon opening. It is recommended that potassium, rubidium or caesium not be stored for longer than three months unless stored in an inert (oxygen free) atmosphere, or under vacuum. As potassium reacts with water to produce highly flammable hydrogen gas, a potassium fire is only exacerbated by the addition of water, and only a few dry chemicals are effective for putting out such a fire (see the precaution section in sodium). Potassium also produces potassium hydroxide (KOH) in the reaction with water. Potassium hydroxide is a strong alkali and so is a caustic hazard, causing burns. Due to the highly reactive nature of potassium metal, it must be handled with great care, with full skin and eye protection being used and preferably an explosive resistant barrier between the user and the potassium. See also Potassium compounds Potassium in biology References External links WebElements.com – Potassium | Potassium |@lemmatized potassium:137 chemical:5 element:6 symbol:1 k:7 al:2 qalyah:1 plant:6 ash:3 cf:1 alkali:7 root:1 atomic:3 number:1 mass:2 first:2 isolate:3 potash:9 elemental:1 soft:2 silvery:2 white:3 metallic:1 metal:15 oxidize:1 rapidly:1 air:6 reactive:2 water:18 generate:1 sufficient:3 heat:3 ignite:1 evolved:2 hydrogen:5 nature:5 occur:4 ionic:1 salt:13 find:5 dissolve:3 seawater:2 part:2 many:3 mineral:7 ion:20 necessary:2 function:4 living:1 cell:12 thus:4 present:4 animal:8 tissue:3 especially:2 high:12 concentration:13 mixed:1 diet:6 highly:3 concentrate:1 fruit:2 respect:1 sodium:24 chemically:1 similar:2 although:3 different:2 organism:1 general:1 particular:2 occurence:1 feldspar:2 never:3 free:5 react:6 violently:3 abundant:2 various:1 compound:5 make:12 weight:1 earth:1 crust:1 seventh:1 electropositive:1 difficult:2 obtain:2 history:1 know:4 roman:1 time:5 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6,284 | Hentai | is a Japanese word that, in the West, is used when referring to sexually explicit or pornographic comics and animation, particularly Japanese anime, manga and computer games (see Japanese pornography). In Japan it can be used to mean "metamorphosis" or "abnormality". The word "hentai" has a negative connotation to the Japanese and is commonly used to mean "sexually perverted". In Japanese the word hentai is a kanji compound of 変 (hen meaning "change" "weird" or "strange") and 態 (tai meaning "attitude" or "appearance"). The term is used as a shortened form of the phrase 変態性欲 (hentai seiyoku), or "sexual perversion". In slang, 変態 (hentai) is used as an insult meaning roughly "pervert" or "weirdo". The term is not often applied to pornography in Japan. Instead, terms such as 18-kin (18禁, literally "18-prohibited") meaning "prohibited to those not yet 18 years old", and seijin manga (成人漫画 "adult manga") are used when referring to pornography. The English letters AV are also used, standing for adult video. H, or ecchi The English use of "hentai" is more similar to the way the Japanese use the slang term エッチ (H, or ecchi), which refers to any sexually explicit content or behaviour. Ecchi is simply the spelling-out of the Japanese pronunciation of the letter H. The origins of this term are uncertain, but it may be a shortened form of hentai used as a polite codeword in the 1960s. "H" in Japan is now broadly used to refer to all sexual content or activity "えっちやる", to have sex. See, for example, めちゃくちゃエッチやったもん. The title of the film review can be translated as "they had sex like crazy". ) So, "H manga" are manga with sexual content. Recently, the term "ero" (エロ), short for "erotic" but closer in meaning to "porn", is now used more often instead of "H". Classification There are two main categories of hentai: works that feature mainly heterosexual interactions (often abbreviated as "het"), and those that feature mainly homosexual interactions. This second group can be further split into yaoi and yuri subgroups. Yaoi refers to male homosexual pairings, and yuri to female homosexual pairings. Yaoi commonly features males of ambiguous gender—in both physical appearance and mannerism—called bishōnen, literally "beautiful boy". Some feature biseinen ("beautiful man"), males of more masculine appearance than bishōnen. Less common are bara—larger, often heavily muscled and sometimes hairy males, the yaoi counterpart of the "bear" in gay pornography—as well as oyaji (meaning "daddy" or "uncle"), featuring middle-aged and elderly men. Yaoi also extends beyond the (sexually explicit) hentai genre, since it is an applies to any anime/manga material that includes male homosexuality. It is, however, distinct from shōnen-ai (literally, "boy-love"), in which two males merely express romantic feelings for each other without actually having sexual relations. Women interested in Yaoi are called "Fujoshi" (腐女子), which means "rotten girl" or "rotten woman". Compare fag hag. Yuri is very similar to yaoi, except that the focus is on female homosexual interactions. The characters in yuri are known as "bishōjo", meaning "beautiful girl". Shōjo-ai ("girl love") is a western term for the female equivalent of shōnen-ai; in Japan these works are also called yuri. The scope of hentai encompasses the entire range of sexual fetishes, including: Bakunyū, the depiction of women with large breasts. Literally translated to "bursting breasts". Futanari, depictions of hermaphrodites or transsexuals that have both phallic genitalia (penis with scrotum, only a penile shaft, or an enlarged clitoris) and vaginal genitalia or a feminine hourglass shape including breasts and a penis plus scrotum. BDSM, A spectrum of consensual sexual activities considered to be "kinky" or non mainstream, including such topics as power exchange (domination and submission), bondage, sadomasochism, spanking, etc.. Bestiality Breast-oriented torture and Breast bondage, BDSM practices focusing on breasts, many times coupled with a variety of torture. Erotic lactation Lolicon, depicts prepubescent or preadolescent girls. Maiesiophilia in which individuals struggle with a full bladder before finally wetting themselves (also known as watersports). Urolagnia: Urinating Coprophilia: Feces Shotacon, the depiction of young boys having intercourse with other young boys or older men, depicting young boys with older women, known as "straight shota" in western jargon. Tentacle rape, the depiction of tentacled creatures and sometimes monsters (fictional imaginative or otherwise, also includes alien-like creatures) engaging in sex or rape with girls and less often men. Incest sexual activity with legal family members noticeably seen in The Sagara Family, a hentai computer game. Hentai media Adult anime, or hentai anime, is anime that relies primarily on sex. Adult manga, or hentai manga, is manga designed for purely pornographic purposes. Plot is still used to develop character and setting, but most of the time, the ultimate goal is to show scenes of sexuality with few exceptions. Adult manga is often sold in convenience stores, book stores, and magazine stores in Japan, and also other public places such as airports, and is far more prolific and accessible than the U.S. adult comic book market. It is usually distributed in digest format, containing several stories by different artists (e.g. an anthology). Adult CG artwork includes individual drawings by artists. Art can be available on websites, CD-ROMs, or in printed art books. CG artwork is used frequently in adult video games. Adult video games, or eroge, are games with a pornographic element. They can include bishōjo games that involve character driven plots, and can exist as sex simulations. Adult dōjinshi, or H dōjinshi, refers to a type of work that uses copyrighted characters presented in sexual situations. It usually refers to printed manga, but can also refer to any type of visual work depicting copyrighted characters, including video games, animation, and CG artwork. Familiarity with a particular character or setting can add a sense of relating to the character over a generic character used in mainstream hentai, making dōjinshi more appealing to fans of a particular work. Despite not representing characters and licensed properties as intended, companies often view these works as a free form of license recognition and advertising through dedicated fandom. Some mangaka create hentai dōjinshi with characters from their own manga, such as Kazushi Hagiwara, who himself created Bastard - Expansion, a pornographic dōjin with characters from Bastard!! Lemon In Western fanfiction circles, hentai-based works are popularly referred to as "lemon", based on a more popular hentai anime anthology series called Cream Lemon. Fictions referred to as "lime" are ones in which the characters do everything short of having sexual intercourse with each other. See also Cartoon pornography Ero guro List of hentai authors (groups, studios, production companies, circles) Panchira Shunga References External links Dictionary of Japan Sex Hentai: Past and Present The "hentai" thread at The Society for the Study of Modern Image Board Culture—comparative English and Japanese uses of the word. "A Short History of 'Hentai'", by Mark McLelland "A Short History of 'Hentai'", by Mark McLelland, Intersections: Gender, History and Culture in the Asian Context, Issue 12, January 2006. Footnoted HTML version. 'H' does not mean 'hentai' via the Internet Archive | Hentai |@lemmatized japanese:8 word:4 west:1 use:16 refer:7 sexually:4 explicit:3 pornographic:4 comic:2 animation:2 particularly:1 anime:6 manga:12 computer:2 game:7 see:4 pornography:5 japan:6 mean:6 metamorphosis:1 abnormality:1 hentai:23 negative:1 connotation:1 commonly:2 pervert:2 kanji:1 compound:1 変:1 hen:1 meaning:5 change:1 weird:1 strange:1 態:1 tai:1 attitude:1 appearance:3 term:7 shortened:2 form:3 phrase:1 変態性欲:1 seiyoku:1 sexual:9 perversion:1 slang:2 変態:1 insult:1 roughly:1 weirdo:1 often:7 apply:1 instead:2 kin:1 literally:4 prohibit:2 yet:1 year:1 old:3 seijin:1 成人漫画:1 adult:10 english:3 letter:2 av:1 also:8 stand:1 video:4 h:8 ecchi:3 similar:2 way:1 エッチ:1 refers:3 content:3 behaviour:1 simply:1 spell:1 pronunciation:1 origin:1 uncertain:1 may:1 polite:1 codeword:1 broadly:1 activity:3 えっちやる:1 sex:6 example:1 めちゃくちゃエッチやったもん:1 title:1 film:1 review:1 translate:2 like:2 crazy:1 recently:1 ero:2 エロ:1 short:4 erotic:2 closer:1 porn:1 classification:1 two:2 main:1 category:1 work:7 feature:5 mainly:2 heterosexual:1 interaction:3 abbreviate:1 het:1 homosexual:4 second:1 group:2 split:1 yaoi:7 yuri:5 subgroup:1 male:6 pairing:2 female:3 ambiguous:1 gender:2 physical:1 mannerism:1 call:4 bishōnen:2 beautiful:3 boy:5 biseinen:1 man:1 masculine:1 less:2 common:1 bara:1 large:2 heavily:1 muscle:1 sometimes:2 hairy:1 counterpart:1 bear:1 gay:1 well:1 oyaji:1 daddy:1 uncle:1 middle:1 age:1 elderly:1 men:3 extend:1 beyond:1 genre:1 since:1 applies:1 material:1 include:8 homosexuality:1 however:1 distinct:1 shōnen:2 ai:3 love:2 merely:1 express:1 romantic:1 feeling:1 without:1 actually:1 relation:1 woman:4 interested:1 fujoshi:1 腐女子:1 rotten:2 girl:5 compare:1 fag:1 hag:1 except:1 focus:2 character:12 know:3 bishōjo:2 shōjo:1 western:3 equivalent:1 scope:1 encompass:1 entire:1 range:1 fetish:1 bakunyū:1 depiction:4 breast:6 burst:1 futanari:1 hermaphrodite:1 transsexual:1 phallic:1 genitalia:2 penis:2 scrotum:2 penile:1 shaft:1 enlarged:1 clitoris:1 vaginal:1 feminine:1 hourglass:1 shape:1 plus:1 bdsm:2 spectrum:1 consensual:1 consider:1 kinky:1 non:1 mainstream:2 topic:1 power:1 exchange:1 domination:1 submission:1 bondage:2 sadomasochism:1 spank:1 etc:1 bestiality:1 orient:1 torture:2 practice:1 many:1 time:2 couple:1 variety:1 lactation:1 lolicon:1 depict:3 prepubescent:1 preadolescent:1 maiesiophilia:1 individual:2 struggle:1 full:1 bladder:1 finally:1 wet:1 watersports:1 urolagnia:1 urinating:1 coprophilia:1 feces:1 shotacon:1 young:3 intercourse:2 straight:1 shota:1 jargon:1 tentacle:1 rape:2 tentacled:1 creature:2 monster:1 fictional:1 imaginative:1 otherwise:1 alien:1 engage:1 incest:1 legal:1 family:2 member:1 noticeably:1 sagara:1 medium:1 rely:1 primarily:1 design:1 purely:1 purpose:1 plot:2 still:1 develop:1 setting:2 ultimate:1 goal:1 show:1 scene:1 sexuality:1 exception:1 sell:1 convenience:1 store:3 book:3 magazine:1 public:1 place:1 airport:1 far:1 prolific:1 accessible:1 u:1 market:1 usually:2 distribute:1 digest:1 format:1 contain:1 several:1 story:1 different:1 artist:2 e:1 g:1 anthology:2 cg:3 artwork:3 drawing:1 art:2 available:1 website:1 cd:1 rom:1 printed:1 frequently:1 eroge:1 element:1 involve:1 driven:1 exist:1 simulation:1 dōjinshi:4 type:2 copyright:1 present:2 situation:1 print:1 visual:1 copyrighted:1 familiarity:1 particular:2 add:1 sense:1 relate:1 generic:1 make:1 appeal:1 fan:1 despite:1 represent:1 licensed:1 property:1 intend:1 company:2 view:1 free:1 license:1 recognition:1 advertising:1 dedicate:1 fandom:1 mangaka:1 create:2 kazushi:1 hagiwara:1 bastard:2 expansion:1 dōjin:1 lemon:3 fanfiction:1 circle:2 base:2 popularly:1 popular:1 series:1 cream:1 fiction:1 lime:1 one:1 everything:1 cartoon:1 guro:1 list:1 author:1 studio:1 production:1 panchira:1 shunga:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 dictionary:1 past:1 thread:1 society:1 study:1 modern:1 image:1 board:1 culture:2 comparative:1 us:1 history:3 mark:2 mclelland:2 intersection:1 asian:1 context:1 issue:1 january:1 footnote:1 html:1 version:1 via:1 internet:1 archive:1 |@bigram sexually_explicit:3 anime_manga:2 negative_connotation:1 sexual_perversion:1 manga_manga:2 sexual_fetish:1 convenience_store:1 cd_rom:1 sexual_intercourse:1 external_link:1 |
6,285 | Drake_equation | The Drake equation (also sometimes called the "Green Bank equation," the "Green Bank Formula," or erroneously labeled the "Sagan equation") is a famous result in the fields of exobiology and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI). This equation was devised by Dr. Frank Drake (now Professor Emeritus of Astronomy and Astrophysics at the University of California, Santa Cruz) in 1960, in an attempt to estimate the number of extraterrestrial civilizations in the Milky Way (our galaxy) with which we might come into contact. The main purpose of the equation is to allow scientists to quantify the uncertainty of the factors that determine the number of such extraterrestrial civilizations. History Frank Drake formulated his equation in 1960 in preparation for the Green Bank meeting. This meeting, held at Green Bank, West Virginia, established SETI as a scientific discipline. The historic meeting, whose participants became known as the "Order of the Dolphin," brought together leading astronomers, physicists, biologists, social scientists, and industry leaders to discuss the possibility of detecting intelligent life among the stars. The Green Bank meeting was also remarkable because it featured the first use of the famous formula that came to be known as the "Drake Equation." This explains why the equation is also known by its other names with the "Green Bank" designation. When Drake came up with this formula, he had no notion that it would become a staple of SETI theorists for decades to come. In fact, he thought of it as an organizational tool — a way to order the different issues to be discussed at the Green Bank conference, and bring them to bear on the central question of intelligent life in the universe. Carl Sagan, a great proponent of SETI, utilized and quoted the formula often and as a result the formula is often mislabeled as "The Sagan Equation." The Green Bank Meeting was commemorated by a plaque. The Drake equation is closely related to the Fermi paradox in that Drake suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations (the Fermi paradox) suggests that technological civilizations tend to destroy themselves rather quickly. This theory often stimulates an interest in identifying and publicizing ways in which humanity could destroy itself, and then counters with hopes of avoiding such destruction and eventually becoming a space-faring species. A similar argument is The Great Filter, which notes that since there are no observed extraterrestrial civilizations, despite the vast number of stars, then some step in the process must be acting as a filter to reduce the final value. According to this view, either it is very hard for intelligent life to arise, or the lifetime of such civilizations must be relatively short. The grand question of the number of communicating civilizations in our galaxy could, in Drake's view, be reduced to seven smaller issues with his equation. The equation The Drake equation states that: where: N is the number of civilizations in our galaxy with which communication might be possible; and R* is the average rate of star formation per year in our galaxy fp is the fraction of those stars that have planets ne is the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star that has planets fℓ is the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop life at some point fi is the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop intelligent life fc is the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space L is the length of time such civilizations release detectable signals into space. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/origins/drake.html PBS NOVA: Origins - The Drake Equation Alternative expression The number of stars in the galaxy now, N*, is related to the star formation rate R* by , where Tg is the age of the galaxy. Assuming for simplicity that R* is constant, then and the Drake equation can be rewritten into an alternate form phrased in terms of the more easily observable value, N*. Michael Seeds, Horizons: Exploring the Universe, Brooks/Cole Publishing Co., 10th edition, ISBN13: 978-0-495-11358-4 R factor One can question why the number of civilizations should be proportional to the star formation rate, though this makes technical sense. (The product of all the terms except L tells how many new communicating civilizations are born each year. Then you multiply by the lifetime to get the expected number. For example, if an average of 0.01 new civilizations are born each year, and they each last 500 years on the average, then on the average 5 will exist at any time.) The original Drake Equation can be extended to a more realistic model, where the equation uses not the number of stars that are forming now, but those that were forming several billion years ago. The alternate formulation, in terms of the number of stars in the galaxy, is easier to explain and understand, but implicitly assumes the star formation rate is constant over the life of the galaxy. Expansions Additional factors that have been described for the Drake equation include: nr or reappearance number: The average number of times a new civilization reappears on the same planet where a previous civilization once has appeared and ended fm or METI factor (see below): The fraction of communicative civilizations that actually engage in deliberate interstellar transmission With these factors in mind, the Drake equation states: Reappearance number The equation may furthermore be multiplied by how many times an intelligent civilization may occur on planets where it has happened once. Even if an intelligent civilization reaches the end of its lifetime after, for example, 10,000 years, life may still prevail on the planet for billions of years, availing for the next civilization to evolve. Thus, several civilizations may come and go during the lifespan of one and the same planet. Thus, if nr is the average number of times a new civilization reappears on the same planet where a previous civilization once has appeared and ended, then the total number of civilizations on such a planet would be (1+nr), which is the actual reappearance factor added to the equation. The factor depends on what generally is the cause of civilization extinction. If it is generally by temporary inhabitability, for example a nuclear winter, then nr may be relatively high. On the other hand, if it is generally by permanent inhabitability, such as stellar evolution, then nr may be almost zero. In the case of total life extinction, a similar factor may be applicable for fℓ, that is, how many times life may appear on a planet where it has appeared once. METI factor Alexander Zaitsev said that to be in a communicative phase and emit dedicated messages are not the same. For example, humans, although being in a communicative phase, are not a communicative civilization; we do not practice such activities as the purposeful and regular transmission of interstellar messages. For this reason, he suggested introducing the METI factor (Messaging to Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence) to the classical Drake Equation. The factor is defined as "The fraction of communicative civilizations with clear and non-paranoid planetary consciousness", or alternatively expressed, the fraction of communicative civilizations that actually engage in deliberate interstellar transmission. Historical estimates of the parameters Considerable disagreement on the values of most of these parameters exists, but the values used by Drake and his colleagues in 1961 were: R* = 10/year (10 stars formed per year, on the average over the life of the galaxy) fp = 0.5 (half of all stars formed will have planets) ne = 2 (stars with planets will have 2 planets capable of supporting life) fl = 1 (100% of these planets will develop life) fi = 0.01 (1% of which will be intelligent life) fc = 0.01 (1% of which will be able to communicate) L = 10,000 years (which will last 10,000 years) Drake's values give N = 10 × 0.5 × 2 × 1 × 0.01 × 0.01 × 10,000 = 10. The value of R* is determined from considerable astronomical data, and is the least disputed term of the equation; fp is less certain, but is still much firmer than the values following. Confidence in ne was once higher, but the discovery of numerous gas giants in close orbit with their stars has introduced doubt that life-supporting planets commonly survive the creation of their stellar systems. In addition, most stars in our galaxy are red dwarfs, which flare violently, mostly in X-rays—a property not conducive to life as we know it (simulations also suggest that these bursts erode planetary atmospheres). The possibility of life on moons of gas giants (such as Jupiter's moon Europa, or Saturn's moon Titan) adds further uncertainty to this figure. Geological evidence from the Earth suggests that fl may be very high; life on Earth appears to have begun around the same time as favorable conditions arose, suggesting that abiogenesis may be relatively common once conditions are right. However, this evidence only looks at the Earth (a single model planet), and contains anthropic bias, as the planet of study was not chosen randomly, but by the living organisms that already inhabit it (ourselves). Also countering this argument is that there is no evidence for abiogenesis occurring more than once on the Earth—that is, all terrestrial life stems from a common origin. If abiogenesis were more common it would be speculated to have occurred more than once on the Earth. In addition, from a classical hypothesis testing standpoint, there are zero degrees of freedom, permitting no valid estimates to be made. One piece of data that would have major impact on fl is the discovery of life on Mars or another planet or moon. If life were to be found on Mars that developed independently from life on Earth it would imply a higher value for fl. While this would improve the degrees of freedom from zero to one, there would remain a great deal of uncertainty on any estimate due to the small sample size, and the chance they are not really independent. Similar arguments of bias can be made regarding fi and fc by considering the Earth as a model: intelligence with the capacity of extraterrestrial communication occurs only in one species in the 4 billion year history of life on Earth. If generalized, this means only relatively old planets may have intelligent life capable of extraterrestrial communication. Again this model has a large anthropic bias and there are still zero degrees of freedom. Note that the capacity and willingness to participate in extraterrestrial communication has come relatively "quickly", with the Earth having only an estimated 100,000 year history of intelligent human life, and less than a century of technological ability. fi, fc and L, like fl, are guesses. Estimates of fi have been affected by discoveries that the solar system's orbit is circular in the galaxy, at such a distance that it remains out of the spiral arms for hundreds of millions of years (evading radiation from novae). Also, Earth's large moon may aid the evolution of life by stabilizing the planet's axis of rotation. In addition, while it appears that life developed soon after the formation of Earth, the Cambrian explosion, in which a large variety of multicellular life forms came into being, occurred a considerable amount of time after the formation of Earth, which suggests the possibility that special conditions were necessary. Some scenarios such as the Snowball Earth or research into the extinction events have raised the possibility that life on Earth is relatively fragile. Again, the controversy over life on Mars is relevant since a discovery that life did form on Mars but ceased to exist would affect estimates of these terms. The astronomer Carl Sagan speculated that all of the terms, except for the lifetime of a civilization, are relatively high and the determining factor in whether there are large or small numbers of civilizations in the universe is the civilization lifetime, or in other words, the ability of technological civilizations to avoid self-destruction. In Sagan's case, the Drake equation was a strong motivating factor for his interest in environmental issues and his efforts to warn against the dangers of nuclear warfare. By plugging in apparently "plausible" values for each of the parameters above, the resultant expectant value of N is often (much) greater than 1. This has provided considerable motivation for the SETI movement. However, we have no evidence for extraterrestrial civilizations. This conflict is often called the Fermi paradox, after Enrico Fermi who first asked about our lack of observation of extraterrestrials, and motivates advocates of SETI to continually expand the volume of space in which another civilization could be observed. Other assumptions give values of N that are (much) less than 1, but some observers believe this is still compatible with observations due to the anthropic principle: no matter how low the probability that any given galaxy will have intelligent life in it, the universe must have at least one intelligent species by definition otherwise the question would not arise. Some computations of the Drake equation, given different assumptions: R* = 10/year, fp = 0.5, ne = 2, fl = 1, fi = 0.01, fc = 0.01, and L = 50,000 years N = 10 × 0.5 × 2 × 1 × 0.01 × 0.01 × 50,000 = 50 (so 50 civilizations exist in our galaxy at any given time, on average) But a pessimist might equally well believe that life seldom becomes intelligent, and intelligent civilizations do not last very long: R* = 10/year, fp = 0.5, ne = 2, fl = 1, fi = 0.001, fc = 0.01, and L = 500 years N = 10 × 0.5 × 2 × 1 × 0.001 × 0.01 × 500 = 0.05 (we are probably alone) Alternatively, making some more optimistic assumptions, and assuming that 10% of civilizations become willing and able to communicate, and then spread through their local star systems for 100,000 years (a very short period in geologic time): R* = 20/year, fp = 0.1, ne = 0.5, fl = 1, fi = 0.5, fc = 0.1, and L = 100,000 years N = 20 × 0.1 × 0.5 × 1 × 0.5 × 0.1 × 100,000 = 5,000 Current estimates of the parameters This section attempts to list best current estimates for the parameters of the Drake equation. R* = the rate of star creation in our galaxy Estimated by Drake as 10/year. Latest calculations from NASA and the European Space Agency indicate that the current rate of star formation in our galaxy is about 7 per year. fp = the fraction of those stars that have planets Estimated by Drake as 0.5. It is now known from modern planet searches that at least 30% of sun-like stars have planets , and the true proportion may be much higher, since only planets considerably larger than Earth can be detected with current technology. Infra-red surveys of dust discs around young stars imply that 20-60% of sun-like stars may form terrestrial planets. ne = the average number of planets (satellites may perhaps sometimes be just as good candidates) that can potentially support life per star that has planets Estimated by Drake as 2. Marcy et al. note that most of the observed planets have very eccentric orbits, or orbit very close to the sun where the temperature is too high for earth-like life. However, several planetary systems that look more solar-system-like are known, such as HD 70642, HD 154345, or Gliese 849. These may well have smaller, as yet unseen, earth-sized planets in their habitable zones. Also, the variety of solar systems that might have habitable zones is not just limited to solar-type stars and earth-sized planets - it is now believed that even tidally locked planets close to red dwarves might have habitable zones, and some of the large planets detected so far could potentially support life - in early 2008, two different research groups concluded that Gliese 581d may possibly be habitable. Since about 200 planetary systems are known, this implies . Lineweaver has also determined that about 10% of star systems in the Galaxy are hospitable to life, by having heavy elements, being far from supernovae and being stable themselves for sufficient time. NASA's Kepler mission was launched on March 6, 2009. Unlike previous searches, it is sensitive to planets as small as Earth, and with orbital periods as long as a year. If successful, Kepler should provide a much better estimate of the number of planets per star that are found in the habitable zone. Even if planets are in the habitable zone, however, the number of planets with the right proportion of elements may be difficult to estimate. Also, the Rare Earth hypothesis, which posits that conditions for intelligent life are quite rare, has advanced a set of arguments based on the Drake equation that the number of planets or satellites that could support life is small, and quite possibly limited to Earth alone; in this case, the estimate of ne would be infinitesimal. fl = the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop life Estimated by Drake as 1. In 2002, Charles H. Lineweaver and Tamara M. Davis (at the University of New South Wales and the Australian Centre for Astrobiology) estimated fl as > 0.13 on planets that have existed for at least one billion years using a statistical argument based on the length of time life took to evolve on Earth. fi = the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop intelligent life Estimated by Drake as 0.01. fc = the fraction of the above that are willing and able to communicate Estimated by Drake as 0.01. L = the expected lifetime of such a civilization for the period that it can communicate across interstellar space Estimated by Drake as 10,000 years. In an article in Scientific American, Michael Shermer estimated L as 420 years, based on compiling the durations of sixty historical civilizations. Using twenty-eight civilizations more recent than the Roman Empire he calculates a figure of 304 years for "modern" civilizations. It could also be argued from Michael Shermer's results that the fall of most of these civilizations was followed by later civilizations that carried on the technologies, so it's doubtful that they are separate civilizations in the context of the Drake equation. In the expanded version, including reappearance number, this lack of specificity in defining single civilizations doesn't matter for the end result, since such a civilization turnover could be described as an increase in the reappearance number rather than increase in L, stating that a civilization reappears in the form of the succeeding cultures. Furthermore, since none could communicate over interstellar space, the method of comparing with historical civilizations could be regarded as invalid. The value of L can be estimated from the lifetime of our current civilization from the advent of radio astronomy in 1938 (dated from Grote Reber's parabolic dish radio telescope) to the current date. In 2008, this gives an L of 70 years. However such an assumption would be erroneous. 70 for the value of L would be an artificial minimum based on Earth's broadcasting history to date and would make unlikely the possibility of other civilizations existing. 10,000 for L is still the most popular estimate. David Grinspoon has argued that once a civilization has developed it might overcome all threats to its survival. It will then last for an indefinite period of time, making the value for L potentially billions of years. If this is the case, then the galaxy has been steadily accumulating advanced civilizations since it formed. Lonely Planets, David Grinspoon (2004) Values based on the above estimates, R* = 7/year, fp = 0.5, ne = 2, fl = 0.33, fi = 0.01, fc = 0.01, and L = 10000 years result in N = 7 × 0.5 × 2 × 0.33 × 0.01 × 0.01 × 10000 = 2.31 Criticism Criticism of the Drake equation follows mostly from the observation that several terms in the equation are largely or entirely based on conjecture. Thus the equation cannot be used to draw firm conclusions of any kind. As T.J. Watson states: The Drake equation consists of a large number of probabilities multiplied together. Since each factor is guaranteed to be somewhere between 0 and 1, the result is also guaranteed to be a reasonable-looking number between 0 and 1. Unfortunately, all the probabilities are completely unknown, making the result worse than useless. Likewise, in a 2003 lecture at Caltech, Michael Crichton, a science fiction author, stated: The problem, of course, is that none of the terms can be known, and most cannot even be estimated. The only way to work the equation is to fill in with guesses. [...] As a result, the Drake equation can have any value from "billions and billions" to zero. An expression that can mean anything means nothing. Speaking precisely, the Drake equation is literally meaningless... One reply to such criticism is that experiments by SETI scientists do not attempt to address the Drake equation for the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations anywhere in the universe, but are focused on specific, testable hypotheses (i.e., "do extraterrestrial civilizations communicating in the radio spectrum exist near sun-like stars within 50 light years of the Earth?"). Another reply to such criticism Jill Tarter, The Cosmic Haystack Is Large, Skeptical Inquirer magazine, May 2006. is that even though the Drake equation currently involves speculation about unmeasured parameters, it stimulates dialog on these topics. Then the focus becomes how to proceed experimentally. A deeper objection is that the very form of the Drake equation assumes that civilizations arise and then die out within their original solar systems. If interstellar colonization is possible, then this assumption is invalid, and the equations of population dynamics would apply instead. In fiction The Drake equation and the Fermi paradox have been discussed many times in science fiction, including both serious takes in stories such as Frederick Pohl's Hugo award-winning "Fermi and Frost", which cites the paradox as evidence for the short lifetime of technical civilizations —that is, the possibility that once a civilization develops the power to destroy itself (perhaps by nuclear winter), it does, and humorous commentary in stories such as Terry Bisson's classic short story "They're Made Out of Meat" They're made out of Meat, by Hugo and Nebula Winner Terry Bisson . The equation was cited by Gene Roddenberry as supporting the multiplicity of starfaring civilizations shown in Star Trek, the television show he created. However, Roddenberry didn't have the equation with him, and he was forced to "invent" it for his original proposal. The invented equation created by Roddenberry is: Dr. Drake has gently pointed out, however, that a number raised to the first power is merely the number itself. A poster with both versions of the equation was seen in the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Future's End". The formula is also cited in Michael Crichton's Sphere. In the Evolution-based game Spore, after eventually coming into contact with living beings on other planets, a picture is shown, along with the comment, "Drake's Equation was right... a living alien race!" George Alec Effinger's short story "One" uses an expedition confident in the Drake Equation as a backdrop to explore the psychological implications of a lonely humanity. The Ultimate Marvel comic book mini-series Ultimate Secret has Reed Richards examining the Drake Equation and considering the Fermi Paradox. He claims that when Drake plugged in his numbers, he came up with 10,000 alien races that would have a civilization advanced enough to contact Earth, but only one that Richards knew of had done it (actually 10 others already had, and two more were about to, but Richards did not know that at the time). In discussion with Sue Storm, it is revealed that he believes that advanced civilizations destroy themselves. In the story it turns out that they are also destroyed by Gah Lak Tus. Eleanor Ann Arroway paraphrases the Drake equation several times in the film Contact, using the magnitude of N* and its implications on the output value to justify the SETI program. However, in one scene of the 1997 motion picture based upon the Carl Sagan novel, she misstates her Drake Equation result by several billion. This equation was mentioned by Howard and detailed by Sheldon in an episode of the second season of the television series The Big Bang Theory. See also Fermi paradox Kardashev scale The Great Filter Zoo hypothesis Anthropic principle Big Bounce Black swan theory Doomsday argument Final anthropic principle Goldilocks Principle Inverse gambler's fallacy Metaphysical naturalism Nick Bostrom Principle of mediocrity Rare Earth hypothesis Selection bias Footnotes References Chapter A Mirror in the Sky is dedicated to Drake equation External links http://www.skypub.com/news/special/9812seti_aliens.html Beyond the Drake Equation January 2002 space.com article about estimated prevalence of extrasolar planets Preprint by Lineweaver and Davis estimating fl as > 0.13 July 2003 discovery of a planetary system similar to our solar system Macromedia Flash page allowing the user to modify Drake's values from PBS Nova The Drake Equation Astronomy Cast episode #23, includes full transcript. 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6,286 | Elizabeth_I_of_England | Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called the Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born a princess, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed three years after her birth, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Her brother, Edward VI, cut her out of the succession. His will was set aside, and in 1558 Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister, the Catholic Mary, during whose reign she had been imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels. Elizabeth set out to rule by good counsel, "I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel." Elizabeth's first speech as queen, Hatfield House, 20 November 1558. Loades, 35. and she depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, Baron Burghley. One of her first moves as queen was to support the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement held firm throughout her reign and later evolved into today's Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry, but despite several petitions from parliament, she never did. The reasons for this choice are unknown, and they have been much debated. As she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity, and a cult grew up around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants and literature of the day. In government, Elizabeth was more moderate than her father and siblings. Starkey, 5. One of her mottoes was "video et taceo" ("I see, and say nothing"). Neale, 386. This strategy, viewed with impatience by her counsellors, often saved her from political and marital misalliances. Though Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs and only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France and Ireland, the defeat of the Spanish armada in 1588 associated her name forever with what is popularly viewed as one of the greatest victories in English history. Within 20 years of her death, she was being celebrated as the ruler of a golden age, an image that retains its hold on the English people. Elizabeth's reign is known as the Elizabethan era, famous above all for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake. Historians tend to be more cautious in their assessment. They often depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered, In 1593, the French ambassador confessed: "When I see her enraged against any person whatever, I wish myself in Calcutta, fearing her anger like death itself". Somerset, 731–32. sometimes indecisive ruler, Somerset, 729. who enjoyed more than her share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity to the point where many of her subjects were relieved at her death. Elizabeth is acknowledged as a charismatic performer and a dogged survivor, in an age when government was ramshackle and limited and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. Such was the case with Elizabeth's rival, Mary I, Queen of Scots, whom she imprisoned in 1568 and eventually had executed in 1587. After the short reigns of Elizabeth's brother and sister, her 44 years on the throne provided valuable stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. Starkey, 5. Early life Elizabeth's parents, Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn Elizabeth was born in Greenwich Palace in the Chamber of Virgins on 7 September 1533 between three and four o'clock in the afternoon Marie Louise Bruce Anne Boleyn,pg.234 and named after both her paternal and maternal grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard. Somerset, 4. She was the second legitimate child of Henry VIII of England to survive infancy; her mother was Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. At birth, Elizabeth was the heiress presumptive to the throne of England. Her older half-sister, Mary, had lost her position as legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, in order to marry Anne. Loades, 3–5 Somerset, 4–5. King Henry VIII had desperately wanted a legitimate son, to ensure the Tudor succession. Anne had been crowned with St. Edward's crown, unlike any other queen consort, while carrying Elizabeth. Historian Alice Hunt has suggested that this was done because Anne's pregnancy was visible at the moment of coronation and she was carrying an heir who was presumed to be male. Hunt After Elizabeth's birth, Queen Anne failed to provide a male heir. She suffered at least two miscarriages, one in 1534 and another at the beginning of 1536. On 2 May 1536, she was arrested and imprisoned. Hastily convicted on trumped-up charges, she was beheaded on 19 May 1536. Loades, 6–7. Haigh, 1–3. Elizabeth, who was 2 years 8 months old at the time, was declared illegitimate and deprived of the title of princess. In the act of July 1536, it was stated that Elizabeth was "illegitimate... and utterly foreclosed, excluded and banned to claim, challenge, or demand any inheritance as lawful heir...to [the King] by lineal descent". Elizabeth who was an incredibly bright child, did not notice that her mother was gone but she did notice the change of her name. She apparently said to her governess. "how haps it governor, yesterday my Lady Princess, today but my Lady Elizabeth?" Somerset, 10. Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's death, Henry married Jane Seymour, "It had taken Henry VIII a month to dispose of his wife on a charge of treason, sweep some of her friends to the block with her, bastardise her child, and acquire a new queen. Here was the power of the Tudor monarchy in action, with the King bending his Council, the Church, and the law to do his will." Haigh, 1. who died 12 days after the birth of their son, Prince Edward. Elizabeth was placed in Edward's household and carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening. Loades, 7–8. Elizabeth Tudor, c. 1546, by an unknown artist. The simplicity of this portrait contrasts with the ornate icons that came later. "The painter ... is unknown, but in a competently Flemish style he depicts the daughter of Anne Boleyn as quiet and studious-looking, ornament in her attire as secondary to the plainness of line that emphasizes her youth. Great is the contrast with the awesome fantasy of the later portraits: the pallid, mask-like features, the extravagance of headdress and ruff, the padded ornateness that seemed to exclude all humanity." Gaunt, 37. Elizabeth's first governess, Lady Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was “as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life”. Somerset, 11. At the age of four, Elizabeth passed into the care of Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, married name of Catherine “Kat” Ashley, who remained Elizabeth’s friend for life. Champernowne clearly made a good job of Elizabeth’s early education: by the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Italian. Under Grindal, a talented and skillful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek. Our knowledge of Elizabeth’s schooling and precocity comes largely from the memoirs of Roger Ascham, also the tutor of Prince Edward. Loades, 8–10. After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be fun. Somerset, 25. By the time her formal education ended in 1550, she was the best educated woman of her generation. Loades, 21. Thomas Seymour The Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul, a manuscript translation from the French, by Elizabeth, aged 11, presented to Catherine Parr in 1544. The embroidered binding with the monogram KP for "Katherin Parr" is believed to have been worked by Elizabeth. Davenport, 32. Henry VIII died in 1547, when Elizabeth was 13 years old, and was succeeded by her half brother, Edward VI. Catherine Parr, Henry's last wife, soon married Thomas Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and the brother of the Lord Protector, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset. The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that some historians believe affected her for the rest of her life. Loades, 11. Seymour, approaching age 40 but having charm and "a powerful sex appeal", Loades, 11. engaged in romps and horseplay with the 14-year-old Elizabeth. These included entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her and slapping her on the buttocks. After Catherine Parr discovered the pair in an embrace, she ended this state of affairs. Loades, 14. "Kat Ashley told another of Elizabeth’s servants, Thomas Parry, that the Queen lost patience with both her husband and Elizabeth after she ‘suddenly came upon them where they were all alone, he having her in his arms’.” Somerset, 23. In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away. She moved into the household of Catherine Ashley’s sister Joan and her husband, Sir Anthony Denny, at Cheshunt. Loades, 16. Seymour continued scheming to control the royal family. Haigh, 8. Not only Elizabeth but Princess Mary and Lady Jane Grey had lived in Seymour's household at various times. Seymour had also "wormed his way" into King Edward’s confidence by slipping him pocket money and calling the Lord Protector stingy; and he had tried to have himself appointed the governor of the King’s person. Neale, 32. When Catherine Parr died of puerperal fever after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on wedding her. Williams, 24. The details of his former behaviour towards Elizabeth emerged during an interrogation of Catherine Ashley and Thomas Parry, Elizabeth’s cofferer. Loades, 14, 16. For his brother and the council, this was the last straw, Neale, 33. and in January 1549, Seymour was arrested on suspicion of plotting to marry Elizabeth and overthrow his brother. Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Sir Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see it in her face that she is guilty". Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549. Queen Mary Edward VI died, probably of tuberculosis, on 6 July 1553, aged 15. His will swept aside the Succession to the Crown Act 1543, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's sister Mary, Duchess of Suffolk. Loades, 24–25. Lady Jane was proclaimed queen by the Privy Council, but her support quickly crumbled, and she was deposed after reigning nine days. Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side. Elizabeth had assembled 2,000 horsemen, "a remarkable tribute to the size of her affinity". Loades 25. The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary, the country's first Queen Regnant, was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Mass. This included Elizabeth, who had to outwardly conform. Loades, 26. Mary's initial popularity ebbed away when it became known that she planned to marry Prince Philip of Spain, the son of Emperor Charles V. Loades, 27. Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies. In January and February 1554, uprisings broke out (known as Wyatt's rebellion) in several parts of England and Wales, led by Thomas Wyatt. Neale, 45. Mary I Upon the collapse of the uprising, Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated. On 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where Lady Jane Grey had been executed on 12 February to deter the rebels. Somerset, 49. The terrified Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence. Loades, 28. Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Charles V's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and the Chancellor, Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial. Somerset, 51. Elizabeth's supporters in the government, including Lord Paget, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. Instead, on 22 May, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Sir Henry Bedingfield. Crowds cheered her all along the way. Loades, 29. "The wives of Wycombe passed cake and wafers to her until her litter became so burdened that she had to beg them to stop." Neale, 49. The remaining wing of the Old Palace, Hatfield House. It was here that Elizabeth was told of her sister's death in November 1558. On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to be closely attended during the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen. If, on the other hand, Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child. Loades, 32. Elizabeth's succession seemed assured. Somerset, 66. Even Philip, who became King of Spain in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality. From this time forward, he cultivated Elizabeth, preferring her to the likely alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was betrothed to the Dauphin of France. Neale, 53. When his wife fell ill in 1558, Philip sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth. Loades, 33. By October, Elizabeth was making plans for her government. On 6 November, Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir. Neale, 59. Somerset, 71. Eleven days later, Elizabeth succeeded to the throne when Mary died at St. James's Palace on 17 November 1558. Queen Elizabeth Elizabeth became queen at the age of 25. As her triumphal progress wound through the city on the eve of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour. Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished". Somerset, 89–90. The "Festival Book" account, from the British Library The following day, 15 January 1559, Elizabeth was crowned at Westminster Abbey and anointed by the Catholic bishop of Carlisle. She was then presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells. Neale, 70. Elizabeth I in her coronation robes, patterned with Tudor roses and trimmed with ermine. She wears her hair loose, as traditional for the coronation of a queen, perhaps also as a symbol of virginity. Loades, 34. The painting dates to the first decade of the seventeenth century and is based on a lost original. Another copy of the lost original has been attributed both to Nicholas Hilliard and to Levina Teerlinc. See Strong, 163, and Doran Suitors, 43. On 20 November 1558, Elizabeth declared her intentions to her Council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. The speech contains the first record of her often-used metaphor of the "two bodies": the body natural and the body politic: My lords, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed, and yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me. And as I am but one body naturally considered, though by His permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all...to be assistant to me, that I with my ruling and you with your service may make a good account to Almighty God and leave some comfort to our posterity on earth. I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel. Full document reproduced by Loades, 36–37. Religion Unfortunately for historians, Elizabeth's personal religious convictions will never be definitely known. Her religious policy favoured pragmatism above all in dealing with three major concerns. The first concern was that of her legitimacy. Although she was technically illegitimate under both Protestant and Catholic law, her retroactively declared illegitimacy under the English church was not a serious bar compared to having never been legitimate as the Catholics claimed she was. Perhaps most importantly, the break with Rome made her legitimate in her own eyes. For this reason, it was never in serious doubt that the Elizabeth would embrace at least nominal Protestantism. Regnans in Excelsis was a papal bull issued on February 25, 1570, by Pope Pius V declaring "Elizabeth, the pretended Queen of England and the servant of crime" to be a heretic and releasing all her subjects from any allegiance to her and excommunicating any that obeyed her orders. The bull, written in Latin, is named from its incipit, the first three words of its text, which mean "ruling from on high" (a reference to God).[1] Among the queen's offences, "She has removed the royal Council, composed of the nobility of England, and has filled it with obscure men, being heretics." Elizabeth and her advisors perceived the threat of a Catholic crusade against heretical England. Elizabeth therefore sought a Protestant solution that would not offend Catholics too greatly while addressing the desires of the third concern, English Protestants; she could not afford to appease the more radical Puritans though, who were pushing for far-reaching reforms. As a result, the parliament of 1559 started to legislate for a church based on the Protestant settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as its head, but with many superficially Catholic elements, such as priestly vestments. Loades, 46. The House of Commons backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the House of Lords, particularly from the bishops. Elizabeth was fortunate that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury. "It was fortunate that ten out of twenty-six bishoprics were vacant, for of late there had been a high rate of mortality among the episcopate, and a fever had conveniently carried off Mary's Archbishop of Canterbury, Reginald Pole, less than twenty-four hours after her own death". Somerset, 98. "There were no less than ten sees unrepresented through death or illness and the carelessness of 'the accursed cardinal' [Pole]". Black, 10. This enabled supporters amongst peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers. Nevertheless, Elizabeth was forced to accept the title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious title of Supreme Head, which many thought unacceptable for a woman to bear. The new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary. At the same time, a new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of an adapted version of the 1552 Book of Common Prayer compulsory, though the penalties for recusancy, or failure to attend and conform, were not extreme. Somerset, 101–103. Marriage question Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, attributed to Steven van der Meulen, 1560s. Elizabeth's friendship with Dudley, her foremost favourite, lasted for over thirty years. From the start of Elizabeth's reign, the question arose whom she would marry. She never married, and the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships, or that she knew herself to be infertile. Loades, 38. Haigh, 19. Until bearing a child became impossible, she considered several suitors. Her last courtship, ending in 1581 when she was aged 48, was with François, Duke of Anjou, 22 years her junior. Elizabeth had no need of a man's help to govern, and marrying risked a loss of control or of foreign interference in her affairs, as had happened to her sister Mary. On the other hand, marriage offered the chance of an heir. Loades, 39. The "Hampden" portrait, by Steven van der Meulen, ca. 1563. This is the earliest full-length (2 m/7 ft tall) portrait of the young queen, and depicts her in red satin trimmed with pearls and jewels, made before the emergence of symbolic portraits representing the iconography of the "Virgin Queen". In November 2007 it was auctioned by Sotheby's for ₤2.6 million, more than twice the maximum predicted. Elizabeth often received offers of marriage, but she only seriously considered three or four suitors for any length of time. Of these, her childhood friend Lord Robert Dudley probably came closest. Early in 1559, Elizabeth's friendship with the married Dudley seems to have turned to love. Rumour spread through court and country that she was sleeping with him. Loades, 42. It was also said that Amy Robsart, his wife, was suffering from a "malady in one of her breasts", Wilson Robin, 95 and half a year later, that Lord Robert and the Queen had a "secret understanding" to marry after Amy would at last have been "sent into eternity". Gristwood, 129 Yet this was not a welcome idea: "There is not a man who does not cry out on him and her with indignation...she will marry none but the favoured Robert", the Spanish ambassador described the situation at the beginning of 1560. Chamberlin, 118 Accordingly, when Dudley's wife died in September of the same year from a fall from a flight of stairs, a great scandal arose. It is now presumed that Amy Dudley had cancer. At the time, it was widely believed that Dudley had done away with her in order to marry the queen. Somerset, 166–167. For a time, Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley; but William Cecil, Nicholas Throckmorton, and other politicians were very alarmed and made their disapproval unmistakably clear. Wilson Robin, 126-128 The opposition was so overwhelming, that there were even rumours that the nobility would rise if the marriage took place. Doran Monarchy, 45 Despite several other marriage projects, Elizabeth continued to encourage Dudley in his suit for another decade, and even in case she did not really mean to marry him herself, she remained extremely jealous of his affections. "...and after all, she will either not marry or else marry Robert, to whom she has always been so much attached...the Queen is in love with Robert" (Philip II of Spain in October 1565): Calendar of State Papers...Simancas, vol.I, 492; Jenkins, passim Finally, after Dudley, whom she had created Earl of Leicester in 1564, had remarried in 1578, the queen reacted with repeated scenes of displeasure towards him for having done so. Wright vol.II, 103-105; Leicester still wrote in 1585: "She [the Queen] doth take every occasion by my marriage to withdraw any good from me.": Hammer p.46 His wife had to cope with the queen's lifelong hatred. Cal. of State Papers...Simancas vol. III p.477; Freedman, 121-122 Nevertheless, Dudley retained a special place in her heart. After Elizabeth's death, a note from him, who had died in 1588, was found among her most personal belongings, marked "his last letter" in her handwriting. Wilson Robin, 303 Elizabeth kept the marriage question open but often only as a diplomatic ploy. Haigh, 17. Parliament repeatedly petitioned her to marry, but she always answered evasively. Loades, 40. In 1563, she told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen and married". Haigh, 17. In the same year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue. Parliament urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. She refused to do either. In April, she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566. The House of Commons threatened to withhold funds until she agreed to provide for the succession. In 1566, Sir Robert Bell boldly pursued the issue despite Elizabeth's command to desist and became the target of her anger, saying, "Mr. Bell with his complices must needs prefer their speeches to the upper house to have you my lords, consent with them, whereby you were seduced, and of simplicity did assent unto it." Hasler, 421–424. In 1566, she confided to the Spanish ambassador that if she could find a way to settle the succession without marrying, she would do so. By 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem. Haigh, 17. For this stance, as for her failure to marry, she was often accused of irresponsibility. Haigh, 20–21. Elizabeth's silence strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup. When in 1566 a parliamentary commission urged Elizabeth to name an heir, she referred to the way "a second person, as I have been" had been used as the focus of plots against her sister, Queen Mary. Haigh, 22–23. Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin or a goddess or both, not as a normal woman. Haigh, 23. At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin". Haigh, 23. Later on, particularly after 1578, poets and writers took up the theme and turned it into an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. In an age of metaphors and conceits, she was portrayed as married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. In 1599, Elizabeth spoke of "all my husbands, my good people". Haigh, 24. Foreign policy François, Duke of Anjou, by Nicholas Hilliard. Elizabeth called the duke her "frog", finding him "not so deformed" as she had been led to expect. Frieda, 397. Apart from the Dudley courtship, Elizabeth treated the marriage issue as an aspect of foreign policy. Loades, 51. Though she turned down Philip II's own offer in 1559, she negotiated for several years to marry his cousin Archduke Charles of Austria. Relations with the Habsburgs deteriorated by 1568. Elizabeth then considered marriage to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henri, Duke of Anjou, and later, from 1572 to 1581, his brother François, Duke of Anjou. Loades, 53–54. This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands. Loades, 54. Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time, and wore a frog-shaped earring that Anjou had sent her. Somerset, 408. Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the disastrous occupation of Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Elizabeth had intended to exchange Le Havre for Calais, retaken by France in January 1558. Frieda, 191. She sent troops into Scotland in 1560 to prevent the French using it as a base. Loades, 55. In 1585, she signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch to block the Spanish threat to England. Haigh, 135. Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea. Loades, 61. She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. An element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over which the queen had little control. Flynn and Spence, 126–128. Somerset, 607–611. Her reign also saw the first colonisation or "planting" of new land in North America; the colony of Virginia was named by her when she modified the name of a Native American regional "king" named "Wingina" that had been recorded in 1584 by the Sir Walter Raleigh expedition. Scotland Mary, Queen of Scots. School of François Clouet Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there. Haigh, 131. She feared that the French planned to invade England and put Mary, Queen of Scots, who was considered by many to be the heir to the English crown, Mary's position as heir derived from her great-grandfather Henry VII of England, through his daughter Margaret Tudor. In her own words, "I am the nearest kinswoman she hath, being both of us of one house and stock, the Queen my good sister coming of the brother, and I of the sister". Guy, 115. Henry VIII, authorized by the 35 Hen. VIII, c.1 statute, already mentioned, had made an entail that excluded the line of Margaret from the succession. Mary disputed the testament on the ground that Henry allegedly had not personally signed it, as required by the statute. See e.g. Queen of Scots: The True Life of Mary Stuart (Mariner Books, 2005 ISBN 0618619178), p. 267. on the throne. On Elizabeth's accession, Mary's Guise relatives had pronounced her Queen of England and had the English arms emblazoned with those of Scotland and France on her plate and furniture. Guy, 96–97. Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north. By the terms of the treaty, both British and French troops withdrew from Scotland. Haigh, 132. When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth. Loades, 67. Mary refused to ratify the treaty. Loades, 68. Elizabeth offended Mary by proposing her own suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband. Instead, in 1565 Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim to the English throne. The marriage was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular in Scotland and then infamous for presiding over the murder of Mary's Italian secretary David Rizzio. In February 1567, Darnley was murdered by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Elizabeth wrote to her: How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely. Letter to Mary, Queen of Scots, 23 June 1567." Quoted by Loades, 69–70. These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Loch Leven Castle. The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her son James, who had been born in June 1566. James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant. Mary escaped from Loch Leven in 1568 but after another defeat fled across the border into England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch; but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England. She was imprisoned there for the next nineteen years. Loades, 72–73. Signature of Elizabeth I of England Mary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569, plotters in the Rising of the North talked of freeing her, and a scheme arose to marry her to Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk. Elizabeth reacted by sending Howard to the block. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 to the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her. Loades, 73. At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By late 1586 she had been persuaded to sanction her trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot. Guy, 483–484. Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that "the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm divers things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person." Loades, 78–79. On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire. Guy, 1–11. She was 44 years old. Spain After the disastrous occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585, when she sent an English army to aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II. This followed the deaths in 1584 of the allies William the Silent, Prince of Orange, and François, Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Spanish Netherlands. In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of France, to counter Spanish domination of the Netherlands. It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong, and exposed England to invasion. The siege of Antwerp in the summer of 1585 by the Duke of Parma necessitated some reaction on the part of the English and the Dutch. The outcome was the Treaty of Nonsuch of August 1585, in which Elizabeth promised military support to the Dutch. Strong / van Dorsten, 20-26 The treaty marked the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of London in 1604. The expedition was led by her former suitor, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester. Elizabeth from the start did not really back this course of action. Her strategy, to support the Dutch on the surface with an English army, while beginning secret peace talks with Spain within days of Leicester's arrival in Holland, Strong / van Dorsten, 43 had necessarily to be at odds with Leicester's, who wanted and was expected by the Dutch to fight an active campaign. Elizabeth on the other hand, wanted him "to avoid at all costs any decisive action with the enemy". Strong / van Dorsten, 72 He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States-General. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to force her to accept sovereignty over the Netherlands, Strong / van Dorsten, 50 which so far she had always declined. She wrote to Leicester: We could never have imagined (had we not seen it fall out in experience) that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour....And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril. Letter to Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, 10 February 1586, delivered by Sir Thomas Heneage. Loades, 94. Elizabeth's "commandment" was that her emissary read out her letters of disapproval publicly before the Dutch Council of State, Leicester having to stand nearby. Chamberlin, 263-264 This public humiliation of her "Lieutenant-General" combined with her continued talks for a separate peace with Spain, Elizabeth's ambassador in France was actively misleading her as to the true intentions of the Spanish king, who only tried to buy time for his great assault upon England: Parker, 193 undermined his standing among the Dutch irreversibly. The military campaign was severely hampered by Elizabeth's repeated refusals to send promised funds for her starving soldiers. Her unwillingness to commit herself to the cause, Leicester's own shortcomings as a political and military leader and a general incompatibility of English and Dutch aims were reasons for the campaign's failure. Strong / van Dorsten, 50, 72-79 Leicester finally resigned his command in December 1587. Meanwhile, Sir Francis Drake had made a major voyage against Spanish ports and ships to the Carribean in 1585 and 1586, and in 1587 had made a successful raid on Cadiz, destroying the Spanish fleet of war ships intended for the Enterprise of England: Parker, 193-194 Philip II had decided to take the war to England at last. Haigh, 138. Portrait of Elizabeth to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588), depicted in the background. Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power. On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. A combination of miscalculation, When the Spanish naval commander, the Duke of Medina Sidonia, reached the coast near Calais, he found the Duke of Parma's troops unready and was forced to wait, giving the English the opportunity to launch their attack. Loades, 64. misfortune, and an attack of English fire ships on 29 July off Gravelines which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast defeated the Armada. Black, 349. The Armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the North Sea, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland). Neale, 300. Unaware of the Armada's fate, English militias mustered to defend the country under the Earl of Leicester's command. He invited Elizabeth to inspect her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her most famous speeches: Though most historians accept that Elizabeth gave such a speech, its authenticity has been questioned (Frye, The Myth of Elizabeth at Tilbury, 1992), since it was not published until 1654. Doran Suitors, 235–236. My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people....I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm. Somerset, 591.• Neale, 297–98. When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle. The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen. However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain. Black, 353. The Spanish still controlled the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained. Sir Walter Raleigh claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain: If the late queen would have believed her men of war as she did her scribes, we had in her time beaten that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old times. But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness. Haigh, 145. Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds, For example, C. H. Wilson (Berkeley, 1970) castigates Elizabeth for half-heartedness in the war against Spain. Haigh, 183. Raleigh's verdict has more often been judged unfair. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory". "In some respects she had a firmer grasp of strategy than the men to whom she had to entrust the conduct of the war, and certainly much more damage was caused by her commanders' failure to adhere to carefully formulated instructions than by Elizabeth's vacillation or attempts to economise." Somerset, 655. France When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective. Haigh, 142. Lord Willoughby, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops. In 1591, the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany, was even more of a disaster. As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon, north-west France, in May 1591. In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, to help Henry IV in besieging Rouen. The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April. Haigh, 143. As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. "Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do," she wrote of Essex, "we are ignorant". Haigh, 143–144. Ireland Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile—and in places virtually autonomous One observer wrote that Ulster, for example, was "as unknown to the English here as the most inland part of Virginia". Somerset, 667. —Catholic population that was willing to plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. In response to a series of uprisings, the English forces pursued scorched-earth tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald, Earl of Desmond, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. The poet Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same". Somerset, 668. Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, "that rude and barbarous nation", be well treated; but she showed no remorse when force and bloodshed were deemed necessary. Somerset, 668–669. Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland, with the revolt known as Tyrone's Rebellion, or the Nine Years War. Its leader, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, was backed by Spain. Loades, 98. In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, to put the revolt down. To her frustration, In a letter of 19 July 1599 to Essex, Elizabeth wrote: "For what can be more true (if things be rightly examined) than that your two month's journey has brought in never a capital rebel against whom it had been worthy to have adventured one thousand men". Loades, 98. he made little progress and returned to England without permission. He was replaced by Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, who took three years to defeat the rebels. O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death. Loades, 98–99. Barbary states, Ottoman Empire, Japan Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, Moorish ambassador of the Barbary States to the Court of Queen Elizabeth I in 1600. Tate Gallery exhibition "East-West: Objects between cultures" Trade and diplomatic relations developed between England and the Barbary states during the rule of Elizabeth. Vaughan, Performing Blackness on English Stages, 1500-1800 Cambridge University Press 2005 p.57 Nicoll, Shakespeare Survey. The Last Plays Cambridge University Press 2002, p.90 England entered in a trading relationship with Morocco in opposition to Spain, selling armour, ammunition, timber, metal in exchange for Moroccan sugar, inspite of a Papal ban. Speaking of the Moor, Emily C. Bartels p.24 In 1600, Abd el-Ouahed ben Messaoud, the principal secretary to the Moroccan ruler Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur, visited England as an ambassador to the court of queen Elizabeth I, Vaughan, p.57 University of Birmingham Collections in order to negotiate an Anglo-Moroccan alliance against Spain. Vaughan, p.57 Tate Gallery exhibition "East-West: Objects between cultures" Elizabeth "agreed to sell munitions supplies to Morocco, and she and Mulai Ahmad al-Mansur talked on and off about mounting a joint operation against the Spanish". The Jamestown project by Karen Ordahl Kupperman Discussions however remained inconclusive, and both rulers died within two years of the embassy. Nicoll, p.96 Diplomatic relations were also established with the Ottoman Empire during with the chartering of the Levant Company and the dispatch of the first English ambassador to the Porte, William Harborne, in 1578. The Jamestown project by Karen Ordahl Kupperman For the first time, a Treaty of Commerce was signed in 1580. The Encyclopedia of world history by Peter N. Stearns, p.353 Numerous envoys were disptached in both directions and epistolar exchanges occurred between Elizabeth and Sultan Murad III. Kupperman, p.39 In one correspondance, Murad entertained the notion that Islam and Protestantism had "much more in common than either did with Roman Catholicism, as both rejected the worship of idols", and argued for an alliance between England and the Ottoman Empire. Kupperman, p.40 To the dismay of Catholic Europe, England exported tin and lead (for cannon-casting) and ammunitions to the Ottoman Empire, and Elizabeth seriously discussed joint military operations with Murad III during the outbreak of war with Spain in 1585, as Francis Walsingham was lobbying for a direct Ottoman military involvement against the common Spanish enemy. Kupperman, p.41 The first Englishman to reach Japan, William Adams, was a former employee of the Barbary Company, which had been established in 1585. He set foot in Japan in August 1600, as a pilot for the Dutch East India Company. He would play a key role as a counselor to the Japanese Shogun, and helped establish the first diplomatic contacts and commercial treaties between England and Japan. Later years As Elizabeth aged and marriage became unlikely, her image gradually changed. She was portrayed as Belphoebe or Astraea, and after the Armada, as Gloriana, the eternally youthful Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser's poem. Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic icons that made her look much younger than she was. In fact, her skin had been scarred by smallpox in 1562, leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics. Loades, 92. Gaunt, 37. Sir Walter Raleigh called her "a lady whom time had surprised". Haigh, 171. However, the more Elizabeth's beauty faded, the more her courtiers praised it. Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, by William Segar, 1590 Elizabeth was happy to play the part, "The metaphor of drama is an appropriate one for Elizabeth's reign, for her power was an illusion—and an illusion was her power. Like Henry IV of France, she projected an image of herself which brought stability and prestige to her country. By constant attention to the details of her total performance, she kept the rest of the cast on their toes and kept her own part as queen." Haigh, 179. but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance. She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, who took liberties with her for which she forgave him. Loades, 93. She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility. After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599, Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies. Loades, 97. In February 1601, the earl tried to raise a rebellion in London. He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February. Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events. An observer reported in 1602 that "Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex". Black, 410. The monopolies Elizabeth reclaimed from Essex were her typical reward to a courtier during the last years of her reign. She had come to rely on this cost-free system of patronage rather than ask Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war. A Patent of Monopoly gave the holder control over an aspect of trade or manufacture. See Neale, 382. The practice soon led to price-fixing, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment. Williams, 208. This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601. Black, 192–194. In her famous "Golden Speech" of 30 November 1601, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions: She gave the speech at Whitehall Palace to a deputation of 140 members, who afterwards all kissed her hand. Neale, 383–384. Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error, in which, by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen, what thank they deserve, we know, though you may guess. And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us! Loades, 86. The period after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted the fifteen years until the end of her reign. The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell. Haigh, 155. Black, 355–356. During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders. Black, 355. To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda. In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her. This criticism of Elizabeth was noted by Elizabeth's early biographers William Camden and John Clapham. For a detailed account of such criticisms and of Elizabeth's "government by illusion", see chapter 8, "The Queen and the People", Haigh, 149–169. One of the major causes for this "second reign" of Elizabeth, as one modern scholar has called it, Prof. John Guy: Hammer, 1 was the different character of Elizabeth's governing body, the privy council in the 1590s. A new generation was in power. With the exception of Lord Burghley, the most important politicians had died around 1590: The Earl of Leicester in 1588, Sir Francis Walsingham in 1590, Sir Christopher Hatton in 1591. Lacey, 50 Factional strife in the government, which had not existed in a really noteworthy form before the 1590s, Doran Monarchy, 216 now became its hallmark. Hammer, 1-2 A bitter rivalry between the Earl of Essex and Robert Cecil, son of Lord Burghley, and their respective adherents, for the most powerful positions in the state marred politics. Hammer, 1, 9 The queen's personal authority was lessening, Hammer, 9-10 as is shown in the affair of Dr. Lopez, her trusted physician. When he was wrongly accused by the Earl of Essex of treason out of personal pique, she could not prevent his execution, although she had been angry about his arrest and seems not to have believed in his guilt (1594). Lacey, 117-120 This same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England. Black, 239. The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth's reign, with John Lyly's Euphues and Edmund Spenser's The Shepheardes Calender in 1578. During the 1590s, some of the great names of English literature entered their maturity, including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe. During this period and into the Jacobean era that followed, the English theatre reached its highest peaks. Black, 239–245. The notion of a great Elizabethan age depends largely on the builders, dramatists, poets, and musicians who were active during Elizabeth's reign. They owed little directly to the queen, who was never a major patron of the arts. Haigh, 176. Death Portrait of King James by John de Critz, circa 1606 Elizabeth's most trusted advisor, Burghley, died on 4 August 1598. His political mantle passed to his son, Robert Cecil, who soon became the leader of the government. After Essex's downfall, James VI of Scotland referred to Cecil as "king there in effect". Croft, 48. One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a smooth succession. Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret. Cecil wrote to James, "The subject itself is so perilous to touch amongst us as it setteth a mark upon his head forever that hatcheth such a bird". Willson, 154. He therefore entered into a coded negotiation with James VI of Scotland, who had a strong but unrecognised claim. Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and "secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions". Willson, 154. The advice worked. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: "So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort". Willson, 155. In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with "unmistakable if veiled phrases". Neale, 385. The Queen's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602, when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression. In February 1603, the death of Catherine Howard, Countess of Nottingham, the niece of her cousin and close friend Catherine, Lady Knollys, came as a particular blow. In March, Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a "settled and unremovable melancholy". Black, 411. She died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace, between two and three in the morning. A few hours later, Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James VI of Scotland as king of England. Black, 410–411. Elizabeth's funeral cortège, 1603, sometimes attributed to William Camden Elizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to Whitehall, on a barge lit with torches. At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to Westminster Abbey on a hearse drawn by four horses hung with black velvet. In the words of the chronicler John Stow: Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets, houses, windows, leads and gutters, that came out to see the obsequy, and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin, there was such a general sighing, groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man. Weir, 486. Despite the presence of several other claimants to the throne, the transition of power went smoothly. The heir presumptive under the terms of Henry VIII's Will, i.e. either Edward Seymour, Viscount Beauchamp, or Anne Stanley, Countess of Castlehaven, depending on whether one recognized the legitimacy of the first-mentioned's birth; and the Lady Arbella Stuart on grounds similar to James's own. James's succession set aside Henry VIII's Third Succession Act and will in favour of the line of Henry's younger sister, Mary Tudor. (1999) The Sovereignty of Parliament (Oxford U.P., 1999, ISBN 0198268939), p. 145 To rectify this, James had Parliament pass the Succession to the Crown Act 1603. The question whether or not Parliament could control the succession to the crown by statute was controversial throughout the 17th century. ibid.; see also "The Law of Succession to the Crown in New Zealand" in: Waikato Law Review (1999), esp. ch. III "Power to change descent of the Crown" for a discussion of the controversy, and the place of James's succession therein. Legacy Elizabeth was lamented, but many people were relieved at her death. Loades, 100–101. Expectations of King James were high, and at first they were met, with the ending of the war against Spain in 1604 and lower taxes. Until the death of Robert Cecil in 1612, the government ran along much the same lines as before. Willson, 333. James's rule, however, became unpopular when he turned state affairs over to court favourites, and in the 1620s there was a nostalgic revival of the cult of Elizabeth. Somerset, 726. Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age. James was depicted as a Catholic sympathiser, presiding over a corrupt court. Strong, 164. The triumphalist image that Elizabeth had cultivated towards the end of her reign, against a background of factionalism and military and economic difficulties, Haigh, 170. was taken at face value and her reputation inflated. Godfrey Goodman, Bishop of Gloucester, recalled: "When we had experience of a Scottish government, the Queen did seem to revive. Then was her memory much magnified." Weir, 488. Elizabeth's reign became idealised as a time when crown, church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance. Dobson and Watson, 257. Elizabeth I, painted by an unknown artist after 1620, during the first revival of interest in her reign. Time sleeps on her right and Death looks over her left shoulder; two putti hold the crown above her head. Strong, 163–164. The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential. Haigh, 175, 182. Her memory was also revived during the Napoleonic Wars, when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion. Dobson and Watson, 258. In the Victorian era, the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day, The age of Elizabeth was redrawn as one of chivalry, epitomised by courtly encounters between the queen and sea-dog "heroes" such as Drake and Raleigh. Some Victorian narratives, such as Raleigh laying his cloak before the queen or presenting her with a potato, remain part of the myth. Dobson and Watson, 258. and in the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat. Haigh, 175. In his preface to the 1952 reprint of Queen Elizabeth I, J. E. Neale observed: "The book was written before such words as "ideological", "fifth column", and "cold war" became current; and it is perhaps as well that they are not there. But the ideas are present, as is the idea of romantic leadership of a nation in peril, because they were present in Elizabethan times". Historians of that period, such as J. E. Neale (1934) and A. L. Rowse (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress. Haigh, 182. Recent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth. Haigh, 183. Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada, and for successful raids against the Spanish, such as those on Cádiz in 1587 and 1596, but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea. Elizabeth's problems in Ireland also stain her record. Black, 408–409. Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies. She offered minimal aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad. Haigh, 142–147, 174–177. Elizabeth established an English church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today. Loades, 46–50. Weir, 487. Hogge, 9–10. Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all Catholic practices. The new state religion was condemned at the time in such terms as "a cloaked papistry, or mingle mangle". Somerset, 102. "The problem with the 'Protestant heroine' image was that Elizabeth did not always live up to it. London Protestants were horrified in 1561 when they heard of the plan to get Spanish support for a Dudley marriage by offering concessions on religion, and it took Elizabeth almost a decade to re-establish her Protestant credentials." Haigh, 165. Historians note that in her day, strict Protestants regarded the Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559 as a compromise. Haigh, 45–46, 177. Black, 14–15. Collinson, 28–29. In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish, as Francis Bacon put it, to "make windows into men's hearts and secret thoughts". Williams, 50. Haigh, 42. Despite Elizabeth's largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad. "She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island," marvelled Pope Sixtus V, "and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by the Empire, by all". Somerset, 727. Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence and sense of sovereignty, as Christendom fragmented. Hogge, 9n. Loades, 1. Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent. As Elizabeth's Lord Keeper, Sir Nicholas Bacon, put it on her behalf to parliament in 1559, the queen "is not, nor ever meaneth to be, so wedded to her own will and fantasy that for the satisfaction thereof she will do anything...to bring any bondage or servitude to her people, or give any just occasion to them of any inward grudge whereby any tumults or stirs might arise as hath done of late days". Starkey, 7. She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth—a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow. Some historians have called her lucky; Somerset, 727. she believed that God was protecting her. Somerset, 75–76. Priding herself on being "mere English", Edwards, 205. Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice, and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule. Starkey, 6–7. In a prayer, she offered thanks to God that: [At a time] when wars and seditions with grievous persecutions have vexed almost all kings and countries round about me, my reign hath been peacable, and my realm a receptacle to thy afflicted Church. The love of my people hath appeared firm, and the devices of my enemies frustrate. Somerset, 727. Ancestry </center> See also Cultural depictions of Elizabeth I of England English Renaissance Portraiture of Elizabeth I Protestant Reformation Tudor reconquest of Ireland Notes and References Bibliography Black, J. B. The Reign of Elizabeth: 1558–1603. Oxford: Clarendon, (1936) 1945. OCLC 5077207 Brimacombe, Peter. All the Queen's Men: The World of Elizabeth I. New York: St Martin's Press, 2000. ISBN 0312232519. Calendar of...State Papers Relating to English Affairs...in...Simancas, 1558-1603 ed. M.A.S.Hume HMSO 1892-1899 Camden, William. History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth. Wallace T. MacCaffrey (ed). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, selected chapters, 1970 edition. OCLC 59210072. Chamberlin, Frederick: Elizabeth and Leycester Dodd, Mead & Co. 1939 Clapham, John. Elizabeth of England. E. P. Read and Conyers Read (eds). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951. OCLC 1350639. Collinson, Patrick. "The Mongrel Religion of Elizabethan England." Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed.). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765. Croft, Pauline. King James. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. ISBN 0333613953. Davenport, Cyril. English Embroidered Bookbindings. Alfred Pollard (ed.). London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1899. OCLC 705685. Dobson, Michael; and Nicola Watson. "Elizabeth's Legacy". Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed.). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765. Doran, Susan: Monarchy and Matrimony: The Courtships of Elizabeth I Routledge 1996 Doran, Susan. "The Queen's Suitors and the Problem of the Succession." Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed.). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765. Edwards, Philip. The Making of the Modern English State: 1460–1660. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. ISBN 031223614X. Elizabeth I: The Collected Works Leah S. Marcus, Mary Beth Rose & Janel Mueller (eds.). Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002. ISBN 0226504654. Elton, G.R. England under the Tudors. London: Routledge, 1991. ISBN 041506533X. Flynn, Sian; and David Spence. "Elizabeth's Adventurers". Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed.). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765. Freedman, Sylvia: Poor Penelope: Lady Penelope Rich. An Elizabethan Woman The Kensal Press 1983 Frieda, Leonie. Catherine de Medici. London: Phoenix, 2005. ISBN 0173820390. Gaunt, William. Court Painting in England from Tudor to Victorian Times. London: Constable, 1980. ISBN 0094618704. Graves, Michael A. R. Elizabethan Parliaments: 1559–1601. London and New York: Longman, 1987. ISBN 0582355168. Gristwood, Sarah: Elizabeth and Leicester Bantam Books 2008 Guy, John. My Heart is My Own: The Life of Mary Queen of Scots. London and New York: Fourth Estate, 2004. ISBN 184115752X. Haigh, Christopher. Elizabeth I. Harlow (UK): Longman Pearson, (1988) 1998 edition. ISBN 0582437547. Hammer, P.E.J.: The Polarisation of Elizabethan Politics: The Political Career of Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, 1585-1597 Cambridge UP 1999 Hasler. P. W (ed). History of Parliament. House of Commons 1558–1603 (3 vols). London: Published for the History of Parliament Trust by H.M.S.O., 1981. ISBN 0118875019. Hogge, Alice. God's Secret Agents: Queen Elizabeth's Forbidden Priests and the Hatching of the Gunpowder Plot. London: HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0007156375. Hunt, Alice: The Drama of Coronation: Medieval Ceremony in Early Modern England, Cambridge University Press, 2008 Jenkins, Elizabeth: Elizabeth and Leicester Victor Gollancz 1961 Lacey, Robert: Robert Earl of Essex: An Elizabethan Icarus Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1971 Loades, David. Elizabeth I: The Golden Reign of Gloriana. London: The National Archives, 2003. ISBN 1903365430. Lockyer, Roger. Tudor and Stuart Britain 1471-1714. Third Edition, 2004. London: Pearson. Neale, J.E. Queen Elizabeth I: A Biography. London: Jonathan Cape, (1934) 1954 reprint. OCLC 220518. Parker, Geoffrey: The Grand Strategy of Philip II Yale University Press 2000 Ridley, Jasper. Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue. New York : Fromm International, 1989. ISBN 088064110X. Rowse, A. L. The England of Elizabeth. London: Macmillan, 1950. OCLC 181656553. Russell, Conrad. The Crisis of Parliaments: English History, 1509–1660. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971. ISBN 0199130345. Somerset, Anne. Elizabeth I. London: Phoenix, (1991) 1997 edition. ISBN 0385721579. Starkey, David. "Elizabeth: Woman, Monarch, Mission." Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed.). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765. Strong, Roy. Gloriana: The Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I. London: Pimlico, (1987) 2003. ISBN 071260944X. Strong, R.G.; van Dorsten, J.A.: Leicester's Triumph Oxford University Press 1964 Waller, Maureen: Sovereign Ladies: Sex, Sacrifice, and Power. The Six Reigning Queens of England. St. Martin's Press, New York, 2006. ISBN 0-312-33801-5 Weir, Alison. Elizabeth the Queen. London: Pimlico, (1998) 1999 edition. ISBN 0712673121. Williams, Neville. The Life and Times of Elizabeth I. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1972. ISBN 0297831682. Willson, David Harris. King James VI & I. London: Jonathan Cape, (1956) 1963. ISBN 0224605720. Wilson, Charles H. Queen Elizabeth and the Revolt of the Netherlands. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970. ISBN 0520017447. Wilson, Derek: Sweet Robin: A Biography of Robert Dudley Earl of Leicester 1533-1588 Hamish Hamilton 1981 Wright, Thomas: Queen Elizabeth and her Times Henry Colburn 1838 External links William Camden. Annales Rerum Gestarum Angliae et Hiberniae Regnante Elizabetha. (1615 and 1625.) Hypertext edition, with English translation. Dana F. Sutton (ed.), 2000. Retrieved 7 December 2007. Tudor and Elizabeth Portraits. Tudor and Elizabethan portraits and other works of art, provided for research and education. Retrieved 15 December 2007. Annals of the Reformation and Establishment of Religion, and Other Various Occurrences in the Church of England, During Queen Elizabeth's Happy Reign by John Strype (1824 ed.): Vol. I, Pt. I, Vol. I, Pt. II, Vol. II, Pt. I, Vol. II., Pt. II, Vol. III, Pt. I, Vol. III, Pt. 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6,287 | Benjamin_Lee_Whorf | Benjamin Lee Whorf (April 24, 1897 in Winthrop, Massachusetts – July 26, 1941) was an American linguist. Whorf has had considerable influence in the field of Anthropological linguistics for his theory of linguistic relativity, which he developed with Edward Sapir. Nowadays, this theory is often misrepresented as being synonymous with the "Sapir–Whorf hypothesis", which was in fact a posthumous appellation, referring to a number of Whorf's ideas on top of linguistic relativity, as well as a certain other notions which were not specifically Whorf's to begin with. Biography The son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1918 with a degree in chemical engineering. Shortly thereafter, he began work as a fire prevention engineer (i.e., an inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, pursuing linguistic and anthropological studies as an avocation. In 1931, Whorf began studying linguistics at Yale University and soon deeply impressed Edward Sapir, who warmly supported Whorf's academic pursuits. In 1936, Whorf was appointed Honorary Research Fellow in Anthropology at Yale. In 1937, Yale awarded him the Sterling Fellowship. He was a Lecturer in Anthropology from 1937 through 1938, when he began having serious health problems. Whorf died of cancer at the age of 44. He is mainly remembered for a posthumous collection of his work, titled Language, Thought, and Reality, first published in 1956. Work Whorf said that having an independent, non-academic source of income allowed him to pursue his specific academic interests more freely. He disseminated his ideas not only by publishing numerous technical articles, but also by writings accessible to lay readers, and by popular lectures. Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of Native American languages, particularly those of Mesoamerica. He became well known for his work on the Hopi language, and for his principle of linguistic relativity. Among Whorf's beliefs about the Hopi was that: “… the Hopi language is seen to contain no words, grammatical forms, construction or expressions or that refer directly to what we call “time”, or to past, present, or future…” Language Thought and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf, edited by John B. Carroll, MIT Press, Boston, Massachusetts, 1956, ISBN 0262730065 The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, also known as the Whorfian hypothesis, proposed that language affects thought, and the structure of the language itself affects cognition. As Whorf put it, "Language shapes the way we think, and determines what we think about." http://thinkexist.com - Benjamin Lee Whorf quotes - Microsoft Internet Explorer Some of Whorf's early work on linguistics and particularly on linguistic relativity was inspired by reports he wrote on insurance losses, in which misunderstanding based on linguistic confusion had been a contributing factor. In an incident recounted in his essay The Relation of Habitual Thought and Behavior to Language. The Relation of Habitual Thought and Behavior to Language,", Benjamin Whorf, 1956, 1997 , Whorf explains how the idea of language affecting thought first came to him. Employed as an investigator for a fire insurance company, his job was to investigate the causes of industrial fires. In his own words: In studying the cause of a fire which had started under the conditions just described, Whorf concluded that it was thinking of the "empty" gasoline drums as "empty" in the meaning described in the first definition (1) above, that is as "inert," which led to a fire he investigated. His papers and lectures featured many other examples from his insurance work to support his belief that language shapes understanding. Less well known, but important, are his contributions to the study of the Nahuatl and Maya languages. He claimed that Nahuatl was an oligosynthetic language (a claim that would be brought up again some twenty years later by Morris Swadesh, another controversial American linguist). In a series of published and unpublished studies in the 1930s, he argued that Mayan writing was phonetic to some degree. Although many details of his work on Maya are now known to have been incorrect, his central claim was vindicated by Yuri Knorozov's syllabic decipherment of Mayan writing in the 1950s. Selected bibliography References External links About Whorf. B. L. Whorf, . | Benjamin_Lee_Whorf |@lemmatized benjamin:5 lee:5 whorf:24 april:1 winthrop:1 massachusetts:3 july:1 american:3 linguist:2 considerable:1 influence:1 field:1 anthropological:2 linguistics:4 theory:2 linguistic:6 relativity:4 develop:1 edward:2 sapir:4 nowadays:1 often:1 misrepresent:1 synonymous:1 hypothesis:3 fact:1 posthumous:2 appellation:1 refer:2 number:1 idea:3 top:1 well:3 certain:1 notion:1 specifically:1 begin:4 biography:1 son:1 harry:1 sarah:1 graduate:1 institute:1 technology:1 degree:2 chemical:1 engineering:1 shortly:1 thereafter:1 work:7 fire:6 prevention:1 engineer:1 e:1 inspector:1 hartford:1 insurance:4 company:2 pursue:2 study:6 avocation:1 yale:3 university:1 soon:1 deeply:1 impressed:1 warmly:1 support:2 academic:3 pursuit:1 appoint:1 honorary:1 research:1 fellow:1 anthropology:2 award:1 sterling:1 fellowship:1 lecturer:1 serious:1 health:1 problem:1 died:1 cancer:1 age:1 mainly:1 remember:1 collection:1 title:1 language:14 think:6 reality:2 first:3 publish:3 say:1 independent:1 non:1 source:1 income:1 allow:1 specific:1 interest:2 freely:1 disseminate:1 numerous:1 technical:1 article:1 also:2 writing:4 accessible:1 lay:1 reader:1 popular:1 lecture:2 primary:1 area:1 native:1 particularly:2 mesoamerica:1 become:1 know:4 hopi:3 principle:1 among:1 belief:2 see:1 contain:1 word:2 grammatical:1 form:1 construction:1 expression:1 directly:1 call:1 time:1 past:1 present:1 future:1 thought:3 select:2 edit:1 john:1 b:2 carroll:1 mit:1 press:1 boston:1 isbn:1 whorfian:1 propose:1 affect:3 structure:1 cognition:1 put:1 shape:2 way:1 determine:1 http:1 thinkexist:1 com:1 quote:1 microsoft:1 internet:1 explorer:1 early:1 inspire:1 report:1 write:1 loss:1 misunderstand:1 base:1 confusion:1 contributing:1 factor:1 incident:1 recount:1 essay:1 relation:2 habitual:2 behavior:2 explain:1 come:1 employ:1 investigator:1 job:1 investigate:2 cause:2 industrial:1 start:1 condition:1 describe:2 conclude:1 empty:2 gasoline:1 drum:1 meaning:1 definition:1 inert:1 lead:1 paper:1 feature:1 many:2 example:1 understand:1 le:1 important:1 contribution:1 nahuatl:2 maya:2 claim:3 oligosynthetic:1 would:1 bring:1 twenty:1 year:1 later:1 morris:1 swadesh:1 another:1 controversial:1 series:1 unpublished:1 argue:1 mayan:2 phonetic:1 although:1 detail:1 incorrect:1 central:1 vindicate:1 yuri:1 knorozov:1 syllabic:1 decipherment:1 bibliography:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 l:1 |@bigram lee_whorf:5 anthropological_linguistics:1 edward_sapir:2 sapir_whorf:2 whorf_hypothesis:2 shortly_thereafter:1 boston_massachusetts:1 internet_explorer:1 contributing_factor:1 external_link:1 |
6,288 | Hapworth_16,_1924 | "Hapworth 16, 1924" is the "youngest" of J. D. Salinger's Glass family stories, in the sense that the narrated events happen chronologically before those in the rest of the Glass series. It appeared in the June 19, 1965 edition of The New Yorker, and has never been reprinted. It is in the form of a letter from camp written by a seven-year-old Seymour Glass (the main character of "A Perfect Day for Bananafish"). In the course of requesting a veritable library of reading matter from home, Seymour condemns the ironic "twist" endings in the stories of Anatole France, twist endings being an early Salinger device. After its appearance in The New Yorker, Salinger – who had already withdrawn to his house in New Hampshire – stopped publishing altogether. Since he never put the story between hard covers, readers had to seek out a copy of that issue or find it on microfilm. In 1996, Orchises Press, a small publishing house in Virginia, announced that it would reprint "Hapworth," and received substantial coverage in the press. Lundegaard, Karen M. "J.D. Salinger resurfaces ... in Alexandria?", Washington Business Journal, November 15, 1996. Retrieved on August 13, 2008. Shortly before the books were to be shipped, Salinger changed his mind, and in accordance with his wishes, Orchises withdrew the work. Publication has been repeatedly pushed back. Noah, Timothy. "Hapworth 16, 1924: A Chatterbox Investigation", Slate, September 11, 2000. Retrieved on August 10, 2008. Most recently it was rescheduled for publication on January 1 2009, Salinger’s ninetieth birthday, but it did not appear. Hapworth 16, 1924 However, since the release of The Complete New Yorker on DVD in 2005, Salinger's story is once again widely available. References [http://www.geocities.com/deadcaulfields/Hapworth_16_1924.htm | Hapworth_16,_1924 |@lemmatized hapworth:4 young:1 j:2 salinger:7 glass:3 family:1 story:4 sense:1 narrated:1 event:1 happen:1 chronologically:1 rest:1 series:1 appear:2 june:1 edition:1 new:4 yorker:3 never:2 reprint:2 form:1 letter:1 camp:1 write:1 seven:1 year:1 old:1 seymour:2 main:1 character:1 perfect:1 day:1 bananafish:1 course:1 request:1 veritable:1 library:1 read:1 matter:1 home:1 condemn:1 ironic:1 twist:2 ending:2 anatole:1 france:1 early:1 device:1 appearance:1 already:1 withdraw:2 house:2 hampshire:1 stop:1 publish:1 altogether:1 since:2 put:1 hard:1 cover:1 reader:1 seek:1 copy:1 issue:1 find:1 microfilm:1 orchises:2 press:2 small:1 publishing:1 virginia:1 announce:1 would:1 receive:1 substantial:1 coverage:1 lundegaard:1 karen:1 resurfaces:1 alexandria:1 washington:1 business:1 journal:1 november:1 retrieve:2 august:2 shortly:1 book:1 ship:1 change:1 mind:1 accordance:1 wish:1 work:1 publication:2 repeatedly:1 push:1 back:1 noah:1 timothy:1 chatterbox:1 investigation:1 slate:1 september:1 recently:1 reschedule:1 january:1 ninetieth:1 birthday:1 however:1 release:1 complete:1 dvd:1 widely:1 available:1 reference:1 http:1 www:1 geocities:1 com:1 deadcaulfields:1 htm:1 |@bigram j_salinger:2 anatole_france:1 http_www:1 www_geocities:1 geocities_com:1 |
6,289 | FIFO | FIFO is an acronym for First In, First Out, an abstraction in ways of organizing and manipulation of data relative to time and prioritization. This expression describes the principle of a queue processing technique or servicing conflicting demands by ordering process by first-come, first-served (FCFS) behaviour: what comes in first is handled first, what comes in next waits until the first is finished, etc. Thus it is analogous to the behaviour of persons queueing (or "standing in line", in common American parlance), where the persons leave the queue in the order they arrive, or waiting one's turn at a traffic control signal. FCFS is also the shorthand name (see Jargon and acronym) for the FIFO operating system scheduling algorithm, which gives every process CPU time in the order they come. In the broader sense, the abstraction LIFO, or Last-In-First-Out is the opposite of the abstraction FIFO organization, the difference perhaps is clearest with considering the less commonly used synonym of LIFO, FILO—meaning First-In-Last-Out. In essence, both are specific cases of a more generalized list (which could be accessed anywhere). The difference is not in the list (data), but in the rules for accessing the content. One sub-type adds to one end, and takes off from the other, its opposite takes and puts things only on one end. A priority queue is a variation on the queue which does not qualify for the name FIFO, because it is not accurately descriptive of that data structure's behavior. Queueing theory encompasses the more general concept of queue, as well as interactions between strict-FIFO queues. People For queues of people, see queue area. Computer science Data structure In computer science this term refers to the way data stored in a queue is processed. Each item in the queue is stored in a queue (simpliciter) data structure. The first data to be added to the queue will be the first data to be removed, then processing proceeds sequentially in the same order. This is typical behavior for a queue, but see also the LIFO and stack algorithms. A typical data structure will look like struct fifo_node { struct fifo_node *next; value_type value; }; class fifo { fifo_node *front; fifo_node *back; fifo_node *dequeue(void) { fifo_node *tmp = front; front = front->next; return tmp; } queue(value) { fifo_node *tempNode = new fifo_node; tempNode->value = value; back->next = tempNode; back = tempNode; } }; (For information on the abstract data structure, see Queue. For details of a common implementation, see Circular buffer.) Popular Unix systems include a sys/queue.h C/C++ header file which provides macros usable by applications which need to create FIFO queues. Head or tail first Authors and users of FIFO queue software should consider carefully the use of the terms "head" and "tail" to refer to the two ends of the queue. To many people, items should enter a queue at the tail, remain in the queue until they reach the head and leave the queue from there. This point of view is justified by analogy with queues of people waiting for some kind of service and parallels the use of "front" and "back" in the above example. Other people, however, believe that you enter a queue at the head and leave at the tail, in the manner of food passing through a snake. Queues written in that way appear in places that might be considered authoritative, such as the GNU/Linux operating system. Pipes In computing environments that support the pipes and filters model for interprocess communication, a FIFO is another name for a named pipe. Disk Scheduling Disk controllers can use the FIFO as a disk scheduling algorithm to determine the order to service disk I/O requests. Communications and networking Communications bridges, switches and routers used in Computer networks use FIFOs to hold data packets in route to their next destination. Typically at least one FIFO structure is used per network connection. Some devices feature multiple FIFOs for simultaneously and independently queuing different types of information. Electronics FIFOs are used commonly in electronic circuits for buffering and flow control which is from hardware to software. In hardware form a FIFO primarily consists of a set of read and write pointers, storage and control logic. Storage may be SRAM, flip-flops, latches or any other suitable form of storage. For FIFOs of non-trivial size a dual-port SRAM is usually used where one port is used for writing and the other is used for reading. A synchronous FIFO is a FIFO where the same clock is used for both reading and writing. An asynchronous FIFO uses different clocks for reading and writing. Asynchronous FIFOs introduce metastability issues. A common implementation of an asynchronous FIFO uses a Gray code (or any unit distance code) for the read and write pointers to ensure reliable flag generation. One further note concerning flag generation is that one must necessarily use pointer arithmetic to generate flags for asynchronous FIFO implementations. Conversely, one may use either a "leaky bucket" approach or pointer arithmetic to generate flags in synchronous FIFO implementations. Examples of FIFO status flags include: full, empty, almost full, almost empty, etc... The first known FIFO implemented in electronics was done by Peter Alfke in 1969 at Fairchild Semiconductors. Peter Alfke is now a Director at Xilinx. FIFO full/empty In hardware FIFO is used for synchronization purposes. It is often implemented as a circular queue, and thus has two pointers: Read Pointer/Read Address Register Write Pointer/Write Address Register Read and write addresses are initially both at the first memory location and the FIFO queue is Empty. FIFO Empty When read address register reaches to write address register, the FIFO triggers the Empty signal. FIFO FULL When write address register reaches to read address register, the FIFO triggers the FULL signal. See also LIFO (Last in, first out) GIGO (Garbage In, Garbage Out) Notes and references Cummings et al., Simulation and Synthesis Techniques for Asynchronous FIFO Design with Asynchronous Pointer Comparisons, SNUG San Jose 2002 | FIFO |@lemmatized fifo:33 acronym:2 first:15 abstraction:3 way:3 organize:1 manipulation:1 data:11 relative:1 time:2 prioritization:1 expression:1 describe:1 principle:1 queue:30 processing:1 technique:2 service:3 conflict:1 demand:1 order:5 process:4 come:4 serve:1 fcfs:2 behaviour:2 handle:1 next:5 wait:3 finish:1 etc:2 thus:2 analogous:1 person:2 stand:1 line:1 common:3 american:1 parlance:1 leave:3 arrive:1 one:9 turn:1 traffic:1 control:3 signal:3 also:3 shorthand:1 name:4 see:6 jargon:1 operate:2 system:3 schedule:3 algorithm:3 give:1 every:1 cpu:1 broad:1 sense:1 lifo:4 last:3 opposite:2 organization:1 difference:2 perhaps:1 clear:1 consider:3 less:1 commonly:2 use:17 synonym:1 filo:1 meaning:1 essence:1 specific:1 case:1 generalized:1 list:2 could:1 access:2 anywhere:1 rule:1 content:1 sub:1 type:2 add:2 end:3 take:2 put:1 thing:1 priority:1 variation:1 qualify:1 accurately:1 descriptive:1 structure:6 behavior:2 theory:1 encompass:1 general:1 concept:1 well:1 interaction:1 strict:1 people:5 area:1 computer:3 science:2 term:2 refer:2 store:2 item:2 simpliciter:1 remove:1 proceeds:1 sequentially:1 typical:2 stack:1 look:1 like:1 struct:2 value:4 class:1 front:5 back:4 dequeue:1 void:1 tmp:2 return:1 tempnode:4 new:1 information:2 abstract:1 detail:1 implementation:4 circular:2 buffer:1 popular:1 unix:1 include:2 sys:1 h:1 c:2 header:1 file:1 provide:1 macro:1 usable:1 application:1 need:1 create:1 head:4 tail:4 author:1 user:1 software:2 carefully:1 two:2 many:1 enter:2 remain:1 reach:3 point:1 view:1 justify:1 analogy:1 kind:1 parallel:1 example:2 however:1 believe:1 manner:1 food:1 passing:1 snake:1 write:8 appear:1 place:1 might:1 authoritative:1 gnu:1 linux:1 pipe:3 compute:1 environment:1 support:1 filter:1 model:1 interprocess:1 communication:3 another:1 disk:4 controller:1 determine:1 request:1 network:3 bridge:1 switch:1 router:1 hold:1 packet:1 route:1 destination:1 typically:1 least:1 per:1 connection:1 device:1 feature:1 multiple:1 simultaneously:1 independently:1 different:2 electronics:2 electronic:1 circuit:1 buffering:1 flow:1 hardware:3 form:2 primarily:1 consist:1 set:1 read:8 pointer:8 storage:3 logic:1 may:2 sram:2 flip:1 flop:1 latch:1 suitable:1 non:1 trivial:1 size:1 dual:1 port:2 usually:1 writing:3 synchronous:2 clock:2 reading:2 asynchronous:6 introduce:1 metastability:1 issue:1 gray:1 code:2 unit:1 distance:1 ensure:1 reliable:1 flag:5 generation:2 note:2 concern:1 must:1 necessarily:1 arithmetic:2 generate:2 conversely:1 either:1 leaky:1 bucket:1 approach:1 status:1 full:5 empty:6 almost:2 know:1 implement:2 peter:2 alfke:2 fairchild:1 semiconductor:1 director:1 xilinx:1 synchronization:1 purpose:1 often:1 address:7 register:6 initially:1 memory:1 location:1 trigger:2 gigo:1 garbage:2 reference:1 cummings:1 et:1 al:1 simulation:1 synthesis:1 design:1 comparison:1 snug:1 san:1 jose:1 |@bigram priority_queue:1 gnu_linux:1 switch_router:1 flip_flop:1 asynchronous_fifo:5 pointer_arithmetic:2 fairchild_semiconductor:1 garbage_garbage:1 et_al:1 san_jose:1 |
6,290 | Cytosol | The cytosol is a crowded solution of many different types of molecules that fills much of the volume of cells. The cytosol or intracellular fluid (or cytoplasmic matrix) is the liquid found inside cells. In eukaryotes this liquid is separated by cell membranes from the contents of the organelles suspended in the cytosol, such as the mitochondrial matrix inside the mitochondrion. The entire contents of a eukaryotic cell, minus the contents of the cell nucleus, are referred to as the cytoplasm. In prokaryotes, most of the chemical reactions of metabolism take place in the cytosol, while a few take place in membranes or in the periplasmic space. In eukaryotes, while many metabolic pathways still occur in the cytosol, others are contained within organelles. The cytosol is a complex mixture of substances dissolved in water. Although water forms the large majority of the cytosol, its structure and properties within cells is not well understood. The concentrations of ions such as sodium and potassium are different in the cytosol than in the extracellular fluid; these differences in ion levels are important in processes such as osmoregulation and cell signaling. The cytosol also contains large amounts of macromolecules, which can alter how molecules behave, through macromolecular crowding. Although once thought to be a simple solution of molecules, multiple levels of organization exist in the cytosol. These include concentration gradients of small molecules such as calcium, large complexes of enzymes that act together to carry out metabolic pathways, and protein complexes such as proteasomes and carboxysomes that enclose and separate parts of the cytosol. Definition In the early 20th century the sum total of the contents of the cell (the protoplasm) were commonly classified into the contents of the nucleus (the nucleoplasm) and the remainder of the cell contents, the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm was further classified into solid structures, such as organelles and the cytoskeleton, and a liquid component that was variously called the cell sap, enchylema, hyaloplasm, paramitone, interfilar substance, or ground substance. The term cytosol was first introduced in 1965 by H.A. Lardy, and initially referred to the liquid that was produced by breaking cells apart and pelleting all the insoluble components by ultracentrifugation. Such a soluble cell extract is not identical to the soluble part of the cell cytoplasm and is usually called a cytoplasmic fraction. The term cytosol is now used to refer to the liquid phase of the cytoplasm in an intact cell, this excludes any part of the cytoplasm that is contained within organelles. Due to the possibility of confusion between the use of the word cytosol to refer to both extracts of cells and the soluble part of the cytoplasm in intact cells, the phrase aqueous cytoplasm has been used to describe the liquid contents of the cytoplasm of living cells. Properties and composition The proportion of cell volume that is cytosol varies: for example while this compartment forms the bulk of cell structure in bacteria, in plant cells the main compartment is the large central vacuole. The cytosol consists mostly of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as proteins). The majority of these non-protein molecules have a molecular mass of less than 300 Da. This mixture of small molecules is extraordinarily complex, as the variety of molecules that are involved in metabolism (the metabolites) is immense. For example up to 200,000 different small molecules might be made in plants, although not all these will be present in the same species, or in a single cell. Indeed, estimates of the number of metabolites in single cells such as E. coli and baker's yeast predict that under 1,000 are made. Water Most of the cytosol is water, which makes up about 70% of the total volume of a typical cell. Normal human cytosolic pH ranges between 7.3 - 7.5, depending on the cell type involved, whereas the pH of the extracellular fluid is 7.4. The viscosity of cytoplasm is roughly the same as pure water, although diffusion of small molecules through this liquid is about fourfold slower than in pure water, due mostly to collisions with the large numbers of macromolecules in the cytosol. Studies in the brine shrimp have studied how water affects cell functions; these found that reducing the amount of water in a cell below 80% of the normal level inhibits metabolism, with this decreasing progressively as the cell dries out and all metabolism halting at a water level about 30% of normal. Although water is vital for life, the structure of this water in the cytosol is not well understood. This is mostly due to the fact that methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance only give information on the average structure of water, and cannot measure local variations at the microscopic scale. Even the structure of pure water is poorly understood, due to the ability of water to form structures such as water clusters through hydrogen bonds. The classic view of water in cells is that about 5% of this water is strongly bound in by solutes or macromolecules as water of solvation, while the majority has the same structure as pure water. This water of solvation is not active in osmosis and may have different solvent properties, so that some dissolved molecules are excluded, while others become concentrated. However, others argue that the effects of the high concentrations of macromolecules in cells extend throughout the cytosol and that water in cells behaves very differently from the water in dilute solutions. These ideas include the proposal that cells contain zones of low and high-density water, which could have widespread effects on the structures and functions of the other parts of the cell. Ions The concentrations of the other ions in cytosol are quite different from those in extracellular fluid and the cytosol also contains much higher amounts of charged macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids than the outside of the cell. + Typical ion concentrations in mammalian cytosol and blood. Ion Concentration in cytosol (millimolar) Concentration in blood (millimolar) Potassium 139 4 Sodium 12 145 Chloride 4 116 Bicarbonate 12 29 Amino acids in proteins 138 9 Magnesium 0.8 1.5 Calcium <0.0002 1.8 In contrast to extracellular fluid, cytosol has a high concentration of potassium ions and a low concentration of sodium ions. This difference in ion concentrations is critical for osmoregulation, since if the ion levels were the same inside a cell as outside, water would enter constantly by osmosis - since the levels of macromolecules inside cells are higher than their levels outside. Instead, sodium ions are expelled and potassium ions taken up by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, potassium ions then flow down their concentration gradient through potassium-selection ion channels, this loss of positive charge creates a negative membrane potential. To balance this potential difference, negative chloride ions also exit the cell, through selective chloride channels. The loss of sodium and chloride ions compensates for the osmotic effect of the higher concentration of organic molecules inside the cell. Cells can deal with even larger osmotic changes by accumulating osmoprotectants such as betaines or trehalose in their cytosol. Some of these molecules can allow cells to survive being completely dried out and allow an organism to enter a state of suspended animation called cryptobiosis. In this state the cytosol and osmoprotectants become a glass-like solid that helps stabilize proteins and cell membranes from the damaging effects of desiccation. The low concentration of calcium in the cytosol allows this ion to function as a second messenger in calcium signaling. Here, a signal such as a hormone or an action potential opens calcium channels so that calcium floods into the cytosol. This sudden increase in cytosolic calcium activates other signalling molecules, such as calmodulin and protein kinase C. Other ions such as chloride and potassium may also have signaling functions in the cytosol, but these are not well understood. Macromolecules Protein molecules that do not bind to cell membranes or the cytoskeleton will be dissolved in the cytosol. The amount of protein in cells is extremely high, and approaches 200 mg/ml, occupying about 20-30% of the volume of the cytosol. However, measuring precisely how much protein is dissolved in cytosol in intact cells is difficult, since some proteins appear to be weakly-associated with membranes or organelles in whole cells and are released into solution upon cell lysis. Indeed, in experiments where the plasma membrane of cells were carefully disrupted using saponin, without damaging the other cell membranes, only about one quarter of cell protein was released. These cells also were also able to synthesize proteins if given ATP and amino acids, implying that many of the enzymes in cytosol are bound to the cytoskeleton. However, the idea that the majority of the proteins in cells are tightly bound in a network called the microtrabecular lattice is now seen as unlikely. In prokaryotes the cytosol contains the cell's genome, within a structure known as a nucleoid. This is an irregular mass of DNA and associated proteins that control the transcription and replication of the bacterial chromosome and plasmids. In eukaryotes the genome is held within the cell nucleus, which is separated from the cytosol by nuclear pores that block the free diffusion of any molecule larger than about 10 nanometres in diameter. This high concentration of macromolecules in cytosol causes an effect called macromolecular crowding, which is when the effective concentration of other macromolecules is increased, since they have less volume to move in. This crowding effect can produce large changes in both the rates and the position of chemical equilibrium of reactions in the cytosol. It is particularly important in its ability to alter dissociation constants by favoring the association of macromolecules, such as when multiple proteins come together to form protein complexes, or when DNA-binding proteins bind to their targets in the genome. Organization Although the components of the cytosol are not separated into regions by cell membranes, these components do not always mix randomly and several levels of organization can localize specific molecules to defined sites within the cytosol. Concentration gradients Although small molecules diffuse rapidly in the cytosol, concentration gradients can still be produced within this compartment. A well-studied example of these are the "calcium sparks" that are produced for a short period in the region around an open calcium channel. These are about 2 micrometres in diameter and last for only a few milliseconds, although several sparks can merge together to form larger gradients, called "calcium waves". Concentration gradients of other small molecules, such as oxygen and adenosine triphosphate may be produced in cells around clusters of mitochondria, although these are less well understood. Protein complexes Proteins can associate to form protein complexes, these often contain a set of proteins with similar functions, such as enzymes that carry out several steps in the same metabolic pathway. This organization can allow substrate channeling, which is when the product of one enzyme is passed directly to the next enzyme in a pathway without being released into solution. Channeling can make a pathway more rapid and efficient than it would be if the enzymes were randomly distributed in the cytosol or prevent the release of unstable intermediates. Although a wide variety of metabolic pathways have been shown to involve enzymes that are tightly bound to each other, others may involve more loosely-associated complexes that are very difficult to study outside the cell. Consequently, the importance of these complexes for metabolism in general remains unclear. Carboxysomes are protein-enclosed bacterial microcompartments within the cytosol. On the left is an electron microscope image of carboxysomes, and on the right a model of their structure. Protein compartments Some protein complexes contain a large central cavity that is isolated from the reminder of the cytosol. One example of such an enclosed compartment is the proteasome. Here, a set of subunits form a hollow barrel containing proteases that degrade cytosolic proteins. Since these would be damaging if they mixed freely with the remainder of the cytosol, the barrel is capped by a set of regulatory proteins that recognize proteins with a signal directing them for degradation (a ubiquitin tag) and feed them into the proteolytic cavity. Another large class of protein compartments are bacterial microcompartments, which are made of a protein shell that encapsulates various enzymes. These compartments are typically about 100-200 nanometres across and made of interlocking proteins. A well-understood example is the carboxysome, which contains enzymes involved in carbon fixation such as RuBisCO. Cytoskeletal sieving Although the cytoskeleton is not part of the cytosol, the presence of this network of filaments restricts the diffusion of large particles in the cell. For example, in several studies tracer particles larger than about 25 nanometres (about the size of a ribosome) were excluded from parts of the cytosol around the edges of the cell and next to the nucleus. These "excluding compartments" may contain a much denser meshwork of actin fibres than the remainder of the cytosol. These microdomains could influence the distribution of large structures such as ribosomes and organelles within the cytosol by excluding them from some areas and concentrating them in others. Function The cytosol has no single function and is instead the site of a wide variety of cell processes. Examples of these processes include signal transduction from the cell membrane to sites within the cell, such as the cell nucleus, or organelles. This compartment is also the site of many of the processes of cytokinesis, after the breakdown of the nuclear membrane in mitosis. Another major function of cytosol is to transport metabolites from their site of production to where they are used. This is relatively simple for water-soluble molecules, such as amino acids, which can diffuse rapidly through the cytosol. However, hydrophobic molecules, such as fatty acids or sterols, can be transported through the cytosol by specific binding proteins, which shuttle these molecules between cell membranes. Molecules taken into the cell by endocytosis or on their way to be secreted can also be transported through the cytosol inside vesicles, which are small spheres of lipids that are moved along the cytoskeleton by motor proteins. The cytosol is the site of most metabolism in prokaryotes, and a large proportion of the metabolism of eukaryotes. For instance, in mammals about half of the proteins in the cell are localized to the cytosol. The most complete data are available in yeast, where metabolic reconstructions indicate that the majority of both metabolic processes and metabolites occur in the cytosol. Major metabolic pathways that occur in the cytosol in animals are protein biosynthesis, the pentose phosphate pathway, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. The localization of pathways can be different in other organisms, for instance fatty acid synthesis occurs in chloroplasts in plants and in apicoplasts in apicomplexa. References Further reading | Cytosol |@lemmatized cytosol:58 crowded:1 solution:5 many:4 different:6 type:2 molecule:24 fill:1 much:4 volume:5 cell:64 intracellular:1 fluid:5 cytoplasmic:2 matrix:2 liquid:7 find:2 inside:6 eukaryotes:2 separate:4 membrane:12 content:7 organelle:7 suspend:1 mitochondrial:1 mitochondrion:2 entire:1 eukaryotic:1 minus:1 nucleus:5 refer:4 cytoplasm:10 prokaryote:2 chemical:2 reaction:2 metabolism:7 take:4 place:2 periplasmic:1 space:1 eukaryote:2 metabolic:7 pathway:9 still:2 occur:4 others:5 contain:11 within:10 complex:9 mixture:2 substance:3 dissolve:4 water:27 although:11 form:7 large:16 majority:5 structure:12 property:3 well:6 understood:6 concentration:18 ion:19 sodium:5 potassium:7 extracellular:4 difference:3 level:8 important:2 process:5 osmoregulation:2 signaling:2 also:8 amount:4 macromolecule:10 alter:2 behave:1 macromolecular:2 crowding:2 think:1 simple:2 multiple:2 organization:4 exist:1 include:3 gradient:6 small:8 calcium:10 enzyme:9 act:1 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6,291 | Dave_Winer | Dave Winer (born May 2, 1955 in Brooklyn, New York City, USA) is an American software developer and entrepreneur in Berkeley, California. A pioneer in the areas of RSS as "Really Simple Syndication", XML-RPC, OPML, outliners, and the MetaWeblog API, he is also the author of Scripting News, one of the oldest weblogs, established in 1997. "..Dave Winer... whose Scripting News (scripting.com) is one of the oldest blogs." He is generally credited with the exposition of RSS as "Really Simple Syndication", now a world-wide phenomenon, and the first to implement the feed "enclosure" feature, one of several necessary ingredients for podcasting at the time it first emerged . He's also the founder of the software companies Living Videotext and Userland Software, and a former contributing editor for the Web site HotWired and former research fellow at Harvard Law School. Education Winer was born in Brooklyn, New York City, and graduated from the Bronx High School of Science in 1972. Dave Winer's Personal Website: Curriculum Vitae Winer received a BA in Mathematics from Tulane University in New Orleans in 1976. In 1978 he received an MS in Computer Science from the University of Wisconsin. Employment In 1979 Dave Winer became an employee of Personal Software. In 1981 he left to found Living Videotext, which created early outliner programs ThinkTank, Ready and MORE 1.1 for Apple II, IBM PC and Macintosh computers. In 1988 he founded Userland Software and served as CEO until stepping down shortly after a health crisis in 2002. He was a contributing editor for the site HotWired from 1995 to 1996. In 2002 he was named one of the "Top Ten Technology Innovators" by InfoWorld. Years at UserLand In 1987 Winer sold Living Videotext to Symantec and purchased a house in Woodside, California Scripting News: 3/30/2003 and founded UserLand Software. In 1994 Winer began publishing his personal column DaveNet, and in April 1997 founded the weblog Scripting News, although the word "weblog" was not coined at that time. The focus on blogging influenced the development of UserLand online publishing products, with Winer enthusiastically promoting and experimenting with new features on his blog and website. During this period, Winer also, along with Microsoft, developed the protocol XML-RPC, which led to the creation of SOAP, which he co-authored along with Don Box, Bob Atkinson, and Mohsen Al-Ghosein at Microsoft. The origins of web syndication technology can be traced back to earlier resource-description formats like MCF, XML, and RDF. In 1997, Dave Winer designed and announced his own XML syndication format for use on his Scripting News weblog. (Similar work was also being done elsewhere--for more detail of work by others see the main article on History of web syndication technology.) By December, 2000, competing dialects of RSS available included several varieties of Netscape's RSS, Dave Winer's RSS 0.92, and an RDF-based RSS 1.0. UserLand was the first to add an "enclosure" tag in its RSS, modifying its blog software and its aggregator so that bloggers could easily link to an audio file. (See History of podcasting for information about podcasting and RSS, as well as the work of many other people in early audioblogging and podcasting.) Winer and UserLand continued to develop the branch of the RSS fork originating from their RSS 0.92, releasing in 2002 a version called RSS 2.0. RSS 2.0 specification . Winer's evangelism for web syndication in general and RSS 2.0 in particular convinced many news media organizations to syndicate their news content in that format. For example, in early 2002, the New York Times entered an agreement with UserLand to syndicate many of their articles in RSS 2.0 format. In June 2002 Winer had coronary artery bypass surgery to prevent a heart attack. Afterwards, he quit smoking and left his job as CEO of UserLand, although he maintained ownership of the firm and control of Weblogs.com, kept blogging, and kept promoting RSS. Berkman Fellow at Harvard Winer spent one year as a resident fellow at the Harvard Law School's Berkman Center for Internet & Society where he worked on using weblogs in education. While there, he launched the Harvard Weblogs community using UserLand software, and held the first BloggerCon conferences. Winer's fellowship ended in June 2004. Projects and activities 24 Hours of Democracy In February 1996, while working as a columnist for HotWired, Winer organized 24 Hours of Democracy, an online protest against the recently passed Communications Decency Act. As part of the protest, over 1,000 people, among them Microsoft chairman Bill Gates, posted essays to the Web on the subject of democracy, civil liberty and freedom of speech. Podcasting October 2000 - Using special "sound" and "video" tags in RSS Feeds to link to specific file types was proposed in 2000 in a draft by Tristan Louis. Louis, Tristan, 2000-10-13. Suggestion for RSS 0.92 specification The related, and more general tag for "enclosures" was implemented by Dave Winer, a software developer and an author of the RSS 2.0 format, one of two formats called RSS based on the RSS 0.91 format written at Netscape http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RSS_%28file_format%29#Working_groups_and_Boards . Winer had discussed the concept, also in October 2000, with Adam Curry Curry, Adam, 2000-10-27 The Bandwidth Issue; server discontinued by Userland, late 2005. a user of his software, and had received other customer requests for audioblogging features. Winer included the new functionality in RSS 0.92 Winer, Dave, 2000-12-25 RSS 0.92 Specification , by defining a new element Winer, Dave, 2000-12-27 Scripting News: Heads-up, I'm working on new features for RSS that build on 0.91. Calling it 0.92... called "enclosure" Winer, Dave, 2000-10-31 Virtual Bandwidth; and 2001-01-11 Payloads for RSS. , which would simply pass the address of a media file to the RSS aggregator. January 11, 2001 - Winer demonstrated the RSS enclosure feature by enclosing a Grateful Dead song in his Scripting News weblog. Winer, Dave, 2001-01-11 Scripting News: Tonight's song on the Grateful Dead audio weblog is Truckin... . For its first two years, the enclosure element had relatively few users and many developers simply avoided using it. Winer's company incorporated the new feature in its weblogging product, Radio Userland, the program favored by Curry, audioblogger Harold Gilchrist and others. Since Radio Userland had a built-in aggregator, it provided both the "send" and "receive" components of what was then called audioblogging Curry, Adam, 2002-10-21 UserNum 1014: Cool to hear my own audio-blog... <ref>Gilchrist, Harold 2002-10-27 Audioblog/Mobileblogging News this morning I'm experimenting with producing an audioblogging show...</ref>. All that was needed for "podcasting" was a way to automatically move audio files from Radio Userland's download folder to an audio player (either software or hardware) -- along with enough compelling audio to make such automation worth the trouble. Winer also has an occasional podcast, Morning Coffee Notes. His podcast has featured guests such as Doc Searls, Mike Kowalchik, Jason Calacanis, Steve Gillmor, Peter Rojas, Cecile Andrews, Adam Curry, Betsy Devine and others. Morning Coffee Notes BloggerCon BloggerCon is a user-focused conference for the blogger community. BloggerCon I (October 2003) and II (April 2004), were organized by Dave Winer and friends at Harvard Law School's Berkman Center for the Internet and Society in Cambridge, Mass. Weblogs.com After leaving UserLand, Winer continued to maintain the domain weblogs.com, which provided a free ping-server used by most blog applications, as well as free hosting to many early bloggers. In mid-June 2004, he temporarily shut down free blog-hosting services there, without any notice, citing server and personal problems. After originally promising to get the blogs back up and running within a two-week period, he was able to restore them much faster thanks to help from Rogers Cadenhead and a lesser extent Steve Kirks. According to Wired Magazine, Weblogs.com Rises From the Flames , "What was decried as the death of a blog universe when Dave Winer shut down free blog host Weblogs.com turned out to be little more than a four-day server outage surrounded by a heck of a flame war." In October, 2005, VeriSign bought the Weblogs.com ping-server from Winer, promising that services currently free there would still be free. The podcasting-related web site audio.weblogs.com was also included in the $2.3 million deal VeriSign Acquires Dave Winers Weblogs.com . A later collaboration between Winer and Cadenhead, though, ended less happily. Winer had paid Cadenhead $5,000 to code improvements for another of Winer's projects, "Share Your OPML." (The site helped bloggers to make public and syndicate their blogrolls using OPML, an outlining tool developed at Radio Userland during Winer's years there.) Disagreement between the two escalated into a (blogged) confrontation which ended in 2006 with Cadenhead's keeping the $5,000 but abandoning all claim to the disputed code. Best Blogfights of 2006 Relationship to the public Tim Bray, a co-inventor of XML, wrote on his blog "Dave Winer has done a tremendous amount of work on RSS and invented important parts of it and deserves a huge amount of credit for getting us as far as we have. However, just looking around, I observe that there are many people and organizations who seem unable to maintain a good working relationship with Dave." Tim O'Reilly, who has had a rocky relationship with Dave for many years with regards to the technology conferences Tim organizes, says that Dave "can be a great contributor, but he can also decide, for no apparent reason, that someone is somehow on 'the other side,' at which point he becomes disruptive and abusive." Others speak of Winer with admiration and affection. "Dave is one of my favorite sources of information and opinion on the Web. His opinions are passionately held, well-informed, intelligent, argumentative, and quite often wrong," quipped Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy author Douglas Adams. Cluetrain Manifesto'' co-author Doc Searls, a long-time friend of Dave Winer, expressed his sense of indebtedness in some detail: "When they scroll the credits of my life, Dave's is going to be one of the first names on the list. And when they scroll the credits for blogging, outlining, writing, scripting, journalism, XML, RSS, SOAP, podcasting and a pile of other technologies, standards and practices we will all eventually take for granted, the same will be true for those as well." After a public confrontation with entrepreneur Jason Calacanis at the Gnomedex conference in August 2007, Winer resigned from the panel of experts for the TechCrunch20 conference organized by Calacanis. Winer interrupted Calacanis' speech during the event, deriding it as "conference spam" and igniting a war of words on their blogs. "I'm not interested in having someone berate me like this," Calacanis wrote on his blog. Dave Winer is a grandnephew of Arno Schmidt, a German author and translator who translated - among others - Edgar Allan Poe into German. See also BloggerCon MORE OPML outliner RSS Weblogs.com Podcast Radio Userland XML-RPC Blogging References External links Scripting News, Dave Winer's weblog His CV and BIO Eye on Winer A weblog devoted to criticism of Dave Winer News coverage and interviews Companies and technologies of relevant interest UserLand Frontier kernel Harvard Law School Blogs Dave Net Outliners XML-RPC Directory For SOAP Developers OPML (Outline Processor Markup Language) | Dave_Winer |@lemmatized dave:25 winer:45 bear:2 may:1 brooklyn:2 new:9 york:3 city:2 usa:1 american:1 software:11 developer:4 entrepreneur:2 berkeley:1 california:2 pioneer:1 area:1 r:25 really:2 simple:2 syndication:6 xml:8 rpc:4 opml:5 outliners:2 metaweblog:1 api:1 also:9 author:6 script:11 news:13 one:8 old:2 weblogs:12 establish:1 whose:1 com:10 blog:13 generally:1 credit:4 exposition:1 world:1 wide:1 phenomenon:1 first:6 implement:2 feed:2 enclosure:6 feature:7 several:2 necessary:1 ingredient:1 podcast:9 time:4 emerge:1 founder:1 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6,292 | Politics_of_Costa_Rica | The politics of Costa Rica take place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Costa Rica is both the head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and his cabinet. Legislative power is vested in the Legislative Assembly. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Costa Rica is a republic with a strong system of constitutional checks and balances. Political conditions Costa Rica's current leading. political parties (PLN, social democratic), Partido Acción Ciudadana (PAC, Reformist, largely but not exclusively left and center left), Partido Movimiento Libertario (ML, libertarian) and the Partido Unidad Social Cristiana (PUSC, Christian democratic). Other minor parties with congressional representation include Partido Restauración Nacional (PRN, Christian), Partido Frente Amplio (FA, left), Partido Accesibilidad Sin Exclusión (PASE, fights for disabled people) and Partido Unión Nacional (PUN, center right) . Several new parties participated for the first time in the 2006 elections, including Partido Unión Patriótica, Partido Unión para el Cambio, Partido Patria Primero, and Partido Alianza Democrática Nacionalista but their results were mostly poor. In the February 1998 national election, PUSC candidate Miguel Ángel Rodríguez won the presidency over PLN nominee Jose Miguel Corrales. President Rodriguez assumed office May 8, 1998. The PUSC also obtained 27 seats in the 57-member Legislative Assembly, for a plurality, while the PLN gained 23 and five minor parties won seven. Social Christian in philosophy, the PUSC generally favors neoliberalism, conservative fiscal policies, and government reform. President Rodriguez pledged to reduce the country's large internal debt, privatize state-owned utilities, attract additional foreign investment, eliminate social welfare programs, and promote the creation of jobs with decent salaries. The reforms he tried to promote found opposition from several parties, including his own, and he asserted several times the country was "ungovernable". In particular, an attempt by the Legislative Assembly to approve a law that opened up the electricity and telecommunication markets (contolled by a monopoly of the Costa Rican Institute of Electricity - ICE) to market competition, known as the "Combo" law was met with strong social opposition. Supported by both major parties at the time, the PLN and PUSC, as well as by President Rodriguez, the first of three required legislative votes to approve the Combo law provoked the largest protest demonstrations the country had seen since 1970. The government quickly resolved to shelf the initiative. President Rodríguez's approval would reach an all-time low, and he was indicted by the Attorney General after leaving office on corruption charges. In the 2002 national election, a new party founded by former PLN Congressman and government Minister Ottón Solís captured 26% of the vote, forcing a runoff election for the first time in the country's history. Abel Pacheco was elected President, under a national unity platform, but continuing most of the neoliberal and conservative policies of Miguel Ángel Rodríguez. This election was also important because new parties won several seats in Congress, more than ever. The PUSC obtained 19 seats, PLN 17 seats, PAC 14 seats, PML 6 seats and PRC one seat. During the year 2004, several high profile corruption scandals shattered the foundations of PUSC. Two former Presidents from the party, Miguel Ángel Rodríguez and Rafael Ángel Calderón were arrested on corruption charges and are currently waiting for the investigation to end and trial to begin. Also involved in scandals has been José María Figueres, former President from PLN and former head of the World Economic Forum. The 2006 national election was expected to be a landslide for former President (1986-1990) and PLN's candidate Óscar Arias, but it turned out to be the closest in modern history. Although polls just a week before the election gave Arias a comfortable lead of at least 12% (and up to 20%), preliminary election results gave him only a .4% lead over rival Ottón Solís and prompted a manual recount of all ballots. After a month long recount and several appeals from different parties, Arias was declared the official winner with 40.9% of the votes against 39.8% for Solís. Since Óscar Arias returned to office, the political climate has been characterized by an increased polarization of public debate, mainly centered on whether to approve or reject CAFTA. Main supporters of the approval include the President's PLN, which has established a coalition with PUSC and ML in Congress in order to approve the implementation laws in Congress, as well as different business chambers, while the main opposition to CAFTA comes from PAC, labor unions, environmental organizations and public universities. In April 2007, former PLN Presidential candidate and CAFTA opponent José Miguel Corrales won a legal battle at the Supreme Electoral Tribunal, which authorized him to gather over 100 thousand signatures in order to send CAFTA to a referendum and let the people decide the fate of the controversial agreement. As the February 28, 2008 deadline to approve or reject CAFTA loomed, Arias decided to call for the referendum himself, and it took take place on October 7, 2007. In the intercourse, Vicepresident Kevin Casas quit from his position due to a compromising memorandum he wrote. In spite of winning the referendum, each new law had to be analyzed and approved individually which has caused delays in Costa Rica's compliance to CAFTA. As of September 2008, only one law was remaining to be approved, but was delayed because it had a faulty procedure to be approved. Executive branch Óscar Arias, Nobel Peace Prize winner, President of Costa Rica (1986-1990, 2006-present) Executive responsibilities are vested in a president, who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents and the president's cabinet composed of his ministers . The president and 57 Legislative Assembly deputies are elected for 4-year terms. A constitutional amendment approved in 1969 limits presidents and deputies to one term, although a deputy may run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. The prohibition was officially recognized as anti-constitutional in April 2003, allowing Óscar Arias to run for President a second time in the 2006 Costa Rican presidential elections. The offices of the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Procurator General of the Public, and the Ombudsman exercise autonomous oversight of the government. The Comptroller General's office has a statutory responsibility to scrutinize all but the smallest contracts of the public sector and strictly enforces procedural requirements. The position of governor of the seven provinces was abolished in 1998 . There are no provincial legislatures. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military but maintains domestic Police and armed National Guard forces securing its interests. |President of Costa Rica |Óscar Arias |PLN |May 8, 2006 |} Political parties and elections The electoral process is supervised by an independent Supreme Electoral Tribunal – a commission of three principal magistrates and six alternates selected by the Supreme Court of Justice. Judicial branch Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice, composed of 22 magistrates selected for renewable 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, and subsidiary courts. A Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court, established in 1989, reviews the constitutionality of legislation and executive decrees and all habeas corpus warrants. | Politics_of_Costa_Rica |@lemmatized politics:1 costa:10 rica:8 take:3 place:2 framework:1 presidential:3 representative:1 democratic:3 republic:3 whereby:1 president:19 head:3 state:4 government:5 multi:1 party:12 system:2 executive:5 power:5 exercise:3 cabinet:2 legislative:7 vest:2 assembly:6 judiciary:1 independent:2 legislature:2 strong:2 constitutional:4 check:1 balance:1 political:4 condition:1 current:1 lead:3 pln:11 social:6 partido:11 acción:1 ciudadana:1 pac:3 reformist:1 largely:1 exclusively:1 left:1 center:4 leave:3 movimiento:1 libertario:1 ml:2 libertarian:1 unidad:1 cristiana:1 pusc:8 christian:3 minor:2 congressional:1 representation:1 include:5 restauración:1 nacional:2 prn:1 frente:1 amplio:1 fa:1 accesibilidad:1 sin:1 exclusión:1 pase:1 fight:1 disabled:1 people:2 unión:3 pun:1 right:1 several:6 new:4 participate:1 first:3 time:6 election:10 patriótica:1 para:1 el:1 cambio:1 patria:1 primero:1 alianza:1 democrática:1 nacionalista:1 result:2 mostly:1 poor:1 february:2 national:5 candidate:3 miguel:5 ángel:4 rodríguez:4 win:5 presidency:1 nominee:1 jose:1 corrales:2 rodriguez:3 assume:1 office:5 may:3 also:4 obtain:2 seat:8 member:1 plurality:1 gain:1 five:1 seven:2 philosophy:1 generally:1 favor:1 neoliberalism:1 conservative:2 fiscal:1 policy:2 reform:2 pledge:1 reduce:1 country:5 large:2 internal:1 debt:1 privatize:1 owned:1 utility:1 attract:1 additional:1 foreign:1 investment:1 eliminate:1 welfare:1 program:1 promote:2 creation:1 job:1 decent:1 salary:1 try:1 found:2 opposition:3 assert:1 ungovernable:1 particular:1 attempt:1 approve:9 law:6 open:1 electricity:2 telecommunication:2 market:2 contolled:1 monopoly:3 rican:2 institute:1 ice:1 competition:1 know:1 combo:2 meet:1 support:1 major:1 well:2 three:2 required:1 vote:3 provoke:1 protest:1 demonstration:1 see:1 since:2 quickly:1 resolve:1 shelf:1 initiative:1 approval:2 would:1 reach:1 low:1 indict:1 attorney:1 general:4 corruption:3 charge:2 former:6 congressman:1 minister:2 ottón:2 solís:3 capture:1 force:2 runoff:1 history:2 abel:1 pacheco:1 elect:2 unity:1 platform:1 continue:1 neoliberal:1 important:1 congress:3 ever:1 pml:1 prc:1 one:3 year:3 high:1 profile:1 scandal:2 shatter:1 foundation:1 two:2 rafael:1 calderón:1 arrest:1 currently:1 wait:1 investigation:1 end:1 trial:1 begin:1 involve:1 josé:2 maría:1 figueres:1 world:1 economic:1 forum:1 expect:1 landslide:1 óscar:5 aria:6 turn:1 close:1 modern:1 although:2 poll:1 week:1 give:2 arias:2 comfortable:1 least:1 preliminary:1 rival:1 prompt:1 manual:1 recount:2 ballot:1 month:1 long:1 appeal:1 different:2 declare:1 official:1 winner:2 return:1 climate:1 characterize:1 increased:1 polarization:1 public:4 debate:1 mainly:1 whether:1 reject:2 cafta:6 main:2 supporter:1 establish:2 coalition:1 order:2 implementation:1 business:1 chamber:2 come:1 labor:1 union:1 environmental:1 organization:1 university:1 april:2 opponent:1 legal:1 battle:1 supreme:5 electoral:3 tribunal:2 authorize:1 gather:1 thousand:1 signature:1 send:1 referendum:3 let:1 decide:2 fate:1 controversial:1 agreement:1 deadline:1 loom:1 call:1 october:1 intercourse:1 vicepresident:1 kevin:1 casas:1 quit:1 position:2 due:1 compromising:1 memorandum:1 write:1 spite:1 analyze:1 individually:1 cause:1 delay:2 compliance:1 september:1 remain:1 faulty:1 procedure:1 branch:2 nobel:1 peace:1 prize:1 present:1 responsibility:2 vice:1 compose:2 deputy:3 term:4 amendment:1 limit:1 run:2 sit:1 prohibition:1 officially:1 recognize:1 anti:1 allow:1 second:1 comptroller:2 procurator:1 ombudsman:1 autonomous:2 oversight:1 statutory:1 scrutinize:1 small:1 contract:1 sector:1 strictly:1 enforce:1 procedural:1 requirement:1 governor:1 province:1 abolish:1 provincial:1 agency:2 enjoy:1 considerable:1 operational:1 independence:1 electrical:1 nationalized:1 commercial:1 bank:1 insurance:1 security:1 military:1 maintain:1 domestic:1 police:1 arm:1 guard:1 secure:1 interest:1 process:1 supervise:1 commission:1 principal:1 magistrate:2 six:1 alternate:1 select:2 court:4 justice:2 judicial:2 renewable:1 subsidiary:1 review:1 constitutionality:1 legislation:1 decree:1 habeas:1 corpus:1 warrant:1 |@bigram costa_rica:8 legislative_assembly:5 judiciary_independent:1 miguel_ángel:3 costa_rican:2 josé_maría:1 óscar_aria:5 presidential_candidate:1 josé_miguel:1 vice_president:1 constitutional_amendment:1 presidential_election:1 supreme_court:3 judicial_branch:1 habeas_corpus:1 |
6,293 | Joachim_I_Nestor,_Elector_of_Brandenburg | Joachim I Nestor (21 February 1484 – 11 July 1535) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1499-1535). He was a member of the House of Hohenzollern and nicknamed after the Nestor of Greek mythology. Biography The eldest son of John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg, Joachim received an excellent education under Dietrich von Bülow, Bishop of Lebus and Chancellor of Frankfurt University. He became Elector of Brandenburg upon his father's death in January 1499, and soon afterwards married Elizabeth of Denmark, daughter of John of Denmark. They had five children: Joachim II Hektor (b. 9 January 1505; d. 3 January 1571) Anna (b. 1507, d. 19 June 1567) Elisabeth (b. 24 August 1510, d. 25 May 1558) Margarete (b. 29 September 1511, d. 1577) Johann (b. 3 Aug 1513, d. 13 January 1571) Joachim took some part in the political complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the early years of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his electorate, where by stern measures he succeeded in restoring some degree of order. He also improved the administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, and was a friend to the towns. On the approach of the imperial election of 1519, Joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of King Francis I of France, and Charles of Burgundy. Having treated with, and received lavish promises from, both parties, he appears to have hoped to be Emperor himself; but when the election came he turned to the winning side and voted for Charles. In spite of this, however, the relations between the Emperor and the Elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim was frequently in communication with Charles' enemies. Joachim is best known as a pugnacious adherent of Roman Catholic orthodoxy. His brother, Archbishop Albert of Mainz, was the initial object of Luther's attack. He urged upon the Emperor the need to enforce the Edict of Worms, and at several diets was prominent among the enemies of the Reformers. A patron of learning, Joachim established the university of Frankfurt (Oder) in 1506.He promoted Georg von Blumenthal, the "Pillar of Catholicism", as Chancellor of Frankfurt University, Bishop of Lebus and a Privy Counsellor. He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525, and was a member of the league established at Halle in November 1533. But, against his will, his wife, like her brother King Christian of Denmark, became a Protestant, and in 1528 fled for safety to Saxony. He had the mortification of seeing Protestantism also favoured by other members of his family. He died at Stendal in 1535. Ancestors +Joachim I Nestor's ancestors in three generations Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg Father:John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Grandfather:Albert III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Great-grandfather:Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Great-grandmother:Elisabeth of Bavaria-Landshut Paternal Grandmother:Margarete of Baden Paternal Great-grandfather:Jacob, Margrave of Baden-Baden Paternal Great-grandmother:Catherine of Lorraine Mother:Margaret of Thuringia Maternal Grandfather:William III, Duke of Luxembourg Maternal Great-grandfather:Frederick I, Elector of Saxony Maternal Great-grandmother:Catherine of Brunswick Maternal Grandmother:Anne, Duchess of Luxembourg Maternal Great-grandfather:Albert II of Germany Maternal Great-grandmother:Elisabeth II of Bohemia References T. von Buttlar, Der Kampf Joachims I. van Brandenburg gegen den Adel (1889) J. G. Droysen, Geschichte ier Preussischen Politik (1855-1886) | Joachim_I_Nestor,_Elector_of_Brandenburg |@lemmatized joachim:11 nestor:4 february:1 july:2 prince:1 elector:9 margraviate:1 brandenburg:8 member:3 house:1 hohenzollern:1 nickname:1 greek:1 mythology:1 biography:1 eldest:1 son:1 john:3 cicero:2 receive:2 excellent:1 education:1 dietrich:1 von:3 bülow:1 bishop:2 lebus:2 chancellor:2 frankfurt:3 university:3 become:2 upon:2 father:2 death:1 january:4 soon:1 afterwards:1 marry:1 elizabeth:1 denmark:3 daughter:1 five:1 child:1 ii:3 hektor:1 b:5 anna:1 june:1 elisabeth:3 august:1 may:1 margarete:2 september:1 johann:1 aug:1 take:1 part:1 political:1 complication:1 scandinavian:1 kingdom:1 early:1 year:2 reign:1 mainly:1 spend:1 administration:2 electorate:1 stern:1 measure:1 succeed:1 restore:1 degree:1 order:1 also:2 improve:1 justice:1 aid:1 development:1 commerce:1 friend:1 town:1 approach:1 imperial:1 election:2 vote:2 eagerly:1 solicit:1 partisan:1 king:2 francis:1 france:1 charles:3 burgundy:1 treat:1 lavish:1 promise:1 party:1 appear:1 hop:1 emperor:3 come:1 turn:1 win:1 side:1 spite:1 however:1 relation:1 friendly:1 next:1 frequently:1 communication:1 enemy:2 best:1 know:1 pugnacious:1 adherent:1 roman:1 catholic:1 orthodoxy:1 brother:2 archbishop:1 albert:3 mainz:1 initial:1 object:1 luther:1 attack:1 urge:1 need:1 enforce:1 edict:1 worm:1 several:1 diet:1 prominent:1 among:2 reformer:1 patron:1 learning:1 establish:2 oder:1 promote:1 georg:1 blumenthal:1 pillar:1 catholicism:1 privy:1 counsellor:1 meet:1 dessau:1 league:1 halle:1 november:1 wife:1 like:1 christian:1 protestant:1 flee:1 safety:1 saxony:2 mortification:1 see:1 protestantism:1 favour:1 family:1 die:1 stendal:1 ancestor:2 three:1 generation:1 paternal:6 grandfather:6 iii:2 achilles:1 great:8 frederick:2 grandmother:6 bavaria:1 landshut:1 baden:3 jacob:1 margrave:1 catherine:2 lorraine:1 mother:1 margaret:1 thuringia:1 maternal:6 william:1 duke:1 luxembourg:2 brunswick:1 anne:1 duchess:1 germany:1 bohemia:1 reference:1 buttlar:1 der:1 kampf:1 van:1 gegen:1 den:1 adel:1 j:1 g:1 droysen:1 geschichte:1 ier:1 preussischen:1 politik:1 |@bigram joachim_nestor:3 elector_margraviate:1 margraviate_brandenburg:1 eldest_son:1 elector_brandenburg:6 von_bülow:1 soon_afterwards:1 frankfurt_oder:1 privy_counsellor:1 brandenburg_paternal:3 paternal_grandfather:1 paternal_grandmother:1 margrave_baden:1 baden_baden:1 grandmother_catherine:2 maternal_grandfather:1 elector_saxony:1 maternal_grandmother:1 |
6,294 | International_Monetary_Fund | The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that oversees the global financial system by following the macroeconomic policies of its member countries, in particular those with an impact on exchange rates and the balance of payments. It is an organization formed to stabilize international exchange rates and facilitate development. It also offers financial and technical assistance to its members, making it an international lender of last resort. Its headquarters are located in Washington, D.C., USA. Organization and purpose Headquarters in Washington D.C. The International Monetary Fund was created in July of 1946,originally with 46 members , with a goal to stabilize exchange rates and assist the reconstruction of the world's international payment system. Countries contributed to a pool which could be borrowed from, on a temporary basis, by countries with payment imbalances. (Condon, 2007) The IMF describes itself as "an organization of 185 countries (Montenegro being the 185th, as of January 18, 2007 ), working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty". With the exception of Taiwan (expelled in 1980) , North Korea, Cuba (left in 1964) , Andorra, Monaco, Liechtenstein, Tuvalu and Nauru, all UN member states participate directly in the IMF. Most are represented by other member states on a 24-member Executive Board but all member countries belong to the IMF's Board of Governors. IMF Articles of Agreement, Article XII Section 2(a) and Section 3(b). History The International Monetary Fund was formally created in July 1944 during the United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference. The representatives of 44 governments met in the Mount Washington Hotel in the area of Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, United States of America, with the delegates to the conference agreeing on a framework for international economic cooperation. Brief video of the Bretton Woods Conference is available at http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVytOtfPZe8 The IMF was formally organised on December 27, 1945, when the first 29 countries signed its Articles of Agreement. The statutory purposes of the IMF today are the same as when they were formulated in 1943 (see #Assistance and reforms). Today The IMF's influence in the global economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The number of IMF member countries has more than quadrupled from the 44 states involved in its establishment, reflecting in particular the attainment of political independence by many developing countries and more recently the collapse of the Soviet bloc. The expansion of the IMF's membership, together with the changes in the world economy, have required the IMF to adapt in a variety of ways to continue serving its purposes effectively. In 2008, faced with a shortfall in revenue, the International Monetary Fund's executive board agreed to sell part of the IMF's gold reserves. On April 27, 2008, IMF Managing Director Dominique Strauss-Kahn welcomed the board's decision April 7, 2008 to propose a new framework for the fund, designed to close a projected $400 million budget deficit over the next few years. The budget proposal includes sharp spending cuts of $100 million until 2011 that will include up to 380 staff dismissals. http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2008/pr0874.htm At the 2009 G-20 London summit, it was decided that the IMF would require additional financial resources to meet prospective needs of its member countries during the ongoing global crisis. As part of that decision, the G-20 leaders pledged to increase the IMF's supplemental cash tenfold to $500 billion, and to allocate to member countries another $250 billion via Special Drawing Rights. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7979483.stm G20: Gordon Brown brokers massive financial aid deal for global economy Data Dissemination Systems IMF Data Dissemination Systems participants: In 1995, the International Monetary Fund began work on data dissemination standards with the view of guiding IMF member countries to disseminate their economic and financial data to the public. The International Monetary and Financial Committee (IMFC) endorsed the guidelines for the dissemination standards and they were split into two tiers: The General Data Dissemination System (GDDS) and the Special Data Dissemination Standard (SDDS). The International Monetary Fund executive board approved the SDDS and GDDS in 1996 and 1997 respectively and subsequent amendments were published in a revised “Guide to the General Data Dissemination System”. The system is aimed primarily at statisticians and aims to improve many aspects of statistical systems in a country. It is also part of the World Bank Millennium Development Goals and Poverty Reduction Strategic Papers. The IMF established a system and standard to guide members in the dissemination to the public of their economic and financial data. Currently there are two such systems: General Data Dissemination System (GDDS) and its superset Special Data Dissemination System (SDDS), for those member countries having or seeking access to international capital markets. The primary objective of the GDDS is to encourage IMF member countries to build a framework to improve data quality and increase statistical capacity building. This will involve the preparation of metadata describing current statistical collection practices and setting improvement plans. Upon building a framework, a country can evaluate statistical needs, set priorities in improving the timeliness, transparency, reliability and accessibility of financial and economic data. Some countries initially used the GDDS, but lately upgraded to SDDS. Some entities that are not themselves IMF members also contribute statistical data to the systems: – GDDS – SDDS institutions: the European Central Bank for the Eurozone – SDDS Eurostat for the whole EU – SDDS, thus providing data from (not using any DDSystem on its own) and (using only GDDS on its own) Membership qualifications Any country may apply for membership to the IMF. The application will be considered first by the IMF's Executive Board. After its consideration, the Executive Board will submit a report to the Board of Governors of the IMF with recommendations in the form of a "Membership Resolution." These recommendations cover the amount of quota in the IMF, the form of payment of the subscription, and other customary terms and conditions of membership. After the Board of Governors has adopted the "Membership Resolution," the applicant state needs to take the legal steps required under its own law to enable it to sign the IMF's Articles of Agreement and to fulfil the obligations of IMF membership. Similarly, any member country can withdraw from the Fund, although that is rare. For example, in April 2007, the president of Ecuador, Rafael Correa announced the expulsion of the World Bank representative in the country. A few days later, at the end of April, Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez announced that the country would withdraw from the IMF and the World Bank. Chavez dubbed both organisations as “the tools of the empire” that “serve the interests of the North”. As of June 2009, both countries remain as members of both organisations. Venezuela was forced to back down because a withdrawal would have triggered default clauses in the country's sovereign bonds. A member's quota in the IMF determines the amount of its subscription, its voting weight, its access to IMF financing, and its allocation of Special Drawing Rights (SDRs). The United States has exclusive veto power. A member state cannot unilaterally increase its quota — increases must be approved by the Executive Board and are linked to formulas that include many variables such as the size of a country in the world economy. For example, in 2001, China was prevented from increasing its quota as high as it wished, ensuring it remained at the level of the smallest G7 economy (Canada). . In September 2005, the IMF's member countries agreed to the first round of ad hoc quota increases for four countries, including China. On March 28, 2008, the IMF's Executive Board ended a period of extensive discussion and negotiation over a major package of reforms to enhance the institution's governance that would shift quota and voting shares from advanced to emerging markets and developing countries. The Fund's Board of Governors must vote on these reforms by April 28, 2008. See "Reform of IMF Quotas and Voice: Responding to Changes in the Global Economy" at www.imf.org. Examples of press coverage of the discussions regarding changes to the voting formula to increase equity:IMF Seeks Role in Shifting Global Economy Members' quotas and voting power, and Board of Governors Table showing the top 20 member countries in terms of voting power: IMF Member CountryQuota: Millions of SDRsQuota: Percentage of Total Governor Alternate Governor Votes: NumberVotes: Percentage of Total United States 37149.3 17.09 Timothy F. Geithner Ben Bernanke 371743 16.79 Japan 13312.8 6.13 Koji Omi Toshihiko Fukui 133378 6.02 Germany 13008.2 5.99 Axel A. Weber Peer Steinbrück 130332 5.88 France 10738.5 4.94 Christine Lagarde Christian Noyer 107635 4.86 United Kingdom 10738.5 4.94 Alistair Darling Mervyn King 107635 4.86 China 8090.1 3.72 Zhou Xiaochuan Hu Xiaolian 81151 3.66 Italy 7055.5 3.25 Giulio Tremonti Mario Draghi 70805 3.2 Saudi Arabia 6985.5 3.21 Ibrahim A. Al-Assaf Hamad Al-Sayari 70105 3.17 Canada 6369.2 2.93 Jim Flaherty Mark Carney 63942 2.89 Russian Federation 5945.4 2.74 Aleksei Kudrin Sergey Ignatiev 59704 2.7 Netherlands 5162.4 2.38 Nout Wellink L.B.J. van Geest 51874 2.34 Belgium 4605.2 2.12 Guy Quaden Jean-Pierre Arnoldi 46302 2.09 India 4158.2 1.91 Pranab Mukherjee D. Subbarao 41832 1.89 Switzerland 3458.5 1.59 Jean-Pierre Roth Hans-Rudolf Merz 34835 1.57 Australia 3236.4 1.49 Wayne Swan Ken Henry 32614 1.47 Mexico 3152.8 1.45 Agustín Carstens Guillermo Ortiz 31778 1.43 Spain 3048.9 1.40 Pedro Solbes Miguel Fernández Ordóñez 30739 1.39 Brazil 3036.1 1.40 Guido Mantega Henrique de Campos Meirelles 30611 1.38 Korea, South 2927.3 1.35 Okyu Kwon Seong Tae Lee 29523 1.33 Venezuela 2659.1 1.22 Gastón Parra Luzardo Rodrigo Cabeza Morales 26841 1.21 remaining 165 countries 60081.4 29.14 respective respective 637067 28.78 Assistance and reforms The primary mission of the IMF is to provide financial assistance to countries that experience serious financial and economic difficulties using funds deposited with the IMF from the institution's 185 member countries. Member states with balance of payments problems, which often arise from these difficulties, may request loans to help fill gaps between what countries earn and/or are able to borrow from other official lenders and what countries must spend to operate, including to cover the cost of importing basic goods and services. In return, countries are usually required to launch certain reforms, which have often been dubbed the "Washington Consensus". These reforms are thought to be beneficial to countries with fixed exchange rate policies that may engage in fiscal, monetary, and political practices which may lead to the crisis itself. For example, nations with severe budget deficits, rampant inflation, strict price controls, or significantly over-valued or under-valued currencies run the risk of facing balance of payment crises. Thus, the structural adjustment programs are at least ostensibly intended to ensure that the IMF is actually helping to prevent financial crises rather than merely funding financial recklessness. IMF/World Bank support of military dictatorships The role of the Bretton Woods institutions has been controversial since the late Cold War period, as the IMF policy makers supported military dictatorships friendly to American and European corporations. Critics also claim that the IMF is generally apathetic or hostile to their views of democracy, human rights, and labor rights. The controversy has helped spark the anti-globalisation movement. Arguments in favor of the IMF say that economic stability is a precursor to democracy; however, critics highlight various examples in which democratized countries fell after receiving IMF loans. In the 1960s, the IMF and the World Bank supported the government of Brazil’s military dictator Castello Branco with tens of millions of dollars of loans and credit that were denied to previous democratically-elected governments. BRAZIL Toward Stability, TIME Magazine, December 31, 1965 Countries that were or are under a Military dictatorship whilst being members of the IMF/World Bank (support from various sources in $ Billion): Country indebted to IMF/World Bank Dictator In power from In power to Debt % at start of Dictatorship Debt % at end of Dictatorship Country Debts in 1996 Dictator debts generated $ billion Dictator generated debt % of total debt Argentina Military dictatorship 1976 1983 9.3 48.9 93.8 39.6 42% Bolivia Military dictatorship 1962 1980 0 2.7 5.2 2.7 52% Brazil Military dictatorship 1964 1985 5.1 105.1 179 100 56% Chile Augusto Pinochet 1973 1989 5.2 18 27.4 12.8 47% El Salvador Military dictatorship 1979 1994 0.9 2.2 2.2 1.3 59% Ethiopia Mengistu Haile Mariam 1977 1991 0.5 4.2 10 3.7 37% Haiti Jean-Claude Duvalier 1971 1986 0 0.7 0.9 0.7 78% Indonesia Suharto 1967 1998 3 129 129 126 98% Kenya Moi 1979 2002 2.7 6.9 6.9 4.2 61% Liberia Doe 1979 1990 0.6 1.9 2.1 1.3 62% Malawi Banda 1964 1994 0.1 2 2.3 1.9 83% Nigeria Buhari/Abacha 1984 1998 17.8 31.4 31.4 13.6 43% Pakistan Zia-ul Haq 1977 1988 7.6 17 Paraguay Stroessner 1954 1989 0.1 2.4 2.1 2.3 96% Philippines Marcos 1965 1986 1.5 28.3 41.2 26.8 65% Somalia Siad Barre 1969 1991 0 2.4 2.6 2.4 92% South Africa apartheid 1948 1992 18.7 23.6 18.7 79% Sudan Nimeiry/al-Mahdi 1969 present 0.3 17 17 16.7 98% Syria Assad 1970 present 0.2 21.4 21.4 21.2 99% Thailand Military dictatorship 1950 1983 0 13.9 90.8 13.9 15% Zaire/Congo Mobutu 1965 1997 0.3 12.8 12.8 12.5 98% Notes: Debt at takeover by dictatorship; earliest data published by the World Bank is for 1970. Debt at end of dictatorship (or 1996, most recent date for World Bank data). Criticism Two criticisms from economists have been that financial aid is always bound to so-called "Conditionalities", including Structural Adjustment Programs. It is claimed that conditionalities (economic performance targets established as a precondition for IMF loans) retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF, while Structural Adjustment Programs lead to an increase in poverty in recipient countries. Hertz, Noreena. The Debt Threat. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2004. One of the main SAP conditions placed on troubled countries is that the governments sell up as much of their national assets as they can, normally to western corporations at heavily discounted prices. That said, the IMF sometimes advocates "austerity programmes," increasing taxes even when the economy is weak, in order to generate government revenue and balance budget deficits, which is Keynesian policy. Countries are often advised to lower their corporate tax rate. These policies were criticised by Joseph E. Stiglitz, former chief economist and Senior Vice President at the World Bank, in his book Globalization and Its Discontents. Stiglitz, Joseph. Globalization and its Discontents. New York: WW Norton & Company, 2002. He argued that by converting to a more Monetarist approach, the fund no longer had a valid purpose, as it was designed to provide funds for countries to carry out Keynesian reflations, and that the IMF "was not participating in a conspiracy, but it was reflecting the interests and ideology of the Western financial community." Globalization: Stiglitz's Case . Argentina, which had been considered by the IMF to be a model country in its compliance to policy proposals by the Bretton Woods institutions, experienced a catastrophic economic crisis in 2001, which some believe to have been caused by IMF-induced budget restrictions — which undercut the government's ability to sustain national infrastructure even in crucial areas such as health, education, and security — and privatization of strategically vital national resources. Economic debacle in Argentina: The IMF strikes again Others attribute the crisis to Argentina's misdesigned fiscal federalism, which caused subnational spending to increase rapidly. Stephen Webb, "Argentina: Hardening the Provincial Budget Constraint," in Rodden, Eskeland, and Litvack (eds.), Fiscal Decentralization and the Challenge of Hard Budget Constraints (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2003). The crisis added to widespread hatred of this institution in Argentina and other South American countries, with many blaming the IMF for the region's economic problems. How the IMF Props Up the Bankrupt Dollar System, by F. William Engdahl, US/Germany The current — as of early 2006 — trend towards moderate left-wing governments in the region and a growing concern with the development of a regional economic policy largely independent of big business pressures has been ascribed to this crisis. Another example of where IMF Structural Adjustment Programmes aggravated the problem was in Kenya. Before the IMF got involved in the country, the Kenyan central bank oversaw all currency movements in and out of the country. The IMF mandated that the Kenyan central bank had to allow easier currency movement. However, the adjustment resulted in very little foreign investment, but allowed Kamlesh Manusuklal Damji Pattni, with the help of corrupt government officials, to siphon off billions of Kenyan shillings in what came to be known as the Goldenberg scandal, leaving the country worse off than it was before the IMF reforms were implemented. In an interview, the former Romanian Prime Minister Tăriceanu stated that "Since 2005, IMF is constantly making mistakes when it appreciates the country's economic performances". Tăriceanu: FMI a făcut constant greşeli de apreciere a economiei româneşti - Mediafax Overall the IMF success record is perceived as limited. While it was created to help stabilize the global economy, since 1980 critics claim over 100 countries (or reputedly most of the Fund's membership) have experienced a banking collapse that they claim have reduced GDP by four percent or more, far more than at any time in Post-Depression history. The considerable delay in the IMF's response to any crisis, and the fact that it tends to only respond to them or even create them Budhoo, Davidson. Enough is Enough: Dear Mr. Camdessus... Open Letter to the Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund. New York: New Horizons Press, 1990. rather than prevent them, has led many economists to argue for reform. In 2006, an IMF reform agenda called the Medium Term Strategy was widely endorsed by the institution's member countries. The agenda includes changes in IMF governance to enhance the role of developing countries in the institution's decision-making process and steps to deepen the effectiveness of its core mandate, which is known as economic surveillance or helping member countries adopt macroeconomic policies that will sustain global growth and reduce poverty. On June 15, 2007, the Executive Board of the IMF adopted the 2007 Decision on Bilateral Surveillance, a landmark measure that replaced a 30-year-old decision of the Fund's member countries on how the IMF should analyse economic outcomes at the country level. Impact on Public Health In 2008, a study by analysts from Cambridge and Yale universities published on the open-access Public Library of Science concluded that strict conditions on the international loans by the IMF resulted in thousands of deaths in Eastern Europe by tuberculosis as public health care had to be weakened. In the 21 countries which the IMF had given loans, tuberculosis deaths rose by 16.6 %. International Monetary Fund Programs and Tuberculosis Outcomes in Post-Communist Countries PLoS Medicine. The study has not been independently verified, nor have the authors published parts of their supporting data. Retrieved 29-7-2008. Criticism from free-market advocates Typically the IMF and its supporters advocate a monetarist approach. As such, adherents of supply-side economics generally find themselves in open disagreement with the IMF. The IMF frequently advocates currency devaluation, criticized by proponents of supply-side economics as inflationary. Secondly they link higher taxes under "austerity programmes" with economic contraction. Currency devaluation is recommended by the IMF to the governments of poor nations with struggling economies. Some economists claim these IMF policies are destructive to economic prosperity. Complaints are also directed toward International Monetary Fund gold reserve being undervalued. At its inception in 1945, the IMF pegged gold at US$35 per Troy ounce of gold. In 1973 the Nixon administration lifted the fixed asset value of gold in favor of a world market price. Hence the fixed exchange rates of currencies tied to gold were switched to a floating rate, also based on market price and exchange. This largely came about because Petrodollars outside the United States were more than could be backed by the gold at Fort Knox under the fixed exchange rate system. The fixed rate system only served to limit the amount of assistance the organisation could use to help debt-ridden countries. Current IMF rules prohibit members from linking their currencies to gold. Attempts to repair image Research by the Pew Research Center shows that more than 60 percent of Asians and 70 percent of Africans feel that the IMF and the World Bank have a positive effect on their country. GLOBAL ATTITUDES : 44-NATION MAJOR SURVEY (2002), The Pew Research Center for the People & the Press However it is pertinent to note that the survey aggregated international organisations including the World Trade Organisation. Also, a similar percentage of people in the Western world believed that these international organisations had a positive effect on their countries. In 2005, the IMF was the first multilateral financial institution to implement a sweeping debt-relief program for the world's poorest countries known as the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative. By year-end 2006, 23 countries mostly in sub-Saharan Africa and Central America had received total relief of debts owed to the IMF. Past managing directors Historically the IMF's managing director has been European and the president of the World Bank has been from the United States. However, this standard is increasingly being questioned and competition for these two posts may soon open up to include other qualified candidates from any part of the world. Executive Directors, who confirm the managing director, are voted in by Finance Ministers from countries they represent. The First Deputy Managing Director of the IMF, the second-in-command, has traditionally been (and is today) an American. The IMF is for the most part controlled by the major Western Powers, with voting rights on the Executive board based on a quota derived from the relative size of a country in the global economy. Critics claim that the board rarely votes and passes issues contradicting the will of the US or Europeans, which combined represent the largest bloc of shareholders in the Fund. On the other hand, Executive Directors that represent emerging and developing countries have many times strongly defended the group of nations in their constituency. Alexandre Kafka, who represented several Latin American countries for 32 years as Executive Director (including 21 as the dean of the Board), is a prime example. Mohamed Finaish from Libya, the Executive Director representing the majority of the Arab World and Pakistan, was a tireless defender of the developing nations' rights at the IMF until the 1992 elections. Rodrigo Rato became the ninth Managing Director of the IMF on June 7, 2004 and resigned his post at the end of October 2007. EU ministers agreed on the candidacy of Dominique Strauss-Kahn as managing director of the IMF at the Economic and Financial Affairs Council meeting in Brussels on July 10, 2007. On September 28, 2007, the International Monetary Fund's 24 executive directors elected Mr. Strauss-Kahn as new managing director, with broad support including from the United States and the 27-nation European Union. Strauss-Kahn succeeded Spain's Rodrigo de Rato, who retired on October 31, 2007. Yahoo.com, IMF to choose new director The only other nominee was Josef Tosovsky, a late candidate proposed by Russia. Strauss-Kahn said: "I am determined to pursue without delay the reforms needed for the IMF to make financial stability serve the international community, while fostering growth and employment." BBC NEWS, Frenchman is named new IMF chief Dates Name CountryMay 6, 1946 – May 5, 1951Camille GuttBelgiumAugust 3, 1951 – October 3, 1956Ivar RoothSwedenNovember 21, 1956 – May 5, 1963Per JacobssonSwedenSeptember 1, 1963 – August 31, 1973Pierre-Paul SchweitzerFranceSeptember 1, 1973 – June 16, 1978Johannes WitteveenNetherlandsJune 17, 1978 – January 15, 1987Jacques de LarosièreFranceJanuary 16, 1987 – February 14, 2000Michel CamdessusFranceMay 1, 2000 – March 4, 2004Horst KöhlerGermanyJune 7, 2004 – October 31, 2007Rodrigo RatoSpainNovember 1, 2007 – presentDominique Strauss-KahnFrance Media representation of the IMFLife and Debt, a documentary film, deals with the IMF's policies' influence on Jamaica and its economy from a critical point of view. In 1978, one year after Jamaica first entered a borrowing relationship with the IMF, the Jamaican dollar was still worth more on the open exchange than the US dollar; by 1995, when Jamaica terminated that relationship, the Jamaican dollar had eroded to less than 2 cents US. Such observations lead to skepticism that IMF involvement is not necessarily helpful to a third world economy. The Debt of Dictators explores the lending of billions of dollars by the IMF, World Bank multinational banks and other international financial institutions to brutal dictators throughout the world. (see IMF/World Bank support of military dictatorships)Radiohead mentions the IMF in their song "Electioneering" on their 1997 release, OK Computer. The lyrics state, "It's just business/Cattle prods and the IMF/I trust I can rely on your vote". Bruce Cockburn mentions the IMF in his song "Call It Democracy". The lyrics state "IMF dirty MF/takes away everything it can get/always making certain that there's one thing left/keep them on the hook with insupportable debt". See also Third world debt Economics Special Drawing Rights Development aid Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Globalization and Its Discontents Globalization and Health Bancor Bank for International Settlements World Bank Inter-American Development Bank Bretton Woods system Global Governance Watch References Further references The Best Democracy Money Can Buy by Greg Palast (2002) The IMF and The World Bank: How do they differ? by David D. Driscoll Rivalries between IMF and IBRD, "Sister-talk", The Economist (2007-03-01) George, S. (1988). A Fate Worse Than Debt. London: Penguin Books. Hancock, G. (1991). Lords of Poverty: The Free-Wheeling Lifestyles, Power, Prestige and Corruption of the Multi-billion Dollar Aid Business. London: Mandarin. Markwell, Donald (2006), John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace, Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. Rapkin, David P. and Jonathan R. Strand (2005) “Developing Country Representation and Governance of the International Monetary Fund,” World Development 33, 12: 1993-2011. Strand, Jonathan R and David P. Rapkin (2005) “Voting Power Implications of a Double Majority Voting Procedure in the IMF’s Executive Board,” in Reforming the Governance of the IMF and World Bank, Ariel Buira, ed, London: Anthem Press. Williamson, John. (August 1982). The Lending Policies of the International Monetary Fund, Policy Analyses in International Economics 1, Washington D.C., Institute for International Economics. ISBN 0-88132-000-5 External links IMF and International Economic Policy U.S. House of Representatives International Monetary Fund website Finance & Development - A quarterly magazine of the IMF Annual Reports of the Executive Board World Economic Outlook Reports IMF Publications IMF Fiscal Affairs Department (FAD) August Review - Global Banking: The IMF Kenneth Rogoff - The sisters at 60 How the IMF Props Up the Dollar System IMF’s Origins as a Blueprint for Its Future, Anna J. Schwartz, National Bureau of Economic Research Center for International Finance & Development by the University of Iowa research center Political Forecasting? The IMF’s Flawed Growth Projections for Argentina and Venezuela by David Rosnick and Mark Weisbrot What's the difference between the IMF and the World Bank? by economist Arthur MacEwan, in Dollars & Sense magazine "Monetary Freedom Act" HR 391, by Congressman Ron Paul, 1981Bretton Woods Project Critical voices on the World Bank and IMF Eurodad report: Critical conditions: The IMF maintains its grip on low-income governments The IMF Rules the World by Michael Hudson, Counterpunch'', April 6 2009 be-x-old:Міжнародны валютны фонд | International_Monetary_Fund |@lemmatized international:32 monetary:18 fund:23 imf:113 organization:4 oversee:1 global:13 financial:20 system:18 follow:1 macroeconomic:2 policy:13 member:31 country:66 particular:2 impact:2 exchange:8 rate:9 balance:4 payment:6 form:3 stabilize:3 facilitate:2 development:9 also:8 offer:1 technical:1 assistance:5 make:4 lender:2 last:1 resort:1 headquarters:2 locate:1 washington:5 c:3 usa:1 purpose:4 create:4 july:3 originally:1 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6,295 | Fighter_aircraft | An A-10 Thunderbolt II, F-86 Sabre, P-38 Lightning and P-51 Mustang fly in formation during an air show at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. The formation displays two generations of U.S. Air Force fighter aircraft, and an attack aircraft (the A-10). A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat with other aircraft, as opposed to a bomber, which is designed primarily to attack ground targets by dropping bombs. Fighters are small, fast, and maneuverable. Many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are dual-roled as fighter-bombers; the term "fighter" is also sometimes used colloquially for dedicated ground-attack aircraft. Fighter aircraft are the primary means by which armed forces gain air superiority over their opponents in battle. Since at least World War II, achieving and maintaining air superiority has been a key component of victory in warfare, particularly conventional warfare between regular armies (as opposed to guerrilla warfare). The purchase, training and maintenance of a fighter fleet represent a very substantial proportion of defense budgets for modern militaries. Terminology The word "fighter" did not become the official English term for such aircraft until after World War I. In Great Britain's Royal Flying Corps – later the Royal Air Force – these aircraft continued to be called "scouts" into the early 1920s. The U.S. Army called their fighters "pursuit" aircraft (reflected by their designation in the "P" series) from 1916 until the late 1940s. In the French and German languages the term used (and still in use) literally means "hunter". This has been followed in most other languages, an exception being Russian, in which the fighter is called "истребитель" (pronounced "istrebitel"), meaning "exterminator". Although the term "fighter" technically refers to aircraft designed to shoot down other aircraft, such designs are often also useful as multirole fighter-bombers and sometimes lighter, fighter-sized tactical ground-attack aircraft. For example, in WWII the US Navy would later favor fighters over dedicated dive bombers, and the P-47 Thunderbolt would be favored for ground attack. The controversial F-111 would be employed largely only as a strike bomber as the fighter variant was abandoned. Bombers generally refer to long-range strategic or theater bombing roles. This blurring follows the use of fighters from their earliest days for "attack" or "strike" operations against enemy troops, field positions, vehicles, and facilities by means of strafing or dropping of bombs or incendiaries. Some of the most expensive fighters such as the F-14 Tomcat and F-15 Eagle were employed as all-weather interceptors as well as air superiority combat aircraft, only developing air-to-ground roles late in their careers. Multirole fighter-bombers such as the F/A-18 Hornet are often less expensive and tasked (and in this case, given an F/A designation) with ground attack as part of a "high-low mix", or in the case of the Super Hornet, replacing a range of specialized aircraft types. Introduction Fighters were developed in response to the fledgling use of aircraft and dirigibles in World War I for reconnaissance and ground-attack roles. Early fighters were very small and lightly armed by later standards, and were mostly biplanes. As aerial warfare became increasingly important, so did control of the airspace. By World War II, fighters were predominantly all-metal monoplanes with wing-mounted batteries of cannons or machine guns. By the end of the war, turbojet engines were already beginning to replace piston engines as the means of propulsion, and increasingly sophisticated refinements to armament were already appearing. Modern jet fighters are predominantly powered by one or two turbofan engines, and are equipped with a radar as the primary method of target acquisition. Armament consists primarily of air-to-air missiles (from as few as two on some lightweight day fighters to as many as eight or twelve on air superiority fighters like the Sukhoi Su-37 (NATO reporting name 'Flanker') or Boeing F-15 Eagle), with a cannon as backup armament (typically between 20 and 30 mm in caliber); however, they can also often employ air-to-surface missiles, as well as guided and unguided bombs. Piston engine fighters World War I Vickers F.B.5 Gunbus The word "fighter" was first used to describe a two-seater aircraft with sufficient lift to carry a machine gun and its operator as well as the pilot. The first such "fighters" belonged to the "gunbus" series of experimental gun carriers of the British Vickers company which culminated in the Vickers F.B.5 Gunbus of 1914. The main drawback of this type of aircraft was its lack of speed. It was quickly realized that an aircraft intended to destroy its kind in the air needed at least to be fast enough to catch its quarry. Fortunately another type of military aircraft already existed, which was to form the basis for an effective "fighter" in the modern sense of the word. It was based on the small fast aircraft developed before the war for such air races as the Gordon Bennett Cup and Schneider Trophy. The military scout airplane was not expected to be able to carry serious armament, but rather to rely on its speed to be able to reach the location it was required to "scout" or reconnoiter and then return quickly to report – while at the same time making itself a difficult target for anti-aircraft artillery or enemy gun-carrying aircraft. British "scout" aircraft in this sense included the Sopwith Tabloid and Bristol Scout; French equivalents included the light, fast Morane-Saulnier N. In practice, soon after the actual commencement of the war, the pilots of small scout aircraft began to arm themselves with pistols, carbines, grenades, and an assortment of improvized weapons with which to attack enemy aircraft. It was inevitable that sooner or later means of effectively arming "scouts" would be devised. One method was to build a "pusher" scout such as the Airco DH.2, with the propeller mounted behind the pilot. The main drawback was that the high drag of a pusher type's tail structure meant that it was bound to be slower than an otherwise similar "tractor" aircraft. The other approach was to mount the machine gun armament on a tractor-type airplane in a manner that enabled the gun to fire outside the arc of the propeller. Airco DH.2 "pusher" scout Only two configuration options were practical initially for tractor aircraft. One involved having a second crew member added behind the pilot to aim and fire a swivel-mounted machine gun at enemy airplanes. However, this limited the area of coverage chiefly to the rear hemisphere, and the inability to effectively coordinate the pilot's maneuvering with the gunner's aiming, which reduced the accuracy and efficacy of the gunnery. This option was chiefly employed as a defensive measure on two seater reconnaissance aircraft from 1915 on. The alternative configuration mounted a gun on the upper wing to fire over the propeller arc. While more effective for offensive combat, since the pilot could move and aim the guns as a unit, this placement made determining the proper aim point more difficult. Furthermore, this location made it nearly impossible for a pilot to maneuver his aircraft and have access to the gun's breech – a very important consideration, given the tendency of early machine guns to jam – hence this was a stopgap solution. Nevertheless, a machine gun firing over the propeller arc did have some advantages, and was to remain in service from 1915 (Nieuport 11) until 1918 (Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5). The British Foster mounting was specifically designed for this kind of application. A captured Morane-Saulnier Type L with German insignia The need to arm a tractor scout with a forward-firing gun whose bullets passed through the propeller arc was evident even before the outbreak of war, and its approach motivated inventors in both France and Germany to devise a practical synchronization gear that could time the firing of the individual rounds to when the propeller was not in the way. Franz Schneider, a Swiss engineer, had patented such a device in Germany in 1913, but his original work was not followed up. French aircraft designer Raymond Saulnier patented a practical device in April 1914, but trials were unsuccessful because of the propensity of the machine gun employed to hang fire due to unreliable ammunition. In December 1914, French aviator Roland Garros asked Saulnier to install his synchronization gear on Garros' Morane-Saulnier Type L. Unfortunately the gas-operated Hotchkiss machine gun had a firing cycle which caused the bullet to leave the weapon too late to effectively and consistently synchronize the gunfire with a spinning propeller. Because of this, the propeller blades were armored, and Garros' mechanic, Jules Hue, fitted metal wedges to the blades to protect the pilot from ricochets. Garros' modified monoplane was first flown in March 1915 and he began combat operations soon thereafter. Firing 8 mm (.323 in) solid copper bullets, Garros scored three victories in three weeks before he was himself shot down on 18 April and his airplane – along with its synchronization gear and propeller – was captured by the Germans. However, the synchronization gear (called the Zentralsteuerung in German) devised by the engineers of Anthony Fokker's firm was the first gear to attract official sponsorship, and this would make the pioneering Fokker Eindecker monoplane a feared name over the Western Front, despite its being an adaptation of an obsolete pre-war French Morane-Saulnier racing airplane, with a mediocre performance and poor flight characteristics. The first victory for the Eindecker came on 1 July 1915, when Leutnant Kurt Wintgens, flying with the Fliegerabteilung 6 unit on the Western Front, forced down a Morane-Saulnier Type L two-seat "parasol" monoplane of Luneville. Wintgens' aircraft, one of the five Fokker M.5K/MG production prototype examples of the Eindecker, was armed with a synchronized, air-cooled aviation version of the Parabellum MG14 machine gun, which did not require armored propellers. In some respects, this was the first "true" fighter victory of military aviation history. Captured Fokker E.III Eindecker 210/16 in flight at Upavon, Wiltshire in 1916 The success of the Eindecker kicked off a competitive cycle of improvement among the combatants, building ever more capable single-seat fighters. The Albatros D.I of late 1916, designed by Robert Thelen, set the classic pattern followed by almost all such aircraft for about twenty years. Like the D.I, they were biplanes (only very occasionally occasionally monoplanes or triplanes). The strong box structure of the biplane wing allowed for a rigid wing that afforded accurate lateral control, which was essential for fighter-type maneuvers. They had a single crew member, who flew the aircraft and also operated its armament. They were armed with two Maxim-type machine guns – which had proven much easier to synchronize than other types – firing through the propeller arc. The gun breeches were typically right in front of the pilot's face. This had obvious implications in case of accidents, but enabled jams (to which Maxim-type machine guns always remained liable) to be cleared in flight and made aiming much easier. The use of metal in fighter aircraft was pioneered in World War I by Germany, as Anthony Fokker used chrome-molybdenum steel tubing (a close chemical cousin to stainless steel) for the fuselage structure of all his fighter designs, and the innovative German engineer Hugo Junkers developed two all-metal, single-seat fighter monoplane designs with cantilever wings: the strictly experimental Junkers J 2 private-venture aircraft, made with steel, and some forty examples of the Junkers D.I, made with corrugated duralumin, all based on his pioneering Junkers J 1 all-metal airframe technology demonstration aircraft of late 1915. As collective combat experience grew, the more successful pilots such as Oswald Boelcke, Max Immelmann, and Edward Mannock developed innovative tactical formations and maneuvers to enhance their air units' combat effectiveness and accelerate the learning – and increase the expected lifespan – of newer pilots reaching the front lines. Allied and – until 1918 – German pilots of World War I were not equipped with parachutes, so most cases of an aircraft catching fire, or structurally breaking up in flight were fatal. Parachutes were well-developed by 1918, and were adopted by the German flying services during the course of that year (the famous "Red Baron" was wearing one when he was killed), but the allied command continued to oppose their use, on various grounds. Lee, Arthur Gould. No Parachute. London: Jarrolds, 1968. ISBN 0090865901. Replica of the Fokker Dr.I, the "Red Baron's" triplane, at the ILA 2006 air show A Sopwith Camel 2F1 biplane at the Imperial War Museum in London Notable aircraft of the WWI period Notable fighter Introduced Country Vickers F.B.5 1915 Fokker Eindecker 1915 Nieuport 11 1915 Airco DH-2 1915 Albatros D.III 1916 Nieuport 17 1916 Fokker Dr.I 1917 SPAD S.XIII 1917 Nieuport 28 1917 Sopwith Camel 1917 Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5 1917 Fokker D.VII 1918 Sopwith Snipe 1918 Interwar period (1919-1938) Fighter development slowed between the wars, with the most significant change coming late in the period, when the classic WWI type machines started to give way to metal monocoque or semi-monocoque monoplanes, with cantilever wing structures. Given limited defense budgets, air forces tended to be conservative in their aircraft purchases, and biplanes remained popular with pilots because of their agility. Designs such as the Gloster Gladiator, Fiat CR.42, and Polikarpov I-15 were common even in the late 1930s, and many were still in service as late as 1942. Up until the mid-1930s, the vast majority of fighter aircraft remained fabric-covered biplanes. An early monoplane fighter: the Boeing P-26 Peashooter which first flew in 1932 Fighter armament eventually began to be mounted inside the wings, outside the arc of the propeller, though most designs retained two synchronized machine-guns above the engine (which were considered more accurate). Rifle-caliber guns were the norm, with .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns and 20 mm cannons deemed "overkill." Considering that many aircraft were constructed similarly to WWI designs (albeit with aluminum frames), it was not considered unreasonable to use WWI-style armament to counter them. There was insufficient aerial combat during most of the period to disprove this notion. The rotary engine, popular during WWI, quickly disappeared, replaced chiefly by the stationary radial engine. Aircraft engines increased in power several-fold over the period, going from a typical in the 1918 Fokker D.VII to in the 1938 Curtiss P-36. The debate between the sleek in-line engines versus the more reliable radial models continued, with naval air forces preferring the radial engines, and land-based forces often choosing in-line units. Radial designs did not require a separate (and vulnerable) cooling system, but had increased drag. In-line engines often had a better power-to-weight ratio, but there were radial engines that kept working even after having suffered significant battle damage. Messerschmitt Bf 110 Zerstörer "heavy fighter"Some air forces experimented with "heavy fighters" (called "destroyers" by the Germans). These were larger, usually two-engined aircraft, sometimes adaptations of light or medium bomber types. Such designs typically had greater internal fuel capacity (thus longer range) and heavier armament than their single-engine counterparts. In combat, they proved ungainly and vulnerable to more nimble single-engine fighters. The primary driver of fighter innovation, right up to the period of rapid rearmament in the late thirties, were not military budgets, but civilian aircraft races. Aircraft designed for these races pioneered innovations like streamlining and more powerful engines that would find their way into the fighters of World War II. At the very end of the inter-war period came the Spanish Civil War. This was just the opportunity the German Luftwaffe, Italian Regia Aeronautica, and the Soviet Union's Red Air Force needed to test their latest aircraft designs. Each party sent several aircraft to back their side in the conflict. In the dogfights over Spain, the latest Messerschmitt fighters (Bf 109) did well, as did the Soviet Polikarpov I-16. The German design, however, had considerable room for development and the lessons learned in Spain led to greatly improved models in World War II. The Russians, whose side lost in the conflict, nonetheless determined that their planes were sufficient for their immediate needs. I-16s were later slaughtered en masse by these improved German models in World War II, although they remained the most common Soviet front-line fighter until well into 1942. For their part, the Italians were satisfied with the performance of their Fiat CR.42 biplanes, and being short on funds, continued with this design even though it was obsolescent. The Spanish Civil War also provided an opportunity for updating fighter tactics. One of the innovations to result from the aerial warfare experience this conflict provided was the development of the "finger-four" formation by the German pilot Werner Mölders. Each fighter squadron (German: Staffel) was divided into several flights (Schwärme) of four aircraft. Each Schwarm was divided into two Rotten which was a pair of aircraft. Each Rotte was composed of a leader and a wingman. This flexible formation allowed the pilots to maintain greater situational awareness, and the two Rotten could split up at any time and attack on their own. The finger-four would become widely adopted as the fundamental tactical formation over the course of World War II. Notable aircraft of the interwar period Biplanes - Avia B-534 - Fiat CR.42 - Kawasaki Ki-10 'Perry' - Svenska Aero Jaktfalken - Bristol Bulldog - Gloster Gladiator - Hawker Fury - Boeing F4B-4 Monoplanes - Mitsubishi A5M 'Claude' - Fokker D.XXI - PZL P.11 - Polikarpov I-16 - Hawker Hurricane - Boeing P-26 Peashooter - F2A Brewster Buffalo Yugoslavia - Ikarus IK-2 World War II The Mitsubishi A6M Zero typified the highly manoeuvrable, but lightly armored, fighter design Aerial combat formed an important part of World War II military doctrine. The ability of aircraft to locate, harass, and interdict ground forces was an instrumental part of the German combined-arms doctrine, and their inability to achieve air superiority over Britain made a German invasion unfeasible. German Field Marshal Erwin Rommel noted the effect of airpower: "Anyone who has to fight, even with the most modern weapons, against an enemy in complete command of the air, fights like a savage against modern European troops, under the same handicaps and with the same chances of success." During the 1930s, two different streams of thought about air-to-air combat began to emerge, resulting in two different approaches to monoplane fighter development. In Japan and Italy especially, there continued to be a strong belief that lightly armed, highly maneuverable single-seat fighters would still play a primary role in air-to-air combat. Aircraft such as the Nakajima Ki-27, Nakajima Ki-43 and the Mitsubishi A6M Zero in Japan, and the Fiat G.50 and Macchi C.200 in Italy epitomized a generation of monoplanes designed to this concept. This Supermarine Spitfire XVI was typical of World War II fighters optimized for high level speeds and good climb rates The other stream of thought, which emerged primarily in Britain, Germany, the Soviet Union, and the United States was the belief that the high speeds of modern combat aircraft and the g-forces imposed by aerial combat meant that dogfighting in the classic WWI sense would be impossible. Fighters such as the Messerschmitt Bf 109, the Supermarine Spitfire, the Yakovlev Yak-1 and the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk were all designed for high level speeds and a good rate of climb. Good maneuverability was desirable, but it was not the primary objective. The 1939 Soviet-Japanese Battle of Khalkhyn Gol and the initial German invasion of Poland that same year were too brief to provide much feedback to the participants for further evolution of their respective fighter doctrines. During the Winter War, the greatly outnumbered Finnish Air Force, which had adopted the German finger-four formation, bloodied the noses of Russia's Red Air Force, which relied on the less effective tactic of a three-aircraft delta formation. European theater (Western Front) The Battle of France, however, gave the Germans ample opportunity to prove they had mastered the lessons learned from their experiences in the Spanish Civil War. The Luftwaffe, with more combat-experience pilots and the battle-tested Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter operating in the flexible finger-four formation, proved superior to its British and French contemporaries relying on the close, three-fighter "vic" (or "V") and other formations, despite their flying fighters with comparable maneuver performance. The Battle of Britain was the first major military campaign to be fought entirely by air forces, and it offered further lessons for both sides. Foremost was the value of radar for detecting and tracking enemy aircraft formations, which allowed quick concentration of fighters to intercept them farther from their targets. As a defensive measure, this ground-controlled interception (GCI) approach allowed the Royal Air Force (RAF) to carefully marshal its limited fighter force for maximum effectiveness. At times, the RAF's Fighter Command achieved interception rates greater than 80%. In the summer of 1940, then Flight Lieutenant Adolph Malan introduced a variation of the German formation that he called the "fours in line astern", which spread into more general use throughout Fighter Command. In 1941, Squadron Leader Douglas Bader adopted the "finger-four" formation itself, giving it its English-language name. The Battle of Britain also revealed inadequacies of extant tactical fighters when used for long-range strategic attacks. The twin-engined heavy fighter concept was revealed as a failed concept as the Luftwaffe's heavily armed but poorly maneuverable Messerschmitt Bf 110s proved highly vulnerable to nimble Hurricanes and Spitfires; the Bf 110s were subsequently relegated to night fighter and fighter-bomber roles for which they proved better-suited. Furthermore, the Luftwaffe's Bf 109s, operating near the limits of their range, lacked endurance for prolonged dogfighting over Britain. When bomber losses induced Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring to assign most fighters to close-in escort duties, forcing them to fly and maneuver at reduced speeds, German fighter effectiveness fell and losses rose. Long-range escort fighters like this P-51D Mustang provided protection for Allied strategic bombers The Allies themselves, however, would not learn this latter lesson until they sustained heavy bomber losses of their own during daylight raids against Germany. Despite the early assertions of strategic bombing advocates that "the bomber will always get through", even heavily armed U.S. Army Air Force (USAAF) bombers like the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator suffered such high losses to German fighters (such as the Focke-Wulf Fw 190 "bomber destroyer") and anti-aircraft artillery (AAA) that – following the second raid on Schweinfurt in August 1943 – the U.S. Eighth Air Force was forced to suspend unescorted bombing missions into Germany until longer-range fighters became available for escort. These would appear in the form of Lockheed P-38 Lightnings, Republic P-47 Thunderbolts and North American P-51 Mustangs. The use of drop tanks also became common, which further made the heavy twin-engine fighter designs redundant, as single-engine fighters could now cover a similar distance. Extra fuel was carried in lightweight aluminum tanks below the aircraft, and the tanks were discarded when empty. Such innovations allowed American fighters to range over Germany and Japan by 1944. As the war progressed, the growing numbers of these advanced, long-range fighters flown by pilots with increasing experience eventually overwhelmed their German opposition, despite the Luftwaffe's introduction of technological innovations like jet- and rocket-powered interceptors. The steady attrition of experienced pilots forced the Germans to more frequently dip into their training pool to make up numbers when casualties surged. While new Allied airmen in Europe were well-trained, new Luftwaffe pilots were seldom able to get effective training – particularly by the summer of 1944, when Allied fighters often loitered around their airfields. Luftwaffe training flights were additionally hampered by the increasingly acute fuel shortages that began in April 1944. European theater (Eastern Front) Soviet Air Force MiG-3s in winter camouflage. The slogan on the nearest aircraft reads "Za Rodinu" – "For the Motherland". On the Eastern Front, the strategic surprise of Operation Barbarossa demonstrated that Soviet air defense preparations were woefully inadequate, and the Great Purge rendered any lessons learned by the Red Air Force command from previous experience in Spain and Finland virtually useless. During the first few months of the invasion, Axis air forces were able to destroy large numbers of Red Air Force aircraft on the ground and in one-sided dogfights. However, by the winter of 1941–1942, the Red Air Force was able to put together a cohesive air defense of Moscow, successfully interdict attacks on Leningrad, and begin production of new aircraft types in the relocated semi-built factories in the Urals, Siberia, Central Asia and the Caucasus. These facilities produced more advanced monoplane fighters, such as the Yak-1, Yak-3, LaGG-3, and MiG-3, to wrest air superiority from the Luftwaffe. However, Soviet aircrew training was hasty in comparison to that provided to the Luftwaffe, so Soviet pilot losses continued to be disproportionate until a growing number of survivors were matched to more effective machines. Beginning in 1942, significant numbers of British, and later U.S., fighter aircraft were also supplied to aid the Soviet war effort, with the Bell P-39 Airacobra proving particularly effective in the lower-altitude combat typical of the Eastern Front. Also from that time, the Eastern Front became the largest arena of fighter aircraft use in the world; fighters were used in all of the roles typical of the period, including close air support, interdiction, escort and interception roles. Some aircraft were armed with weapons as large as 45 mm cannon (particularly for attacking enemy armored vehicles), and the Germans began installing additional smaller cannons in under-wing pods to assist with ground-attack missions. Pacific theatre Grumman F4F-3 Wildcat on patrol in early 1942 In the Pacific Theater, the experienced Japanese used their latest Mitsubishi A6M "Zero" to clear the skies of all opposition. Allied air forces – often flying obsolete aircraft, as the Japanese were not deemed as dangerous as the Germans – were caught off-guard and driven back until the Japanese became overextended. While the Japanese entered the war with a cadre of superbly trained airmen, they were never able to adequately replace their losses with pilots of the same quality, while the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan and U.S. schools produced thousands of competent airmen. Japanese fighter planes were also optimized for agility and range, and in time Allied airmen developed tactics that made better use of the superior armament and protection in their Grumman F4F Wildcats and Curtiss P-40s. From mid-1942, newer Allied fighter models were faster and better-armed than the Japanese fighters, and improved tactics such as the Thach weave helped counter the more agile Zeros and Nakajima Ki-43 'Oscars'. Japanese industry was not up to the task of mass-producing fighter designs equal to the latest Western models, and Japanese fighters had been largely driven from the skies by mid-1944. Technological innovations Piston-engine power increased considerably during the war. The Curtiss P-36 Hawk had a 900 hp (670 kW) radial engine but was soon redesigned as the P-40 Warhawk with a 1100 hp (820 kW) in-line engine. By 1943, the latest P-40N had a 1300 hp (970 kW) Allison engine. At war's end, the German Focke-Wulf Ta 152 interceptor could achieve 2050 hp (1530 kW) with an MW-50 (methanol-water injection) supercharger and the American P-51H Mustang fitted with the Packard V-1650-9 could achieve 2218 hp (1650 kW) under war emergency power. The Spitfire Mk I of 1939 was powered by a 1030 hp (770 kW) Merlin II; its 1945 successor, the Spitfire F.Mk 21, was equipped with the 2035 hp (1520 kW) Griffon 61. Likewise, the radial engines favored for many fighters also grew from to as much as 2090 hp (770 kW) during the same timeframe. The first turbojet-powered fighter designs became operational in 1944, and clearly outperformed their piston-engined counterparts. New designs such as the Messerschmitt Me 262 and Gloster Meteor demonstrated the effectiveness of the new propulsion system. (Rocket-powered interceptors – most notable the Messerschmitt Me 163 – appeared at the same time, but proved less effective.) Many of these fighters could do over 660 km/h in level flight, and were fast enough in a dive that they started encountering the transonic buffeting experienced near the speed of sound; such turbulence occasionally resulted in a jet breaking up in flight due to the heavy load placed on an aircraft near the so-called "sound barrier". Dive brakes were added to jet fighters late in World War II to minimize these problems and restore control to pilots. Focke-Wulf Fw 190D-9 fighter-bomber More powerful armament became a priority early in the war, once it became apparent that newer stressed-skin monoplane fighters could not be easily shot down with rifle-caliber machine guns. The Germans' experiences in the Spanish Civil War led them to put 20 mm cannons on their fighters. The British soon followed suit, putting cannons in the wings of their Hurricanes and Spitfires. The Americans, lacking a native cannon design, instead chose to place multiple .50 caliber (12.7 mm) machine guns on their fighters. Armaments continued to increase over the course of the war, with the German Me 262 jet having four 30 mm cannons in the nose. Cannons fired explosive shells, and could blast a hole in an enemy aircraft rather than relying on kinetic energy from a solid bullet striking a critical subsystem (fuel line, hydraulics, control cable, pilot, etc.). A debate existed over the merits of high rate-of-fire machine guns versus slower-firing, but more devastating, cannon. German Bf 110G-4 night fighter at the RAF Museum in London With the increasing need for close air support on the battlefield, fighters were increasingly fitted with bomb racks and used as fighter-bombers. Some designs, such as the German Fw 190, proved extremely capable in this role – though the designer Kurt Tank had designed it as a pure interceptor. While carrying air-to-surface ordnance such as bombs or rockets beneath the aircraft's wing, its maneuverability is decreased because of lessened lift and increased drag, but once the ordnance is delivered (or jettisoned), the aircraft is again a fully capable fighter aircraft. By their flexible nature, fighter-bombers offer the command staff the freedom to assign a particular air group to air superiority or ground-attack missions, as need requires. Rapid technology advances in radar, which had been invented shortly prior to World War II, would permit their being fitted to some fighters, such as the Messerschmitt Bf 110, Bristol Beaufighter, de Havilland Mosquito, Grumman F6F Hellcat and Northrop P-61 Black Widow, to enable them to locate targets at night. The Germans developed several night-fighter types as they were under constant night bombardment by RAF Bomber Command. The British, who developed the first radar-equipped night fighters in 1940–1941, lost their technical lead to the Luftwaffe. Since the radar of the era was fairly primitive and difficult to use, larger two- or three-seat aircraft with dedicated radar operators were commonly adapted to this role. Notable World War II piston-engine fighters CAC Boomerang Bloch MB.150 Dewoitine D.520 Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 VL Myrsky C.200 in the markings of 372° Sq. Regia Aeronautica Macchi C.200 Macchi C.202 Macchi C.205 Fiat G.55 Fiat G.50 Reggiane Re 2000 Reggiane Re 2001 Reggiane Re 2005 A Nakajima Ki-43 III-Ko "Oscar" sets off from a Japanese airfield on a kamikaze mission in the Okinawa area on 12 April 1945 as high school girls wave farewell Kawanishi N1K-J Nakajima Ki-27 Nakajima Ki-43 Nakajima Ki-44 Nakajima Ki-84 Kawasaki Ki-61 Kawasaki Ki-100 Mitsubishi A6M Zero Mitsubishi J2M Messerschmitt Bf 109G-2/Trop 'Black 6' Nazi Germany Messerschmitt Bf 109 Messerschmitt Bf 110 Messerschmitt Me 210 Dornier Do 335 Pfeil Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Heinkel He 100 Heinkel He 112 Junkers Ju 88C/R PZL P.24 Romania IAR-80 Saab 21 FFVS J 22 Yakovlev Yak-9, the most numerous Soviet fighter of WWII Yakovlev Yak-1 Yakovlev Yak-3 Yakovlev Yak-7 Yakovlev Yak-9 'Frank' Petlyakov Pe-3 Lavochkin LaGG-3 Lavochkin La-5 Lavochkin La-7 'Fin' Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-3 Hurricane Mk IIc of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight Supermarine Spitfire Supermarine Spiteful Hawker Hurricane Hawker Typhoon Hawker Tempest De Havilland Mosquito Boulton Paul Defiant Hawker Sea Fury A Republic P-47N Thunderbolt in flight. The plane shown is an XP-47N prototype (as seen in its tail) Grumman F4F Wildcat Vought F4U Corsair Grumman F6F Hellcat Curtiss P-36 Hawk Lockheed P-38 Lightning Bell P-39 Airacobra Curtiss P-40 Warhawk Republic P-47 Thunderbolt North American P-51 Mustang Northrop P-61 Black Widow Bell P-63 Kingcobra North American P-64 Vultee P-66 Vanguard Douglas P-70A Havoc Yugoslavia Rogozarski IK-3 Post-World War II period Several prototype fighter programs begun early in 1945 continued on after the war and led to advanced piston-engine fighters that entered production and operational service in 1946. A typical example is the Lavochkin La-9 'Fritz', which was an evolution of the successful wartime Lavochkin La-7 'Fin'. Working through a series of prototypes, the La-120, La-126 and La-130, the Lavochkin design bureau sought to replace the La-7's wooden airframe with a metal one, as well as fit a laminar-flow wing to improve maneuver performance, and increased armament. The La-9 entered service in August 1946 and was produced until 1948; it also served as the basis for the development of a long-range escort fighter, the La-11 'Fang', of which nearly 1200 were produced 1947–1951. Over the course of the Korean War, however, it became obvious that the day of the piston-engined fighter was coming to a close and that the future would lie with the jet fighter. This period also witnessed experimentation with jet-assisted piston engine aircraft. La-9 derivatives included examples fitted with two underwing auxiliary pulsejet engines (the La-9RD) and a similarly mounted pair of auxiliary ramjet engines (the La-138); however, neither of these entered service. One which did enter service – with the U.S. Navy in March 1945 – was the Ryan FR-1 Fireball; production was halted with the war's end on VJ-Day, with only 66 having been delivered, and the type was withdrawn from service in 1947. The USAAF had ordered its first 13 mixed turboprop-turbojet-powered pre-production prototypes of the Consolidated Vultee XP-81 Silver Bullet fighter, but this program was also canceled by VJ Day, with 80% of the engineering work completed. Notable post-World War II piston-engine and piston-jet-powered fighters Avia S-199 Lavochkin La-9 'Fritz' Lavochkin La-9 'Fritz' Lavochkin La-11 'Fang' Spain Hispano Aviación HA-1112 Ryan FR-1 Fireball Ikarus S-49 Rocket-powered fighters The Messerschmitt Me 163 was the fastest aircraft of WWII and the only mass-produced rocket-powered fighter The first rocket-powered aircraft was the Lippisch Ente, which made a successful maiden flight in March 1928. Darling, David. "Lippisch Ente", The Internet Encyclopedia of Science – Experimental Aircraft. Accessed 5 October 2008. The only pure rocket aircraft ever to be mass-produced was the Messerschmitt Me 163 in 1944, one of several German World War II projects aimed at developing rocket-powered aircraft. "Me-163 Komet". Planes of Fame Air Museum. Accessed 5 October 2008. Later variants of the Me 262 (C-1a and C-2b) were also fitted with rocket powerplants, while earlier models were fitted with rocket boosters, but were not mass-produced with these modifications. Munson, Kenneth. Fighters and Bombers of World War II. New York City: Peerage Books, 1983, p. 159. ISBN 0907408370. The USSR experimented with a rocket-powered interceptor in the years immediately following World War II, the Mikoyan-Gurevich I-270. Only two were built. In the 1950s, the British developed mixed-power jet designs employing both rocket and jet engines to cover the performance gap that existed in existing turbojet designs. The rocket was the main engine for delivering the speed and height required for high-speed interception of high-level bombers and the turbojet gave increased fuel economy in other parts of flight, most notably to ensure the aircraft was able to make a powered landing rather than risking an unpredictable gliding return. The Saunders-Roe SR.53 was a successful design and was planned to be developed into production when economics forced curtailment of most British aircraft programs in the late 1950s. Furthermore, rapid advancements in jet engine technology had rendered mixed-power aircraft designs like Saunders-Roe's SR.53 (and its SR.177 maritime variant) obsolete. The American XF-91 Thunderceptor (which was the first U.S. fighter to exceed Mach 1 in level flight) met a similar fate for the same reason, and no hybrid rocket-and-jet-engine fighter design has ever been placed into service. The only operational implementation of mixed propulsion was Rocket-Assisted Take Off (RATO), a system rarely used in fighters. Jet-powered fighters It has become common in the aviation community to classify jet fighters by "generations" for historical purposes. For one representation, see: Yoon, Joe. "Fighter Generations". Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved 5 October 2008. There are no official definitions of these generations; rather, they represent the notion that there are stages in the development of fighter design approaches, performance capabilities, and technological evolution. The timeframes associated with each generation are inexact and are only indicative of the period during which their design philosophies and technology employment enjoyed a prevailing influence on fighter design and development. These timeframes also encompass the peak period of service entry for such aircraft. First generation subsonic jet fighters (mid-1940s to mid-1950s) The first generation of jet fighters comprises the initial, subsonic jet fighter designs introduced late in World War II and in the early post-war period. They differed little from their piston-engined counterparts in appearance, and many employed unswept wings. Guns remained the principal armament. The impetus for the development of turbojet-powered aircraft was to obtain a decisive advantage in maximum speed. Top speeds for fighters rose steadily throughout WWII as more powerful piston engines were developed, and had begun approaching the transonic flight regime where the efficiency of piston-driven propellers drops off considerably. Messerschmitt Me 262A at the National Museum of the United States Air Force The first jets were developed during World War II and saw combat in its final year. Messerschmitt developed the first operational jet fighter, the Me 262. It was considerably faster than contemporary piston-driven aircraft, and in the hands of a competent pilot, was quite difficult for Allied pilots to defeat. The design was never deployed in numbers sufficient to stop the Allied air campaign, and a combination of fuel shortages, pilot losses, and technical difficulties with the engines kept the number of sorties low. Nevertheless, the Me 262 indicated the obsolescence of piston-driven aircraft. Spurred by reports of the German jets, Britain's Gloster Meteor entered production soon after and the two entered service around the same time in 1944. Meteors were commonly used to intercept the V-1 "buzz bomb", as they were faster than available piston-engined fighters. By the end of the war almost all work on piston-powered fighters had ended. A few designs combining piston and jet engines for propulsion – such as the Ryan FR Fireball – saw brief use, but by the end of the 1940s virtually all new combat aircraft were jet-powered. Despite their advantages, the early jet fighters were far from perfect, particularly in the opening years of the generation. Their operational lifespans could be measured primarily in hours; the engines themselves were fragile and bulky, and power could be adjusted only slowly. Many squadrons of piston-engined fighters were retained until the early-to-mid 1950s, even in the air forces of the major powers (though the types retained were the best of the WWII designs). Innovations including ejector seats and all-moving tailplanes were introduced in this period. The Americans were one of the first to begin using jet fighters post-war. The Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star (soon re-designated F-80) was less elegant than the swept-wing Me 262, but had a cruise speed (660 km/h [410 mph]) as high as the combat maximum of many piston-engined fighters. The British designed several new jets, including the iconic de Havilland Vampire which was sold to the air forces of many nations. Ironically, the British transferred the technology of the Rolls-Royce Nene jet engine technology to the Soviets, who soon put it to use in their advanced Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighters which were the first to introduce swept wings in combat, an innovation first proposed by German research which allowed flying much closer to the speed of sound than straight-winged designs such as the F-80. Their top speed of 1,075 km/h (668 mph) proved quite a shock to the American F-80 pilots who encountered them over Korea, along with their armanent of two 23 mm cannons and a single 37 mm cannon compared to machine guns. Nevertheless, in the first jet-versus-jet dogfight in history, which occurred during the Korean War on 8 November 1950, an F-80 (as the P-80 had been redesignated) intercepted two North Korean MiG-15s near the Yalu River and shot them down. A de Havilland Sea Vampire Mk.10 taking off from the Royal Navy aircraft carrier HMS Ocean on 3 December 1945, the occasion of the first take-off and landing of a jet airplane from an aircraft carrier The Americans responded by rushing their own swept-wing F-86 squadrons to battle against the MiGs which had similar trans-sonic performance. The two aircraft had different strengths, but were similar enough that the superior technology such as a radar ranging gunsight and skills and of the veteran United States Air Force pilots allowed them to prevail. The world's navies also transitioned to jets during this period, despite the need for catapult-launching of the new aircraft. Grumman's F9F Panther was adopted by the U.S. Navy as their primary jet fighter in the Korean War period, and it was one of the first jet fighters to employ an afterburner. The de Havilland Vampire was the Royal Navy's first jet fighter. Radar was used on specialized night fighters such as the F3D Skyknight which also downed MiGs over Korea, and later fitted to the F2H Banshee and swept wing F7U Cutlass and F3H Demon as all-weather / night fighters. Early versions of Infra-red (IR) air-to-air missiles (AAMs) such as the AIM-9 Sidewinder and radar guided missiles such as the AIM-7 Sparrow which would be developed into the 21st century were first introduced on swept wing subsonic Demon and Cutlass naval fighters. Notable first generation jet fighter aircraft MD450 Ouragan in the markings of India's No. 47 "Black Archers" Squadron Avro CF-100 Canuck Dassault Ouragan Dassault Mystère Dassault Mystère IV Captured Heinkel He 162 undergoing post-war trials in the U.S. Nazi Germany Heinkel He 162 Messerschmitt Me 262 Shenyang J-5 'Fresco' Saab 21R Saab 29 Tunnan A MiG-15 in Polish markings Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-9 'Fargo' Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 'Fagot' Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 'Fresco' Lavochkin La-15 'Fantail' Yakovlev Yak-15/17 'Feather' Yakovlev Yak-23 'Flora' Yakovlev Yak-25 'Flashlight' RAF Gloster Meteor de Havilland Vampire de Havilland Venom Gloster Meteor Hawker Sea Hawk Supermarine Attacker F-86 Sabres of the Pakistan Air Force F9F Panther and AJ-2 Savage conducting in-flight refueling trials in 1953 Bell P-59 Airacomet Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star Republic F-84 Thunderjet Republic F-84F Thunderstreak North American F-86 Sabre Northrop F-89 Scorpion Lockheed F-94 Starfire North American FJ-1 Fury North American FJ-2/3/4 Fury McDonnell F2H Banshee McDonnell F3H Demon Douglas F3D Skyknight Douglas F4D Skyray Vought F7U Cutlass Grumman F9F Panther Second generation jet fighters (mid-1950s to early 1960s) North American F-100 Super Sabre day fighter The Mirage IIIO and DO (top) were licence-built variants of the Mirage IIIE and D produced by Government Aircraft Factories (GAF) for the Royal Australian Air Force Republic F-105 Thunderchief fighter-bomber Early-model Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21F-13 'Fishbed-B' day fighter of the Vietnam People's Air Force captured by the Americans Saab 32 Lansen fighter-bomber Hawker Hunter Multirole fighter English Electric Lightning The development of second-generation fighters was shaped by technological breakthroughs, lessons learned from the aerial battles of the Korean War, and a focus on conducting operations in a nuclear warfare environment. Technological advances in aerodynamics, propulsion and aerospace building materials (primarily aluminium alloys) permitted designers to experiment with aeronautical innovations, such as swept wings, delta wings, and area-ruled fuselages. Widespread use of afterburning turbojet engines made these the first production aircraft to break the sound barrier, and the ability to sustain supersonic speeds in level flight became a common capability amongst fighters of this generation. Fighter designs also took advantage of new electronics technologies that made effective radars small enough to be carried aboard smaller aircraft. Onboard radars permitted detection of enemy aircraft beyond visual range, thereby improving the handoff of targets by longer-ranged ground-based warning and tracking radars. Similarly, advances in guided missile development allowed air-to-air missiles to begin supplementing the gun as the primary offensive weapon for the first time in fighter history. During this period, passive-homing infrared-guided (IR) missiles became commonplace, but early IR missile sensors had poor sensitivity and a very narrow field of view (typically no more than 30°), which limited their effective use to only close-range, tail-chase engagements. Radar-guided (RF) missiles were introduced as well, but early examples proved unreliable. These semi-active radar homing (SARH) missiles could track and intercept an enemy aircraft "painted" by the launching aircraft's onboard radar. Medium- and long-range RF air-to-air missiles promised to open up a new dimension of "beyond-visual-range" (BVR) combat, and much effort was placed in further development of this technology. The prospect of a potential third world war featuring large mechanized armies and nuclear weapon strikes led to a degree of specialization along two design approaches: interceptors (like the English Electric Lightning and Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21F) and fighter-bombers (such as the Republic F-105 Thunderchief and the Sukhoi Su-7). Dogfighting, per se, was de-emphasized in both cases. The interceptor was an outgrowth of the vision that guided missiles would completely replace guns and combat would take place at beyond visual ranges. As a result, interceptors were designed with a large missile payload and a powerful radar, sacrificing agility in favor of high speed, altitude ceiling and rate of climb. With a primary air defense role, emphasis was placed on the ability to intercept strategic bombers flying at high altitudes. Specialized point-defense interceptors often had limited range and little, if any, ground-attack capabilities. Fighter-bombers could swing between air superiority and ground-attack roles, and were often designed for a high-speed, low-altitude dash to deliver their ordnance. Television- and IR-guided air-to-surface missiles were introduced to augment traditional gravity bombs, and some were also equipped to deliver a nuclear bomb. Notable second generation jet fighter aircraft Dassault Étendard IV Dassault Super Mystère Dassault Mirage III/5 HAL HF-24 Marut IAI Nesher Fiat G.91 Shenyang J-6 'Farmer' Chengdu J-7 'Fishbed' Saab 32 Lansen Saab 35 Draken Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19 'Farmer' Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21F 'Fishbed' Sukhoi Su-7 'Fitter-A' Sukhoi Su-9/11 'Fishpot' De Havilland Sea Vixen English Electric Lightning Gloster Javelin Hawker Hunter Supermarine Scimitar Supermarine Swift Chance-Vought F-8 Crusader Grumman F-9 Cougar Grumman F-11 Tiger North American F-100 Super Sabre McDonnell F-101 Voodoo Convair F-102 Delta Dagger Lockheed F-104 Starfighter Republic F-105 Thunderchief Convair F-106 Delta Dart Third generation jet fighters (early 1960s to circa 1970) Libyan Air Force Su-22M2K McDonnell Douglas F-4E Phantom II making a practice bombing run Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 'Foxbat' interceptor IAI Kfir of the Colombian Air Force |Dassault Mirage F1 The third generation witnessed continued maturation of second-generation innovations, but it is most marked by renewed emphases on maneuverability and traditional ground-attack capabilities. Over the course of the 1960s, increasing combat experience with guided missiles demonstrated that combat would devolve into close-in dogfights. Analog avionics began to be introduced, replacing older "steam-gauge" cockpit instrumentation. Enhancements to improve the aerodynamic performance of third-generation fighters included flight control surfaces such as canards, powered slats, and blown flaps. A number of technologies would be tried for Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing, but thrust vectoring would be successful on the Harrier jump jet. Growth in air combat capability focused on the introduction of improved air-to-air missiles, radar systems, and other avionics. While guns remained standard equipment, air-to-air missiles became the primary weapons for air superiority fighters, which employed more sophisticated radars and medium-range RF AAMs to achieve greater "stand-off" ranges, however, kill probabilities proved unexpectedly low for RF missiles due to poor reliability and improved electronic countermeasures (ECM) for spoofing radar seekers. Infrared-homing AAMs saw their fields of view expand to 45°, which strengthened their tactical usability. Nevertheless, the low dogfight loss-exchange ratios experienced by American fighters in the skies over Vietnam led the U.S. Navy to establish its famous "TOPGUN" fighter weapons school, which provided a graduate-level curriculum to train fleet fighter pilots in advanced Air Combat Maneuvering (ACM) and Dissimilar Air Combat Training (DACT) tactics and techniques. This era also saw an expansion in ground-attack capabilities, principally in guided missiles, and witnessed the introduction of the first truly effective avionics for enhanced ground attack, including terrain-avoidance systems. Air-to-surface missiles (ASM) equipped with electro-optical (E-O) contrast seekers – such as the initial model of the widely used AGM-65 Maverick – became standard weapons, and laser-guided bombs (LGBs) became widespread an effort to improve precision-attack capabilities. Guidance for such precision-guided munitions (PGM) was provided by externally mounted targeting pods, which were introduced in the mid-1960s. It also led to the development of new automatic-fire weapons, primarily chain-guns that use an electric engine to drive the mechanism of a cannon; this allowed a single multi-barrel weapon (such as the 20 mm Vulcan) to be carried and provided greater rates of fire and accuracy. Powerplant reliability increased and jet engines became "smokeless" to make it harder to visually sight aircraft at long distances. Dedicated ground-attack aircraft (like the Grumman A-6 Intruder, SEPECAT Jaguar and LTV A-7 Corsair II) offered longer range, more sophisticated night attack systems or lower cost than supersonic fighters. With variable-geometry wings, the supersonic F-111 introduced the Pratt & Whitney TF30, the first turbofan equipped with afterburner. The ambitious project sought to create a versatile common fighter for many roles and services. It would serve well as an all-weather bomber, but lacked the performance to defeat other fighters. The McDonnell F-4 Phantom was designed around radar and missiles as all-weather interceptor, but emerged as a versatile strike bomber nimble enough to prevail in air combat, adopted by the U.S. Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps. Despite numerous shortcomings that would be not be fully addressed until newer fighters, the Phantom claimed 280 aerial kills, more than any other U.S. fighter over Vietnam. Where Have All the Phantoms Gone? Ralph Wetterhahn Air & Space Magazine, January 01, 2009 . With range and payload capabilities that rivaled that of WWII bombers such as B-24 Liberator, the Phantom would became a highly successful multirole aircraft. Notable third generation jet fighter aircraft Dassault Mirage F1 HESA Azarakhsh HESA Saeqeh IAI Kfir Mitsubishi F-1 Shenyang J-8I/IIB&D 'Finback' Xian JH-7 'Flounder' Atlas Cheetah Saab 37 Viggen Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21MF/bis 'Fishbed' Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 'Flogger' Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 'Foxbat' Sukhoi Su-15 'Flagon' Sukhoi Su-17/20/22 'Fitter' Tupolev Tu-28 'Fiddler' McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter / Tiger II Grumman F-14 Tomcat Mikoyan MiG-31 'Foxhound' McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle Dassault Mirage 2000 Panavia Tornado ADV Sukhoi Su-27 'Flanker' AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo Mikoyan MiG-29 'Fulcrum' and F-16 Fighting Falcon Fourth generation jet fighters (circa 1970 to mid-1990s) Fourth-generation fighters continued the trend towards multirole configurations, and were equipped with increasingly sophisticated avionics and weapon systems. Fighter designs were significantly influenced by the Energy-Maneuverability (E-M) theory developed by Colonel John Boyd and mathematician Thomas Christie, based upon Boyd's combat experience in the Korean War and as a fighter tactics instructor during the 1960s. E-M theory emphasized the value of aircraft specific energy maintenance as an advantage in fighter combat. Boyd perceived maneuverability as the primary means of getting "inside" an adversary's decision-making cycle, a process Boyd called the "OODA loop" (for "Observation-Orientation-Decision-Action"). This approach emphasized aircraft designs that were capable of performing "fast transients" – quick changes in speed, altitude, and direction – as opposed to relying chiefly on high speed alone. E-M characteristics were first applied to the F-15 Eagle, but Boyd and his supporters believed these performance parameters called for a small, lightweight aircraft with a larger, higher-lift wing. The small size would minimize drag and increase the thrust-to-weight ratio, while the larger wing would minimize wing loading; while the reduced wing loading tends to lower top speed and can cut range, it increases payload capacity and the range reduction can be compensated for by increased fuel in the larger wing. The efforts of Boyd's "Fighter Mafia" would result in General Dynamics' (now Lockheed Martin's) F-16 Fighting Falcon. The F-16's maneuverability was further enhanced by its being designed to be slightly aerodynamically unstable. This technique, called "relaxed static stability" (RSS), was made possible by introduction of the "fly-by-wire" (FBW) flight control system (FLCS), which in turn was enabled by advances in computers and system integration techniques. Analog avionics, required to enable FBW operations, became a fundamental requirement and began to be replaced by digital flight control systems in the latter half of the 1980s. Likewise, Full Authority Digital Engine Controls (FADEC) to electronically manage powerplant performance were introduced with the Pratt & Whitney F100 turbofan. The F-16's sole reliance on electronics and wires to relay flight commands, instead of the usual cables and mechanical linkage controls, earned it the sobriquet of "the electric jet". Electronic FLCS and FADEC quickly became essential components of all subsequent fighter designs. Other innovative technologies introduced in fourth-generation fighters include pulse-Doppler fire-control radars (providing a "look-down/shoot-down" capability), head-up displays (HUD), "hands on throttle-and-stick" (HOTAS) controls, and multi-function displays (MFD), all of which have become essential equipment. Composite materials in the form of bonded aluminum honeycomb structural elements and graphite epoxy laminate skins began to be incorporated into flight control surfaces and airframe skins to reduce weight. Infrared search-and-track (IRST) sensors became widespread for air-to-ground weapons delivery, and appeared for air-to-air combat as well. "All-aspect" IR AAM became standard air superiority weapons, which permitted engagement of enemy aircraft from any angle (although the field of view remained relatively limited). The first long-range active-radar-homing RF AAM entered service with the AIM-54 Phoenix, which solely equipped the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, one of the few variable-sweep-wing fighter designs to enter production. Another revolution came in the form of a stronger reliance on ease of maintenance, which led to standardisation of parts, reductions in the numbers of access panels and lubrication points, and overall parts reduction in more complicated equipment like the engines. Some early jet fighters required 50 man-hours of work by a ground crew for every hour the aircraft was in the air; later models substantially reduced this to allow faster turn-around times and more sorties in a day. Some modern military aircraft only require 10 man-hours of work per hour of flight time, and others are even more efficient. Aerodynamic innovations included variable-camber wings and exploitation of the vortex lift effect to achieve higher angles of attack through the addition of leading-edge extension devices such as strakes. Unlike interceptors of the previous eras, most fourth-generation air-superiority fighters were designed to be agile dogfighters, (although though the Mikoyan MiG-31 and Panavia Tornado ADV are notable exceptions). The continually rising cost of fighters, however, continued to emphasize the value of multirole fighters. The need for both types of fighters led to the concept of the "high/low mix" which envisioned a high-capability – and high-cost – core of dedicated air-superiority fighters (like the F-15 and Sukhoi Su-27) supplemented by a much larger contingent of lower-cost multirole fighters (such as the F-16 and Mikoyan MiG-29). Most fourth-generation fighter-bombers, such as the Boeing F/A-18 Hornet and Dassault Mirage 2000, are true multirole warplanes, designed as such from the start. This was facilitated by multimode avionics which could switch seamlessly between air and ground modes. The earlier approaches of adding on strike capabilities or designing separate models specialized for different roles generally became passé (with the Panavia Tornado being an exception in this regard). Dedicated attack roles were generally assigned either to interdiction strike aircraft such as the Sukhoi Su-24 and Boeing F-15E Strike Eagle or to armored "tank-plinking" close air support (CAS) specialists like the Fairchild-Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II and Sukhoi Su-25. Perhaps the most novel technology to be introduced for combat aircraft was "stealth", which involves the use of special "low-observable" (L-O) materials and design techniques to reduce the susceptibility of an aircraft to detection by the enemy's sensor systems, particularly radars. The first stealth aircraft to be introduced were the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk attack aircraft (introduced in 1983) and the Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit bomber (which first flew in 1989). Although no stealthy fighters per se appeared amongst the fourth generation, some radar-absorbent coatings and other L-O treatments developed for these programs are reported to have been subsequently applied to fourth-generation fighters. Notable fourth generation jet fighter aircraft Dassault Mirage 2000/2000N/2000D Xian JH-7A 'Flounder' Shenyang J-11A 'Flanker' AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo Mikoyan MiG-29 'Fulcrum' Mikoyan MiG-31 'Foxhound' Sukhoi Su-27 'Flanker' Sukhoi Su-33 'Flanker D' / / Panavia Tornado ADV Grumman F-14 Tomcat McDonnell Douglas / Boeing F-15 Eagle General Dynamics / Lockheed Martin F-16 Fighting Falcon McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet 4.5th generation jet fighters (1990s to the present) Chengdu J-10 Sukhoi Su-30MKI 'Flanker' Saab 39 Gripen Dassault Rafale Boeing F/A-18E Super Hornet Eurofighter Typhoon The end of the Cold War in 1989 led many governments to significantly decrease military spending as a "peace dividend". Air force inventories were cut, and research and development programs intended to produce what was then anticipated to be "fifth-generation" fighters took serious hits; many programs were canceled during the first half of the 1990s, and those which survived were "stretched out". While the practice of slowing the pace of development reduces annual investment expenses, it comes at the penalty of increased overall program and unit costs over the long-term. In this instance, however, it also permitted designers to leverage the tremendous achievements being made in the fields of computers, avionics and other flight electronics, which had become possible largely due to the advances made in microchip and semiconductor technologies in the 1980s and 1990s. This opportunity enabled designers to develop fourth-generation designs – or redesigns – with significantly enhanced capabilities. These improved designs have become known as "Generation 4.5" fighters, recognizing their intermediate nature between the 4th and 5th generations, and their contribution in furthering development of individual fifth-generation technologies. The primary characteristics of this sub-generation are the application of advanced digital avionics and aerospace materials, modest signature reduction (primarily RF "stealth"), and highly integrated systems and weapons. These fighters have been designed to operate in a "network-centric" battlefield environment and are principally multirole aircraft. Key weapons technologies introduced include beyond-visual-range (BVR) AAMs; Global Positioning System (GPS)-guided weapons, solid-state phased-array radars; helmet-mounted sights; and improved secure, jamming-resistant datalinks. Thrust vectoring to further improve transient maneuvering capabilities have also been adopted by many 4.5th generation fighters, and uprated powerplants have enabled some designs to achieve a degree of "supercruise" ability. Stealth characteristics are focused primarily on frontal-aspect radar cross section (RCS) signature-reduction techniques including radar-absorbent materials (RAM), L-O coatings and limited shaping techniques. "Half-generation" designs are either based on existing airframes or are based on new airframes following similar design theory as previous iterations; however, these modifications have introduced the structural use of composite materials to reduce weight, greater fuel fractions to increase range, and signature reduction treatments to achieve lower RCS compared to their predecessors. Prime examples of such aircraft, which are based on new airframe designs making extensive use of carbon-fibre composites, include the Eurofighter Typhoon, Dassault Rafale, Saab JAS 39 Gripen NG and the HAL Tejas. Apart from these fighter jets, most of the 4.5 generation aircraft are actually modified variants of existing airframes from the earlier fourth generation fighter jets. Such fighter jets are generally heavier and examples include the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet which is an evolution of the 1970s F/A-18 Hornet design, the F-15E Strike Eagle which is a ground-attack variant of the Cold War-era F-15 Eagle, the Sukhoi Su-30MKI which is a further development of the Su-30 fighter and the Mikoyan MiG-29M/35, an upgraded version of the 1980s MiG-29. The Su-30MKI and MiG-35 use two- and three-dimensional thrust vectoring engines respectively so as to enhance maneuvering. Most 4.5 generation aircraft are being retrofitted with Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radars and other state-of-the art avionics such as electronic counter-measure systems and forward looking infrared. 4.5 generation fighters first entered service in the early 1990s, and most of them are still being produced and evolved. It is quite possible that they may continue in production alongside fifth-generation fighters due to the expense of developing the advanced level of stealth technology needed to achieve aircraft designs featuring very low observables (VLO), which is one of the defining features of fifth-generation fighters. Of the 4.5th generation designs, only the Super Hornet, Strike Eagle, and the Rafale have seen combat action. Some others, such as HAL Tejas, are yet to achieve full operational clearance. IAF may not get to fly LCA before 2010 Notable 4.5th generation jet fighters Dassault Rafale / Mitsubishi F-2 HAL Tejas http://www.domain-b.com/aero/20090206_lca_programme.html Chengdu J-10 Shenyang J-11B 'Flanker' / JF-17 Thunder Mikoyan MiG-29M 'Fulcrum E' Mikoyan MiG-35 'Fulcrum F' Sukhoi Su-30M 'Flanker С' Sukhoi Su-32/34 'Fullback' Sukhoi Su-35 'Flanker E' / Su-30MKI 'Flanker H' / Su-30MKK/MK2 'Flanker G' Saab 39 Gripen / / / Eurofighter Typhoon McDonnell Douglas / Boeing F-15E Strike Eagle and derivatives Lockheed Martin F-16E/F Block 60 Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet Fifth generation jet fighters (2005 to the present) Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II The fifth generation was ushered in by the Lockheed Martin/Boeing F-22 Raptor in late 2005. Currently the cutting edge of fighter design, fifth-generation fighters are characterized by being designed from the start to operate in a network-centric combat environment, and to feature extremely low, all-aspect, multi-spectral signatures employing advanced materials and shaping techniques. They have multifunction AESA radars with high-bandwidth, low-probability of intercept (LPI) data transmission capabilities. IRST sensors are incorporated for air-to-air combat as well as for air-to-ground weapons delivery. These sensors, along with advanced avionics, glass cockpits, helmet-mounted sights, and improved secure, jamming-resistant LPI datalinks are highly integrated to provide multi-platform, multi-sensor data fusion for vastly improved situational awareness while easing the pilot's workload. Avionics suites rely on extensive use of very high-speed integrated circuit (VHSIC) technology, common modules, and high-speed data buses. Overall, the integration of all these elements is claimed to provide fifth-generation fighters with a "first-look, first-shot, first-kill capability". The AESA radar offers unique capabilities for fighters (and it is also quickly becoming a sine qua non for Generation 4.5 aircraft designs, as well as being retrofitted onto some fourth-generation aircraft). In addition to its high resistance to ECM and LPI features, it enables the fighter to function as a sort of "mini-AWACS," providing high-gain electronic support measures (ESM) and electronic warfare (EW) jamming functions. Other technologies common to this latest generation of fighters includes integrated electronic warfare system (INEWS) technology, integrated communications, navigation, and identification (CNI) avionics technology, centralized "vehicle health monitoring" systems for ease of maintenance, fiber optics data transmission, and stealth technology. Maneuver performance remains important and is enhanced by thrust-vectoring, which also helps reduce takeoff and landing distances. Supercruise may or may not be featured; it permits flight at supersonic speeds without the use of the afterburner – a device that significantly increases IR signature when used in full military power. A key attribute of fifth-generation fighters is very-low-observables stealth. Great care has been taken in designing its layout and internal structure to minimize RCS over a broad bandwidth of detection and tracking radar frequencies; furthermore, to maintain its VLO signature during combat operations, primary weapons are carried in internal weapon bays that are only briefly opened to permit weapon launch. Furthermore, stealth technology has advanced to the point where it can be employed without a tradeoff with aerodynamics performance. In contrast to previous stealth efforts, attention has also been paid to reducing IR signatures. Detailed information on these signature-reduction techniques is classified, but in general includes special shaping approaches, thermoset and thermoplastic materials, extensive structural use of advanced composites, conformal sensors, heat-resistant coatings, low-observable wire meshes to cover intake and cooling vents, and coating internal and external metal areas with radar-absorbent materials and paint (RAM/RAP). The expense of developing such sophisticated aircraft is as high as their capabilities. The U.S. Air Force had originally planned to acquire 650 F-22s, but it now appears that only about 200 will be built. As a result, its unit flyaway cost (FAC) is reported to be around $140 million. To spread the development costs – and production base – more broadly, the Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) program enrolls eight other countries as cost- and risk-sharing partners. Altogether, the nine partner nations anticipate procuring over 3000 Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II fighters at an anticipated average FAC of $80–85 million. The F-35, however, is designed to be a family of three aircraft, a conventional take-off and landing (CTOL) fighter, a short take-off and vertical landing (STOVL) fighter, and a carrier-capable fighter, each of which has a different unit price. Other countries have initiated fifth-generation fighter development projects, with Russia's Sukhoi PAK-FA anticipated to enter service circa 2012–2015. In October 2007, Russia and India signed an agreement for joint participation in a Fifth-Generation Fighter Aircraft Program (FGFA), which will give India responsibility for development of a two-seat model of the PAK-FA. India is also developing its own indigenous fifth generation aircraft named Medium Combat Aircraft. China is reported to be pursuing multiple fifth-generation projects under the western code name; J-XX, and both Japan and South Korea have proposed indigenous programs. In service Lockheed Martin / Boeing F-22 Raptor In development Medium Combat Aircraft (maiden flight expected in 2012) "India starts to work on a new aircraft MCA" "Poster in Aero-India 2009 Showing MCA's Features" Shenyang J-XX (J-13 and J-14 expected in service in 2020) Sukhoi PAK FA (maiden flight expected in 2009) "Russia's fifth generation combat aircraft to fly by late 2008-Ivanov" / Sukhoi/HAL FGFA ''(2-seater variant of Sukhoi PAK FA)' "Russia to build fifth-generation fighter prototype soon" KFX (maiden flight expected in 2014) / / / / / / / / Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II (maiden flight in 2006) Technology demonstrators Mitsubishi ATD-X (maiden flight expected in 2014) Sukhoi Su-47 'Firkin' (maiden flight achieved in 1997) Mikoyan Project 1.44 'Flatpack' (maiden flight in 2000) Lockheed Martin YF-22 Lightning II (maiden flight in 1990) Northrop YF-23 Black Widow II (maiden flight in 1990) Boeing Bird of Prey (maiden flight achieved in 1996) McDonnell Douglas X-36 (maiden flight in 1997) Lockheed Martin X-35 (maiden flight in 2000) Boeing X-32 JSF (X-32A maiden flight in 2000, X-32B maiden flight in 2001) See also List of fighter aircraft List of military aircraft Fighter pilot Warbird References External links Fighter planes info and pictures WW2DB: Aircraft of World War II World War II Allied/Axis airplane links Measures of fighter capability Fighter combat quotations Fighter-planes.com: Data and images Military fighter aircraft in detail AirToAirCombat.com: Fighter and military aircraft reference FighterPlanePhotos.com: Fighter plane and military aircraft photos Air Forces WW 2 aviation forum Aerospaceweb.org | Fighter generations | Fighter_aircraft |@lemmatized thunderbolt:6 ii:33 f:80 sabre:5 p:38 lightning:10 mustang:5 fly:18 formation:13 air:97 show:4 langley:1 force:42 base:10 virginia:1 display:3 two:25 generation:59 u:15 fighter:225 aircraft:136 attack:28 military:15 design:71 primarily:9 combat:39 oppose:4 bomber:31 ground:26 target:7 drop:4 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6,296 | Henry_J._Heinz | Henry J. Heinz Henry John Heinz (October 11, 1844 – May 14, 1919) was a German-American businessman. Heinz was one of eight children born to John Henry Heinz. Both parents had emigrated from Kallstadt, Germany and settled in the Birmingham section of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania—today known as the South Side. When Henry was five, the family moved several miles up the Allegheny River to the little town of Sharpsburg. There, at age six, young Henry (called Harry by his family) started helping his mother tend a small backyard garden behind the family home. At age eight Henry was canvassing the neighborhood with a basket under each arm selling vegetables from the family garden door to door. By age nine he was growing, grinding, bottling and selling his own brand of horseradish sauce. At ten he was given a ¾-acre (3,000 m²) garden of his own and had graduated to a wheelbarrow to deliver his vegetables. At twelve he was working 3½ acres (14,000 m²) of garden using a horse and cart for his three-times-a-week deliveries to grocery stores in Pittsburgh. At seventeen he was grossing $2,400 a year—a handsome sum for the times. Heinz attended a business college and after graduating started employment with his father's brick-manufacturing business, eventually becoming a partner in the firm. All the while he continued growing and selling fresh produce. In 1869, Heinz founded Heinz Noble & Company with a friend, L. C. Noble, and began marketing horseradish. The company went bankrupt in 1875, but the following year Heinz founded another company, F & J Heinz, with his brother and a cousin. One of this company's first products was tomato ketchup. The company continued to grow, and in 1888 Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized the company as the H. J. Heinz Company, the name it carries to the present day. Its famous slogan, "57 varieties", was introduced by Heinz in 1896. Inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in New York City (a shoe store boasting of "21 styles"), Heinz picked the number more or less at random because he liked the sound of it, selecting 7 specifically because, as he put it, of the "psychological influence of that figure and of its alluring significance to people of all ages." (The company marketed far more than 57 varieties of product even at that point.) H. J. Heinz was incorporated in 1905, and Heinz served as its first president, remaining in the position for the rest of his life. Under his tutelage, the company was noted for fair treatment of workers and for pioneering safe and sanitary food preparation. Heinz led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906. He also was very involved working in his church's Sunday school and participated in various philanthropic endeavors, notably the Sarah Heinz settlement house in Pittsburgh, which he founded in 1894 and named after his wife. At the time of his death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the company had over twenty food processing plants, and also included seed farms and container factories. Heinz was the grandfather of H. J. Heinz II and great-grandfather of U.S. Senator H. John Heinz III of Pennsylvania in the United States. References Henry Heinz and Brand Creation in the Late Nineteenth Century: Making Markets for Processed Food by Nancy F. Koehn. The Business History Review, Vol. 73 (Autumn, 1999), pp. 349–393. | Henry_J._Heinz |@lemmatized henry:7 j:5 heinz:21 john:3 october:1 may:1 german:1 american:1 businessman:1 one:2 eight:2 child:1 bear:1 parent:1 emigrate:1 kallstadt:1 germany:1 settle:1 birmingham:1 section:1 pittsburgh:4 pennsylvania:2 today:1 know:1 south:1 side:1 five:1 family:4 move:1 several:1 mile:1 allegheny:1 river:1 little:1 town:1 sharpsburg:1 age:5 six:1 young:1 call:1 harry:1 start:2 help:1 mother:1 tend:1 small:1 backyard:1 garden:4 behind:1 home:1 canvass:1 neighborhood:1 basket:1 arm:1 selling:1 vegetable:2 door:2 nine:1 grow:3 grind:1 bottle:1 sell:2 brand:2 horseradish:2 sauce:1 ten:1 give:1 acre:2 graduate:2 wheelbarrow:1 deliver:1 twelve:1 work:2 use:1 horse:1 cart:1 three:1 time:3 week:1 delivery:1 grocery:1 store:2 seventeen:1 gross:1 year:2 handsome:1 sum:1 attend:1 business:3 college:1 employment:1 father:1 brick:1 manufacturing:1 eventually:1 become:1 partner:2 firm:1 continue:2 fresh:1 produce:1 found:3 noble:2 company:10 friend:1 l:1 c:1 begin:1 market:3 go:1 bankrupt:1 following:1 another:1 f:2 brother:1 cousin:1 first:2 product:2 tomato:1 ketchup:1 buy:1 two:1 reorganize:1 h:4 name:2 carry:1 present:1 day:1 famous:1 slogan:1 variety:2 introduce:1 inspire:1 advertisement:1 saw:1 rid:1 elevated:1 train:1 new:1 york:1 city:1 shoe:1 boasting:1 style:1 pick:1 number:1 less:1 random:1 like:1 sound:1 select:1 specifically:1 put:1 psychological:1 influence:1 figure:1 allure:1 significance:1 people:1 far:1 even:1 point:1 incorporate:1 serve:1 president:1 remain:1 position:1 rest:1 life:1 tutelage:1 note:1 fair:1 treatment:1 worker:1 pioneer:1 safe:1 sanitary:1 food:4 preparation:1 lead:1 successful:1 lobbying:1 effort:1 favor:1 pure:1 drug:1 act:1 also:2 involved:1 church:1 sunday:1 school:1 participate:1 various:1 philanthropic:1 endeavor:1 notably:1 sarah:1 settlement:1 house:1 wife:1 death:1 twenty:1 processing:1 plant:1 include:1 seed:1 farm:1 container:1 factory:1 grandfather:2 ii:1 great:1 u:1 senator:1 iii:1 united:1 state:1 reference:1 creation:1 late:1 nineteenth:1 century:1 making:1 process:1 nancy:1 koehn:1 history:1 review:1 vol:1 autumn:1 pp:1 |@bigram pittsburgh_pennsylvania:1 grocery_store:1 tomato_ketchup:1 nineteenth_century:1 |
6,297 | Military_of_Burundi | The Military of Burundi consists of the Army and the Gendarmerie. The naval and air units are incoporated within the Army. General information Military branches: Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie Military manpower - military age: 16 years of age Military manpower - availability: males age 15-49: 1,344,177 (2000 est.) Military manpower - fit for military service: males age 15-49: 701,367 (2000 est.) Military manpower - reaching military age annually: males: 76,866 (2000 est.) Military expenditures - dollar figure: $25 million (FY93) Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 2.6% (FY93) Aircraft inventory The Burundi Army's air unit operates 16 aircraft, including 7 helicopters. ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service Burundi military aviation OrBat ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Aérospatiale SA 316 Alouette III | | utility helicopter | SA 316B | 3 | |----- | Aérospatiale SA 342 Gazelle | | utility helicopter | SA 342L | 2 | |----- | Cessna 150 | | liaison | | 3 | |----- | Dassault Falcon 50 | | VIP transport | | 1 | |----- | Dornier Do 27 | | liaison | Do 27Q | 1 | |----- | Mil Mi-24 Hind | | attack helicopter | | 2 | |----- | SIAI-Marchetti SF 260 | | trainerlight attack | SF.260PSF.260W | 22 | |} Ground Forces The Army of Burundi uses a few armoured vehicles, including BTR-40s, Panhard AMLs, and Shorland armoured cars. References and links External links Forces de Defense Nationales de Burundi (FDNB) | Military_of_Burundi |@lemmatized military:12 burundi:5 consists:1 army:5 gendarmerie:2 naval:2 air:3 unit:3 incoporated:1 within:1 general:1 information:1 branch:1 include:3 paramilitary:1 manpower:4 age:5 year:1 availability:1 male:3 est:3 fit:1 service:2 reach:1 annually:1 expenditure:1 dollar:1 figure:1 million:1 expenditures:1 percent:1 gdp:1 aircraft:3 inventory:1 operate:1 helicopter:4 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:1 version:1 aviation:1 orbat:1 note:1 aérospatiale:2 sa:4 alouette:1 iii:1 utility:2 gazelle:1 cessna:1 liaison:2 dassault:1 falcon:1 vip:1 transport:1 dornier:1 mil:1 mi:1 hind:1 attack:2 siai:1 marchetti:1 sf:2 trainerlight:1 ground:1 force:2 use:1 armoured:2 vehicle:1 btr:1 panhard:1 amls:1 shorland:1 car:1 reference:1 link:2 external:1 de:2 defense:1 nationales:1 fdnb:1 |@bigram manpower_availability:1 manpower_fit:1 military_expenditures:1 expenditures_percent:1 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 aviation_orbat:1 aérospatiale_sa:2 sa_alouette:1 alouette_iii:1 utility_helicopter:2 vip_transport:1 mil_mi:1 mi_hind:1 external_link:1 |
6,298 | Comedy | The Greco-Roman mask of Thalia in a Three Stooges slapstick short title card. This article is about the theatrical genre of comedy. For the popular meaning of the term "comedy", see Humour. Comedy (from the Greek κωμωδία, komodia) as a popular meaning, is any humorous discourse generally intended to amuse, especially in television, film, and stand-up comedy. This must be carefully distinguished from its academic definition, namely the comic theatre, whose Western origins are found in Ancient Greece. In the Athenian democracy, the public opinion of voters was remarkably influenced by the political satire performed by the comic poets at the theaters. Henderson, J. (1993) Comic Hero versus Political Elite pp.307-19 in The theatrical genre can be simply described as a dramatic performance which pits two societies against each other in an amusing agon or conflict. Northrop Frye famously depicted these two opposing sides as a "Society of Youth" and a "Society of the Old," (Anatomy of Criticism, 1957) but this dichotomy is seldom described as an entirely satisfactory explanation. A later view characterizes the essential agon of comedy as a struggle between a relatively powerless youth and the societal conventions that pose obstacles to his hopes; in this sense, the youth is understood to be constrained by his lack of social authority, and is left with little choice but to take recourse to ruses which engender very dramatic irony which provokes laughter. (Marteinson, 2006) Much comedy contains variations on the elements of surprise, incongruity, conflict, repetitiveness, and the effect of opposite expectations, but there are many recognized genres of comedy. Satire and political satire use ironic comedy to portray persons or social institutions as ridiculous or corrupt, thus alienating their audience from the object of humor. Satire is a type of comedy. Parody borrows the form of some popular genre, artwork, or text but uses certain ironic changes to critique that form from within (though not necessarily in a condemning way). Screwball comedy derives its humor largely from bizarre, surprising (and improbable) situations or characters. Black comedy is defined by dark humor that makes light of so called dark or evil elements in human nature. Similarly scatological humor, sexual humor, and race humor create comedy by violating social conventions or taboos in comedic ways. A comedy of manners typically takes as its subject a particular part of society (usually upper class society) and uses humor to parody or satirize the behavior and mannerisms of its members. Romantic comedy is a popular genre that depicts burgeoning romance in humorous terms, and focuses on the foibles of those who are falling in love. Etymology The word "comedy" is derived from the Classical Greek κωμῳδία kōmōidía, which is a compound either of κῶμος kômos (revel) or κώμη kṓmē (village) and ᾠδή ōidḗ (singing); it is possible that κῶμος itself is derived from κώμη, and originally meant a village revel. The adjective "comic" (Greek κωμικός kōmikós), which strictly means that which relates to comedy is, in modern usage, generally confined to the sense of "laughter-provoking". Francis MacDonald Cornford, The Origin of Attic Comedy, 1934. Of this, the word came into modern usage through the Latin comoedia and Italian commedia and has, over time, passed through various shades of meaning. Oxford English Dictionary Greeks and Romans confined the word "comedy" to descriptions of stage-plays with happy endings. In the Middle Ages, the term expanded to include narrative poems with happy endings and a lighter tone. In this sense Dante used the term in the title of his poem, La Divina Commedia. As time progressed, the word came more and more to be associated with any sort of performance intended to cause laughter. During the Middle Ages, the term "comedy" became synonymous with satire, and later humour in general, after Aristotle's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Arabic writers and Islamic philosophers, such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension", and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or troublous beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy" thus gained a more general semantic meaning in Medieval literature. History Comedy is one of the original four genres of literature as defined by the philosopher Aristotle in his work called Poetics. The other three genres are Tragedy, Epic, and Lyric. Literature in general is defined by Aristotle as a mimesis, or imitation of, life. Comedy is the third form of literature, being the most divorced from a true mimesis. Tragedy is the truest mimesis, followed by epic, comedy and lyric. The genre of comedy is defined by a certain pattern according to Aristotle's definition. All comedies begin with a low, typically with an "ugly" guy who can't do anything right. By the end of the story or play, the "ugly" guy has won the "pretty" girl, or whatever it was he was aiming for at the beginning. Comedies also have elements of the supernatural, typically magic and for the ancient Greeks the gods. Comedy includes the unrealistic in order to portray the realistic. For the Greeks, all comedies ended happily which is opposite of tragedy, which ends sadly. The oldest Greek comedy is Homer's Odyssey, the story of Odysseus and his crew's attempt to return home after the fall of Troy. Aristophanes, a dramatist of the Ancient Greek Theater wrote 40 comedies, 11 of which survive and are still being performed. In ancient Greece, comedy seems to have originated in bawdy and ribald songs or recitations apropos of fertility festivals or gatherings, or also in making fun at other people or stereotypes. Aristotle, in his Poetics, states that comedy originated in Phallic songs and the light treatment of the otherwise base and ugly. He also adds that the origins of comedy are obscure because it was not treated seriously from its inception. Aristotle, Poetics, lines beginning at 1449a. Comedy took on a different view with the advent of the Christian era. The comedic genre was divided by Dante in his work The Divine Comedy, made up of the epic poems Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. Dante's division of comedy into three sub genres still exist today in various forms. Inferno represents the darkest of all comedies, or what is known as dark or black comedy. In such comedy, one is forced to laugh or enjoy dark or black topics that one shouldn't enjoy or laugh at. Generally, most who read the whole Divine Comedy find Inferno to be the most enjoyable of the three. At the end of the dark comedy, one is still left with a sense of hope but one has not necessarily achieved what one has looked for. Purgatorio is made up of what most comedies today possess. Purgatorio is light hearted, at least compared to Inferno, and yet one still does not achieve fully what one looks for. As such, Purgatorio leaves the main character with a sense of hope greater than what was felt at the end of Inferno. Paradiso is the most traditional of the three in way of the Greek standard of comedy. The supernatural play a huge role in all three poems, but Paradiso ends the happiest of all three with the main character achieving his goal. Infernal, Purgatorial and Paradisal comedies are the three main genres in which one can places all other comedic forms. The phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it have been carefully investigated by psychologists. They agreed the predominating characteristics are incongruity or contrast in the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential, if not the essential, factor: thus Thomas Hobbes speaks of laughter as a "sudden glory." Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, as well as the development of the "play instinct" and its emotional expression. George Meredith, in his 1897 classic Essay on Comedy, said that "One excellent test of the civilization of a country ... I take to be the flourishing of the Comic idea and Comedy; and the test of true Comedy is that it shall awaken thoughtful laughter." Laughter is said to be the cure to being sick, Studies show, that people who laugh more often, get sick less. Forms of comedy Comedy may be divided into multiple genres based on the source of humor, the method of delivery, and the context in which it is delivered. The different forms often overlap, and most comedy can fit into multiple genres. Performing arts History Ancient Greek comedy, as practiced by Aristophanes and Menander Ancient Roman comedy, as practiced by Plautus and Terence Burlesque, from Music hall and Vaudeville to Performance art Citizen comedy, as practiced by Thomas Dekker, Thomas Middleton and Ben Jonson Clowns such as Richard Tarlton, William Kempe, and Robert Armin Comedy of humours, as practiced by Ben Jonson and George Chapman Comedy of intrigue, as practiced by Niccolò Machiavelli and Lope de Vega Comedy of manners, as practiced by Molière, William Wycherley and William Congreve Comedy of menace, as practiced by David Campton and Harold Pinter comédie larmoyante or 'tearful comedy', as practiced by Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée and Louis-Sébastien Mercier Commedia dell'arte, as practiced in the twentieth-century by Dario Fo, Vsevolod Meyerhold and Jacques Copeau Farce, from Georges Feydeau to Joe Orton and Alan Ayckbourn Jester Laughing comedy, as practiced by Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan Restoration comedy, as practiced by George Etherege, Aphra Behn and John Vanbrugh Sentimental comedy, as practiced by Colley Cibber and Richard Steele Shakespearean comedy, as practiced by William Shakespeare Stand-up comedy Dadaist and Surrealist performance, usually in cabaret form Theatre of the Absurd, used by some critics to describe Samuel Beckett, Harold Pinter, Jean Genet and Eugène Ionesco This list was compiled with reference to The Cambridge Guide to Theatre (1998). Sketch comedy Plays (theater) Musical comedy plays Musical comedy and palace Opera Comic opera Improvisational comedy Improvisational comedy Clowns Bouffon comedy Clowns Stand-up comedy Stand-up comedy is a mode of comic performance in which the performer addresses the audience directly, with the absence of the theatrical "fourth wall", and usually speaks in his own person (rather than as a dramatic character). Comedian Musical comedy Comedy albums Comedy club Stand-up comedy Impressionist (entertainment) Alternative comedy Stand-up comedy events and awards British Comedy Awards Canadian Comedy Awards Cat Laughs Comedy Festival The Comedy Festival, in Aspen, formerly the HBO Comedy Arts Festival Comedy Walk, monthly comedy festival in Los Angeles Edinburgh Festival Fringe Edinburgh Comedy Festival Halifax Comedy Festival Just for laughs festival Leicester Comedy Festival Melbourne International Comedy Festival New Zealand International Comedy Festival New York Underground Comedy Festival HK International Comedy Festival Vancouver Comedy Festival Lists of stand-up comedy performers List of comedians By nationality List of Australian comedians List of British comedians List of Canadian comedians List of Finnish comedians List of German language comedians List of Indian comedians List of Italian comedians List of Mexican comedians List of Puerto Rican comedians Jokes One-liner joke Blonde jokes Shaggy-dog story Paddy Irishman joke Literature Comic novel Light poetry Film Comedy film Anarchic comedy film Gross-out film Parody film Romantic comedy film Screwball comedy film Slapstick film Television and radio Television comedy Situation comedy Dramedy Radio comedy The First Couple of Comedy This is a common nickname for comedienne Lucille Ball and her one-time husband Desi Arnaz. This nickname is based on the eight year success of their show I Love Lucy. Their co-stars Vivian Vance and William Frawley are known as the most famous second bananas in comedy and television. DESILU: The story of Lucille Ball and Desi Arnaz, 1998 Lists of comedy television programs British sitcom British comedy Comedy Central - A television channel devoted strictly to comedy. German television comedy List of British TV shows remade for the American market Paramount Comedy (Spain). Paramount Comedy 1 and 2. TBS (TV network) The Comedy Channel (Australia) The Comedy Channel (UK) The Comedy Channel (USA) not to be confused with HA! - channels that have merged into Comedy Central. The Comedy Network, a Canadian TV channel. See also List of comedies British humour Comedy club Humour Jewish Humour Joke Laughter Rule of three (writing) History of theater Clown Notes References Aristotle, Poetics. Buckham, Philip Wentworth, Theatre of the Greeks, 1827. Marteinson, Peter (2006). On the Problem of the Comic: A Philosophical Study on the Origins of Laughter, Legas Press, Ottawa, 2006. Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy , 1927. The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, 1946. The Dramatic Festivals of Athens, 1953. Raskin, Victor, The Semantic Mechanisms of Humor, 1985. Riu, Xavier, Dionysism and Comedy, 1999. Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, Tragedy and Athenian Religion, Oxford University Press, 2003. Wiles, David, The Masked Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance, 1991. 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6,299 | Diophantine_equation | In mathematics, a Diophantine equation is an indeterminate polynomial equation that allows the variables to be integers only. Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations. In more technical language, they define an algebraic curve, algebraic surface or more general object, and ask about the lattice points on it. The word Diophantine refers to the Hellenistic mathematician of the 3rd century, Diophantus of Alexandria, who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce symbolism into algebra. The mathematical study of Diophantine problems Diophantus initiated is now called "Diophantine analysis". A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of monomials of degree zero or one. While individual equations present a kind of puzzle and have been considered throughout history, the formulation of general theories of Diophantine equations (beyond the theory of quadratic forms) was an achievement of the twentieth century. Examples of Diophantine equations In the following Diophantine equations, x, y, and z are the unknowns, the other letters being given are constants. This is a linear Diophantine equation (see the section "Linear Diophantine equations" below). For n = 2 there are infinitely many solutions (x,y,z), the Pythagorean triples. For larger values of n, Fermat's Last Theorem states that no positive integer solutions (x, y, z) satisfying the equation exist. (Pell's equation) which is named after the English mathematician John Pell. It was studied by Brahmagupta in the 7th century, as well as by Fermat in the 17th century. The Erdős–Straus conjecture states that, for every positive integer n ≥ 2, there exists a solution with x, y, and z all positive integers. Although not usually stated in polynomial form, this example is equivalent to the polynomial equation 4xyz = yzn + xzn + xyn = n(yz + xz + xy). Diophantine analysis Typical questions The questions asked in Diophantine analysis include: Are there any solutions? Are there any solutions beyond some that are easily found by inspection? Are there finitely or infinitely many solutions? Can all solutions be found, in theory? Can one in practice compute a full list of solutions? These traditional problems often lay unsolved for centuries, and mathematicians gradually came to understand their depth (in some cases), rather than treat them as puzzles. Diophantine analysis in India India's contribution to integral solutions of Diophantine equations can be traced back to the Sulba Sutras, which were Indian mathematical texts written between 800 BC and 500 BC. Baudhayana (circa 800 BC) finds two sets of positive integral solutions to a set of simultaneous Diophantine equations, and also attempts simultaneous Diophantine equations with up to four unknowns. Apastamba (circa 600 BC) attempts simultaneous Diophantine equations with up to five unknowns. Diophantine equations were later extensively studied by mathematicians in medieval India, who were the first to systematically investigate methods for determination of integral solutions of Diophantine equations. Systematic methods for finding integer solutions of Diophantine equations could be found in Indian texts from the time of Aryabhata AD (499). The first explicit description of the general integral solution of the linear Diophantine equation ay + bx = c occurs in his text Aryabhatiya. This algorithm is considered to be one of the most significant contributions of Aryabhata in pure mathematics. The technique was applied by Aryabhata to give integral solutions of simultaneous Diophantine equations of first degree, a problem with important applications in astronomy. Aryabhata describes the algorithm in just two stanzas of Aryabhatiya. His cryptic verses were elaborated by Bhaskara I (6th century) in his commentary Aryabhatiya Bhasya. Bhaskara I illustrated Aryabhata's rule with several examples including 24 concrete problems from astronomy. Without the explanation of Bhaskara I, it would have been difficult to interpret Aryabhata's verses. Bhaskara I aptly called the method kuttaka (pulverisation). The idea in kuttaka was later considered so important by the Indians that initially the whole subject of algebra used to be called kuttaka-ganita, or simply kuttaka. Brahmagupta (628) handled more difficult Diophantine equations - he investigated Pell's equation, and in his Samasabhavana he laid out a procedure to solve Diophantine equations of the second order, such as 61x2 + 1 = y2. These methods were unknown in the west, and this very equation was posed as a problem in 1657 by the French mathematician Pierre de Fermat; its solution was found seventy years later by Euler. However, the solution to this equation had been recorded centuries earlier by Bhaskara II (1150) (who also found the solution to Pell's equation), using a modified version of Brahmagupta's method. 17th and 18th centuries In 1637, Pierre de Fermat scribbled on the margin of his copy of Arithmetica: "It is impossible to separate a cube into two cubes, or a fourth power into two fourth powers, or in general, any power higher than the second into two like powers." Stated in more modern language, "The equation an + bn = cn has no solutions for any n higher than two." And then he wrote, intriguingly: "I have discovered a truly marvelous proof of this, which, however, the margin is not large enough to contain." Such a proof eluded mathematicians for centuries, however. As an unproven conjecture that eluded brilliant mathematicians' attempts to either prove it or disprove it for generations, his statement became famous as Fermat's Last Theorem. It wasn't until 1994 that it was proven by the British mathematician Andrew Wiles. In 1657, Fermat attempted the Diophantine equation 61x2 + 1 = y2 (solved by Brahmagupta over 1000 years earlier). The equation was eventually solved by Euler in the early 18th century, who also solved a number of other Diophantine equations. Hilbert's tenth problem In 1900, in recognition of their depth, David Hilbert proposed the solvability of all Diophantine problems as the tenth of his celebrated problems. In 1970, a novel result in mathematical logic known as Matiyasevich's theorem settled the problem negatively: in general Diophantine problems are unsolvable. The point of view of Diophantine geometry, which is the application of techniques from algebraic geometry in this field, has continued to grow as a result; since treating arbitrary equations is a dead end, attention turns to equations that also have a geometric meaning. The central idea of Diophantine geometry is that of a rational point, namely a solution to a polynomial equation or system of simultaneous equations, which is a vector in a prescribed field K, when K is not algebraically closed. Modern research One of the few general approaches is through the Hasse principle. Infinite descent is the traditional method, and has been pushed a long way. The depth of the study of general Diophantine equations is shown by the characterisation of Diophantine sets as equivalently described as recursively enumerable. In other words, the general problem of Diophantine analysis is blessed or cursed with universality, and in any case is not something that will be solved except by re-expressing it in other terms. The field of Diophantine approximation deals with the cases of Diophantine inequalities. Here variables are still supposed to be integral, but some coefficients may be irrational numbers, and the equality sign is replaced by upper and lower bounds. The most celebrated single question in the field, the conjecture known as Fermat's Last Theorem, was solved by Andrew Wiles. His journey through this proof can be found here: . Other major results, such as Faltings' theorem, have disposed of old conjectures. Linear Diophantine equations Linear Diophantine equations take the form ax + by = c. If c is the greatest common divisor of a and b then this is Bézout's identity, and the equation has infinitely many solutions. These can be found by applying the extended Euclidean algorithm. It follows that there are also infinitely many solutions if c is a multiple of the greatest common divisor of a and b. If c is not a multiple of the greatest common divisor of a and b, then the Diophantine equation ax + by = c has no solutions. Exponential Diophantine equations If a Diophantine equation has as an additional variable or variables occurring as exponents, it is an exponential Diophantine equation. One example is the Ramanujan-Nagell equation, 2n − 7 = x2. Such equations do not have a general theory; particular cases such as Catalan's conjecture have been tackled, however the majority are solved via ad hoc methods such as Størmer's theorem or even trial and error. References External links Diophantine Equation. From MathWorld at Wolfram Research. Diophantine Equation. From PlanetMath. Dario Alpern's Online Calculator. 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