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6,100 | Amathus | Amathus (Modern Greek Αμαθούς) was one of the most ancient royal cities of Cyprus, on the southern coast in front of Agios Tychonas, about 24 miles west of Larnaca and 6 miles east of Limassol. Its ancient cult of Aphrodite was the most important in Cyprus, her homeland, after Paphos, Walter Burkert, Greek Religion 1985, p. 153; J. Karageorghis, La grande déesse de Chypre et son culte, 1977. though the ruins of Amathus are less well-preserved than neighbouring Kourion. Pre-history and ancient era Ancient Amathus outside Limassol. The pre-history of Amathus mixes myth and archaeology. Archaeology has detected human activity that is evident from 1100 BC. Its legendary founder was Cinyras, linked with the birth of Adonis, who called the city after his mother Amathous. According to a version of the Ariadne legend noted by Plutarch, Plutarch, vita of Theseus (20.3-.5), citing the lost text of an obscure Amathusan mythographer, Paeon. Theseus abandoned Ariadne at Amathousa, where she died giving birth to her child and was buried in a sacred tomb. According to Plutarch's source, Amathousians called the sacred grove where her shrine was situated the Wood of Aphrodite Ariadne. It was said in antiquity that the people of Amathus were autochthonous, or "Pelasgian". Their non-Greek language is confirmed on the site by inscriptions in the Cypriot syllabary used down to the fourth century BC. More purely Hellenic myth would have Amathus settled by one of the sons of Heracles, accounting for the fact that he was worshipped there. Amathus was built on the coastal cliffs with a view of the sea. It flourished and became a rich kingdom since the early years of its settlement. During the post-Phoenician era of the eighth century a port was also constructed there, which served the trade with the Greeks and the Levantines. High on the cliff a temple was built, which became a special worship site to Aphrodite, the goddess of Beauty and Love. The excavators discovered the final stage of the Temple of Aphrodite, which dates approximately to the first century BC. According to the legend, it was where Adonia took place, in which athletes competed in hunting wild boars during sport competitions; they also competed in dancing and singing, all to the honour of Adonis. Apollo Temple at Amathus-Limassol. The earliest remains hitherto found on the site are tombs of the early Iron Age period of Graeco-Phoenician influences (1000-600 B.C.). Amathus is identified For eample by E. Oberhummer, Die Insel Cypern, i., 1902, pp. 13-14. with Kartihadasti (Phoenician "New-Town") in the Cypriote tribute-list of Esarhaddon of Assyria (668 B.C.). But see Citium. It certainly maintained strong Phoenician sympathies, for it was its refusal to join the philhellene league of Onesilos of Salamis which provoked the revolt of Cyprus from Achaemenid Persia in 500-494 B.C, Herodotus, v. 105 when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilaos. Herodotus reports "Because he had besieged them, the Amathusians cut off Onesilaos’ head and brought it to Amathous, where they hung it above the gates. As it hung there empty, a swarm of bees entered it and filled it with honeycomb. When they sought advice about this event, an oracle told them to take the head down and bury it, and to make annual sacrifice to Onesilaos as a hero, saying that it would be better for them if they did this. The Amathusians did as they were told and still perform these rites in my day." (Histories 5.114) About 385-380 B.C. the philhellene Evagoras of Salamis was similarly opposed by Amathus, in conjunction with Citium and Soli Diodorus Siculus xiv. 98. ; and even after Alexander the city resisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to Seleucus Diodorus xix. 62. . Its political importance now ended, but its temple of Adonis and Aphrodite (Venus Amathusia) remained famous in Roman time. The epithet Amathusia in Roman poetry often means little more than "Cypriote," attesting however the fame of the city. The wealth of Amathus was derived partly from its grain Strabo 340, quoting the mid-sixth century writer Hipponax. partly from its copper mines and sheep See Ovid, Metamorphoses x. 220, 227. 531. , of which traces can be seen inland. G. Mariti, i. 187; L. Ross, Inselreise, iv. 195; W. H. Engel, Kypros, i. 111 ff. Amathus was a rich and densely populated kingdom with a flourishing agriculture and mines situated very close northeast Kalavasos. In the Roman era it became the capital of one of the four administrative regions of Cyprus. In Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages Later, in the fourth century AD Amasus became the see of a Christian bishop and continued to flourish until the Byzantine period. In the late sixth century AD, Ayios Ioannis Eleimonas (Saint John Charitable), protector of the Knights of St. John, was born in Amathus. Map showing the ancient city Kingdoms of Cyprus Amathus still flourished and produced a distinguished patriarch of Alexandria (St. John the Merciful), as late as 606-616, and a ruined Byzantine church marks the site; but it declined and was already almost deserted when Richard Plantagenet won Cyprus by a victory there over Isaac Comnenus in 1191. The tombs were plundered and the stones from the beautiful edifices were brought to Limassol to be used for new constructions. Much later, in 1869, a great number of blocks of stone from Amathus were used for the construction of the Suez Canal. In modern times A new settlement close to Amathus but further inland, Agios Tychonas, is named after St. Tykhon, a bishop of Amathus. The site of the ruins is within the borders of this village, though the expansion of the Limassol tourist area has threatened the ruins (it is speculated that some of the hotels are on top of the Amathus necropolis). The city had vanished, except fragments of wall and of a great stone cistern on the acropolis. A similar vessel was transported to the Musée du Louvre in 1867, a limestone dim, used for storing the must from the grapes, which dates to the sixth century BC. It is 1.85 m. high and weighs 14 tons. It was made from a single stone and has four curved handles bearing the head of a bull. In the 1870s Luigi Palma di Cesnola carried out excavations in the necropolis of Amathus, as elsewhere in Cyprus, enriching the early collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art; some objects went to the British Museum. More modern archaeological joint Cypriote-French excavations started in 1980 and continue. The Acropolis, the Temple of Aphrodite, the market, the city’s walls, the basilica and the port have all been excavated. Further archaeological objects found during the excavations are conserved at the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia, as well as at the Limassol District Archaeological Museum. In the market marble columns are decorated with spiral ornaments; there are huge paved precincts. At the coastal side of the city there are indications of an Early Christian basilica with mosaic floors decorated with semi-precious stones. Farther, near the terraced road leading to the Temple, situated on the top of the cliff, several houses built in a row dating to the Hellenistic period have been discovered. In the east and west extremes of the city the two acropoleis are situated, where a number of tombs have been found, many of which are intact. Two small sanctuaries, with terracotta votive offerings of Graeco-Phoenician age, lie not far off, but the location of the great shrines of Adonis and Aphrodite have not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, Kypros, i. ch.1). Notes References Richard Stillwell, ed. Princeton Encyclopaedia of Classical Sites, 1976: "Amathous, Cyprus" Municipality of Limassol External links Agias Tychonas: Amathus (English) | Amathus |@lemmatized amathus:21 modern:3 greek:4 αμαθούς:1 one:3 ancient:5 royal:1 city:9 cyprus:9 southern:1 coast:1 front:1 agio:2 tychonas:3 mile:2 west:2 larnaca:1 east:2 limassol:7 cult:1 aphrodite:7 important:1 homeland:1 paphos:1 walter:1 burkert:1 religion:1 p:1 j:1 karageorghis:1 la:1 grande:1 déesse:1 de:1 chypre:1 et:1 son:2 culte:1 though:2 ruin:3 less:1 well:2 preserve:1 neighbour:1 kourion:1 pre:2 history:2 era:3 outside:1 mix:1 myth:2 archaeology:2 detect:1 human:1 activity:1 evident:1 bc:4 legendary:1 founder:1 cinyras:1 link:2 birth:2 adonis:4 call:2 mother:1 amathous:3 accord:3 version:1 ariadne:3 legend:2 note:2 plutarch:3 vita:1 theseus:2 cite:1 lose:1 text:1 obscure:1 amathusan:1 mythographer:1 paeon:1 abandon:1 amathousa:1 die:2 give:2 child:1 bury:2 sacred:2 tomb:4 source:1 amathousians:1 grove:1 shrine:2 situate:4 wood:1 say:2 antiquity:2 people:1 autochthonous:1 pelasgian:1 non:1 language:1 confirm:1 site:6 inscription:1 cypriot:1 syllabary:1 use:4 fourth:2 century:7 purely:1 hellenic:1 would:2 settle:1 heracles:1 account:1 fact:1 worship:2 build:3 coastal:2 cliff:3 view:1 sea:1 flourish:3 become:4 rich:2 kingdom:3 since:1 early:5 year:1 settlement:2 post:1 phoenician:5 eighth:1 port:2 also:2 construct:1 serve:1 trade:1 levantine:1 high:2 temple:6 special:1 goddess:1 beauty:1 love:1 excavator:1 discover:2 final:1 stage:1 date:3 approximately:1 first:1 adonia:1 take:2 place:1 athlete:1 compete:2 hunt:1 wild:1 boar:1 sport:1 competition:1 dancing:1 singing:1 honour:1 apollo:1 remain:2 hitherto:1 find:3 iron:1 age:3 period:3 graeco:2 influence:1 b:4 c:4 identify:2 eample:1 e:1 oberhummer:1 insel:1 cypern:1 pp:1 kartihadasti:1 new:3 town:1 cypriote:3 tribute:1 list:1 esarhaddon:1 assyria:1 see:4 citium:2 certainly:1 maintain:1 strong:1 sympathy:1 refusal:1 join:1 philhellene:2 league:1 onesilos:1 salami:2 provoke:1 revolt:1 achaemenid:1 persia:1 herodotus:2 v:1 besiege:2 unsuccessfully:1 avenge:1 capture:1 execution:1 onesilaos:3 report:1 amathusians:2 cut:1 head:3 bring:2 hang:2 gate:1 empty:1 swarm:1 bee:1 enter:1 fill:1 honeycomb:1 seek:1 advice:1 event:1 oracle:1 tell:2 make:2 annual:1 sacrifice:1 hero:1 good:1 still:2 perform:1 rite:1 day:1 histories:1 evagoras:1 similarly:1 oppose:1 conjunction:1 soli:1 diodorus:2 siculus:1 xiv:1 even:1 alexander:1 resist:1 annexation:1 bind:1 hostage:1 seleucus:1 xix:1 political:1 importance:1 end:1 venus:1 amathusia:2 famous:1 roman:3 time:2 epithet:1 poetry:1 often:1 mean:1 little:1 attest:1 however:1 fame:1 wealth:1 derive:1 partly:2 grain:1 strabo:1 quote:1 mid:1 sixth:3 writer:1 hipponax:1 copper:1 mine:2 sheep:1 ovid:1 metamorphose:1 x:1 trace:1 inland:2 g:1 mariti:1 l:1 ross:1 inselreise:1 iv:1 w:1 h:1 engel:1 kypros:2 ff:1 densely:1 populated:1 flourishing:1 agriculture:1 close:2 northeast:1 kalavasos:1 capital:1 four:2 administrative:1 region:1 late:3 middle:1 later:2 ad:2 amasus:1 christian:2 bishop:2 continue:2 byzantine:2 ayios:1 ioannis:1 eleimonas:1 saint:1 john:3 charitable:1 protector:1 knight:1 st:3 bear:2 map:1 show:1 produce:1 distinguish:1 patriarch:1 alexandria:1 merciful:1 ruined:1 church:1 mark:1 decline:1 already:1 almost:1 desert:1 richard:2 plantagenet:1 win:1 victory:1 isaac:1 comnenus:1 plunder:1 stone:5 beautiful:1 edifice:1 construction:2 much:1 great:3 number:2 block:1 suez:1 canal:1 name:1 tykhon:1 within:1 border:1 village:1 expansion:1 tourist:1 area:1 threaten:1 speculate:1 hotel:1 top:2 necropolis:2 vanish:1 except:1 fragment:1 wall:2 cistern:1 acropolis:2 similar:1 vessel:1 transport:1 musée:1 du:1 louvre:1 limestone:1 dim:1 store:1 must:1 grape:1 weigh:1 ton:1 single:1 curve:1 handle:1 bull:1 luigi:1 palma:1 di:1 cesnola:1 carry:1 excavation:3 elsewhere:1 enrich:1 collection:1 metropolitan:1 museum:4 art:1 object:2 go:1 british:1 archaeological:3 joint:1 french:1 start:1 market:2 basilica:2 excavate:1 conserve:1 nicosia:1 district:1 marble:1 column:1 decorate:2 spiral:1 ornament:1 huge:1 paved:1 precinct:1 side:1 indication:1 mosaic:1 floor:1 semi:1 precious:1 farther:1 near:1 terraced:1 road:1 lead:1 several:1 house:1 row:1 hellenistic:1 extreme:1 two:2 acropoleis:1 many:1 intact:1 small:1 sanctuary:1 terracotta:1 votive:1 offering:1 lie:1 far:1 location:1 ohnefalsch:1 richter:1 ch:1 reference:1 stillwell:1 ed:1 princeton:1 encyclopaedia:1 classical:1 municipality:1 external:1 agias:1 english:1 |@bigram walter_burkert:1 plutarch_plutarch:1 temple_aphrodite:2 wild_boar:1 swarm_bee:1 diodorus_siculus:1 ovid_metamorphose:1 densely_populated:1 patriarch_alexandria:1 suez_canal:1 musée_du:1 du_louvre:1 precious_stone:1 votive_offering:1 richard_stillwell:1 stillwell_ed:1 external_link:1 |
6,101 | Calvin_and_Hobbes | Calvin and Hobbes is a comic strip written and illustrated by Bill Watterson, following the humorous antics of Calvin, an imaginative six-year old boy, and Hobbes, his energetic and sardonic—albeit stuffed—tiger. The pair are named after John Calvin, a 16th-century French Reformation theologian, and Thomas Hobbes, a 17th-century English political philosopher. The strip was syndicated daily from November 18, 1985 to December 31, 1995. At its height, Calvin and Hobbes was featured in over 2,400 newspapers worldwide. As of the publication of The Complete Calvin and Hobbes, more than 30 million copies of the 17 previous Calvin and Hobbes books had been sold. Set in the contemporary Eastern United States in an unspecified suburb, the broad themes of the strip deal with Calvin's flights of fantasy and his friendship with Hobbes, his misadventures, his unique views on a diverse range of political and cultural issues and his relationships with the people in his life, especially his parents. The dual nature of Hobbes is also a recurring motif; Calvin sees Hobbes as a live anthropomorphic tiger, while other characters see him as a stuffed animal. Though the series does not mention specific political figures or current events like political strips such as Garry Trudeau's Doonesbury, it does examine broad issues like environmentalism, public education, and the flaws of opinion polls. History Calvin and Hobbes was conceived when Watterson, having worked in an advertising job he detested, began devoting his spare time to cartooning, his true love. He explored various strip ideas but all were rejected by the syndicates to which he sent them. United Feature Syndicate, however, responded positively to one strip, which featured a side character (the main character's little brother) who had a stuffed tiger. Told that these characters were the strongest, Watterson began a new strip centered on them. But United Feature rejected the new strip, and Watterson endured a few more rejections before Universal Press Syndicate decided to take it. The first strip was published on November 18, 1985 and the series quickly became a hit. Within a year of syndication, the strip was published in roughly 250 newspapers. By April 1, 1987, only sixteen months after the strip began, Watterson and his work were featured in an article by The Los Angeles Times. Calvin and Hobbes twice earned Watterson the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society, in the Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year category, first in 1986 and again in 1988. He was nominated again in 1992. The Society awarded him the Humor Comic Strip Award for 1988. Before long, the strip was in wide circulation outside the United States. Watterson took two extended breaks from writing new strips: from May 1991 to February 1992, and from April through December 1994. In 1995, Watterson sent a letter via his syndicate to all editors whose newspapers carried his strip. It contained the following: I will be stopping Calvin and Hobbes at the end of the year. This was not a recent or an easy decision, and I leave with some sadness. My interests have shifted however, and I believe I've done what I can do within the constraints of daily deadlines and small panels. I am eager to work at a more thoughtful pace, with fewer artistic compromises. I have not yet decided on future projects, but my relationship with Universal Press Syndicate will continue. That so many newspapers would carry Calvin and Hobbes is an honor I'll long be proud of, and I've greatly appreciated your support and indulgence over the last decade. Drawing this comic strip has been a privilege and a pleasure, and I thank you for giving me the opportunity. The 3,160th and final strip ran on Sunday, December 31, 1995. It depicted Calvin and Hobbes outside in freshly-fallen snow, reveling in the wonder and excitement of the winter scene. "It's a magical world, Hobbes, ol' buddy... Let's go exploring!" Calvin exclaims as they zoom off on their sled, Watterson (2005), vol. 3, p. 481. Comic originally published 1995-12-31. leaving, according to one critic ten years later, "a hole in the comics page that no strip has been able to fill." “In the final strip, Calvin and Hobbes put aside their conflicts and rode their sled into a snowy forest. They left behind a hole in the comics page that no strip has been able to fill.” Syndication and Formatting From the outset, Watterson found himself at odds with the syndicate, which urged him to begin merchandising the characters and touring the country to promote the first collections of comic strips. Watterson refused. To him, the integrity of the strip and its artist would be undermined by commercialization, which he saw as a major negative influence in the world of cartoon art. Watterson also grew increasingly frustrated by the gradual shrinking of available space for comics in the newspapers. He lamented that without space for anything more than simple dialogue or spare artwork, comics as an art form were becoming dilute, bland, and unoriginal. Watterson strove for a full-page version of his strip, in contrast to the few cells allocated for most strips. He longed for the artistic freedom allotted to classic strips such as Little Nemo and Krazy Kat, and he gave a sample of what could be accomplished with such liberty in the opening pages of the Sunday strip compilation, The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book. During Watterson's first sabbatical from the strip, Universal Press Syndicate continued to charge newspapers full price to re-run old Calvin and Hobbes strips. Few editors approved of the move, but the strip was so popular that they had little choice but to continue to run it for fear that competing newspapers might pick it up and draw its fans away. This half-page layout can easily be rearranged for full, third, and quarter pages. Then, upon Watterson's return, Universal Press announced that Watterson had decided to sell his Sunday strip as an unbreakable half of a newspaper or tabloid page. Many editors and even a few cartoonists, such as Bil Keane (The Family Circus), criticized him for what they perceived as arrogance and an unwillingness to abide by the normal practices of the cartoon business – a charge Watterson ignored. Watterson had negotiated the deal to allow himself more creative freedom in the Sunday comics. Watterson's explanation for the switch: I took a sabbatical after resolving a long and emotionally draining fight to prevent Calvin and Hobbes from being merchandised. Looking for a way to rekindle my enthusiasm for the duration of a new contract term, I proposed a redesigned Sunday format that would permit more panel flexibility. To my surprise and delight, Universal responded with an offer to market the strip as an unbreakable half page (more space than I'd dared to ask for), despite the expected resistance of editors. To this day, my syndicate assures me that some editors liked the new format, appreciated the difference, and were happy to run the larger strip, but I think it's fair to say that this was not the most common reaction. The syndicate had warned me to prepare for numerous cancellations of the Sunday feature, but after a few weeks of dealing with howling, purple-faced editors, the syndicate suggested that papers could reduce the strip to the size tabloid newspapers used for their smaller sheets of paper. ... I focused on the bright side: I had complete freedom of design and there were virtually no cancellations. For all the yelling and screaming by outraged editors, I remain convinced that the larger Sunday strip gave newspapers a better product and made the comics section more fun for readers. Comics are a visual medium. A strip with a lot of drawing can be exciting and add some variety. Proud as I am that I was able to draw a larger strip, I don't expect to see it happen again any time soon. In the newspaper business, space is money, and I suspect most editors would still say that the difference is not worth the cost. Sadly, the situation is a vicious circle: because there's no room for better artwork, the comics are simply drawn; because they're simply drawn, why should they have more room? Calvin and Hobbes remained extremely popular after the change and thus Watterson was able to expand his style and technique for the more spacious Sunday strips without losing carriers. Animation Watterson did consider allowing Calvin and Hobbes to be animated, and has expressed admiration for the art form. In a 1989 interview in The Comics Journal, Watterson states: If you look at the old cartoons by Tex Avery and Chuck Jones, you'll see that there are a lot of things single drawings just can't do. Animators can get away with incredible distortion and exaggeration... because the animator can control the length of time you see something. The bizarre exaggeration barely has time to register, and the viewer doesn't ponder the incredible license he's witnessed. In a comic strip, you just show the highlights of action – you can't show the buildup and release... or at least not without slowing down the pace of everything to the point where it's like looking at individual frames of a movie, in which case you've probably lost the effect you were trying to achieve. In a comic strip, you can suggest motion and time, but it's very crude compared to what an animator can do. I have a real awe for good animation. After this he was asked if it was "a bit scary to think of hearing Calvin's voice". He responded that it was "very scary", and that although he loved the visual possibilities of animation, the thought of casting voice actors to play his characters was uncomfortable. He was also unsure whether he wanted to work with an animation team, as he had done all previous work by himself. Ultimately, Calvin and Hobbes was never made into an animated series. Watterson later stated in the Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book that he liked the fact that his strip was a "low-tech, one-man operation", and took great pride in the fact that he drew every line and wrote every word on his own. Watterson (1995), p. 11 Merchandising Bill Watterson is notable for his insistence that cartoon strips should stand on their own as an art form, and he has resisted the use of Calvin and Hobbes in merchandising of any sort. This insistence stuck despite the fact that it could have generated millions of dollars per year in additional personal income. Watterson explained in a 2005 press release: Actually, I wasn't against all merchandising when I started the strip, but each product I considered seemed to violate the spirit of the strip, contradict its message, and take me away from the work I loved. If my syndicate had let it go at that, the decision would have taken maybe 30 seconds of my life. Because of Watterson's strong anti-merchandising stance and his reluctance to return to the spotlight, almost no legitimate Calvin and Hobbes merchandise exists outside of the book collections . Exceptions include: two 16-month calendars (1988–1989 and 1989–1990), the textbook Teaching with Calvin and Hobbes, and one T-shirt for a traveling art exhibit on comics. However, the strip's immense popularity has led to the appearance of various counterfeit items such as window decals and T-shirts that often feature crude humor, binge drinking and other themes that are not found in Watterson's work. Watterson (1995), p. 12 After threat of a lawsuit alleging infringement of copyright and trademark, some of the sticker makers replaced Calvin with a different boy, while other makers ignored the issue. Watterson wryly commented, "I clearly miscalculated how popular it would be to show Calvin urinating on a Ford logo." Style and influences Calvin and Hobbes strips are characterized by sparse but careful craftsmanship, intelligent humor, poignant observations, witty social and political commentary, and well-developed characters. Precedents to Calvin's fantasy world can be found in Crockett Johnson's Barnaby, Charles M. Schulz's Peanuts, Percy Crosby's Skippy, Berkeley Breathed's Bloom County, and George Herriman's Krazy Kat, while Watterson's use of comics as sociopolitical commentary reaches back to Walt Kelly's Pogo and Quino's Mafalda. Schulz and Kelly, in particular, influenced Watterson's outlook on comics during his formative years. In initial strips, the drawings have a more cartoony, flat, crude, Peanuts-like look; in later strips, the drawings are three-dimensional. Notable elements of Watterson's artistic style are his characters' diverse and often exaggerated expressions (particularly those of Calvin), elaborate and bizarre backgrounds for Calvin's flights of imagination, well-captured kinetics, and frequent visual jokes and metaphors. In the later years of the strip, with more space available for his use, Watterson experimented more freely with different panel layouts, art styles, stories without dialogue, and greater use of whitespace. He also made a point of not showing certain things explicitly: the "Noodle Incident" and the children's book Hamster Huey and the Gooey Kablooie were left to the reader's imagination, where Watterson was sure they would be "more outrageous" than he could portray. Watterson (1995), p. 200. Watterson's technique started with minimalist pencil sketches drawn with a light pencil (though the larger Sunday strips often required more elaborate work); he then would use a small sable brush and India ink on the Strathmore bristol board to complete most of the remaining drawing. He lettered dialogue with a Rapidograph fountain pen, and he used a crowquill pen for odds and ends. Watterson (1995), p. 20 He used Liquid Paper to correct mistakes. He was careful in his use of color, often spending a great deal of time in choosing the right colors to employ for the weekly Sunday strip. When Calvin and Hobbes started, there were 64 colors available for the Sunday strips. For the later Sunday strips, Watterson had 125 colors, as well as the ability to fade the colors into each other. Art and academia Watterson used the strip to criticize the artistic world, principally through Calvin's unconventional creations of snowmen but also through other expressions of childhood art. When Miss Wormwood complains that he is wasting class time drawing incomprehensible things (a Stegosaurus in a rocket ship, for example), Calvin proclaims himself "on the cutting edge of the avant-garde". He begins exploring the medium of snow when a warm day melts his snowman. His next sculpture "speaks to the horror of our own mortality, inviting the viewer to contemplate the evanescence of life". In further strips, Calvin's creative instincts diversify to include sidewalk drawings (or as he terms them, examples of "suburban postmodernism"). Watterson also lampooned the academic world. In one example, Calvin writes a "revisionist autobiography", recruiting Hobbes to take pictures of him doing stereotypical kid activities like playing sports in order to make him seem more well-adjusted. In another strip, he carefully crafts an "artist's statement", claiming that such essays convey more messages than artworks themselves ever do (Hobbes blandly notes "You misspelled Weltanschauung"). He indulges in what Watterson calls "pop psychobabble" to justify his destructive rampages and shift blame to his parents, citing "toxic codependency". In one instance, he pens a book report based on the theory that the purpose of academic writing is to "inflate weak ideas, obscure poor reasoning, and inhibit clarity", entitled The Dynamics of Interbeing and Monological Imperatives in Dick and Jane: A Study in Psychic Transrelational Gender Modes. Displaying his creation to Hobbes, he remarks, "Academia, here I come!" Watterson explains that he adapted this jargon (and similar examples from several other strips) from an actual book of art criticism. Overall, Watterson's satirical essays serve to attack both sides, criticizing both the commercial mainstream and the artists who are supposed to be "outside" it. Not long after he began drawing his "Dinosaurs In Rocket Ships" series, Calvin tells Hobbes: The hard part for us avant-garde post-modern artists is deciding whether or not to embrace commercialism. Do we allow our work to be hyped and exploited by a market that's simply hungry for the next new thing? Do we participate in a system that turns high art into low art so it's better suited for mass consumption? Of course, when an artist goes commercial, he makes a mockery of his status as an outsider and free thinker. He buys into the crass and shallow values art should transcend. He trades the integrity of his art for riches and fame. Oh, what the heck. I'll do it. A Sunday, June 21, 1992 strip discussing the Big Bang coined the term "Horrendous Space Kablooie" for the event, a term which has achieved some tongue-in-cheek popularity among the scientific community, particularly in informal discussion and often shortened to "the HSK". The term has also been referenced in newspapers, books, and as a part of university courses. Social criticisms In addition to his criticisms of art and academia, Watterson often used the strip to comment on American culture and society. With rare exception, the strip avoids reference to actual people or events. Watterson's commentary is therefore necessarily generalized. He expresses frustration with public decadence and apathy, with commercialism, and with the pandering nature of the mass media. Watterson's vehicle for criticism is often Hobbes, who comments on Calvin's unwholesome habits from a more cynical perspective. He is more likely to make a wry observation than actually intervene; he may merely watch as Calvin inadvertently makes the point himself. In one instance, Calvin tells Hobbes about a science fiction story he has read in which machines turn humans into zombie slaves. Hobbes makes a comment about the irony of machines controlling people instead of the other way around; Calvin then exclaims, "I'll say. Hey! What time is it?? My TV show is on!" and sprints back inside to watch it. Passage of time When the strips were originally published, Calvin's settings were seasonally appropriate for the Northern Hemisphere. Calvin would be seen building snowmen or sledding during the period from November through February or so, and outside activities such as water balloon fights would replace school from June through August. Christmas and Halloween strips were run during those times of year. Although Watterson depicts several years' worth of holidays, school years, summer vacations, and camping trips, and characters are aware of multiple "current" years (such as "'94 model toboggans", "Vote Dad in '88", the '90s as the new decade, etc.) Calvin is never shown to age, pass to second grade, nor have any birthday celebrations. (The only birthday ever shown was that of Susie Derkins.) Such temporal distortions are fairly common among comic strips, as with the children in Peanuts, who existed without aging for decades. Likewise, the characters in Krazy Kat celebrate the New Year but never grow old, and young characters like Ignatz Mouse's offspring never seem to grow up. These uses of a floating timeline are very unlike series such as Gasoline Alley, Doonesbury and (until 2008) For Better or For Worse, in which the characters age each year with their reading audience, get married, and have children. While Calvin does not grow older in the strip, reference is made in two strips – from November 17 and 18, 1995 (ten years since the strip's debut) – to Calvin having once been two and three years old and now feeling that "a lifetime of experience has left [him] bitter and cynical". "This is a photograph of me when I was two", he tells Hobbes while flipping through a family photo album, and later remarks: "Isn't it weird that one's own past can seem unreal?" Temporal suspension is a common narrative device among many comic strips, and readers are likely to suspend disbelief regarding his age and his precocious vocabulary, accepting that he "was never a literal six-year-old". Academic response In her book When Toys Come Alive, Lois Rostow Kuznets discusses Calvin and Hobbes in the context of other literature featuring living toys. She argues that these toys are examples of transitional objects that mediate childhood experience and the adult world, where Hobbes serves both as a figure of Calvin's childish fantasy life and as an outlet for the expression of libidinous desires more associated with adults. She cites, for example, a strip where Hobbes expresses a fantasy of playing "saxophone for an all-girl cabaret in New Orleans" as an example where Hobbes expresses a desire that is more sophisticated and adult than Calvin's frame of reference usually allows. Kuznets also looks at Calvin's other fantasies, suggesting that they are a second tier of fantasies utilized in places like school where transitional objects such as Hobbes would not be socially acceptable. A second line of argument comes from Philip Sandifer, who uses Calvin and Hobbes as the main example for a reading of comic strips based on the psychoanalytic theories of Jacques Lacan. He draws parallel between Hobbes's status as an imaginary friend and the Lacanian concept of the Imaginary, suggesting that a given comic strip is an attempt to construct a momentary and ephemeral present that will be dismantled by the punchline (which he allies with the Lacanian Real), wiping the slate and allowing the process to begin again the next day. He suggests that the strip takes place in an eternal present with no real reference to its past, which is erased each day with the punchline so that a new present can be constructed. He also looks at the later Sunday strips, which are known for the technical skill Watterson displayed when given a more unrestricted layout, arguing that his layouts are best read not in terms of their use of space but in terms of their depiction of time. Characters Calvin Calvin Named after the 16th-century theologian, Calvin is an impulsive, sometimes overly creative, imaginative, energetic, curious, intelligent, often selfish, rude, and a usually bad-tempered six-year-old, whose last name is never mentioned in the strip. Despite his low grades, Calvin has a wide vocabulary range that exceeds that of many adults as well as an emerging philosophical mind: Calvin: "Dad, are you vicariously living through me in the hope that my accomplishments will validate your mediocre life and in some way compensate for all of the opportunities you botched?" Father: "If I were, you can bet I'd be re-evaluating my strategy." Calvin, later to his mother: "Mom, Dad keeps insulting me." He commonly wears his distinctive red-and-black striped shirt, black pants, and white and magenta sneakers. Watterson (2005), vol. 1, p. 303. Comic originally published 1987-07-26. He is also an enthusiastic reader of comic books and has a tendency to order items marketed in comic books or on boxes of his favorite cereal, Chocolate Frosted Sugar Bombs. Watterson has described Calvin thus: "Calvin is pretty easy to do because he is outgoing and rambunctious and there's not much of a filter between his brain and his mouth." I guess he's a little too intelligent for his age. The thing that I really enjoy about him is that he has no sense of restraint, he doesn't have the experience yet to know the things that you shouldn't do." Hobbes Hobbes From everyone else's point of view, Hobbes is Calvin's stuffed tiger. From Calvin's point of view, however, Hobbes is an anthropomorphic tiger, much larger than Calvin and full of independent attitudes and ideas. But when the perspective shifts to any other character, readers again see merely a stuffed animal, usually seated at an off-kilter angle. This is, of course, an odd dichotomy, and Watterson explains it thus: "When Hobbes is a stuffed toy in one panel and alive in the next, I'm juxtaposing the "grown-up" version of reality with Calvin's version, and inviting the reader to decide which is truer." Hobbes' true nature is made more ambiguous by episodes that seem to attribute real-life consequences to Hobbes's actions. One example is his habit of pouncing on Calvin the moment he arrives home from school, an act which always leaves Calvin with bruises and scrapes that are evident to other characters. In another incident among many others, Hobbes manages to tie Calvin to a chair in such a way that Calvin's father is unable to understand how he could have done it himself. Hobbes is named after the 17th-century philosopher Thomas Hobbes, who had what Watterson described as "a dim view of human nature". Hobbes (the tiger) is much more rational and aware of consequences than Calvin, but seldom interferes with Calvin's troublemaking beyond a few oblique warnings – after all, Calvin will be the one to get into trouble for it, not Hobbes. Hobbes is sarcastic when Calvin is being hypocritical about things he dislikes. Although the first strips clearly show Calvin capturing Hobbes by means of a snare (with a tuna sandwich as the bait), a later comic (August 1, 1989) seems to imply that Hobbes is, in fact, older than Calvin, and has been around his whole life, quoting: Calvin: "The whole first half of my life is a complete blank!" Hobbes: "I seem to recall you spent most of the time burping up." Watterson eventually decided that it was not important to establish how Calvin and Hobbes had first met. Calvin's parents Dad's first appearance: November 18, 1985 Dad's last appearance: December 3, 1995 Mom's first appearance: November 26, 1985 Mom's last appearance: December 21, 1995 Calvin's mother and father are for the most part typical Middle American middle-class parents. Like many other characters in the strip, their relatively down-to-earth and sensible attitudes serve primarily as a foil for Calvin's outlandish behavior. At the beginning of the strip, Watterson says some fans were angered by the way Calvin's parents thought of Calvin (his father has remarked that he would have preferred a dog instead). They are not above the occasional cruelty: his mother provided him with a cigarette to teach him a lesson, and his father often tells him outrageous lies when asked a straight question. Calvin's father is a patent attorney; his mother is a stay-at-home mom. Both parents go through the entire strip unnamed, except as "Mom" and "Dad", or pet names such as "honey" and "dear" when referring to each other. Watterson has never given Calvin's parents names "because as far as the strip is concerned, they are important only as Calvin's mom and dad". This ended up being somewhat problematic when Calvin's Uncle Max was in the strip for a week and could not refer to the parents by name. It was one of the main reasons that Max never reappeared. Susie Derkins First appearance: December 5, 1985 Last appearance: December 16, 1995 Susie Derkins, the only important secondary character with both a given name and a family name, is a classmate of Calvin's who lives in his neighborhood. Named for the pet beagle of Watterson's wife's family, she first appeared early in the strip as a new student in Calvin's class. In contrast with Calvin, she is polite and diligent in her studies, and her imagination usually seems mild-mannered and civilized, consisting of stereotypical young girl games such as playing house or having tea parties with her stuffed animals. Though both of them hate to admit it, Calvin and Susie have quite a bit in common. For example, Susie is shown on occasion with a stuffed rabbit dubbed "Mr. Bun", and Calvin, of course, has Hobbes. Susie also has a mischievous streak, which can be seen when she subverts Calvin's attempts to cheat on school tests by feeding him incorrect answers. Susie also regularly bests Calvin in confrontations, such as their water and snowball fights, employing guile or force. Watterson admits that Calvin and Susie have a bit of a nascent crush on each other, and that Susie is inspired by the type of woman that he himself finds attractive and eventually married. Hobbes often openly expresses his admiration for Susie, much to Calvin's disgust. Recurring elements There are many gags in this strip, and some are in reality while others are from imagination. The gags are as follows: Calvin's roles Calvin imagines himself as a great many things, including dinosaurs, elephants, jungle-farers and superheroes. Three of his alter egos are well-defined and recurring: As "Stupendous Man", he pictures himself as a superhero in disguise, wearing a mask and a cape made by his mother, and narrating his own adventures. Stupendous Man almost always "suffers defeat" to his opponent, usually Calvin's mother. However, when Hobbes asked him if Stupendous Man has ever won any battles, Calvin says all his battles are "moral victories." "Spaceman Spiff" is a heroic spacefarer who narrates his experiences in the third person. As Spiff, Calvin battles aliens (typically his parents or teacher) with a ray gun known as a "zorcher" and travels to distant planets (his house, school, or neighborhood). Interestingly enough, Calvin's self-narration as Spaceman Spiff tends to have recurring examples of alliteration: "Zounds! Zorched by zarches, Spaceman Spiff's crippled craft crashes on planet Plootarg!" Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons p 95 "Tracer Bullet", a hardboiled private eye, says he has eight slugs in him: "One's lead, and the rest are bourbon." In one story, Bullet is called to a case, in which a "pushy dame" (Calvin's mother) accuses him of destroying an expensive lamp (broken as a result of an indoor football game between Calvin and Hobbes). Cardboard boxes Calvin duplicating himself, as seen on the cover of Scientific Progress Goes "Boink" Over the years Calvin has had several adventures involving corrugated cardboard boxes which he adapts for many different uses. In one strip, where Calvin shows off his Transmogrifier, Hobbes admits "it's amazing what they do with corrugated cardboard these days." The Essential Calvin and Hobbes p 229 Some of his many uses of cardboard boxes include: Transmogrifier - poised upside down, you crawl underneath. Flying time machine - right side up, you climb in. Duplicator (with ethicator enhancement) - turned on its side. In one instance, an "ethicator" was added to create a duplicate of only Calvin's good side. Atomic Cerebral Enhance-O-Tron - hooked up to a pasta strainer. Emergency G.R.O.S.S. meeting "box of secrecy" Watterson (2005), vol. 3, pp. 356–359. Comics originally published 1995-03-20 to 1995-04-01. - also upside down, only seen once. A costume of a robot or "world's most powerful computer" Homicidal Psycho Jungle Cat pp 144-145 A stand for selling things, such as lemonade, Watterson (2005), vol. 3, p. 164. Comic originally published 1993-04-04 "Suicide Drink," Homicidal Psycho Jungle Cat p 175 "Calvin's Miracle Potion" quickly changed to "Calvin's Debilitating Disease Drink," "scientific names," Homicidal Psycho Jungle Cat p 84 "insurance" (from himself), The Essential Calvin and Hobbes p 29 "a swift kick in the butt," The Days Are Just Packed p 68 "candid opinions," Homicidal Psycho Jungle Cat p 121 "great ideas," The Days Are Just Packed p 120 "life," and a "frank appraisal of your looks". Watterson (2005), vol. 3, p. 400. Comic originally published 1995-06-30. - turned upside down, however he sits in a chair behind it. Calvinball Calvinball is a game played by Calvin and Hobbes as a rebellion against organized team sports; according to Hobbes, "No sport is less organized than Calvinball!" Watterson (2005), vol. 2, pp. 268–273. Comics originally published 1990-04-16 to 1990-05-05. The game is first introduced in a three-week story in 1990, where Calvin is bullied into signing up to play baseball, cursed when he proves a poor player, and then insulted when he quits. Calvin and Hobbes usually play by themselves, although Rosalyn plays once in return for Calvin doing his homework, and does very well for herself after eventually realizing that the rules are made up on the spot. Watterson (2005), vol. 3, pp. 430–433. Comics originally published 1995-09-04 to 1995-09-16. Most games that Calvin and Hobbes play eventually turn into Calvinball. Watterson (2005), vol. 3, p. 438. Comic originally published 1995-09-24. The only consistent rule is that Calvinball may never be played with the same rules twice. Watterson (2005), vol. 2, p. 292. Comic originally published 1990-05-27. Scoring is also arbitrary: Hobbes has reported scores of "Q to 12" and "oogy to boogy". Watterson (2005), vol. 2, pp. 292, 336. Comics originally published 1990-05-27 and 1990-08-26. Equipment includes a volleyball (the eponymous "Calvinball"), a soccer ball, a croquet set, a badminton set, assorted flags, bags, signs, and a hobby horse. Other things are included as needed, such as a bucket of ice-cold water, a water balloon, and various songs and poetry. Watterson (2005), vol. 2, pp. 273, 292, 336, 429; vol 3, pp. 430–433, 438. Comics originally published 1990-05-05, 1990-05-27, 1990-08-26, 1991-03-31, 1995-09-04 to 1995-09-16, and 1995-09-24. Players also wear masks that resemble blindfolds with holes for the eyes. When asked how to play, Watterson states, "It's pretty simple: you make up the rules as you go." Watterson (1995), p. 129. Calvinball is essentially a game of wits and creativity rather than stamina or athletic skill, a prominent nomic (self-modifying) game, and one where Hobbes usually outwits Calvin himself. Wagon and sled Calvin and Hobbes frequently ride downhill in a wagon, sled, or toboggan, depending on the season, as a device to add some physical comedy to the strip and because, according to Watterson, "it's a lot more interesting [...] than talking heads". Watterson (1995), p. 104. While the ride is sometimes the focus of the strip, Watterson (2005), vol. 2, pp. 233, 325. Comics originally published 1990-01-07 and 1990-08-10. it also frequently serves as a counterpoint or visual metaphor while Calvin ponders the meaning of life, death, God, or a variety of other weighty subjects. Watterson (2005), vol. 1, pp. 26, 56, 217; vol. 2, pp. 120, 237, 267, 298, 443; vol 3, pp. 16, 170, 224, 326, 414. Comics originally published 1985-11-30, 1986-02-07, 1987-01-11, 1989-05-28, 1990-02-04, 1990-04-15, 1990-06-10, 1992-02-02, 1992-05-17, 1993-04-18, 1993-08-22, 1995-01-14, and 1995-07-30. Most of their rides end in a spectacular crash when they ride off a cliff, leaving the sled battered and broken, and on one occasion, on fire in winter. Watterson (2005), vol. 2, p. 373. Comic originally published 1990-12-01. In the final strip, Calvin and Hobbes depart on their toboggan to explore the possibilities of their wintry "magical world". Books For the complete list of books, see List of Calvin and Hobbes books. The first Calvin and Hobbes treasury. There are eighteen Calvin and Hobbes books, published from 1987 to 2005. These include eleven collections, which form a complete archive of the newspaper strips, except for a single daily strip from November 28, 1985 (the collections do contain a strip for this date, but it is not the same strip that appeared in some newspapers. The alternate strip, a joke about Hobbes taking a bath in the washing machine, has circulated around the Internet). Comparison of alternate strip from November 28, 1985 Treasuries usually combine the two preceding collections with bonus material and include color reprints of Sunday comics. Watterson included some new material in the treasuries. In The Essential Calvin and Hobbes, which includes cartoons from the collections Calvin and Hobbes, and Something under the Bed is Drooling the back cover features a scene of a giant Calvin rampaging through a town. The scene is based on Watterson's home town of Chagrin Falls, Ohio, and Calvin is holding the Chagrin Falls Popcorn Shop, an iconic candy and ice cream shop overlooking the town's namesake falls. Several of the treasuries incorporate additional poetry; The Indispensable Calvin and Hobbes book features a set of poems, ranging from just a few lines to an entire page, that cover topics such as exploration and Calvin's mother's "hindsight" and exploring the woods. In The Essential Calvin and Hobbes, Watterson presents a long poem explaining a night's battle against a monster from Calvin's perspective. A complete collection of Calvin and Hobbes strips, in three hardcover volumes with a total 1440 pages, was released on October 4, 2005, by Andrews McMeel Publishing. It also includes color prints of the art used on paperback covers, the treasuries' extra illustrated stories and poems, and a new introduction by Bill Watterson. The alternate 1985 strip is still omitted, and two other strips (January 7, 1987, and November 25, 1988) have altered dialog. Watterson (2005), vol. 1, p. 215; vol. 2, p. 33. Watterson (1995), p. 43. To celebrate the release (which coincided with the strip's ten year absence in newspapers and the twentieth anniversary of the strip), Calvin and Hobbes reruns were made available to newspapers from Sunday, September 4, 2005, through Saturday, December 31, 2005, and Bill Watterson answered a select fifteen questions submitted by readers. Early books were printed in smaller format in black and white; these were later reproduced in twos in color in the "Treasuries" (Essential, Authoritative, and Indispensable), except for the contents of Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons. Those Sunday strips were never reprinted in color until the Complete collection was finally published in 2005. Every book since Snow Goons has been printed in a larger format with Sundays in color and weekday and Saturday strips larger than they appeared in most newspapers. Watterson also claims he named the books the "Essential, Authoritative, and Indispensable" because as he says in The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book, the books are "obviously none of these things". An officially licensed children's textbook entitled Teaching with Calvin and Hobbes was published in a limited single print-run in 1993. The book includes various Calvin and Hobbes strips together with lessons and questions to follow, such as, "What do you think the principal meant when he said they had quite a file'' on Calvin?" (108). The book is very rare and increasingly sought by collectors. Notes References External links Official sites CalvinAndHobbes.com: The Official Calvin and Hobbes site at GoComics Official Calvin and Hobbes Publicity site at Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC Fan sites Calvin and Hobbes :: Magic on Paper The Calvin and Hobbes Album Multimedia Further reading | Calvin_and_Hobbes |@lemmatized calvin:140 hobbes:92 comic:40 strip:99 write:4 illustrate:2 bill:4 watterson:82 follow:3 humorous:1 antic:1 imaginative:2 six:3 year:20 old:9 boy:2 energetic:2 sardonic:1 albeit:1 stuffed:8 tiger:6 pair:1 name:11 john:1 century:4 french:1 reformation:1 theologian:2 thomas:2 english:1 political:5 philosopher:2 syndicate:12 daily:3 november:9 december:8 height:1 feature:10 newspaper:17 worldwide:1 publication:1 complete:8 million:2 copy:1 previous:2 book:23 sell:3 set:4 contemporary:1 eastern:1 united:4 state:5 unspecified:1 suburb:1 broad:2 theme:2 deal:4 flight:2 fantasy:6 friendship:1 misadventure:1 unique:1 view:4 diverse:2 range:3 cultural:1 issue:3 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6,102 | August_Derleth | August Derleth. August William Derleth (February 24, 1909 – July 4 1971) was an American writer and anthologist. Though best remembered as the first publisher of the writings of H. P. Lovecraft, and for his own contributions to the Cthulhu Mythos genre of horror, Derleth was a prolific writer in several genres, including historical fiction, poetry, detective fiction, and biography. Life The son of William Julius Derleth and his wife Rose Louise Volk, he grew up in Sauk City, Wisconsin. "August Derleth Services Wednesday in Sauk City," Capital Times, July 6, 1971, p. 24, col. 2. At the age of 16, he sold his first story to Weird Tales magazine. Derleth wrote throughout his four years at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, where he received a B.A. in 1930. "Author August Derleth Dies," Capital Times, July 5, 1971, p. 1, col. 6. During this time he also served briefly as editor of Mystic Magazine. In the mid-1930s he organised a Ranger's Club for young people, served as clerk and president of the local Board of Education, served as a parole officer, organised a local Men's Club and a Parent-Teacher Association. Derleth, August. "An Autobiography." He also lectured in American Regional Literature at the University of Wisconsin. In 1941 he became literary editor of The Capital Times newspaper in Madison, a post he held until his resignation in 1960. Derleth was married April 6 1953 to Sandra Evelyn Winters; they were divorced six years later. "Author August Derleth Dies," Capital Times, July 5, 1971, p. 1, col. 6. He retained custody of their two children, April Rose and Walden William. In 1960, Derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called Hawk and Whippoorwill, dedicated to poems of man and nature. He died on July 4, 1971 and is buried in St. Aloysius Cemetery in Sauk City. "August Derleth Services Wednesday in Sauk City," Capital Times, July 6, 1971, p. 24, col. 1. Arkham House and the Cthulhu Mythos Derleth near the time he began working on the Cthulhu Mythos. Derleth was a correspondent and friend of H. P. Lovecraft – when Lovecraft wrote about "le Comte d'Erlette" in his fiction, it was in homage to Derleth. Derleth invented the term Cthulhu Mythos to describe the fictional universe described in the series of stories shared by Lovecraft and other writers in his circle. Derleth's own writing emphasized the struggle between good and evil, in line with his own Christian world view and in contrast with Lovecraft's depiction of an amoral universe. Derleth also treated Lovecraft's Old Ones as representatives of elemental forces, creating new entities to flesh out this framework. When Lovecraft died in 1937, Derleth and Donald Wandrei put together a collection of that author's stories and tried to get them published. With existing publishers showing little interest, they founded Arkham House in 1939 to do it themselves. The name of the company came from Lovecraft's fictional town of Arkham, Massachusetts, which is featured in many of his stories. In 1939 Arkham House published The Outsider and Others, a huge collection that contained most of Lovecraft's known short stories. Derleth and Wandrei soon expanded Arkham House and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book, Someone in the Dark, a collection of some of Derleth's own horror stories, was published in 1941. Following Lovecraft's death, Derleth wrote a number of stories based on fragments and notes left by Lovecraft. These were published in Weird Tales and later in book form, under the byline "H. P. Lovecraft and August Derleth", with Derleth calling himself a "posthumous collaborator." This practice has raised objections in some quarters that Derleth simply used Lovecraft's name to market what was essentially his own fiction; S. T. Joshi refers to the "posthumous collaborations" as marking the beginning of "perhaps the most disreputable phase of Derleth's activities" Joshi, H. P. Lovecraft: A Life, Necronomicon Press 1996, p.638. . A significant number of H. P. Lovecraft fans and critics, such as Dirk W. Mosig Mosig, "H. P. Lovecraft: Myth Maker" (1976), collected in Mosig at Last, Necronomicon Press 1997. and S. T. Joshi, Joshi, H. P. Lovecraft: A Life, Necronomicon Press 1996, pp. 403-4. were dissatisfied with Derleth's invention of the term Cthulhu Mythos and his belief that Lovecraft's fiction had an overall pattern reflecting Derleth's own Christian world view. Still there is little but praise for Derleth for his founding of Arkham House and for his successful effort to rescue Lovecraft from literary obscurity. Ramsey Campbell has also acknowledged Derleth's encouragement and guidance during the early part of his own writing career, For example, in The Count of Thirty (Necronomicon Press 1993), p.11. and Kirby McCauley has cited Derleth and Arkham House as an inspiration for his own anthology, Dark Forces. Kirby McCauley, Introduction, Dark Forces (1980). Other writing Derleth at his typewriter. Derleth wrote more than 150 short stories and more than 100 books during his lifetime. Included among that number were several novels about a Sherlock Holmes-like British detective named Solar Pons. His other series included the Sac Prairie Saga, the Wisconsin Saga, and the Judge Peck mystery series. He also wrote introductions to several collections of classic early 20th century comics such as Buster Brown, Little Nemo in Slumberland, and Katzenjammer Kids, as well as a book of children's poetry entitled A Boy's Way. Derleth also wrote under the pseudonyms Stephen Grendon, Kenyon Holmes, and Tally Mason. Derleth's papers and comic book collection were donated to the Wisconsin Historical Society in Madison. Derleth, August, 1909 - 1971 Bibliography Novels Short story collections Short fiction Journals Village Year: A Sac Prairie Journal (1941) [Sac Prairie Saga] Village Daybook (1947) [Sac Prairie Saga] Countryman's Journal (1963) [Sac Prairie Saga] Wisconsin Country: A Sac Prairie Journal (1965) [Sac Prairie Saga] Return to Walden West (1970) [Sac Prairie Saga] Poems Incubus (1934) Omega (1934) To a Spaceship (1934) Man and the Cosmos (1935) "Only Deserted" (1937) The Shores of Night (1947) Providence: Two Gentlemen Meet at Midnight (1948) Jacksnipe Over (1971) Something Left Behind (1971) Poetry collections Essays/articles Biography Still Small Voice (1940) – biography of newpaperwoman and writer Zona Gale H.P.L.: A Memoir (1945) Some Notes on H. P. Lovecraft (1959) Concord Rebel: A Life of Henry D. Thoreau (1962) History The Wisconsin: River of a Thousand Isles (1942) The Milwaukee Road: Its First Hundred Years (1948) Saint Ignatius and the Company of Jesus (1956) Columbus and the New World (1957) Father Marquette and the Great Rivers (1959) Anthologies As Stephen Grendon With H. P. Lovecraft With Marc R. Schorer Other collaborations The Churchyard Yew (1947) as Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu The Adventure of the Snitch in Time (1953) with Mack Reynolds The Adventure of the Ball of Nostradamus (1955) with Mack Reynolds The House in the Oaks (1971) with Robert E. Howard See also List of authors of new Sherlock Holmes stories List of horror fiction authors List of people from Wisconsin Mark Schorer Non-canonical Sherlock Holmes works Sauk City, Wisconsin Notes References Meudt, Edna. 'August Derleth: "A simple, honorable man",' Wisconsin Academy Review, 19:2 (Summer, 1972) 8-11. Schorer, Mark. "An Appraisal of the Work of August Derleth," The Capital Times, July 9, 1971. External links The August Derleth Society A more detailed biography A short autobiography Online catalog for Derleth's collection at the Wisconsin Historical Society Arkham House Publishers founded by Derleth Stanton & Lee Publishers founded by Derleth August Derleth Bibliography | August_Derleth |@lemmatized august:13 derleth:43 william:3 february:1 july:7 american:2 writer:4 anthologist:1 though:1 best:1 remember:1 first:3 publisher:4 writing:3 h:10 p:16 lovecraft:21 contribution:1 cthulhu:5 mythos:5 genre:2 horror:3 prolific:1 several:3 include:3 historical:3 fiction:7 poetry:3 detective:2 biography:4 life:4 son:1 julius:1 wife:1 rise:2 louise:1 volk:1 grow:1 sauk:5 city:5 wisconsin:11 service:2 wednesday:2 capital:6 time:9 col:4 age:1 sell:1 story:10 weird:2 tale:2 magazine:3 write:7 throughout:1 four:1 year:4 university:2 madison:3 receive:1 b:1 author:5 dy:2 also:7 serve:3 briefly:1 editor:2 mystic:1 mid:1 organise:2 ranger:1 club:2 young:1 people:2 clerk:1 president:1 local:2 board:1 education:1 parole:1 officer:1 men:1 parent:1 teacher:1 association:1 autobiography:2 lecture:1 regional:1 literature:1 become:1 literary:2 newspaper:1 post:1 hold:1 resignation:1 marry:1 april:2 sandra:1 evelyn:1 winter:1 divorce:1 six:1 later:2 retain:1 custody:1 two:2 child:2 walden:2 begin:3 edit:1 publish:5 call:2 hawk:1 whippoorwill:1 dedicate:1 poem:1 man:3 nature:1 die:2 bury:1 st:1 aloysius:1 cemetery:1 arkham:8 house:8 near:1 work:3 correspondent:1 friend:1 le:2 comte:1 erlette:1 homage:1 invent:1 term:2 describe:2 fictional:2 universe:2 series:3 share:1 circle:1 emphasize:1 struggle:1 good:1 evil:1 line:1 christian:2 world:3 view:2 contrast:1 depiction:1 amoral:1 treat:1 old:1 one:1 representative:1 elemental:1 force:3 create:1 new:3 entity:1 flesh:1 framework:1 donald:1 wandrei:2 put:1 together:1 collection:8 try:1 get:1 exist:1 show:1 little:3 interest:1 found:3 name:3 company:2 come:1 town:1 massachusetts:1 feature:1 many:1 outsider:1 others:1 huge:1 contain:1 know:1 short:5 soon:1 expand:1 regular:1 publishing:1 schedule:1 second:1 book:5 someone:1 dark:3 follow:1 death:1 number:3 base:1 fragment:1 note:3 leave:2 form:1 byline:1 posthumous:2 collaborator:1 practice:1 raise:1 objection:1 quarter:1 simply:1 use:1 market:1 essentially:1 joshi:4 refers:1 collaboration:2 mark:3 beginning:1 perhaps:1 disreputable:1 phase:1 activity:1 necronomicon:4 press:4 significant:1 fan:1 critic:1 dirk:1 w:1 mosig:3 myth:1 maker:1 collect:1 last:1 pp:1 dissatisfy:1 invention:1 belief:1 overall:1 pattern:1 reflect:1 still:2 praise:1 founding:1 successful:1 effort:1 rescue:1 obscurity:1 ramsey:1 campbell:1 acknowledge:1 encouragement:1 guidance:1 early:2 part:1 career:1 example:1 count:1 thirty:1 kirby:2 mccauley:2 cite:1 inspiration:1 anthology:2 introduction:2 typewriter:1 lifetime:1 among:1 novel:2 sherlock:3 holmes:4 like:1 british:1 solar:1 pons:1 sac:8 prairie:8 saga:7 judge:1 peck:1 mystery:1 classic:1 century:1 comic:2 buster:1 brown:1 nemo:1 slumberland:1 katzenjammer:1 kid:1 well:1 entitle:1 boy:1 way:1 pseudonym:1 stephen:2 grendon:2 kenyon:1 tally:1 mason:1 paper:1 donate:1 society:3 bibliography:2 journal:4 village:2 daybook:1 countryman:1 country:1 return:1 west:1 poems:1 incubus:1 omega:1 spaceship:1 cosmos:1 desert:1 shore:1 night:1 providence:1 gentleman:1 meet:1 midnight:1 jacksnipe:1 something:1 behind:1 essay:1 article:1 small:1 voice:1 newpaperwoman:1 zona:1 gale:1 l:1 memoir:1 concord:1 rebel:1 henry:1 thoreau:1 history:1 river:2 thousand:1 isle:1 milwaukee:1 road:1 hundred:1 saint:1 ignatius:1 jesus:1 columbus:1 father:1 marquette:1 great:1 marc:1 r:1 schorer:3 churchyard:1 yew:1 joseph:1 sheridan:1 fanu:1 adventure:2 snitch:1 mack:2 reynolds:2 ball:1 nostradamus:1 oak:1 robert:1 e:1 howard:1 see:1 list:3 non:1 canonical:1 reference:1 meudt:1 edna:1 simple:1 honorable:1 academy:1 review:1 summer:1 appraisal:1 external:1 link:1 detailed:1 online:1 catalog:1 stanton:1 lee:1 |@bigram august_derleth:10 cthulhu_mythos:5 weird_tale:2 wisconsin_madison:1 st_aloysius:1 mythos_derleth:2 sherlock_holmes:3 sac_prairie:8 prairie_saga:6 little_nemo:1 nemo_slumberland:1 katzenjammer_kid:1 sheridan_le:1 le_fanu:1 external_link:1 |
6,103 | CN_Tower | The CN Tower, located in Downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada, is a communications and observation tower standing tall. It surpassed the height of the Ostankino Tower while still under construction in 1975, becoming the tallest free-standing structure on land in the world. On September 12, 2007, after holding the record for 31 years, the CN Tower was surpassed in height by the still-under-construction Burj Dubai. It remains the tallest free-standing structure in the Americas, the signature icon of Toronto's skyline, and a symbol of Canada. The CN Tower is Dead. Long Live The CN Tower!, The Torontoist, September 4, 2007. (retrieved on November 17, 2008). CN Tower celebrates 30th birthday, Broadcast News/canada.com, June 26, 2006 , attracting more than two million international visitors annually. CN originally referred to Canadian National, the railway company that built the tower. Following the railway's decision to divest non-core freight railway assets, prior to the company's privatization in 1995 it transferred the tower to the Canada Lands Company, a federal Crown corporation responsible for real estate development. Since local residents wished to retain the name CN Tower, the abbreviation is now said to expand to Canada's National Tower rather than the original Canadian National Tower; however, neither of these names is commonly used. In 1995, the CN Tower was declared one of the modern Seven Wonders of the World by the American Society of Civil Engineers. It also belongs to the World Federation of Great Towers. History The idea of the CN Tower originated from the 1968 Canadian National Railway desire to build a large TV and radio communication platform to serve the Toronto area, as well as demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry and CN in particular. These plans evolved over the next few years, and the project became official in 1972. The tower would have been part of Metro Centre (see CityPlace), a large development south of Front Street on the Railway Lands, a large railway switching yard that was being made redundant by newer yards outside the city. Key project team members were NCK Engineering as structural engineer; John Andrews Architects; Webb, Zerafa, Menkes, Housden Architects; Foundation Building Construction; and Canron (Eastern Structural Division). At the time, Toronto was a boom town, and the late 1960s and early 1970s had seen the construction of numerous large skyscrapers in the downtown core, most notably First Canadian Place. This made broadcasting into the downtown area very difficult due to reflections off the buildings. The only solution would be to raise the antennas above the buildings, demanding a tower over tall. Additionally, at the time, most data communications took place over point-to-point microwave links, whose dish antenna covered the roofs of large buildings. As each new skyscraper was added to the downtown, former line-of-sight links were no longer possible. CN intended to rent "hub" space for microwave links, visible from almost any building in the Toronto area. The CN Tower can be seen from at least as far away as Kennedy Street in Aurora, Ontario, approximately to the north, and from several points on the south shore of Lake Ontario, to the south in New York state in the United States. The original plan for the tower envisioned a tripod consisting of three independent cylindrical "pillars" linked at various heights by structural bridges. Had it been built, this design would have been considerably shorter, with the metal antenna located roughly where the concrete section between the main level and the Sky Pod lies today. As the design effort continued, it evolved into the current design with a single continuous hexagonal core to the Sky Pod, with three support legs blended into the hexagon below the main level, forming a large Y-shape structure at the ground level. The idea for the main level in its current form evolved around this time, but the Sky Pod was not part of the plans until some time later. One engineer in particular felt that visitors would feel the higher observation deck would be worth paying extra for, and the costs in terms of construction were not prohibitive. It was also some time around this point that it was realized that the tower could become the world's tallest structure, and plans were changed to incorporate subtle modifications throughout the structure to this end. On June 26, 1986, the ten-year anniversary of the tower's opening, high-rise firefighting and rescue advocate Dan Goodwin, in a sponsored publicity event, used his hands and feet to climb the outside of the tower, a feat he performed twice on the same day. Following both ascents, he used multiple rappels to descend to the ground. SkyscraperDefense.com Construction View of Downtown Toronto from the CN Tower Construction on the CN Tower began on February 6, 1973 with massive excavations at the tower base for the foundation. By the time the foundation was complete, of dirt and shale were removed to a depth of in the centre, and a base incorporating of concrete with of rebar and of steel cable had been built to a thickness of . This portion of the construction was fairly rapid, with only four months needed between the start and the foundation being ready for construction on top. To build the main support pillar, a hydraulically-raised slipform was built at the base. This was a fairly impressive engineering feat on its own, consisting of a large metal platform that raised itself on jacks at about per day as the concrete below set. Concrete was poured continuously by a team of 1,532 people until February 22, 1974, during which it had already become the tallest structure in Canada, surpassing the recently built Inco Superstack, which was built using similar methods. In total, the tower contains of concrete, all of which was mixed on-site in order to ensure batch consistency. Through the pour, the vertical accuracy of the tower was maintained by comparing the slip form's location to massive plumb-bobs hanging from it, observed by small telescopes from the ground. Over the height of the tower, it varies from true vertical accuracy by only . Brackets being raised, August 1974 The CN Tower as seen from its base In August 1974, construction of the main level commenced. Using 45 hydraulic jacks attached to cables strung from a temporary steel crown anchored to the top of the tower, twelve giant steel and wooden bracket forms were slowly raised, ultimately taking about a week to crawl up to their final position. These forms were used to create the brackets that support the main level, as well as a base for the construction of the main level itself. The Sky Pod was built of concrete poured into a wooden frame attached to rebar at the lower level deck, and then reinforced with a large steel compression band around the outside. The antenna was originally to be raised by crane as well, but during construction the Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane helicopter became available when the United States Army sold off theirs to civilian operators. The helicopter, named "Olga", was first used to remove the crane, and then flew the antenna up in 36 sections. The flights of the antenna pieces were a minor tourist attraction of their own, and the schedule was printed in the local newspapers. Use of the helicopter saved months of construction time, with this phase taking only three and a half weeks instead of the planned six months. The tower was topped off on April 2, 1975 after 26 months of construction, officially capturing the height record from Moscow's Ostankino Tower, and bringing the total mass to . Two years into the construction, plans for Metro Centre were scrapped, leaving the tower isolated on the Railway Lands in what was then a largely abandoned light-industrial space. This caused serious problems for tourists to access the tower. Ned Baldwin, project architect with John Andrews, wrote at the time that "All of the logic which dictated the design of the lower accommodation has been upset," and that "Under such ludicrous circumstances Canadian National would hardly have chosen this location to build." Opening The CN Tower opened to the public on June 26, 1976, although the official opening date was October 1. The construction costs of approximately CDN$63 million ($330 million in 2005) were repaid in fifteen years. Canadian National Railway sold the tower prior to taking the company public in 1995, when they decided to divest themselves of all operations not directly related to their core freight shipping businesses. As the area around the tower was developed, particularly with the introduction of the Metro Toronto Convention Centre and Rogers Centre (known as the SkyDome before 2005), the former railway "wasteland" disappeared and the tower became the centre of a newly developing entertainment area. Access was greatly improved with the construction of the SkyWalk in 1989, which connected the tower and SkyDome to the nearby railway and subway station, Union Station. By the mid-1990s, it was the centre of a thriving tourist district. The entire area continues to be an area of intense building, notably a boom in condominium construction in the 2000s. From 1997 to January 2004, TrizecHahn Corporation managed the building and instituted several expansion projects including a $26 million entertainment expansion and revitalization that included the addition of two new elevators (to a total of six) and the relocation of the staircase from the north side leg to inside the core of the building, a conversion that also added nine stairs to the climb. Structure A bolt of lightning strikes the CN Tower. The CN Tower is struck by lightning at least 40 to 50 times annually compared to other places in Toronto which are struck, on average, 2 times per km2 (5 times per sq mi) every year. The CN Tower consists of several substructures. The main portion of the tower is a hollow concrete hexagonal pillar containing the six elevators, stairwells, and power and plumbing connections. On top of this is a tall metal broadcast antenna, carrying TV and radio signals. There are two visitor areas: the main deck level (formerly known as SkyPod) located at , and the higher Sky Pod (formerly known as "Space Deck") at , just below the metal antenna. The hexagonal shape can be seen between the two areas; however, below the main deck, three large supporting legs give the tower the appearance of a large tripod. The main level is seven stories, some of which are open to the public. Below the public areas — at — is a large white donut-shaped radome containing the structure's microwave receivers. The glass floor and outdoor observation deck are at . The glass floor has an area of and can withstand a pressure of . The floor's thermal glass units are thick, consisting of a pane of laminated glass, airspace and a pane of laminated glass. Some people experience acrophobia when standing on the glass floor and looking down at the ground below. In 2008, one elevator was upgraded to add a glass floor panel, believed to have the highest vertical rise of any elevator equipped with this feature. Both linked pages include a video of the elevator with glass floor in operation. The Horizons Cafe and the lookout level are at . The 360 Restaurant, a revolving restaurant that completes a full rotation once every 72 minutes, is at . When the tower first opened, it also featured a disco named Sparkles, billed as the highest disco and dance floor in the world. The Sky Pod is the second-highest public observation deck in the world, surpassed only by the Shanghai World Financial Center. On a clear day, it is possible to see 100 to 120 kilometres (62–75 mi) away, to the city of Rochester across Lake Ontario in the United States, the mist rising from Niagara Falls, or the shores of Lake Simcoe. A metal staircase reaches the main deck level after 1,776 steps, and the Sky Pod 100 metres above after 2,579 steps; it is the tallest metal staircase on Earth. These stairs are intended for emergency use only and are not open to the public, except for three times per year for charity stair-climb events. Citing as evidence of one of the climbs, the WWF's 18th annual event: The average climber takes approximately 30 minutes to climb to the base of the radome, but the fastest climb on record is 7 minutes and 52 seconds in 1989 by Brendan Keenoy, an Ontario Provincial Police Officer. In 2002, Canadian Olympian and Paralympic champion Jeff Adams climbed the stairs of the tower in a specially designed wheelchair. Falling ice danger A freezing rain storm on March 2, 2007 resulted in a layer of ice several centimetres thick forming on the side of the tower and other downtown buildings. The sun thawed the ice, and winds of up to blew some of it away from the structure. There were fears that cars and windows of nearby buildings would be smashed by large chunks of ice. In response, police closed some streets surrounding the tower. During morning rush hour on March 5, police expanded the area of closed streets to include the Gardiner Expressway away from the tower, as increased winds blew the ice farther away, as far north as King Street, away, where a taxicab window was shattered. On March 6, the Gardiner Expressway was reopened after winds died down. It was the first time such an event had posed a threat to public safety. Safety features Inside the 360 Restaurant in the CN Tower In August 2000, a fire broke out at the Ostankino Tower in Moscow, killing several people and causing extensive damage. The fire was blamed on poor maintenance and outdated equipment. The failure of the fire-suppression systems and the lack of proper equipment for firefighters allowed the fire to destroy most of the interior and spark fears the tower might even collapse. The Ostankino Tower was completed only 9 years before the CN Tower, and is only 13 metres (44 ft) shorter. Fire in 1,800ft TV tower adds to Russians' feeling of doom by Helen Womackin, The Independent, August 29, 2000. The parallels between the towers led to some concern that the CN Tower could be at risk of a similar tragedy. However, Canadian officials subsequently stated that it is "highly unlikely" that a similar disaster could occur at the CN Tower as it has important safeguards that were not present in the Ostankino Tower. Specifically, officials cited: the fireproof building materials used in the tower's construction, frequent and stringent safety inspections, an extensive sprinkler system, a 24-hour emergency monitoring operation, two 15,000-imperial gallon water reservoirs at the top, which are automatically replenished, a fire hose at the base of the structure capable of sending 600 imperial gallons a minute to any location in the tower, a ban on gas appliances anywhere in the tower (including the restaurant in the main pod), an elevator that can be used during a fire as it runs up the outside of the building and can be powered by three emergency generators at the base of the structure (unlike the elevator at the Ostankino tower, which seriously malfunctioned). Officials also noted that the CN Tower has an excellent safety record and that there has never been an accidental fire in the tower since it was opened in 1976. Moreover, other supertall structures built between 1967–1976 – such as the Sears Tower, the World Trade Center (until its destruction on September 11, 2001), the Berliner Fernsehturm, the Aon Center, the John Hancock Center, and First Canadian Place – also have excellent safety records, which suggests that the Ostankino Tower accident was a rare safety failure, and that the likelihood of similar events occurring at other supertall structures is extremely low. Lighting Left|The CN Tower illuminated, as seen from downtown Toronto The CN Tower was once lit at night with incandescent lights, but they were removed in 1997 because they were expensive and inefficient to repair. In June 2007, the tower was outfitted with 1,330 super-bright LED lights inside the elevator shafts, shooting up over the "bubble" and upward to the top of the tower's mast to light the tower from dusk until 2 a.m. The official opening ceremony took place on June 28 before the Canada Day holiday weekend. The tower changes its lighting scheme on holidays and to commemorate major events. After the 95th Grey Cup in Toronto, the tower was lit up in green and white to represent the colours of the Grey Cup champion Saskatchewan Roughriders. Programmed from a desktop computer with a wireless network interface card, the LEDs use less energy to light than the previously used incandescent lights (10% less energy than the dimly lit version and 60% less than the brightly lit version). The estimated cost to use the LEDs is $1,000 per month. During the spring and autumn bird migration seasons, the lights will be turned off to comply with the voluntary Fatal Light Awareness Program, which "encourages buildings to dim unnecessary exterior lighting to mitigate bird mortality during spring and summer migration." CN Tower – Lighting Canada’s National Tower (includes video) Size comparisons • Burj Dubai, Dubai• CN Tower, Toronto• Sears Tower, Chicago Sears Tower/One World Trade Center/Chicago Spire The CN Tower is the tallest freestanding structure in the Americas. Currently, the only other freestanding structure in the Americas to exceed in height is the Sears Tower (to be renamed Willis Tower in June 2009) in Chicago, which stands at when measured to its pinnacle. One World Trade Center, currently under construction in New York City, is expected to have a pinnacle height of , or approximately shorter than the CN Tower. Due to the symbolism of the number 1776 (the date of the signing of the United States Declaration of Independence), the height of One World Trade Center is unlikely to be increased. The Chicago Spire, which was initially expected to be completed in 2012, is expected to exceed the height of the CN Tower upon completion, but its construction has been halted due to financial difficulties. Future structures During the next five years, the rank of the CN Tower in the list of the world tallest structures is expected to drop considerably. At least seven structures currently under construction, all of which are scheduled to be completed by 2013, are expected to exceed the CN Tower's height of 553.33 metres once completed. Controversy over the "world's tallest" title Guinness World Records has called the CN Tower "the world's tallest self-supporting tower" and "the world's tallest free-standing tower". Reference is on page 275. Although Guinness did list this description of the CN Tower under the heading "tallest building" at least once, it has also listed it under "tallest tower", omitting it from its list of "tallest buildings." In 1996, Guinness officially changed the tower's classification to "World's Tallest Building and Freestanding Structure". Today, Guinness state that the CN Tower is the "Tallest Freestanding Tower," because the Petronius Platform oil platform in the Gulf of Mexico is taller at , yet most of the rig is underwater, earning it the title of tallest free-standing structure in the world. Emporis and the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat both list the CN Tower as the world's tallest free-standing structure on land, and specifically state that the CN Tower is not a true building, thereby awarding the title of world's tallest building to Taipei 101, which is shorter than the CN Tower. The tower's official web site, however, unequivocally claims it is the "world's tallest building". Although the CN Tower contains a restaurant, a gift shop, and multiple observation levels, it does not have floors continuously from the ground, and therefore it is not considered a building by the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH), Emporis, or any other architectural authorities. CTBUH defines a building as "a structure that is designed for residential, business, or manufacturing purposes. An essential characteristic of a building is that it has floors." The CN Tower and other similar structures – such as the Ostankino Tower in Moscow, Russia; the Oriental Pearl Tower in Shanghai, China; the Stratosphere Tower in Las Vegas, Nevada; and the Eiffel Tower in Paris, France – are categorized as "towers", which are free-standing structures that may have observation decks and a few other habitable levels, but do not have floors from the ground up. The CN Tower is the tallest tower by this definition. Taller than the CN Tower are numerous radio masts and towers which are held in place by guy-wires, the tallest being the KVLY-TV mast in North Dakota at tall, leading to a distinction between these and "free-standing" structures. Additionally, the Petronius Platform stands above its base on the bottom of the Gulf of Mexico, but only the top of this oil and natural gas platform are above water, and the structure is thus partially supported by its buoyancy. Like the CN Tower, none of these taller structures are commonly considered buildings. On September 12, 2007, the Burj Dubai, a hotel, residential and commercial building being built in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, passed the CN Tower's 553.33 metre height. The CN Tower held the record of tallest free-standing structure on land for over 30 years. The tower now stands as the second-tallest free-standing structure on land in the world, the tallest completed structure, and the tallest free-standing tower. Use The CN Tower as seen from the interior of the Rogers Centre stadium The CN Tower has been and continues to be used as a communications tower for a number of different media, and by numerous companies. Television broadcasters Callsign Analog Channel Digital Channel Affiliation Branding CBLT 5 20 CBC CBC Television CFTO-TV 9 40 CTV CTV Toronto CICA 19 51 TVOntario TVOntario CBLFT 25 24 Radio-Canada Radio-Canada CIII-TV 41 65 (assigned) Global Global CFMT-TV 47 64 (from alternate site) Omni Television OMNI.1 CKXT-TV 52 66 Independent Sun TV CITY-TV 57 53 Citytv Citytv Radio There is no AM broadcasting on the CN Tower. The FM antennas are situated above ground. Callsign Frequency ERP Branding NotesMaster FM Consortium of Toronto broadcasters for Digital Audio Broadcasting CJRT 91.1 MHz 40 kW JAZZ.FM91 CJAQ 92.5 MHz 40 kW 92.5 Jack FM CBL 94.1 MHz 38 kW CBC Radio 2 CFMZ 96.3 MHz 38 kW Classical 96 CJEZ 97.3 MHz 4 kW EZ Rock 97.3 CHFI 98.1 MHz 44 kW 98.1 CHFI CKFM 99.9 MHz 40 kW Virgin Radio 99.9FM CHIN 100.7 MHz 4 kW CHIN Radio Primarily in Italian and Portuguese CFNY 102.1 MHz 35 kW actual (100 kW ERP) 102.1 the Edge CHUM 104.5 MHz 40 kW 104.5 CHUM FM CILQ 107.1 MHz 40 kW Classic Rock Q 107 Cellular and paging providers Bell Mobility Motorola Rogers Wireless Communications Bell Canada Toronto Transit Commission Amateur radio repeaters "2-Tango" (VHF) and "4-Tango" (440/70 cm UHF) – owned and operated by the Toronto FM Communications Society, under callsign VE3TWR Media placement The CN Tower, as seen from Trinity Bellwoods Park in the west end of Toronto Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War Canadian Bacon Exit Wounds Flashpoint Foolproof Highpoint Kenny vs. Spenny Police Academy 3: Back in Training Resident Evil: Apocalypse The Sentinel Shoot 'Em Up SimCity series SimCity 3000 and Unlimited expansion pack SimCity 4 SimCity 4: Rush Hour The Simpsons Strange Brew Super Dave Tormenta en el paraíso See also Architecture in Toronto List of masts List of skyscrapers List of tallest buildings and structures in the world List of tallest freestanding structures in the world List of tallest structures in Canada List of towers References External links CBC Archives - CN Tower opens to the public. 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DONE RAMDAC DONE RAM disk DONE RAM drive DONE RAMIS II NO IMPORT - insubstantial RAMTRON NO IMPORT - insubstantial random DONE random-access memory DONE Random Access Memory Digital-to-Analog Converter DONE randomness NO IMPORT - jargon random numbers NO IMPORT - jargon random testing NO IMPORT - insubstantial range NO IMPORT Rapid Application Development NO IMPORT - duplicate info RapidCAD DONE Rapidly Extensible Language, English rapid prototyping Rapidwrite NO IMPORT - esoteric RAPT NO IMPORT - insubstantial RARE NO IMPORT - insubstantial rare mode DONE RARP DONE RAS DONE RASP NO IMPORT - insubstantial raster NO IMPORT - duplicate info raster blaster NO IMPORT - jargon raster burn NO IMPORT - jargon raster font NO IMPORT - duplicate info rastergram DONE raster graphics DONE raster subsystem NO IMPORT - insubstantial Ratatosk NO IMPORT - esoteric rat belt NO IMPORT - jargon RatC NO IMPORT - insubstantial Rate monotonic scheduling DONE RATFIV NO IMPORT - insubstantial RATFOR NO IMPORT - insubstantial rational NO IMPORT - duplicate info RATional Fortran NO IMPORT - insubstantial Rationalized C NO IMPORT - insubstantial rave NO IMPORT - jargon rave on! 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NO IMPORT - not noteworthy redocumentation NO IMPORT - insubstantial REDUCE NO IMPORT - duplicate info Reduced Instruction Set Computer DONEreduction NO IMPORT - insubstantial reduction strategy NO IMPORT - insubstantial redundancy NO IMPORT - duplicate info Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks DONERedundant Arrays of Independent Disks DONERedundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks DONEred wire red zone re-engineering re-entrant refactoring DONEREFAL REF-ARF reference reference counting DONEreferential integrity referentially transparent referential transparency DONEreferer referrer REFINE Refined C Refined Fortran reflexive reflexive domain Reflexive transitive closure RefLisp refresh refreshable braille display DONErefreshable display refresh rate refutable regex DONEregexp DONERegina regional network register DONEregister allocation register assignment register dancing register set register spilling DONERegister Transfer Language DONEregression DONEregression testing DONEREG-SYMBOLIC REGTRAL regular expression DONEregular graph DONErehi Reid, Brian reify reincarnation, cycle of reinvent the wheel relation relational algebra relational calculus relational database DONErelational database management system DONErelational data model relational DBMS DONErelational language relational model DONERELATIVE relatively prime DONErelative pathname Relative Record Data Set RELCODE release released version REL English relevance reliability Reliability, Availability, Serviceability reliable communication religion of CHI religious issues REM remailer Remote Access Services DONERemote Database Access remote echo Remote Job Entry remote login Remote Method Invocation Remote Operations Service Element Remote Procedure Call Remote Reference Layer Remote Spooling Communication Subsystem Remote Write Protocol removable disk rendering DONERenderMan Shading Language rendezvous REP repeat repeater DONErepeating group repeat loop repetitive strain disorder repetitive strain injury REPL replacement algorithm Replay replication replicator reply Repondez s'il vous plait Report Program Generator repository Request For Comments request for proposal Request For Technology Required-COBOL requirements Requirements Acquisition and Controlled Evolution requirements analysis Requirements Engineering Research Systems, Inc. reserved memory resolution resolver Resource Access Control Facility Resource Description Framework DONEresource fork Resource Reservation Protocol restriction Restructured EXtended eXecutor restructuring retcon RETI Retrieve retrocomputing retronym return from interrupt return from the dead Return To Zero reusability reuse Reverse Address Resolution Protocol DONEReverse ARP DONEreverse engineering Reverse Polish Notation Revised ALGOL 60 revision Revision Control System Revolutionary Surrealist Vandal Party REX REXX DONEREXXWARE RFC RFC 1014 RFC 1034 RFC 1035 RFC 1058 RFC 1081 RFC 1094 RFC 1112 RFC 1119 RFC 1123 RFC 1156 RFC 1157 RFC 1171 RFC 1208 RFC 1213 RFC 1267 RFC 1268 RFC 1304 RFC 1321 RFC 1334 RFC 1341 RFC 1347 RFC 1350 RFC 1388 RFC 1436 RFC 1441 RFC 1442 RFC 1443 RFC 1444 RFC 1445 RFC 1446 RFC 1447 RFC 1448 RFC 1449 RFC 1450 RFC 1451 RFC 1452 RFC 1475 RFC 1508 RFC 1509 RFC 1520 RFC 1521 RFC 1526 RFC 1531 RFC 1550 RFC 1561 RFC 1568 RFC 1591 RFC 1630 RFC 1661 RFC 1700 RFC 1701 RFC 1702 RFC 1707 RFC 1730 RFC 1756 RFC 1760 RFC 1777 RFC 1778 RFC 1823 RFC 1825 RFC 1861 RFC 1938 RFC 1951 RFC 1959 RFC 1960 RFC 2045 RFC 2046 RFC 2047 RFC 2048 RFC 2049 RFC 2060 RFC 2061 RFC 2068 RFC 2093 RFC 2131 RFC 2234 RFC 2236 RFC 2279 RFC 2298 RFC 2326 RFC 2408 RFC 2543 RFC 792 RFC 822 RFC 826 RFC 854 RFC 903 RFC 959 RFE RFI RFP RFT RG58 RGB DONERhapsody rib site rice box Richard Gabriel Richard P. Gabriel Richard Stallman DONErich object Rich Text Format DONERIFF RIGAL Rigel right brace right bracket right-click right outer join right parenthesis Right Thing Rijndael DONEring network ring topology Riordan's Internet Privacy Enhanced Mail RIP DONERIPE RIPEM RISC -- DONERISC OS Risc PC RISC System/6000 RISQL RJ-11 RJ-45 DONERJE RKM RL DONErl RLaB RLE DONERLF RLL DONErlogin RMAG RMAIL RMI DONERM-ODP RMON RMS RNF ro roach ROADS Robert T. Morris ROBEX RoboHELP DONErobot robust Rockwell Protocol Interface Rocky Mountain Basic rococo roff ROFLMAO rogue rollback ROM DONEROM BIOS DONEROME Rom Kernel Manual room ROOM Methodology room-temperature IQ root root bridge root directory root mode root node Root Normal Form root version ROSE Rosette Roskind grammars rot13 DONErotary debugger rotational latency rotation per minute ROTFL ROTFLMAO ROTFLOL round-robin round tape round-trip time route DONErouted DONEroute flapping DONErouteing DONErouteing domain DONErouter DONEroutine routing Routing Information Protocol DONERouting Table Maintenance Protocol DONErow row-level locking Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University RPC DONERPG RPI RPL RPL-1 RPM DONErpm DONERPN Répondez s'il vous plait RPT RRL RRS RS RS-232 DONERS-232C RS-232D RS-422 RS-423 RS-449 RS-485 RS6000 DONERS/6000 DONERS6K DONERSA RSA Data Security, Inc. RSA encryption NO IMPORTRSCS Réseaux Associés pour la Recherche Européenne Réseaux IP Européens RS flip-flop rsh RSI RSL RSN rstat RSTS/E RSVP RTBM RTC++ RT-CDL RTEE RTF DONERTFAQ RTFB RTFM NO IMPORT - duplicate info RTFS RTI RTL RTL/1 RTL/2 RTM RTMP DONERTOS RT-PC RTS RTSA RTSP DONERTT RTTI ru rubi DONERuby DONErude RUFL run RUNCIBLE runes NO IMPORTrunic NO IMPORTrun-length encoding DONErun time run-time environment run-time error run-time library run-time support run-time system Run-Time Type Information ruptime RUSH Russell Russell, Bertrand Russell's Attic Russell's Paradox rusty iron rusty memory RUTH rw rwho RWP Rx S s/// S3 SA sa NO IMPORTSA-110 SAA Saber-C Saber-C++ SAC SAC-1 SAC2 sacadm sacred NO IMPORTSAD SAD SAM SADT SAFARI safe safety safety-critical system saga sagan SAGE DONESAIC SAID SAIL SAINT Saint Andrews Static Language SAL SALEM Sales Automation salescritter Sales Force Automation S-ALGOL SALT salt salt mines salt substrate SAM sam SAM76 Samba DONESAME same-day service SAMeDL samizdat DONESammet, Jean E. sample DONEsample rate NO IMPORTsampling DONEsampling frequency DONEsamurai sandbender sandbox Sandman San Francisco sanity check Santa Cruz Operation DONESAP DONESAP AG NO IMPORTSAPI SAR SAS SASD SASE SASI SASL SASL+LV SASL-YACC SAS System SATAN Sather Sather-K satisfiability problem Saturday-night special SAVE say sb SB AWE32 SBCS SBD SBM SB-Prolog SBus SC sc SCA SCADA scag scalability Scalable Coherent Interface Scalable Processor ARChitecture Scalable Vector Graphics scalar SCALLOP SCAN scan scan design SCANDISK Scan-EDF scanf Scan-In, Scan-Out scan line scanner scanno scan path scan register SCC SCCS SCEPTRE scheduler DONEscheduling DONEScheduling API Scheduling Application Programming Interface Schelog Schema Definition Set Schema Representation language schematic capture schematic type variable Schematik Scheme Scheme84 Scheme88 Scheme->C Scheme Library Scheme-Linda Scheme Object System Scheme Repository Scheme-to-C Schlaer-Mellor Schoonschip schroedinbug SCI Science and Engineering Research Council science-fiction fandom Scientific Data Systems SCL SCM SC/MP SCO Scode SCOOP SCOOPS SCOPE scope Scorpion Scott-closed Scott domain SCPI SCPI Consortium scram switch SCRAP scratch scratch disk scratch monkey Scratchpad I Scratchpad II scream and die Screamer screaming tty screen blanker Screen Peace screen reader screen refresh screen saver screen scraper screen sharing Screenwrite screw screwage scribble Scribe SCRIPT script Scriptics scripting language scrog SCROLL scroll scrollable list scroll bar scrolling scrool scrozzle scruffies SCSI SCSI-1 SCSI-2 SCSI-3 SCSI adaptor SCSI controller SCSI ID SCSI initiator SCSI interface SCSI reconnect SCSI target ScumOS scuzzy SD sd SDDI SDE SDF SDH SDI SDK SDL SDL 92 SDLC SDM SDMS SDRAM SDRC SDR-RAM SDR-SDRAM SDS SDS 92 SDS 940 SDSL SE se SEA Seagate Technology SEAL search-and-destroy mode search engine search problem search term SEC SECC SECD machine secondary cache secondary damage secondary key secondary storage second generation computer second generation language second level cache second normal form Second-Order Lambda-calculus second-system effect sector interleave sector interleaving sector map sector mapping Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions Secure Shell -- DONESecure Sockets Layer Security Administrator's Integrated Network Tool Security Association Security Association ID security through obscurity DONESED Sed SEE seek seeking seek time SEESAW see u see me SEGA segfault seggie segment segmentation segmentation and reassembly segmentation fault segmented address space segv SEI Seiko RC-4000 SEL Selective Dissemination of Information selector Self Self-Extensible Language Self Extracting Archive self-reference selvage SEM semantic gap DONEsemantic network semantics semaphore semi Semi-Automatic Ground Environment semicolon semiconductor Semidetached Mode SENDIT sendmail sendmail.cf Sendmail Inc. Seneca senior bit sensor sentence SE-OsdasfdffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffDP SEP SEPIA SEPP Seque Sequel Sequenced Packet Exchange sequencer Sequent DONE sequential coding sequential file matching Sequential Parlog Machine sequential processing SERC SERCOS serial communications interface Serial Interface Adaptor serial line Serial Line Internet Protocol Serial Line IP serial port Serial Presence Detect serial processing Serial Storage Architecture serve servelet server serverlet Server Message Block server-parsed HTML server room servers server-side include service serviceability Service Access Point Service Advertising Protocol service provider servlet session Session Initiation Protocol session layer SES/workbench SET set set abstraction set associative cache set complement set comprehension Setext SETL SETL2 SETL/E Set Priority Level SETS set theory set-top box SEUS seven layer model SEX sexadecimal sex changer SEXI Seymour Cray SFA SFBI SFD-ALGOL SFFA SFL SFLV sg SGCP SGI SGML sgmls SGML Tagger SGRAM sh SHACO SHADOW shadowing shadow ram shallow binding shambolic link Shape_VC ShapeTools shar sharchive Share and enjoy! shared memory Shared Time Repair of Big Electronic Systems shareware shar file sharp Sharp APL S-HDSL shebang SHEEP shelf shelfware SHELL shell shell out shell script shell variable shielded twisted pair SHIFT Shift In shift left logical Shift Out shift right logical shim shit hit the fan shitogram Shockwave shockwave Shockwave Flash shopbot short card Short Code shortcut shortest job first Short Message Service shotgun debugging shovelware Show-And-Tell showstopper shriek sht SHTF shtml Shub-Internet SHUG Shugart, Alan F. Shugart Associates Shugart Technology SI si SIA SICL SICS SICStus Prolog sidecar side-effect Siemens Siemens Nixdorf Informationssteme, AG Sierra SIFT SIG Sig sig sig block SIGBUS SIGhyper SIGLA SIGMA SIGNAL signal signalling rate Signalling System 7 signal-to-noise ratio signature sig quote sig virus SIL Silage silicon silicon chip Silicon Graphics, Inc. Siliwood silly walk silo Silver Book silver bullet SIMAN SimCity SimCity 2000 SIMD DONESimilix SIML/I SIMM Simone Simonyi, Charles SIMPAC SIMPAS SIMPL SIMPLE Simple Authentication and Security Layer Simple Gateway Control Protocol Simple Mail Transfer Protocol simple multicast protocol Simple Network Management Protocol Simple Network Management Protocol version 2 Simple Network Paging Protocol Simple Object Access Protocol simplex simplex method simplex printer SIMPL/I Simplified Multicast Routing Protocol SIMPL-T SIMSCRIPT SIMSCRIPT I.5 SIMSCRIPT II.5 simship SIMULA SIMULA 67 SIMULA I simulated annealing Simulating Digital Systems simulation SIMulation ANalysis Simulation Language for Alternative Modeling Simulation Oriented Language Simultaneous Engineering Environment Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On-Line simultaneous shipment Simware, Inc. SINA since time T equals minus infinity Sinclair, Clive Sinclair PC200 Sinclair Radionics Sinclair Research sine wave single assignment Single ASsignment Language single-attached Single Connection Attach Single Connector Attachment Single Data Rate Random Access Memory Single Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory Single Document Interface single-duplex Single Edge Contact Single Edge Contact Cartridge Single Edge Processor Package single-electron transistor NO IMPORT - insubstantial Single Electron Tunneling NO IMPORT - insubstantial Single Electron Tunneling Technology NO IMPORT - esoteric single ended NO IMPORT - insubstantial Single Image Random Dot Stereogram DONEsingle inheritance NO IMPORT - duplicate info Single In-line Memory Module NO IMPORT - duplicate info Single Inline Pin Package NO IMPORT - insubstantial Single Instruction Multiple Data NO IMPORT - duplicate info Single Instruction/Multiple Data NO IMPORT - duplicate info Single-line Digital Subscriber Line NO IMPORT - insubstantial Single-pair High Speed Digital Subscriber Line NO IMPORT - insubstantial single quote NO IMPORT - duplicate info single sourcing NO IMPORT - jargon singleton variable DONESingle Virtual Storage NO IMPORT - insubstantial siod NO IMPORT - esoteric SIP NO IMPORT - insubstantial SIPB NO IMPORT - insubstantial SIPLAN NO IMPORT - insubstantial SIPP NO IMPORT - insubstantial Siprol NO IMPORT - insubstantial SIR NO IMPORT - insubstantial SIRDS NO IMPORT - duplicate info Siri NO IMPORT - insubstantial SIRTS NO IMPORT - insubstantial SISAL - DONEsit NO IMPORT - duplicate info SITBOL NO IMPORT - insubstantial sitename - DONEsj NO IMPORT - insubstantial sk NO IMPORT - insubstantial Skel-ML Sketchpad NO IMPORT - duplicate info S/Key NO IMPORT - insubstantial Skill NO IMPORT - insubstantial Skim NO IMPORT - insubstantial SkipJack NO IMPORT - duplicate info SKOL NO IMPORT - insubstantial skolemisation NO IMPORT - jargon S-K reduction machine NO IMPORT - insubstantial skrog NO IMPORT - jargon SKsh NO IMPORT - insubstantial SKU NO IMPORT - jargon skulker NO IMPORT - jargon SL NO IMPORT - esoteric sl NO IMPORT - insubstantial SL5 NO IMPORT - insubstantial slack NO IMPORT - jargon slackware NO IMPORT - duplicate info SLAM NO IMPORT - insubstantial SLANG NO IMPORT - insubstantial S-Lang NO IMPORT - duplicate info slap on the side NO IMPORT - jargon slash NO IMPORT - duplicate info slashdot effect NO IMPORT - duplicate info slave tty NO IMPORT - insubstantial SLD resolution NO IMPORT - insubstantial sleep NO IMPORT - insubstantial, jargon SLIB NO IMPORT - insubstantial SLIM NO IMPORT - insubstantial slim NO IMPORT - insubstantial Slingshot NO IMPORT - esoteric SLIP DONE - merged with Serial line IP SlipKnot NO IMPORT - insubstantial SLIPS NO IMPORT - insubstantial SLiRP NO IMPORT - insubstantial SLLIC NO IMPORT - insubstantial slog NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sloop NO IMPORT - insubstantial slop NO IMPORT - jargon slopsucker NO IMPORT - jargon Slot 1 DONESlot 2 DONESlot A DONEslurp NO IMPORT - jargon sm NO IMPORT - insubstantial smail NO IMPORT - jargon SMALGOL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMALL NO IMPORT - insubstantial Small-C NO IMPORT - duplicate info Small Computer System Interface NO IMPORT - duplicate info small-office/home-office NO IMPORT - jargon Small Outline DIMM DONESmalltalk NO IMPORT - duplicate info Smalltalk-80 NO IMPORT - insubstantial Smalltalk/V NO IMPORT - insubstantial SmallVDM NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMALLWORLD NO IMPORT - insubstantial SmallWorld NO IMPORT - insubstantial Smarandache logic NO IMPORT - duplicate info SMART NO IMPORT - jargon smart NO IMPORT - jargon Smart Battery Data DONEsmart card NO IMPORT - duplicate info Smartdrive NO IMPORT - esoteric SMARTdrv NO IMPORT - esoteric smart terminal NO IMPORT - duplicate info, obsolescent term smash case NO IMPORT - duplicate info smash sum smash the stack NO IMPORT - jargon SMB DONE - merged smbclient DONE - merged smblib DONE - merged SMBus DONESMCC NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMDS NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMG NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMI NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMIL DONE - merged smiley NO IMPORT - duplicate info S-MIME NO IMPORT - insubstantial SML NO IMPORT - insubstantial SML# NO IMPORT - insubstantial sml2c DONE - merged into SML programming language SML/NJ NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMM NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMNP NO IMPORT - insubstantial smoke NO IMPORT - jargon smoke and mirrors NO IMPORT - jargon smoke-emitting diode NO IMPORT - jargon smoke test NO IMPORT - jargon smoking clover NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMoLCS NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMOP NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMP NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMPT NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMRP NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMS NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMT NO IMPORT - insubstantial SMTP NO IMPORT - duplicate info smurf NO IMPORT - jargon sn NO IMPORT - insubstantial SNA NO IMPORT - insubstantial snacc NO IMPORT - insubstantial snaf NO IMPORT - jargon SNAFU principle NO IMPORT - jargon snail mail NO IMPORT - jargon SNAP NO IMPORT - jargon Snappy NO IMPORT - insubstantial Snappy Video Snapshot NO IMPORT - insubstantial snarf NO IMPORT - jargon snarf & barf NO IMPORT - jargon snarf down NO IMPORT - jargon snark NO IMPORT - jargon sneakernet NO IMPORT - jargon sneck NO IMPORT - jargon snert NO IMPORT - jargon SNI NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sniff NO IMPORT - jargon sniff NO IMPORT - jargon sniffer NO IMPORT - insubstantial snivitz NO IMPORT - jargon SNMP NO IMPORT - duplicate info SNMP agent NO IMPORT - insubstantial SNMPv2 DONE - merged into SNMP SNOBOL NO IMPORT - duplicate info SNOBOL2 NO IMPORT - duplicate info SNOBOL3 NO IMPORT - duplicate info SNOBOL4 NO IMPORT - duplicate info SNOOPS NO IMPORT - insubstantial 'Snooze NO IMPORT - jargon SNPP NO IMPORT - insubstantial SNR NO IMPORT - duplicate info S/N ratio NO IMPORT - duplicate info SO NO IMPORT - insubstantial so NO IMPORT - insubstantial SO 2 NO IMPORT - insubstantial SOAP NO IMPORT - insubstantial SOAR NO IMPORT - insubstantial social engineering NO IMPORT - duplicate info social science number NO IMPORT - jargon socket Socket 1 Socket 2 Socket 3 Socket 370 Socket 4 Socket 5 Socket 6 Socket 7 Socket 8 SOCKS NO IMPORT - insubstantial SOCRATIC NO IMPORT - insubstantial SODA NO IMPORT - insubstantial SODAS NO IMPORT - insubstantial SO-DIMM NO IMPORT - duplicate info Sod's Law NO IMPORT - insubstantial SoftBench NO IMPORT - insubstantial soft boot NO IMPORT - jargon softcopy NO IMPORT - jargon Softlab NO IMPORT - insubstantial soft link NO IMPORT - duplicate info SoftModem NO IMPORT - duplicate info software NO IMPORT - duplicate info Software AG NO IMPORT - insubstantial software audit NO IMPORT - duplicate info Software BackPlane NO IMPORT - insubstantial software bloat NO IMPORT - jargon Software bus NO IMPORT - insubstantial Software Description Database NO IMPORT - insubstantial Software Developers Kit NO IMPORT - insubstantial software development life cycle NO IMPORT - duplicate info software enabling NO IMPORT - jargon software engineering NO IMPORT - insubstantial Software Engineering Environment NO IMPORT - insubstantial software handshaking NO IMPORT - insubstantial software interruptNO IMPORT - duplicate info software laser NO IMPORT - jargon software law DONEsoftware life-cycle NO IMPORT - duplicate info Software Method NO IMPORT - insubstantial Software Methodology NO IMPORT - insubstantial software metric NO IMPORT - insubstantial software patent NO IMPORT - duplicate info software piracy NO IMPORT - duplicate info software pirate NO IMPORT - duplicate info Software Practice and Experience NO IMPORT - insubstantial Software Productivity Centre NO IMPORT - insubstantial Software Publishing Corporation NO IMPORT - insubstantial software reliability NO IMPORT - insubstantial software rot NO IMPORT - jargon software theft DONESoftware through Pictures NO IMPORT - insubstantial software tool NO IMPORT - insubstantial Software Verification Research Centre NO IMPORT - insubstantial softwarily NO IMPORT - jargon softy NO IMPORT - jargon SOH NO IMPORT - insubstantial SOHIO NO IMPORT - insubstantial SoHo NO IMPORT - insubstantial SOIF NO IMPORT - esoteric SOJ NO IMPORT - insubstantial SOL NO IMPORT - insubstantial Solaris NO IMPORT - duplicate info Solaris Operating Environment NO IMPORT - not in FOLDOC? solid-state storage device SOLO NO IMPORT - insubstantial solution NO IMPORT - jargon Solution Based Modelling NO IMPORT - insubstantial Solve NO IMPORT - insubstantial SOM NO IMPORT - insubstantial Somar DumpAcl NO IMPORT - insubstantial Somar Software NO IMPORT - insubstantial some random X NO IMPORT - jargon Sonata NO IMPORT - insubstantial SONET NO IMPORT - duplicate info Sony Playstation NO IMPORT - duplicate info SORCERER NO IMPORT - esoteric sorcerer's apprentice mode NO IMPORT - jargon sort NO IMPORT - duplicate info sorting NO IMPORT - insubstantial SOS NO IMPORT - jargon sound NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sound Blaster NO IMPORT - insubstantial sound card NO IMPORT - insubstantial soundex NO IMPORT - duplicate info source NO IMPORT - duplicate info source code NO IMPORT - duplicate info source code escrow NO IMPORT - insubstantial source language NO IMPORT - duplicate info source of all good bits NO IMPORT - jargon source package NO IMPORT - insubstantial source route NO IMPORT - esoteric source routing NO IMPORT - esoteric southbridge NO IMPORT - duplicate info SP NO IMPORT - insubstantial SP2 NO IMPORT - out-of-date SP/2 NO IMPORT - out-of-date space NO IMPORT - insubstantial space-cadet keyboard DONE space complexity NO IMPORT - insubstantial space leak SPACEWAR NO IMPORT - duplicate info SPADE NO IMPORT - insubstantial spaghetti code NO IMPORT - jargon spaghetti inheritance NO IMPORT - jargon spam NO IMPORT - duplicate info spamdex NO IMPORT - jargon spamming NO IMPORT - duplicate info spanning tree algorithm NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPAR NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPARC NO IMPORT - duplicate info SPARC International, Inc. NO IMPORT - merged with SPARC SPARCStation SPARCstation 10 SPARCstation 20 SPARCsystem 4 SPARC Xterminal 1 SPARK NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPARKS NO IMPORT - insubstantial sparse NO IMPORT - insubstantial Spatial Technologies NO IMPORT - insubstantial spawn NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPC NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPD NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPDL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPE NO IMPORT - insubstantial Speakeasy NO IMPORT - insubstantial speaker NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPEC Spec spec SPECbase_fp92 SPECbase_int92 SPECbaserate SPEC CFP92 SPEC CINT92 SPECfp92 SPECIAL NO IMPORT - insubstantial special-case NO IMPORT - jargon Special Interest Group NO IMPORT - insubstantial specialisation NO IMPORT - insubstantial specification NO IMPORT - insubstantial specific markup NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPECint92 SPECmark SPECmark89 SPECOL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPEC rate SPECrate_base_fp92 SPECrate_fp92 SPECrate_int92 SPEC ratio Spectrum NO IMPORT - duplicate info speculative evaluation NO IMPORT - insubstantial speculative execution NO IMPORT - insubstantial Speech Application Programming Interface NO IMPORT - insubstantial speech recognition NO IMPORT - duplicate info Speech Recognition Application Program Interface NO IMPORT - insubstantial speech synthesis NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPEED NO IMPORT - insubstantial Speedcoding NO IMPORT - insubstantial Speedcoding 3 NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPEEDEX NO IMPORT - insubstantial speedometer NO IMPORT - insubstantial spell NO IMPORT - jargon spelling flame NO IMPORT - jargon Sperry Corporation NO IMPORT - duplicate info Sperry Univac NO IMPORT SPG NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPGA NO IMPORT - insubstantial Spice Lisp NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPID NO IMPORT - insubstantial spider NO IMPORT - duplicate info Spiderweb NO IMPORT - insubstantial spiffy NO IMPORT - jargon spike NO IMPORT - jargon spill NO IMPORT - jargon spin NO IMPORT - insubstantial spiral model NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPIT NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPITBOL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SP/k NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPL/1 NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPLash! NO IMPORT - insubstantial splash screen NO IMPORT - jargon splat NO IMPORT - jargon SPL/I NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPLINTER NO IMPORT - insubstantial split NO IMPORT - insubstantial Split-C NO IMPORT - insubstantial splot NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPLX NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPM NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPMD NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPML spod NO IMPORT - jargon spoiler NO IMPORT - jargon sponge NO IMPORT - jargon spoo NO IMPORT - jargon spoof NO IMPORT - duplicate info spoofing NO IMPORT - duplicate info spooge NO IMPORT - jargon SPOOL NO IMPORT - jargon Spool NO IMPORT - insubstantial spool NO IMPORT - insubstantial spooler NO IMPORT - jargon spool file NO IMPORT - jargon SpoolView NO IMPORT - insubstantial spreadsheet NO IMPORT - duplicate info spread spectrum communications NO IMPORT - duplicate info (spread-spectrum) SPRING NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPRINT NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sprintnet NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sprite NO IMPORT - insubstantial sprite NO IMPORT - insubstantial sprocket feed NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPS NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPSS NO IMPORT - duplicate info SPSS, Inc. NO IMPORT - duplicate info SPUR NO IMPORT - insubstantial SPX NO IMPORT - insubstantial spx NO IMPORT - jargon sqcap NO IMPORT - jargon sqcup NO IMPORT - jargon SQE NO IMPORT - insubstantial SQL NO IMPORT - duplicate info SQL2 NO IMPORT - duplicate info SQL3 NO IMPORT - duplicate info SQL Access Group NO IMPORT - insubstantial SQL/DS NO IMPORT - insubstantial SQL Module Language NO IMPORT - insubstantial SQL Server NO IMPORT - insubstantial SQL server NO IMPORT - insubstantial SQLWindows NO IMPORT - insubstantial SQR NO IMPORT - insubstantial SQRIBE NO IMPORT - insubstantial sqsubseteq NO IMPORT - jargon Square NO IMPORT - insubstantial square-headed boyfriend NO IMPORT - jargon square-headed girlfriend NO IMPORT - jargon square tape NO IMPORT - jargon Squeak Squiggol squirt the bird NO IMPORT - jargon SR - DONE sr NO IMPORT - insubstantial SRAM NO IMPORT - duplicate info SRAPI NO IMPORT - insubstantial SRC Modula-3 DONE SRDL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SR flip-flop DONE - merged with flip-flop SRI DONE SRI International DONE SRL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SRP NO IMPORT - insubstantial SS7 NO IMPORT - insubstantial SSA NO IMPORT - insubstantial SSADM NO IMPORT - insubstantial SSBA NO IMPORT - insubstantial ssh NO IMPORT - insubstantial SSI NO IMPORT - insubstantial SSII NO IMPORT - insubstantial SSL NO IMPORT - duplicate info S/SL DONE SSLeay NO IMPORT - insubstantial SSMA NO IMPORT - insubstantial st NO IMPORT - insubstantial STAB NO IMPORT - insubstantial STAB-11 NO IMPORT - insubstantial STAC NO IMPORT - insubstantial stac compression NO IMPORT - insubstantial stack NO IMPORT - duplicate info Stack Environment Control Dump machine NO IMPORT - duplicate info (SECD machine) stack frame stacking order NO IMPORT - insubstantial stack loader NO IMPORT - insubstantial stack overflow NO IMPORT - insubstantial stack pointer NO IMPORT - insubstantial stack puke NO IMPORT - insubstantial stack traceback NO IMPORT - insubstantial STAGE2 NO IMPORT - insubstantial Staggered Pin Grid Array NO IMPORT - insubstantial staircase NO IMPORT - jargon staircasing NO IMPORT - jargon stale pointer bug DONE Stallman, Richard M. NO IMPORT - duplicate info stand-alone NO IMPORT - jargon standard NO IMPORT - insubstantial Standard Commands for Programmable Instruments NO IMPORT - insubstantial Standard d'Echange et de Transfert NO IMPORT - insubstantial standard for robot exclusion NO IMPORT - insubstantial Standard for the exchange of product model data NO IMPORT - insubstantial Standard Generalised Markup Language NO IMPORT - duplicate info Standard Generalized Markup Language NO IMPORT - duplicate info standard input/output Standard Instrument Control Library NO IMPORT - insubstantial standard interpretation NO IMPORT - jargon standard I/O Standard Lisp NO IMPORT - duplicate info Standard ML Standard ML of New Jersey standard semantics NO IMPORT - jargon Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory DONE - duplicate info Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language DONE Stanford Research Institute DONE - duplicate info Stanford University NO IMPORT - duplicate info Staple NO IMPORT - insubstantial STAR 0 NO IMPORT - insubstantial StarBurst NO IMPORT - insubstantial StarLISP DONE - Merged into Lisp programming language StarMOD NO IMPORT - insubstantial star network NO IMPORT - jargon Starset NO IMPORT - insubstantial STARSYS DONE (Convergent Technologies Operating System) start bit NO IMPORT - insubstantial Start Of Header NO IMPORT - insubstantial Start Of Text NO IMPORT - insubstantial start tag NO IMPORT - insubstantial state NO IMPORT - jargon state diagram NO IMPORT - duplicate info (finite state machine) stateless DONE state machine NO IMPORT - duplicate info (finite state machine) state transition diagram NO IMPORT - duplicate info (finite state machine) State University of New York NO IMPORT - insubstantial static database management system static DBMS static link NO IMPORT - insubstantial static RAM NO IMPORT - duplicate info static random access memory NO IMPORT - duplicate info static scope NO IMPORT - duplicate info (Static scoping) Station Management NO IMPORT - insubstantial Statistical Analysis System NO IMPORT - insubstantial Statistical Package for the Social Sciences NO IMPORT - insubstantial statistical time division multiplexing DONE (in my userspace, currently) statistics NO IMPORT - insubstantial StatMUX DONE (in my userspace, currently) STB NO IMPORT - insubstantial STD NO IMPORT - insubstantial STD 1 NO IMPORT - insubstantial STD 13 NO IMPORT - insubstantial STD 15 NO IMPORT - insubstantial STD 2 NO IMPORT - insubstantial STD 9 NO IMPORT - insubstantial stderr stdin stdio stdio.h STDM DONE (in my userspace, currently) stdout STDWIN NO IMPORT - insubstantial steam-powered NO IMPORT - jargon Steelman NO IMPORT - insubstantial steganography NO IMPORT - duplicate info stemmer DONE stemming DONE STENSOR NO IMPORT - insubstantial STEP NO IMPORT - insubstantial Stephen Cole Kleene DONE Stephen Jobs NO IMPORT - insubstantial Stephen Kleene DONE Stepstone Corp NO IMPORT - insubstantial stepwise refinement NO IMPORT - insubstantial Stereogram DONE Steve Jobs NO IMPORT - duplicate info Steve's Shell NO IMPORT - insubstantial Steve Wozniak NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sticks&Stones NO IMPORT - insubstantial sticky analysis NO IMPORT - insubstantial sticky bit sticky content NO IMPORT - jargon stiffy NO IMPORT - jargon STIL NO IMPORT - insubstantial STING DONE - merged into Lisp programming language STk NO IMPORT - insubstantial STMP NO IMPORT - irrelevant stochastic NO IMPORT - duplicate info stock-keeping unit NO IMPORT - insubstantial STOIC NO IMPORT - insubstantial stomp on NO IMPORT - jargon STONE NO IMPORT - insubstantial Stone Age NO IMPORT - jargon stone knives and bearskins NO IMPORT - jargon Stoneman NO IMPORT - insubstantial stop bit DONE (in my userspace, currently) stoppage NO IMPORT - jargon storage NO IMPORT - jargon Storage Allocation and Coding Program NO IMPORT - insubstantial Storage Management Services NO IMPORT - insubstantial store NO IMPORT - jargon store and forward NO IMPORT - insubstantial Story of Mel NO IMPORT - irrelevant STP NO IMPORT - insubstantial StP NO IMPORT - insubstantial STP4 NO IMPORT - insubstantial Strachey, Christopher NO IMPORT - insubstantial Strand NO IMPORT - insubstantial Strand88 NO IMPORT - insubstantial Stratus NO IMPORT - irrelevant Strawman NO IMPORT - insubstantial STREAM NO IMPORT - insubstantial stream DONE (in my userspace, currently) streaming NO IMPORT - duplicate info (streaming media) stream-oriented NO IMPORT - insubstantial STREAMS NO IMPORT - insubstantial strength reduction DONE STRESS NO IMPORT - insubstantial stress testing NO IMPORT - insubstantial strict strict evaluation strided NO IMPORT - jargon string NO IMPORT - duplicate info (literal string) String EXpression Interpreter NO IMPORT - duplicate info STring Oriented Interactive Compiler NO IMPORT - insubstantial String Oriented Symbolic Language NO IMPORT - duplicate info String PRocessING language NO IMPORT - jargon string reduction NO IMPORT - insubstantial stripe DONE (Data striping) stripe set DONE (Data striping) striping DONE (Data striping) STROBES NO IMPORT - insubstantial stroke NO IMPORT - insubstantial StrongARM NO IMPORT - duplicate info strongly connected component strongly typed NO IMPORT - duplicate info (datatype) strong typing NO IMPORT - duplicate info (datatype) Stroustrup, Bjarne NO IMPORT - insubstantial struct NO IMPORT - insubstantial structural recursion NO IMPORT - duplicate info (Structural induction) structured analysis NO IMPORT - insubstantial structured design NO IMPORT - insubstantial structure diagram NO IMPORT - jargon structured language NO IMPORT - insubstantial structured programming NO IMPORT - insubstantial Structured Query Language NO IMPORT - duplicate info Structure of Management Information NO IMPORT - insubstantial strudel NO IMPORT - jargon STRUDL NO IMPORT - insubstantial STSC APL NO IMPORT - insubstantial stub NO IMPORT - insubstantial stub network NO IMPORT - insubstantial stubroutine NO IMPORT - jargon STUDENT NO IMPORT - irrelevant Student PL/I NO IMPORT - insubstantial studly NO IMPORT - jargon studlycaps NO IMPORT - jargon Stuffit NO IMPORT - duplicate info Stupids NO IMPORT - jargon stupid-sort NO IMPORT - duplicate info Sturgeon's Law NO IMPORT - duplicate info STX NO IMPORT - insubstantial su NO IMPORT - duplicate info SUB NO IMPORT - insubstantial subband encoding DONE subclass NO IMPORT - duplicate info subject DONE - merged into subject-oriented programming subject index NO IMPORT - insubstantial subject-oriented programming DONE sublanguage NO IMPORT - insubstantial subnet NO IMPORT - duplicate info (subnetwork) subnet address NO IMPORT - duplicate info subnet mask NO IMPORT - duplicate info subnet number NO IMPORT - duplicate info subroutine NO IMPORT - duplicate info subscribe NO IMPORT - jargon subscribing NO IMPORT - jargon subseteq NO IMPORT - insubstantial Subset-Equational Language DONE Substitute NO IMPORT - insubstantial substrate NO IMPORT - duplicate info (integrated circuit) subtype NO IMPORT - insubstantial subtyping NO IMPORT - insubstantial SuccessoR NO IMPORT - insubstantial successor NO IMPORT - insubstantial sucking mud NO IMPORT - jargon Sue NO IMPORT - insubstantial sufficiently small NO IMPORT - insubstantial SUGAR NO IMPORT - insubstantial suicideware NO IMPORT - jargon SUIF NO IMPORT - insubstantial suit NO IMPORT - jargon suitably small NO IMPORT - jargon Suite Synthetique des Benchmarks de l'AFUU NO IMPORT - insubstantial sum NO IMPORT - duplicate info Summary Object Interchange Format NO IMPORT - insubstantial SUMMER NO IMPORT - insubstantial SUMMER SESSION NO IMPORT - insubstantial sum of products type DONE Sun NO IMPORT - duplicate info Sun-2 Workstation NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sun-3 Workstation NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sun-4 Workstation NO IMPORT - insubstantial sun lounge NO IMPORT - jargon Sun Microsystems, Inc. NO IMPORT - duplicate info SunOS NO IMPORT - duplicate info sunspots NO IMPORT - jargon sun-stools NO IMPORT - insubstantial SunView DONE SUNY NO IMPORT - insubstantial SUPER NO IMPORT - jargon Super 7 NO IMPORT - out of date superclass NO IMPORT - duplicate info supercombinators NO IMPORT - insubstantial supercompilation NO IMPORT - jargon supercomputer NO IMPORT - duplicate info superhighway NO IMPORT - jargon SuperJanet NO IMPORT - out of date SUPERMAC NO IMPORT - insubstantial Super Pascal DONE - merged into Pascal superpipelined NO IMPORT - insubstantial superprogrammer NO IMPORT - jargon superscalar NO IMPORT - insubstantial super source quench NO IMPORT - jargon SuperTalk NO IMPORT - irrelevant superuser NO IMPORT - jargon Super VGA NO IMPORT - duplicate info Super Video Graphics Adapter NO IMPORT - duplicate info Super Video Graphics Adaptor NO IMPORT - duplicate info Super Video Graphics Array NO IMPORT - duplicate info supervisor mode Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition NO IMPORT - jargon support NO IMPORT - jargon supremum NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sure NO IMPORT - irrelevant surfing SURGE NO IMPORT - irrelevant surjection NO IMPORT - insubstantial surjective NO IMPORT - insubstantial surrogate key DONE suspension NO IMPORT - insubstantial Suzie COBOL NO IMPORT - jargon sv NO IMPORT - insubstantial SVC NO IMPORT - jargon SVG NO IMPORT - duplicate info SVGA NO IMPORT - duplicate info SVGA monitor NO IMPORT - duplicate info SVID NO IMPORT - insubstantial S-Video NO IMPORT - duplicate info SVR4 NO IMPORT - insubstantial SVRC NO IMPORT - insubstantial SVS NO IMPORT - insubstantial swab NO IMPORT - insubstantial SWAG NO IMPORT - jargon swap swap file swapped in swapped out swapping swap space DONE SweetLambda NO IMPORT - jargon SWI-Prolog NO IMPORT - irrelevant switch NO IMPORT - jargon Switched Multimegabit Data Service NO IMPORT - insubstantial switching hub NO IMPORT - insubstantial switch statement NO IMPORT - duplicate info swizzle NO IMPORT - jargon swung dash NO IMPORT - insubstantial sy NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sybase, Inc. NO IMPORT - duplicate info SYDEL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SYGMA NO IMPORT - insubstantial SYLK NO IMPORT - insubstantial Sylvan NO IMPORT - insubstantial Symantec NO IMPORT - duplicate info SYMBAL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SymbMath NO IMPORT - insubstantial SYMBOLANG NO IMPORT - insubstantial Symbolic Assembler Program NO IMPORT - insubstantial SYMBOLIC ASSEMBLY NO IMPORT - insubstantial Symbolic Automatic INTegrator NO IMPORT - insubstantial symbolic inference Symbolic Link DONE merged into existing article symbolic link DONE merged into existing article symbolic logic NO IMPORT - jargon Symbolic Mathematical Laboratory NO IMPORT - insubstantial symbolic mathematics - DONE Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program NO IMPORT - insubstantial Symbolics, Inc. NO IMPORT - insubstantial Symbol Manipulation Program NO IMPORT - insubstantial symlink DONE - merged with symbolic link symmetric NO IMPORT - duplicate info (Symmetry) symmetric key cryptography NO IMPORT - duplicate info Symmetric LISP DONE - Merged into LISP symmetric multiprocessing NO IMPORT - duplicate info symmetric multiprocessor NO IMPORT - duplicate info Symphony NO IMPORT - out of date SYMPL NO IMPORT - insubstantial SYN NO IMPORT - jargon sync NO IMPORT - jargon Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language DONE - merged into SMIL synchronous NO IMPORT - jargon Synchronous Data Link Control NO IMPORT - irrelevant Synchronous Digital Hierarchy NO IMPORT - duplicate info (Synchronous optical networking) Synchronous DRAM Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory Synchronous Graphics RAM Synchronous Graphics Random Access Memory Synchronous idle NO IMPORT - insubstantial synchronous key encryption NO IMPORT - duplicate info (PGP) Synchronous Optical NETwork NO IMPORT - duplicate info syncronous NO IMPORT - jargon synflood NO IMPORT - jargon synonym ring NO IMPORT - jargon syntactic salt DONE - (syntactic sugar) syntactic sugar DONE syntax NO IMPORT - duplicate info Syntax-Case syntax directed translation Syntax/Semantic Language syntax tree NO IMPORT - insubstantial synthesis NO IMPORT - jargon Synthesizer Specification Language NO IMPORT - insubstantial SyQuest Technology, Inc. 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6,105 | Binary_operation | In mathematics, a binary operation is a calculation involving two operands, in other words, an operation whose arity is two. Binary operations can be accomplished using either a binary function or binary operator. Binary operations are sometimes called dyadic operations in order to avoid confusion with the binary numeral system. Examples include the familiar arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. More precisely, a binary operation on a set S is a binary relation that maps elements of the Cartesian product S × S to S: If f is not a function, but is instead a partial function, it is called a partial operation. For instance, division of real numbers is a partial function, because one can't divide by zero: 1/0 and 0/0 are not defined. Sometimes, especially in computer science, the term is used for any binary function. That f takes values in the same set S that provides its arguments is the property of closure. Binary operations are the keystone of algebraic structures studied in abstract algebra: they form part of groups, monoids, semigroups, rings, and more. Most generally, a magma is a set together with any binary operation defined on it. Many binary operations of interest in both algebra and formal logic are commutative or associative. Many also have identity elements and inverse elements. Typical examples of binary operations are the addition (+) and multiplication (×) of numbers and matrices as well as composition of functions on a single set. An example of an operation that is not commutative is subtraction (−). Examples of partial operations that are not commutative include division (/), exponentiation(^), and super-exponentiation(↑↑). Binary operations are often written using infix notation such as a ∗ b, a + b, a · b or (by juxtaposition with no symbol) ab rather than by functional notation of the form f(a, b). Powers are usually also written without operator, but with the second argument as superscript. Binary operations sometimes use prefix or postfix notation; this dispenses with parentheses. Prefix notation is also called Polish notation; postfix notation, also called reverse Polish notation, is probably more often encountered. Pair and tuple A binary operation, ab, depends on the ordered pair (a, b) and so (ab)c (where the parentheses here mean first operate on the ordered pair (a, b) and then operate on the result of that using the ordered pair ((ab), c)) depends in general on the ordered pair ((a,b),c). Thus, for the general, non-associative case, binary operations can be represented with binary trees. However: If the operation is associative, (ab)c=a(bc), then the value depends only on the tuple (a,b,c). If the operation is commutative, ab=ba, then the value depends only on the multiset { {a,b},c}. If the operation is both associative and commutative then the value depends only on the multiset {a,b,c}. If the operation is both associative and commutative and idempotent, aa=a, then the value depends only on the set {a,b,c}. External binary operations An external binary operation is a binary function from K × S to S. This differs from a binary operation in the strict sense in that K need not be S; its elements come from outside. An example of an external binary operation is scalar multiplication in linear algebra. Here K is a field and S is a vector space over that field. An external binary operation may alternatively be viewed as an action; K is acting on S. Note that the dot product of two vectors is not a binary operation, external or otherwise, as it maps from S × S to K, where K is a field and S is a vector space over K. 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6,106 | Euro | The euro (€) is the official currency of 16 of the 27 member states of the European Union (EU). The states, known collectively as the Eurozone, are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Spain. The currency is also used in a further five European countries, with and without formal agreements and is consequently used daily by some 327 million Europeans. Over 175 million people worldwide use currencies which are pegged to the euro, including more than 150 million people in Africa. The euro is the second largest reserve currency and the second most traded currency in the world after the U.S. dollar. http://www.bis.org/publ/rpfxf07t.pdf , with more than €751 billion in circulation, the euro is the currency with the highest combined value of cash in circulation in the world, having surpassed the U.S. dollar. This figure is sourced in dollars and converted into euro based on the exchange rate for 28 November 2008 of €1 = US$1.2694: Based on IMF estimates of 2008 GDP and purchasing power parity among the various currencies, the Eurozone is the second largest economy in the world. The name euro was officially adopted on 16 December 1995. The euro was introduced to world financial markets as an accounting currency on 1 January 1999, replacing the former European Currency Unit (ECU) at a ratio of 1:1. Euro coins and banknotes entered circulation on 1 January 2002. Administration The ECB in Frankfurt, Germany, is in charge of the Eurozone's monetary policy The euro is managed and administered by the Frankfurt-based European Central Bank (ECB) and the Eurosystem (composed of the central banks of the Eurozone countries). As an independent central bank, the ECB has sole authority to set monetary policy. The Eurosystem participates in the printing, minting and distribution of notes and coins in all member states, and the operation of the Eurozone payment systems. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty obliges most EU member states to adopt the euro upon meeting certain monetary and budgetary requirements, however, not all states have done so. The United Kingdom and Denmark negotiated exemptions, while Sweden turned down the euro in a 2003 referendum, and has circumvented the obligation to adopt the euro by not meeting the monetary and budgetary requirements. All nations that have joined the EU since 1993 have pledged to adopt the euro in due course. Characteristics Coins and banknotes All euro coins have a common side, and a national side chosen by the respective national authorities. The euro is divided into 100 cents (sometimes referred to as euro-cents, especially when distinguishing them from other currencies). In official contexts the plural forms of euro and cent are spelled without the s, notwithstanding normal English usage. ; Otherwise, normal English plurals are recommended and used. ; All circulating coins have a common side showing the denomination or value, and a map in the background. For the denominations except the 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins that map only showed the 15 member states which were members when the euro was introduced. Beginning in 2007 or 2008 (depending on the country) the old map is being replaced by a map of Europe also showing countries outside the Union like Norway. The 1-, 2- and 5-cent coins, however, keep their old design, showing a geographical map of Europe with the 15 member states of 2002 raised somewhat above the rest of the map. All common sides were designed by Luc Luycx. The coins also have a national side showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin. Euro coins from any member state may be freely used in any nation which has adopted the euro. Right|The common (top) and national sides of the €2 coin The coins are issued in €2, €1, 50-cent, 20-cent, 10-cent, 5-cent, 2-cent, and 1-cent denominations. In order to avoid the use of the two smallest coins, some cash transactions are rounded to the nearest five cents in the Netherlands (by voluntary agreement) and in Finland (by law). Commemorative coins with €2 face value have been issued with changes to the design of the national side of the coin. These include both commonly issued coins, such as the €2 commemorative coin for the fiftieth anniversary of the signing of the Treaty of Rome, and nationally issued coins, such as the coin to commemorate the 2004 Summer Olympics issued by Greece. These coins are legal tender throughout the Eurozone. Collector’s coins with various other denominations have been issued as well, but these are not intended for general circulation, and they are legal tender only in the member state that issued them. The design for the euro banknotes have common designs on both sides. The design was created by Robert Kalina. Robert Kalina, designer of the euro banknotes, at work at the Oesterreichische Nationalbank in Vienna. Notes are issued in €500, €200, €100, €50, €20, €10, €5. Each banknote has its own colour and is dedicated to an artistic period of European architecture. The front of the note features windows or gateways while the back has bridges. While the designs are supposed to be devoid of any identifiable characteristics, the initial designs by Robert Kalina were of specific bridges, including the Rialto and the Pont de Neuilly , and were subsequently rendered more generic; the final designs still bear very close similarities to their specific prototypes; thus they are not truly generic. Some of the highest denominations such as the €500 are not issued in all countries, though they remain legal tender throughout the Eurozone. Payments clearing, electronic funds transfer All intra-EU transfers in euro are considered as domestic payments and bear the corresponding domestic transfer costs. This includes all member States of the EU, even those outside the Eurozone providing the transactions are carried out in euro. Credit/debit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the Eurozone are also charged as domestic, however paper-based payment orders, like cheques, have not been standardised so these are still domestic-based. The ECB has also set up a clearing system, TARGET, for large euro transactions. Currency sign The euro sign; logotype and handwritten. A special euro currency sign (€) was designed after a public survey had narrowed the original ten proposals down to two. The European Commission then chose the design created by the Belgian Alain Billiet. The official story of the design history of the euro sign is disputed by Arthur Eisenmenger, a former chief graphic designer for the EEC, who claims to have created it as a generic symbol of Europe. The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions and foreground/background colour tones. While the Commission intended the logo to be a prescribed glyph shape, font designers made it clear that they intended to design their own variants instead. Typewriters lacking the euro sign can create it by typing a capital 'C', backspacing and overstriking it with the equal ('=') sign. Placement of the currency sign relative to the numeric amount varies from nation to nation, and there is no official recommendation on the issue. The Introduction of the euro The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 Maastricht Treaty. In order to participate in the currency, member states are meant to meet strict criteria such as a budget deficit of less than three per cent of their GDP, a debt ratio of less than sixty per cent of GDP, low inflation, and interest rates close to the EU average. In the Maastricht Treaty, the United Kingdom and Denmark were granted exemptions per their request from moving to the stage of monetary union which would result in the introduction of the euro. Economists who helped create or contributed to the euro include Robert Mundell, Wim Duisenberg, Robert Tollison, Neil Dowling, Fred Arditti and Tommaso Padoa-Schioppa. (For macro-economic theory, see below.) The name euro was devised on 4 August 1995 by Germain Pirlot, a Belgian esperantist and ex-teacher of French and history, and officially adopted in Madrid on 16 December 1995. Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro. The definitive values in euro of these subdivisions (which represent the exchange rates at which the currency entered the euro) are shown at right. The rates were determined by the Council of the European Union, by means of Council Regulation 2866/98 (EC) of 31 December 1998. based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on 31 December 1998. They were set so that one European Currency Unit (ECU) would equal one euro. The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right. They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally the pound sterling) that day. The procedure used to fix the irrevocable conversion rate between the drachma and the euro was different, since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand. by Council Regulation 1478/2000 (EC) of 19 June 2000. The currency was introduced in non-physical form (travellers' cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on 1 January 1999, when the national currencies of participating countries (the Eurozone) ceased to exist independently. Their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other, effectively making them mere non-decimal subdivisions of the euro. The euro thus became the successor to the European Currency Unit (ECU). The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as legal tender until new euro notes and coins were introduced on 1 January 2002. The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until 28 February 2002. The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in Germany where the mark officially ceased to be legal tender on 31 December 2001, though the exchange period lasted for two months more. Even after the old currencies ceased to be legal tender, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for periods ranging from several years to forever (the latter in Austria, Germany, Ireland, and Spain). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after 31 December 2002, although banknotes remain exchangeable until 2022. Direct and indirect usage Direct usage The euro is the sole currency of 16 EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia and Spain. These countries comprise the "Eurozone" or "Euro Area", some 326 million people in total. With all but two of the remaining EU members obliged to join, together with future members of the EU, the enlargement of the eurozone is set to continue further. Outside the EU, the euro is also the sole currency of two former Yugoslavian states (Montenegro and Kosovo) and several European micro states (Andorra, Monaco, San Marino and Vatican) as well as in overseas territories (Mayotte, Saint Pierre and Miquelon, Akrotiri and Dhekelia, Saint Barthélemy and Saint Martin). Together this direct usage of the euro outside the EU affects over 3 million people. It is also gaining increasing international usage as a trading currency, in Cuba, North Korea and Syria. There are also various currencies pegged to the euro (see below). In 2009 Zimbabwe announced to abandon its local currency and use major currencies instead including the euro and the US-dollar. Usage as reserve currency Since its introduction, the euro has been the second most widely-held international reserve currency after the U.S. dollar. The share of the euro as a reserve currency has increased from 17.9% in 1999 to 26.5% in 2008, at the expense of the U.S. dollar (its share fell from 70.9% to 64.0% in the same timeframe) and the Yen (it fell from 6.4% to 3.3%). The euro inherited the status of the second most important reserve currency from the German mark. The rise in its reserve currency status was not gradual, rather a 4.4% jump in 2002 was the result of the introduction of euro banknotes and coins in the same year and of international public awareness. The euro remains underweight as a reserve currency in advanced economies while overweight in emerging and developing economies: according to the IMF http://www.imf.org/external/np/sta/cofer/eng/cofer.pdf the total of euros held as a reserve in the world at the end of 2008 was equal to USD 1.1 trillion, with a share of 22% of all currency reserves in advanced economies, but a total of 31% of all currency reserves in emerging and developing economies. The possibility of the euro becoming the first international reserve currency is now widely debated among economists. Former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan gave his opinion in September 2007 that it is "absolutely conceivable that the euro will replace the dollar as reserve currency, or will be traded as an equally important reserve currency." In contrast to Greenspan's 2007 assessment the euro's increase in the share of the worldwide currency reserve basket has slowed considerably since the year 2007 and since the beginning of the worldwide credit crunch related recession. Currencies pegged to the euro Worldwide use of the euro and the U.S. dollar: Outside the Eurozone, a total of 23 countries and territories which do not belong to the EU have currencies that are directly pegged to the euro including 14 countries in mainland Africa (they use the CFP franc, the CFA franc and the Moroccan dirham), 2 African island countries (Comorian franc and Cape Verdean escudo), 3 French Pacific territories and another Balkan country, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark). With the exception of Bosnia and Herzegovina (which pegged their currency against the German mark) and Cape Verde (formerly pegged to the Portuguese escudo) all of these non-EU countries had a currency peg to the French Franc before pegging their currencies to the euro. Pegging a country's currency to a major currency is regarded as a safety measure, especially for currencies of areas with weak economies, as the euro is seen as a stable currency, prevents runaway inflation and encourages foreign investment due to its stability. Within the EU several currencies have a peg to the Euro, in most instances as a precondition to joining the Eurozone. The Bulgarian Lev and the Estonian kroon were formerly pegged to the German mark, other EU memberstates have a direct peg due to ERM II: the Danish krone, the Lithuanian litas and the Latvian lats. In total, over 150 million people in Africa use a currency pegged to the euro, 25 million people outside the Eurozone in Europe and another 500,000 people on Pacific islands. This means that the euro is the direct or indirect currency for over half a billion people worldwide. Economics Optimal currency area In economics, an optimum currency area (or region) (OCA, or OCR) is a geographical region in which it would maximize economic efficiency to have the entire region share a single currency. There are two models, both proposed by Robert A. Mundell: the stationary expectations model and the international risk sharing model. Mundell himself advocates the international risk sharing model and thus concludes in favour of the euro. A Plan for a European Currency, 1973 by Mundell Transaction costs and risks The most obvious benefit of adopting a single currency is to remove the cost of exchanging currency, theoretically allowing businesses and individuals to consummate previously unprofitable trades. For consumers, banks in the Eurozone must charge the same for intra-member cross-border transactions as purely domestic transactions for electronic payments (e.g., credit cards, debit cards and cash machine withdrawals). The absence of distinct currencies also removes exchange rate risks. The risk of unanticipated exchange rate movement has always added an additional risk or uncertainty for companies or individuals that invest or trade outside their own currency zones. Companies that hedge against this risk will no longer need to shoulder this additional cost. This is particularly important for countries whose currencies had traditionally fluctuated a great deal, particularly the Mediterranean nations. Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more liquid and flexible than they were in the past. The reduction in cross-border transaction costs will allow larger banking firms to provide a wider array of banking services that can compete across and beyond the Eurozone. Price parity Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices—in particular in price levels—should decrease because of the 'law of one price'. Differences in prices can trigger arbitrage, i.e. speculative trade in a commodity across borders purely to exploit the price differential. Therefore, prices on commonly traded goods are likely to converge, causing inflation in some regions and deflation in others during the transition. Some evidence of this has been observed in specific markets. Macroeconomic stability Low levels of inflation are the hallmark of stable and modern economies. Because a high level of inflation acts as a tax (seigniorage) and theoretically discourages investment, it is generally viewed as undesirable. In spite of the downside, many countries have been unable or unwilling to deal with serious inflationary pressures. Some countries have successfully contained them by establishing largely independent central banks. One such bank was the Bundesbank in Germany; as the European Central Bank is modelled on the Bundesbank, it is independent of the pressures of national governments and has a mandate to keep inflationary pressures low. Member countries that join the bank commit to lower inflation, hoping to enjoy the macroeconomic stability associated with low levels of expected inflation. The ECB (unlike the Federal Reserve in the United States of America) does not have a second objective to sustain growth and employment. Many national and corporate bonds denominated in euro are significantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in legacy currencies. While increased liquidity may lower the nominal interest rate on the bond, denominating the bond in a currency with low levels of inflation arguably plays a much larger role. A credible commitment to low levels of inflation and a stable debt reduces the risk that the value of the debt will be eroded by higher levels of inflation or default in the future, allowing debt to be issued at a lower nominal interest rate. Exchange rates + U.S. dollars per 1 euro 1999-2009Year Lowest ↓ Highest ↑ Date Rate Date Rate 1999 03 Dec $1.0015 05 Jan $1.1790 2000 26 Oct$0.8252 06 Jan $1.0388 2001 06 Jul $0.8384 05 Jan $0.9545 2002 28 Jan $0.8578 31 Dec $1.0487 2003 08 Jan $1.0377 31 Dec $1.2630 2004 14 May $1.1802 28 Dec $1.3633 2005 15 Nov $1.1667 03 Jan $1.3507 2006 02 Jan $1.1826 05 Dec $1.3331 2007 12 Jan $1.2893 27 Nov $1.4874 2008 27 Oct $1.2460 15 Jul $1.5990 2009 05 Mar $1.2555 25 May $1.4010 Source: Euro exchange rates in USD, ECB Flexible exchange rates The ECB targets interest rates rather than exchange rates and in general does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets, because of the implications of the Mundell-Fleming Model which suggest that a central bank cannot maintain interest rate and exchange rate targets simultaneously because increasing the money supply results in a depreciation of the currency. In the years following the Single European Act, the EU has liberalised its capital markets, and as the ECB has chosen monetary autonomy, the exchange rate regime of the euro is flexible, or floating. This explains why the exchange rate of the euro vis-à-vis other currencies is characterised by strong fluctuations. Most notable are the fluctuations of the euro versus the U.S. dollar, another free-floating currency. However this focus on the dollar-euro parity is partly subjective. It is taken as a reference because the euro competes with the dollar's role as reserve currency. The effect of this selective reference is misleading, as it gives observers the impression that a rise in the value of the euro versus the dollar is the effect of increased global strength of the euro, while it may be the effect of an intrinsic weakening of the dollar itself. Against other major currencies After the introduction of the euro, its exchange rate against other currencies fell heavily, especially against the U.S. dollar. From an introduction at US$1.18/€, the euro fell to a low of $0.8228/€ by 26 October 2000. After the appearance of the coins and notes on 1 January 2002 and the replacement of all national currencies, the euro then began steadily appreciating, and soon regained parity with the U.S. dollar, on 15 July 2002. Since December 2002, the euro has not again fallen below parity with the U.S. dollar but instead began an ascendency. Exchange rate evolution of the euro compared to USD, JPY and GBP. Exchange rate at start is put to 1. Green: in Jan-1999: €1 = $1.18 ; in Jul-2008: €1 = $1.57 Red: in Jan-1999: €1 = ¥133 ; in Jul-2008: €1 = ¥168 Blue: in Jan-1999: €1 = £0.71 ; in Jul-2008: €1 = £0.80 On 23 May 2003, the euro surpassed its initial ($1.18) trading value for the first time. At the end of 2004, it reached $1.3668 (€0.7316/$) as the U.S. dollar fell against all major currencies. Against the U.S. dollar, the euro temporarily weakened in 2005, falling to $1.18 (€0.85/$) in July 2005, and was stable throughout the third quarter of 2005. In November 2005 the euro again began to rise steadily against the U.S. dollar, hitting one record high after another. On 15 July 2008, the euro rose to an all-time high of $1.5990 (€0.6254/$). In a reversal, in August 2008 the euro began to drop against the U.S. dollar. In just two weeks the euro fell from its peak to $1.48 and by late October it reached a two and a half year low below $1.25. ECB official rates against the U.S. dollar from ecb.eu On 29 December 2008, the pound sterling fell to an all-time low of £0.97855 (€1.0219/£) against the euro. ECB official rates against the British pound from ecb.eu Current and historical exchange rates against 29 other currencies (European Central Bank) Current dollar/euro exchange rates (BBC) Historical exchange rate from 1971 until now Linguistic issues The formal titles of the currency are euro for the major unit and cent for the minor (one hundredth) unit and for official use in most Eurozone languages; according to the ECB, all languages should use the same spelling for the nominative singular. This may contradict normal rules for word formation in some languages; e.g., those where there is no eu diphthong. For non-legally binding texts in English, the European Commission's Directorate-General for Translation recommends that the plural forms euros and cents should be used when appropriate. For example, see European Commission, Directorate General for Translation: English Style Guide section 20.8 "The euro. Like 'pound', 'dollar' or any other currency name in English, the word 'euro' is written in lower case with no initial capital and, where appropriate, takes the plural 's' (as does 'cent')." European Commission Directorate-General for Translation - English Style Guide. See also Notes and references Further reading Baldwin, Richard and Charles Wyplosz, The Economics of European Integration, New York: McGraw Hill, 2004. European Commission, High Level Task Force on Skills and Mobility - Final Report, 14 December 2001. 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6,107 | Nagasaki | () is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture in Japan. Nagasaki was founded by the Portuguese in the 16th century. It was formerly part of Nishisonogi District. It was a center of Portuguese and European influence in the 16th through 19th centuries. Nagasaki became a major Imperial Japanese Navy base during the First Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War. During World War II, the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki made Nagasaki the second and last city in the world to be subject to nuclear warfare. Geography Nagasaki and Nishisonogi Peninsulas are located within the city limits. The city is surrounded by the cities of Isahaya and Saikai, and the towns of Togitsu and Nagayo in Nishisonogi District. Nagasaki lies at the head of a long bay which forms the best natural harbor on the island of Kyūshū. The main commercial and residential area of the city lies on a small plain near the end of the bay. Two rivers divided by a mountain spur form the two main valleys in which the city lies. The heavily built-up area of the city is confined by the terrain to less than 4 square miles. History Medieval and early modern eras Founded by the Portuguese before 1500, Nagasaki was originally secluded by harbors. It enjoyed little historical significance until contact with European explorers in 1542, when a Portuguese ship landed nearby, somewhere in Kagoshima prefecture. The Navarrese Jesuit missionary St. Francis Xavier arrived in another part of the territory in 1549, but left for China in 1551 and died soon afterwards. His followers who remained behind converted a number of daimyo (feudal lords). The most notable among them was Ōmura Sumitada, who derived great profit from his conversion to the "Kirishitan" religion through an accompanying deal to receive a portion of the trade from Portuguese ships at a port they established in Nagasaki in 1571 with his assistance. Kameyama Ware Jar With Nagasaki Dutch Trading Ship, 19th CenturyThe little harbor village quickly grew into a diverse port city, and Portuguese products imported through Nagasaki (such as tobacco, bread, textiles and a Portuguese sponge-cake called castellas) were assimilated into popular Japanese culture. Tempura, while not Portuguese in origin, takes its name from the Portuguese word, 'Tempero,' another example of the enduring effects of this cultural exchange. The Portuguese also brought with them many goods from China. Due to the instability during the Sengoku period, Sumitada and Jesuit leader Alexandro Valignano conceived a plan to pass administrative control over to the Society of Jesus rather than see the Catholic city taken over by a non-Catholic daimyo. Thus, for a brief period after 1580, the city of Nagasaki was a Jesuit colony, under their administrative and military control. It became a refuge for Christians escaping maltreatment in other regions of Japan. Diego Paccheco, Monumenta Nipponica, 1970 In 1587, however, Toyotomi Hideyoshi's campaign to unify the country arrived in Kyūshū. Concerned with the large Christian influence in southern Japan, as well as the active and what was perceived as the arrogant role the Jesuits were playing in the Japanese political arena, Hideyoshi ordered the expulsion of all missionaries, and placed the city under his direct control. However, the expulsion order went largely unenforced, and the fact remained that most of Nagasaki's population remained openly practicing Catholics. In 1596, the Spanish ship San Felipe was wrecked off the coast of Shikoku, and Hideyoshi learned from its pilot so says the Jesuit account that the Spanish Franciscans were the vanguard of an Iberian invasion of Japan. In response, Hideyoshi ordered the crucifixions of twenty-six Catholics in Nagasaki on February 5 of that year (i.e. the "Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan"). Portuguese traders were not ostracized, however, and so the city continued to thrive. Meganebashi (Spectacles Bridge) In 1602, Augustinian missionaries also arrived in Japan, and when Tokugawa Ieyasu took power in 1603, Catholicism was still tolerated. Many Catholic daimyo had been critical allies at the Battle of Sekigahara, and the Tokugawa position was not strong enough to move against them. Once Osaka Castle had been taken and Toyotomi Hideyoshi's offspring killed, though, the Tokugawa dominance was assured. In addition, the Dutch and English presence allowed trade without religious strings attached. Thus, in 1614, Catholicism was officially banned and all missionaries ordered to leave. Most Catholic daimyo apostatized, and forced their subjects to do so, although a few would not renounce the religion and left the country for Macau, Luzon and Japantowns in Southeast Asia. A brutal campaign of persecution followed, with thousands of converts across Kyūshū and other parts of Japan killed, tortured, or forced to renounce their religion. Catholicism's last gasp as an open religion, and the last major military action in Japan until the Meiji Restoration, was the Shimabara Rebellion of 1637. While there is no evidence that Europeans directly incited the rebellion, Shimabara Domain had been a Christian han for several decades, and the rebels adopted many Portuguese motifs and Christian icons. Consequently, in Tokugawa society the word "Shimabara" solidified the connection between Christianity and disloyalty, constantly used again and again in Tokugawa propaganda. The Shimabara Rebellion also convinced many policy-makers that foreign influences were more trouble than they were worth, leading to the national isolation policy. The Portuguese, who had been previously living on a specially-constructed island-prison in Nagasaki harbor called Dejima, were expelled from the archipelago altogether, and the Dutch were moved from their base at Hirado into the trading island. In 1720 the ban on Dutch books was lifted, causing hundreds of scholars to flood into Nagasaki to study European science and art. Consequently, Nagasaki became a major center of rangaku, or "Dutch Learning". During the Edo period, the Tokugawa shogunate governed the city, appointing a hatamoto, the Nagasaki bugyō, as its chief administrator. Ōura Church built in 1864 is a national treasure of Japan Consensus among historians was once that Nagasaki was Japan's only window on the world during its time as a closed country in the Tokugawa era. However, nowadays it is generally accepted that this was not the case, since Japan interacted and traded with the Ryūkyū Kingdom, Korea and Russia through Satsuma, Tsushima and Matsumae respectively. Nevertheless, Nagasaki was depicted in contemporary art and literature as a cosmopolitan port brimming with exotic curiosities from the Western World. Cambridge Encyclopedia of Japan, Richard Bowring and Haruko Laurie In 1808, during the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Navy frigate HMS Phaeton entered Nagasaki Harbor in search of Dutch trading ships. The local magistrate was unable to resist the British demand for food, fuel, and water, later committing seppuku as a result. Laws were passed in the wake of this incident strengthening coastal defenses, threatening death to intruding foreigners, and prompting the training of English and Russian translators. The Tōjinyashiki (唐人屋敷) or Chinese Factory in Nagasaki was also an important conduit for Chinese goods and information for the Japanese market. Various colorful Chinese merchants and artists sailed between the Chinese mainland and Nagasaki. Some actually combined the roles of merchant and artist such as 18th century Yi Hai. It is believed that as much as one-third of the population of Nagasaki at this time may have been Chinese Screech, Timon. The Western Scientific Gaze and Popular Imagery in Later Edo Japan: The Lens Within the Heart. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. p15. . Nagasaki Prefect Office, Meiji period Nagasaki City Office, Taisho period Modern era Mushroom cloud from the atomic explosion over Nagasaki rising 60,000 feet into the air on the morning of August 9, 1945 One legged Torii Part of Urakami Cathedral that remained standing after the atomic bombing With the Meiji Restoration, Japan opened its doors once again to foreign trade and diplomatic relations. Nagasaki became a free port in 1859 and modernization began in earnest in 1868. Nagasaki was officially proclaimed a city on April 1, 1889. With Christianity legalized and the Kakure Kirishitan coming out of hiding, Nagasaki regained its earlier role as a center for Roman Catholicism in Japan. During the Meiji period, Nagasaki became a center of heavy industry. Its main industry was ship-building, with the dockyards under control of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries becoming one of the prime contractors for the Imperial Japanese Navy, and with Nagasaki harbor used as an anchorage under the control of nearby Sasebo Naval District.These connections with the military made Nagasaki a major target for bombing by the Allies in World War II. World War II and atomic bombing On August 9, 1945, Nagasaki was the target of the world's second atomic bomb attack (and first plutonium bomb) at 11:02 a.m., when the north of the city was destroyed and an estimated 40,000 people were killed by the bomb nicknamed "Fat Man". According to statistics found within Nagasaki Peace Park, the death toll from the atomic bombing totaled 73,884, as well as another 74,909 injured, and another several hundred thousand diseased and dying due to fallout and other illness caused by radiation. Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR VII) report to the National Academies of Science, 2007 Much has been written in news reports, novels, and popular culture about Nagasaki in the years after the bombing. See for instance First Into Nagasaki. Reconstruction after the war The city was rebuilt after the war, albeit dramatically changed. New temples were built, as well as new churches due to an increase in the presence of Christianity. Nagasaki is the seat of a Roman Catholic Archdiocese led by Archbishop Joseph Mitsuaki Takami. GCatholic.com/Giga-Catholic Information: The Metropolitan Archdiocese of Nagasaki, Japan Some of the rubble was left as a memorial, such as a one-legged torii gate and an arch near ground zero. New structures were also raised as memorials, such as the Atomic Bomb Museum. Nagasaki remains first and foremost a port city, supporting a rich shipping industry and setting a strong example of perseverance and peace. Nagasaki in Western music and song Nagasaki is the title and subject of a 1928 song with music by Harry Warren and lyrics by Mort Dixon. See Nagasaki (song). Nagasaki is also the setting for Puccini's opera Madama Butterfly. Schools Universities Siebold University of Nagasaki Junior Colleges Transportation The nearest airport is Nagasaki Airport in the neighboring city of Ōmura. The Kyushu Railway Company provides rail transportation on the Nagasaki Main Line, whose terminal is at Nagasaki Station. In addition, the Nagasaki Electric Tramway operates five routes in the city. The Nagasaki Expressway serves vehicular traffic with interchanges at Nagasaki and Susukizuka. In addition, six national highways crisscross the city: Routes 34, 202, 251, 324, and 499. Tourism Sights Monument at the atomic bomb hypocenter in Nagasaki Nagasaki National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims Dejima Museum of History Former Glover Residence Former Alt Residence Former Ringer Residence Former Walker Residence Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum (Located next to the Peace Park) Nagasaki National Peace Memorial Hall for the Atomic Bomb Victims Atomic Bomb Hypocenter (Located near the Peace Park) Nagasaki Subtropical Botanical Garden Nyoko-do Hermitage Shusaku Endo Literary Museum Siebold Memorial Museum Suwa Shrine Twenty-Six Martyrs Museum and Monument Events Nagasaki Lantern Festival The Prince Takamatsu Cup Nishinippon Round-Kyūshū Ekiden, the world's longest relay race, begins in Nagasaki each November. Kunchi, the most famous festival in Nagasaki, is held from 7-9 October. The Nagasaki Lantern Festival , celebrating the Chinese New Year, is celebrated from 2/18 to 3/4 in 2007. Foods and souvenirs Champon Sara udon Mogi Biwa KasuteraChinese Confections Urakami Soboro Shippoku CuisineToruko rice (Turkish rice) Karasumi Nagasaki Kakuni Manju Shopping You-me Plaza Hamanomachi Shopping Arcade AMYU Plaza Sister cities This sculpture at Peace Park commemorates Nagasaki's sister-city relationship with Saint Paul, Minnesota The city of Nagasaki maintains sister-city or friendship relations with other cities worldwide. Within Japan Hiroshima Outside Japan Saint Paul, Minnesota United States - (1955) Oldest sister city in Japan Santos, Brazil (1972) Porto, Portugal (1978) Middelburg, Netherlands (1978) Fuzhou, People's Republic of China (1980) Vaux-sur-Aure, France (2005), sister city of Sotome since 1978 See also Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Ground Zero Foreign cemeteries in Japan Gunkanjima Hiroshima Hiroshima (film) (about the decision process behind the dropping of the nuclear bombs) Kokura (Kitakyushu) Kazuo Ishiguro, the novelist, was born in Nagasaki. External links Official website Nuclear Files.org Comprehensive information on the history, and political and social implications of the US atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 'Nagasaki's Sister Cities Nagasaki JALT [Japan Association for Language Teaching] Nuclear Weapons and Warfare Why Hiroshima And Nagasaki Nagasaki Prefectual Tourism Federation Nagasaki Social Networking Service Nagasaki Product Promotion Association Useful information for foreign residents, produced by Nagasaki International Association References | Nagasaki |@lemmatized capital:1 large:2 city:30 nagasaki:73 prefecture:2 japan:21 found:2 portuguese:13 century:3 formerly:1 part:4 nishisonogi:3 district:3 center:4 european:3 influence:3 become:6 major:4 imperial:2 japanese:7 navy:3 base:2 first:4 sino:1 war:8 russo:1 world:8 ii:3 atomic:14 bombing:8 hiroshima:7 make:2 second:2 last:3 subject:3 nuclear:4 warfare:2 geography:1 peninsula:1 locate:3 within:4 limit:1 surround:1 isahaya:1 saikai:1 town:1 togitsu:1 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6,108 | John_Abercrombie_(physician) | John Abercrombie (October 10, 1780 in Aberdeen – November 14, 1844 in Edinburgh) was a Scottish physician and philosopher. The Chambers Biographical Dictionary says of him that after Dr James Gregory's death, he was "recognized as the first consulting physician in Scotland". Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 4 The son of the Reverend George Abercrombie of Aberdeen, he was educated at the Grammar School and Marischal College, University of Aberdeen. He studied medicine at the University of Edinburgh, and after graduating as M.D. in 1803 he settled down to practise in that city, where he soon attained a leading position. From 1816 he published various papers in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, which formed the basis of his more extensive works: Pathological and Practical Researches on Diseases of the Brain and Spinal Cord, regarded as the first textbook in neuropathology, and Researches on the Diseases of the Intestinal Canal, Liver and other Viscera of the Abdomen, both published in 1828. He also found time for philosophical speculations, and in 1830 he published his Inquiries concerning the Intellectual Powers of Man and the Investigation of Truth, which was followed in 1833 by a sequel, The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings. Both works showed little originality of thought; they achieved wide popularity at the time of their publication, but have long been superseded. In 1821 he was elected to the Royal College of Surgeons. In 1841 he was partially paralyzed, but was able to return to his practice of medicine. In 1844 he died of a ruptured coronary artery while preparing to visit patients. For his services as a physician and philanthropist he received many marks of distinction, including the Rectorship of Marischal College. References External links http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/109.html http://webperso.easyconnect.fr/baillement/lettres/abercrombie-portrait.html Significant Scots | John_Abercrombie_(physician) |@lemmatized john:1 abercrombie:3 october:1 aberdeen:3 november:1 edinburgh:3 scottish:1 physician:3 philosopher:1 chamber:2 biographical:2 dictionary:2 say:1 dr:1 james:1 gregory:1 death:1 recognize:1 first:2 consulting:1 scotland:1 isbn:1 page:1 son:1 reverend:1 george:1 educate:1 grammar:1 school:1 marischal:2 college:3 university:2 study:1 medicine:2 graduate:1 settle:1 practise:1 city:1 soon:1 attain:1 leading:1 position:1 publish:3 various:1 paper:1 medical:1 surgical:1 journal:1 form:1 basis:1 extensive:1 work:2 pathological:1 practical:1 research:2 disease:2 brain:1 spinal:1 cord:1 regard:1 textbook:1 neuropathology:1 intestinal:1 canal:1 liver:1 viscera:1 abdomen:1 also:1 find:1 time:2 philosophical:1 speculation:1 inquiry:1 concern:1 intellectual:1 power:1 man:1 investigation:1 truth:1 follow:1 sequel:1 philosophy:1 moral:1 feeling:1 show:1 little:1 originality:1 thought:1 achieve:1 wide:1 popularity:1 publication:1 long:1 supersede:1 elect:1 royal:1 surgeon:1 partially:1 paralyzed:1 able:1 return:1 practice:1 die:1 ruptured:1 coronary:1 artery:1 prepare:1 visit:1 patient:1 service:1 philanthropist:1 receive:1 many:1 mark:1 distinction:1 include:1 rectorship:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 http:2 www:1 whonamedit:1 com:1 doctor:1 cfm:1 html:2 webperso:1 easyconnect:1 fr:1 baillement:1 lettres:1 portrait:1 significant:1 scot:1 |@bigram chamber_biographical:2 biographical_dictionary:2 marischal_college:2 brain_spinal:1 spinal_cord:1 coronary_artery:1 external_link:1 http_www:1 |
6,109 | Government_of_Barbados | The Government of Barbados is formed by the political party which gains a simple majority in the general elections held in Barbados. These elections constitutionally must be held no longer than every five years apart, however elections can be called whenever the Government so chooses to seek a new mandate or loses a vote of no confidence in Parliament. It is part of Barbados' political system and supported by the Barbadian Civil Service. Transparency International ranked it 22nd place (of 179) in the world on the corruption perceptions index in 2008, with only 3 nations surpassing it in the Americas. (, . However,it can be noted that the government (which is the political party known as the DLP, or Democratic Labour Party.)is generally incorrupt, helping to maintain stability. The government of Barbados has been chosen by election since 1961 elections, when Barbados achieved full self-governance. Before then, the government was mainly either a colonial administration solely or a mixture of colonial rule and a partially-elected assembly, such as the Legislative Council. Both the Barbados Labour Party and the Democratic Labour Party has formed the government in the elections since 1961. List of government ministries [[ edit table]]</span> Portfolio Minister Governor General His Excellency Sir Clifford S. Husbands Prime Minister of Barbados Head of the Cabinet of Barbados Hon. David Thompson Prime Minister's Office Office of the Attorney General Hon. Freundel J. Stuart Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development Sen. Hon. Haynesley L. Benn Ministry of Community Development and Culture Hon. Steven D. Blackett Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development Hon. Ronald D. Jones Ministry of Family, Youth Affairs, Sports and Environment Dr. The Hon. Esther R. Byer-Suckoo Ministry of Finance, Economic Affairs and Development, Labour, Civil Service and Energy Hon. David J. H. Thompson Minister Of State Sen. Hon. Arni B. Walters Minister Of State Sen. Hon. Darcy W. Boyce Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade and International Business Hon. Christopher P. Sinckler Minister Of State Hon. Donville O. Inniss Ministry of Health, National Insurance and Social Security Dr. The Hon. David C. Estwick Ministry of Home Affairs Hon. Freundel J. Stuart Ministry of Housing and Lands Hon. Michael A. Lashley Ministry of Social Care, Constituency Empowerment and Urban Development Dr. The Hon. Denis S. Lowe Minister Of State Hon. Patrick M. T. Todd Ministry of Tourism Hon. Richard L. Sealy Ministry of Trade, Industry and Commerce Hon. E. George Hutson Ministry of Transport, Works and International Transport Hon. John D. E. Boyce See also Prime Minister of Barbados Monarchy of Barbados List of ministers of the environment Parliament of Barbados External links Barbadian Government Website Barbados Government statement on the proper titles for members of Government Social Security provided by the Government of Barbados | Government_of_Barbados |@lemmatized government:11 barbados:13 form:2 political:3 party:5 gain:1 simple:1 majority:1 general:3 election:6 hold:2 constitutionally:1 must:1 longer:1 every:1 five:1 year:1 apart:1 however:2 call:1 whenever:1 choose:2 seek:1 new:1 mandate:1 lose:1 vote:1 confidence:1 parliament:2 part:1 system:1 support:1 barbadian:2 civil:2 service:2 transparency:1 international:3 rank:1 place:1 world:1 corruption:1 perception:1 index:1 nation:1 surpass:1 america:1 note:1 know:1 dlp:1 democratic:2 labour:4 generally:1 incorrupt:1 help:1 maintain:1 stability:1 since:2 achieve:1 full:1 self:1 governance:1 mainly:1 either:1 colonial:2 administration:1 solely:1 mixture:1 rule:1 partially:1 elect:1 assembly:1 legislative:1 council:1 list:2 ministry:14 edit:1 table:1 span:1 portfolio:1 minister:9 governor:1 excellency:1 sir:1 clifford:1 husband:1 prime:3 head:1 cabinet:1 hon:19 david:3 thompson:2 office:2 attorney:1 freundel:2 j:3 stuart:2 agriculture:1 rural:1 development:5 sen:3 haynesley:1 l:2 benn:1 community:1 culture:1 steven:1 blackett:1 education:1 human:1 resource:1 ronald:1 jones:1 family:1 youth:1 affair:4 sport:1 environment:2 dr:3 esther:1 r:1 byer:1 suckoo:1 finance:1 economic:1 energy:1 h:1 state:4 arni:1 b:1 walter:1 darcy:1 w:1 boyce:2 foreign:2 trade:2 business:1 christopher:1 p:1 sinckler:1 donville:1 inniss:1 health:1 national:1 insurance:1 social:3 security:2 c:1 estwick:1 home:1 housing:1 land:1 michael:1 lashley:1 care:1 constituency:1 empowerment:1 urban:1 denis:1 lowe:1 patrick:1 todd:1 tourism:1 richard:1 sealy:1 industry:1 commerce:1 e:2 george:1 hutson:1 transport:2 work:1 john:1 see:1 also:1 monarchy:1 external:1 link:1 website:1 statement:1 proper:1 title:1 member:1 provide:1 |@bigram corruption_perception:1 prime_minister:3 foreign_affair:1 external_link:1 |
6,110 | Glottis | The glottis is defined as the combination of the vocal folds and the space in between the folds (the rima glottidis). Function As the vocal cords vibrate, the resulting vibration produces a "buzzing" quality to the speech, called voice or voicing or pronunciation. Sound production involving only the glottis is called glottal. English has a voiceless glottal fricative spelled "h". In many accents of English the glottal stop (made by pressing the folds together) is used as a variant allophone of the phoneme (and in some dialects, occasionally of and ); in some languages, this sound is a phoneme of its own. Skilled players of the Australian didgeridoo restrict their glottal opening in order to produce the full range of timbres available on the instrument. See "Acoustics: The vocal tract and the sound of a didgeridoo", by Tarnopolsky et al. in Nature 436, 39 (7 July 2005)) The vibration produced is an essential component of voiced consonants as well as vowels. If the vocal folds are drawn apart, air flows between them causing no vibration, as in the production of voiceless consonants. The glottis is also important in the valsalva maneuver. Voiced consonants include Voiceless consonants include Additional images See also Phonation References References of Glottis Simulator de Menezes Lyra R. Glottis simulator. Anesth Analg. 1999 Jun;88(6):1422-3. Smith, N Ty. Simulation in anesthesia: the merits of large simulators versus small simulators. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology. 13(6):659-665, December 2000. | Glottis |@lemmatized glottis:5 define:1 combination:1 vocal:4 fold:4 space:1 rima:1 glottidis:1 function:1 cord:1 vibrate:1 result:1 vibration:3 produce:3 buzz:1 quality:1 speech:1 call:2 voice:1 voicing:1 pronunciation:1 sound:3 production:2 involve:1 glottal:4 english:2 voiceless:3 fricative:1 spell:1 h:1 many:1 accent:1 stop:1 make:1 press:1 together:1 use:1 variant:1 allophone:1 phoneme:2 dialect:1 occasionally:1 language:1 skilled:1 player:1 australian:1 didgeridoo:2 restrict:1 opening:1 order:1 full:1 range:1 timbre:1 available:1 instrument:1 see:2 acoustic:1 tract:1 tarnopolsky:1 et:1 al:1 nature:1 july:1 essential:1 component:1 voiced:2 consonant:4 well:1 vowel:1 draw:1 apart:1 air:1 flow:1 cause:1 also:2 important:1 valsalva:1 maneuver:1 include:2 additional:1 image:1 phonation:1 reference:2 simulator:4 de:1 menezes:1 lyra:1 r:1 anesth:1 analg:1 jun:1 smith:1 n:1 ty:1 simulation:1 anesthesia:1 merit:1 large:1 versus:1 small:1 current:1 opinion:1 anaesthesiology:1 december:1 |@bigram vocal_cord:1 voiceless_glottal:1 glottal_fricative:1 glottal_stop:1 allophone_phoneme:1 et_al:1 voiced_consonant:2 voiceless_consonant:2 |
6,111 | Grindcore | For the fictional character with this name see Grindcore (Transformers). Grindcore, often shortened to grind, is an extreme music genre that emerged during the mid–1980s. It draws inspiration from some of the most abrasive music genres – including death metal, industrial music, noise and the more extreme varieties of hardcore punk. Grindcore is characterized by heavily distorted, down-tuned guitars, Johnson 2007, page 04. high speed tempo, blast beats, songs often lasting no more than two minutes (some are seconds long), and vocals which consist of growls and high-pitched screams. Felix von Havoc, Maximum Rock'n'Roll #198. Archived by Havoc Records. Access date: June 20, 2008. Lyrical themes range from social and political issues to gore and black humor. The groundwork for the style was established by Siege, Repulsion, and other groups. However, it was named and identified as a distinct subgenre by Napalm Death in Britain. Subsequently, it is most prevalent in North America and in Europe. The genre achieved a measure of commercial visibility in the 1990s. A variety of microgenres have subsequently emerged, including deathgrind and goregrind (closer to death metal), noisegrind (which is especially raw and chaotic), and electrogrind (including electronic elements). In addition, grindcore has had a notable impact on other styles of extreme music, including noise rock and some variants of electronic music. Other developments in hardcore punk, such as the dissonant and experimental powerviolence, and the more commercially viable metalcore, have also drawn on grindcore. Characteristics Grindcore relies on standard heavy metal instrumentation: electric guitar, bass and drums. However, grindcore alters the usual practices of metal or rock music with regard to song structure and tone. The vocal style is "ranging from high-pitched shrieks to low, throat-shredding growls and barks." A characteristic of grindcore song length is the 'microsong': a song lasting only a few seconds. In 2001, the Guinness Book of World Records awarded Brutal Truth the record for "Shortest Music Video" for 1994's "Collateral Damage". The song lasts 4 seconds. In 2007, the video for the Napalm Death song "You Suffer" set a new "Shortest Music Video" record: 1.3 seconds. Along with the microsong, it is characteristic of early grindcore to have diminutive song lengths. Such is the example of Carcass' Reek of Putrefaction (1988), where the song span averages about 1 minute and 48 seconds. Carcass (1988). Also, many grindcore groups experimented with down-tuning their guitars. While the vinyl A-side of Napalm Death's debut, 1987's Scum, is set to standard tuning, on side B, the guitars are tuned down 2½ steps. Their second album and 1989's EP were tuned to C#. Harmony Corruption, their third release, was tuned up to a D. Bolt Thrower went further, dropping 3½ steps down (A). Grindcore groups are also known for their incorporation of blast beats (a distinctive high-speed style of drumming), and their provocative lyrical content (often political or transgressive in nature). Blast beat The blast beat is a drum beat characteristic of grindcore in all its forms, Adam MacGregor, Agoraphobic Nosebleed review, Dusted, June 11, 2006. Access date: October 2, 2008. although its usage predates the genre itself. In Adam MacGregor's definition, "the blast-beat generally comprises a repeated, sixteenth-note figure played at a very fast tempo, and divided uniformly among the kick drum, snare and ride, crash, or hi-hat cymbal." Blast beats have been described as "maniacal percussive explosions, less about rhythm per se than sheer sonic violence." Strub, Whitney. the Key Club: An Interview with Mark 'Barney' Greenway of Napalm Death". PopMatters, May 11, 2006. Accessed on September 17, 2008. Napalm Death coined the term, though this style of drumming had previously been practiced by others. Daniel Ekeroth argues that the blast beat was first performed by the Swedish D-beat group Asocial on their 1982 demo. Ekeroth, p. 22. D.R.I. ("No Sense"), Sepultura ("Antichrist"), Sepultura, 1985, track 11. S.O.D. ("Milk"), Stormtroopers of Death, 1985, track 11. Sarcófago ("Satanas"), Sarcófago, 1986, track 10. and Repulsion also included the technique prior to Napalm Death's emergence. Lyrical themes Grindcore lyrics are typically provocative. A number of grindcore musicians are committed to political and ethical causes. "Grindcore Special," p. 46. For example, Napalm Death's songs address a variety of anarchist concerns, in the tradition of anarcho-punk. These themes include anti-racism, feminism, anti-militarism, and anti-capitalism. Other grindcore groups, such as Carcass, have expressed disgust with flesh, and are famous for their vegetarianism. Carcass biography. NME.com. Access date: April 25, 2009. Carcass' work is sometimes identified as the origin of the goregrind style, which is devoted to these bodily themes. Groups that shift their bodily focus to sexual matters, such as Gut and the Meat Shits, are sometimes referred to as pornogrind. Seth Putnam's lyrics are notorious for their black comedy, Eduardo Rivadavia, Anal Cunt bio, Allmusic. Access date: April 25, 2009. while The Locust tend toward satirical collage, indebted to William S. Burroughs' cut-up method. "The Locust: Catching Up with J.P.," October 17, 2007. Grindcore vocals are often unintelligible to the listener, making the lyric sheet necessary to convey this aspect. History Precursors The early grindcore scene relied on an international network of tape trading and DIY production. "Grindcore Special," p. 44. The most widely acknowledged precursors of the grindcore sound are Siege, Steven Blush, "Boston Not L.A.", American Hardcore, Feral House, p. 171. a hardcore punk group, and Repulsion, an early death metal outfit. Matthew Widener, "Scared to Death: The Making of Repulsion's Horrified", Decibel no. 46, August 2008, p. 63-69. Siege, from Weymouth, Massachusetts, were influenced by classic American hardcore (Minor Threat, Black Flag, Void) and by British groups like Discharge, Venom, and Motörhead. Mudrian 2004, p. 50. Siege's goal was maximum velocity: "We would listen to the fastest punk and hardcore bands we could find and say, ‘Okay, we’re gonna deliberately write something that is faster than them'", drummer Robert Williams recalled. Repulsion, from Flint, Michigan, cited street punk groups like Discharge and Charged GBH, crossover thrash such as Dirty Rotten Imbeciles and Corrosion of Conformity, thrash metal like Slayer, Metallica, and Sodom, early black metal (Venom) and death metal (Possessed), hardcore punk, like Black Flag, and older hard rock, as inspirational. The group is often credited with inventing the classic grind blast beat (played at 190 bpm), as well as its distinctive bass tone. Shane Embury, in particular, advocates the band as the origin of Napalm Death's later innovations. Kevin Sharp of Brutal Truth declares that "Horrified was and still is the defining core of what grind became; a perfect mix of hardcore punk with metallic gore, speed and distortion." "Grindcore Special," p. 41. Other groups in the British grindcore scene, such as Heresy and Unseen Terror, have emphasized the influence of American hardcore punk, including Septic Death, as well as Swedish D-beat. "Grindcore Special," p. 43. Sore Throat cites Discharge, Disorder, and a variety of European D-beat and thrash metal groups, including Hellhammer, "Grindcore Special," p. 45. and American hardcore groups, such as Poison Idea and DRI. Japanese hardcore, particularly GISM, is also mentioned by a number of originators of the style. "Grindcore Special," p. 52. Other key groups cited by current and former members of Napalm Death as formative influences include Discharge, Amebix, Throbbing Gristle, Mudrian 2004, page 31. and the aforementioned Dirty Rotten Imbeciles. Post-punk, such as Killing Joke and Joy Division, Interview with Mick Harris, DVD half of Napalm Death's Scum 20 year anniversary reissue. was also cited as an influence on early Napalm Death. UK grindcore Grindcore, as such, was developed during the mid-1980s in the United Kingdom by Napalm Death, a group who emerged from the crust punk scene. "Crustgrind," "Grindcore Special" part 2, p. 46 Albert Mudrian's research suggests that the name "grindcore" was coined by Napalm Death's second drummer, Mick Harris. When asked about coming up with the term, Harris said: Other sources contradict Harris' claim. In a Spin magazine article written about the genre, Steven Blush declares that "the man often credited" for dubbing the style grindcore was Shane Embury, Napalm Death's bassist since 1987. Embury offers his own account of how the grindcore "sound" came to be: Carcass, an early UK grindcore group, in 1989. Earache Records founder Digby Pearson concurs with Embury, saying that Napalm Death "put hardcore and metal through an accelerator." Ibid., p. 35. Pearson, however, said that grindcore "wasn't just about the speed of [the] drums, blast beats, etc." He claimed that "it actually was coined to describe the guitars - heavy, downtuned, bleak, harsh riffing guitars [that] 'grind', so that's what the genre was described as, by the musicians who were its innovators [and] proponents." While abrasive, grindcore achieved a measure of mainstream visibility. As James Hoare, deputy editor of Terrorizer, writes: Napalm Death's seismic impact inspired other British grindcore groups in the 1980s, among them Extreme Noise Terror, Carcass and Sore Throat. In the subsequent decade, two pioneers of the style became increasingly commercially viable. According to Nielsen Soundscan, Napalm Death sold 367,654 units between May 1991 and November 2003, while Carcass sold 220,374 units in the same period. The inclusion of Napalm Death's "Twist the Knife (Slowly)" on the Mortal Kombat soundtrack brought the band much greater visibility, as the compilation scored a Top 10 position in the Billboard 200 chart and went platinum in less than a year. Type "Mortal Kombat" in "Album" space. North American grindcore Seth Putnam of A.C. at Relapse Festival, 1993 Brutal Truth, live at Hole In The Sky, Bergen Metal Fest 2008 Journalist Kevin Stewart-Panko argues that the American grindcore of the 1990s borrowed from three sources: British grindcore, the American precursors, and death metal. Kevin Stewart-Panko, "Altered States," "Grindcore Special" part 2, p. 42-43. As early Napalm Death albums were not widely distributed in the United States, American groups tended to take inspiration from later works, such as Harmony Corruption. American groups also often employ riffs taken from crossover thrash or thrash metal. Early American grind practitioners included Terrorizer and Assück. Anal Cunt, a particularly dissonant group who lacked a bass player, were also particularly influential. Their style was sometimes referred to as "noisecore" or "noisegrind", described by Guilio of Cripple Bastards as "the most anti-musical and nihilistic face of extreme music at that time." Brutal Truth was a groundbreaking group in the American scene at the beginning of the 1990s. However, Sharp indicates that they were more inspired by the thrash metal of Dark Angel than the British groups. Discordance Axis had a more technical style of playing than many of the predecessors, and had a much more ornate visual and production style. Scott Hull is prominent in the contemporary grindcore scene, through his participation in Pig Destroyer and Agoraphobic Nosebleed. ANb's Frozen Corpse Stuffed with Dope has been described as "the Paul's Boutique of grindcore", by Village Voice critic Phil Freeman, for its "hyper-referential, impossibly dense barrage of samples, blast beats, answering machine messages, and incomprehensibly bellowed rants." Phil Freeman, "Gratuitous Grindcore Gross-Out Gimps' Glade and Guns Get Guffaws", Village Voice, September 13, 2005. Access date: July 19, 2008. Pig Destroyer is inspired by thrash metal, such as Dark Angel and Slayer, the sludge metal of The Melvins, and grindcore practiced by Brutal Truth, Anthony Bartkewicz, "Pig Destroyer", Decibel, July 2007 Access date: July 24, 2008 while Agoraphobic Nosebleed takes cues from thrashcore and powerviolence, like D.R.I. and Crossed Out. Pig Destroyer's style is sometimes referred to as "deathgrind", Bryan Reed, The Daily Tar Heel, July 19, 2007. Access date: August 6, 2008. because of the prevalence of death metal influences, as are Cattle Decapitation. "The Locust, Cattle Decapitation, Daughters", Pop and Rock Listings, The New York Times, April 13, 2007. Access date: August 6, 2008. The Locust, from San Diego, Mudrian, p. 265 also take inspiration from powerviolence (Crossed Out, Dropdead), first-wave screamo (Angel Hair), obscure experimental rock (Art Bears, Renaldo and the Loaf), and death metal. LA Weekly, September 18, 2003 Access date: July 24, 2008 The Locust were sometimes described as "hipster grind" because of their fan base and fashion choices. Other later prominent grindcore groups of North America include Brujeria, Jason Birchmeier, Matando Güeros review, Allmusic. Access date: October 3, 2008. Soilent Green, D. Shawn Bosler, "Soilent Green", Decibel, September 2005. Access date: October 3, 2008. Cephalic Carnage, Impetigo, John Book, Ultimo Mondo Cannibale review, Allmusic. Access date: October 3, 2008. and Circle of Dead Children. Alex Henderson, The Genocide Machine review, Allmusic. Access date: October 3, 2008. Fuck the Facts, a Canadian group, practiced classic grindcore, characterized by the "metronome-precision drumming and riffing [that] abound, as well as vocal screams and growls" by Allmusic reviewer Greg Prato. Greg Prato, Stigmata High-Five review, Allmusic. Access date: March 21, 2009. Continental European grindcore European groups, such as Agathocles, from Belgium, Patareni, of Croatia, and Fear of God, from Switzerland, are important early practitioners of the style. "Grindcore Special," p. 54. Filthy Christians, who signed to Earache Records in 1989, introduced the style in Sweden, Ekeroth, p. 262. while Cripple Bastards established Italian grindcore. Guilio of Cripple Bastards asserts that the name itself took some time to migrate from Britain, with the style being referred to as "death-thrashcore" for a time in Europe. Rotten Sound, a Finnish grind band, in Kuopio, 2008 Nasum, who emerged from the Swedish death metal scene, Ekeroth, p. 263, 381. became a popular group, addressing political topics from a personal perspective. Anders Jakobson interview, "Grindcore Special" part 2, p. 56. Anders Jakobson, their drummer, reported that "It was all these different types of people who enjoyed what we we were doing. [...] We made grindcore a bit easier to listen to at the expense of the diehard grindcore fans who thought that we were, well, not sellouts, but not really true to the original essence of grindcore." Other Swedish groups, such as General Surgery and Regurgitate, practiced goregrind. Ekeroth, p. 263. Inhume, from the Netherlands, Eduardo Rivadavia, In for the Kill review, Allmusic. Access date: October 3, 2008. and Rotten Sound, from Finland, Paul Kott, Still Psycho review, Allmusic. Access date: October 3, 2008. and Leng Tch'e, from Belgium, Cosmo Lee, Stylus, July 25, 2008 Access date: July 23, 2008. Filip Dupont, Vampire Magazine, March 9, 2007 Access date: July 24, 2008 were subsequent European groups who practiced grindcore with death metal inflections. Legacy Grindcore's impact spread quickly through the world of extreme music. For example, Napalm Death's strong inspiration from Swans links grindcore to noise rock. Since then, Japanese noise rock group Boredoms have borrowed elements of grind, "Grindcore", Allmusic. Access date: September 16, 2008. Brad Jones, "Bore None", Denver Westword, July 6, 1994. Access date: September 16, 2008. and toured with Brutal Truth in 1993. Andrew Parks, "Boredoms Explore the Void", Theme Magazine, issue 7, Fall 2006. Access date: September 16, 2008. Naked City, lead by avant-garde jazz saxophonist John Zorn, performed an avant-garde form of polystylistic, grindcore-influenced punk jazz. Bagatellen, "Slave to the Grind", April 21, 2004 Access date: June 21, 2008 Christopher Thelen, Daily Vault, 8/17/1998 Access date: June 21, 2008 Zorn later formed the Painkiller project with ambient dub producer Bill Laswell on bass guitar and Mick Harris on drums, which also collaborated with Justin Broadrick on some work. Cosmo Lee, Stylus Magazine, May 15, 2006. Access date: August 8, 2008. In addition, grindcore was one influence on the powerviolence movement within American hardcore punk, and has affected some strains of metalcore. Some musicians have also produced hybrids between grind and electronic music. Powerviolence Powerviolence is a raw and dissonant subgenre of hardcore punk. "Powerviolence: The Dysfunctional Family of Bllleeeeaaauuurrrgghhh!!". Terrorizer no. 172. July 2008. p. 36-37. Anthony Bartkewicz. "Screwdriver in the Urethra of Hardcore". Decibel Magazine. July 2007. (Subscription-only site; interview reprinted in full at blog.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=blog.view&friendID=52501650&blogID=285587688 (blacklisted link). Retrieved November 17, 2008.) The style is closely related to thrashcore and similar to grindcore. While powerviolence took inspiration from Napalm Death and other early grind bands, powerviolence groups avoided elements of heavy metal. Its nascent form was pioneered in the late 1980s in the music of hardcore punk band Infest, who mixed youth crew hardcore elements with noisier, sludgier qualities of Lärm and Siege. The microgenre solidified into its most commonly recognized form in the early 1990s, with the sounds of bands such as Man Is the Bastard, Crossed Out, No Comment, Capitalist Casualties, and Manpig. Powerviolence bands focus on speed, brevity, bizarre timing breakdowns, and constant tempo changes. Powerviolence songs are often very short; it is not uncommon for some to last less than 30 seconds. Some groups, particularly Man Is the Bastard, took influence from sludge metal and noise music. Lyrically and conceptually, powerviolence groups were very raw and underproduced, both sonically and in their packaging. Some groups (Man Is the Bastard and Dropdead) took influence from anarcho-punk and crust punk, emphasizing animal rights and anti-militarism. The Locust Andrew Marcus, "Buzz Clip", SF Weekly, August 6, 2003. Access date: August 7, 2008. and Agoraphobic Nosebleed later reincorporated elements of powerviolence into grindcore. Industrial and electronic music Justin Pearson of The Locust, originators of electrogrind Among other influences, Napalm Death took impetus from the industrial music scene. Subsequently, Napalm Death's former guitarist, Justin Broadrick, went on to a career in industrial metal with Godflesh. Mick Harris, in his post-Napalm Death project, Scorn, briefly experimented with the style. Christian Genzel, Scorn, Stealth review, Allmusic.com, Access date: July 24, 2008 Scorn also worked in the industrial hip hop David E. Flick, Scorn, Stealth, Re:Gen Magazine, January 18, 2008 Access date: July 24, 2008 and isolationist styles. Simon Reynolds, "Chill: the new ambient." Artforum, January 1995. Access date: July 24, 2008. Fear Factory have also cited debts to the genre. Digital hardcore is an initially German hybrid of hardcore punk and hardcore techno. Interview with J. Amaretto of DHR, WAX Magazine, issue 5, 1995. Included in liner notes of Digital Hardcore Recordings, Harder Than the Rest!!! compilation CD. Agoraphobic Nosebleed and the Locust have solicited remixes from digital hardcore producers and noise musicians. Whitney Strub, Agoraphobic Nosebleed review, July 26, 2007. Stylus Magazine. Access date: July 19, 2008. The Locust Biography Access date: July 19, 2008. James Plotkin, Dave Witte, and Speedranch participated in the Phantomsmasher project, which melds grindcore and digital hardcore. Alec Empire collaborated with Justin Broadrick, on the first Curse of the Golden Vampire album, Ipecac Records, The Curse of the Golden Vampire. Access date: July 20, 2008. and with Gabe Serbian, of the Locust, live in Japan. "Alec Empire Interview: "People Are Organized But Political Music Is Not Really Being Made", Indymedia Ireland, December 28, 2006 Access date: July 25, 2008. Japanoise icon Merzbow also participated in the Empire/Serbian show. The 21st century also saw the development of "electrogrind" (or "cybergrind"), Kevin Stewart-Panko, "Shock Tactics," "Grindcore Special," part 2, p. 52-53 practiced by The Berzerker and Genghis Tron which borrows from electronic music. Lilker These groups built on the work of Agoraphobic Nosebleed and The Locust, as well as industrial metal. The Berzerker also appropriated the distorted Roland TR-909 kick drums of gabber producers. Liz Ciavarella, "The Berzerker: Sonic Discontent," Metal Maniacs, vol. 26, no. 2, February 2009, p. 80-81. Many later electrogrind groups were caricatured for their hipster connections. Metalcore Metalcore, like grindcore, draws on thrash metal and hardcore punk. However, metalcore groups also rely on breakdowns: slower, intense passages conducive to moshing. "The best part of every metalcore song is the breakdown, the part where the drums drop out and the guitars slow their frantic gallop to a devastating, precise crunch-riff and everyone in the moshpit goes extra nuts." - Tom Breihan. "Status Ain't Hood". "Live: Trivium, the Jackson 5 of Underground Metal". The Village Voice Daily Voice. October 11, 2006. Access date: July 21, 2008. In the mid-1990s, some metalcore groups became to take inspiration from developments in grindcore. For example, mathcore groups Steve Carlson, Hell Songs review, "Blog Critics", October 19, 2006. Access date: September 13, 2008. "San Diego Reader" Access date: September 13, 2008. such as Dillinger Escape Plan, "Contemporary grindcore bands such as The Dillinger Escape Plan [...] have developed avant-garde versions of the genre incorporating frequent time signature changes and complex sounds that at times recall free jazz." Keith Kahn-Harris (2007), Extreme Metal, Berg Publishers, ISBN 1-84520-399-2, p. 4. Some Girls, Corey Apar, Heaven's Pregnant Teens review, Allmusic. Access date: August 24, 2008. and Daughters, Joe Davenport, Hell Songs review, Delusions of Adequacy, August 24, 2006. Access date: August 25, 2008. Stewart Mason, Daughters biography, Allmusic. Access date: August 25, 2008. and screamo groups, "Another interesting sub-sub-genre was this strange crossover of first-generation emo and grind. Bands like Reversal of Man or Orchid may not have stood the test of time, but it was a pretty cool sound at the time and one that was pretty uniquely American. - Greg Pratt, "Altered States," "Grindcore Special" part 2, p. 43. like Circle Takes the Square and Orchid, Ryan Buege, "Circle Takes the Square is in the Studio." Metal Injection, June 15, 2008. Access date: July 8, 2008 have been associated with grindcore by some commentators. These groups also include elements of post-hardcore. By 2009, deathcore bands began to describe themselves as grindcore, but have been met with criticism. "'These kids on MySpace and Headbanger's Ball with the lame breakdown death metal bands really need to quit calling that crap grindcore -- it's offensive,' chides bassist James Delgado of Dallas grinders Kill the Client about this most grating of pet peeves. And he's right, you know." - Scott Alisoglu, "Kill the Client: The Art of Grinding," Metal Maniacs, February 2009, vol. 26, no. 2, p. 92. See also List of grindcore bands Napalm Death: Thrash to Death (BBC documentary) Notes References Appleford, Steve (1998). The family that plays together. Guitar, 15(12), 40-42, 45-46, 49-50, 53-54, 57. Blush, Steven (1991). Grindcore. Spin, 7(3), 35-36. Carcass (1988). Reek of Putrefaction. [CD]. Nottingham, UK: Earache Compact Discs, Cassettes & Records. (1994). Ekeroth, Daniel (2008). Swedish Death Metal. Bazillion Points Books. ISBN 978-0-9796163-1-0 Grindcore Special (2009), Terrorizer, 180, 41-56, and 181, 41-56. Johnson, Richard (2007). Napalm death. Disposable Underground, 15(38), 02-04. Lilker, Danny (2007). "A User's Guide to Grindcore." Grind Your Mind: A History of Grindcore [CD]. Liner notes. Mayan Records, MYNDD056. Mudrian, Albert (2004). Choosing Death: The Improbable History of Death Metal and Grindcore. Los Angeles, CA: Feral House. Sarcófago. (1986). Satanas. On Warfare noise [CD]. Belo Horizonte, MG: Cogumelo Records. (2007). Sepultura (1986). Antichrist. On Morbid visions [CD]. New York: Roadrunner Records. 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6,112 | Aircraft_hijacking | Aircraft hijacking (also known as skyjacking and sky jacking) is the unlawful seizure of an aircraft either by an individual or by a group. In most cases, the pilot is forced to fly according to the orders of the hijackers. However, there have been cases where the hijackers have the flown the aircraft themselves. Unlike the hijacking of land vehicles or ships, skyjacking is usually not perpetrated in order to rob the cargo. Most aircraft hijackings are committed to use the passengers as hostages. Motives vary from demanding the release of certain inmates (notably IC-814) to highlighting the grievances of a particular community (notably AF 8969). Other hijackers may hold the hostages for ransom while one hijacking was committed to seek political asylum. Hijacking may also be carried out so as to use the aircraft as a weapon to target a particular location (notably September 11, 2001 attacks). Most hijackings for hostages result in a series negotiations between the hijackers and the authorities, followed by some form of settlement. However, these settlements do not always meet the hijackers' original demands. If the hijackers show no sign of surrendering, armed special forces may be used by authorities to rescue the hostages (notably Operation Entebbe). History The first recorded aircraft hijack was on February 21, 1931, in Arequipa, Peru. Byron Rickards flying a Ford Tri-Motor was approached on the ground by armed revolutionaries. He refused to fly them anywhere and after a ten day stand-off Rickards was informed that the revolution was successful and he could go in return for giving one of their number a lift to Lima. An amusing footnote to this hijacking is that 30 years later the same pilot was again the victim of a failed hijacking attempt. A father and son boarded his Continental Airlines Boeing 707 in El Paso and tried to force him at gunpoint to fly the plane to Cuba in hopes of a cash reward from Fidel Castro. FBI agents and police chased the plane down the runway and shot out its tires, and the hijacking was averted. See http://www.airdisaster.com/features/hijack/hijack.shtml Most hijackings have not been so farcical. Dealing with hijackings Before the September 11, 2001 attacks, pilots and flight attendants were trained to adopt the "Common Strategy" tactic, which was approved by the FAA. It taught crew members to comply with the hijackers demands, get the plane to land safely and then let the security forces handle the situation. Crew members advised passengers to sit quietly in order to increase their chances of survival. They were also trained not to make any 'heroic' moves that could endanger themselves or other people. The FAA realized that the longer a hijacking persisted, the more likely it will end peacefully with the hijackers reaching their goal. http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/911/report/911Report_Ch3.htm September 11 presented a unique situation because it involved suicide hijackers who could fly an aircraft. The "Common Strategy" tactic was not designed to handle suicide hijackings. This resulted in the hijackers exploiting a weakness in the civil aviation security system. Since then, the "Common Strategy" policy is no longer used. Since the September 11th attacks, the situation for passengers and hijackers has changed. As in the case of United Airlines Flight 93, where an airliner crashed into a field during a fight between passengers and hijackers, passengers now have to calculate the risks of passive cooperation, not only for themselves but for those on the ground. Future hijackers most likely will encounter greater resistance from passengers and flight crews, making a successful hijacking extremely unlikely. An example of active passenger resistance occurred when passengers of American Airlines Flight 63 from Paris to Miami on December 22, 2001 helped prevent Richard Reid from igniting explosives hidden in his shoe. Flight attendants and pilots now receive extensive anti-hijacking and self-defense training designed to thwart a hijacking. In one case, the official pilot hijacked the plane, when he diverted his internal Air China flight to Taiwan. Informing air traffic control To communicate to air traffic control that an aircraft is being hijacked, a pilot under duress should, where possible and safe, squawk 7500 or vocally, by radio communication, transmit "(Aircraft callsign); Transponder seven five zero zero." An air traffic controller who suspects an aircraft may have been hijacked may ask the pilot to confirm "squawk (or transponder) seven five zero zero." If the aircraft is not being hijacked, the pilot should not squawk 7500, and should inform the controller accordingly. A pilot under duress may also elect to respond that the aircraft is not being hijacked, but then neglect to change to a different squawk code, in which case the controller would make no further requests and immediately inform the appropriate authorities. A complete lack of a response would also be taken to indicate a possible hijacking. Of course, a loss of radio communications may also be the cause for a lack of response, in which case a pilot would usually squawk 7600 anyway. Aeronautical Information Manual, paragraph 6-3-4, "Special Emergency (Air Piracy)", Federal Aviation Administration, 1999 Prevention Cockpit doors on most commercial airlines have been strengthened, and are now bullet resistant. In the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia and France, air marshals have also been added to some flights to deter and thwart hijackers. In addition, some have proposed remote control systems for aircraft whereby no one on board would have control over the plane's flight. EC FP6 SAFEE: Safe Automatic Flight Back and Landing of Aircraft Airport security plays a major role in preventing hijackers. Screening passengers with metal detectors and luggage with x-ray machines prevents weapons from being taken on to an aircraft, and the Israelis alone implement decompression on all luggage to check for pressure sensor detonators. Along with the FAA, the FBI also monitors terror suspects, and any person who is a threat to civil aviation is banned from flying. In the case of a serious risk that an aircraft will be used for flying into a target, it may have to be shot down, killing all passengers and crew, to prevent more serious consequences. Shooting down aircraft Several states have stated that they would shoot down hijacked commercial aircraft if it can be assumed that the hijackers intend to use the aircraft in a 9/11-style attack, despite killing innocent passengers onboard. According to reports, US fighter pilots have been training to shoot down hijacked commercial airliners should it become necessary. Other countries such as Poland and India have enacted laws or decrees that allow the shooting down of hijacked planes. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4172487.stm Germany In a widely regarded decision by the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, in February 2006, it struck down a law - "Luftsicherheitsgesetz" or "Air security law" - claiming such preventive measures were unconstitutional and would essentially be state-sponsored murder, even if such an act would save many more lives on the ground. The main reasoning behind this decision was that the state would effectively be taking the lives of innocent hostages in order to avoid a terrorist attack English translation of the judgement by the court . The Court also ruled that the Minister of Defense is constitutionally not entitled to act in terrorism matters, as this is the duty of the state and federal police forces. See the German Wikipedia entry, or The President of Germany, Horst Köhler, himself urged judicial review of the constitutionality of the Luftsicherheitsgesetz after he signed it into law in 2005. International law issues Tokyo Convention See the United Nations website for full text on "Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft". Hague Convention Signed at The Hague on 16 December 1970, the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft contains 14 articles relating to what constitutes hijacking, and guidelines for what is expected of governments when dealing with hijackings. The convention does not apply to customs, law enforcement or military aircraft, thus its scope appears to exclusively encompass civilian aircraft. Importantly, the convention only comes into force if the aircraft takes off or lands in a place different than its country of registration. For aircraft with joint registration, one country is designated as the registration state for the purpose of the convention. See the United Nations website for full text. Montreal Convention See the United Nations website for full text on "Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Civil Aviation". See also Airport security List of notable aircraft hijackings List of Cuba-US aircraft hijackings List of hijacking of Indian aeroplanes D. B. Cooper CATSA External links Uli Derickson - Legacy of Courage References | Aircraft_hijacking |@lemmatized aircraft:27 hijacking:21 also:10 know:1 skyjacking:1 sky:1 jacking:1 unlawful:3 seizure:2 either:1 individual:1 group:1 case:7 pilot:11 force:6 fly:8 accord:2 order:4 hijacker:16 however:2 unlike:1 land:3 vehicle:1 ship:1 skyjack:1 usually:2 perpetrate:1 rob:1 cargo:1 commit:3 use:6 passenger:11 hostage:5 motif:1 vary:1 demand:3 release:1 certain:2 inmate:1 notably:4 ic:1 highlight:1 grievance:1 particular:2 community:1 af:1 may:8 hold:1 ransom:1 one:5 seek:1 political:1 asylum:1 carry:1 weapon:2 target:2 location:1 september:4 attack:5 result:2 series:1 negotiation:1 authority:3 follow:1 form:1 settlement:2 always:1 meet:1 original:1 show:1 sign:3 surrender:1 arm:1 special:2 rescue:1 operation:1 entebbe:1 history:1 first:1 record:1 hijack:10 february:2 arequipa:1 peru:1 byron:1 rickards:2 ford:1 tri:1 motor:1 approach:1 ground:3 armed:1 revolutionary:1 refuse:1 anywhere:1 ten:1 day:1 stand:1 inform:4 revolution:1 successful:2 could:3 go:1 return:1 give:1 number:1 lift:1 lima:1 amusing:1 footnote:1 year:1 later:1 victim:1 failed:1 attempt:1 father:1 son:1 board:3 continental:1 airline:4 boeing:1 el:1 paso:1 try:1 gunpoint:1 plane:6 cuba:2 hope:1 cash:1 reward:1 fidel:1 castro:1 fbi:2 agent:1 police:2 chase:1 runway:1 shot:1 tire:1 avert:1 see:6 http:3 www:1 airdisaster:1 com:1 feature:1 shtml:1 farcical:1 deal:2 flight:9 attendant:2 train:3 adopt:1 common:3 strategy:3 tactic:2 approve:1 faa:3 teach:1 crew:4 member:2 comply:1 get:1 safely:1 let:1 security:5 handle:2 situation:3 advise:1 sit:1 quietly:1 increase:1 chance:1 survival:1 make:3 heroic:1 move:1 endanger:1 people:1 realize:1 long:1 persist:1 likely:2 end:1 peacefully:1 reach:1 goal:1 govinfo:1 library:1 unt:1 edu:1 report:2 htm:1 present:1 unique:1 involve:1 suicide:2 design:2 exploit:1 weakness:1 civil:3 aviation:4 system:2 since:2 policy:1 longer:1 change:2 united:6 airliner:2 crash:1 field:1 fight:1 calculate:1 risk:2 passive:1 cooperation:1 future:1 encounter:1 great:1 resistance:2 extremely:1 unlikely:1 example:1 active:1 occur:1 american:1 paris:1 miami:1 december:2 help:1 prevent:3 richard:1 reid:1 ignite:1 explosive:1 hide:1 shoe:1 receive:1 extensive:1 anti:1 self:1 defense:2 training:1 thwart:2 official:1 divert:1 internal:1 air:7 china:1 taiwan:1 traffic:3 control:4 communicate:1 duress:2 possible:2 safe:2 squawk:5 vocally:1 radio:2 communication:2 transmit:1 callsign:1 transponder:2 seven:2 five:2 zero:4 controller:3 suspect:2 ask:1 confirm:1 accordingly:1 elect:1 respond:1 neglect:1 different:2 code:1 would:8 request:1 immediately:1 appropriate:1 complete:1 lack:2 response:2 take:4 indicate:1 course:1 loss:1 cause:1 anyway:1 aeronautical:1 information:1 manual:1 paragraph:1 emergency:1 piracy:1 federal:3 administration:1 prevention:1 cockpit:1 door:1 commercial:3 strengthen:1 bullet:1 resistant:1 kingdom:1 state:7 canada:1 australia:1 france:1 marshal:1 add:1 deter:1 addition:1 propose:1 remote:1 whereby:1 ec:1 safee:1 automatic:1 back:1 landing:1 airport:2 play:1 major:1 role:1 screen:1 metal:1 detector:1 luggage:2 x:1 ray:1 machine:1 prevents:1 israeli:1 alone:1 implement:1 decompression:1 check:1 pressure:1 sensor:1 detonator:1 along:1 monitor:1 terror:1 person:1 threat:1 ban:1 serious:2 shoot:5 kill:2 consequence:1 several:1 assume:1 intend:1 style:1 despite:1 innocent:2 onboard:1 u:2 fighter:1 hijacked:2 become:1 necessary:1 country:3 poland:1 india:1 enact:1 law:6 decree:1 allow:1 news:1 bbc:1 co:1 uk:1 hi:1 europe:1 stm:1 germany:3 widely:1 regard:1 decision:2 constitutional:1 court:3 strike:1 luftsicherheitsgesetz:2 claiming:1 preventive:1 measure:1 unconstitutional:1 essentially:1 sponsored:1 murder:1 even:1 act:4 save:1 many:1 life:2 main:1 reasoning:1 behind:1 effectively:1 avoid:1 terrorist:1 english:1 translation:1 judgement:1 rule:1 minister:1 constitutionally:1 entitle:1 terrorism:1 matter:1 duty:1 german:1 wikipedia:1 entry:1 president:1 horst:1 köhler:1 urge:1 judicial:1 review:1 constitutionality:1 international:1 issue:1 tokyo:1 convention:9 nation:3 website:3 full:3 text:3 offence:1 hague:2 suppression:2 contains:1 article:1 relate:1 constitute:1 guideline:1 expect:1 government:1 apply:1 custom:1 enforcement:1 military:1 thus:1 scope:1 appear:1 exclusively:1 encompass:1 civilian:1 importantly:1 come:1 place:1 registration:3 joint:1 designate:1 purpose:1 montreal:1 safety:1 list:3 notable:1 indian:1 aeroplane:1 b:1 cooper:1 catsa:1 external:1 link:1 uli:1 derickson:1 legacy:1 courage:1 reference:1 |@bigram arequipa_peru:1 el_paso:1 fidel_castro:1 http_www:1 flight_attendant:2 uk_hi:1 horst_köhler:1 external_link:1 |
6,113 | Canis_Major | Canis Major (, genitive Canis Majoris ) is a constellation, included in the 1st century astronomer Ptolemy's 48 constellations, and still included among the 88 modern constellations. Its name is Latin for 'greater dog', and is commonly represented as one of the dogs following Orion the hunter (see also Canis Minor the 'lesser dog'). Canis Major contains Sirius, the brightest star in the night sky, known as the 'dog star'; that star is part of the asterism known as the Winter Triangle in the Northern Hemisphere, or the Summer Triangle in the Southern. Notable features Stars Canis Major's alpha star, Sirius, is the brightest object in Earth's sky after the Sun, Moon, Jupiter, and Venus. It is also one of the nearest stars to Earth. The star VY Canis Majoris (VY CMa) is a red hypergiant star in Canis Major. It is the largest known star and also one of the most luminous known. It is located about 1.5 kiloparsecs (or 5,000 light-years) from Earth. There are several other fairly bright stars (in order of brightness) in Canis Major, all with Arabic names: ε CMa: (1.51v) Adhara - Virgins δ CMa: (1.83) Wezen - The Weight β CMa: (1.98v) Murzim - The Announcer η CMa: (2.45v) Aludra - the virgin ζ CMa: (3.02) Furud - Bright Single One γ CMa: (4.11) Muliphen - the Arabic rendering of the Greek for "dog's ear". Deep sky objects There are not many bright deep sky objects in this region of sky. The only Messier object in Canis Major is Messier 41 (NGC 2287), an open cluster of visual magnitude 4.6. It is located about 4 degrees directly south of Sirius. Messier 41 is roughly 2350 light years away from Earth, contains about 8,000 stars, and is about 24 light years in diameter. It is also noted for containing a number of K-class stars. The band of the Milky Way goes through Canis Major and therefore background galaxies are hidden behind interstellar dust clouds. However, in 2003, Canis Major Dwarf, the closest satellite galaxy to Earth, was found within the constellation. History In Europe, Canis Major has been associated with dogs from early times. The name of Sirius, its brightest star, means "scorching star", since the summer heat occurred just after Sirius' heliacal rising. The Ancient Greeks referred to such times in the summer as dog days, as only dogs would be mad enough to go out in the heat, leading to the star being known as the Dog Star. Consequently, the constellation was named after it, as a 'Big Dog'. Mythology In early classical Europe, Canis Major represented the dog reference needed Laelaps, a gift from Zeus to Europa; or sometimes the hound of Procris, Diana's nymph; or the one given by Aurora to Cephalus, so famed for its speed that Zeus elevated it to the sky. It was also considered to represent Orion's hunting dog, pursuing Lepus the Hare or helping Orion fight Taurus the Bull; and is referred to in this way by Aratos, Homer and Hesiod. The ancient Greeks refer only to one dog, but by Roman times, Canis Minor appears as Orion's second dog. Sirius was considered a dog in its own right, early Greek mythology sometimes the constellation to represent a two-headed dog. As such, together with the area of the sky that is deserted (now considered as the new and extremely faint constellations Camelopardalis and Lynx), and the other features of the area in the Zodiac sign of Gemini (i.e. the Milky Way, and the constellations Gemini, Orion, Auriga, and Canis Minor), this may be the origin of the myth of the cattle of Geryon, which forms one of The Twelve Labours of Heracles. Roman myth refers to Canis Major as Custos Europae, the dog guarding Europa but failing to prevent her abduction by Jupiter in the form of a bull; and as Janitor Lethaeus, the watchdog. Visualizations Canis Major as depicted in Urania's Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825. Next to it are Lepus and Columba (partly cut off). Depending on the faintness of stars considered, Canis Major can be shown to resemble a dog facing either above or below the ecliptic. See also Canis Minor Isis Sirius Anubis Laelaps Notes References Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canis Major Star Tales – Canis Major | Canis_Major |@lemmatized canis:21 major:15 genitive:1 majoris:2 constellation:10 include:2 century:1 astronomer:1 ptolemy:1 still:1 among:1 modern:1 name:4 latin:1 great:1 dog:18 commonly:1 represent:4 one:7 follow:1 orion:5 hunter:1 see:2 also:6 minor:4 less:1 contains:1 sirius:7 bright:6 star:19 night:1 sky:7 know:5 part:1 asterism:1 winter:1 triangle:2 northern:1 hemisphere:1 summer:3 southern:1 notable:1 feature:2 alpha:1 object:4 earth:5 sun:1 moon:1 jupiter:2 venus:1 near:1 vy:2 cma:7 red:1 hypergiant:1 large:1 luminous:1 locate:2 kiloparsecs:1 light:3 year:3 several:1 fairly:1 order:1 brightness:1 arabic:2 ε:1 adhara:1 virgin:2 δ:1 wezen:1 weight:1 β:1 murzim:1 announcer:1 η:1 aludra:1 ζ:1 furud:1 single:1 γ:1 muliphen:1 rendering:1 greek:4 ear:1 deep:3 many:1 region:1 messier:1 messy:2 ngc:1 open:1 cluster:1 visual:1 magnitude:1 degree:1 directly:1 south:1 roughly:1 away:1 contain:2 diameter:1 note:2 number:1 k:1 class:1 band:1 milky:2 way:3 go:2 therefore:1 background:1 galaxy:2 hide:1 behind:1 interstellar:1 dust:1 cloud:1 however:1 dwarf:1 close:1 satellite:1 find:1 within:1 history:1 europe:2 associate:1 early:3 time:3 mean:1 scorch:1 since:1 heat:2 occur:1 heliacal:1 rising:1 ancient:2 refer:3 day:1 would:1 mad:1 enough:1 lead:1 consequently:1 big:1 mythology:2 classical:1 reference:2 need:1 laelaps:2 gift:1 zeus:2 europa:2 sometimes:2 hound:1 procris:1 diana:1 nymph:1 give:1 aurora:1 cephalus:1 famed:1 speed:1 elevate:1 consider:4 hunt:1 pursue:1 lepus:2 hare:1 help:1 fight:1 taurus:1 bull:2 aratos:1 homer:1 hesiod:1 roman:2 appear:1 second:1 right:1 two:1 head:1 together:1 area:2 desert:1 new:1 extremely:1 faint:1 camelopardalis:1 lynx:1 zodiac:1 sign:1 gemini:2 e:1 auriga:1 may:1 origin:1 myth:2 cattle:1 geryon:1 form:2 twelve:1 labour:1 heracles:1 refers:1 custos:1 europae:1 guard:1 fail:1 prevent:1 abduction:1 janitor:1 lethaeus:1 watchdog:1 visualization:1 depict:1 urania:1 mirror:1 set:1 card:1 publish:1 london:2 c:1 next:1 columba:1 partly:1 cut:1 depend:1 faintness:1 show:1 resemble:1 face:1 either:1 ecliptic:1 isi:1 anubis:1 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 isbn:2 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 tale:1 |@bigram astronomer_ptolemy:1 northern_hemisphere:1 messy_ngc:1 milky_way:2 interstellar_dust:1 zeus_europa:1 homer_hesiod:1 depict_urania:1 urania_mirror:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
6,114 | Alexey_Pajitnov | Alexey Pajitnov in Barcelona in 2008 Alexey Leonidovich Pajitnov (, transliterated as Aleksei Leonidovich Pazhitnov, born 1955) is a computer engineer from Russia living in the United States, who developed the popular game Tetris while working for the Computing Centre of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, a Soviet government-founded R&D center. Despite being the developer of Tetris, Pajitnov himself made very little money out of it, even though companies such as Nintendo profited greatly from the game. Biography Alexey Pajitnov created Tetris with the help of Dmitry Pavlovsky and Vadim Gerasimov in 1985. The game, first available in the Soviet Union, appeared in the West in 1986. Pajitnov also created the lesser known sequel to Tetris, entitled Welltris, which has the same principle but in a three dimensional environment where you see the "board" from above Screenshots from Welltris, retrieved 31-10-2007 . The Soviet bureaucracy licensed and managed Tetris, and advertised it with the slogan "From Russia with Love" (on NES: "From Russia With Fun!"). Because he was employed by the Soviet government, Pajitnov did not receive royalties. Pajitnov, together with Vladimir Pokhilko, moved to the United States in 1991 and founded the Tetris Company with Henk Rogers. He helped design the puzzles in the Super NES versions of Yoshi's Cookie and designed the game Pandora's Box, which incorporates more traditional jigsaw-style puzzles. He began working for Microsoft in October 1996. Pajitnov worked for the Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection, MSN Mind Aerobics and MSN Games groups. Pajitnov's new, enhanced version of Hexic, Hexic HD, was included with every new Xbox 360 Premium package. He left Microsoft in 2005. On August 18, 2005 WildSnake Software announced Pajitnov will be collaborating with them to release a new line of puzzle games. WildSnake newsletter august 18 2005, retrieved 31-10-2007 Works Game Name First Released System Name(s) Pajitnov's Role(s) Tetris 1985 Electronica 60, IBM-PC <small>Original Concept (with Vadim Gerasimov & Dmitry Pavlovsky)</small> Welltris 1989 Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, DOS, Macintosh & ZX Spectrum Designer (with Andrei Sgenov) Faces 1990 DOS, Macintosh Original Concept (with Vladimir Pokhilko) Hatris 1990 TurboGrafx-16, Arcade, Game Boy & NES Original Concept Knight Move 1990 Famicom Disk System (Japan) Idealist El-Fish 1993 DOS <small>Original Concept (with Vladimir Pokhilko)</small> Wild Snake 1994 Game Boy & Super NES Designer Knight Moves 1995 Microsoft Windows Idealist Ice & Fire 1995 Windows, Macintosh & PlayStation <small>Original Concept (with Vladimir Pokhilko)</small> Clockwerx 1995 Microsoft Windows Original Concept Tetrisphere 1997 Nintendo 64 Contributor Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection 1997 Windows & Game Boy Color Designer Microsoft Pandora's Box 1999 Windows Designer Microsoft A.I. Puzzler 2001 Windows Designer Hexic HD 2005 Xbox 360 (Pre-loaded on every Xbox 360 hard drive) Original Concept and design Dwice 2006 Windows Designer Hexic 2 2007 Xbox 360 (Sold through Xbox Live Arcade) Designer Awards and recognition On March 7, 2007, Alexey Pajitnov received the Game Developers Choice Awards First Penguin Award. The award was given for pioneering the casual games market. References Angela Gunn (December 9–15, 1999). "Game boy". Seattle Weekly. Notes External links Alexey Pajitnov profile at MobyGames Tetris - From Russia with Love, BBC documentary (website). Video Interview with Alexey Pajitnov at GameZombie.tv Tetris Creator Claims Free and Open Source Software Destroys the Market. | Alexey_Pajitnov |@lemmatized alexey:6 pajitnov:14 barcelona:1 leonidovich:2 transliterate:1 aleksei:1 pazhitnov:1 born:1 computer:1 engineer:1 russia:4 living:1 united:2 state:2 develop:1 popular:1 game:13 tetri:6 work:4 compute:1 centre:1 soviet:5 academy:1 science:1 government:2 found:2 r:1 center:1 despite:1 developer:2 make:1 little:1 money:1 even:1 though:1 company:2 nintendo:2 profit:1 greatly:1 biography:1 create:2 help:2 dmitry:2 pavlovsky:2 vadim:2 gerasimov:2 first:3 available:1 union:1 appear:1 west:1 also:1 less:1 know:1 sequel:1 tetris:3 entitle:1 welltris:3 principle:1 three:1 dimensional:1 environment:1 see:1 board:1 screenshots:1 retrieve:2 bureaucracy:1 license:1 manage:1 advertise:1 slogan:1 love:2 ne:4 fun:1 employ:1 receive:2 royalty:1 together:1 vladimir:4 pokhilko:4 move:3 henk:1 rogers:1 design:3 puzzle:5 super:2 version:2 yoshi:1 cookie:1 pandora:2 box:2 incorporate:1 traditional:1 jigsaw:1 style:1 begin:1 microsoft:8 october:1 entertainment:2 pack:2 collection:2 msn:2 mind:1 aerobics:1 group:1 new:3 enhanced:1 hexic:4 hd:2 include:1 every:2 xbox:5 premium:1 package:1 leave:1 august:2 wildsnake:2 software:2 announce:1 collaborate:1 release:2 line:1 newsletter:1 name:2 system:2 role:1 electronica:1 ibm:1 pc:1 small:6 original:7 concept:7 amiga:1 atari:1 st:1 commodore:1 macintosh:3 zx:1 spectrum:1 designer:7 andrei:1 sgenov:1 face:1 hatris:1 turbografx:1 arcade:2 boy:4 knight:2 famicom:1 disk:1 japan:1 idealist:2 el:1 fish:1 wild:1 snake:1 window:3 ice:1 fire:1 playstation:1 clockwerx:1 tetrisphere:1 contributor:1 windows:4 color:1 puzzler:1 pre:1 load:1 hard:1 drive:1 dwice:1 sell:1 live:1 award:4 recognition:1 march:1 choice:1 penguin:1 give:1 pioneer:1 casual:1 market:2 reference:1 angela:1 gunn:1 december:1 seattle:1 weekly:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 profile:1 mobygames:1 bbc:1 documentary:1 website:1 video:1 interview:1 gamezombie:1 tv:1 creator:1 claim:1 free:1 open:1 source:1 destroy:1 |@bigram alexey_pajitnov:5 soviet_union:1 pandora_box:2 ibm_pc:1 zx_spectrum:1 famicom_disk:1 microsoft_window:2 external_link:1 |
6,115 | Chalcolithic | The Chalcolithic (Greek khalkos + lithos 'copper stone') period or Copper Age period [also known as the Eneolithic (Æneolithic)], is a phase in the development of human culture in which the use of early metal tools appeared alongside the use of stone tools. The period is a transitional one outside of the traditional three-age system, and occurs between the Neolithic and Bronze Age. It appears that copper was not widely exploited at first and that efforts in alloying it with tin and other metals began quite soon, making distinguishing the distinct Chalcolithic cultures and later periods difficult. The emergence of metallurgy occurred first in the Fertile Crescent, where it gave rise to the Bronze Age in the 4th millennium BC. There was an independent and limited invention of copper and bronze smelting by the Incas in South America and Mesoamerican civilization in West Mexico (see Metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica). The literature of European archaeology generally avoids the use of 'chalcolithic' (they prefer the term 'Copper Age'), while Middle-Eastern archaeologists regularly use it. The Copper Age in the Middle East and the Caucasus begins in the late 5th millennium BC and lasts for about a millennium before it gives rise to the Early Bronze Age. Transition from the European Copper Age to Bronze Age Europe occurs about a millennium later, between the late 4th and the late 3rd millennia BC. According to Parpola, A.Parpola, 2005 ceramic similarities between the Indus Civilization, southern Turkmenistan, and northern Iran during 4300–3300 BC of the Chalcolithic period (Copper Age) suggest considerable mobility and trade. Europe Ötzi the Iceman, found in the Ötztal Alps and whose remains dated about 3,300 BC was found with a copper axe, which indicates that copper mining existed in Europe at least 5,300 years ago (500 years earlier than previously believed). Oetzi: The 5000 Year Old Murder Case --SOLVED! http://www.mondovista.com/oetzi.html Knowledge of the use of copper was far wider spread than the metal itself. The European Battle Axe culture used stone axes modelled on copper axes, with imitation "mold marks" carved in the stone. J. Evans, 1897 Examples of Chalcolithic cultures in Europe include Vila Nova de São Pedro and Los Millares on the Iberian Peninsula. C.M.Hogan, 2007 Pottery of the Beaker people has been found at both sites, dating to several centuries after copper-working began there. The Beaker culture appears to have spread copper and bronze technologies in Europe, along with Proto-Indo-European languages. D.W.Anthony, The Horse, The Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age riders from the Eurasian steppes shaped the modern world (2007). Egypt Remarkably the copper age in Egypt lasted well into the Middle Kingdom with bronze only becoming popular during the Eighteenth Dynasty. South Asia The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh fashioned tools with local copper ore between 7700–3300 BC. Possehl, Gregory L. (1996) East Asia 5th millennia BC copper artifacts start to appear in East Asia, such as Jiangzhai and Hongshan culture, but those metal artifacts were not widely used. Mesoamerica Less commonly, the term is also applied to American civilizations which already used copper and copper alloys at the time of European conquest. The Old Copper Complex, located in present day Michigan and Wisconsin in the United States used copper for tools, weapons and other implements. Artifacts from these sites have been dated from 4000 to 1000 BC, making them some of the oldest Chalcolithic sites in the new world. T.C.Pleger, 2000 Notes References . . . C.Michael Hogan (2007) Los Silillos, The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham T.C. Pleger (2000) The Old Copper Complex of the Western Great Lakes Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). Mehrgarh in Oxford Companion to Archaeology, edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press. See also Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures Three age system External links Chalcolithic Era entry in Encyclopaedia Iranica | Chalcolithic |@lemmatized chalcolithic:7 greek:1 khalkos:1 lithos:1 copper:22 stone:4 period:5 age:13 also:3 know:1 eneolithic:1 æneolithic:1 phase:1 development:1 human:1 culture:7 use:9 early:2 metal:4 tool:4 appear:4 alongside:1 transitional:1 one:1 outside:1 traditional:1 three:2 system:2 occur:3 neolithic:1 bronze:8 widely:2 exploit:1 first:2 effort:1 alloy:2 tin:1 begin:3 quite:1 soon:1 make:2 distinguish:1 distinct:1 later:2 difficult:1 emergence:1 metallurgy:2 fertile:1 crescent:1 give:2 rise:2 millennium:6 bc:8 independent:1 limited:1 invention:1 smelting:1 inca:1 south:3 america:1 mesoamerican:1 civilization:3 west:1 mexico:1 see:2 pre:1 columbian:1 mesoamerica:2 literature:1 european:5 archaeology:2 generally:1 avoid:1 prefer:1 term:2 middle:3 eastern:1 archaeologist:1 regularly:1 east:3 caucasus:1 late:3 last:2 transition:1 europe:5 accord:1 parpola:2 ceramic:1 similarity:1 indus:1 southern:1 turkmenistan:1 northern:1 iran:1 suggest:1 considerable:1 mobility:1 trade:1 ötzi:1 iceman:1 find:3 ötztal:1 alp:1 whose:1 remains:1 date:3 axe:2 indicate:1 mining:1 exist:1 least:1 year:3 ago:1 earlier:1 previously:1 believe:1 oetzi:2 old:5 murder:1 case:1 solve:1 http:1 www:1 mondovista:1 com:1 html:1 knowledge:1 far:1 wide:1 spread:2 battle:1 ax:2 model:1 imitation:1 mold:1 mark:1 carve:1 j:1 evans:1 example:1 include:1 vila:1 nova:1 de:1 são:1 pedro:1 los:2 millares:1 iberian:1 peninsula:1 c:4 hogan:2 pottery:1 beaker:2 people:1 site:3 several:1 century:1 work:1 technology:1 along:1 proto:1 indo:1 language:2 w:1 anthony:1 horse:1 wheel:1 rider:1 eurasian:1 steppe:1 shape:1 modern:1 world:3 egypt:2 remarkably:1 well:1 kingdom:1 become:1 popular:1 eighteenth:1 dynasty:1 asia:3 asian:1 inhabitant:1 mehrgarh:2 fashion:1 local:1 ore:1 possehl:2 gregory:2 l:2 artifacts:1 start:1 jiangzhai:1 hongshan:1 artifact:2 less:1 commonly:1 apply:1 american:1 already:1 time:1 conquest:1 complex:2 locate:1 present:1 day:1 michigan:1 wisconsin:1 united:1 state:1 weapon:1 implement:1 new:1 pleger:2 note:1 reference:1 michael:1 silillos:1 megalithic:1 portal:1 ed:1 burnham:1 western:1 great:1 lake:1 oxford:2 companion:1 edit:1 brian:1 fagan:1 university:1 press:1 synoptic:1 table:1 principal:1 prehistoric:1 external:1 link:1 era:1 entry:1 encyclopaedia:1 iranica:1 |@bigram neolithic_bronze:1 fertile_crescent:1 millennium_bc:4 pre_columbian:1 columbian_mesoamerica:1 ötzi_iceman:1 http_www:1 iberian_peninsula:1 beaker_culture:1 proto_indo:1 indo_european:1 eurasian_steppe:1 michael_hogan:1 megalithic_portal:1 external_link:1 encyclopaedia_iranica:1 |
6,116 | Computer_programming | Computer programming (often shortened to programming or coding) is the process of writing, testing, debugging/troubleshooting, and maintaining the source code of computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language. The code may be a modification of an existing source or something completely new. The purpose of programming is to create a program that exhibits a certain desired behaviour (customization). The process of writing source code often requires expertise in many different subjects, including knowledge of the application domain, specialized algorithms and formal logic. Overview Within software engineering, programming (the implementation) is regarded as one phase in a software development process. There is an ongoing debate on the extent to which the writing of programs is an art, a craft or an engineering discipline. Good programming is generally considered to be the measured application of all three, with the goal of producing an efficient and evolvable software solution (the criteria for "efficient" and "evolvable" vary considerably). The discipline differs from many other technical professions in that programmers generally do not need to be licensed or pass any standardized (or governmentally regulated) certification tests in order to call themselves "programmers" or even "software engineers." However, representing oneself as a "Professional Software Engineer" without a license from an accredited institution is illegal in many parts of the world. Another ongoing debate is the extent to which the programming language used in writing computer programs affects the form that the final program takes. This debate is analogous to that surrounding the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Kenneth E. Iverson, the originator of the APL programming language, believed that the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis applied to computer languages (without actually mentioning the hypothesis by name). His Turing award lecture, "Notation as a tool of thought", was devoted to this theme, arguing that more powerful notations aided thinking about computer algorithms. Iverson K.E.,"Notation as a tool of thought", Communications of the ACM, 23: 444-465 (August 1980). in linguistics, that postulates that a particular language's nature influences the habitual thought of its speakers. Different language patterns yield different patterns of thought. This idea challenges the possibility of representing the world perfectly with language, because it acknowledges that the mechanisms of any language condition the thoughts of its speaker community. Said another way, programming is the craft of transforming requirements into something that a computer can execute. History of programming Wired plug board for an IBM 402 Accounting Machine. The concept of devices that operate following a pre-defined set of instructions traces back to Greek Mythology, notably Hephaestus and his mechanical servants New World Encyclopedia Online Edition New World Encyclopedia . The Antikythera mechanism was a calculator utilizing gears of various sizes and configuration to determine its operation. The earliest known programmable machines (machines whose behavior can be controlled and predicted with a set of instructions) were Al-Jazari's programmable Automata in 1206. Al-Jazari - the Mechanical Genius, MuslimHeritage.com One of Al-Jazari's robots was originally a boat with four automatic musicians that floated on a lake to entertain guests at royal drinking parties. Programming this mechanism's behavior meant placing pegs and cams into a wooden drum at specific locations. These would then bump into little levers that operate a percussion instrument. The output of this device was a small drummer playing various rhythms and drum patterns. A 13th Century Programmable Robot, University of Sheffield Another sophisticated programmable machine by Al-Jazari was the castle clock, notable for its concept of variables which the operator could manipulate as necessary (i.e. the length of day and night). The Jacquard Loom, which Joseph Marie Jacquard developed in 1801, uses a series of pasteboard cards with holes punched in them. The hole pattern represented the pattern that the loom had to follow in weaving cloth. The loom could produce entirely different weaves using different sets of cards. Charles Babbage adopted the use of punched cards around 1830 to control his Analytical Engine. The synthesis of numerical calculation, predetermined operation and output, along with a way to organize and input instructions in a manner relatively easy for humans to conceive and produce, led to the modern development of computer programming. Development of computer programming accelerated through the Industrial Revolution. In the late 1880s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine. Prior uses of machine readable media, above, had been for control, not data. "After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on punched cards..." Columbia University Computing History - Herman Hollerith To process these punched cards, first known as "Hollerith cards" he invented the tabulator, and the key punch machines. These three inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry. In 1896 he founded the Tabulating Machine Company (which later became the core of IBM). The addition of a control panel to his 1906 Type I Tabulator allowed it to do different jobs without having to be physically rebuilt. By the late 1940s there were a variety of plug-board programmable machines, called unit record equipment, to perform data processing tasks (card reading). Early computer programmers used plug-boards for the variety of complex calculations requested of the newly invented machines. Data and instructions could be stored on external punch cards, which were kept in order and arranged in program decks. The invention of the Von Neumann architecture allowed computer programs to be stored in computer memory. Early programs had to be painstakingly crafted using the instructions of the particular machine, often in binary notation. Every model of computer would be likely to need different instructions to do the same task. Later assembly languages were developed that let the programmer specify each instruction in a text format, entering abbreviations for each operation code instead of a number and specifying addresses in symbolic form (e.g. ADD X, TOTAL). In 1954 Fortran, the first higher level programming language, was invented. This allowed programmers to specify calculations by entering a formula directly (e.g. ). The program text, or source, was converted into machine instructions using a special program called a compiler. Many other languages were developed, including ones for commercial programming, such as COBOL. Programs were mostly still entered using punch cards or paper tape. (See computer programming in the punch card era). By the late 1960s, data storage devices and computer terminals became inexpensive enough so programs could be created by typing directly into the computers. Text editors were developed that allowed changes and corrections to be made much more easily than with punch cards. As time has progressed, computers have made giant leaps in the area of processing power. This has brought about newer programming languages that are more abstracted from the underlying hardware. Although these more abstracted languages require additional overhead, in most cases the huge increase in speed of modern computers has brought about little performance decrease compared to earlier counterparts. The benefits of these more abstracted languages is that they allow both an easier learning curve for people less familiar with the older lower-level programming languages, and they also allow a more experienced programmer to develop simple applications quickly. Despite these benefits, large complicated programs, and programs that are more dependent on speed still require the faster and relatively lower-level languages with today's hardware. (The same concerns were raised about the original Fortran language.) Throughout the second half of the twentieth century, programming was an attractive career in most developed countries. Some forms of programming have been increasingly subject to offshore outsourcing (importing software and services from other countries, usually at a lower wage), making programming career decisions in developed countries more complicated, while increasing economic opportunities in less developed areas. It is unclear how far this trend will continue and how deeply it will impact programmer wages and opportunities. Modern programming Quality requirements Whatever the approach to software development may be, the final program must satisfy some fundamental properties. The following five properties are among the most relevant: Efficiency/performance: the amount of system resources a program consumes (processor time, memory space, slow devices such as disks, network bandwidth and to some extent even user interaction): the less, the better. This also includes correct disposal of some resources, such as cleaning up temporary files and lack of memory leaks. Reliability: how often the results of a program are correct. This depends on conceptual correctness of algorithms, and minimization of programming mistakes, such as mistakes in resource management (e.g. buffer overflows and race conditions) and logic errors (such as division by zero). Robustness: how well a program anticipates problems not due to programmer error. This includes situations such as incorrect, inappropriate or corrupt data, unavailability of needed resources such as memory, operating system services and network connections, and user error. Usability: the ergonomics of a program: the ease with which a person can use the program for its intended purpose, or in some cases even unanticipated purposes. Such issues can make or break its success even regardless of other issues. This involves a wide range of textual, graphical and sometimes hardware elements that improve the clarity, intuitiveness, cohesiveness and completeness of a program's user interface. Portability: the range of computer hardware and operating system platforms on which the source code of a program can be compiled/interpreted and run. This depends on differences in the programming facilities provided by the different platforms, including hardware and operating system resources, expected behaviour of the hardware and operating system, and availability of platform specific compilers (and sometimes libraries) for the language of the source code. Algorithmic complexity The academic field and the engineering practice of computer programming are both largely concerned with discovering and implementing the most efficient algorithms for a given class of problem. For this purpose, algorithms are classified into orders using so-called Big O notation, O(n), which expresses resource use, such as execution time or memory consumption, in terms of the size of an input. Expert programmers are familiar with a variety of well-established algorithms and their respective complexities and use this knowledge to choose algorithms that are best suited to the circumstances. Methodologies The first step in most formal software development projects is requirements analysis, followed by testing to determine value modeling, implementation, and failure elimination (debugging). There exist a lot of differing approaches for each of those tasks. One approach popular for requirements analysis is Use Case analysis. Popular modeling techniques include Object-Oriented Analysis and Design (OOAD) and Model-Driven Architecture (MDA). The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a notation used for both OOAD and MDA. A similar technique used for database design is Entity-Relationship Modeling (ER Modeling). Implementation techniques include imperative languages (object-oriented or procedural), functional languages, and logic languages. Measuring language usage It is very difficult to determine what are the most popular of modern programming languages. Some languages are very popular for particular kinds of applications (e.g., COBOL is still strong in the corporate data center, often on large mainframes, FORTRAN in engineering applications, scripting languages in web development, and C in embedded applications), while some languages are regularly used to write many different kinds of applications. Methods of measuring language popularity include: counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language Survey of Job advertisements mentioning a given language> , the number of books teaching the language that are sold (this overestimates the importance of newer languages), and estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language (this underestimates the number of users of business languages such as COBOL). Debugging A bug which was debugged in 1947. Debugging is a very important task in the software development process, because an incorrect program can have significant consequences for its users. Some languages are more prone to some kinds of faults because their specification does not require compilers to perform as much checking as other languages. Use of a static analysis tool can help detect some possible problems. Debugging is often done with IDEs like Visual Studio, NetBeans, and Eclipse. Standalone debuggers like gdb are also used, and these often provide less of a visual environment, usually using a command line. Programming languages Different programming languages support different styles of programming (called programming paradigms). The choice of language used is subject to many considerations, such as company policy, suitability to task, availability of third-party packages, or individual preference. Ideally, the programming language best suited for the task at hand will be selected. Trade-offs from this ideal involve finding enough programmers who know the language to build a team, the availability of compilers for that language, and the efficiency with which programs written in a given language execute. Allen Downey, in his book How To Think Like A Computer Scientist, writes: The details look different in different languages, but a few basic instructions appear in just about every language: input: Get data from the keyboard, a file, or some other device. output: Display data on the screen or send data to a file or other device. math: Perform basic mathematical operations like addition and multiplication. conditional execution: Check for certain conditions and execute the appropriate sequence of statements. repetition: Perform some action repeatedly, usually with some variation. Many computer languages provide a mechanism to call functions provided by libraries. Provided the functions in a library follow the appropriate runtime conventions (eg, method of passing arguments), then these functions may be written in any other language. Programmers Computer programmers are those who write computer software. Their jobs usually involve: Coding Compilation Documentation Integration Maintenance Requirements analysis Software architecture Software testing Specification Debugging References Further reading Weinberg, Gerald M., The Psychology of Computer Programming, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1971 See also ACCU (organisation) Association for Computing Machinery Computer programming in the punch card era Hello world program List of basic computer programming topics List of computer programming topics Programming paradigms Software engineering The Art of Computer Programming External links Programming Wikia Programming Wiki How to Think Like a Computer Scientist - by Jeffrey Elkner, Allen B. 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6,117 | Hypnotherapy | Hypnotherapy is therapy that is undertaken with a subject in hypnosis. The word "hypnosis" (from the Greek hypnos, "sleep") is an abbreviation of James Braid's (1843) term "neuro-hypnotism", meaning "sleep of the nervous system". A person who is hypnotized displays certain unusual characteristics and propensities, compared with a non-hypnotized subject, most notably hyper-suggestibility, which some authorities have considered a sine qua non of hypnosis. For example, Clark L. Hull, probably the first major empirical researcher in the field, wrote, If a subject after submitting to the hypnotic procedure shows no genuine increase in susceptibility to any suggestions whatever, there seems no point in calling him hypnotised... C.L. Hull, Hypnosis & Suggestion, 1933: 392 Hypnotherapy is often applied in order to modify a subject's behavior, emotional content, and attitudes, as well as a wide range of conditions including dysfunctional habits, anxiety, stress-related illness, pain management, and personal development. Definition Hypnotism versus Mesmerism Hypnosis is often confused with Mesmerism, its historical precursor. As Hans Eysenck writes, The terms "mesmerise" and "hypnotise" have become quite synonymous, and most people think of Mesmer as the father of hypnosis, or at least as its discoverer and first conscious exponent. Oddly enough, the truth appears to be that while hypnotic phenomena had been known for many thousands of years, Mesmer did not, in fact, hypnotise his subjects at all. [...] It is something of a mystery why popular belief should have firmly credited him with a discovery which in fact was made by others.(Eysenck, Sense & Nonsense in Psychology, 1957: 30-31) Franz Anton Mesmer held that trance and healing were the result of the channelling of a mysterious "occult" force called "animal magnetism." In the mid-18th Century, this became the basis of a very large and popular school of thought termed "Mesmerism". However, in 1843, the Scottish surgeon and physician James Braid proposed the theory of hypnotism as a radical alternative, in opposition to Mesmerism. Braid argued that the occult qualities of Mesmerism were illusory and that its effects were due to a combination of "nervous fatigue" and verbal suggestion. A bitter war of words developed between Braid and the leading exponents of Mesmerism. I beg farther to remark, if my theory and pretensions, as to the nature, cause, and extent of the phenomena of nervous sleep [i.e., hypnotism] have none of the fascinations of the transcendental to captivate the lovers of the marvellous, the credulous and enthusiastic, which the pretensions and alleged occult agency of the mesmerists have, still I hope my views will not be the less acceptable to honest and sober-minded men, because they are all level to our comprehension, and reconcilable with well-known physiological and psychological principles. (James Braid, Hypnotic Therapeutics, 1853: 36) In their original committee report on hypnotherapy, the British Medical Association (BMA), likewise, made a point of condemning the occult theories of Mesmerism and sharply distinguishing them from hypnotism. The Committee, having completed such investigation of hypnotism as time permitted, have to report that they have satisfied themselves of the genuineness of the hypnotic state. No phenomena which have come under their observation, however, lend support to the theory of ‘animal magnetism’. ("Report on Hypnotism", British Medical Journal, 1892). Nevertheless, as Eysenck complains, the confusion of Mesmerism and hypnotism continued to be perpetuated by popular fiction, the media, and its portrayal in comedy stage hypnosis shows. Basically, whereas Mesmerism is a supernatural theory, hypnotism attempted to explain the same phenomena in more established scientific terms, by reference to psychology and physiology. As Braid puts it, it is a scientific and "psycho-physiological" (mind-body) discipline. There is no doubt that some individuals have suffered the ill effects of being involved in stage hypnotic shows. Stage hypnotists are not trained to care for individuals and are not qualified therapists. They use words like 'magic' and 'control' in an attempt to mystify the effects of hypnosis. In addition, using various tests of hypnotic suggestibility, they focus on 'hypnotic virtuosos' and provide the audience with hours of entertainment at the participants' expense. Stage hypnotists, thus, do the opposite to what hypnotherapists do. Trained hypnotherapists, or rather therapists who use hypnosis as an adjunct to their treatment programme, create an environment by which the clients can access their inner resources in their own, unique way. Therapists, unlike stage hypnotists, who give the illusion that individuals are ‘out of control’, give the control to the individuals. D. Kraft. www.londonhypnotherapy.com. Website September 2008. Modalities Hypnotherapy takes many different forms, and has integrated elements from, and in turn influenced, other psychotherapeutic traditions throughout its history. Traditional hypnotherapy The form of hypnotherapy practiced by most Victorian hypnotists, including James Braid and Hippolyte Bernheim, mainly employed direct suggestion of symptom removal, with some use of therapeutic relaxation and occasionally aversion to alcohol, drugs, etc. This simple form of treatment employed relatively direct methods and few theoretical constructs, but has continued to influence most subsequent forms of hypnotherapy. Hypnoanalysis In 1895 Sigmund Freud and Joseph Breuer published a seminal clinical text entitled Studies in Hysteria (1895) which promoted a new approach to psychotherapy. Freud and Breuer used hypnosis to regress clients to an earlier age in order to help them remember and abreact supposedly repressed traumatic memories. Although Freud gradually abandoned hypnotherapy in favour of his developing method of psychoanalysis, his early work continued to influence many subsequent hypnotherapists. However, as Freud later conceded, his French rival Pierre Janet had already published a case study describing the use of age regression in hypnotic psychotherapy, a few years earlier. Subsequent regression hypnotherapy was sometimes known as "hypnoanalysis", "analytic hypnotherapy", or "psychodynamic hypnotherapy." Many practitioners worked in ways that bore only faint resemblance to Freud's original approach, although others continued to be influenced by later psychoanalytic theory and practice. Hypnoanalysis found support in both world wars where it was used by military psychiatrists as a rapid alternative to psychoanalysis in the treatment of shellshock, now known as posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Considerable controversy developed regarding the use of regression to uncover allegedly repressed memories in the 1990s as the result of several high-profile legal cases, where clients sued their therapists over claims of false memory syndrome. Ericksonian hypnotherapy Milton H. Erickson was one of the most influential hypnotists of the 20th century. From around the 1950s onward, Erickson developed a radically different approach to hypnotism, which has subsequently become known as "Ericksonian hypnotherapy" or "Neo-Ericksonian hypnotherapy." Erickson made use of a more informal conversational approach with many clients and complex language patterns, and therapeutic strategies. However, this very divergence from tradition led some of his colleagues, most notably Andre Weitzenhoffer, to dispute whether Erickson was right to label his approach "hypnosis" at all. Weitzenhoffer, A. (2000). The Practice of Hypnotism. Nevertheless, Erickson's work continues to be one of the most influential forces in modern hypnotherapy. The founders of Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP), a methodology similar in some regards to hypnotism, claimed that they had modelled the work of Erickson extensively and assimilated it into their approach called the Milton Model. John Grinder & Richard Bandler (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H.Erickson: Volume 1 ISBN 1-55552-052-9 Gorton, Gregg E (2005). Milton Hyland Erickson The American Journal of Psychiatry. Washington. Vol.162, Iss. 7; pg. 1255, 1 pgs Weitzenhoffer disputed whether NLP bears any genuine resemblance to Erickson's work. Cognitive/behavioral hypnotherapy From the 1980s onward a growing number of clinical textbooks written by contemporary researchers such as Steven Jay Lynn, Irving Kirsch, E. Thomas Dowd, William Golden, Assen Alladin, and others, began to appear. These combined hypnotherapy with elements of cognitive and behaviour therapy. In 1974, Theodore Barber and his colleagues published an influential review of the research which argued, following the earlier social psychology of Theodore R. Sarbin, that hypnotism was better understood not as a "special state" but as the result of normal psychological variables, such as active imagination, expectation, appropriate attitudes, and motivation. BArber, Spanos & Chaves (1974). Hypnotism: Imagination & Human Potentialites. Barber introduced the term "cognitive-behavioral" to describe the nonstate theory of hypnotism, and discussed its application to behavior therapy. The growing application of cognitive and behavioral psychological theories and concepts to the explanation of hypnosis paved the way for a closer integration of hypnotherapy with various cognitive and behavioral therapies. However, many cognitive and behavioral therapies were themselves originally influenced by older hypnotherapy techniques Weitsenhoffer, A. Behavior therapeutic techniques and hypnotherapeutic methods. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 1972, 15, 71-82. , e.g., the systematic desensitisation of Joseph Wolpe, the cardinal technique of early behavior therapy, was originally called "hypnotic desensitisation" Wolpe, J. (1958) Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. and derived from the Medical Hypnotism (1948) of Lewis Wolberg. The traditional style of hypnotherapy can be seen as a precursor of cognitive-behavioral therapy insofar as both place emphasis upon "common sense" theoretical explanations and the use of relaxation, and rehearsal of positive ideas and imagery in therapy. Modern cognitive therapy primarily differs from previous hypnotherapy approaches by placing much greater emphasis upon the direct Socratic disputation of negative beliefs. However, cognitive-behavioral hypnotherapists, like those mentioned in this section, have assimilated this technique alongside their use of hypnosis. New Age hypnotherapy Many "New Age" or pseudoscientific approaches to hypnotherapy abound which actually resemble Mesmerism in their claims that hypnotherapy employs subtle energy or produces paranormal abilities. Many New Age therapists employ past-life regression which usually combines belief in reincarnation with techniqes of hypnotic regression ultimately derived from Sigmund Freud. These approaches are generally considered to lie outside the mainstream of "scientific" or "evidence-based" clinical practice in hypnotherapy. Uses Medical Hypnosis Hypnosis in Childbirth Hypnotherapy has long been used in relation to childbirth. It is used during pregnancy to prepare a mother for birth, and during childbirth to reduce anxiety, discomfort and pain. Hypnosis in Surgery In the middle of the 19th century, Mesmerists used hypnosis to alleviate pain and distress during surgery. Most notably, James Esdaile in India and John Elliotson in England were renowned for their work in this area. The founder of hypnotherapy, James Braid was a surgeon himself, specialising in muscular conditions, and reported many cases of minor surgery using hypnotism. Psychotherapy Hypnotism was originally used to treat the condition known in the Victorian era as hysteria. Modern hypnotherapy is widely used in the treatment of anxiety, subclinical depression, and certain habit disorders, as well as in the treatment of conditions such as insomnia. Research Systematic Reviews 1890's In 1892, the British Medical Association (BMA) commissioned a team of doctors to undertake an extensive evaluation of the nature and effects of hypnotherapy, they reported, The Committee, having completed such investigation of hypnotism as time permitted, have to report that they have satisfied themselves of the genuineness of the hypnotic state. (British Medical Journal, 1892) Adding, The Committee are of opinion that as a therapeutic agent hypnotism is frequently effective in relieving pain, procuring sleep, and alleviating many functional ailments [i.e., psycho-somatic complaints and anxiety disorders]. (Ibid.) This report was approved by the general council of the BMA, thereby forming BMA policy and rendering hypnotherapy a form of "orthodox", as opposed to complementary or alternative, medicine. Subsequent research on hypnotherapy has tended to highlight three main areas in which its efficacy as a treatment has been demonstrated, Anxiety. Insomnia. Pain management. Psycho-somatic disorder, i.e., stress-related illness. Hypnotherapy has many other applications but research into its effectiveness has tended to focus upon these issues. More mixed results have been obtained for its efficacy in relation to the treatment of addictions, an area where high relapse is common with most treatments. 1950's In 1955, the Psychological Medicine Group of the BMA commissioned a Subcommittee, led by Prof. T. Ferguson Rodger, to deliver a second, and more comprehensive, report on hypnosis. The Subcommittee consulted several experts on hypnosis from various fields, including the eminent neurologist Prof. W. Russell Brain, and the psychoanalyst Wilfred Bion. After two years of study and research, its final report was published in the British Medical Journal (BMJ), under the title ‘Medical use of Hypnotism’. The terms of reference were: To consider the uses of hypnotism, its relation to medical practice in the present day, the advisability of giving encouragement to research into its nature and application, and the lines upon which such research might be organized. (British Medical Journal, 1955) This is a much more thorough and extensive report, and constitutes one of the most significant documents in the history of hypnotherapy research. With regard to efficacy, it concludes from a systematic review of available research that, The Subcommittee is satisfied after consideration of the available evidence that hypnotism is of value and may be the treatment of choice in some cases of so-called psycho-somatic disorder and Psychoneurosis. It may also be of value for revealing unrecognized motives and conflicts in such conditions. As a treatment, in the opinion of the Subcommittee it has proved its ability to remove symptoms and to alter morbid habits of thought and behavior[...] In addition to the treatment of psychiatric disabilities, there is a place for hypnotism in the production of anesthesia or analgesia for surgical and dental operations, and in suitable subjects it is an effective method of relieving pain in childbirth without altering the normal course of labor. ("Medical use of hypnosis", British Medical Journal, April, 1955) According to a statement of proceedings published elsewhere in the same edition of the BMJ, the report was officially ‘approved at last week’s Council meeting of the British Medical Association.’ (BMA Council Proceedings, BMJ, April 23, 1955:1019). In other words, it was approved as official BMA policy. This statement goes on to say that, For the past hundred years there has been an abundance of evidence that psychological and physiological changes could be produced by hypnotism which were worth study on their own account, and also that such changes might be of great service in the treatment of patients.(British Medical Journal, cited) Soon afterwards, in 1958, the American Medical Association (AMA) commissioned a similar (though more terse) report which endorses the 1955 BMA report and concludes, That the use of hypnosis has a recognized place in the medical armamentarium and is a useful technique in the treatment of certain illnesses when employed by qualified medical and dental personnel. ("Medical use of hypnosis", JAMA, 1958) Again, the AMA council approved this report rendering hypnotherapy an orthodox treatment, The Reference Committee on Hygiene, Public Health, and Industrial Health approved the report and commended the Council on Mental Health for its work. The House of Delegates adopted the Reference Committee report [...](AMA Proceedings, JAMA, September 1958: 57) 1990's In 1995, the National Institute for Health (NIH), in the US, established a Technology Assessment Conference that compiled an official statement entitled "Integration of Behavioral & Relaxation Approaches into the Treatment of Chronic Pain & Insomnia". This is an extensive report that includes a statement on the existing research in relation to hypnotherapy for chronic pain. It concludes that: The evidence supporting the effectiveness of hypnosis in alleviating chronic pain associated with cancer seems strong. In addition, the panel was presented with other data suggesting the effectiveness of hypnosis in other chronic pain conditions, which include irritable bowel syndrome, oral mucositis [pain and swelling of the mucus membrane], temporomandibular disorders [jaw pain], and tension headaches. (NIH, 1995) In 1999, the British Medical Journal (BMJ) published a Clinical Review of current medical research on hypnotherapy and relaxation therapies, it concludes, "There is strong evidence from randomised trials of the effectiveness of hypnosis and relaxation for cancer related anxiety, pain, nausea, and vomiting, [side effects of chemotherapy] particularly in children." "They are also effective for panic disorders and insomnia, particularly when integrated into a package of cognitive therapy (including, for example, sleep hygiene)." "A systematic review has found that hypnosis enhances the effects of cognitive behavioural therapy for conditions such as phobia, obesity, and anxiety." "Randomized controlled trials support the use of various relaxation techniques for treating both acute and chronic pain, [...]" "Randomized trials have shown hypnosis to be of value in asthma and in irritable bowel syndrome [...]" "Relaxation and hypnosis are often used in cancer patients. There is strong evidence from randomized trials of the effectiveness of hypnosis and relaxation for cancer related anxiety, pain, nausea, and vomiting, particularly in children." "Some practitioners also claim that relaxation techniques, particularly the use of imagery, can prolong life. There is currently insufficient evidence to support this claim." 2001 Report In 2001, the Professional Affairs Board of the British Psychological Society (BPS) commissioned a working party of expert psychologists to publish a report entitled The Nature of Hypnosis. Its remit was 'to provide a considered statement about hypnosis and important issues concerning its application and practice in a range of contexts, notably for clinical purposes, forensic investigation, academic research, entertainment and training.' The report provides a concise (c. 20 pages) summary of the current scientific research on hypnosis. It opens with the following introductory remark: Hypnosis is a valid subject for scientific study and research and a proven therapeutic medium. (BPS, 2001) With regard to the therapeutic uses of hypnosis, the BPS arrive at much more positive conclusions. Enough studies have now accumulated to suggest that the inclusion of hypnotic procedures may be beneficial in the management and treatment of a wide range of conditions and problems encountered in the practice of medicine, psychiatry and psychotherapy. (BPS, 2001) The working party then provided an overview of some of the most important contemporary research on the efficacy of clinical hypnotherapy, which is summarized as follows: "There is convincing evidence that hypnotic procedures are effective in the management and relief of both acute and chronic pain and in assisting in the alleviation of pain, discomfort and distress due to medical and dental procedures and childbirth." "Hypnosis and the practice of self-hypnosis may significantly reduce general anxiety, tension and stress in a manner similar to other relaxation and self-regulation procedures." "Likewise, hypnotic treatment may assist in insomnia in the same way as other relaxation methods." "There is encouraging evidence demonstrating the beneficial effects of hypnotherapeutic procedures in alleviating the symptoms of a range of complaints that fall under the heading 'psychosomatic illness." These include tension headaches and migraine; asthma; gastro-intestinal complaints such as irritable bowel syndrome; warts; and possibly other skin complaints such as eczema, psoriasis and urticaria [hives]. "There is evidence from several studies that its [hypnosis'] inclusion in a weight reduction program may significantly enhance outcome." (BPS, "The Nature of Hypnosis", 2001) Meta-analyses In 2003, perhaps the most recent meta-analysis of the efficacy of hypnotherapy was published by two researchers from the university of Konstanz in Germany, Flammer and Bongartz. The study examined data on the efficacy of hypnotherapy across the board, though studies included mainly related to psychosomatic illness, test anxiety, smoking cessation and pain control during orthodox medical treatment. Most of the better research studies used traditional-style hypnosis, only a minority (19%) employed Ericksonian hypnosis. The authors considered a total of 444 studies on hypnotherapy published prior to 2002. By selecting the best quality and most suitable research designs for meta-analysis they narrowed their focus down to 57 controlled trials. These showed that on average hypnotherapy achieved at least 64% success compared to 37% improvement among untreated control groups. (Based on the figures produced by binomial effect size display or BESD.) According to the authors this was an intentional underestimation. Their professed aim was to discover whether, even under the most skeptical weighing of the evidence, hypnotherapy was still proven effective. They showed conclusively that it was. In fact, their analysis of treatment designs concluded that expansion of the meta-analysis to include non-randomized trials for this data base would also produce reliable results. When all 133 studies deemed suitable in light of this consideration were re-analyzed, providing data for over 6,000 patients, the findings suggest an average improvement in 27% of untreated patients over the term of the studies compared with a 74% success rate among those receiving hypnotherapy. This is a high success rate given the fact that many of the studies measured included the treatment of addictions and medical conditions. The outcome rates for anxiety disorders alone, traditionally hypnotherapy's strongest application, were higher still (though a precise figure is not cited).(Flammer & Bongartz, "On the efficacy of hypnosis: a meta-analytic study", Contemporary Hypnosis, 2003, pp179 – 197.) History Precursors of hypnotherapy have been seen in the sleep temples and mystery religions of ancient Graeco-Roman society, though analogies are often tenuous. Some parallels can be drawn between hypnotism and the trance-inducing rituals common to most pre-literate societies. In the mid-18th century when Franz Anton Mesmer introduced the concepts and techniques of "animal magnetism", Mesmerism became an influential school of esoteric therapy and important Mesmerists like James Esdaile and John Elliotson helped maintain its popularity in medicine until the end of the 19th century when it experienced a kind of resurgence in the work of Jean-Martin Charcot, the father of modern neurology. In the 1840s, Scottish physician James Braid, pioneered the concept of hypnotism as an opposing tradition to Mesmerism, based upon basic psychological and physiological mechanisms rather than the occult theories of animal magnetism. Braid's work was of limited influence in the but in France his ideas were developed into a more sophisticated psychological treatment. Hippolyte Bernheim began as a sceptic but became converted to the importance of hypnotism by observing the work of the celebrated country doctor Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault who rejected the theory of Mesmer and followed Abbé Faria. Emile Coué, a former clinical assistant to Liébeault, proposed a more collaborative and educational alternative to hypnosis called "conscious autosuggestion" which became very popular as a form of self-help in the 1920s. In the mid to late 1880s American medical Surgeon-Physician, Rufus Osgood Mason supported the idea of the use of hypnosis for "Therapeutic Applications", and wrote articles and authored a book on this as a concept. He was also a supporter of early parapsychology and psychical research. An important rivalry and debate developed between the Salpêtrière school of Charcot, which focused on physiological phenomena induced by Mesmeric practices, and the Nancy school of Bernheim which placed more emphasis upon psychology and verbal suggestion, following the later writings of Braid. However, Charcot's ideas on hypnosis were almost entirely discredited and Bernheim's school effectively won the debate, becoming the most significant precursor of modern psychological hypnotism. Sigmund Freud was originally a proponent of hypnotherapy. He traveled to France to study hypnosis with the two great teachers of his day, Charcot at the Salpêtrière and Bernheim's Nancy School. Freud wrote several articles on hypnotherapy and translated two of Bernheim's books on the subject from French into German. He originally employed hypnotherapy with a small number of clients in the 1890s. By about 1905, he had largely abandoned the procedure in favor of his newly-developed free association or "talking" technique. However, Freud's description of the basic rule of free association still bears a striking resemblance to certain modern methods of hypnotic induction. Struggling with the great expense of time required for psychoanalysis to be successful, Freud later suggested that it might be combined with hypnotic suggestion once more in an attempt to hasten the outcome of treatment, It is very probable, too, that the application of our therapy to numbers will compel us to alloy the pure gold of analysis plentifully with the copper of direct suggestion. (S. Freud, Lines of Advance in Psychoanalytic Therapy, 1919) However, only a handful of Freud's followers were sufficiently qualified in hypnosis to attempt the synthesis, which resulted in a gradual resurgence in popularity of "hypno-analysis" or "hypnotic regression" methods of hypnotherapy. Milton H. Erickson, M.D. is considered one of the most influential modern hypnotherapists. He has written many books, journals and articles on the subject, and his accomplishments are well-documented. During the 1960s, Erickson was responsible for popularizing an entirely new branch of hypnotherapy, which we now call Ericksonian hypnotherapy, characterized by, amongst other things, indirect suggestion, confusion techniques, and double binds. The popularity of Erickson's techniques has since led to the development of neuro-linguistic programming (NLP), which has in turn found use in modern-day sales, advertising, and corporate training. However, NLP has been criticized by many eminent hypnotists as a distortion of Erickson's work. For example, Andre Weitzenhoffer, a leading Stanford researcher and former colleague of Erickson, stated, [...] Richard Bandler and John Grinder [the founders of NLP] have on the other hand, offered a much adulterated, and at times fanciful, version of what they perceived Erickson as saying or doing guided by their own personal theorising. (Weitzenhoffer, The Practice of Hypnotism, 2000: 592-593) Training Training requirements vary greatly worldwide with the key determining factor being whether the use of hypnotherapy is State-recognized in a given area. When it comes to becoming a hypnotherapist, training requirements and state registration requirements vary greatly around the world. Those interested in becoming a hypnotherapist should first research the laws in their state and then consider joining a professional organization that can guide them in proper training and offer a central code of ethics and disciplinary procedure to which they can commit. This provides assurance to clients and a good ethical framework for the therapist in question. State-licensed hypnotherapy schools do exist in the U.S., and increase in number each year. Several accrediting professional bodies that require minimum standards in specialized hypnotherapy education to become certified as a hypnotherapist (C.Ht.) are also available to professional hypnotherapists and as a resource for individuals to find a qualified professional. The International Medical and Dental Hypnotherapy Association (IMDHA), International Association of Counselors and Therapists (IACT), and the National Guild of Hypnotists (NGH) are just a few. The certified hypnotherapist that has gained certification as a C.Ht. through a professional organization such as IMDHA, IACT, or NGH has at the minimum level, training in basic and advanced hypnosis with a minimum of 120 hour specialized hypnosis instruction. Professional organisations usually have their own set of guidelines and code of ethics to abide by, and require a number of hours of professional development every year to ensure the highest quality in treatment ranging from 16-30 CEU's per year. Many hypnotherapists undertake this kind of professional development and training and will continue to do it until they stop practicing. Regardless of specialized training, a hypnotherapist does not diagnose or treat any individual without the proper credentials to do so, and many times will request referrals and records to be released from a client's physician for medical and/or certain psychiatric conditions. The definition of Hypnotherapist was provided for the U.S. Department of Labor by Dr. John Kappas of the Hypnosis Motivation Institute in 1973. A Hypnotherapist practicing in accordance with the definition uses techniques taught by Dr. Kappas and the Hypnosis Motivation Institute located in Tarzana, California. The Hypnosis Motivation Institute is the first nationally accredited college of hypnotherapy with a rigorous cirriculum of 720 hours of training including clinical internship. The title of Clinical Hypnotherapist (C.Ht.) is earned upon completion of the program. Certification is available by the Hypnotherapists Union Local 472 to achieve the title of Certified Clinical Hypnotherapist. Hypnotherapy as a profession As the use and public understanding of hypnotherapy increases, more and more people are becoming attracted to the profession. Three main categories of hypnotist can be considered: Professional consultants of medical/psychological qualification who use hypnosis as a therapeutic approach, usually amongst other methods. Professional hypnotherapists who specialise primarily in the use of hypnosis, if other techniques are used they are only to compliment the hypnotic approach. Stage hypnotists who utilise hypnosis for the purpose of entertainment and may also offer limited therapeutic assistance, although not usually for more serious matters such as depression or chronic anxiety. Having a career as a hypnotherapist can be lucrative however the extent of a hypnotherapist's fees are often due to the very high overheads in running a practice. Pricing can vary greatly and some of the key factors that drive up pricing are as follows: Unlike other therapists who enroll clients into ongoing therapy that can last months or years, a hypnotherapist often only sees clients for few sessions. This means the cost of advertising and marketing is significantly higher as new clients are almost always needed. Word of mouth can take the place of expensive advertising when a hypnotherapist delivers consistent successful results to clients. The health insurance companies of many countries still do not cover hypnosis under health-coverage, making the approach less-appealing for those of a lower-income and in turn reducing the potential client-base for a hypnotherapist. However, weight release and smoking cessation hypnosis can be written off as an IRS credit on your federal tax return, and some insurance companies will reimburse the individual for hypnotherapy if a properly coded receipt is given at the end of work together. The profile of a hypnotherapist is often a key factor in pricing. Unlike other therapies, hypnotherapy can often have a celebrity-factor attached to it. People who recognise a well-known hypnotherapist with a well-known record in achieving success are likely to pay a lot more because of the trust they place in such individuals. This sector of hypnotherapy represents only a small number of hypnotherapists. Some would argue that this is unfair, others would make the point that it is no different to any other form of high-end consultancy and if people are willing to pay the premium for exclusivity then that is their right. Being a hypnotherapist generally requires good business skills as most hypnotherapists are self-employed and are reliant on their own actions to generate new clients. Licensing Boards USA International Medical and Dental Hypnotherapy Association: Founded in 1986, a referral service of Certified Hypnotherapists dedicated to providing the community with excellently trained Certified Hypnotherapists. These Certified Hypnotherapists will work harmoniously with allied healthcare professionals to aid individuals in dealing with specific challenges and procedures. International Association of Counselors and Therapists: Founded in 1990, IACT is a multidisciplined association, which specializes in holistic techniques. IACT's membership includes medical practitioners, psychologists, clinical social workers, stress consultants, NLP practitioners, clergy, licensed massage therapists, hypnotherapists, biofeedback specialists, nutritionists, educators, mental health therapists, substance abuse counselors and others in the helping, healing arts. National Board for Certified Clinical Hypnotheraphists: Organized in 1991, the NBCCH certifies mental health professionals in the field of hypnotheraphy and provides referral services for persons seeking hypnotherapy throughout U.S.A and western Europe. American Council of Hypnotist Examiners: Organized in 1980, ACHE certifies examiners worldwide These licensing boards are specifically for professionals in the medical and/or psychiatric field and generally do not encompass the certified hypnotherapist who explicitly specializes in hypnotherapy. US Definition of Hypnotherapist The U.S. (Department of Labor) Directory of Occupational Titles (D.O.T. 079.157.010) supplies the following definition: "Hypnotherapist – Induces hypnotic state in client to increase motivation or alter behavior pattern through hypnosis. Consults with client to determine the nature of problem. Prepares client to enter hypnotic states by explaining how hypnosis works and what client will experience. Tests subject to determine degrees of physical and emotional suggestibility. Induces hypnotic state in client using individualized methods and techniques of hypnosis based on interpretation of test results and analysis of client's problem. May train client in self-hypnosis conditioning. The Department of Health in the state of Washington regulates hypnotherapists. United Kingdom UK National Occupational Standards In 2002 UK Department for Education and Skills developed The National Occupational Standards for hypnotherapy linked to National Vocational Qualification based on National Qualifications Framework under The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. And thus hypnotherapy was approved as a stand-alone therapy in UK. NCFE a national awarding body issues level four national vocational qualification diploma in hypnotherapy. (http://website.ncfe.org.uk/) UK Confederation of Hypnotherapy Organisations (UKCHO) The REGULATION of the Hypnotherapy Profession in the UK is at present the main focus of UKCHO, a non-profit making umbrella body for hypnotherapy organisations, recognised as such by the Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health which is the body tasked by the Government to oversee the regulation of the Complimentary and Alternative Medicines (CAM's) in the UK. Founded in 1998 to provide a non-political arena to discuss and implement changes to the profession of Hypnotherapy, UKCHO has grown to represent 28 of the UK's professional hypnotherapy organisations and has long developed standards of training for hypnotherapists, along with codes of conduct and practice that all UKCHO registered hypnotherapists are governed by. As a step towards the regulation of the hypnotherapy profession UKCHO's website now includes a National Public Register of Hypnotherapists UKCHO Register search page - The UK Confederation of Hypnotherapy Organisations who have been registered by UKCHO's Member Organisations and are therefore subject to UKCHO's professional standards. Further steps to full regulation of the hypnotherapy profession will be taken in consultation with the Prince's Foundation for Integrated Health. Working Group for Hypnotherapy Regulation Moves toward Voluntary Self Regulation in the UK hypnotherapy field have led to the formation of a unitary National Register Hypnotherapy Regulation: Home which is a one-stop resource for members of the public and the National Health Service. The Register currently holds approximately 4,100 entries and is known as the National Regulatory Register for Hypnotherapy. The Working Group for Hypnotherapy Regulation is formed of more than 20 professional organisations that have chosen to work together to progress Voluntary Self Regulation in hypnotherapy and to create agreed standards in all aspects of the profession. In the US there are currently no recognized doctorates in hypnotherapy. State licensed schools offer credentialing after the basic educational standards and examinations have been successfully passed as a C.Ht. (Certified Hypnotherapist) or a C.M.Ht. (Certified Medical Hypnotherapist), depending on the school and it's approved curriculum. Instructor status is given through professional accrediting organizations based on completed training requirements and examination. Indian Restriction The Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, vide its letter no. R.14015/25/96-U&H(R) (Pt.) dated 25 November 2003, has very categorically stated that hypnotherapy is a recognized mode of therapy in India to be practiced by only appropriately trained personnel. Maharaja Sayajirao University (M.S.University 4 star) at Vadodara is conducting one-year Post Graduate Diploma in Clinical Applied Hypnosis (P.G.D.C.A.H.) from 2000. Department of Psychology (The M S University of Baroda - India) Clinical hypnosis is included in the syllabus of Master of Philosophy (Clinical Psychology), a pre-doctorate course conducted by The Rehabilitation Council of India which is followed by all universities in India. M Hypnotherapy is the part of syllabus in M. Sc./ M.A. Psychology degree course,University of Rajastan, Jaipur M.Sc. Psychology Final Syllabus - University of Rajasthan, Jaipur ; Banaras Hindu University Banaras Hindu University ; M. Sc. Yoga degree course of Bharathidassan University Bharathi Dasan University: Tiruchirapalli ,B.A./B.Sc.Degree(Psychology), B.A. Journalism in Bangalore University Bangalore University – Psychology Syllabus-Degree Welcome to Indian Academy MPSC ; and B. Sc. Nursing course syllabus of Maharashtra University of Health Sciences, Nashik http://www.muhsnashik.com/syllabus/Revised_Nursing/PBBSC_Nursing/Revised_Syllabus_PCBSC_II_Year_190907.pdf The code for commercial advertising on Doordarshan and All India Radio states that “No advertisement should contain any offer to diagnose or treat complaints or conditions by hypnosis" Techniques Age regression - by returning to an earlier ego-state the patient can regain qualities they once had, but have lost. Remembering an earlier, healthier, ego-state can increase the patients' strength and confidence. Revivification - remembering past experiences can contribute to therapy. For example; the hypnotist may ask "have you ever been in trance?" and then find it easier to revive the previous experience than attempt inducing a new state. Guided imagery - a method by which the subject is given a new relaxing and beneficial experience. Parts therapy - a method pioneered by Charles Tebbetts to identify conflicting parts that are damaging the well being of clients, then helps those parts negotiate with each other through the therapist to bring about a resolution. Confusion - a method developed by Milton H. Erickson in which the subject is more likely to be receptive to indirect suggestion due to an altered state of confusion. Repetition - the more an idea is repeated the more likely it is to be accepted and acted upon by the patient. Direct suggestion - suggesting directly. "You feel safe and secure". Indirect suggestion - using "interspersal" technique and other means to cause effect. Mental state - people are more receptive while relaxed, sleeping, or in a trance. Hypnoanalysis - the client recalls moments from his/her past, confronting them and releasing associated emotions, similar to psychoanalysis. Post-hypnotic suggestion - a suggestion that will be carried out after the trance has ended. "When you re-awaken you will feel refreshed and happy!" Visualization - being told to imagine or visualize a desired outcome seems to make it more likely to actually occur. Hypnotherapy in popular culture The progressive metal band Dream Theater released a concept album in 1999 called Metropolis Pt. 2: Scenes from a Memory. The album is about a character named Nicholas who believes to have led a past life. He starts to take hypnotherapy sessions to try to solve this intricate mystery. There are hypnotherapist voiceovers in various songs on the album, as the doctor takes a supportive role in Nicholas' journey into the past. In the X-Files episode "The Field Where I Died", there are two long hypnotherapy sessions in which Mulder and another character recount their past life as citizens of Nazi Germany and later participants in the American Civil War. Hypnotherapy is used in several other episodes too, when Mulder tries to recall the abduction of his sister, and when Scully tries to recall her own abduction. In Saimin, three apparently unrelated suicides with links to hypnotherapy occur on the same day in Tokyo. In the anime and manga work Loveless, the main character Ritsuka undergoes hypnotherapy frequently as an addition to his psychotherapy. This serves as an attempt to force him revert to his "past self". NBC Universal and MoPo Productions syndicated talk show Maury, presented motivational hypnotist Boris Cherniak to help eliminate extreme and irrational phobias. In the My Hero Episode "The Living Dead", Health Clinic Receptionist Mrs. Raven becomes a Hypnotherapist and Hypnotises her Patients to do strange things upon hearing a certain number. See also Anthony F. Mullen Atavistic regression Autogenic training Doctor of Clinical Hypnotherapy Hypnomotivationalism Hypnosis Hypnosurgery Physical and Emotional Suggestibility and Sexuality Psychotherapy Subconscious mind Suggestibility References Hypnotherapy Articles BBC Database | Hypnotherapy |@lemmatized hypnotherapy:92 therapy:21 undertake:3 subject:13 hypnosis:66 word:5 greek:1 hypnos:1 sleep:6 abbreviation:1 james:8 braid:11 term:7 neuro:2 hypnotism:30 meaning:1 nervous:3 system:1 person:2 hypnotize:2 display:2 certain:6 unusual:1 characteristic:1 propensity:1 compare:3 non:5 notably:4 hyper:1 suggestibility:5 authority:2 consider:8 sine:1 qua:1 example:4 clark:1 l:2 hull:2 probably:1 first:4 major:1 empirical:1 researcher:4 field:6 write:6 submit:1 hypnotic:23 procedure:9 show:7 genuine:2 increase:5 susceptibility:1 suggestion:13 whatever:1 seem:3 point:3 call:8 hypnotise:4 c:8 often:8 apply:1 order:2 modify:1 behavior:6 emotional:3 content:1 attitude:2 well:8 wide:2 range:5 condition:11 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6,118 | Bundle_theory | Bundle theory, originated by the 18th century Scottish philosopher David Hume, is the ontological theory about objecthood in which an object consists only of a collection (bundle) of properties, relations or tropes. According to bundle theory, an object consists of its properties and nothing more: thus neither can there be an object without properties nor can one even conceive of such an object; for example, bundle theory claims that thinking of an apple compels one also to think of its color, its shape, the fact that it is a kind of fruit, its cells, its taste, or at least one other of its properties. Thus, the theory asserts that the apple is no more than the collection of its properties. In particular, there is no substance in which the properties inhere. Arguments for the bundle theory The difficulty in conceiving of or describing an object without also conceiving of or describing its properties is a common justification for bundle theory, especially among current philosophers in the Anglo-American tradition. The inability to comprehend any aspect of the thing other than its properties implies, this argument maintains, that one cannot conceive of a bare particular (a substance without properties), an implication that directly opposes substance theory. The conceptual difficulty of bare particulars was illustrated by John Locke when he described a substance by itself, apart from its properties, as "something, I know not what." Whether a relation of an object is one of its properties may complicate such an argument. However, the argument concludes that the conceptual challenge of bare particulars leaves a bundle of properties and nothing more as the only possible conception of an object, thus justifying bundle theory. Objections to the bundle theory Objections to bundle theory concern the nature of the bundle of properties, the properties' compresence relation (the togetherness relation between those constituent properties), and the impact of language on understanding reality. Compresence objection Bundle theory maintains that properties are bundled together in a collection without describing how are they tied together. For example, bundle theory regards an apple as red, four inches (100 mm) wide, and juicy but lacking an underlying substance. The apple is said to be a bundle of properties including redness, being four inches (100 mm) wide, and juiciness. Critics question how bundle theory accounts for the properties' compresence (the togetherness relation between those properties) without an underlying substance. Critics also question how any two given properties are determined to be properties of the same object if there is no substance in which they both inhere. Traditional bundle theory, according to Professor Dustin Moriarty, explains the compresence of properties by defining an object as a collection of properties bound together. Thus, different combinations of properties and relations produce different objects. Redness and juiciness, for example, may be found together on top of the table because they are part of a bundle of properties located on the table, one of which is the "looks like an apple" property. By contrast, substance theory explains the compresence of properties by asserting that the properties are found together because it is the substance that has those properties. In substance theory, a substance is the thing in which properties inhere. For example, redness and juiciness are found on top of the table because redness and juiciness inhere in an apple, making the apple red and juicy. The bundle theory of substance explains compresence. Specifically, it maintains that properties' compresence itself engenders a substance. Thus, it determines substancehood empirically by the togetherness of properties rather than by a bare particular or by any other non-empirical underlying strata. The bundle theory of substance thus rejects the substance theories of Aristotle, Descartes, and more recently, J.P. Moreland, Jia Hou, Joseph Bridgman, Quentin Smith, and others. Language-reality objection The language-reality objection to bundle theory relates to the impact language has on understanding reality. The objection maintains that language causes confusion that supports bundle theory. Per the objection, properties are synthetic constructions of language and thinking alone provides reality to the properties of any object. An apple, it claims, does not have the properties Red or Juicy, but rather observers who already believe in a concept called Red use that concept to experience an apple as red. Further, the objection maintains that Red can not be distilled from an apple because Red is an abstraction from other experiences and not an innate property an apple might contain. Per the objection, expressions such as, "An apple is red and juicy," includes at least six concepts and would best be left as dead-end logical propositions. Since the objection regards the words "Red" and "Juicy" as simply abstractions of previous experiences, it contends that they contain only a personal summary concept of one individual. Thus, the experience of an apple is as close to the Apple concept that one can get. The objection regards any additional analytic work of the mind as a synthesis of other experiences that is incapable of logically revealing any true essence of Apple. The language-reality objection asserts that language encourages the belief that synthetic exercises distill experiences, yet it rejects the results of such exercises by maintaining that observers actually combine experiences to create each concept of any particular property. It holds that language is a complicated belief system whose only connection to reality is an abstraction of experience. The language-reality objection may even suggest that reality/non-reality or objective/subjective distinctions themselves are merely artifacts of language and therefore are also solely abstractions of experience. [Citation?] Bundle theory and Buddhism A famous Madhyamaka philosopher, Chandrakirti, used the aggregate nature of objects to demonstrate the lack of essence in what is known as the sevenfold reasoning. In his work, "Commentary on the 'Middle Way'", he says: He goes on to explain what is meant by each of these seven assertions, but briefly in a subsequent commentary he explains that the conventions of the world do not exist essentially when closely analyzed, but exist only through being taken for granted, without being subject to scrutiny that searches for an essence within them. See also Platonic realism Substance theory Anatta References A Treatise of Human Nature: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects. (1739–1740) Derek Parfit, Reasons and Persons | Bundle_theory |@lemmatized bundle:23 theory:24 originate:1 century:1 scottish:1 philosopher:3 david:1 hume:1 ontological:1 objecthood:1 object:12 consist:2 collection:4 property:37 relation:6 trope:1 accord:2 nothing:2 thus:7 neither:1 without:6 one:8 even:2 conceive:4 example:4 claim:2 thinking:1 apple:15 compels:1 also:5 think:2 color:1 shape:1 fact:1 kind:1 fruit:1 cell:1 taste:1 least:2 assert:3 particular:6 substance:16 inhere:4 argument:4 difficulty:2 describe:4 common:1 justification:1 especially:1 among:1 current:1 anglo:1 american:1 tradition:1 inability:1 comprehend:1 aspect:1 thing:2 implies:1 maintain:6 cannot:1 bare:4 implication:1 directly:1 oppose:1 conceptual:2 illustrate:1 john:1 locke:1 apart:1 something:1 know:2 whether:1 may:3 complicate:1 however:1 conclude:1 challenge:1 leave:2 possible:1 conception:1 justify:1 objection:13 concern:1 nature:3 compresence:7 togetherness:3 constituent:1 impact:2 language:11 understanding:1 reality:10 together:5 tie:1 regard:3 red:9 four:2 inch:2 mm:2 wide:2 juicy:5 lack:2 underlying:3 say:2 include:2 redness:4 juiciness:4 critic:2 question:2 account:1 two:1 give:1 determine:2 traditional:1 professor:1 dustin:1 moriarty:1 explain:4 define:1 bound:1 different:2 combination:1 produce:1 find:3 top:2 table:3 part:1 locate:1 look:1 like:1 contrast:1 make:1 explains:1 specifically:1 engender:1 substancehood:1 empirically:1 rather:2 non:2 empirical:1 stratum:1 reject:2 aristotle:1 descartes:1 recently:1 j:1 p:1 moreland:1 jia:1 hou:1 joseph:1 bridgman:1 quentin:1 smith:1 others:1 relates:1 understand:1 cause:1 confusion:1 support:1 per:2 synthetic:2 construction:1 alone:1 provide:1 observer:2 already:1 believe:1 concept:6 call:1 use:2 experience:9 far:1 distil:1 abstraction:4 innate:1 might:1 contain:2 expression:1 six:1 would:1 best:1 dead:1 end:1 logical:1 proposition:1 since:1 word:1 simply:1 previous:1 contend:1 personal:1 summary:1 individual:1 close:1 get:1 additional:1 analytic:1 work:2 mind:1 synthesis:1 incapable:1 logically:1 reveal:1 true:1 essence:3 encourage:1 belief:2 exercise:2 distill:1 yet:1 result:1 actually:1 combine:1 create:1 hold:1 complicated:1 system:1 whose:1 connection:1 suggest:1 objective:1 subjective:1 distinction:1 merely:1 artifact:1 therefore:1 solely:1 citation:1 buddhism:1 famous:1 madhyamaka:1 chandrakirti:1 aggregate:1 demonstrate:1 sevenfold:1 reasoning:1 commentary:2 middle:1 way:1 go:1 mean:1 seven:1 assertion:1 briefly:1 subsequent:1 convention:1 world:1 exist:2 essentially:1 closely:1 analyze:1 take:1 grant:1 subject:2 scrutiny:1 search:1 within:1 see:1 platonic:1 realism:1 anatta:1 reference:1 treatise:1 human:1 attempt:1 introduce:1 experimental:1 method:1 reason:2 moral:1 derek:1 parfit:1 person:1 |@bigram david_hume:1 inch_mm:2 platonic_realism:1 |
6,119 | Alain_de_Lille | Alain de Lille (or Alanus ab Insulis) (c. 1128 - 1202), French theologian and poet, was born, probably in Lille, some years before 1128. Life Little is known of his life. He seems to have taught in the schools of Paris, and he attended the Lateran Council in 1179. He afterwards inhabited Montpellier (he is sometimes called Alanus de Montepessulano), lived for a time outside the walls of any cloister, and finally retired to Citeaux, where he died in 1202. He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime and his knowledge, more varied than profound, caused him to be called Doctor universalis. Among his very numerous works two poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the Latin literature of the Middle Ages; one of these, the De planctu naturae, is an ingenious satire on the vices of humanity. He created the allegory of grammatical "conjugation" which was to have its successors throughout the Middle Ages. The Anticlaudianus, a treatise on morals as allegory, the form of which recalls the pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and relatively pure in its latinity. Theologian As a theologian Alain de Lille shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12th century against the scholastic philosophy. His mysticism, however, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines. In the Anticlaudianus he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to faith. This rule is completed in his treatise, Ars catholicae fidei, as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason. Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle, and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the Creed. This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only his employment of various terms not generally used in such a connection (axiom, theorem, corollary, etc.) that gives his treatise its apparent originality. Works and attributions Alain de Lille has often been confounded with other persons named Alain, in particular with another Alanus (Alain, bishop of Auxerre), Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain de Podio, etc. Certain facts of their lives have been attributed to him, as well as some of their works: thus the Life of St Bernard should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the Commentary upon Merlin to Alan of Tewkesbury. Alan of Lille was not the author of a Memoriale rerum difficilium, published under his name, nor of Moralium dogma philosophorum, nor of the satirical Apocalypse of Golias once attributed to him; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the Dicta Alani de lapide philosophico really issued from his pen. On the other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de Lille was the author of the Ars catholicae fidei and the treatise Contra haereticos. In his sermons on capital sins, Alain argued that sodomy and homicide are the most serious sins, since they call forth the wrath of God, which led to the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah. His chief work on penance, the Liber poenitenitalis dedicated to Henry de Sully, exercised great influence on the many manuals of penance produced as a result of the Fourth Lateran Council. Alain's identification of the sins against nature included bestiality, masturbation, oral and anal intercourse, incest, adultery and rape. In addition to his battle against moral decay, Alan wrote a work against Islam, Judaism and Christian heretics dedicated to William VIII of Montpellier. Quotes • God is an intelligible sphere whose centre is everywhere and whose circumference is nowhere. • Do not hold as gold all that shines as gold. References External links Alanus ab Insulis, Anticlaudianus sive De officiis viri boni et perfecti Alanus ab Insulis, Liber de planctu naturae] Alanus ab Insulis, Omnis mundi creatura Alain de Lille, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/alain-deplanctu.html The Complaint of NatureFurther reading Dynes, Wayne R. 'Alan of Lille.' in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'', Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 32. | Alain_de_Lille |@lemmatized alain:13 de:12 lille:8 alanus:6 ab:4 insulis:4 c:1 french:1 theologian:3 poet:1 bear:1 probably:1 year:1 life:4 little:1 know:1 seem:2 teach:1 school:1 paris:1 attend:1 lateran:2 council:2 afterwards:1 inhabit:1 montpellier:2 sometimes:1 call:3 montepessulano:1 live:1 time:1 outside:1 wall:1 cloister:1 finally:1 retire:1 citeaux:1 die:1 widespread:1 reputation:1 lifetime:1 knowledge:1 varied:1 profound:1 cause:1 doctor:1 universalis:1 among:1 numerous:1 work:5 two:1 poem:1 entitle:1 distinguished:1 place:1 latin:1 literature:1 middle:2 age:2 one:1 planctu:2 naturae:2 ingenious:1 satire:1 vice:1 humanity:1 create:1 allegory:2 grammatical:1 conjugation:1 successor:1 throughout:1 anticlaudianus:3 treatise:4 moral:2 form:1 recall:1 pamphlet:1 claudian:1 rufinus:1 agreeably:1 versified:1 relatively:1 pure:1 latinity:1 share:1 mystic:1 reaction:1 second:1 half:1 century:1 scholastic:1 philosophy:1 mysticism:1 however:1 far:1 absolute:1 victorines:1 sum:1 follow:2 reason:2 guide:1 prudence:1 unaided:1 discover:1 truth:2 physical:1 order:1 apprehension:1 religious:1 must:1 trust:1 faith:1 rule:1 complete:1 ars:1 catholicae:2 fidei:2 theology:1 may:1 demonstrate:2 even:1 venture:1 immediate:1 application:1 principle:1 try:1 prove:1 geometrically:1 dogma:2 define:1 creed:1 bold:1 attempt:1 entirely:1 factitious:1 verbal:1 employment:1 various:1 term:1 generally:1 use:1 connection:1 axiom:1 theorem:1 corollary:1 etc:2 give:1 apparent:1 originality:1 attribution:1 often:1 confound:1 person:1 name:2 particular:1 another:1 bishop:1 auxerre:2 alan:5 abbot:1 tewkesbury:2 podio:1 certain:1 fact:1 attribute:2 well:1 thus:1 st:1 bernard:1 ascribe:1 commentary:1 upon:1 merlin:1 author:2 memoriale:1 rerum:1 difficilium:1 publish:1 moralium:1 philosophorum:1 satirical:1 apocalypse:1 golias:1 exceedingly:1 doubtful:1 whether:1 dictum:1 alani:1 lapide:1 philosophico:1 really:1 issue:1 pen:1 hand:1 practically:1 ar:1 contra:1 haereticos:1 sermon:1 capital:1 sin:3 argue:1 sodomy:1 homicide:1 serious:1 since:1 forth:1 wrath:1 god:2 lead:1 destruction:1 sodom:1 gomorrah:1 chief:1 penance:2 liber:2 poenitenitalis:1 dedicate:2 henry:1 sully:1 exercise:1 great:1 influence:1 many:1 manual:1 produce:1 result:1 fourth:1 identification:1 nature:1 include:1 bestiality:1 masturbation:1 oral:1 anal:1 intercourse:1 incest:1 adultery:1 rape:1 addition:1 battle:1 decay:1 write:1 islam:1 judaism:1 christian:1 heretic:1 william:1 viii:1 quote:1 intelligible:1 sphere:1 whose:2 centre:1 everywhere:1 circumference:1 nowhere:1 hold:1 gold:2 shin:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 sive:1 officiis:1 viri:1 boni:1 et:1 perfecti:1 omnis:1 mundi:1 creatura:1 http:1 www:1 fordham:1 edu:1 halsall:1 basis:1 deplanctu:1 html:1 complaint:1 naturefurther:1 reading:1 dyne:1 wayne:1 r:1 encyclopedia:1 homosexuality:1 garland:1 publishing:1 p:1 |@bigram lateran_council:2 grammatical_conjugation:1 sodom_gomorrah:1 fourth_lateran:1 anal_intercourse:1 external_link:1 de_officiis:1 http_www:1 fordham_edu:1 edu_halsall:1 garland_publishing:1 |
6,120 | Glass | Moldavite, a natural glass formed by meteorite impact, from Besednice, Bohemia A modern greenhouse in Wisley Garden, England, made from float glass Clear glass light bulb Glass generally refers to hard, brittle, transparent material, such as those used for windows, many bottles, or eyewear. Examples of such materials include, but are not limited to, soda-lime glass, borosilicate glass, acrylic glass, sugar glass, isinglass (Muscovy-glass), or aluminium oxynitride. In the technical sense, glass is an inorganic product of fusion which has been cooled through the glass transition to a rigid condition without crystallizing. ASTM definition of glass from 1945; also: DIN 1259, Glas – Begriffe für Glasarten und Glasgruppen, September 1986 Many glasses contain silica as their main component and glass former. In the scientific sense the term glass is often extended to all amorphous solids (and melts that easily form amorphous solids), including plastics, resins, or other silica-free amorphous solids. In addition, besides traditional melting techniques, any other means of preparation are considered, such as ion implantation, and the sol-gel method. However, glass science and physics commonly includes only inorganic amorphous solids, while plastics and similar organics are covered by polymer science, biology and further scientific disciplines. Glass plays an essential role in science and industry. The optical and physical properties of glass make it suitable for applications such as flat glass, container glass, optics and optoelectronics material, laboratory equipment, thermal insulator (glass wool), reinforcement fiber (glass-reinforced plastic, glass fiber reinforced concrete), and art. The term glass developed in the late Roman Empire. It was in the Roman glassmaking center at Trier, Germany, that the late-Latin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic word for a transparent, lustrous substance. Glass production Glass ingredients Quartz sand (silica) as main raw material for commercial glass production Oldest mouth-blown window-glass in Sweden (Kosta Glasbruk, Småland, 1742). In the middle is the mark from the glass blower's pipe. Pure silica (SiO2) has a "glass melting point"— at a viscosity of 10 Pa·s (100 P)— of over 2300 °C (4200 °F). While pure silica can be made into glass for special applications (see fused quartz), other substances are added to common glass to simplify processing. One is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), which lowers the melting point to about 1500 °C (2700 °F) in soda-lime glass; "soda" refers to the original source of sodium carbonate in the soda ash obtained from certain plants. However, the soda makes the glass water soluble, which is usually undesirable, so lime (calcium oxide (CaO), generally obtained from limestone), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide are added to provide for a better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 74 percent silica by weight and is called a soda-lime glass. B. H. W. S. de Jong, "Glass"; in "Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry"; 5th edition, vol. A12, VCH Publishers, Weinheim, Germany, 1989, ISBN 3-527-20112-5, p 365–432. Soda-lime glasses account for about 90 percent of manufactured glass. As well as soda and lime, most common glass has other ingredients added to change its properties. Lead glass, such as lead crystal or flint glass, is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index causes noticeably more "sparkles", while boron may be added to change the thermal and electrical properties, as in Pyrex. Adding barium also increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion, and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern eye glasses. Large amounts of iron are used in glass that absorbs infrared energy, such as heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths (biologically damaging ionizing radiation). Two other common glass ingredients are calumite (an iron industry by-product) and "cullet" (recycled glass). The recycled glass saves on raw materials and energy. However, impurities in the cullet can lead to product and equipment failure. Finally, fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony oxide are added to reduce the bubble content in the glass. Glass batch calculation is the method by which the correct raw material mixture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition. Contemporary glass production Following the glass batch preparation and mixing, the raw materials are transported to the furnace. Soda-lime glass for mass production is melted in gas fired units. Smaller scale furnaces for specialty glasses include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks. After melting, homogenization and refining (removal of bubbles), the glass is formed. Flat glass for windows and similar applications is formed by the float glass process, developed between 1953 and 1957 by Sir Alastair Pilkington and Kenneth Bickerstaff of the UK's Pilkington Brothers, who created a continuous ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on which the molten glass flows unhindered under the influence of gravity. The top surface of the glass is subjected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish. PFG Glass Container glass for common bottles and jars is formed by blowing and pressing methods. Further glass forming techniques are summarized in the table Glass forming techniques. Once the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses. Surface treatments, coatings or lamination may follow to improve the chemical durability (glass container coatings, glass container internal treatment), strength (toughened glass, bulletproof glass, windshields), or optical properties (insulated glazing, anti-reflective coating). Glassmaking in the laboratory A vitrification experiment for the study of nuclear waste disposal at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Failed laboratory glass melting test. The striations must be avoided through good homogenization. New chemical glass compositions or new treatment techniques can be initially investigated in small-scale laboratory experiments. The raw materials for laboratory-scale glass melts are often different from those used in mass production because the cost factor has a low priority. In the laboratory mostly pure chemicals are used. Care must be taken that the raw materials have not reacted with moisture or other chemicals in the environment (such as alkali oxides and hydroxides, alkaline earth oxides and hydroxides, or boron oxide), or that the impurities are quantified (loss on ignition). Glass melting, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Evaporation losses during glass melting should be considered during the selection of the raw materials, e.g., sodium selenite may be preferred over easily evaporating SeO2. Also, more readily reacting raw materials may be preferred over relatively inert ones, such as Al(OH)3 over Al2O3. Usually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to reduce contamination from the crucible material. Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogenizing the raw materials mixture (glass batch), by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re-melting the first melt. The obtained glass is usually annealed to prevent breakage during processing. Glass melting in the laboratory See also: Optical lens design, Fabrication and testing of optical components Sol-gel science/technology Silica-free glasses Besides common silica-based glasses, many other inorganic and organic materials may also form glasses, including plastics (e.g., acrylic glass), carbon, metals, carbon dioxide (see below), phosphates, borates, chalcogenides, fluorides, germanates (glasses based on GeO2), tellurites (glasses based on TeO2), antimonates (glasses based on Sb2O3), arsenates (glasses based on As2O3), titanates (glasses based on TiO2), tantalates (glasses based on Ta2O5), nitrates, carbonates and many other substances. Some glasses that do not include silica as a major constituent may have physico-chemical properties useful for their application in fibre optics and other specialized technical applications. These include fluoride glasses (fluorozirconates, fluoroaluminates), aluminosilicates, phosphate glasses and chalcogenide glasses. Under extremes of pressure and temperature solids may exhibit large structural and physical changes which can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions. P. F. McMillan "Polyamorphic transformations in liquids and glasses" Journal of Materials Chemistry 14, 1506–1512 (2004) In 2006 Italian scientists created an amorphous phase of carbon dioxide using extreme pressure. The substance was named amorphous carbonia(a-CO2) and exhibits an atomic structure resembling that of Silica. carbon dioxide glass created in the lab 15 June 2006, www.newscientisttech.com. Retrieved 3 August 2006 Physics of glass see also Physics of glass The amorphous structure of glassy Silica (SiO2). No long range order is present, however there is local ordering with respect to the tetrahedral arrangement of Oxygen (O) atoms around the Silicon (Si) atoms. The standard definition of a glass (or vitreous solid) is a solid formed by rapid melt quenching. S. A. Baeurle et al. "On the glassy state of multiphase and pure polymer materials" Polymer 47, 6243–6253 (2006) If the cooling is sufficiently rapid (relative to the characteristic crystallisation time) then crystallisation is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled liquid is frozen into the solid state at the glass transition temperature Tg. Generally, the structure of a glass exists in a metastable state with respect to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for example in atactic polymers, there is no crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase. "Folmer, J. C. W.; Franzen, Stefan." Study of polymer glasses by modulated differential scanning calorimetry in the undergraduate physical chemistry laboratory" Journal of Chemical Education (2003), 80(7), 813 As in other amorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks any long range translational periodicity. However, due to chemical bonding characteristics glasses do possess a high degree of short-range order with respect to local atomic polyhedra. P.S. Salmon "Order within disorder" Nature Materials, 1(87), (2002) It is deemed that the bonding structure of glasses, although disordered, has the same symmetry signature (Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimensionality) as for crystalline materials. M.I. Ojovan, W.E. Lee "Topologically disordered systems at the glass transition" J. Phys.: Condensed Matter, 18, 11507–11520 (2006) Glass versus a supercooled liquid Glass is generally classed as an amorphous solid rather than a liquid. Glass displays all the mechanical properties of a solid. The notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis (see viscosity of amorphous materials). From a more commonsense point of view, glass should be considered a solid since it is rigid according to everyday experience. "Philip Gibbs" Glass Worldwide, (may/june 2007), pp 14–18 Some people consider glass to be a liquid due to its lack of a first-order phase transition where certain thermodynamic variables such as volume, entropy and enthalpy are continuous through the glass transition range. However, the glass transition may be described as analogous to a second-order phase transition where the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal expansivity and heat capacity are discontinuous. Despite this, thermodynamic phase transition theory does not entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as a genuine thermodynamic phase transition. Although the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in a supercooled liquid, glass tends to behave as a solid below its glass transition temperature. A supercooled liquid behaves as a liquid, but it is below the freezing point of the material, and will crystallize almost instantly if a crystal is added as a core. The change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in active degrees of freedom is comparable as well. Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, whereas rotational and translational motion becomes impossible, explaining why glasses and crystalline materials are hard. Behavior of antique glass The observation that old windows are often thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a matter of centuries. It is then assumed that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape, which is a property of liquid. In actuality, the likely reason for this is that when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk became thicker as the glass spun. When actually installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed thicker side down both for the sake of stability and to prevent water accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the window. Dr Karl's Homework: Glass Flows Occasionally such glass has been found thinner side down or thicker on either side of the window's edge, as would be caused by carelessness at the time of installation. Mass production of glass window panes in the early twentieth century caused a similar effect. In glass factories, molten glass was poured onto a large cooling table and allowed to spread. The resulting glass is thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet. These sheets were cut into smaller window panes with nonuniform thickness. Modern glass intended for windows is produced as float glass and is very uniform in thickness. Several other points exemplify the misconception of the "cathedral glass" theory: Writing in the American Journal of Physics, "Do Cathedral Glasses Flow?" Am. J. Phys., 66 (May 1998), pp 392–396 physicist Edgar D. Zanotto states "...the predicted relaxation time for GeO2 at room temperature is 1032 years. Hence, the relaxation period (characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even longer". (1032 years is much longer than the estimated age of the Universe.) If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and Egyptian objects should have flowed proportionately more — but this is not observed. Similarly, prehistoric obsidian blades should have lost their edge; this is not observed either (although obsidian may have a different viscosity from window glass). If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye after centuries, then the effect should be noticeable in antique telescopes. Any slight deformation in the antique telescopic lenses would lead to a dramatic decrease in optical performance, a phenomenon that is not observed. There are many examples of centuries-old glass shelving which has not bent, even though it is under much higher stress from gravitational loads than vertical window glass. Some glasses have a glass transition temperature close to or below room temperature. The behavior of a material that has a glass transition close to room temperature depends upon the timescale during which the material is manipulated. If the material is hit it may break like a solid glass, but if the material is left on a table for a week it may flow like a liquid. This simply means that for the fast timescale its transition temperature is above room temperature, but for the slow one it is below. The shift in temperature with timescale is not very large however, as indicated by the transition of polypropylene glycol of −72°C and −71°C over different timescales. To observe window glass flowing as liquid at room temperature we would have to wait a much longer time than any human can exist. Therefore it is safe to consider a glass a solid far enough below its transition temperature: Cathedral glass does not flow because its glass transition temperature is many hundreds of degrees above room temperature. Close to this temperature there are interesting time-dependent properties. One of these is known as aging. Many polymers that we use in daily life such as rubber, polystyrene and polypropylene are in a glassy state but they are not too far below their glass transition temperature. Their mechanical properties may well change over time and this is serious concern when applying these materials in construction. Physical properties The following table lists some physical properties of common glasses. Unless otherwise stated, the technical glass compositions and many experimentally determined properties are taken from one large study. "High temperature glass melt property database for process modeling"; Eds.: Thomas P. Seward III and Terese Vascott; The American Ceramic Society, Westerville, Ohio, 2005, ISBN 1-57498-225-7 Unless stated otherwise, the properties of fused silica (quartz glass) and germania glass are derived from the SciGlass glass database by forming the arithmetic mean of all the experimental values from different authors (in general more than 10 independent sources for quartz glass and Tg of germanium oxide glass). Those values marked in italic font have been interpolated from similar glass compositions (see Calculation of glass properties) due to the lack of experimental data. Properties Soda-lime glass (for containers) Soda-lime glass for containers is slightly different from soda-lime glass for windows (also called flat glass or float glass). Float glass has a higher magnesium oxide content as compared to container glass, and a lower silica and calcium oxide content. For further details see main article Soda-lime glass. Borosilicate (low expansion, similar to Pyrex, Duran) Glass wool (for thermal insulation) Special optical glass (similar toLead crystal) Fused silica Germania glass Germanium selenide glass Chemicalcomposition,wt% 74 SiO2, 13 Na2O, 10.5 CaO, 1.3 Al2O3, 0.3 K2O, 0.2 SO3, 0.2 MgO, 0.01 TiO2, 0.04 Fe2O3 81 SiO2, 12.5 B2O3, 4 Na2O, 2.2 Al2O3, 0.02 CaO, 0.06 K2O 63 SiO2, 16 Na2O, 8 CaO, 3.3 B2O3, 5 Al2O3, 3.5 MgO, 0.8 K2O, 0.3 Fe2O3, 0.2 SO3 41.2 SiO2, 34.1 PbO, 12.4 BaO, 6.3 ZnO, 3.0 K2O, 2.5 CaO, 0.35 Sb2O3, 0.2 As2O3 SiO2 GeO2 GeSe2 Viscositylog(η, Pa·s) = A +B / (T in °C − To) 550–1450°C:A = -2.309B = 3922To = 291 550–1450°C:A = -2.834B = 6668To = 108 550–1400°C:A = -2.323B = 3232To = 318 500–690°C:A = -35.59B = 60930To = −741 1140–2320°C:A = -7.766B = 27913To = −271.7 515–1540°C:A = -11.044B = 30979To = −837 Glass transitiontemperature, Tg, °C 573 536 551 ~540 1140 526 ± 27 A.J. Leadbettera and A.C. Wrigh "Diffraction studies of glass structure: II. The structure of vitreous germania" Journal of non-crystalline solids, 7:37–52 (1972) M. Micoulaut et al. "Simulated structural and thermal properties of glassy and liquid germania" Physical Review E, 73:031504 (2006) 35 Tg data for GeO2 from SciGlass 6.7 395 Kotkata et al. "Effect of thallium on the optical properties of amorphous GeSe2 and GeSe4 films" J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 27 pp 623–627 (1994) Coefficient ofthermal expansion,ppm/K, ~100–300°C 9 3.5 10 7 0.55 7.3 Densityat 20°C, [g/cm3], x1000 to get [kg/m3] 2.52 2.235 2.550 3.86 2.203 3.65 P. S. Salmon et al. "Glass Fragility and Atomic Ordering on the Intermediate and Extended Range" Physical Review Letters, 96, 235502 (2006) 4.16 Refractive index nD The subscript D indicates that the refractive index n was measured at a wavelength λ of 589.29 nm, F and C indicate 486.13 nm (blue) and 656.27 nm (red) respectively (see article Fraunhofer lines) at 20°C 1.518 1.473 1.531 1.650 1.459 1.608 1.7 Dispersion at 20°C,104×(nF − nC) 86.7 72.3 89.5 169 67.8 146 Young's modulusat 20°C, GPa 72 65 75 67 72 43.3 L. G. Hwa and W.C. Chao "Velocity of sound and elastic properties of lanthanum gallo-germanate glasses" Materials Chemistry and Physics, 94, 37–41 (2005) Shear modulusat 20°C, GPa 29.8 28.2 26.8 31.3 Liquidustemperature, °C 1040 1070 Valid for glass composition, wt%: 80.7 SiO2, 13.1 B2O3, 4.1 Na2O, 2.1 Al2O3; Reference: Baak N. T. E. A. and Rapp C. F., GB Patent No. 1132885 Cl C 03 C 3/04, Abridg. Specif., 1968; Assignee: Owens-Illinois, Inc. (US). 1715 1115 Heatcapacity at 20°C,J/(mol·K) 49 50 50 51 44 52 Surface tension,at ~1300°C, mJ/m2 315 370 290 Chemical durability,Hydrolytic class,after ISO 719 International Organization for Standardization, Procedure 719 (1985) 3 1 3 Color Common soda-lime float glass appears green in thick sections because of Fe2+ impurities. Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions (or color centers) that are homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles (such as in photochromic glasses). Ordinary soda-lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye when it is thin, although iron(II) oxide (FeO) impurities of up to 0.1 wt% produce a green tint which can be viewed in thick pieces or with the aid of scientific instruments. Further FeO and Cr2O3 additions may be used for the production of green bottles. Sulfur, together with carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber glass ranging from yellowish to almost black. Substances Used in the Making of Coloured Glass 1st.glassman.com (David M Issitt). Retrieved 3 August 2006 Manganese dioxide can be added in small amounts to remove the green tint given by iron(II) oxide. Optical waveguides The propagation of light through a multi-mode optical fiber. A laser bouncing down an acrylic rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a multimode optical fiber. Optically transparent materials focus on the response of a material to incoming light waves of a range of wavelengths. Frequency selective optical filters can be utilized to alter or enhance the brightness and contrast of a digital image. Guided light wave transmission via frequency selective waveguides involves the emerging field of fiber optics and the ability of certain glassy compositions as a transmission medium for a range of frequencies simultaneously (multimode optical fiber) with little or no interference between competing wavelengths or frequencies. This resonant mode of energy and data transmission via electromagnetic (light) wave propagation, though low powered, is relatively lossless. An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide that transmits light along its axis by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. (Note: The index of refraction is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given medium. (The index of refraction of a vacuum is therefore equal to 1, by definition). The larger the index of refraction, the more slowly light travels in that medium. Typical values for core and cladding of an optical fiber are 1.48 and 1.46, respectively. When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle, the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles will be propagated. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fiber's core and cladding. Optical waveguides are used as components in integrated optical circuits (e.g. light-emitting diodes, LEDs) or as the transmission medium in local and long haul optical communication systems. Also of value to the emerging materials scientist is the sensitivity of materials to thermal radiation in the infrared (IR) portion of the EM spectrum. This infrared homing (or "heat-seeking") capability is responsible for such diverse optical phenomena as "night vision" and IR luminescence. History see also category Glass history Obsidian from Lake County, Oregon Roman Cage Cup from the 4th century A.D. Roman glass Naturally occurring glass, especially obsidian, has been used by many Stone Age societies across the globe for the production of sharp cutting tools and, due to its limited source areas, was extensively traded. But in general, archaeological evidence suggests that the first true glass was made in coastal north Syria, Mesopotamia or Old Kingdom Egypt. Due to Egypt's favorable environment for preservation, the majority of well-studied early glass is found in Egypt, although some of this is likely to have been imported. The earliest known glass objects, of the mid third millennium BC, were beads, perhaps initially created as accidental by-products of metal-working slags or during the production of faience, a pre-glass vitreous material made by a process similar to glazing. True glazing over a ceramic body was not used until many centuries after the production of the first glass. During the Late Bronze Age in Egypt and Western Asia there was an explosion in glass-making technology. Archaeological finds from this period include colored glass ingots, vessels (often colored and shaped in imitation of highly prized wares of semi-precious stones) and the ubiquitous beads. The alkali of Syrian and Egyptian glass was soda ash, sodium carbonate, which can be extracted from the ashes of many plants, notably halophile seashore plants: (see saltwort). The earliest vessels were 'core-wound', produced by winding a ductile rope of glass round a shaped core of sand and clay over a metal rod, then fusing it with repeated reheatings. Threads of thin glass of different colors made with admixtures of oxides were subsequently wound around these to create patterns, which could be drawn into festoons by using metal raking tools. The vessel would then be rolled flat ('marvered') on a slab in order to press the decorative threads into its body. Handles and feet were applied separately. The rod was subsequently allowed to cool as the glass slowly annealed and was eventually removed from the center of the vessel, after which the core material was scraped out. Glass shapes for inlays were also often created in moulds. Much early glass production, however, relied on grinding techniques borrowed from stone working. This meant that the glass was ground and carved in a cold state. By the 15th century BC extensive glass production was occurring in Western Asia and Egypt. It is thought the techniques and recipes required for the initial fusing of glass from raw materials was a closely guarded technological secret reserved for the large palace industries of powerful states. Glass workers in other areas therefore relied on imports of pre-formed glass, often in the form of cast ingots such as those found on the Ulu Burun shipwreck off the coast of Turkey. Glass remained a luxury material, and the disasters that overtook Late Bronze Age civilisations seem to have brought glass-making to a halt. It picked up again in its former sites, in Syria and Cyprus, in the ninth century BC, when the techniques for making colorless glass were discovered. The first glassmaking "manual" dates back to ca. 650 BC. Instructions on how to make glass are contained in cuneiform tablets discovered in the library of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal. In Egypt glass-making did not revive until it was reintroduced in Ptolemaic Alexandria. Core-formed vessels and beads were still widely produced, but other techniques came to the fore with experimentation and technological advancements. During the Hellenistic period many new techniques of glass production were introduced and glass began to be used to make larger pieces, notably table wares. Techniques developed during this period include 'slumping' viscous (but not fully molten) glass over a mould in order to form a dish and 'millefiori' (meaning 'thousand flowers') technique, where canes of multi-colored glass were sliced and the slices arranged together and fused in a mould to create a mosaic-like effect. It was also during this period that colorless or decolored glass began to be prized and methods for achieving this effect were investigated more fully. According to Pliny the Elder, Phoenician traders were the first to stumble upon glass manufacturing techniques at the site of the Belus River. Georgius Agricola, in De re metallica, reported a traditional serendipitous "discovery" tale of familiar type: "The tradition is that a merchant ship laden with nitrum being moored at this place, the merchants were preparing their meal on the beach, and not having stones to prop up their pots, they used lumps of nitrum from the ship, which fused and mixed with the sands of the shore, and there flowed streams of a new translucent liquid, and thus was the origin of glass." Agricola, Georgius, De re metallica, translated by Herbert Clark Hoover and Lou Henry Hoover, Dover Publishing. De Re Metallica Trans. by Hoover Online Version Page 586 Retrieved = 12 September 2007 This account is more a reflection of Roman experience of glass production, however, as white silica sand from this area was used in the production of Roman glass due to its low impurity levels. During the first century BC glass blowing was discovered on the Syro-Palestinian coast, revolutionising the industry and laying the way for the explosion of glass production that occurred throughout the Roman world. It was the Romans who began to use glass for architectural purposes, with the discovery of clear glass (through the introduction of manganese oxide), in Alexandria ca. AD 100. Cast glass windows, albeit with poor optical qualities, thus began to appear in the most important buildings in Rome and the most luxurious villas of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Over the next 1,000 years glass making and working continued and spread through southern Europe and beyond. South Asia Indigenous development of glass technology in South Asia may have begun in 1730 BC. Gowlett 1997, page 276–277 Evidence of this culture includes a red-brown glass bead along with a hoard of beads dating to 1730 BC, making it the earliest attested glass from the Indus Valley locations. Glass discovered from later sites dating from 600–300 BC displays common color. Chalcolithic evidence of glass has been found in Hastinapur, India. Ghosh 1990, page 219 Some of the texts which mention glass in India are the Shatapatha Brahmana and Vinaya Pitaka. However, the first unmistakable evidence in large quantities, dating from the 3rd century BC, has been uncovered from the archaeological site in Taxila, Pakistan. By the beginning of the Common Era, glass was being used for ornaments and casing in South Asia. Contact with the Greco-Roman world added newer techniques, and Indians artisans mastered several techniques of glass molding, decorating and coloring by the early centuries of the Common Era. Satavahana period of India further reveals short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass. "Ornaments, Gems etc." (Ch. 10) in Ghosh 1990 Romans A full discussion of Roman glass making and working can be found on the Roman glass page. Anglo-Saxon world Evidence for glass making, working and use in the 5th to 8th centuries in England is discussed in the Anglo-Saxon glass page. Islamic world In the medieval Islamic world, the first clear, colorless, high-purity glasses were produced by Muslim chemists, architects and engineers in the 9th century. Examples include Silica glass and colorless high-purity glass invented by Abbas Ibn Firnas (810–887), who was the first to produce glass from sand and stones. Lynn Townsend White, Jr. (Spring, 1961). "Eilmer of Malmesbury, an Eleventh Century Aviator: A Case Study of Technological Innovation, Its Context and Tradition", Technology and Culture 2 (2), pp. 97–111 [100]. The Arab poet al-Buhturi (820–897) described the clarity of such glass, "Its color hides the glass as if it is standing in it without a container." Ahmad Y Hassan, Assessment of Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna, History of Science and Technology in Islam. Stained glass was also first produced by Muslim architects in Southwest Asia using colored glass rather than stone. In the 8th century, the Arab chemist Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber) scientifically described 46 original recipes for producing colored glass in Kitab al-Durra al-Maknuna (The Book of the Hidden Pearl), in addition to 12 recipes inserted by al-Marrakishi in a later edition of the book. Ahmad Y Hassan, The Manufacture of Coloured Glass, History of Science and Technology in Islam. The parabolic mirror was first described by Ibn Sahl in his On the Burning Instruments in the 10th century, and later described again in Ibn al-Haytham's On Burning Mirrors and Book of Optics (1021). Roshdi Rashed (1990), "A Pioneer in Anaclastics: Ibn Sahl on Burning Mirrors and Lenses", Isis 81 (3), p. 464–491 [464–468]. By the 11th century, clear glass mirrors were being produced in Islamic Spain. The first glass factories were also built by Muslim craftsmen in the Islamic world. The first glass factories in Christian Europe were later built in the 11th century by Muslim Egyptian craftsmen in Corinth, Greece. Ahmad Y Hassan, Transfer Of Islamic Technology To The West, Part III: Technology Transfer in the Chemical Industries, History of Science and Technology in Islam. Medieval Europe A 16th-century stained glass window Glass objects from the 7th and 8th centuries have been found on the island of Torcello near Venice. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. Around 1000 AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass, produced from white pebbles and burnt vegetation was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use. Until the 12th century, stained glass – glass to which metallic or other impurities had been added for coloring – was not widely used. The 11th century saw the emergence in Germany of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres. The spheres were swung out to form cylinders and then cut while still hot, after which the sheets were flattened. This technique was perfected in 13th century Venice. The Crown glass process was used up to the mid-19th century. In this process, the glassblower would spin approximately 9 pounds (4 kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk would then be cut into panes. Late medieval Northern Europe Glass making in late medieval Northern Europe is discussed in the article on Forest glass. Murano glassmaking The center for glassmaking from the 14th century was the island of Murano, which developed many new techniques and became the center of a lucrative export trade in dinnerware, mirrors, and other luxury items. What made Venetian Murano glass significantly different was that the local quartz pebbles were almost pure silica, and were ground into a fine clear sand that was combined with soda ash obtained from the Levant, for which the Venetians held the sole monopoly. The clearest and finest glass is tinted in two ways: firstly, a small or large amount of a natural coloring agent is ground and melted with the glass. Many of these coloring agents still exist today; for a list of coloring agents, see below. Black glass was called obsidianus after obsidian stone. A second method is apparently to produce a black glass which, when held to the light, will show the true color that this glass will give to another glass when used as a dye. Georg Agricola De Natura Fossilium, Textbook of Mineralogy, M.C. Bandy, J. Bandy, Mineralogical Society of America, 1955, Page 111 Section on Murano Glass, De Natura Fossilium Retrieved 2007-09-12 The Venetian ability to produce this superior form of glass resulted in a trade advantage over other glass producing lands. Murano’s reputation as a center for glassmaking was born when the Venetian Republic, fearing fire might burn down the city’s mostly wood buildings, ordered glassmakers to move their foundries to Murano in 1291. Murano's glassmakers were soon the island’s most prominent citizens. Glassmakers were not allowed to leave the Republic. Many took a risk and set up glass furnaces in surrounding cities and as far afield as England and the Netherlands. Glass art A glass sculpture “The Sun” at the “Gardens of Glass” exhibition in Kew Gardens, London, England. The piece is 13 feet (4 metres) high and made from 1000 separate glass objects. A vase being created at the Reijmyre glassworks, Sweden Paperweight with items inside the glass, Corning Museum of Glass Beginning in the late 20th century, glass started to become highly collectible as art. Works of art in glass can be seen in a variety of museums, including the Chrysler Museum, the Museum of Glass in Tacoma, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Toledo Museum of Art, and Corning Museum of Glass, in Corning, NY, which houses the world's largest collection of glass art and history, with more than 45,000 objects in its collection. Several of the most common techniques for producing glass art include: blowing, kiln-casting, fusing, slumping, pate-de-verre, flame-working, hot-sculpting and cold-working. Cold work includes traditional stained glass work as well as other methods of shaping glass at room temperature. Glass can also be cut with a diamond saw, or copper wheels embedded with abrasives, and polished to give gleaming facets; the technique used in creating Waterford crystal . Art is sometimes etched into glass via the use of acid, caustic, or abrasive substances. Traditionally this was done after the glass was blown or cast. In the 1920s a new mould-etch process was invented, in which art was etched directly into the mould, so that each cast piece emerged from the mould with the image already on the surface of the glass. This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of colored glass, led to cheap glassware in the 1930s, which later became known as Depression glass . As the types of acids used in this process are extremely hazardous, abrasive methods have gained popularity. Objects made out of glass include not only traditional objects such as vessels (bowls, vases, bottles, and other containers), paperweights, marbles, beads, but an endless range of sculpture and installation art as well. Colored glass is often used, though sometimes the glass is painted, innumerable examples exist of the use of stained glass. The Harvard Museum of Natural History has a collection of extremely detailed models of flowers made of painted glass. These were lampworked by Leopold Blaschka and his son Rudolph, who never revealed the method he used to make them. The Blaschka Glass Flowers are still an inspiration to glassblowers today. the Harvard Museum of Natural History's page on the exhibit See also Aluminium oxynitride Ceramic engineering Colloidal crystal Fiberglass Glass makers and brands Glass museums and galleries Glass recycling Glazier Nanomaterials Optical fiber Magnifying glass Transparent materials Volcanic glass Vitrification Devitrification References </div> Bibliography Brugmann, Birte. Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves: A Study on the Provenance and Chronology of Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves, Based on Visual Examination. Oxbow Books, 2004. ISBN 1-84217-104-6 Noel C. Stokes; The Glass and Glazing Handbook; Standards Australia; SAA HB125–1998 External links Glass Encyclopedia – A comprehensive guide to all types of antique and collectable glass, with information, pictures and references Free information and articles about Designer Glassware, Vintage Art Glass, Depression Glass & Collectible Glass | JustGlass-Online.com The Canadian Museum of Civilization – The Story of Glass Making in Canada Corning Museum of Glass A comprehensive guide to art glass and crystal around the world Working Description Furnace & Moleria – Murano Glass Informative website about the glass industry Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass Glass property measurement and calculation Almost 400 articles and images about glass (mostly art glass) Dual personality of glass explained at last – New Scientist, 22 June 2008 | Glass |@lemmatized moldavite:1 natural:4 glass:329 form:19 meteorite:1 impact:1 besednice:1 bohemia:1 modern:3 greenhouse:1 wisley:1 garden:3 england:4 make:23 float:6 clear:5 light:19 bulb:1 generally:4 refer:1 hard:2 brittle:1 transparent:4 material:40 use:37 window:17 many:15 bottle:4 eyewear:1 example:5 include:16 limit:1 soda:19 lime:13 borosilicate:2 acrylic:3 sugar:1 isinglass:1 muscovy:1 aluminium:3 oxynitride:2 technical:4 sense:2 inorganic:3 product:4 fusion:1 cool:2 transition:21 rigid:2 condition:1 without:2 crystallize:2 astm:1 definition:3 also:15 din:1 glas:1 begriffe:1 für:1 glasarten:1 und:1 glasgruppen:1 september:2 contain:2 silica:17 main:3 component:3 former:2 scientific:3 term:3 often:8 extend:1 amorphous:12 solid:16 melt:15 easily:2 plastic:4 resin:1 free:3 addition:4 besides:2 traditional:4 melting:5 technique:19 mean:4 preparation:2 consider:5 ion:2 implantation:1 sol:2 gel:2 method:8 however:11 science:7 physic:5 commonly:2 similar:7 organic:2 cover:2 polymer:6 biology:1 discipline:1 play:1 essential:1 role:1 industry:6 optical:22 physical:7 property:20 suitable:1 application:5 flat:6 container:9 optic:4 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6,121 | Niue | Niue ( in English) is an island nation located in the South Pacific Ocean. It is commonly known as the "Rock of Polynesia". Natives of the island call it "the Rock". Though self governing, Niue is in free association with New Zealand, and thus lacks full sovereignty. Queen Elizabeth II is Niue's head of state. Most diplomatic relations are conducted by New Zealand on Niue's behalf. Niue is 2,400 kilometres northeast of New Zealand in a triangle between Tonga, Samoa, and the Cook Islands. The people are predominantly Polynesian. History Niue was settled by Polynesian sailors from Samoa around CE 900. Encyclopedia Britannica, "Niue" Further settlers (or invaders) arrived from Tonga in the 16th century. ibid Until the beginning of the 18th century, there appears to have been no national government or national leader in Niue. Before then, chiefs and heads of families exercised authority over segments of the population. Around 1700 the concept and practice of kingship appears to have been introduced through contact with Samoa or Tonga. From then on, a succession of patu-iki (kings) ruled the island, the first of whom was Puni-mata. Tui-toga, who reigned from 1875 to 1887, was the first Christian king of Niue. S. Percy Smith, Niuē-fekai (or Savage) Island and its People, 1903, pp.36-44 The first European to sight Niue was Captain James Cook in 1774. Cook made three attempts to land on the island but was refused permission to do so by the Polynesian inhabitants. He named the island "Savage Island" because, legend has it, the natives that "greeted" him were painted in what appeared (to Cook and his crew) to be blood. However, the substance on their teeth was that of betel nut and not blood. For the next couple of centuries the island remained known as Savage Island, until its original name Niu ē, which translates to "behold the coconut", regained use. Its official name is still Niuē fekai (wild Niuē). The next notable European visitors were from the London Missionary Society and arrived in 1846 on the "Messenger of Peace". After many years of trying to land a European missionary on Niue, a Niuean named Nukai Peniamina was taken away and trained as a Pastor at the Malua Theological College in Samoa. Peniamina returned as a missionary with the help of Toimata Fakafitifonua. He was finally allowed to land in Uluvehi Mutalau after a number of attempts in other villages had failed. The Chiefs of Mutalau village allowed Peniamina to land and assigned over 60 warriors to protect him day and night at the fort in Fupiu. Christianity was first taught to the Mutalau people before it was spread to all the villages on Niue; originally, other major villages opposed the introduction of Christianity and had sought to kill Peniamina. The people from the village of Hakupu, although the last village to receive Christianity, came and asked for a "word of god"; hence their village was renamed "Ha Kupu Atua" meaning "any word of god", or "Hakupu" for short. In 1887, King Fata-a-iki, who reigned from 1887 to 1896, offered to cede sovereignty over his country to the British Empire, fearing the consequences of annexation by a less benevolent colonial power. The offer was not accepted until 1900. Coral chasm in Niue Niue was a British protectorate for a time, but the UK's involvement ended in 1901 when New Zealand annexed the island. Independence in the form of self-government was granted by the New Zealand parliament with the 1974 constitution. Robert Rex, CMG OBE (who was ethnically part European, part native) was appointed the country's first Premier, a position he continued to hold through re-election until his death 18 years later. Rex became the first Niuean to receive knighthood in 1984. In January 2004, Niue was hit by Cyclone Heta, which killed two people and caused extensive damage to the entire island, as well as wiping out most of the south of the capital, Alofi. Politics The Niue Constitution Act vests executive authority in Her Majesty the Queen in Right of New Zealand and the Governor-General of New Zealand. The Niue Constitution specifies that in everyday practice, sovereignty is exercised by the Niue Cabinet of Ministers of the Premier of Niue and three other ministers. The premier and ministers are members of the Niue Legislative Assembly, the nation's parliament. The assembly consists of twenty democratically elected members, fourteen of whom are elected by the electors of each village constituency. The remaining six are elected by all registered voters in all constituencies. Electors must be New Zealand citizens, resident for at least three months, and candidates must have been electors, and resident for twelve months. It is a requirement under law that anyone who was born in Niue must register on the electoral roll; however it is up to the elector whether to vote or not to vote on polling day. If two candidates have the same number of votes, the votes are recounted; if the number of votes is still equal following the recount, the name of the winning candidate is drawn out of a hat. The Speaker is elected by the assembly and is the first official to be elected in the first sitting of the Legislative Assembly following an election. The new Speaker calls for nominations for the Premier; the candidate with the most votes from the twenty members is elected. The Premier then selects three other members to form the Cabinet of Ministers, the executive arm of government. The other two organs of government, following the Westminster model, are the Legislative Assembly and the Judiciary. Terms before new elections last three years, with the latest election due on 7 June 2008 as part of the Niuean general election, 2008. Geography Niue coastline Niue is a 269 km² island located in the southern Pacific Ocean, east of Tonga. The geographic coordinates of Niue are . There are three geographically outlying coral reefs within the Exclusive Economic Zone that do not have any land area: Beveridge Reef, at 20°00'S, 167°48'W, 240 km southeast, submerged atoll drying during low tide, 9.5 km North-South, 7.5 km East-West, total area 56 km², no land area, lagoon 11 meters deep Antiope Reef, at 18°15'S, 168°24'W, 180 km southeast, is a circular plateau approximately 400 meters in diameter, with a least depth of 9.5 meters Haran Reef (Harans Reef), at 21°33'S, 168°55'W, reported to break furiously, 294 km southeast Albert Meyer Reef, at 20°53'S, 172°19'W, almost 5 km long and wide, least depth 3 meters, 326 km southwest, not officially claimed by Niue Haymet Rocks, at 26°S, 160°W, 1273 km ESE, existence doubtful Niue is one of the world's largest coral islands. The terrain of Niue consists of steep limestone cliffs along the coast with a central plateau rising to about 60 metres above sea level. A coral reef surrounds the island, with the only major break in the reef being in the central western coast, close to the capital, Alofi. A notable feature of the island is the number of limestone caves found close to the coast. The island is roughly oval in shape (with a diameter of about 18 kilometres), with two large bays indenting the western coast (Alofi Bay in the centre and Avatele Bay in the south). Between these is the promontory of Halagigie Point. A small peninsula, TePā Point (or Blowhole Point), is located close to the settlement of Avatele in the southwest. Most of the island's population resides close to the west coast, around the capital, and in the northwest. The island has a tropical climate, with most rainfall occurring between November and April. Some of the soils on the island are geochemically very unusual. They are extremely highly weathered tropical soils, with high levels of iron and aluminium oxides (oxisol), and mercury, but as established by the research of New Zealand scientists starting with Sir Ernest Marsden, they contain surprisingly high levels of natural radioactivity. There is almost no uranium, but the radionucleides Th-230 and Pa-231 head the decay chains. This is the same distribution of elements as found naturally on very deep seabeds, but the geochemical evidence suggests that in the case of Niue the origin is extreme weathering of coral and brief sea submergence 120,000 years ago. A process called endothermal upwelling, by which mild natural volcanic heat entrains deep seawater up through the porous coral, may also contribute. No adverse health effects from the radioactivity or other trace elements have been demonstrated and calculations show that level of radioactivity would probably be much too low to be detected in the population. These unusual soils are very rich in phosphate, but it is not accessible to plants, being in the very insoluble form of iron phosphate, or crandallite. It is thought that rather similar radioactive soils may exist on Lifou and Mare (island) near New Caledonia, and Rennell in the Solomon Islands, but no other locations are known. The time difference between Niue and mainland New Zealand is 23 hours during the Southern Hemisphere winter and 24 hours when the mainland uses the Daylight Saving Time. So the watch at Niue and Auckland show the same time, although Niue is one day behind. Defence and foreign affairs Niue has been self-governing, in free association with New Zealand since 3 September 1974 when the Niue people endorsed the Constitution in a plebiscite. Masahiro Igarashi, Associated Statehood in International Law, p 167 Niue is fully responsible for its internal affairs. Niue's position concerning its external relations is less clear cut. Section 6 of the Niue Constitution Act provides that: "Nothing in this Act or in the Constitution shall affect the responsibilities of Her Majesty the Queen in right of New Zealand for the external affairs and defence of Niue." Section 8 elaborates but still leaves the position unclear, providing "Effect shall be given to the provisions of sections 6 and 7 [concerning external affairs and defence and economic and administrative assistance respectively] of this Act, and to any other aspect of the relationship between New Zealand and Niue which may from time to time call for positive co-operation between New Zealand and Niue after consultation between the Prime Minister of New Zealand and the Premier of Niue, and in accordance with the policies of their respective Governments; and, if it appears desirable that any provision be made in the law of Niue to carry out these policies, that provision may be made in the manner prescribed in the Constitution, but not otherwise." Section 8, Niue Constitution Act. The island has a representative mission in Wellington, New Zealand. Niue is also a member of the South Pacific Forum and a number of regional and international agencies. It is not a member of the United Nations, but is a state party to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Ottawa Treaty. Niue purported to establish diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China on December 12, 2007. However, in light of its Constitution (discussed above), it is uncertain whether Niue had the capacity to enter diplomatic relations with any country. Traditionally, Niue's foreign relations and defence have been regarded as the responsibility of New Zealand, which already has full diplomatic relations with China. Furthermore the Joint Communique signed by Niue and China is different in its treatment of the Taiwan question to that which New Zealand and China agreed. New Zealand "acknowledged" China's position on Taiwan but has never expressly agreed with it. Yet Niue now "recognizes that there is only one China in the world, the Government of the People's Republic of China is the sole legal government representing the whole of China and Taiwan is an inalienable part of the territory of China." Critics have asked whether Niueans can continue to benefit from free association with New Zealand and yet disregard New Zealand's advice and establish an independent foreign policy. The Hive, Pacific Watch : Has Niue's Constitutional Status Changed?, December 16, 2007 Economy Alofi, the capital of Niue Niue's economy is rather small, with a GDP of NZ$17 million in 2003, Country Information Paper - Niue, New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Updated 8 April 2009. Accessed 17 April 2009. or US$10 million at purchasing power parity. Most economic activity revolves around the Government, as the Government was traditionally in charge of organising and managing the affairs of the new country since 1974. However, since the economy of Niue has reached a stage where state regulation may now give way to the private sector in Niue's development, there is an ongoing effort to develop the private sector. Following Cyclone Heta, the Government made a major commitment towards rehabilitating and developing the private sector in Niue. The Government allocated $1 million for the private sector, which was spent on helping businesses devastated by the cyclone, and on the construction of the Fonuakula Industrial Park. This industrial park is now completed and some businesses are already operating from it. The Fonuakula Industrial Park is managed by the Niue Business Centre, a quasi-governmental organisation providing advisory services to the businesses on Niue. Most Niuean families grow their own food crops for subsistence and some are sold at the Niue Makete in Alofi while some are exported to their families in New Zealand. The Niuean taro is known in Samoa as Niue taro and in international markets as pink taro. Niue also exports taro to the New Zealand market. The Niue taro is a natural variety and is very resistant to pests. The Niue Government and the Reef Group from New Zealand started two joint ventures in 2003 and 2004 involving the development of the fisheries and noni (Morinda citrifolia, a small tree with edible fruit) in Niue. The Niue Fish Processors, Ltd. is a joint venture company processing fresh fish, mainly tuna (yellow fin, big eye and albacore), for export to the overseas markets. NFP operates out of their state-of-the-art fish plant in Amanau Alofi South which was completed and opened in October 2004. In August 2005, an Australian mining company, Yamarna Goldfields, suggested that Niue might have the world's largest deposit of uranium. By early September, these hopes were seen as overoptimistic, Yamarna loses passion for Niue's uranium, The Age, 2005-09-06. Accessed 2007-12-24. and in late October the company cancelled its plans to mine, announcing that exploration drilling had identified nothing of commercial value. NIUE: No Mineable Uranium, Says Exploration Company, Pacific Magazine, 2005-11-03. Accessed 2007-12-24. The Australian Securities and Investments Commission filed charges in January 2007 against two directors of the company, now called Mining Projects Group Ltd, alleging that their conduct was deceptive and they engaged in insider trading. This case was settled out of court in July 2008, both sides withdrawing their claims . There is an Australian company that had been issued a mineral prospecting license in the early 1970s which is still very active in doing research and collecting data on potential mineral deposits on Niue. Remittances from Niuean expatriates used to be one of the major sources of foreign exchange in the 1970s and early 1980s. The continuous migration of Niueans to New Zealand, however, has shifted most members of nuclear and extended families to New Zealand, removing the need to send remittances back home. In the late 1990s PFTAC conducted studies on the Niue balance of payments, http://www.pftac.org which confirms that Niueans are receiving little remittances but are sending more monies overseas, mainly for paying for imported goods and for the education of Niuean students sent to study in New Zealand. Foreign aid, principally from New Zealand, has been the island's principal source of income. Government expenses consistently exceed revenue to a substantial degree, with aid from New Zealand subsidizing public service payrolls. The government also generates some revenue, mainly from income tax, import tax and the lease of phone lines. The government briefly flirted with the creation of "offshore banking", but, under pressure from the US Treasury, agreed to end its support for schemes designed to minimize tax in countries like New Zealand. Niue now provides an automated Companies Registration (www.companies.gov.nu), which is administered by the New Zealand Ministry of Economic Development. The Niue Legislative Assembly have passed the Niue Consumption Tax Act during the first week of February 2009, the 12.5 percent tax on good and services is expected to come into effect on 1 April 2009. Income tax has also been lowered, and import tax may be reset to zero except for "sin" items like tobacco, alcohol and soft drinks. Tax on secondary income is also been lowered from 35 percent to 10 percent with the stated goal of fostering increased labour productivity. Niue has licensed the .nu top-level domain on the Internet to a private company .NU Domain. The Government of Niue later disputed the amount and type of compensation that Niue should receive from the licensor, http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06088/677770-96.stm but in 2007 the government dismissed its own claims. http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=read&id=36393 The Government of Niue is planning to set up and operate its own Internet service provider (ISP) to ensure that Government communications are independent and secured. The sole ISP in Niue is operated by the Internet Users Society of Niue (IUSN), a subsidiary of .NU Domain, which provides free Internet access to all residents. Despite claims by IUSN of Niue becoming the first WiFiNation, not all the villages in Niue have access to the Internet. In 2003 the Government made a commitment to develop and expand the vanilla production in Niue with the support of the NZAID. Vanilla has grown wild in Niue for a long time. Despite the setback caused by the devastation of Cyclone Heta in early 2004, there was ongoing work on vanilla production. The expansion plan started with the employment of unemployed or underemployed labour force to help clear land, plant supporting trees and plant vanilla vines. The approach to accessing land include having each household interested to have a small plot of around half to to be cleared and planted with vanilla vines. There are a lot of planting material for supporting trees to meet demand for the expansion of vanilla plantations, however there is a severe shortage of vanilla vines for planting stock. There is of course the existing vanilla vines, but cutting them for planting stock will reduce or stop vanilla from producing beans. At the moment the focus is in the areas of harvesting and marketing. Niue's economy suffered from the devastating tropical Cyclone Heta on 4 January 2004. The Niue Integrated Strategic Plan(NISP) is the national development plan of Niue, setting national priorities for development. Cyclone Heta took away about two years from the implementation of the NISP, while national efforts concentrate on the recovery efforts. As of 2008 Niue has yet to fully recover from the devastation of Cyclone Heta. Niue uses the New Zealand dollar. Tourism Tourism has been identified as one of the three priority economic sectors (the other two are Fisheries and Agriculture) for economic development in Niue. In 2006, estimated visitor expenditure reached $1.6 million making Tourism a major export industry for Niue. Niue will continue to receive direct support from the Government and overseas donor agencies. Air New Zealand is the sole airline serving Niue, flying to Niue once a week. It took over after Polynesian Airlines stopped flying in November 2005. There is currently a tourism development strategy to increase the number of rooms available to overseas tourists at a sustainable level. Niue is also trying to attract foreign investors to invest in the tourism industry of Niue by offering import and company tax concessions as incentives. Media Niue has few media, due to its small size and population. It has two broadcast media outlets, Television Niue and Radio Sunshine, managed and operated by the Broadcasting Corporation of Niue, and one printed newspaper, the Niue Star. "Le Programme international pour le développement de la communication de l'UNESCO soutient le journal de Niue", UNESCO, July 16, 2002 The internet also provides opportunity for other news services like http://talanet.okakoa.com and http://www.niuebusinessnews.com. Information technology The first computers on Niue were Apple machines brought in by the University of the South Pacific Extension Centre around the early 80s. The Treasury Department first computerised their general ledger in 1986 using NEC personal computers which are IBM PC XT compatible. The Niue Census of Households and Population in 1986 was the first to be processed using a personal computer with the assistance of the Mr David Marshall FAO Adviser on Agricultural Statistics, advising UNFPA Demographer Dr Lawrence Lewis and Niue Government Statistician Bill Vakaafi Motufoou to switch from using manual tabulation cards. In 1987 Statistics Niue got its new personal computer NEC PC AT use for processing the 1986 census data; Niue's personnel were sent on training in Japan and New Zealand to use the new computer. Niue's first Computer Policy was developed and adopted in 1988. In 2003, Niue became the first territory to offer free wireless internet to all its inhabitants. Creating a Wireless Nation, IUSN White Paper, July 2003 In August 2008 it has been reported that 100 percent of primary and high school students have what is known as a One Laptop Per Child, or OLPC, a green laptop designed specifically for children in the developing world. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7576573.stm Culture Niuean dancers at the Pasifika Festival Arguably Niue's most prominent artist and writer is John Pule. Author of The Shark That Ate the Sun, he also paints, both on canvas and on traditional tapa cloth. "The Bifocal World of John Pule: This Niuean Writer and Painter Is Still Searching For A Place To Call Home", Scott Whitney, Pacific Magazine, July 1, 2002 In 2005, he co-wrote Hiapo: Past and Present in Niuean Barkcloth, a study of a traditional Niuean artform, with Australian writer and anthropologist Nicholas Thomas. University of Otago Taoga Niue is a newly established Government Department responsible for the preservation of the culture, tradition and heritage of Niue. As part of recognising its importance, the Government has added Taoga Niue as the sixth pillar of the Niue Integrated Strategic Plan (NISP). Agriculture Agriculture is very important to the lifestyle of Niueans and the economy of Niue. Subsistence agriculture is very much part of Niue's agriculture, where nearly all the households have plantations of taro. Taro is a staple food of Niue, and the pink taro now dominant in the taro markets in New Zealand and Australia, is an intellectual property of Niue. This is one of the natural taro varieties on Niue, and has a strong resistance to pests. Tapioca or cassava, yams and kumaras also grow very well on Niue, as do different varieties of bananas. Copra, passionfruit and limes dominated exports in the 1970s, but as of 2008 vanilla, noni and taros are Niue's main export crops. Coconut crab is also part of the food chain in Niue; it lives in the forest and coastal areas. The last Agricultural Census conducted in Niue was in 1989 http://www.fao.org/ES/ess/census/wcares/Niue_1989.pdf. Sport Despite Niue being a small country, a number of different sports are popular there. Rugby union is a popular sport in Niue played both by men and women; as of 2008, Niue are the current FORU Oceania Cup champions "Niue take Oceania Cup rugby union final", ABC Radio Australia, September 1, 2008 . Netball is played only by women. The 9 hole golf course at Fonuakula provides an opportunity for some locals to play golf. There is also a lawn bowling green under construction, and it is hoped that it will be completed soon, giving everyone a chance to participate in the sport. Football is also popular as evidenced by the Niue Soccer Tournament. The traditional sports of Niue includes tika, throwing slightly similar to javelin, and bowling coconuts for women. See also Music of Niue Communications in Niue Transportation in Niue Niuean language Niuean diplomatic missions Geography of Niue Further reading HEKAU, Maihetoe & al., Niue: A History of the Island, Suva: Institute of Pacific Studies (USP) & the government of Niue, 1982 [no ISBN] TREGEAR, Edward, "Niue: or Savage Island", The Journal of the Polynesian Society, vol.2, March 1893, pp.11–16 References External links Government Niuean Government official site General information Niue from UCB Libraries GovPubs Travel Niue Tourism Office Other Niue Film Commission Niue Island.nu portal for the people of Niue Niue Island food and caves be-x-old:Ніуе | Niue |@lemmatized niue:139 english:1 island:26 nation:6 locate:3 south:7 pacific:8 ocean:2 commonly:1 know:5 rock:3 polynesia:1 native:3 call:6 though:1 self:3 governing:2 free:5 association:3 new:42 zealand:36 thus:1 lack:1 full:2 sovereignty:3 queen:3 elizabeth:1 ii:1 head:3 state:4 diplomatic:5 relation:6 conduct:4 behalf:1 kilometre:2 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6,122 | Narcissus_(mythology) | Narcissus by CaravaggioA Boeotian hero whose archaic myth was a cautionary tale warning boys against being cruel to their lovers. Narcissus or Narkissos () in Greek mythology was a hero from the territory of Thespiae in Boeotia who was renowned for his beauty. In the various stories he is exceptionally cruel, in that he disdains those who love him. As divine punishment he falls in love with a reflection in a pool, not realizing it was his own, and perishes there, not being able to leave the beauty of his own reflection. Several versions of his myth have survived: one found among the Oxyrhynchus papyri and ascribed to Parthenius; Conon, Narrations, 24, dated to sometime between 36 BCE and 17 CE; Ovid's, from his Metamorphoses; Ovid, Metamorphoses, Bk III:402-436 Pausanias', from his Guide to Greece, (9.31.7). Hellenic version This is a moral tale in which the proud and unfeeling Narcissus is punished by the gods for having spurned all his male suitors. It is thought to have been intended as a cautionary tale addressed to young men. David Keyes, The ugly end of Narcissus "It's thought that, in the liberal sexual atmosphere of ancient Greece, his story developed as a cautionary tale as to what could happen to beautiful old men who rejected their younglings' advances." Until recently, the two sources for this version were an epitome of the works of Conon, a Greek contemporary of Ovid, preserved in the Bibliotheca of Photius Cod. 186. and the segment in Pausanias, about 150 years after Ovid. A very similar account was discovered among the Oxyrhynchus papyri in 2004, an account that predates Ovid's version by at least fifty years and is thought to have been recorded by Parthenius. In this story, Ameinias, a young man, loved Narcissus but was spurned. As a way of rebuffing Ameinias, Narcissus gave him a sword, which Ameinias used to kill himself on Narcissus' doorstep; he prayed to Nemesis that Narcissus would one day know the pain of unrequited love. This curse was fulfilled when Narcissus became entranced by his own reflection in a pool. Completing the symmetry of the tale, overcome by repentance, Narcissus took his sword and killed himself. Roman version In the tale told by Ovid, thought to have been based on Parthenius' version but altered in order to broaden its appeal, "This early version - a Greek poem - probably dates from the mid-first century BC and differs from the oft-quoted account by the Roman poet Ovid written about half a century later. 'Following this discovery it is becoming increasingly clear that the myth was altered by Ovid to broaden its appeal,' said the Oxford scholar who discovered the poem, Dr Benjamin Henry of the university's classics faculty." POxy: Oxyrhynchus Online, published in the BBC History Magazine, Vol. 5 No. 5 (May 2004), p. 9 Echo, a nymph, falls in love with a vain youth named Narcissus, who was the son of the blue Nymph Liriope of Thespia. The river god Cephisus had once encircled Leirope with the windings of his streams, and thus trapping her, had seduced the nymph, who gave birth to an exceptionally beautiful boy. Concerned about the welfare of such a beautiful child, Lirope consulted the prophet Teiresias regarding her son's future. Teiresias told the nymph that Narcissus would live to a ripe old age, "if he didn't come to know himself." When he had reached "his sixteenth year," (fifteen years of age, by modern reckoning) every youth and girl in the town was in love with him, but he haughtily spurned them all. One day when Narcissus was out hunting stags, Echo stealthily followed the handsome youth through the woods, longing to address him but unable to speak first. When Narcissus finally heard footsteps and shouted "Who's there?", Echo answered "Who's there?" And so it went, until finally Echo showed herself and rushed to embrace the lovely youth. He pulled away from the nymph and vainly told her to leave him alone. Narcissus left Echo heartbroken and she spent the rest of her life in lonely glens, pining away for the love she never knew, until only her voice remained. Nemesis heard this prayer and sent Narcissus his punishment. He came across a deep pool in a forest, from which he took a drink. As he did, he saw his reflection for the first time in his life and fell in love with the beautiful boy he was looking at, not realizing it was himself. Eventually, after pining away for a while, he realized that the image he saw in the pool was a reflection of himself. Realizing that he could not act upon this love, he tore at his dress and beat at his body, his life force draining out of him. As he died, the bodyless Echo came upon him and felt sorrow and pity. His soul was sent to "the darkest hell" and the narcissus flower grew where he died. It is said that Narcissus still keeps gazing on his image in the waters of the river Styx. Pausanias' version Pausanias locates the spring of Narcissus at Donacon 'Reed-bed' in the territory of the Thespians. Pausanias finds it incredible that someone could not distinguish a reflection from a real person, and cites a less known variant in which Narcissus had a twin sister. Both dressed similarly and hunted together. Narcissus fell in love with her. When she died, Narcissus pined after her and pretended that the reflection he saw in the water was his sister. Some Greek tales suggest that he was sexually attracted towards his sister, and when she was alive made love to her. As Pausanias also notes, yet another tale is that the Narcissus flower was created to entice Demeter's daughter Persephone away from her companions to enable Hades to abduct her. Influence Тhe myth of Narcissus has been a rich vein for artists to mine for at least two thousand years, even before the Roman poet Ovid featured a version in book III of his Metamorphoses). This was followed in more recent centuries by other poets (e.g. Keats and Alfred Edward Housman) and painters (Caravaggio, Poussin, Turner, Dalí , and Waterhouse). Russian writer Fyodor Dostoevsky used lonely Narcissus-type characters in his poems and novels, such as Yakov Petrovich Golyadkin in "The Double" (1846). In Stendhal's novel Le Rouge et le Noir(1830), there is a classic narcissist in the character of Mathilde. Says Prince Korasoff to Julien Sorel, the protagonist, with respect to his beloved: She looks at herself instead of looking at you, and so doesn't know you. During the two or three little outbursts of passion she has allowed herself in your favor, she has, by a great effort of imagination, seen in you the hero of her dreams, and not yourself as you really are. (Page 401, 1953 Penguin Edition, trans. Margaret R.B. Shaw). The myth had a decided influence on English Victorian homoerotic culture, via Andre Gide's study of the myth, Traite du Narcisse ('The Treatise of the Narcissus', 1891), and the work of Oscar Wilde. In 20th century pop culture, Bob Dylan's song "License to Kill" refers indirectly to Narcissus: "Now he worships at an altar of a stagnant pool /And when he sees his reflection, he's fulfilled." "Supper's Ready" by Genesis (ca. 1972), a near-23-minute epic song laden with religious and mythological imagery, refers to the myth of Narcissus as follows: "A young figure sits still by a pool / He's been stamped "Human Bacon" by some butchery tool / (He is you) / Social Security took care of this lad. / We watch in reverence, as Narcissus is turned to a flower. / A flower?" The movement is titled "How Dare I Be So Beautiful?". Paulo Coelho's The Alchemist also starts with a reference to Narcissus. "Narcissist (3:09)" By Hedley(2007) A song on the myth about Narcissus based in modern times. Seamus Heaney references Narcissus in his poem "Personal Helicon" Cf. Ibiblio, Internet Poetry Archive: Text of the Poem Personal Helicon from his first collection "Death of a Naturalist":"To stare, big-eyed Narcissus, into some spring Is beneath all adult dignity." Although never published, the lyric to the Cocteau Twins 'b-side' "Mud and Dark" is a telling of Echo and Narcissus' story. The lyrics to the song Reflection by Tool (band) are partly about the Narcissus myth, about a narcissistic person looking into a reflection and pining away. See also Malignant Narcissism Echo (mythology) Pygmalion Spoken word versions The Narcissus myth as told by story tellers:1. Narcissus, read by Timothy Carter, music by Steve Gorn, compiled by Andrew Calimach. (.ogg file)Bibliography of reconstruction: Ovid, Metamorphoses III.340 - 350, 415 - 510 (AD 8); Pausanias, Description of Greece 9.31.7 (AD 143–176) Modern sources On-line version References External links Pantheon ORG Papyrology UK | Narcissus_(mythology) |@lemmatized narcissus:37 caravaggioa:1 boeotian:1 hero:3 whose:1 archaic:1 myth:10 cautionary:3 tale:8 warn:1 boy:3 cruel:2 lover:1 narkissos:1 greek:4 mythology:2 territory:2 thespiae:1 boeotia:1 renowned:1 beauty:2 various:1 story:5 exceptionally:2 disdain:1 love:11 divine:1 punishment:2 fall:2 reflection:10 pool:6 realize:4 perishes:1 able:1 leave:3 several:1 version:10 survive:1 one:3 found:1 among:2 oxyrhynchus:3 papyrus:2 ascribe:1 parthenius:3 conon:2 narration:1 date:2 sometime:1 bce:1 ce:1 ovid:10 metamorphosis:3 bk:1 iii:3 pausanias:7 guide:1 greece:3 hellenic:1 moral:1 proud:1 unfeeling:1 punish:1 god:2 spurn:3 male:1 suitor:1 think:3 intend:1 address:2 young:3 men:2 david:1 keyes:1 ugly:1 end:1 thought:1 liberal:1 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6,123 | Economy_of_Chad | The Doba oil field, located in in southern Chad, offers substantial promise of foreign income.Landlocked Chad's economic development suffers from its geographic remoteness, drought, lack of infrastructure, and political turmoil. About 85% of the population depends on agriculture, including the herding of livestock. Of Africa's Francophone countries, Chad benefited least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies in January 1994. Financial aid from the World Bank, the African Development Bank, and other sources is directed largely at the improvement of agriculture, especially livestock production. Because of lack of financing, the development of oil fields near Doba, originally due to finish in 2000, was delayed until 2003. It was finally developed and is now operated by Exxon Mobil Corporation. Doba Oil Field Economic statistics for Chad must be treated with caution. Significant trade with neighbouring countries, e.g. exports of camels and other livestock to neighbouring states, such as Libya, and imports of manufactured goods, are conducted "informally" and probably not fully recorded. Macro-economic trend This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Chad at market prices estimated by the International Monetary Fund with figures in millions of CFA Francs. Year Gross Domestic Product US Dollar Exchange Inflation Index (2000=100) 1970 90,500 N/A N/A 1975 149,400 N/A N/A 1980 146,801 225.15 CFA Francs 44 1985 390,350 449.19 CFA Francs 69 1990 439,300 272.18 CFA Francs 64 1995 721,729 499.12 CFA Francs 85 2000 986,013 709.87 CFA Francs 100 2005 2,859,966 526.60 CFA Francs 118 Current GDP per capita of Chad grew 23% in the Sixties reaching a peak growth of 80% in the Seventies. But this proved unsustainable and growth consequently scaled back to 30% in the Eighties. Finally, it shrank by 40% in the Nineties. Average wages in 2007 hover around $3-4 per day. Structure and sectors In 2000, Chad's nominal GDP was estimated at just over $1.43 billion with per capita income at approximately $188. Cotton, cattle and gum arabic are Chad’s major exports. More than 80% of the work force is involved in agriculture (subsistence farming, herding, and fishing). Like many other developing countries, Chad has a small formal sector and a large, thriving informal sector. Government statistics indicate the following distribution: Agriculture--38% (farming--23%, livestock--12%, fishing--3%); industry--13%; and services--45%. Chad is highly dependent on foreign assistance. Its principal donors include the European Union, France, and the multilateral lending agencies. Exports Chadian exports in 2006Primary markets for Chadian exports include neighboring Cameroon and Nigeria and France, Germany, and Portugal. Until crude oil production began in 2003, cotton played the dominant role, accounting for 40% of total exports in 1999 and remains important. Rehabilitation of Cotontchad, the major cotton company that suffered from a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by France, the Netherlands, the European Economic Community (EC), and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD). As of January 2002, the parastatal was undergoing privatization. The other major export is livestock, herded to neighboring countries. Herdsmen in the Sudanic and Sahelian zones raise cattle, sheep, goats, and, among the non-Muslims, a few pigs. In the Saharan region, only camels and a few hardy goats can survive. Chad also sells smoked and dried fish to its neighbors and exports several million dollars worth of gum arabic to Europe and the U.S. each year. Other food crops include pearl millet, sorghum, peanuts, rice, sweet potatoes, manioc, cassava, and yams. Instability and uncertainty Local market in AbecheChad’s economic performance continues to depend on fluctuations in rainfall and in prices of its principal export commodities, especially cotton. Between 1996 and 1998, the Chadian economy averaged 4.7% growth from. However, unfavorable weather conditions contributed to disappointing harvests in 1999-2000, and GDP grew only by 1% and 0.6% respectively. Inflation was estimated 3.7% in 2000 after prices fell by 8% in 1999. The effects on foreign investment of years of civil war are still felt today, as investors who left Chad between 1979-82 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. By early 1983, the return of internal security and a successful Geneva donors' conference had prompted a number of international business representatives to make exploratory visits to Chad. By far the most important venture to date is the oil extraction project in southern Chad. As of 2004 the economy of Chad has been subjected to further pressure due to fleeing refugees from the conflict in the neighbouring Darfur region of Sudan. Structural reform Leather shop in Abeche.Since 1995, the Government of Chad has made incremental progress in implementing structural reforms and improving government finances under two successive structural adjustment programs. Most state enterprises have been partially or completely privatized, nonpriority public spending has been lessened and the government has gradually liberalized some key sectors of the economy. Liberalization of the telecommunications, cotton and energy sectors is expected to proceed over the next several years. In May 2001, the IMF announced that Chad would qualify for the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) debt relief initiative. Oil production Beginning in late 2000, the Doba Basin oil project has stimulated major investments into Chad and it is expected to double government tax revenues by 2004. It is hoped that this project will serve as a catalyst for the entire economy by helping to reduce energy costs and attract additional trade and investment in other sectors. The question remains whether Chad will continue to consolidate its economic reforms and invest its oil revenues wisely in order to encourage a wider range of economic initiatives. Recent political controversy surrounding the contested 2001 presidential election and a continuing rebellion in northern Chad have continued to dampen Chad's economic prospects by exposing the weaknesses in Chad's political institutions. The International Monetary Fund has projected high growth rates during the next 3 years, as the Doba basin oil project in southern Chad accelerates. The Exxon Mobil-led project will pump oil from reserves in Chad through an underground pipeline to coastal Cameroon, where it will be loaded onto tankers. Following a crucial World Bank financing decision in June 2000, the Doba project officially began its construction phase in October 2000. Between 2000 and 2003, an American-led consortium invested $3.7 billion into the project, approximately $2 billion of which was invested in Chad. By the year 2003-04 the consortium planned to produce between 150,000 to 250,000 barrels of oil a day from three fields in southern Chad. The project is expected to provide between $80 and $100 million in annual government revenues during the 25-year production phase. However, despite this economic growth, many environmentalists and African NGOs fear that the project will lead to grave environmental damage and the dominance of the Chadian economy by foreign powers. Diversification In 2007, cotton and hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 95% of the Chadian economy. Diversification of the economy into manufacturing industries remain a long-term issue. References See also Chad Economy of Africa References External links World Bank -- Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Project | Economy_of_Chad |@lemmatized doba:6 oil:11 field:4 locate:1 southern:4 chad:28 offer:1 substantial:1 promise:1 foreign:4 income:2 landlocked:1 economic:9 development:4 suffers:1 geographic:1 remoteness:1 drought:1 lack:2 infrastructure:1 political:3 turmoil:1 population:1 depend:2 agriculture:4 include:4 herding:2 livestock:5 africa:2 francophone:1 country:6 benefit:1 least:1 devaluation:1 currency:1 january:2 financial:1 aid:1 world:4 bank:5 african:2 source:1 direct:1 largely:1 improvement:1 especially:2 production:4 financing:1 near:1 originally:1 due:2 finish:1 delay:1 finally:2 develop:2 operate:1 exxon:2 mobil:2 corporation:1 statistic:2 must:1 treat:1 caution:1 significant:1 trade:2 neighbouring:2 e:1 g:1 export:9 camel:2 neighbour:1 state:2 libya:1 import:1 manufactured:1 good:1 conduct:1 informally:1 probably:1 fully:1 record:1 macro:1 trend:2 chart:1 gross:2 domestic:2 product:2 market:3 price:4 estimate:3 international:4 monetary:2 fund:2 figure:1 million:3 cfa:7 franc:7 year:7 u:2 dollar:2 exchange:1 inflation:2 index:1 n:4 current:1 gdp:3 per:3 caput:1 grow:2 sixty:1 reach:1 peak:1 growth:5 seventy:1 prove:1 unsustainable:1 consequently:1 scale:1 back:1 eighty:1 shrink:1 ninety:1 average:2 wage:1 hover:1 around:1 day:2 structure:1 sector:6 nominal:1 billion:3 capita:1 approximately:2 cotton:7 cattle:2 gum:2 arabic:2 major:4 work:1 force:1 involve:1 subsistence:1 farming:1 fish:2 like:1 many:2 small:1 formal:1 large:1 thrive:1 informal:1 government:6 indicate:1 following:1 distribution:1 farm:1 fishing:1 industry:3 service:1 highly:1 dependent:1 assistance:1 principal:2 donor:2 european:2 union:1 france:3 multilateral:1 lending:1 agency:1 chadian:5 neighbor:3 cameroon:3 nigeria:1 germany:1 portugal:1 crude:1 begin:3 play:1 dominant:1 role:1 account:2 total:1 remain:3 important:2 rehabilitation:1 cotontchad:1 company:1 suffer:1 decline:1 finance:3 netherlands:1 community:1 ec:1 reconstruction:1 ibrd:1 parastatal:1 undergoing:1 privatization:1 herd:1 herdsman:1 sudanic:1 sahelian:1 zone:1 raise:1 sheep:1 goat:2 among:1 non:1 muslim:1 pig:1 saharan:1 region:2 hardy:1 survive:1 also:2 sell:1 smoked:1 dried:1 several:2 worth:1 europe:1 food:1 crop:1 pearl:1 millet:1 sorghum:1 peanut:1 rice:1 sweet:1 potato:1 manioc:1 cassava:1 yam:1 instability:1 uncertainty:1 local:1 abechechad:1 performance:1 continue:4 fluctuation:1 rainfall:1 commodity:1 economy:8 however:2 unfavorable:1 weather:1 condition:1 contribute:1 disappointing:1 harvest:1 respectively:1 fell:1 effect:1 investment:3 civil:1 war:1 still:1 felt:1 today:1 investor:1 leave:1 recently:1 regain:1 confidence:1 future:1 early:1 return:1 internal:1 security:1 successful:1 geneva:1 conference:1 prompt:1 number:1 business:1 representative:1 make:2 exploratory:1 visit:1 far:1 venture:1 date:1 extraction:1 project:11 subject:1 pressure:1 flee:1 refugee:1 conflict:1 darfur:1 sudan:1 structural:3 reform:3 leather:1 shop:1 abeche:1 since:1 incremental:1 progress:1 implement:1 improve:1 two:1 successive:1 adjustment:1 program:1 enterprise:1 partially:1 completely:1 privatize:1 nonpriority:1 public:1 spending:1 lessen:1 gradually:1 liberalize:1 key:1 liberalization:1 telecommunication:1 energy:2 expect:3 proceed:1 next:2 may:1 imf:1 announce:1 would:1 qualify:1 heavily:1 indebted:1 poor:1 hipc:1 debt:1 relief:1 initiative:2 beginning:1 late:1 basin:2 stimulate:1 double:1 tax:1 revenue:3 hop:1 serve:1 catalyst:1 entire:1 help:1 reduce:1 cost:1 attract:1 additional:1 question:1 whether:1 consolidate:1 invest:3 wisely:1 order:1 encourage:1 wider:1 range:1 recent:1 controversy:1 surround:1 contested:1 presidential:1 election:1 rebellion:1 northern:1 dampen:1 prospect:1 expose:1 weakness:1 institution:1 high:1 rate:1 accelerates:1 lead:3 pump:1 reserve:1 underground:1 pipeline:2 coastal:1 load:1 onto:1 tanker:1 follow:1 crucial:1 decision:1 june:1 officially:1 construction:1 phase:2 october:1 american:1 consortium:2 plan:1 produce:1 barrel:1 three:1 provide:1 annual:1 despite:1 environmentalist:1 ngo:1 fear:1 grave:1 environmental:1 damage:1 dominance:1 power:1 diversification:2 hydrocarbon:1 well:1 manufacture:1 long:1 term:1 issue:1 reference:2 see:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram exxon_mobil:2 gross_domestic:2 monetary_fund:2 cfa_franc:7 franc_cfa:5 per_caput:1 prove_unsustainable:1 unsustainable_growth:1 wage_hover:1 nominal_gdp:1 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 gum_arabic:2 subsistence_farming:1 farming_herding:1 crude_oil:1 sahelian_zone:1 cattle_sheep:1 sheep_goat:1 pearl_millet:1 millet_sorghum:1 sweet_potato:1 export_commodity:1 structural_adjustment:1 heavily_indebted:1 indebted_poor:1 presidential_election:1 external_link:1 chad_cameroon:1 |
6,124 | French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands | The French Southern and Antarctic Lands (, abbreviated TAAF), full name Territory of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands (French: Territoire des Terres australes et antarctiques françaises), consist of: a group of volcanic islands in the southern Indian Ocean, southeast of Africa, approximately equidistant between Africa, Antarctica and Australia; Adélie Land, the French claim on the Antarctica continent under the Antarctic Treaty System; the Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean. The territory is also often called the French Southern Territories (), which excludes Adélie Land where French sovereignty is not recognized internationally. The lands are not connected to France Antarctique, a former French colony in Brazil. The territory has no permanent population ; the population consists of military personnel, civilian officials, scientific researchers and support staff. Some of the territory's exclusive economic zone is of great importance for fishing. Administration Flag of the préfet and administrateur supérieur The French Southern and Antarctic Lands have formed a territoire d'outre-mer (an overseas territory) of France since 1955. Formerly, they were administered from Paris by an administrateur supérieur assisted by a secretary-general; since December 2004, however, their administrator has been a préfet, currently Rollon Mouchel-Blaisot, with headquarters in Saint-Pierre on Réunion Island. The territory is divided into five districts: District Capital Winter Population Summer Population Area(km²) EEZ(km²) Îles Saint Paul et Amsterdam Martin-de-Viviès 25 45 61 502533 Archipel Crozet Alfred Faure 25 45 352 567475 Archipel des Kerguelen Port-aux-Français 70 110 7215 563869 Terre Adélie Dumont d'Urville Station 30 110 432000 - Îles Éparses(1) Saint-Christophe 56 56 38,6 593276 TAAF Saint-Pierre 150 310 439781 2274277 (1)According to new law 2007-224 of February 21, 2007 Scattered Islands constitute the 5th district of TAAF . The website of the TAAF do not mention their population. The data are not included in the totals. Each district is headed by a district chief, which has powers similar to those of a French mayor (including recording births and deaths and being an officer of judicial police). Because there is no permanent population, there is no elected assembly, nor does the territory send representatives to the national parliament. Geography Map of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands. Kerguelen cabbages on Mayes island (Kerguelen Islands) The territory includes Île Amsterdam, Île Saint-Paul, Îles Crozet, and Îles Kerguelen in the southern Indian Ocean near 43°S, 67°E, along with the French-claimed sector of Antarctica, Adélie Land, named by French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville after his wife. The "Adélie Land" of about 432,000 km² and the islands, totalling 7781 km², have no indigenous inhabitants, though in 1997 there were about 100 researchers whose numbers varied from winter (July) to summer (January). Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul are extinct volcanoes; the highest point in the territory is Mont Ross on Îles Kerguelen at 1850 meters. There are no airstrips on the islands and the 1232 kilometres of coastline have no ports or harbours, only offshore anchorages. Kerguelen Islands - The Volcan du Diable. The islands in the Indian Ocean are supplied by the special ship Marion Dufresne sailing out of Le Port in Réunion Island. Terre Adélie is supplied by Astrolabe sailing out of Hobart in Tasmania. However, the territory has a merchant marine fleet totalling (in 1999) 2,892,911 GRT /, including seven bulk carriers, five cargo ships, ten chemical tankers, nine container ships, six liquefied gas carriers, 24 petroleum tankers, one refrigerated cargo ship, and ten roll-on/roll-off (RORO) carriers. This fleet is maintained as a subset of the French register that allows French-owned ships to operate under more liberal taxation and manning regulations than permissible under the main French register. This register, however, is to vanish, replaced by the International French Register (Registre International Français, RIF). Economy The territory's natural resources are limited to fish and crustaceans; economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets. The main fish resources are Patagonian toothfish and spiny lobster. Both are poached by foreign fleets; because of this, the French Navy and occasionally other services patrol the zone and arrest poaching vessels. Such arrests can result in heavy fines and/or the seizure of the ship. France used to sell licences to fish the Patagonian toothfish to foreign fisheries; because of overfishing, it is now restricted to a small number of fisheries from Réunion Island. The territory takes in revenues of about $18 million a year. Marion Dufresne can host a limited number of fee-paying tourists, who will be able to visit the islands as the ship calls. Miscellany The French Southern Territories (i.e. excluding Adélie Land) is given the following country codes: FS (FIPS) and TF (ISO 3166-1 alpha-2). See also French overseas departments and territories Administrative divisions of France Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans References External links Official site Southern & Antarctic Territories Crozet Archipelago Kerguelen Archipelago Terre Adélie be-x-old:Францускія Паўднёвыя Тэрыторыі | French_Southern_and_Antarctic_Lands |@lemmatized french:20 southern:9 antarctic:6 land:10 abbreviate:1 taaf:4 full:1 name:2 territory:16 territoire:2 des:1 terres:1 australes:1 et:2 antarctiques:1 françaises:1 consist:2 group:1 volcanic:1 island:14 indian:5 ocean:5 southeast:1 africa:2 approximately:1 equidistant:1 antarctica:3 australia:1 adélie:8 claim:2 continent:1 treaty:1 system:1 scattered:1 also:2 often:1 call:2 exclude:2 sovereignty:1 recognize:1 internationally:1 connect:1 france:5 antarctique:1 former:1 colony:1 brazil:1 permanent:2 population:6 military:1 personnel:1 civilian:1 official:2 scientific:1 researcher:2 support:1 staff:1 exclusive:1 economic:2 zone:2 great:1 importance:1 fishing:1 administration:1 flag:1 préfet:2 administrateur:2 supérieur:2 form:1 outre:1 mer:1 overseas:2 since:2 formerly:1 administer:1 paris:1 assist:1 secretary:1 general:1 december:1 however:3 administrator:1 currently:1 rollon:1 mouchel:1 blaisot:1 headquarters:1 saint:6 pierre:2 réunion:3 divide:1 five:2 district:5 capital:1 winter:2 summer:2 area:1 eez:1 îles:5 paul:3 amsterdam:3 martin:1 de:2 viviès:1 archipel:2 crozet:3 alfred:1 faure:1 kerguelen:7 port:3 aux:1 français:2 terre:3 dumont:2 urville:2 station:2 éparses:1 christophe:1 accord:1 new:1 law:1 february:1 scatter:1 constitute:1 website:1 mention:1 data:1 include:4 total:2 head:1 chief:1 power:1 similar:1 mayor:1 record:1 birth:1 death:1 officer:1 judicial:1 police:1 elected:1 assembly:1 send:1 representative:1 national:1 parliament:1 geography:1 map:1 cabbage:1 mayes:1 île:4 near:1 e:2 along:1 sector:1 explorer:1 jules:1 wife:1 indigenous:1 inhabitant:1 though:1 whose:1 number:3 vary:1 july:1 january:1 extinct:1 volcano:1 high:1 point:1 mont:1 ross:1 meter:1 airstrip:1 kilometre:1 coastline:1 harbour:1 offshore:1 anchorage:1 volcan:1 du:1 diable:1 supply:2 special:1 ship:7 marion:2 dufresne:2 sail:2 le:1 astrolabe:1 hobart:1 tasmania:1 merchant:1 marine:1 fleet:4 totalling:1 grt:1 seven:1 bulk:1 carrier:3 cargo:2 ten:2 chemical:1 tanker:2 nine:1 container:1 six:1 liquefy:1 gas:1 petroleum:1 one:1 refrigerate:1 roll:2 roro:1 maintain:1 subset:1 register:4 allow:1 operate:1 liberal:1 taxation:1 man:1 regulation:1 permissible:1 main:2 vanish:1 replace:1 international:2 registre:1 rif:1 economy:1 natural:1 resource:2 limit:2 fish:4 crustacean:1 activity:1 service:2 meteorological:1 geophysical:1 research:1 patagonian:2 toothfish:2 spiny:1 lobster:1 poach:1 foreign:2 navy:1 occasionally:1 patrol:1 arrest:2 poaching:1 vessel:1 result:1 heavy:1 fine:1 seizure:1 use:1 sell:1 licence:1 fishery:2 overfishing:1 restrict:1 small:1 take:1 revenue:1 million:1 year:1 host:1 limited:1 fee:1 pay:1 tourist:1 able:1 visit:1 miscellany:1 give:1 following:1 country:1 code:1 f:1 fips:1 tf:1 iso:1 alpha:1 see:1 department:1 administrative:1 division:1 control:1 pacific:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 site:1 archipelago:2 x:1 old:1 францускія:1 паўднёвыя:1 тэрыторыі:1 |@bigram adélie_land:5 outre_mer:1 aux_français:1 dumont_urville:2 îles_éparses:1 offshore_anchorage:1 merchant_marine:1 liquefy_gas:1 petroleum_tanker:1 refrigerate_cargo:1 pacific_ocean:1 external_link:1 |
6,125 | Nautical_mile | The nautical mile (symbol M, NM, Nm or nmi) is a unit of length corresponding approximately to one minute of arc of latitude along any meridian. It is a non-SI unit (although accepted for use in the SI by the BIPM) used especially by navigators in the shipping and aviation industries, and also in polar exploration. It is commonly used in international law and treaties, especially regarding the limits of territorial waters. It developed from the sea mile and the related geographical mile. Definition The international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference, Monaco (1929) as exactly 1852 metres. This is the only definition in widespread current use, and is the one accepted by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM). Before 1929, different countries had different definitions, and the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States did not immediately accept the international value. Both the Imperial and U.S. definitions of the nautical mile were based on the Clarke (1866) Spheroid: specifically, they were different approximations to the length of one minute of arc along a great circle of a hypothetical sphere having the same surface area as the Clarke Spheroid. . The United States nautical mile was defined as 1853.248 metres (6080.20 U.S. feet, based on the definition of the foot in the Mendenhall Order of 1893): it was abandoned in favour of the international nautical mile in 1954. . The Imperial (UK) nautical mile, also known as the Admiralty mile, was defined in terms of the knot such that one nautical mile was exactly 6080 feet (1853.184 m): . it was abandoned in 1970 and, for legal purposes, is now converted to metres on the basis of one UK nautical mile = 1853 metres exactly. Schedule to the Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 No. 1804. Sea mile The sea mile (in English usage) is often confused with the nautical mile. Strictly, the sea mile is the distance of one minute of arc of latitude at a given (current) latitude and along the current meridian: as such, it varies from approximately 1842.9 m at the Equator to approximately 1861.7 m at the Poles, with a mean value of 1852.3 m. The international nautical mile was chosen as the integer number of metres closest to the mean sea mile. Geographical mile The geographical mile is equal to one minute of arc of longitude along the Equator: it is equal to approximately 1855.4 m for the International (1924) Spheroid, or approximately 1855.325 m for the WGS 84 ellipsoid. The term "geographical mile" has also been used to refer to the mean sea mile, which would later become the international nautical mile. Tactical mile or data mile As an approximation, designers of radar systems for ballistic, cruise and anti-ship missiles used by NATO navies use as their equivalent of a nautical mile. In the Royal Navy, this is also known as a data mile. Radar mile Radar uses the reflection of a pulse of radio waves by a distant object to measure its distance: by measuring the time delay for the reflected pulse to return, the distance can be calculated from the speed of light. The time taken for a radar pulse to travel two nautical miles (one NM out to the object and one NM to return to the radar antenna) is 12.36 microseconds, and this time delay is often called a radar mile. Unit symbol There is no widely accepted international standard symbol for the unit nautical mile. The preferred abbreviation of the IEEE is nmi, IEEE guidelines for authors while M is used by the BIPM and the maritime authorities of the USA Positions, Distances, Directions, Compass; Office of Coastal Survey, NOAA, USA , Canada POSITIONS, DISTANCES, DIRECTIONS, COMPASS, Ministry of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada and the United Kingdom. For aviation use, the preferred abbreviation of the ICAO is NM. NOTIFICATION OF ANNEX DIFFERENCES (Presented by Australia), International Civil Aviation Organisation, Sixth Meeting of CNS/MET Sub Group of APANPIRG, Bangkok, Thailand, 15–19 July 2002. The abbreviation nm, though conflicting with the symbol for the nanometre, is also widely used. The SI symbol for the newton metre is . History Historical definition - 1 nautical mile The nautical mile was historically defined as a minute of arc along a meridian of the Earth, making a meridian exactly 180×60 = historical nautical miles. It can therefore be used for approximate measures on a meridian as change of latitude on a nautical chart. The originally intended definition of the metre as 10-7 of a half-meridian makes the mean historical nautical mile exactly (2)/ = historical metres. Based on the current IUGG meridian of (standard) metres the mean historical nautical mile is . The historical definition differs from the length-based standard in that a minute of arc, and hence a nautical mile, is not a constant length at the surface of the Earth but gradually lengthens with increasing distance from the equator, as a corollary of the Earth's oblateness, hence the need for "mean" in the last sentence of the previous paragraph. This length equals about at the poles and at the Equator. "For a point on the spheroid of the IAU System at geodetic latitude (Φ): 1 degree of latitude [=] (110.575 + 1.110 sin2Φ km." Seidelmann, P. K. (Ed.), (1992), Explanatory supplement to the Astronomical almanac, Sausalito, CA: University Science Books, 700. Other nations had different definitions of the nautical mile. This variety in combination with the complexity of angular measure described above along with the intrinsic uncertainty of geodetically derived units mitigated against the extant definitions in favor of a simple unit of pure length. International agreement was achieved in 1929 when the International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference held in Monaco adopted a definition of one (1) international nautical mile as being equal to 1,852 metres exactly, in excellent agreement (for an integer) with both the above-mentioned values of historical metres and standard metres. Conversions to other units Visual comparison of a nautical mile, statute mile, and kilometre One nautical mile converts to: (exact) 1.150779 mile (statute) (exact: ) (exact: (exact: ) (exact: ) 10 common-definition cables (exact, as one common definition of "cable") 10.126859 "ordinary" (100-fathom) cables (exact: ordinary cables) 12.152231 US Navy (120-fathom) cables (exact: US Navy cables) 0.998383 equatorial arc minutes = traditional geographical miles (approx.) 0.9998834 mean meridian arc minutes = mean historical nautical miles (approx.) Associated units The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one nautical mile per hour. The term "log" is used to measure the distance a vessel has moved through the water. This term can also be used to measure the speed through the water (see chip log), as the speed and distance are directly related. The term knot and log are derived from the practice of using a "log" tied to a knotted rope as a method of gauging speed of a ship. The log would be thrown into the water and the rope trailed behind the ship. The number of knots that passed off the ship and into the water in a given time would determine the speed in "knots". The present day measurement of knots and log are determined using a mechanical tow, electronic tow, hull-mounted units (which may or may not be retractable), doppler, ultrasonics, or GPS. . Speeds measured with a GPS differ from those measured by other means in that they are Speed Over Ground (including the effect of any current) while the others are all Speed Through the Water, which does not include current. See also conversion of units knot for the unit of speed mile for other types of mile orders of magnitude (length) Notes (IUGG/WGS-84 data) (IAU data) External links National Bureau of Standards: Refinement of values for the yard and the pound (1959) Measure Distances on a map in Nautical miles Nautical Unit Converter Nautical miles converted to and from miles and kilometres be-x-old:Марская міля | Nautical_mile |@lemmatized nautical:30 mile:50 symbol:5 nm:6 nmi:2 unit:14 length:7 correspond:1 approximately:5 one:13 minute:8 arc:8 latitude:6 along:6 meridian:8 non:1 si:3 although:1 accept:4 use:16 bipm:3 especially:2 navigator:1 shipping:1 aviation:3 industry:1 also:7 polar:1 exploration:1 commonly:1 international:15 law:1 treaty:1 regard:1 limit:1 territorial:1 water:6 develop:1 sea:6 related:1 geographical:5 definition:13 define:5 first:1 extraordinary:2 hydrographic:3 conference:2 monaco:2 exactly:6 metre:10 widespread:1 current:6 organization:1 bureau:2 weight:1 measure:10 different:4 country:1 soviet:1 union:1 united:4 kingdom:2 state:2 immediately:1 value:4 imperial:2 u:4 base:4 clarke:2 spheroid:4 specifically:1 approximation:2 great:1 circle:1 hypothetical:1 sphere:1 surface:2 area:1 foot:3 mendenhall:1 order:2 abandon:2 favour:1 uk:2 know:2 admiralty:1 term:5 knot:8 legal:1 purpose:1 convert:3 basis:1 metres:2 schedule:1 measurement:2 regulation:1 english:1 usage:1 often:2 confuse:1 strictly:1 distance:9 give:2 vary:1 equator:4 pole:2 mean:9 choose:1 integer:2 number:2 closest:1 equal:4 longitude:1 wgs:2 ellipsoid:1 refer:1 would:3 later:1 become:1 tactical:1 data:4 designer:1 radar:6 system:2 ballistic:1 cruise:1 anti:1 ship:4 missile:1 nato:1 navy:4 equivalent:1 royal:1 reflection:1 pulse:3 radio:1 wave:1 distant:1 object:2 time:4 delay:2 reflected:1 return:2 calculate:1 speed:10 light:1 take:1 travel:1 two:1 antenna:1 microsecond:1 call:1 widely:2 standard:5 preferred:2 abbreviation:3 ieee:2 guideline:1 author:1 maritime:1 authority:1 usa:2 position:2 direction:2 compass:2 office:1 coastal:1 survey:1 noaa:1 canada:2 ministry:1 fishery:1 ocean:1 icao:1 notification:1 annex:1 difference:1 present:2 australia:1 civil:1 organisation:1 sixth:1 meeting:1 cns:1 meet:1 sub:1 group:1 apanpirg:1 bangkok:1 thailand:1 july:1 though:1 conflict:1 nanometre:1 newton:1 history:1 historical:8 historically:1 earth:3 make:2 therefore:1 approximate:1 change:1 chart:1 originally:1 intend:1 half:1 iugg:2 differs:1 hence:2 constant:1 gradually:1 lengthen:1 increase:1 corollary:1 oblateness:1 need:1 last:1 sentence:1 previous:1 paragraph:1 point:1 iau:2 geodetic:1 φ:1 degree:1 km:1 seidelmann:1 p:1 k:1 ed:1 explanatory:1 supplement:1 astronomical:1 almanac:1 sausalito:1 ca:1 university:1 science:1 book:1 nation:1 variety:1 combination:1 complexity:1 angular:1 describe:1 intrinsic:1 uncertainty:1 geodetically:1 derive:2 mitigate:1 extant:1 favor:1 simple:1 pure:1 agreement:2 achieve:1 hold:1 adopt:1 excellent:1 mentioned:1 conversion:2 visual:1 comparison:1 statute:2 kilometre:2 exact:8 common:2 cable:6 ordinary:2 fathom:2 equatorial:1 traditional:1 approx:2 associate:1 derived:1 per:1 hour:1 log:6 vessel:1 move:1 see:2 chip:1 directly:1 relate:1 practice:1 tie:1 rope:2 method:1 gauge:1 throw:1 trail:1 behind:1 pass:1 determine:2 day:1 mechanical:1 tow:2 electronic:1 hull:1 mount:1 may:2 retractable:1 doppler:1 ultrasonics:1 gps:2 differ:1 ground:1 include:2 effect:1 others:1 type:1 magnitude:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 national:1 refinement:1 yard:1 pound:1 map:1 converter:1 x:1 old:1 марская:1 міля:1 |@bigram nautical_mile:28 nm_nm:1 hydrographic_organization:1 soviet_union:1 radar_antenna:1 bangkok_thailand:1 nautical_chart:1 geodetic_latitude:1 explanatory_supplement:1 astronomical_almanac:1 almanac_sausalito:1 sausalito_ca:1 external_link:1 |
6,126 | Earthquake | An earthquake (also known as a tremor or temblor) is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are recorded with a seismometer, also known as a seismograph. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported, or the related and mostly obsolete Richter magnitude, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas. Intensity of shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacing the ground. When a large earthquake epicenter is located offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers sufficient displacement to cause a tsunami. The shaking in earthquakes can also trigger landslides and occasionally volcanic activity. In its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether a natural phenomenon or an event caused by humans — that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear experiments. An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The term epicenter refers to the point at ground level directly above the hypocenter. Global earthquake epicenters, 1963–1998 Global plate tectonic movement Naturally occurring earthquakes Fault types Tectonic earthquakes will occur anywhere within the earth where there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. In the case of transform or convergent type plate boundaries, which form the largest fault surfaces on earth, they will move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the boundary that increase the frictional resistance. Most boundaries do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick-slip behaviour. Once the boundary has locked, continued relative motion between the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allowing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the Elastic-rebound theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake's energy is used to power the earthquake fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower the Earth's available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flow of heat out from the Earth's deep interior. Earthquake fault types There are three main types of fault that may cause an earthquake: normal, reverse (thrust) and strike-slip. Normal and reverse faulting are examples of dip-slip, where the displacement along the fault is in the direction of dip and movement on them involves a vertical component. Normal faults occur mainly in areas where the crust is being extended such as a divergent boundary. Reverse faults occur in areas where the crust is being shortened such as at a convergent boundary. Strike-slip faults are steep structures where the two sides of the fault slip horizontally past each other ; transform boundaries are a particular type of strike-slip fault. Many earthquakes are caused by movement on faults that have components of both dip-slip and strike-slip; this is known as oblique slip. Earthquakes away from plate boundaries Where plate boundaries occur within continental lithosphere, deformation is spread out a over a much larger area than the plate boundary itself. In the case of the San Andreas fault continental transform, many earthquakes occur away from the plate boundary and are related to strains developed within the broader zone of deformation caused by major irregularities in the fault trace (e.g. the “Big bend” region). The Northridge earthquake was associated with movement on a blind thrust within such a zone. Another example is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary between the Arabian and Eurasian plates where it runs through the northwestern part of the Zagros mountains. The deformation associated with this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements perpendicular to the boundary over a wide zone to the southwest and nearly pure strike-slip motion along the Main Recent Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquake focal mechanisms. Talebian, M. Jackson, J. 2004. A reappraisal of earthquake focal mechanisms and active shortening in the Zagros mountains of Iran. Geophysical Journal International, 156, pages 506-526 All tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions with neighbouring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading (e.g. deglaciation). These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along existing fault planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes. Shallow-focus and deep-focus earthquakes The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at the ring of fire in depths not exceeding tens of kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 70 km are classified as 'shallow-focus' earthquakes, while those with a focal-depth between 70 and 300 km are commonly termed 'mid-focus' or 'intermediate-depth' earthquakes. In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, deep-focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths (ranging from 300 up to 700 kilometers). These seismically active areas of subduction are known as Wadati-Benioff zones. Deep-focus earthquakes occur at a depth at which the subducted lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible mechanism for the generation of deep-focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine undergoing a phase transition into a spinel structure. Earthquakes and volcanic activity Earthquakes often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both by tectonic faults and the movement of magma in volcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions, like during the Mount St. Helens eruption of 1980. Earthquake swarms serve as markers for the location of the flowing magma throughout the volcanoes. In the United States, these are then recorded by seismometers and tiltimeters (a device which measures the ground slope) and used as sensors to predict imminent or upcoming eruptions. Earthquake clusters Most earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time. Most earthquake clusters consist of small tremors which cause little to no damage, but there is a theory that earthquakes repeat themselves. Aftershocks An aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake, the mainshock. An aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but always of a smaller magnitude. If an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock. Aftershocks are formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adjusts to the effects of the main shock. Earthquake swarms February 2008 earthquake swarm near Mexicali Earthquake swarms are sequences of earthquakes striking in a specific area within a short period of time. They are different from earthquakes followed by a series of aftershocks by the fact that no single earthquake in the sequence is obviously the main shock, therefore none have notable higher magnitudes than the other. An example of an earthquake swarm is the 2004 activity at Yellowstone National Park. Earthquake storms Sometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, where the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern was observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East. Size and frequency of occurrence Minor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the world in places like California and Alaska in the U.S., as well as in Guatemala. Chile, Peru, Indonesia, Iran, Pakistan, the Azores in Portugal, Turkey, New Zealand, Greece, Italy, and Japan, but earthquakes can occur almost anywhere, including New York City, London, and Australia. Larger earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being exponential; for example, roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it has been calculated that the average recurrences are: an earthquake of 3.7 - 4.6 every year, an earthquake of 4.7 - 5.5 every 10 years, and an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100 years. Seismicity and earthquake hazard in the UK This is an example of the Gutenberg-Richter law. The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931 to many thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes. The USGS estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major earthquakes (magnitude 7.0-7.9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8.0 or greater) per year, and that this average has been relatively stable. In recent years, the number of major earthquakes per year has decreased, although this is thought likely to be a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. More detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available from the USGS. Most of the world's earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in the 40,000-km-long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, also known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate. Massive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the Himalayan Mountains. With the rapid growth of mega-cities such as Mexico City, Tokyo or Tehran, in areas of high seismic risk, some seismologists are warning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to 3 million people. Global urban seismic risk Earthquake safety in Iran and other developing countries Induced seismicity While most earthquakes are caused by movement of the Earth's tectonic plates, human activity can also produce earthquakes. Four main reasons contribute to this phenomenon: constructing large dams and buildings, drilling and injecting liquid into wells, and by coal mining and oil drilling. Perhaps the best known example is the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in China's Sichuan Province in May; this tremor resulted in 69,227 fatalities and is the 19th deadliest earthquake of all time. The Zipingpu Dam is believed to have fluctuated the pressure of the fault away; this pressure probably increased the power of the earthquake and fastened the rate of movement for the fault. The greatest earthquake in Australia's history was also induced by humanity, through coal mining. The city of Newcastle was built over a large sector of coal mining areas. The earthquake was spawned from a fault which reactivated due to the millions of tonnes of rock removed in the mining process. How to measure and locate an earthquake Earthquakes can be recorded by seismometers up to great distances, because seismic waves travel through the whole Earth's interior. The absolute magnitude of a quake is conventionally reported by numbers on the Moment magnitude scale (formerly Richter scale, magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas), whereas the felt magnitude is reported using the modified Mercalli scale (intensity II-XII). Every tremor produces different types of seismic waves which travel through rock with different velocities: the longitudinal P-waves (shock- or pressure waves), the transverse S-waves (both body waves) and several surface waves (Rayleigh and Love waves). The propagation velocity of the seismic waves ranges from approx. 3 km/s up to 13 km/s, depending on the density and elasticity of the medium. In the Earths interior the shock- or P waves travel much more faster than the S waves (approx. relation 1,7 : 1). The differences in travel time from the epicentre to the observatory are a measure of the distance and can be used to image both sources of quakes and structures within the Earth. Also the depth of the hypocenter can be computed roughly. In solid rock P-waves travel at about 6 to 7 km per second; the velocity increases within the deep mantle to ~13 km/s. The velocity of S-waves ranges from 2-3 km/s in light sediments and 4-5 km/s in the Earths crust up to 7 km/s in the deep mantle. As a consequence, the first waves of a distant earth quake arrive at an observatory via the Earths mantle. Rule of thumb: On the average, the kilometer distance to the earthquake is the number of seconds between the P and S wave times 8 . Slight deviations are caused by inhomogenities of subsurface structure. By such analyses of seismograms the Earth's core was located 1913 by Beno Gutenberg. Effects/impacts of earthquakes 1755 copper engraving depicting Lisbon in ruins and in flames after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. A tsunami overwhelms the ships in the harbor. There are many effects of earthquakes including, but not limited to the following: Shaking and ground rupture Shaking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings or other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation. On Shaky Ground, Association of Bay Area Governments, San Francisco, reports 1995,1998 (updated 2003) The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration. Specific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits. Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the Earth's surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of several metres in the case of major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to identify any likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure. Guidelines for evaluating the hazard of surface fault rupture, California Geological Survey Landslides and avalanches Landslides are a major geologic hazard because they can happen at any place in the world, much like earthquakes. Severe storms, earthquakes, volcanic activity, coastal wave attack, and wildfires can all produce slope instability. Landslide danger may be possible even though emergency personnel are attempting rescue. Fires Fires of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake Following an earthquake, fires can be generated by break of the electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. For example, the deaths in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake were caused more by the fires than by the earthquake itself. Soil liquefaction Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such as sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, as buildings or bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. This can be a devastating effect of earthquakes. For example, in the 1964 Alaska earthquake, many buildings were sunk into the ground by soil liquefaction, eventually collapsing upon themselves. Tsunami The tsunami of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake Tsunamis are long-wavelength, long-period sea waves produced by an sudden or abrupt movement of large volumes of water. In the open ocean, the distance between wave crests can surpass 100 kilometers, and the wave periods can vary from five minutes to one hour. Such tsunamis travel 600-800 kilometers per hour, depending on water depth. Large waves produced by an earthquake or a submarine landslide can overrun nearby coastal areas in a matter of minutes. Tsunamis can also travel thousands of kilometers across open ocean and wreak destruction on far shores hours after the earthquake that generated them. Ordinarily, subduction earthquakes under magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale do not cause tsunamis, although some instances of this have been recorded. Most destructive tsunamis are caused by earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or more. Floods A flood is an overflow of any amount of water that reaches land. MSN Encarta Dictionary. Flood. Retrieved on 2006-12-28. Floods usually occur because of the volume of water within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some of the water flows or sits outside of the normal perimeter of the body. However, floods may be secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, which then collapse and cause floods. The terrain below the Sarez Lake in Tajikistan is in danger of catastrophic flood if the landslide dam formed by the earthquake, known as the Usoi Dam, were to fail during a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the flood could affect roughly 5 million people. Human impacts Earthquakes may result in disease, lack of basic necessities, loss of life, higher insurance premiums, general property damage, road and bridge damage, and collapse of buildings or destabilization of the base of buildings; this may lead to collapse in future earthquakes. Earthquakes can also precede volcanic eruptions, which cause further problems; for example, substantial crop damage, like in the "Year Without a Summer" (1816). Preparation In order to determine the likelihood for future seismic activity, geologists and other scientists examine the rock of an area to determine if the rock appears to be "strained". Studying the faults of an area to study the buildup time it takes for the fault to build up stress sufficient for an earthquake also serves as an effective predicition technique. Measurements of the amount of pressure which collocates on the fault line each year, time passed since the last major temblor, and the energy and power of the last earthquake are made. Together the facts allow scientists to determine how much pressure it takes for the fault to generate an earthquake. Though this method is useful, it has only been implemented on California's San Andreas Fault. Today, there are ways to protect and prepare possible sites of earthquakes from severe damage, through the following processes: earthquake engineering, earthquake preparedness, household seismic safety, seismic retrofit (including special fasteners, materials, and techniques), seismic hazard, mitigation of seismic motion, and earthquake prediction. History An image from a 1557 book Pre-Middle Ages From the lifetime of Greek Anaxagoras to the 14th century, earthquakes were attributed to "air (vapors) in the cavities of the Earth". Tales of Milet, who lived from 625-547 (BCE) was the only documented person who believed that earthquakes were caused by tension between the earth and water. Other theories existed, including Greek philosopher Anaxamines of Milet's (585-526 BCE) beliefs that short incline episodes of dryness and wetness caused seismic activity. Greek philosopher Democritus (460-371BCE) blamed water in general for earthquakes. Pliny the Elder called earthquakes "underground thunderstorms". Earthquakes in culture Mythology and religion In Norse mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent struggling of the god Loki. When Loki, god of mischief and strife, murdered Baldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by being bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom. Loki's wife Sigyn stood by him with a bowl to catch the poison, but whenever she had to empty the bowl the poison would drip on Loki's face, forcing him to jerk his head away and thrash against his bonds, causing the earth to tremble. In Greek mythology, Poseidon was the cause and god of earthquakes. When he was in a bad mood, he would strike the ground with a trident, causing this and other calamities. He also used earthquakes to punish and inflict fear upon people as revenge. Popular culture In modern popular culture, the portrayal of earthquakes is shaped by the memory of great cities laid waste, such as Kobe in 1995 or San Francisco in 1906. Fictional earthquakes tend to strike suddenly and without warning. For this reason, stories about earthquakes generally begin with the disaster and focus on its immediate aftermath, as in Short Walk to Daylight (1972), The Ragged Edge (1968) or Aftershock: Earthquake in New York (1998). A notable example is Heinrich von Kleist's classic novella, The Earthquake in Chile, which describes the destruction of Santiago in 1647. Haruki Murakami's short fiction collection, After the Quake, depicts the consequences of the Kobe earthquake of 1995. The most popular single earthquake in fiction is the hypothetical "Big One" expected of California's San Andreas Fault someday, as depicted in the novels Richter 10 (1996) and Goodbye California (1977) among other works. Jacob M. Appel's widely-anthologized short story, A Comparative Seismology, features a con artist who convinces an elderly woman that an apocalyptic earthquake is imminent. JM Appel. A Comparative Seismology. Weber Studies (first publication), Volume 18, Number 2. In Pleasure Boating in Lituya Bay, one of the stories in Jim Shepard's Like You'd Understand, Anyway, the "Big One" leads to an even more devastating tsunami. See also Earthquake insurance Earthquake loss Historical earthquakes Intraplate earthquake List of earthquakes List of all deadly earthquakes since 1900 List of earthquakes by death toll Megathrust earthquake Richter magnitude scale Seismology Seismotectonics Submarine earthquake References External links Educational How to survive an earthquake - Guide for children and youth Guide to earthquakes and plate tectonics Earthquakes — an educational booklet by Kaye M. Shedlock & Louis C. Pakiser The Severity of an Earthquake USGS Earthquake FAQs IRIS Seismic Monitor - maps all earthquakes in the past five years. Latest Earthquakes in the World - maps all earthquakes in the past week. Earthquake Information from the Deep Ocean Exploration Institute, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Geo.Mtu.Edu — How to locate an earthquake's epicenter Photos/images of historic earthquakes earthquakecountry.info Answers to FAQs about Earthquakes and Earthquake Preparedness Interactive guide: Earthquakes - an educational presentation by Guardian Unlimited Geowall — an educational 3D presentation system for looking at and understanding earthquake data Virtual Earthquake - educational site explaining how epicenters are located and magnitude is determined CBC Digital Archives — Canada's Earthquakes and Tsunamis Earthquakes Educational Resources - dmoz Seismological data centers Europe International Seismological Centre (ISC) European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC) Global Seismic Monitor at GFZ Potsdam Global Earthquake Report – chart Earthquakes in Iceland during the last 48 hours Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Italy Database of Individual Seismogenic Sources (DISS), Central Mediterranean Portuguese Meteorological Institute (Seismic activity during the last month) Japan Earthquake Information of Japan, Japan Meteorological Agency International Institute of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering (IISEE) Building Research Institute Database for the damage of world earthquake, ancient period (3000 BC) to year of 2006- Building Research Institute (Japan) (建築研究所) in Japanese Seismic activity in last 7 days - Weathernews Inc., indicated with circled shindo (震度）) scale and its location. Weathernews Inc, Global web site New Zealand GeoNet - New Zealand Earthquake Report (latest and recent quakes) United States The U.S. National Earthquake Information Center Southern California Earthquake Data Center The Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) Putting Down Roots in Earthquake Country An Earthquake Science and Preparedness Handbook produced by SCEC Recent earthquakes in California and Nevada Seismograms for recent earthquakes via REV, the Rapid Earthquake Viewer Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS), earthquake database and software IRIS Seismic Monitor - world map of recent earthquakes SeismoArchives - seismogram archives of significant earthquakes of the world Seismic scales The European Macroseismic Scale Scientific information Miscellaneous Reports on China Sichuan earthquake 12/05/2008 Kashmir Relief & Development Foundation (KRDF) PBS NewsHour - Predicting Earthquakes USGS – Largest earthquakes in the world since 1900 The Destruction of Earthquakes - a list of the worst earthquakes ever recorded Los Angeles Earthquakes plotted on a Google map the EM-DAT International Disaster Database Earthquake Newspaper Articles Archive Earth-quake.org PetQuake.org- official PETSAAF system which relies on strange or atypical animal behavior to predict earthquakes.(Link broken 03:33, 2 June 2008 (UTC)) A series of earthquakes in southern Italy - 23 November 1980, Gesualdo Recent Quakes WorldWide Real-time earthquakes on Google Map, Australia and rest of the world Earthquake Information - detailed statistics and integrated with Google Maps and Google Earth Kharita - INGV portal for Digital Cartography - Last earthquakes recorded by INGV Italian Network (with Google Maps) Kharita - INGV portal for Digital Cartography - Italian Seismicity by region 1981-2006 (with Google Maps) Interactive world map, showing recent earthquakes (day/week/month) – Quake-Catcher Network, BOINC be-x-old:Землятрус | Earthquake |@lemmatized earthquake:191 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6,127 | Click_consonant | Clicks are speech sounds found as consonants in many languages of southern Africa, and in three languages of East Africa. Examples of these sounds familiar to English speakers are the tsk! tsk! used to express disapproval, or the tchick! used to spur on a horse. Technically, clicks are obstruents articulated with two closures (points of contact) in the mouth, one forward and one at the back. The pocket of air enclosed between is rarefied by a sucking action of the tongue. (That is, clicks have a velaric/lingual ingressive airstream mechanism.) The forward closure is then released, producing what may be the loudest consonants in the language, although in some languages such as Hadza, clicks can be more subtle and may even be mistaken for ejective stops. What clicks sound like For several sound samples see articles bilabial click, dental click, lateral click, palatal click, and alveolar click. There are five places of articulation at which click consonants occur. In IPA, a click is symbolized by placing the assigned symbol for the place of click articulation to the left of a symbol for a nonclick sound at the same place of articulation. The IPA symbols are used in writing most Khoisan languages, but Bantu languages such as Zulu typically use Latin c, x and q for dental, lateral, and alveolar clicks respectively. The easiest clicks for English speakers are the dental clicks written with a single pipe, . They are all sharp (high-pitched) squeaky sounds made by sucking on the front teeth. A simple dental click is used in English to express pity or to shame someone, and sometimes to call an animal, and is written tsk! Next most familiar to English speakers are the lateral clicks written with a double pipe, . They are also squeaky sounds, though less sharp than , made by sucking on the molars on either side (or both sides) of the mouth. A simple lateral click is made in English to get a horse moving, and is conventionally written tchick! Then there are the bilabial clicks, written with a bull's eye, . These are lip-smacking sounds, but without the pursing of the lips found in a kiss. The above clicks sound like affricates, in that they involve a lot of friction. The other two families are more abrupt sounds that do not have this friction. With the alveolar clicks, written with an exclamation mark, , the tip of the tongue is pulled down abruptly and forcefully from the roof of the mouth, sometimes using a lot of jaw motion, and making a hollow pop! like a cork being pulled from an empty bottle. These sounds can be quite loud. Finally, the palatal clicks, , are made with a flat tongue, and are softer popping sounds than the clicks. Languages with clicks Clicks occur in all three Khoisan language families of southern Africa, where they may be the most numerous consonants. To a lesser extent they are found in several neighbouring Bantu languages which borrowed them from Khoisan. The most famous of these are the languages of the Nguni cluster (Zulu, Xhosa, Swazi, Phuthi, Ndebele, and the Zulu-based pidgin Fanagalo); the other Bantu click languages are Sesotho and the Yeyi, Mbukushu, Kwangali, and Gciriku languages along the Okavango River in Angola, Namibia, and Botswana. There are three minority languages in East Africa which use clicks: Sandawe and Hadza of Tanzania, as well as Dahalo, an endangered South Cushitic language of Kenya which has clicks in only a few dozen words. It is thought these may remain from an episode of language shift. The only non-African language known to employ clicks as regular speech sounds is Damin, a ritual code used by speakers of Lardil in Australia. One of the clicks in Damin is actually an egressive click, using the tongue to compress the air in the mouth for an outward (egressive) "spurt". The Southern African Khoisan languages only utilize root-initial clicks. Hadza, Sandawe, and several of the Bantu languages also allow syllable-initial clicks within roots, but in no known language does a click close a syllable or end a word. English and many other languages may use clicks in interjections, such as the dental "tsk-tsk" sound used to express disapproval, or the lateral tchick used with horses. In Ningdu Chinese, flapped nasal clicks are used in nursery rhymes, and in Persian, Greek and Maltese a click accompanied by tipping the head upwards signifies "no". Clicks occasionally turn up elsewhere, as in the special registers twins sometimes develop with each other, in ritual codes like Damin, and in onomatopoeic usages. The fictional native language of the Tenctonese in the film and television series Alien Nation incorporates some soft click consonants. The airstream The essence of a click is an ingressive airstream mechanism. However, in nasal clicks the nasalization involves a separate nasal airstream, generally pulmonic egressive but occasionally pulmonic ingressive. Similarly, voiced clicks also require a simultaneous pulmonic egressive airstream to power the voiced phonation. The front articulation may be coronal or, more rarely, labial. The rear articulation has traditionally been thought to be velar or, again more rarely, uvular. However, recent investigation of Nǀuu has revealed that the supposed velar–uvular distinction is actually one of a simple click versus a click–plosive airstream contour, and that all rear articulations in Nǀuu are uvular or even pharyngeal. Even in languages without such a distinction, such as Xhosa, experiments have shown that when the click release is removed from a recording, the resulting sound is judged to be uvular, not velar. However, it is possible other languages do have a velar articulation. Since in at least some languages clicks are not velar, some phoneticians have recently come to prefer the term lingual (made with the tongue) as being more accurate for this airstream mechanism than velaric (made with the velum). Types of clicks As noted above, clicks necessarily involve at least two closures: an anterior articulation which has traditionally been represented by the special click symbol in the IPA, and a posterior articulation which has been traditionally described as oral or nasal, voiced or voiceless, etc. The literature also describes a contrast between velar and uvular rear articulations for some languages. However, recent work has shown that for languages which make this distinction, all clicks have a uvular, or even pharyngeal, rear closure, and that the clicks explicitly described as uvular are in fact clusters/contours of a click plus a pulmonic consonant, in which the clusters/contour has two release bursts, the click itself and then a uvular consonant. In the case of "velar" clicks in these languages, on the other hand, there is only a single release burst, that of the forward click release, and the release of the rear articulation isn't audible. Nonetheless, in most of the literature the stated place of the click is the anterior articulation (called the release or influx), while the manner is ascribed to the posterior articulation (called the accompaniment or efflux), as in a "nasal dental click". There are numerous manners of clicks. These include what has been described as voiceless, voiced, aspirate, breathy voiced, nasal, voiceless nasal, breathy voiced nasal, glottalized, voiceless nasal glottalized, affricate, ejective affricate, prevoiced, prenasalized. In a few of the Khoisan languages, clicks cluster with other obstruents. Examples of such clusters in ǃXóõ a voiced velar click followed by voiceless affricated ejective, , and a velar ejective click followed by uvular ejective, L&M 1996, p 266 . The size of click inventories ranges from as few as three (in Sesotho) or four (in Dahalo), to dozens in the Juu and Tuu languages (Northern and Southern Khoisan). ǃXóõ, a Tuu language, has fifty click phonemes and over 70% of words in the dictionary of this language begin with a click. L&M 1996, p 246 Clicks appear more stop-like or more affricate-like depending on their place of articulation: In southern Africa, clicks involving an apical alveolar or laminal postalveolar closure are acoustically abrupt and sharp, like stops, while bilabial, dental, and lateral clicks typically have longer and acoustically noisier releases that are more like affricates. In East Africa, however, the alveolar clicks tend to be flapped, while the lateral clicks tend to be more sharp and abrupt. Transcription The five click releases with dedicated symbols in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) are bilabial , dental , palato-alveolar or "palatal" , (post)alveolar or "retroflex" , and alveolar lateral . The retroflex and palatal releases are "abrupt"; that is, they are sharp popping sounds with little frication (turbulent airflow). The bilabial, dental, and lateral releases, on the other hand, are "noisy": they are longer, lip- or tooth-sucking sounds with turbulent airflow, and are sometimes called affricates. (This applies to the forward articulation; both may also have either an affricate or non-affricate rear articulation as well.) The apical releases, and , are sometimes called "grave", because their pitch is dominated by low frequencies; while the laminal releases, and , are sometimes called "acute", because they are dominated by high frequencies. (At least in the Nǀu language, this is associated with a difference in the placement of the rear articulation: "grave" clicks are uvular, whereas "acute" clicks are pharyngeal.) Thus the alveolar click sounds something like a cork pulled from a bottle (a low-pitch pop), at least in Xhosa; while the dental click is like English tsk! tsk!, a high-pitched sucking on the incisors. The lateral clicks are pronounced by sucking on the molars of one or both sides. The bilabial click is different from what many people associate with a kiss: the lips are pressed more-or-less flat together, as they are for a [p] or an [m], not rounded as they are for a [w]. The most populous languages with clicks, Zulu and Xhosa, use the letters c, q, x, by themselves and in digraphs, to write click consonants. Most Khoisan languages, on the other hand (with the notable exceptions of Naro and Sandawe), use a more iconic system based on the pipe <|>. (The exclamation point for the "retroflex" click was originally a pipe with a subscript dot, along the lines of ṭ, ḍ, ṇ used to transcribe the retroflex consonants of India.) At one time, the IPA was augmented with a set of Latin-based symbols for clicks, but they were never much used, and were eventually given up for the Khoisanist symbols: + Competing orthographies bilabialdentalalveolarpalatallateral Khoisanist old IPA Bantu * * The bilabial and palatal clicks do not occur in written Bantu languages. However, the palatal clicks have been romanized in Naron and Juǀʼhõasi, where they are transcribed with tc and ç respectively. There are a few less well attested articulations, such as a noisy laminal denti-alveolar lateral release (<Ⅲ> [triple pipe] in an ad hoc transcription), which contrasts with an apical postalveolar lateral in Mangetti Dune ǃKung; an abrupt sub-apical retroflex release <‼> in Angolan ǃKung; and a "slapped" alveolar click in Hadza and Sandawe, where the tongue slaps the bottom of the mouth after the release. (These distinctions may suffice for the Damin releases as well.) However, the Khoisan languages are poorly attested, and it is quite possible that, as they become better described, more click releases will be found. In the literature, the places not directly supported by the IPA are transcribed with ad hoc digraphs: +Provisional extended click symbols bilabialdentalalveolarretroflexpalatalCentralLateral Flapped Typically when a click consonant is transcribed, two symbols are used, one for each articulation, connected with a tie bar. This is because a click such as has been traditionally been analysed as a nasal velar rear articulation pronounced simultaneously with the forward ingressive release . The symbols may be written in either order, depending on the analysis. However, a tie bar is not often used in practice, and when the manner is a simple [k], it will often be omitted as well. That is, = = = = . The manner of a click is generally written before the release: or , and this is preferred by the IPA. However, many Khoisanists prefer to write the manner second: or . This is because any diacritics which follow belong to the manner rather than to the forward release, and they are more easily understood when they are made diacritics of the manner. Regardless, elements which do not overlap with the release are always written according to their temporal order: Prenasalization is always written first in = , and the second ejective is always written second in = . Some linguists analyze clicks as simplex segments, and use superscripts rather than digraphs for the accompaniments. Thus or = While the SAMPA encoding for IPA into ASCII doesn't have symbols for transcribing clicks, the proposed X-SAMPA standard does: O\, |\, |\|\, =\, and !. Some instead suggest ||\, #\ or "\ for the alveolar lateral click. The Kirshenbaum system uses a different method: clicks are denoted by digraphs, with the click symbol (always "!") added to the stop homorganic to the release, but with the manner of the accompaniment. For example, /t!/ is a voiceless dental click, and /m!/ is a nasal bilabial click. (This transcription is used in the literature on Damin.) However, the International Phonetic Association recommends using the IPA symbols in Unicode, or using the number codes which they have assigned to each symbol. Places of articulation These are often called click types, releases, or influxes. There are seven or eight known releases, not counting slapped or egressive clicks. These are bilabial affricated , or "bilabial"; laminal denti-alveolar affricated , or "dental"; apical (post)alveolar plosive , or "alveolar"; laminal postalveolar (palato-alveolar) plosive , or "palatal"; subapical postalveolar (retroflex) (in central Ju); and two lateral clicks, which in the only dialects known to distinguish them (northern Ju) are laminal denti-alveolar lateral with a forward release, and apical postalveolar lateral with a rear release. There may be an additional palatal lateral click (a palatal click with a lateral release), provisionally transcribed , in another Ju lect which is currently (2008) being investigated. Given the poor state of documentation of Khoisan languages, it is quite possible that additional releases will turn up. However, no language is known to contrast more than five places of articulation. Click releaseinventory Languages dental only Dahalo alveolar only Sesotho 3 releases, , , Sandawe, Hadza, Xhosa, Zulu (in Hadza and sometimes Sandawe, ǃ is "slapped";Hadza also has a single word with ) 4 releases, , , , Korana, Nama, Yeyi, Zhuǀ'hõasi (southeastern Ju) 4 releases, , , , ǃKung (Grootfontein) 5 releases, , , , , ǂHõã, Nǀu, ǀXam, ǃXóõ 5 releases, , , , , ǃKung (Angola) 5 releases, , , , , Damin Extra-linguistically, Coatlán Zapotec uses a linguolabial click, , as mimesis for a pig drinking water. Rosemary Beam de Azcona, Sound Symbolism. Available at http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/~rosemary/55-fall2003-onomatopoeia.pdf Names found in the literature The terms for the click releases were originally developed by Bleek in 1911. Since then there has been some conflicting variation. Here are the terms used in some of the main references. Click release Bantu letters Also known as: dental c dental affricative/affricated/with friction; alveolar affricated; denti-alveolar; apico-lamino-dental; denti-pharyngeal palatal palato-alveolar; alveolar; alveolar instantaneous; denti-alveolar implosive; palato-pharyngeal alveolar q cerebral; (post-) alveolar implosive; palato-alveolar; palato-alveolar instantaneous; palatal; palatal retroflex; apico-palatal; central alveo-uvular lateral x lateral affricative/with friction; alveolar lateral affricated; post-alveolar lateral; lateral apico-alveo-palatal; lateral alveo-uvular The back-vowel constraint The shape of the tongue in Nama when articulating an alveolar click (blue) and a palatal click (red) [throat to the right]. The articulation of the vowel [i] is slightly forward of the red line, with its peak coinciding with the dip of the blue line.In several languages, including Nama and Ju|’hoansi, the alveolar and lateral clicks only occur, or preferentially occur, before back vowels, while the dental and palatal clicks may occur before any vowel. The effect is most noticeable with the high front vowel . In Nama, for example, the diphthong is common but is rare after alveolar clicks, whereas the opposite is true after dental and palatal clicks. This is a common effect of uvular or uvularized consonants on vowels in both click and non-click languages. In Taa, for example, the back-vowel constraint is triggered by both alveolar clicks and uvular stops, but not by palatal clicks or velar stops: sequences such as and are rare to non-existent, whereas sequences such as and are common. Miller et al. (2003) used ultrasound imaging to show that the rear articulation of the alveolar clicks () in Nama is substantially different that that of palatal and dental clicks. Specifically, the shape of the body of the tongue in palatal clicks is very similar to that of the vowel , and involves the same tongue muscles, so that sequences such as involved a simple and quick transition. The rear articulation of the alveolar clicks, however, is several centimeters further back, and involves a different set of muscles in the uvular region. The part of the tongue required to approach the palate for the vowel is deeply retracted in , as it lies at the bottom of the air pocket used to create the vacuum required for click airstream. This makes the transition required for much more complex and the timing more difficult than the shallower and more forward tongue position of the palatal clicks. Consequently, takes 50 ms longer to pronounce than , the same amount of time required to pronounce . Manners of articulation (Data is primarily from Ladefoged; see references at individual language articles.) Click manners are often called click accompaniments or effluxes, but both terms have met with objections on theoretical grounds. There is a great variety of click manners, both simplex and complex, the latter variously analysed as consonant clusters or contours. With so few click languages, and so little study of them, it is also unclear to what extent clicks in different languages are equivalent. For example, the of Nama, of Sandawe, and of Hadza may be essentially the same phone, as may and ; no one language distinguishes either set, and the differences in transcription may have more to do with the approach of the linguist than with actual differences in the sounds. Some Khoisan languages are typologically unusual in allowing mixed voicing in non-click consonant clusters/contours, such as , so it is not surprising that they would allow mixed voicing in clicks as well. There is ongoing discussion as to which clicks are best analysed as consonant clusters. For example, some linguists feel that ejective clicks are not possible, and indeed in many Khoisan languages they appear to be clusters. However, in other languages, phonetic measurements have found that, although the ejective release follows the click release, it is the rear closure of the click that is ejective, not a subsequent consonant. (In Ladefoged's analysis in the table below, if there is only a single segment, this is indicated by a single non-subscript letter for the accompaniment.) This is one reason for analysing such clicks as airstream contours instead of clusters. Of the languages illustrated below, ǃXóõ and Nǀu are Tuu languages ǂHoan and Juǀʼhõasi are ǂHoan-Juu languages Korana, Nama, and Gǀui are Khoe languages (all spoken primarily in Namibia and Botswana) Sandawe and Hadza are language isolates spoken in Tanzania Dahalo is a Cushitic language of Kenya Xhosa and Yeyi are Bantu languages Damin was an initiation jargon in northern Australia. The four Dahalo manners occur only with a dental release. Damin has only nasal clicks, but in addition has a voiceless unaspirated "spurt" that might be considered an egressive click. Three Sandawe clicks (*) conflate to prenasalized voiced between vowels. In other languages nasalization may be variable, and best heard between vowels. IPA Manner ǃXóõ Nǀuu ǂHoan Juǀ’hõasi Korana Nama Gǀui Sandawe Hadza Dahalo Xhosa Yeyi Damin Voiceless unaspirated velar plosive || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • *|| bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || |- | || Aspirated velar plosive • • • • • • • • * • • • Voiceless unaspirated velar plosive and glottal stop || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || |- | || Voiceless glottalized velar plosive (prenasalized between vowels) • • • Voiceless velar nasal and glottal stop || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || |- | || Voiced velar plosive • • • • • • * • Voiced affricated velar plosive || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || || || || |- | || Breathy-voiced velar plosive • Voiced velar nasal || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • |- | || Labialized voiced velar nasal • Breathy-voiced velar nasal || || || || || || || || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || |- | || Voiceless velar nasal • • Labialized voiceless velar nasal || || || || || || || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || |- | || Voiceless delayed-aspirated velar nasal • • • • • • Voiceless ingressive pulmonic nasal with delayed aspiration || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || || || || || || || |- | || Preglottalized velar nasal • • Voiced velar nasal followed by voiceless aspirated velar nasal || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || || || || |- | || Voiceless unaspirated uvular plosive • • • • Aspirated uvular plosive || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || |- | || Voiceless affricated velar plosive • • Voiceless affricated uvular plosive || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || |- | || Uvular ejective || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || |- | || Affricated velar ejective • • • Affricated uvular ejective || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || |- | || Voiceless velar ejective, followed by uvular ejective • Voiced velar plosive followed by aspiration || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || || || || |- | || Voiced velar plosive followed by voiceless velar fricative • Voiced velar plosive followed by voiceless affricated ejective || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || || || || |- | || Voiced velar plosive, followed by uvular ejective • Voiced uvular plosive (usually prenasalized) || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || bgcolor="#f0c0c0" align=center | • || || || || || || |- | || Voiced (or prenasalized) uvular plosive, followed by aspiration, velar fricative, or uvular trill • Click genesis and click loss Clicks are often portrayed as a primitive or primordial feature of human language, but we have no reason to suspect that they are very old compared to other speech sounds. In fact, given their complexity, they may be relatively recent. How clicks arose is not currently known. Some linguists speculate that clicks were initially used for taboo avoidance and then borrowed into regular speech. (Compare Damin.) Others suggest that they developed from other complex consonants. For example, the Sandawe word for 'horn', , with a lateral affricate, may be a cognate with the root found throughout the Khoe family, which has a lateral click. This and other words suggests that at least some Khoe clicks may have formed from consonant clusters when the first vowel of a word was lost; in this instance → → (= ). On the other side of the equation, several non-endangered languages in vigorous use demonstrate click loss. For example, the East Kalahari languages have lost a large percentage of their clicks, presumably due to Bantu influence. As a rule, a click is replaced by a consonant with the manner of articulation of the accompaniment and the place of articulation of the forward release: alveolar click releases (the family) tend to mutate into a velar stop or affricate, such as ; palatal clicks ( etc.) tend to mutate into a palatal stop such as , or a post-alveolar affricate ; and dental clicks ( etc.) tend to mutate into an alveolar affricate . Notes References Ladefoged, Peter. 1968. A phonetic study of West African languages: An auditory-instrumental survey. Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition. ISBN 0-521-06963-7 Amanda Miller, Levi Namaseb, Khalil Iskarous. 2003. Tongue Body constriction differences in click types. Traill, Anthony & Rainer Vossen. 1997. Sound change in the Khoisan languages: new data on click loss and click replacement. J African Languages and Linguistics 18:21-56. See also List of phonetics topics External links Collection of click-language links and audio samples. Nicholas Wade, "How an ancient click clique started our mother tongue", The Age,19 March 2003. Hartmut Traunmüller (2003) "Clicks and the idea of a human protolanguage", Phonum 9: 1 - 4 (Umeå University, Dept. of Philosophy and Linguistics) | Click_consonant |@lemmatized click:155 speech:4 sound:22 find:7 consonant:18 many:5 language:60 southern:5 africa:6 three:5 east:4 example:9 familiar:2 english:7 speaker:4 tsk:7 use:30 express:3 disapproval:2 tchick:3 spur:1 horse:3 technically:1 obstruent:2 articulate:2 two:6 closure:6 point:2 contact:1 mouth:5 one:9 forward:10 back:5 pocket:2 air:3 enclose:1 rarefy:1 suck:6 action:1 tongue:13 velaric:2 lingual:2 ingressive:5 airstream:9 mechanism:3 release:42 produce:1 may:18 loud:2 although:2 hadza:10 subtle:1 even:4 mistake:1 ejective:16 stop:10 like:10 several:6 sample:2 see:3 article:2 bilabial:10 dental:21 lateral:27 palatal:23 alveolar:39 five:3 place:10 articulation:28 occur:7 ipa:11 symbolize:1 assigned:1 symbol:13 left:1 nonclick:1 write:15 khoisan:12 bantu:9 zulu:5 typically:3 latin:2 c:3 x:4 q:3 respectively:2 easy:1 single:5 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6,128 | Second_Polish_Republic | Polish population as of 1918 Second Polish Republic, Physical 1939 Second Polish Republic 1922–1939 Polish armoured car Korfanty in 1920 in the Silesian Uprisings Roman Dmowski The Second Polish Republic, Second Commonwealth of Poland or interwar Poland refers to Poland between the two world wars; from the creation of an independent Polish state in the aftermath of World War I, to the invasion of Poland in 1939 by Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and the Slovak Republic, which marked the beginning of World War II. When the borders of the state were fixed in 1922 after several regional conflicts, the republic bordered Czechoslovakia, Germany, Free City of Danzig, Lithuania, Latvia, Romania, and the Soviet Union, plus a tiny strip of the coastline of the Baltic Sea, around the city of Gdynia. Furthermore, in the period March 1939 - August 1939, Poland bordered then-Hungarian Carpathian Ruthenia. It had an area of 388 634 km² (sixth largest in Europe, in the fall of 1938, after the annexation of Zaolzie, the area grew to 389,720 km².), and 27.2 million inhabitants according to the 1921 census. In 1939, just before the outbreak of World War II, it had an estimated 35.1 million inhabitants. Almost third of these were minorities (13.9% Ukrainians, 3.1% Note: 3.1% of Belarusians is derived from the official census data. In fact, the number of Belarusians was about 3.5 million, i.e., about 10%. However in the 1921 Polish Census the number was reduced to about 1 million and to 890,000 in 1931 Polish Census by counting Belarusian Roman Catholics as Poles, see Jan Zaprudnik, "Belarus: At a Crossroads" (1993, ISBN 0-8133-1794-0), p. 83. Belarusians, 8.6% Jews, 2.3% Germans, and 3.4% percent Czechs, Lithuanians and Russians). The Second Polish Republic is often associated with times of great adversity, of troubles and of triumph. Having to deal with the economic difficulties and destruction of World War I, followed by the Soviet invasion during the Polish Soviet War, and then increasingly hostile neighbors such as Nazi Germany, the Republic managed not only to endure, but to expand. Lacking an overseas empire (see: Maritime and Colonial League), Poland nevertheless maintained a level of economic development and prosperity comparable to that of the West. The cultural hubs of Warsaw, Kraków, Poznań, Wilno and Lwów raised themselves to the level of major European cities. They were also the sites of internationally renowned universities and places of higher learning. By 1939 the Republic was becoming a major world player in politics and economics. The End, TIME Magazine, October 2, 1939 History Timeline (1918–1939) Independence; Warsaw was free: November 11, 1918. Elections to the Sejm: January 26, 1919. Treaty of Versailles (Articles 87-93) and Little Treaty of Versailles, June 28, 1919, establish Poland as a sovereign and independent state on the international arena. War against the Ukrainians: Polish-Ukrainian War. War against the Soviets: Polish-Soviet War. Miracle of the Vistula. Treaty of Riga. War against the Lithuanians: Polish-Lithuanian War. Border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia. Uprisings in Wielkopolska and Silesia. Great Poland Uprising, Silesian Uprisings. July 15, 1920 - Agrarian Reform. March 17, 1921 - March Constitution. 1921 - alliances with France, Romania. Elections to the Sejm (1922-11-05) and to the Senat - 1922-11-12. President Gabriel Narutowicz, and his assassination (December 16, 1922). 1924 - Wladyslaw Grabski Government. Bank Polski. Monetary reform 1924 in Poland. President Stanisław Wojciechowski - December 20, 1922, to Zamach majowy. Coup of May - Zamach majowy, 1926, May, Józef Piłsudski coup d'etat (May Coup). beginning of Sanacja government. Roman Dmowski, Obóz Wielkiej Polski (4 December 1926), Endecja. 1928 - Piłsudski's nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government. 16 November 1930 - Polish legislative election. 25 July 1932 - non-aggression pact with Soviet Union 26 January 1934 - non-aggression pact with Germany 23 April 1935 - April Constitution 12 May 1935 - death of Józef Piłsudski 1930s - Gdynia, Centralny Okreg Przemyslowy (1936), Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski 2 February 1937 - creation of the Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego political party October 1938 - annexation of Zaolzie, Górna Orawa, Jaworzyna from Czechoslovakia 2 January 1939 - death of Roman Dmowski 31 March 1939 - military guarantees from United Kingdom and France 23 August 1939 - non-aggression pact between Soviet Union and Germany: Ribbentrop-Molotow Pact with a secret military alliance protocol targeting Poland (among several other countries) 25 August 1939 - alliance between Poland and United Kingdom The beginnings Polish soldiers displaying captured Soviet battle flags after the Battle of Warsaw. Occupied by German and Austro-Hungarian armies in the summer of 1915, the formerly Russian-ruled part of what was considered Poland was proposed to become a German puppet state by the occupying powers on November 5, 1916, with a governing Council of State and (from October 15, 1917) a Regency Council (Rada Regencyjna Królestwa Polskiego) to administer the country under German auspices (see also Mitteleuropa) pending the election of a king. Shortly before the end of World War I, on October 7, 1918, the Regency Council dissolved the Council of State and announced its intention to restore Polish independence. With the notable exception of the Marxist-oriented Social Democratic Party of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania (SDKPiL), most political parties supported this move. On October 23 the Council appointed a new government under Józef Swierzynski and began conscription into the Polish Army. On November 5, in Lublin, the first Soviet of Delegates was created. On November 6 the Communists announced the creation of a Republic of Tarnobrzeg. The same day, a Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland was created under the Socialist, Ignacy Daszynski. On November 10, Józef Piłsudski, newly freed from imprisonment by the German authorities at Magdeburg, returned to Warsaw. Next day, due to his popularity and support from most political parties, the Regency Council appointed Piłsudski Commander in Chief of the Polish Armed Forces. On November 14 the Council dissolved itself and transferred all its authority to Piłsudski as Chief of State (Naczelnik Państwa). Centers of government that were created in Galicia (formerly Austrian-ruled southern Poland) included a National Council of the Principality of Cieszyn (created in November 1918) and a Polish Liquidation Committee (created on October 28). Soon afterward, conflict broke out in Lwów between forces of the Military Committee of Ukrainians and the Polish irregular units of students and children, known as Lwów Eaglets, who were later supported by the Polish Army. After consultation with Pilsudski, Daszynski's government dissolved itself and a new government was created under Jędrzej Moraczewski. World War II The beginning of the Second World War put an end to the Second Polish Republic. The "Invasion of Poland" campaign began 1 September 1939, one week after the signing of the secret Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and ended 6 October 1939, with Germany and the Soviet Union occupying the entirety of Poland (with the exception of the area of Wilno, which was annexed by Lithuania). Poland did not surrender, but continued as Polish Government in Exile and the Polish Underground State. Politics and government Edward Rydz-Śmigły receiving the Marshal buława from president of Poland Ignacy Mościcki. November 10, 1936, Warsaw. Chief of State Józef Piłsudski – 22 November 1918 – 9 December 1922 Presidents Gabriel Narutowicz – 9 December 1922 – 16 December 1922 Stanisław Wojciechowski – 20 December 1922 – 14 May 1926 Ignacy Mościcki – 1 June 1926 – 30 September 1939 Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski - 1 October 1939 Prime ministers Jędrzej Moraczewski – 18 November 1918 – 16 January 1919 Ignacy Paderewski – 18 January 1919 – 27 November 1919 Leopold Skulski – 13 December 1919 – 9 June 1920 Władysław Grabski – 27 June 1920 – 24 July 1920 Wincenty Witos – 24 July 1920 – 13 September 1921 Antoni Ponikowski – 19 September 1921 – 5 March 1922 Antoni Ponikowski – 10 March 1922 – 6 June 1922 Artur Śliwiński – 28 June 1922 – 7 July 1922 Wojciech Korfanty – 14 July 1922 – 31 July 1922 Julian Nowak – 31 July 1922 – 14 December 1922 Władysław Sikorski – 16 December 1922 – 26 May 1923 Wincenty Witos – 28 May 1923 – 14 December 1923 Władysław Grabski – 19 December 1923 – 14 November 1925 Aleksander Skrzyński – 20 November 1925 – 5 May 1926 Wincenty Witos – 10 May 1926 – 14 May 1926 Kazimierz Bartel – 15 May 1926 – 4 June 1926 Kazimierz Bartel – 8 June 1926 – 24 September 1926 Kazimierz Bartel – 27 September 1926 – 30 September 1926 Józef Piłsudski – 2 October 1926 – 27 June 1928 Kazimierz Bartel – 27 June 1928 – 13 April 1929 Kazimierz Świtalski – 14 April 1929 – 7 December 1929 Kazimierz Bartel – 29 December 1929 – 15 March 1930 Walery Sławek – 29 March 1930 – 23 August 1930 Józef Piłsudski – 25 August 1930 – 4 December 1930 Walery Sławek – 4 December 1930 – 26 May 1931 Aleksander Prystor – 27 May 1931 – 9 May 1933 Janusz Jędrzejewicz – 10 May 1933 – 13 May 1934 Leon Kozłowski – 15 May 1934 – 28 March 1935 Walery Sławek – 28 March 1935 – 12 October 1935 Marian Zyndram-Kościałkowski – 13 October 1935 – 15 May 1936 Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski – 15 May 1936 – 30 September 1939 Economy Industry areas and communication routes in Poland before the start of WWII. After regaining her independence Poland was faced with major economic difficulties. Within the borders of the Republic were the remnants of three different economic systems, with three different currencies and with little or no direct infrastructural links. The situation was so bad that neighboring industrial centers as well as major cities lacked direct railroad links, because they had been parts of different occupying nations. For example, in the 1920s there was no direct railroad connection between Warsaw and Kraków, the line was not completed until 1934. On top of this was the massive destruction left after both World War I and the Polish Soviet War. There was also a great economic disparity between the eastern (commonly called Poland B) and western (called Poland A) parts of the country, with the western half, especially areas that had belonged to the German Empire being much more developed and prosperous. Frequent border closures and tariff wars (especially with Nazi Germany) also had negative economic impacts on Poland. Despite these problems Poland managed in the interwar period to achieve a state of economic prosperity on par with Western Europe. In 1924 prime minister and economic minister Władysław Grabski introduced the złoty as a single common currency for Poland, which remained one of the most stable currencies of Central Europe. The currency helped Poland to bring under control the massive hyperinflation, the only country in Europe which was able to do this without foreign loans or aid (see also Polish marka). The basis of Poland's relative prosperity were the mass economic development plans which oversaw the building of three key infrastructural elements. The first was the establishment of the Gdynia seaport, which allowed Poland to completely bypass Gdańsk (which was under heavy German pressure to boycott Polish coal exports). The second was construction of the 500-kilometer rail connection between Upper Silesia and Gdynia, called Polish Coal Trunk-Line, which served freight trains with coal. The third was the creation of a central industrial district, named the COP - Central Industrial Region (Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy). Unfortunately, these developments were interrupted and largely destroyed by the German and Soviet invasion and the start of World War II. , Atlas Historii Polski, Demart Sp, 2004, ISBN 83-89239-89-2 Railroads According to the 1939 Statistical Yearbook of Poland, total length of railroads of Poland (as for December 31, 1937) was 20 118 kilometers. Rail density was 5.2 km. per 100 km2. Railroads were very dense in western part of the country, and in the east, especially Polesie, rail was non-existent in some counties. During the interbellum period, Polish government constructed several new lines, mainly in central part of the country (see also Polish State Railroads Summer 1939). Demographics Poland, linguistic 1937 Polish Nation in 1912 and territorial claims Polish voivodeships 1922–1939 Administrative map of Poland from 1930 Poland has traditionally been a nation of many nations, with large Jewish and Ukrainian minorities. This was especially true after she regained her independence in the wake of World War I, in 1918. The census of 1921 allocates 30.8% of the population in the minority. Joseph Marcus, Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland, 1919–1939, Mouton Publishing, 1983, ISBN 90-279-3239-5, Google Books, p. 17 This was further exacerbated with the Polish victory in the Polish Soviet War, and the large territorial gains made by Poland as a consequence. According to the 1931 Polish Census (as cited by Norman Davies Norman Davies, God's Playground, Columbia University Press, 2005, ISBN 0-231-12819-3, Google Print, p.299 ), 68.9% of the population was Polish, 13.9% were Ukrainians, 8.6% Jews, 3.1% Belarusians, 2.3% Germans and 2.8% - others, including Lithuanians, Czechs and Armenians. Poland was also a nation of many religions. In 1921 16,057,229 Poles (approx. 62.5%) were Roman (Latin) Catholics, 3,031,057 citizens of Poland (approx. 11.8%) were Eastern Rite Catholics (mostly Ukrainian Greek Catholics and Armenian Rite Catholics), 2,815,817 (approx. 10.95%) were Greek Orthodox, 2,771,949 (approx. 10.8%) were Jewish, and 940,232 (approx. 3.7%) were Protestants (mostly Lutheran Evangelical). , Powszechny Spis Ludnosci r. 1921 By 1931 Poland had the second largest Jewish population in the world, with one-fifth of all the world's Jews residing within Poland's borders (approx. 3,136,000). Population Date Population Percentage of rural population Population density (per km²) 30 September 1921 (census) 27,177,000 75,4% 69,9 9 December 1931 (census) 32,348,000 72,6% 82,6 31 December 1938 (estimate) 34,849,000 70% 89,7 Largest cities in early 1939: Warsaw – 1,289,000 Łódź – 672,000 Lwów – 318,000 Poznań – 272,000 Kraków – 259,000 Wilno – 209,000 Bydgoszcz – 141,000 Częstochowa – 138,000 Katowice – 134,000 Sosnowiec – 130,000 Lublin – 122,000 Gdynia – 120,000 Chorzów – 110,000 Białystok – 107,000 Administrative division The Administrative division of Second Polish Republic was based on the three tier system. On the lowest rung were the gminy, which were little more than local town and village governments. These were then grouped together into powiaty which were then arranged into wojewodstwa. Popadia in Gorgany. Polish-Czechoslovak border (before World War 2) Polish voivodeships in the interbellum (data as per April 1, 1937) car plates (since 1937) Voivodeship Separate city Capital Area in 1000 km² (1930) Population in 1000 (1931) 00-19 City of Warsaw Warsaw 0,14 1179,5 85-89 warszawskie Warsaw 31,7 2460,9 20-24 białostockie Białystok 26,0 1263,3 25-29 kieleckie Kielce 22,2 2671,0 30-34 krakowskie Kraków 17,6 2300,1 35-39 lubelskie Lublin 26,6 2116,2 40-44 lwowskie Lwów 28,4 3126,3 45-49 łódzkie Łódź 20,4 2650,1 50-54 nowogródzkie Nowogródek 23,0 1057,2 55-59 poleskie Brześć nad Bugiem 36,7 1132,2 60-64 pomorskie Toruń 25,7 1884,4 65-69 poznańskie Poznań 28,1 2339,6 70-74 stanisławowskie Stanisławów 16,9 1480,3 75-79 śląskie Katowice 5,1 1533,5 80-84 tarnopolskie Tarnopol 16,5 1600,4 90-94 wileńskie Wilno 29,0 1276,0 95-99 wołyńskie Łuck 35,7 2085,6 On April 1, 1938, borders of several western and central Voivodeships changed considerably. For more information, see Territorial changes of Polish Voivodeships on April 1, 1938. Geography of the Second Polish Republic Second Polish Republic was mainly flat, with average elevation of 223 meters above sea level (after World War Two, average elevation of Poland decreased to 173 meters). Only 13% of territory, along the southern border, was higher than 300 meters. The highest elevation was Mount Rysy, which rises 2,499 meters in the Tatra Range of the Carpathians, 95 kilometers south of Kraków. Between October 1938 and September 1939, the highest elevation was Lodowy Szczyt (known in the Slovakian language as Ľadový štít), which rises 2,627 meters above sea level. The biggest lake was Lake Narach. Country's total area, after annexation of Zaolzie, was 389,720 km²., it extended 903 kilometers from north to south and 894 kilometers from east to west. On January 1, 1938, total length of boundaries was 5 529 km., including: 140 kilometers of coastline (out of which 71 kilometers were made by the Hel Peninsula), 1412 kilometers with Soviet Union, 948 kilometers with Czechoslovakia (until 1938), 1912 kilometers with Germany (together with East Prussia), 1081 kilometers with other countries (Lithuania, Romania, Latvia, Danzig). Among major cities of the Second Polish Republic, the warmest yearly average temperature was in Kraków (9.1 C in 1938) and the coldest in Wilno (7.6 C in 1938). Extreme points Northernmost point: N55*51'8,45" (N55,852250*); Przeświata River in Somino, located in the Braslaw county of the Wilno Voivodeship Southernmost point: N47*43'31,8" (N47,725492*); spring of Manczin River located in the Kosów county of the Stanisławów Voivodeship Easternmost point: E28*21'44,3" (E28,362371*); Spasibiorki (near railway to Połock) located in the Dzisna county of the Wilno Voivodeship Westernmost point: E15*47'12,4" (E15,786773*); Mukocinek near Warta River and Meszyn Lake located in the Międzychód county of the Poznań Voivodeship Drainage Almost 75% of the territory of interbellum Poland was drained northward into the Baltic Sea by the Vistula (total area of drainage basin of the Vistula within boundaries of the Second Polish Republic was 180 300 km².), the Niemen (51 600 km².), the Odra (46 700 km².) and the Daugava (10 400 km².). The remaining part of the country was drained southward, into the Black Sea, by the rivers that drain into the Dnieper (Pripyat, Horyn and Styr, all together 61 500 km².) as well as Dniester (41 400 km².) 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6,129 | Commodore_1541 | Front view of the most common version of the Commodore 1541 disk drive, with open disk slot. This version uses a Newtronics drive mechanism, and the rotating lever is used to hold the disk in place. Note that the small toggle switch in the lower right corner is an aftermarket addition.Back panel view of the Commodore 1541 disk drive.The Commodore 1541 (aka CBM 1541, and originally called VIC-1541), made by Commodore International, was the best-known floppy disk drive for the Commodore 64 home computer. The 1541 was a single-sided 170 kilobyte drive for 5¼" disks. The 1541 followed the previous Commodore 1540 (meant for the VIC-20). The disk drive used Group Code Recording (GCR) and contained a MOS 6502 microprocessor, doubling as a disk controller and on-board disk operating system processor. The number of sectors per track varied from 17 to 21 (an early implementation of Zone Bit Recording). The drive's built-in disk operating system was CBM DOS 2.6. Use of "flippy disks", which were double-sided disks converted by cutting/punching a notch on the left-hand side, would give access to the reverse side of the disks and effectively double the storage capacity. The notch could be made with a knife, single hole paper punch, or "disk notcher" tool that was specifically designed for this task. Disk capacity Each side of 170 KBs was split into 683 sectors on 35 tracks, each of the sectors holding 256 bytes; the file system made each sector its own cluster. However, since one track had to be used by the drive itself for directory and file allocation information (so-called BAM, Block Allocation Map) and two bytes of each physical sector were used as a block pointer to the next logical sector (as to implement interleave for faster access), a logical block would hold 254 bytes. If the disk was not otherwise prepared with a custom format, (e.g. for data disks), 664 blocks would be free after formatting, giving 168,656 bytes (or almost 165 KB) for user data. Using own formatting and load/save routines (sometimes included in third-party DOSes, see below), all of the mechanically possible 40 tracks could be used. The reason why Commodore decided not to use the upper five tracks by default (or at least more than 35) was the bad quality of some of the drive mechanisms which did not always work reliably at the highest tracks. So by reducing the number of tracks used and thus capacity, it was possible to further reduce cost - in contrast to Double Density drives used e.g. in IBM PC computers of the day which saved 180 KB on one side (by using a 40 tracks format). For compatibility and ease of implementation, the 1571's Double Sided format of one logical disk side with 70 tracks later was created by putting together the 35 physical tracks on each of the physical sides rather than using two times 40 (or e.g. 38) tracks, even though there were no more quality problems with the mechanisms of those drives. The 1571 CP/M format, however, uses the full 360 KB available on that two R/W head drive. Introduction and early problems Priced at under US$400 at its introduction, the 1541 became widely popular. Although expensive by today's standards, a C64 plus a 1541 cost about $900, while an Apple II with no disk drive cost $1395. The demand caught Commodore by surprise, and they struggled to produce the drive in adequate quantities. Failure rates on the 1541 initially were very high, and the drives were virtually impossible to find. The lead editorial in the December 1983 issue of Compute!'s Gazette lamented that four of the seven drives the magazine had in its editorial offices had failed. Eventually the problems subsided and the drive became nearly as widely available as the C64 itself. The 1541 did not have dip switches to change the drive number. If a user added more than one drive to a system the user had to open the case and cut a trace in the circuit board to permanently change the drive's number, or hand-wire an external switch to allow it to be changed externally. It was also possible to change the number temporarily from the operating system. The 1541 also had an internal power source, which generated some heat. Due to this it was in many places often known as "toaster". The heat generation was a frequent source of humour. For example, series of humorous tips in MikroBitti 5/1989 said "When programming late, coffee and kebab keep nicely warm on top of 1541." MikroBitti review of 1541-II said that its external power source "should end the jokes about toasters". Versions and third-party clones Commodore 1541-II, the second of two upgraded versions of the CBM 1541 (the first upgrade was the 1541C). The 1541-II has the more modern 'radial handle' locking mechanism.There were two versions of the 1541 mechanics. Early models used a drive mechanism made by Alps Electric, distinguishable by its push-down drive door. Later models utilized a drive mechanism manufactured by Newtronics (Mitsumi), which used a lever release. All but the very earliest 1541s can use either the Alps or Newtronics mechanism. Visually, the first models, of the VIC-1541 denomination, had an off-white color like the VIC-20 and VIC-1540. Then, to match the look of the C64, CBM changed the drive's color to brown-beige and the name to Commodore 1541. The 1541's numerous shortcomings opened a market for a number of third-party clones of the disk drive, a situation that continued for the lifetime of the C64. Well-known clones were the Oceanic OC-118 aka Excelerator+, MSD 's single and dual drives, the Enhancer 2000, the Indus GT, and CMD 's FD-2000 and FD-4000. Nevertheless, the 1541 became the first disk drive to see widespread use in the home and Commodore sold millions of the units. In 1986, Commodore released the 1541C, a revised version that offered quieter and slightly more reliable operation and a light beige case matching the color scheme of the Commodore 64C. It was replaced in 1988 by the 1541-II, which used an external power supply to provide cooler operation and allow the drive to have a smaller desktop footprint (the power supply "brick" being placed elsewhere, typically on the floor). The serial computer interface The 1541 used a bit-serial version of the IEEE-488 interface, the speedier parallel version of which was used on Commodore's earlier drives for the PET/CBM range of personal/business computers. To ensure a ready supply of inexpensive cabling for its home computer peripherals, Commodore chose standard DIN connectors for the serial interface. Disk drives and other peripherals such as printers were connected to the computer via a daisy chain scheme, necessitating only a single connector on the computer itself. Initially, Commodore intended to use a hardware shift register (the 6522 VIA) to maintain relatively brisk drive speeds with the new serial interface. However, a hardware bug with this chip prevented the initial design from working as anticipated, and the ROM code was hastily rewritten to handle the entire operation in software. According to Jim Butterfield, this caused a speed reduction by a factor of five. As implemented on the VIC-20 and Commodore 64, CBM DOS could transfer only about 300 bytes per second, which translated to about 20 minutes to copy one disk—10 minutes of reading time, and 10 minutes of writing time. However, since both the computer and the drive could easily be reprogrammed, third parties quickly wrote more efficient firmware that would speed up drive operations drastically. Without hardware modifications, some "fast loader" utilities managed to achieve speeds of up to 4 kB/s. The most common of these products were the Epyx FastLoad, the Final Cartridge, and the Action Replay plug-in cartridges, which all had machine code monitor and disk editor software on board as well. The popular Commodore computer magazines of the era also entered the arena with type-in fast-load utilities, with Compute!'s Gazette publishing TurboDisk in 1985 and RUN (magazine) publishing Sizzle in 1987. Even though each 1541 had its own on board disk controller and disk operating system, it was not possible for a user to command two 1541 drives to copy a disk (one drive reading and the other writing) as with older dual drives like the 4040 and 8050 that were often found with the PET computer, and which the 1541 was backward compatible to (it could read 4040 disks but not write to them since its internal Operating System was essentially the same). Unfortunately, however, the routines in the 1541 disk operating system to enable disk copy were removed as it was intended to be a stand-alone unit. To copy from drive to drive, software running on the C64 was needed and it would first read from one drive into memory, then write out to the other. Only later when first Fast Hack'em then other disk backup programs were released was true drive to drive copying possible. One could then unplug the C64 itself from the drives (i.e. from the first drive in the daisy chain) and do something else with the computer as the drives proceeded to copy the entire disk. Copy protection by read error Early copy protection schemes deliberately introduced read errors on the disk, the software refusing to load unless the correct error message was returned. The general idea was that the inbuilt disk copy command was incapable of copying the errors. When one of these errors was encountered, the disk drive (as do all disk drives) would attempt one or more re-read attempts after first resetting the head to track zero. Few of these schemes had much deterrent effect, as various software companies soon released 'nibbler' utilities that enabled protected disks to be copied. The drive head misalignment issue The drive-head mechanism was notoriously easy to misalign, and had a tendency to make a 'machine-gun' rattle when out of alignment or when formatting a new disk. Some people even wrote code to vibrate the head at different frequencies to play simple tunes such as Daisy Bell, Amazing Grace, and, perhaps most appropriately, When I'm Sixty-Four. The most common cause of the 1541's drive head knocking and subsequent misalignment, however, was copy protection schemes on commercial software. The main cause of the problem was that the disk drive itself did not feature any means of detecting when the read/write head had reached track zero. Accordingly, when a disk was formatted or a disk error occurred, the unit would physically drive the head 40 tracks to track zero (although the 1541 DOS only used 35 tracks, the drive itself was a 40 track unit). Once track zero was reached, the head would be physically rammed against a solid stop. This ramming gave the characteristic 'machine gun' noise and would, sooner or later, throw the head out of alignment. There were at least one or two "home remedy" software products on the market during the heyday of the 1541 drive and Commodore 64 computer that could be used to re-align the drive yourself and save a costly trip to a repair center and down time. They generally consisted of a software program and a calibration disk. What the user would do is remove the drive from its case and then loosen the screws holding the stepper motor that moved the head. Then with the calibration disk in the drive gently turn the stepper motor back and forth until the program showed a good alignment. The screws were then tightened and the drive put back in its case. The real problem actually was that the sprocket which moved the head would slip on the stepper motor shaft after repeated hammering and this would put the drive gradually out of alignment. The later 1571 drive (which was 1541 compatible) incorporated track zero detection and was thus immuned to the problem. A third-party fix for the 1541 appeared where the solid head stop was replaced by a sprung stop, giving the head a much easier life. Also, a software solution, which resided in the drive controller's ROM, could prevent the re-reads from occurring, though this could cause problems when genuine errors did occur. Commodore's successor products The Commodore 1570 was an upgraded 1541 for use with the Commodore 128, available in Europe. It offered MFM capability for accessing CP/M disks, improved speed, and somewhat quieter operation, but was only manufactured until Commodore got its production lines going with the double-sided 1571. Finally, the small, external power supply, MFM-based Commodore 1581 3½" drive was made, giving 800 KB access to the C128 and C64. By this time, however, many CBM users had shifted their attention to the 16/32-bit Amiga, and the 1581 was mostly sold to remaining GEOS users. References CBM (1982). VIC-1541 Single Drive Floppy Disk User's Manual. 2nd ed. Commodore Business Machines, Inc. P/N 1540031-02. Neufeld, Gerald G. (1985). 1541 User's Guide. The Complete Guide to Commodore's 1541 Disk Drive. Second Printing, June 1985. 413 pp. Copyright © 1984 by DATAMOST, Inc. (Brady). ISBN 0-89303-738-9. Immers, Richard; Neufeld, Gerald G. (1984). Inside Commodore DOS. The Complete Guide to the 1541 Disk Operating System. DATAMOST, Inc & Reston Publishing Company, Inc. (Prentice-Hall). ISBN 0-8359-3091-2. Englisch, Lothar; Szczepanowski, Norbert (1984). The Anatomy of the 1541 Disk Drive. Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original 1983 German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH). ISBN 0-916439-01-1. External links C64 Preservation Project Discusses internal drive mechanics and copy protection Undocumented 1541 drive functions – From the Project 64 website | Commodore_1541 |@lemmatized front:1 view:2 common:3 version:8 commodore:27 disk:48 drive:66 open:3 slot:1 use:25 newtronics:3 mechanism:8 rotating:1 lever:2 hold:4 place:3 note:1 small:3 toggle:1 switch:3 low:1 right:1 corner:1 aftermarket:1 addition:1 back:3 panel:1 aka:2 cbm:8 originally:1 call:2 vic:7 make:6 international:1 best:1 know:3 floppy:2 home:4 computer:12 single:5 side:9 kilobyte:1 follow:1 previous:1 meant:1 group:1 code:4 record:2 gcr:1 contain:1 mo:1 microprocessor:1 double:6 controller:3 board:4 operate:3 system:9 processor:1 number:6 sector:6 per:2 track:19 vary:1 early:5 implementation:2 zone:1 bit:3 built:1 operating:4 dos:2 flippy:1 convert:1 cut:2 punch:2 notch:2 left:1 hand:2 would:12 give:5 access:4 reverse:1 effectively:1 storage:1 capacity:3 could:9 knife:1 hole:1 paper:1 notcher:1 tool:1 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6,130 | Lois_McMaster_Bujold | Lois McMaster Bujold (born November 2, 1949, Columbus, Ohio) is an American author of science fiction and fantasy works. Bujold is one of the most acclaimed writers in her field, having won the prestigious Hugo Award for best novel four times, matching Robert A. Heinlein's record. Her novella "The Mountains of Mourning" won both the Hugo and Nebula Award. In the fantasy sphere, The Curse of Chalion won the Mythopoeic Award for Adult Literature and was nominated for the 2002 World Fantasy Award for best novel, and both her fourth Hugo and second Nebula were for Paladin of Souls. Bujold is the daughter of Robert Charles McMaster http://www.dendarii.com/tribute.html and attributes her early interest in science fiction, as well as certain aspects of the Vorkosigan saga, to his influence. He was editor http://www.amazon.com/Nondestructive-Testing-Handbook-Robert-McMaster/dp/0318215020 of the monumental Nondestructive Testing Handbook http://www.asnt.org/publications/handbook/third/thirdedition.htm generally referred to as McMaster on Materials. Bujold currently lives in Minnesota. She is divorced and has two children. Vorkosigan Saga Bujold is best known for her series of novels featuring Miles Vorkosigan, a physically-impaired interstellar spy and mercenary admiral from the planet Barrayar, set approximately 1000 years in our future. Earlier titles are generally firmly in the space opera tradition with no shortage of battles, conspiracies, and wild twists, while in more recent volumes Miles becomes more of a detective. In A Civil Campaign, Bujold explores yet another genre: a high-society romance with a plot that pays tribute to Regency romance novelist Georgette Heyer (as acknowledged in the dedication). It centers on a catastrophic dinner party, with misunderstandings and dialogue justifying the subtitle "A Comedy of Biology and Manners". There is considerable debate among readers as the best order to read the Vorkosigan series. Some favor reading in publication order, some in order of internal chronology, and some prefer other orders. This illustrates the widely held view that this series consists of independent works which nonetheless gain from their inter-relations. The author has stated that her Miles Naismith Vorkosigan series structure is modeled after the Horatio Hornblower books documenting the life of a single person. In themes and echoes, they also reflect Dorothy L. Sayers' mystery character Lord Peter Wimsey. Bujold has also said that part of the challenge of writing a series is that many readers will encounter the stories in "utterly random order", so she must provide sufficient background in each of them without being excessively repetitious. Most recent printings of her Vorkosigan tales do include an appendix at the end summarizing the internal chronology of the series. Science fiction and fantasy Lois Bujold wrote three books (Shards of Honor, Ethan of Athos and The Warrior's Apprentice) before The Warrior's Apprentice was accepted after four rejections. On the strength of The Warrior's Apprentice, Baen Books agreed to a three-book deal to include the two prior novels. Thus began Bujold's career in science fiction. She also wanted to break into the fantasy genre, but met with early setbacks. Her first foray into fantasy was The Spirit Ring. She wrote the book "on spec", shopped it around, and found very low offers, forcing her to go back to Baen Books, where Jim Baen bought it for a fair price in exchange for the promise of more Vorkosigan books. Bujold called this experience, combined with the mediocre sales and lack of critical acclaim of that book, very educational. She would not attempt to break into the fantasy market again for almost another decade, with The Curse of Chalion. This book was also written on spec and offered up to a book auction. This time, she met with considerable critical and commercial success by tapping into a crossover market of fantasy and romance genre fans. Selected works Vorkosigan Saga - Cordelia Naismith Shards of Honor (1986) - Set approximately 1 year before the birth of Miles Vorkosigan Barrayar (1991) - Hugo and Locus SF Awards winner, 1992, Nebula Award nominee, 1991 Vorkosigan Saga - Miles Vorkosigan - Published Order Ethan of Athos (1986) The Warrior's Apprentice (1986) Falling Free (1988) The Borders of Infinity (1989) Brothers in Arms (1989) The Vor Game (1990) Vorkosigan's Game (omnibus) (1992) Mirror Dance (1994) Cetaganda (1995) Memory (1996) Young Miles (omnibus) (1997) Komarr (1998) A Civil Campaign (1999) Miles, Mystery and Mayhem (omnibus) (2001) Diplomatic Immunity (2002) Miles Errant (omnibus) (2002) Miles, Mutants and Microbes (omnibus) (2007) Miles in Love (omnibus) (2008) Winterfair Gifts (2008) Listed in order of internal chronology: "Dreamweaver's Dilemma" [set in the Vorkosigan universe long before the rest of the series] (1995) (included in collection Dreamweaver's Dilemma) NESFA Press Falling Free [set approximately 200 years before the birth of Miles Vorkosigan] (1988) — Nebula Award winner, 1988 , Hugo Award nominee, 1989 The Warrior's Apprentice (1986) "The Mountains of Mourning" (1989) — Hugo Award, Nebula Award. First published in Analog magazine; included in Borders of Infinity; available online via the Baen Free Library. The Vor Game (1990) — Hugo Award winner, Locus SF Award nominee, 1991 Cetaganda (1995) Locus SF Award winner, 1997 Ethan of Athos [Miles Vorkosigan is referred to, but does not actually appear, in this novel] (1986) "Labyrinth" (1989) — First published in Analog magazine; included in Borders of Infinity. "The Borders of Infinity" (1987) — First published in Freelancers; included in Borders of Infinity; available online via Baen Webscription. Borders of Infinity (1989) — Collection of "The Mountains of Mourning", "Labyrinth" and "The Borders of Infinity", tied together with an original frame story interspliced between them, which is set shortly after Brothers in Arms. Brothers in Arms (1989) Mirror Dance (1994) — Hugo and Locus SF Awards winner, 1995 Memory (1996) (unavailable in any omnibus volume) Hugo, Nebula and Locus SF Awards nominee, 1997 Komarr (1998) A Civil Campaign (2000) Hugo, Nebula and Locus SF Awards nominee, 2000 "Winterfair Gifts" (2002 in Croatian (as a "Zimoslavni darovi"), 2003 in Russian, 2004 in English) — First published in Irresistible Forces, a Science Fiction/Romance genre crossover anthology edited by Catherine Asaro. Also in the omnibus Miles in Love. The "Winterfair Gifts" novella is also available as a standalone ebook from Fictionwise. Diplomatic Immunity (2002) Nebula Award nominee, 2003 A new Vorkosigan novel (untitled as of late-2008) is scheduled for publication in 2010. Bujold read the first two chapters at Denvention 3 (August 2008), where she was Guest of Honor. Omnibus volumes Cordelia's Honor (contains Shards of Honor, Barrayar) Young Miles (contains The Warrior's Apprentice, "The Mountains of Mourning", The Vor Game) Miles, Mystery, and Mayhem (contains Cetaganda, Ethan of Athos, "Labyrinth") Miles Errant (contains "The Borders of Infinity", Brothers in Arms, Mirror Dance) Miles in Love (contains Komarr, A Civil Campaign, "Winterfair Gifts") Miles, Mutants and Microbes (contains Falling Free, Diplomatic Immunity, "Labyrinth") Test of Honor (out of print; contains Shards of Honor and The Warrior's Apprentice) Vorkosigan's Game (out of print; contains The Vor Game, "The Mountains of Mourning", "Labyrinth", and "The Borders of Infinity" including the framing story for the collection Borders of Infinity) Audiobooks Cassette tape and CD versions of Falling Free, Shards of Honor, Barrayar, The Warrior's Apprentice, The Vor Game, Cetaganda, Ethan of Athos, Borders of Infinity, and Brothers in Arms were produced by The Reader's Chair. This company is no longer in business. Currently, unabridged audio CD editions (retail and library), MP3, Playaway and cassette versions are available through Blackstone Audio of: The Warrior's Apprentice, The Vor Game, Cetaganda, Brothers in Arms, Mirror Dance, Memory, Komarr, A Civil Campaign, Winterfair Gifts, and Diplomatic Immunity. Ethan of Athos and Shards of Honor are scheduled for release by Blackstone in 2009. Titles currently produced by Blackstone Audio are also available for download on Audible.com. Fantasy novels The Spirit Ring (1993) Locus Fantasy Award nominee, 1993 in the Chalion universe: The Curse of Chalion (2001) Hugo, Locus Fantasy, and World Fantasty Awards nominee, 2002 Paladin of Souls (2003) (sequel to The Curse of Chalion) Hugo, Nebula and Locus Fantasy Awards winner, 2004 The Hallowed Hunt (2005) Locus Fantasy Award nominee, 2006 The Sharing Knife: Beguilement (2006) Legacy (2007) Passage (2008) Horizon (2009) Audiobooks Blackstone Audio produces CD editions, MP3, Playaway, and cassette versions of: The Curse of Chalion, Paladin of Souls, The Hallowed Hunt, The Sharing Knife Vol 1: Beguilement, The Sharing Knife Vol 2: Legacy, and The Sharing Knife Vol 3: Passage. All of these titles are also available from Audible.com. See also References Specific General External links The Bujold Nexus Fantastic Fiction Author Page Official forum (to which the author regularly contributes) at IBDoF Complete list of sci-fi award wins and nominations by novel | Lois_McMaster_Bujold |@lemmatized lois:2 mcmaster:4 bujold:12 born:1 november:1 columbus:1 ohio:1 american:1 author:4 science:5 fiction:6 fantasy:13 work:3 one:1 acclaimed:1 writer:1 field:1 win:4 prestigious:1 hugo:12 award:22 best:4 novel:8 four:2 time:2 match:1 robert:3 heinlein:1 record:1 novella:2 mountain:5 mourn:5 nebula:9 sphere:1 curse:5 chalion:6 mythopoeic:1 adult:1 literature:1 nominate:1 world:2 fourth:1 second:1 paladin:3 soul:3 daughter:1 charles:1 http:3 www:3 dendarii:1 com:4 tribute:2 html:1 attribute:1 early:3 interest:1 well:1 certain:1 aspect:1 vorkosigan:17 saga:4 influence:1 editor:1 amazon:1 nondestructive:2 test:3 handbook:3 dp:1 monumental:1 asnt:1 org:1 publication:3 third:1 thirdedition:1 htm:1 generally:2 refer:2 material:1 currently:3 live:1 minnesota:1 divorce:1 two:3 child:1 known:1 series:7 feature:1 mile:18 physically:1 impaired:1 interstellar:1 spy:1 mercenary:1 admiral:1 planet:1 barrayar:4 set:5 approximately:3 year:3 future:1 title:3 firmly:1 space:1 opera:1 tradition:1 shortage:1 battle:1 conspiracy:1 wild:1 twist:1 recent:2 volume:3 becomes:1 detective:1 civil:5 campaign:5 explores:1 yet:1 another:2 genre:4 high:1 society:1 romance:4 plot:1 pay:1 regency:1 novelist:1 georgette:1 heyer:1 acknowledge:1 dedication:1 center:1 catastrophic:1 dinner:1 party:1 misunderstanding:1 dialogue:1 justify:1 subtitle:1 comedy:1 biology:1 manner:1 considerable:2 debate:1 among:1 reader:3 order:7 read:2 favor:1 reading:1 internal:3 chronology:3 prefer:1 illustrate:1 widely:1 hold:1 view:1 consist:1 independent:1 nonetheless:1 gain:1 inter:1 relation:1 state:1 naismith:2 structure:1 model:1 horatio:1 hornblower:1 book:10 document:1 life:1 single:1 person:1 theme:1 echo:1 also:9 reflect:1 dorothy:1 l:1 sayers:1 mystery:3 character:1 lord:1 peter:1 wimsey:1 say:1 part:1 challenge:1 write:4 many:1 encounter:1 story:3 utterly:1 random:1 must:1 provide:1 sufficient:1 background:1 without:1 excessively:1 repetitious:1 printing:1 tale:1 include:7 appendix:1 end:1 summarize:1 three:2 shard:6 honor:9 ethan:6 athos:6 warrior:9 apprentice:9 accept:1 rejection:1 strength:1 baen:5 agree:1 deal:1 prior:1 thus:1 begin:1 career:1 want:1 break:2 meet:2 setback:1 first:6 foray:1 spirit:2 ring:2 spec:2 shop:1 around:1 find:1 low:1 offer:2 force:2 go:1 back:1 jim:1 buy:1 fair:1 price:1 exchange:1 promise:1 call:1 experience:1 combine:1 mediocre:1 sale:1 lack:1 critical:2 acclaim:1 educational:1 would:1 attempt:1 market:2 almost:1 decade:1 auction:1 commercial:1 success:1 tap:1 crossover:2 fan:1 select:1 cordelia:2 birth:2 locus:10 sf:6 winner:6 nominee:9 publish:5 fall:4 free:5 border:11 infinity:11 brother:6 arm:6 vor:6 game:8 omnibus:9 mirror:4 dance:4 cetaganda:5 memory:3 young:2 komarr:4 mayhem:2 diplomatic:4 immunity:4 errant:2 mutant:2 microbe:2 love:3 winterfair:5 gift:5 list:2 dreamweaver:2 dilemma:2 universe:2 long:1 rest:1 collection:3 nesfa:1 press:1 analog:2 magazine:2 available:6 online:2 via:2 library:2 actually:1 appear:1 labyrinth:5 freelancer:1 webscription:1 tie:1 together:1 original:1 frame:1 interspliced:1 shortly:1 unavailable:1 croatian:1 zimoslavni:1 darovi:1 russian:1 english:1 irresistible:1 anthology:1 edit:1 catherine:1 asaro:1 standalone:1 ebook:1 fictionwise:1 new:1 untitled:1 late:1 schedule:2 chapter:1 denvention:1 august:1 guest:1 contain:6 contains:2 print:2 framing:1 audiobooks:2 cassette:3 tape:1 cd:3 version:3 produce:3 chair:1 company:1 longer:1 business:1 unabridged:1 audio:4 edition:2 retail:1 playaway:2 blackstone:4 release:1 download:1 audible:2 fantasty:1 sequel:1 hallow:1 hunt:2 share:4 knife:4 beguilement:2 legacy:2 passage:2 horizon:1 hallowed:1 vol:3 see:1 reference:1 specific:1 general:1 external:1 link:1 nexus:1 fantastic:1 page:1 official:1 forum:1 regularly:1 contribute:1 ibdof:1 complete:1 sci:1 fi:1 nomination:1 |@bigram lois_mcmaster:1 mcmaster_bujold:1 science_fiction:5 robert_heinlein:1 hugo_nebula:4 curse_chalion:5 http_www:3 vorkosigan_saga:4 mile_vorkosigan:5 pay_tribute:1 l_sayers:1 peter_wimsey:1 shard_honor:6 ethan_athos:6 warrior_apprentice:9 critical_acclaim:1 hugo_locus:3 locus_sf:6 komarr_civil:4 diplomatic_immunity:4 winterfair_gift:5 dreamweaver_dilemma:2 cassette_tape:1 external_link:1 sci_fi:1 |
6,131 | Apuleius | Lucius Apuleius Platonicus (c. 123/125 – c. 180) was a Romanized Berber "Berbers : ... The best known of them were the Roman author Apuleius, the Roman emperor Septimius Severus, and St. Augustine", Encyclopedia Americana, Scholastic Library Publishing, 2005, v.3, p.569 who described himself as "half-Numidian half-Gaetulian", remembered most for his bawdy picaresque Latin novel, the Metamorphoses, otherwise known as The Golden Ass or, in Latin, the Asinus Aureus (where the Latin word aureus - golden - connoted an element of blessed luckiness). Life He was born in Madaurus (now M'Daourouch, Algeria), a Roman colony in Numidia on the North African coast, bordering Gaetulia. This is the same colonia where Saint Augustine later received part of his early education, and, though located well away from the Romanized coast, is today the site of some pristine Roman ruins. Details regarding his life come mostly from his defense speech (see below) and a work entitled "Florida," which consists of snippets taken from some of his best speeches. Apuleius inherited a substantial fortune from his father, a provincial magistrate. Apuleius studied with a master at Carthage (where he later settled) and later at Athens, where he studied Platonic philosophy among other subjects. He subsequently went to Rome to study Latin oratory and, most likely, to declaim in the law courts for a time before returning to his native North Africa. He also travelled extensively in Asia Minor and Egypt, studying philosophy and religion, burning up his inheritance while doing so. Apuleius was an initiate in several cults or mysteries, including the Dionysian mysteries. As he proudly claims in his Apologia. (Winter, Thomas Nelson (2006) Apology as Prosecution: The Trial of Apuleius) He was a priest of Aesculapius Florida 16.38 and 18.38 and, according to Augustine, Augustine, Epistle 138,19. sacerdos provinciae Africae (i.e. priest of the province of Carthage). After being accused of using magic to gain the attentions (and fortune) of the wealthy widow he married (the mother of a school chum from his days in Athens), he declaimed and then distributed a witty tour de force in his own defense before the proconsul and a court of magistrates convened in Sabratha, near Tripoli. This is known as the Apologia (A Discourse on Magic). The work has very little to do with magic, and a lot to do with making mincemeat of his opponents, with hilarity and panache. It is among the funniest works that have come down to us from Antiquity -- it is certainly the most entertaining example of Latin courtroom oratory to survive, though some fans of Cicero might disagree -- and firmly places Apuleius among the great humorists of his day. His other works include De Deo Socratis (On the God of Socrates), Apologia, Florida, On Plato and his Doctrine, and possibly On the Universe. The Metamorphoses is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It is an imaginative, irreverent, and amusing work that relates the ludicrous adventures of one Lucius, who experiments in magic and is accidentally turned into an ass. In this guise he hears and sees many unusual things, until escaping from his predicament in a rather unexpected way. Within this frame story are found multiple digressions, the longest among them being the well-known tale of Cupid and Psyche. The Metamorphoses ends with the (once again human) hero, Lucius, eager to be initiated into the mystery cult of Isis; he abstains from forbidden foods, bathes and purifies himself. Then the secrets of the cult's books are explained to him, and further secrets revealed before going through the process of initiation which involves a trial by the elements in a journey to the underworld. Lucius is then asked to seek initiation into the cult of Osiris in Rome, and eventually is initiated into the pastophoroi—a group of priests that serves Isis and Osiris. Iles Johnson, Sarah, Mysteries, in Ancient Religions pp.104-5, The Belknap Press of Harvard University (2007), ISBN 978-0-674-02548-6 Bibliography The Golden Ass De Deo Socratis (On the God of Socrates) Apologia Florida On Plato and his Doctrine On the Universe References Secondary Literature Asztalos, Monika: "Apuleius' Apologia in a Nutshell: The Exordium," Classical Quarterly, 55,1 (2005), pp. 266–276. Carver, Robert H. F.: The Protean Ass: The 'Metamorphoses' of Apuleius from Antiquity to the Renaissance (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), xvi + 545 pp. Finkelpearl, Ellen D.: Metamorphosis of Language in Apuleius: A Study of Allusion in the Novel (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1998), Pp. viii, 241. Frangoulidis, S.: Roles and Performances in Apuleius' Metamorphoses (Stuttgart, J. B. Metzler, 2001). Gaisser, Julia Haig: The Fortunes of Apuleius and the Golden Ass: A Study in Transmission and Reception (Princeton (NJ), 2008), 404 pp. Harrison,S. J.: Apuleius: A Latin Sophist (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2000), 281 pp. May, Regine: Apuleius and the Drama. The Ass on Stage Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. Pp. 379. Pecere, O. and Stramaglia, A.: Studi apuleiani. Note di aggiornamento di L. Graverini (Cassino: Edizioni dell' Universita\ degli Studi di Cassino, 2003). Pp. 300. Sick, David: Apuleius, Christianity, and Virgin Birth, Wiener Studien, 118 (2005), pp. 91–116. Vasconcelos, Beatriz Ávila: Bilder der Sklaverei in den Metamorphosen des Apuleius, Vertumnus. Berliner Beiträge zur Klassischen Philologie und zu ihren Nachbargebieten, Band 7, Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht 2009, ISBN 978-3-7675-3084-3 External links Apuleius (123 A.D - 180) the Famous Berber writer Apulei Opera (Latin texts of all the surviving works of Apuleius) at The Latin Library English translation of Florida by H. E. Butler (PDF) English translation of the Apologia by H. E. Butler English translation of the Apologia by H. E. Butler (PDF) Apuleius - Apologia: Seminar (Latin text of the Apologia with H. E. Butler's English translation and an English crib with discussion and commentary) Apology as Prosecution: The Trial of Apuleius Apuleius' works: text, concordances and frequency list | Apuleius |@lemmatized lucius:4 apuleius:21 platonicus:1 c:2 romanized:1 berber:3 best:2 known:1 roman:4 author:1 emperor:1 septimius:1 severus:1 st:1 augustine:4 encyclopedia:1 americana:1 scholastic:1 library:2 publishing:1 v:1 p:1 describe:1 half:2 numidian:1 gaetulian:1 remember:1 bawdy:1 picaresque:1 latin:10 novel:3 metamorphosis:6 otherwise:1 know:3 golden:4 asinus:1 aureus:2 word:1 connote:1 element:2 blessed:1 luckiness:1 life:2 bear:1 madaurus:1 daourouch:1 algeria:1 colony:1 numidia:1 north:2 african:1 coast:2 border:1 gaetulia:1 colonia:1 saint:1 later:3 receive:1 part:1 early:1 education:1 though:2 locate:1 well:2 away:1 romanize:1 today:1 site:1 pristine:1 ruin:1 detail:1 regard:1 come:2 mostly:1 defense:2 speech:2 see:2 work:7 entitle:1 florida:5 consist:1 snippet:1 take:1 inherit:1 substantial:1 fortune:3 father:1 provincial:1 magistrate:2 study:6 master:1 carthage:2 settle:1 athens:2 platonic:1 philosophy:2 among:4 subject:1 subsequently:1 go:2 rome:2 oratory:2 likely:1 declaim:2 law:1 court:2 time:1 return:1 native:1 africa:1 also:1 travel:1 extensively:1 asia:1 minor:1 egypt:1 religion:2 burn:1 inheritance:1 initiate:3 several:1 cult:4 mystery:4 include:2 dionysian:1 proudly:1 claim:1 apologia:9 winter:1 thomas:1 nelson:1 apology:2 prosecution:2 trial:3 priest:3 aesculapius:1 accord:1 epistle:1 sacerdos:1 provinciae:1 africae:1 e:5 province:1 accuse:1 use:1 magic:4 gain:1 attention:1 wealthy:1 widow:1 marry:1 mother:1 school:1 chum:1 day:2 distribute:1 witty:1 tour:1 de:4 force:1 proconsul:1 convene:1 sabratha:1 near:1 tripoli:1 discourse:1 little:1 lot:1 make:1 mincemeat:1 opponent:1 hilarity:1 panache:1 funny:1 u:1 antiquity:2 certainly:1 entertaining:1 example:1 courtroom:1 survive:3 fan:1 cicero:1 might:1 disagree:1 firmly:1 place:1 great:1 humorist:1 deo:2 socratis:2 god:2 socrates:2 plato:2 doctrine:2 possibly:1 universe:2 entirety:1 imaginative:1 irreverent:1 amuse:1 relate:1 ludicrous:1 adventure:1 one:1 experiment:1 accidentally:1 turn:1 guise:1 hear:1 many:1 unusual:1 thing:1 escape:1 predicament:1 rather:1 unexpected:1 way:1 within:1 frame:1 story:1 find:1 multiple:1 digression:1 long:1 tale:1 cupid:1 psyche:1 end:1 human:1 hero:1 eager:1 isi:2 abstain:1 forbidden:1 food:1 bathe:1 purifies:1 secret:2 book:1 explain:1 reveal:1 process:1 initiation:2 involve:1 journey:1 underworld:1 ask:1 seek:1 osiris:2 eventually:1 pastophoroi:1 group:1 serve:1 iles:1 johnson:1 sarah:1 ancient:1 pp:9 belknap:1 press:5 harvard:1 university:5 isbn:2 bibliography:1 reference:1 secondary:1 literature:1 asztalos:1 monika:1 nutshell:1 exordium:1 classical:1 quarterly:1 carver:1 robert:1 h:5 f:1 protean:1 renaissance:1 oxford:6 xvi:1 finkelpearl:1 ellen:1 language:1 allusion:1 ann:1 arbor:1 michigan:1 viii:1 frangoulidis:1 role:1 performance:1 stuttgart:1 j:2 b:1 metzler:1 gaisser:1 julia:1 haig:1 transmission:1 reception:1 princeton:1 nj:1 harrison:1 sophist:1 may:1 regine:1 drama:1 stage:1 pecere:1 stramaglia:1 studi:2 apuleiani:1 note:1 di:3 aggiornamento:1 l:1 graverini:1 cassino:2 edizioni:1 dell:1 universita:1 degli:1 sick:1 david:1 christianity:1 virgin:1 birth:1 wiener:1 studien:1 vasconcelos:1 beatriz:1 ávila:1 bilder:1 der:1 sklaverei:1 den:1 metamorphosen:1 vertumnus:1 berliner:1 beiträge:1 zur:1 klassischen:1 philologie:1 und:1 zu:1 ihren:1 nachbargebieten:1 band:1 göttingen:1 edition:1 ruprecht:1 external:1 link:1 famous:1 writer:1 apulei:1 opera:1 text:3 english:5 translation:4 butler:4 pdf:2 seminar:1 crib:1 discussion:1 commentary:1 concordance:1 frequency:1 list:1 |@bigram emperor_septimius:1 septimius_severus:1 encyclopedia_americana:1 cult_osiris:1 isi_osiris:1 belknap_press:1 ann_arbor:1 princeton_nj:1 studi_di:1 beiträge_zur:1 external_link:1 text_concordance:1 concordance_frequency:1 |
6,132 | Transport_in_Niue | Transport in Niue consists of a road network, an airport and a sea port. A ring road around the island's coast is the major route, but roads also exist across the central plateau linking Alofi to villages(Lakepa, Liku and Hakupu) on the opposite coast. All the villages in Niue are connected by roads. There are also utility roads to the inland and some coastal areas, unsealed, used mainly for accessing taro plantations, coconut areas and walking access to the sea. Niue International Airport is located in the west of the island, south of Alofi — it is the only airfield on the island. The airport was extended in 1995 to allow Boeing 737 aircraft to take off with maximum weight. Boeing 737-300, 737-800 and Boeing 757 aircraft have used the airport. Air New Zealand is the only airline serving Niue, with a weekly flight from Auckland. Niue has a sea port, the "Sir Robert's Wharf" in Alofi, which can only be used by flat-bottomed smaller vessels. The cargo ship MV Tiare from Reef Shipping uses the wharf when the sea is calm. Otherwise cargo vessels and fishing boats use moorings about 100 metres from the reef, and barges are used to offload their cargo. Most Niuean households own a vehicle. There are four car-rental companies which also hire out bicycles, motorbikes and minibuses. Statistics Railways: 0 km Highways: total: 234 km tarsealed: 210 km unsealed: 24 km Ports and harbors: none; offshore anchorage only Merchant marine: none (1999 est.) Airports: 1 (Niue International Airport) Airports - with paved runways: total: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.) See also : Niue | Transport_in_Niue |@lemmatized transport:1 niue:7 consists:1 road:5 network:1 airport:6 sea:4 port:3 ring:1 around:1 island:3 coast:2 major:1 route:1 also:4 exist:1 across:1 central:1 plateau:1 link:1 alofi:3 village:2 lakepa:1 liku:1 hakupu:1 opposite:1 connect:1 utility:1 inland:1 coastal:1 area:2 unseal:2 use:6 mainly:1 access:2 taro:1 plantation:1 coconut:1 walk:1 international:2 locate:1 west:1 south:1 airfield:1 extend:1 allow:1 boeing:3 aircraft:2 take:1 maximum:1 weight:1 air:1 new:1 zealand:1 airline:1 serve:1 weekly:1 flight:1 auckland:1 sir:1 robert:1 wharf:2 flat:1 bottom:1 small:1 vessel:2 cargo:3 ship:1 mv:1 tiare:1 reef:2 shipping:1 calm:1 otherwise:1 fishing:1 boat:1 mooring:1 metre:1 barge:1 offload:1 niuean:1 household:1 vehicle:1 four:1 car:1 rental:1 company:1 hire:1 bicycle:1 motorbike:1 minibus:1 statistic:1 railway:1 km:4 highway:1 total:2 tarsealed:1 harbor:1 none:2 offshore:1 anchorage:1 merchant:1 marine:1 est:2 airports:1 paved:1 runway:1 see:1 |@bigram boeing_boeing:1 car_rental:1 offshore_anchorage:1 merchant_marine:1 airports_paved:1 paved_runway:1 |
6,133 | Cold_Chisel | Cold Chisel were a rock band from Adelaide, Australia. They are regarded as the canonical example of Australian pub rock, with a string of hits throughout the 1970s and 1980s, and they are acknowledged as one of the most popular and successful Australian groups of the period, although this success and acclaim was almost completely restricted to Australia and New Zealand. Beginnings 1973 - 1978 Originally named Orange Who Wants To Be A Millionaire?, 27 April 2009 , the band was formed in Adelaide in 1973 as a heavy metal act covering songs by Led Zeppelin by bassist Les Kaczmarek and keyboard player Ted Broniecki, with the rest of the line-up being organist Don Walker, guitarist Ian Moss and drummer Steve Prestwich. Seventeen-year-old singer Jimmy Barnes -- known throughout his time with the band as merely Jim Barnes—joined in December after a brief spell as Bon Scott's replacement in Fraternity Creswell, Toby Jimmy Barnes: Too Much Ain't Enough (1993) . The group changed its name several times before settling on Cold Chisel in 1974 after writing a song with that title. Barnes' relationship with other band members was volatile; as a Scot he often came to blows with English-born Prestwich and he left the band several times. During these periods Moss would handle vocals until Barnes returned. Kaczmarek left Cold Chisel in 1975 and was replaced by Phil Small. After this, Walker took creative control of the group, writing virtually all the band's material. When he left them to complete his studies in Armidale, the rest of the group followed. Barnes' older brother John Swan was a member of Cold Chisel around this time, providing backing vocals and percussion but after several violent incidents he was fired Creswell . In August 1976 Cold Chisel relocated to Melbourne but found little success and moved to Sydney in November. Six months later, in May 1977, Barnes announced he was quitting Cold Chisel in order to join Swan in Feather, a hard-rocking blues band that had evolved from an earlier group called Blackfeather. A farewell performance took place in Sydney that went so well the singer changed his mind and the following month Cold Chisel was picked up by the Warner Music Group. Main career 1978 - 1982 In the early months of 1978, Cold Chisel recorded their self-titled debut album with producer Peter Walker. All tracks were written by Don Walker (Barnes contributed some lyrics to the song "Juliet"). Cold Chisel was released in April and featured appearances from harmonica player Dave Blight, who would become a regular on-stage guest, and saxophonists Joe Camilleri and Wilbur Wilde from Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons. The following month the song "Khe Sanh" was released as a single but was deemed too offensive for radio airplay by censors because of the lyric "Their legs were often open/But their minds were always closed" McGrath, Noel The Australian Encyclopedia of Rock and Pop (1983) . Despite that setback, it still reached #48 on the Australian singles chart and number four on the Adelaide charts thanks mainly to the band's rising popularity as a touring act and some local radio support in Adelaide where the single was aired in spite of the ban. "Khe Sanh" has since become Cold Chisel's signature tune and arguably its most popular among fans. The song was later remixed for inclusion on the international version of 1980's East. The band's next release was a live E.P. titled "You're Thirteen, You're Beautiful, and You're Mine", in November. This had been recorded at a show at Sydney's Regent Theatre in 1977 that had featured Midnight Oil as one of the support acts. One of the EP's tracks, "Merry-Go-Round" was left off the first album and later recorded on the follow-up, Breakfast at Sweethearts. This album was recorded between July 1978 and January 1979 with experienced producer Richard Batchens, who had previously worked with Richard Clapton, Sherbet and Blackfeather. Batchens smoothed out some of the band's rough edges and gave their songs a sophisticated sound that made the album a hit. Once again, all songs were penned by Walker, with Barnes collaborating on the first single "Goodbye (Astrid, Goodbye)". This song became a live favourite for the band, and even went on to be performed by U2 during Australian tours in the 1980s. By now the band stood at the verge of major national success, even without significant radio airplay or support from Countdown, the country's most important youth music program, which the band consistently boycotted throughout its career. The band had become notorious for its wild behaviour, particularly from Barnes who was rumoured to have had sex with over 1000 women and was known to consume more than a bottle of vodka every night during performances. Moss and Walker were also known to be heavy drinkers and the constant physical altercations between the singer and Prestwich also attracted widespread attention. Following their problematic relationship with Batchens, Cold Chisel chose Mark Opitz to produce the next single, "Choir Girl", a Don Walker composition dealing with a young woman's experience with abortion. The track became a hit still played on radio and paved the way for Cold Chisel's next album. Recorded over two months in 1980, East reached No. 2 on the Australian album charts and was the second-highest selling album by an Australian artist for the year. Despite the continued dominance of Walker, during Cold Chisel's later career all four of the other members began to contribute songs to the band, and this was the first of their albums to feature songwriting contributions from each member of the band. Cold Chisel is one of the few Australian rock bands to score hits with songs written by every member of the group. Of the album's twelve tracks, two were written by Barnes with Moss, Prestwich and Small contributing one each. The songs ranged from straight ahead rock tracks such as "Standing on the Outside" and "My Turn to Cry" to rockabilly-flavoured work-outs ("Rising Sun", written about Barnes' relationship with his girlfriend Jane Mahoney) and pop-laced love songs ("My Baby", featuring Joe Camilleri on saxophone) to a poignant piano ballad about prison life, "Four Walls". The cover featured Barnes asleep in a bathtub wearing a kamikaze bandanna in a room littered with junk and was inspired by Jacques-Louis David's 1793 painting The Death of Marat. The Ian Moss-penned "Never Before" was chosen as the first song to air by radio station Triple J when it switched to the FM band that year. Following the release of East, Cold Chisel embarked on the Youth in Asia Tour, which took its name from a lyric in "Star Hotel". This tour saw the group play more than 60 shows in 90 days and would form the basis of 1981's double live album Swingshift. In April 1981 the band was nominated for all seven of the major awards at the joint Countdown/TV Week music awards held at the Sydney Entertainment Centre, and won them all. As a protest against the concept of a TV magazine being involved in a music awards ceremony, the band refused to accept their awards and finished the night by performing "My Turn to Cry". After only one verse and chorus, they smashed up the set and left the stage Creswell, Toby and Fabinyi, Martin The Real Thing .Swingshift debuted at No. 1 on the Australian album charts, crystallizing the band's status as the biggest-selling act in the country. Elsewhere, however, Cold Chisel was unable to make an impact. With a slightly different track-listing, East had been issued in the United States and the band toured with Cheap Trick but while they were popular as a live act the American arm of their label did little to support the album. According to Barnes biographer Toby Creswell, at one point the band was ushered into an office to listen to the US master only to find it drenched in tape hiss and other ambient noise, making it almost unreleasable. The band were even booed off stage after a lackluster performance in Dayton, Ohio in May, 1981 opening for Ted Nugent, who at the time was touring with his guitar army aka the 'D.C. Hawks'. European audiences were more accepting of the band and the group developed a small but significant fan-base in Germany. Cold Chisel returned to Australia in August 1981 and soon began work on the album Circus Animals, again with Opitz producing. The album opened with "You Got Nothing I Want", an aggressive Barnes-penned hard rock track that attacked the American industry for its handling of the band. The song would later cause problems for Barnes when he later attempted to break into the US market as a solo performer as senior music executives there continued to hold it against him. Like its predecessor, Circus Animals contained songs of contrasting styles, with harder-edged tracks like "Bow River" and "Hound Dog" in place beside more expansive ballads such as "Forever Now" and the Prestwich composition "When the War Is Over". This track has proved to be the most popular Cold Chisel song for other artists to record. Uriah Heep included a version on the 1989 album Raging Silence and John Farnham has recorded it twice, once while he and Prestwich were members of Little River Band in the mid-80s and again for his 1990 solo album Age of Reason. The song was also a No. 1 hit for former Australian Idol contestant Cosima De Vito in 2004 and was also performed (by Bobby Flynn during that show's 2006 season. To launch the album, they performed under a circus tent at Wentworth Park in Sydney and toured heavily once more, including a show in Darwin that attracted more than 10 per cent of the city's population Creswell, et al. . Break up and aftermath 1983 - 1984Circus Animals and its three singles, "You Got Nothing I Want", "Forever Now" and "When the War is Over" were all major hits in Australia during 1982 but further success was continuing to elude them and cracks were beginning to appear. In early 1983 the band toured Germany but the shows went so badly that in the middle of tour Walker upended his keyboard and stormed off stage during one show and Prestwich was fired. Returning to Australia, Prestwich was replaced by Ray Arnott, formerly of the 1970s progressive rock band Spectrum. After this, Barnes requested a large advance from management. Now married with a young child, exorbitant spending had left him almost broke. His request was refused however because there was a standing arrangement that any advance to one band member had to be paid to all the others. After a meeting on 17 August during which Barnes quit the band it was decided that Cold Chisel would split up Creswell, et al. . A final concert series known as The Last Stand was planned and a final studio album was also recorded. Prestwich returned for the tour, which began in October. Before the Sydney shows however, Barnes lost his voice and those dates were re-scheduled for December. Their final performance was at the Sydney Entertainment Centre on 12 December 1983, apparently precisely 10 years since their first live appearance. The Sydney shows formed the basis of the film The Last Stand, the biggest-selling concert film of any Australian band. Several other recordings from the tour were used on the 1984 live album Barking Spiders Live: 1984, the title of which was inspired by the name the group occasionally used to play warm-up shows before tours, and as b-sides for a three-CD singles package known as Three Big XXX Hits, issued ahead of the release of the 1994 compilation album, Teenage Love. During breaks in the tour, Twentieth Century was recorded. It was a fragmentary process, spread across various studios and sessions as the individual members often refused to work together, but nonetheless successful. Released in February 1984, it reached No. 1 upon release and included the songs "Saturday Night" and "Flame Trees", both of which remain radio staples. "Flame Trees", co-written by Prestwich and Walker, took its title from the BBC series The Flame Trees of Thika although it was lyrically inspired by the organist's hometown of Grafton, New South Wales. Barnes later recorded an acoustic version of the song on his 1993 album Flesh and Wood and the track was also covered by Sarah Blasko in 2006. Barnes launched a solo career in January 1984 that has since seen him score eight Australian No. 1 albums and an array of hit singles. One of those, "Too Much Ain't Enough Love" also peaked at No. 1. Throughout his solo career he has recorded with INXS, Tina Turner, Joe Cocker, John Farnham and a long list of other Australian and international artists and continues to the present as arguably the country's most popular male rock singer. Prestwich joined Little River Band in 1984 and appeared on the albums Playing to Win and No Reins before departing in 1986 to join John Farnham's touring band. Walker, Moss and Small all took extended breaks from music. Small, the least prominent member of the band virtually disappeared from the scene for many years, playing in a variety of minor acts. Walker formed Catfish in 1988, ostensibly a solo band with floating membership that included Moss, Charlie Owen and Dave Blight at various times. The music had a distinctly modern jazz aspect and his recordings during this phase attracted little commercial success. During 1989 he wrote several songs for Moss including "Tucker's Daughter" and "Telephone Booth" that the guitarist recorded on his debut solo album Matchbook. Both the album and "Tucker's Daughter" peaked at No. 1 on the chart in 1989 and won Moss five ARIA Awards. His other albums met with little success. Reunion Throughout the 80s and most of the 90s, Cold Chisel was courted to re-form but obstinately refused, at one point reportedly turning down an offer of $5 million to play a single show in each of the major Australian state capitals. While Moss and Walker often collaborated on projects, neither would work with Barnes again until Walker wrote "Stone Cold" for the singer's Heat in 1993. The pair then recorded an acoustic version for Flesh and Wood later the same year. Thanks primarily to continued radio airplay and Jimmy Barnes' massive solo success, Cold Chisel's legacy remained solidly intact and by the early 90s the group had surpassed 3 million album sales, most of which had been sold since 1983. The 1991 compilation album Chisel was re-issued and re-packaged several times, once with the long-deleted 1978 EP as a bonus disc and a second time in 2001 as a double album. The Last Stand soundtrack album was also finally released in 1992 and in 1994 a complete album of previously unreleased demo and rare live recordings also surfaced. Teenage Love spawned a string of hit singles that fuelled speculation Cold Chisel would reform, to no avail. Cold Chisel eventually reunited in 1998 to record the album The Last Wave of Summer and supported it with a sold-out national concert tour. The album debuted at number one on the Australian album chart. In 2003, the band re-grouped once more for the "Ringside" tour and in 2005 again reunited to perform at a benefit for the victims of the Boxing Day tsunami at the Myer Music Bowl in Melbourne. In recent times it has been suggested that the band would reform and do another "Ringside" type tour in mid-2008, however this has not occurred. Musical style and lyrical themes While typically classified as a hard-driving rock and roll band, the Cold Chisel musical repertoire was extensive. Influences from blues and early rock n' roll was broadly apparent, fostered by the love of those styles by Moss, Barnes and Walker and Small and Prestwich contributed strong pop sensibilities. This allowed volatile rock songs like "You Got Nothing I Want" and "Merry-Go-Round" to stand beside thoughtful ballads like "Choir Girl", pop-flavoured love songs like "My Baby" and caustic political statements like "Star Hotel", an attack on the late-70s government of Malcolm Fraser and inspired by a riot at a Newcastle pub. The songs were not overtly political but rather observations of everyday life within Australian society and culture, in which the members with their various backgrounds (Moss was from Alice Springs, Walker grew up in rural New South Wales, Barnes and Prestwich were working-class immigrants from the UK) were quite well able to provide. Typically then, Cold Chisel's songs were about distinctly Australian experiences, a factor often cited as a major reason for the band's lack of international appeal. "Saturday Night" and "Breakfast at Sweethearts" were observations of the urban experience of Sydney's Kings Cross district where Walker lived for many years. "Misfits", which featured on the b-side to "My Baby", was about homeless kids in the suburbs surrounding Sydney. Songs like "Shipping Steel" and "Standing on The Outside" were working class anthems and many others featured characters trapped in mundane, everyday existences, yearning for the good times of the past ("Flame Trees") or for something better from life ("Bow River"). Reputation To many of the group's fans, Cold Chisel's honest songs about the working-class experience provided an often starkly accurate insight into and soundtrack to their own lives that they were unable to find from other popular artists of the time. Even album tracks like "Bow River" and "Standing on the Outside" became widely popular and were given airplay during an era when commercial radio playlists were predominantly populated by hit singles. Nevertheless, the band's aggressive image, apparent anti-establishment stance and particular popularity among young working-class men (typically those born in the late 60s and mid-70s) often made them the subject of some disdain, both during their career and in the years following their dissolution. Alongside contemporaries like The Angels and Midnight Oil, whose rise to popularity came in their wake, Cold Chisel was renowned as one of the most dynamic live acts of their day and from early in their career concerts routinely became sell-out events. But the band was also famous for its wild lifestyle, particularly the hard-drinking Barnes, who played his role as one of the wild men of Australian rock to the hilt, never seen on stage without at least one bottle of vodka and often so drunk he could barely stand upright. Despite this, by 1982 he was a devoted family man who refused to tour without his wife and daughter. All the other band members were also settled or married; Ian Moss had a long-term relationship with the actress Megan Williams (she even sang on Twentieth Century) whose own public persona could have hardly been more different. Yet it was the band's public image that often saw them compared less favourably with other important acts like Midnight Oil, whose music and politics (while rather more overt) were often similar but whose image and reputation was far more clean-cut. Cold Chisel remained hugely popular however and by the mid-90s had continued to sell records at such a consistent rate they became the first Australian band to achieve higher sales after their split than during their active years. While repackages and compilations accounted for much of these sales, 1994's Teenage Love album of rarities and two of its singles were Top Ten hits and when the group finally reformed in 1998 the resultant album was also a major hit and the follow-up tour sold out almost immediately. Cold Chisel is one of the few Australian acts (along with AC/DC, and Slim Dusty) to have become the subject of a major tribute album. In 2007, Standing on the Outside: The Songs of Cold Chisel'' was released, featuring a collection of the band's songs as performed by artists including The Living End, Evermore, Something for Kate, Pete Murray, Katie Noonan, You Am I, Paul Kelly, Alex Lloyd, Thirsty Merc and Ben Lee ,many of whom were still only children when Cold Chisel first disbanded and some of whom, like the members of Evermore, had not even been born. Band members Jimmy Barnes (lead vocals / guitar) Ian Moss (lead guitar / lead vocals) Don Walker (keyboards / backing vocals) Steve Prestwich (drums / backing vocals) Phil Small (bass guitar) Additional players Les Kaczmarek (bass guitar, October 1973- July 1975) Ray Arnott (drums, 1983) Dave Blight (harmonica) Billy Rodgers (saxophone) Jimmy Sloggett (saxophone) Andy Bickers (saxophone) Renée Geyer (backing vocals) Vanetta Fields (backing vocals) Megan Williams (backing vocals, Flame Trees) Peter Walker (acoustic guitar, Khe Sanh) Joe Camilleri (saxophone, My Baby and Home and Broken Hearted) Wilbur Wilde (saxophone, Home and Broken Hearted, Rosaline, Just How Many Times) James Morris (back up singer) Discography See also Timeline of trends in Australian music ARIA Hall of Fame References External links Official website | Cold_Chisel |@lemmatized cold:32 chisel:32 rock:13 band:47 adelaide:4 australia:5 regard:1 canonical:1 example:1 australian:21 pub:2 string:2 hit:12 throughout:5 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6,134 | Demographics_of_Finland | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Finland, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Finland numbers some 5.3 million inhabitants and has an average population density of 17 inhabitants per square kilometre. This makes it, after Norway and Iceland, the most sparsely populated country in Europe. Population distribution is very uneven: the population is concentrated on small southwestern coastal plain. About 60 % live in towns and cities, with one million living in Helsinki Metropolitan Area alone. In Arctic Lapland, on the other hand, there are only 2 people to every square kilometre. The official languages are Finnish and Swedish, the latter being the native language of about five per cent of the Finnish population. There is a historical and a political explanation for the status of Swedish as an official language. From the 13th to the early 19th century Finland was a part of the Kingdom of Sweden. The status of the language has remained to these days as the Swedish speaking minority had a relatively high degree of power in Finland compared to its size. The Swedish-speakers are known as Swedish-speaking Finns (finlandssvenskar in Swedish, suomenruotsalaiset in Finnish). With 84 percent of Finns in its congregation, the Lutheran Church is the largest in the country. The earliest inhabitants of most of the land area that makes up today's Finland and Scandinavia were in all likehood hunter-gatherers whose closest successors in modern terms would probably be the Sami people (formerly known as the Lapps). There are 4,500 of them living in Finland today and they are recognised as a minority and speak three distinct languages: Northern Sami, Inari Sami and Skolt Sami. They have been living north of the Arctic Circle for more than 7,000 years now, but today are a 5% minority in their native Lapland Province. During the late 19th and 20th century there was significant emigration, particularly from rural areas to Sweden and North America, while most immigrants into Finland itself come from other European countries. Language distribution Population of Finland, 1750–2000 YearPopulationYearPopulation1750421,00018802,060,8001760491,00018902,380,1001770561,00019002,655,9001780663,00019102,943,4001790705,60019203,147,6001800832,70019303,462,7001810863,30019403,695,61718201,177,50019504,029,80318301,372,10019604,446,22218401,445,60019704,598,33618501,636,90019804,787,77818601,746,70019904,998,47818701,768,80020005,181,000 Finnish people — Finns — speak the Finnish language, which the dominant language and is spoken almost everywhere in the country. Native Finnish speakers are otherwise recognized as an ethnicity, although no official statistics are kept on ethnicities. The classification of the Swedish-speakers as an ethnicity is controversial. The government only considers the "working language", Finnish or Swedish, of the person. Significant populations of Swedish-speakers are found only in coastal areas, from Ostrobothnia to the southern coast, and in the archipelago of Åland. Several rural communities on the western and southern coast have Swedish majorities. Coastal cities, however, are majority Finnish-speaking, with a few small towns as exceptions. There are very few Swedish-speakers in the inland. Generally speaking, Finnish language usage is still expanding in relative and absolute terms due to the slow but steady language switching of the Swedish-speaking population, natural population growth, and immigration. The immigrant population is growing faster than the general population, both naturally and by immigration, and immigrant minorities will become more significant in the future. Currently, the percentage of immigrants is one of the smallest in Europe. Concerning native languages, the Finnish-speaking population has a comparatively high natural growth rate (compared to other EU countries), while the death rate of the Swedish-speaking population is higher than its birthrate. It is predicted that these rates will even out in 2012 and that the absolute size of the Swedish-speaking population will remain constant, while its percentage of the total population will diminish as the total population grows. Politically, the result is that local Swedish majorities and dominance are diminishing. Most Swedish speakers lived in monolingually (more than 94%) Swedish areas in 1880, but the figure had dropped to 14% in 2002. However, 50% of Swedish speakers still live in communities in which they form the majority and exercise considerable political power. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Demographics Finnish population pyramid in 2005. Male: left, dark blue. Female: right, light blue. At the end of 2008. Population: 5,300,484 Life expectancy at birth: male: 75.8 years female: 82.8 years Total fertility rate: 1.85 children born/woman (2008 est.) Age structure At the end of 2006. 0-14 years: 17.1% (male 459,955; female 441,226) 15-64 years: 66.5% (male 1,772,605; female 1,734,452) 65 years and over: 16.5% (male 351,182; female 517,535) Rates per 1 000 mean population in 2006. Population growth: 4.6 Live births: 11.8 Deaths: 9.1 Net migration: 1.9 Total Births(2008): 59,530 Statistics Finland Total Deaths(2008): 49,094 http://www.stat.fi/til/kuol/2008/kuol_2008_2009-04-27_tie_001_en.html Ethnic groups Finnish 97.6 % (Finnish-speakers 92 %, Swedish-speakers 5.6 %) Russians 0.6 % Roma 0.12% Sami 0.11% Other 1.57% (such as Estonians, Turks, Somalis and Vietnamese). It is a controversial issue whether the Swedish-speaking Finns represent a distinct ethnicity. Nevertheless, it would be incorrect to list them as Swedish immigrants. Russians in Finland come from two major waves. About 5,000 originate from a population that immigrated in the 19th and early 20th centuries, when Finland was a grand duchy of Imperial Russia. Another consisted of those who immigrated after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. A significant catalyst was the right of return, based on President Koivisto's initiative that people of Ingrian ancestry would be allowed to immigrate to Finland. Languages At the end of 2006. Finnish language 91.51% (official) Swedish language 5.49% (official) Russian language 0.80% Sami languages 0.03% (semi-official) — North Sami, Inari Sami, Skolt Sami The Finnish and Swedish languages are defined as languages of the state. Additionally, local municipalities with significant Swedish populations, Swedish is also a municipal official language. The three Sami languages are official in certain municipalities of Lapland. Religions At the end of 2006. Evangelical Lutheran 82.5 % (Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, state church) Christian Orthodox 1.1 % (Finnish Orthodox Church, second state church) other ca. 1.2 % none ca. 15.1% Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 100% (2000 est.) Nationality noun: Finn(s) adjective: Finnish See also Aging of Europe External links Article on Demographics of Finland by the International Museum of Women. References | Demographics_of_Finland |@lemmatized article:2 demographic:5 feature:1 population:25 finland:14 include:1 density:2 ethnicity:5 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:3 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 number:1 million:2 inhabitant:3 average:1 per:3 square:2 kilometre:2 make:2 norway:1 iceland:1 sparsely:1 populated:1 country:5 europe:3 distribution:2 uneven:1 concentrate:1 small:3 southwestern:1 coastal:3 plain:1 live:6 town:2 city:2 one:2 living:1 helsinki:1 metropolitan:1 area:5 alone:1 arctic:2 lapland:3 hand:1 people:4 every:1 official:8 language:20 finnish:17 swedish:25 latter:1 native:4 five:1 cent:1 historical:1 political:2 explanation:1 early:3 century:3 part:1 kingdom:1 sweden:2 remain:2 day:1 speaking:4 minority:4 relatively:1 high:3 degree:1 power:2 compare:2 size:2 speaker:9 know:2 finn:3 finlandssvenskar:1 suomenruotsalaiset:1 percent:1 congregation:1 lutheran:3 church:5 large:1 land:1 today:3 scandinavia:1 likehood:1 hunter:1 gatherer:1 whose:1 close:1 successor:1 modern:1 term:2 would:3 probably:1 sami:10 formerly:1 lapp:1 recognise:1 speak:8 three:2 distinct:2 northern:1 inari:2 skolt:2 north:3 circle:1 year:6 province:1 late:1 significant:5 emigration:1 particularly:1 rural:2 america:1 immigrant:5 come:2 european:1 finns:2 dominant:1 almost:1 everywhere:1 otherwise:2 recognize:1 although:1 statistic:4 keep:1 classification:1 controversial:2 government:1 consider:1 work:1 person:1 find:1 ostrobothnia:1 southern:2 coast:2 archipelago:1 åland:1 several:1 community:2 western:1 majority:4 however:2 exception:1 inland:1 generally:1 usage:1 still:2 expand:1 relative:1 absolute:2 due:1 slow:1 steady:1 switching:1 natural:2 growth:3 immigration:2 grow:1 faster:1 general:1 naturally:1 become:1 future:1 currently:1 percentage:2 concern:1 comparatively:1 rate:5 eu:1 death:3 birthrate:1 predict:1 even:1 constant:1 total:6 diminish:2 grows:1 politically:1 result:1 local:2 dominance:1 monolingually:1 figure:1 drop:1 form:1 exercise:1 considerable:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 following:1 unless:1 indicate:1 pyramid:1 male:5 left:1 dark:1 blue:2 female:5 right:2 light:1 end:4 life:1 expectancy:1 birth:3 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:2 est:2 age:3 structure:1 mean:1 net:1 migration:1 http:1 www:1 stat:1 fi:1 til:1 kuol:1 html:1 ethnic:1 group:1 russian:3 rom:1 estonian:1 turk:1 somali:1 vietnamese:1 issue:1 whether:1 represent:1 nevertheless:1 incorrect:1 list:1 two:1 major:1 wave:1 originate:1 immigrate:3 grand:1 duchy:1 imperial:1 russia:1 another:1 consisted:1 dissolution:1 soviet:1 union:1 catalyst:1 return:1 base:1 president:1 koivisto:1 initiative:1 ingrian:1 ancestry:1 allow:1 languages:1 semi:1 define:1 state:3 additionally:1 municipality:2 also:2 municipal:1 certain:1 religion:1 evangelical:2 christian:1 orthodox:2 second:1 ca:2 none:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 international:1 museum:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 square_kilometre:2 sparsely_populated:1 coastal_plain:1 per_cent:1 hunter_gatherer:1 sami_inari:2 inari_sami:2 sami_skolt:2 skolt_sami:2 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 male_female:3 net_migration:1 http_www:1 grand_duchy:1 soviet_union:1 evangelical_lutheran:2 literacy_definition:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 external_link:1 |
6,135 | Abimelech | Abimelech or Avimelech () was a common name of the Philistine kings. Abimelech was most prominently the name of a king of Gerar who is mentioned in two of the three wife-sister narratives in Genesis. The Haggada identifies them as separate people, the second being the first Abimelech's son, and that his original name was Benmelech ("son of the King") but changed his name to his father's. At the time of Abimelech, there was an Egyptian governor of Tyre named Abimilki. They could possibly be the same person. Abimilki's name appears on the Tell-el-Amerna tablets. Etymology Abimelech's name has three main translations, though none treats the name as being completely Hebrew, and all are slightly contorted. The first is my father is king, which could be considered simply as a generic title given to a crown prince. This is supported in the Haggada when "Benmelech" son of Abimelech changes his name to Abimelech when he becomes king. The other two are more interesting, both essentially being my father is MLK, with MLK being the reference found elsewhere in the Bible in prohibitions such as do not pass your children through the fire to MLK, in which case the following possibilities arise: MLK refers to a major Canaanite deity probably named Moloch, in which case Abimelech means my father is Moloch - a reference to belief in semi-divine kings; or MLK refers to a type of (probably human) sacrifice probably named Molk, so that Abimelech signifies my father is a sacrifice - a reference to Abimelech being pious. Other people with this name Apart from the kings of Gerar, the Bible also records this name for: Abimelech (Judges), proclaimed king after the death of his father Gideon (). The son of Abiathar, and high priest in the time of David (). In the parallel passage, , the name is given as Ahimelech; most authorities consider this the more correct reading. The king of Gath better known as Achish, referred to as Abimelech or Achimelech in the title of . See also Ahimelech | Abimelech |@lemmatized abimelech:12 avimelech:1 common:1 name:14 philistine:1 king:9 prominently:1 gerar:2 mention:1 two:2 three:2 wife:1 sister:1 narrative:1 genesis:1 haggada:2 identify:1 separate:1 people:2 second:1 first:2 son:4 original:1 benmelech:2 change:2 father:6 time:2 egyptian:1 governor:1 tyre:1 abimilki:2 could:2 possibly:1 person:1 appear:1 tell:1 el:1 amerna:1 tablet:1 etymology:1 main:1 translation:1 though:1 none:1 treat:1 completely:1 hebrew:1 slightly:1 contort:1 consider:2 simply:1 generic:1 title:2 give:2 crown:1 prince:1 support:1 become:1 interesting:1 essentially:1 mlk:5 reference:3 find:1 elsewhere:1 bible:2 prohibition:1 pass:1 child:1 fire:1 case:2 follow:1 possibility:1 arise:1 refers:2 major:1 canaanite:1 deity:1 probably:3 moloch:2 mean:1 belief:1 semi:1 divine:1 type:1 human:1 sacrifice:2 molk:1 signifies:1 pious:1 apart:1 also:2 record:1 judge:1 proclaim:1 death:1 gideon:1 abiathar:1 high:1 priest:1 david:1 parallel:1 passage:1 ahimelech:2 authority:1 correct:1 reading:1 gath:1 well:1 know:1 achish:1 refer:1 achimelech:1 see:1 |@bigram king_gerar:2 |
6,136 | Goeldi's_marmoset | Goeldi's Marmoset or Goeldi's Monkey (Callimico goeldii) is a small, South American New World monkey that lives in the upper Amazon Basin region of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. It is the only species classified in the genus Callimico, and the monkeys are sometimes referred to as "callimicos". Goeldi's Marmosets are blackish or blackish-brown in color. Their bodies are about 8–9 inches (20–23 cm) long, and their tails are about 10–12 inches (25–30 cm) long. Goeldi's Marmoset was first described in 1904, making it one of the last monkey genera to be described. In older classification schemes it was sometimes placed in its own family Callimiconidae and sometimes in the (now abandoned) family Callitrichidae, the family containing marmosets and tamarins. More recently, it has been classified into Cebidae, which now contains all the marmosets and tamarins, as well as the capuchin and squirrel monkeys. A Marmoset eating a butterfly. Females reach sexual maturity at 8.5 months, males at 16.5 months. The gestation period lasts from 140 to 180 days. Unlike other New World monkeys, they have the capacity to give birth twice a year. The mother carries a single baby monkey per pregnancy, whereas most other species in the family Cebidae usually give birth to twins. The infant is weaned after about 65 days. The life expectancy in captivity is about 10 years. Goeldi's Marmosets prefer to forage in dense scrubby undergrowth; perhaps because of this, they are rare, with groups living in separate patches of suitable habitat, separated by miles of unsuitable flora. In the wet season, their diet includes fruit, insects, spiders, lizards, frogs, and snakes. In the dry season, they feed on fungi, the only tropical primates known to depend on this source of food. They live in small social groups (approximately six individuals) that stay within a few feet of one another most of the time, staying in contact via high-pitched calls. They are also known to form polyspecific groups with tamarins, perhaps because Goeldi's Marmosets are not known to have the X-linked polymorphism which enables some indiviuals of other New World Monkey species to see in full tri-chromatic vision Alison K. Surridge, Nicholas I. Mundy (2002) Trans-specific evolution of opsin alleles and the maintenance of trichromatic colour vision in Callitrichine primates Molecular Ecology 11 (10) , 2157–2169 doi:10.1046/j.1365-294X.2002.01597.x . The species takes its name from its discoverer, the Swiss naturalist Emil August Goeldi. References External links ARKive - images and movies of the Goeldi's monkey (Callimico goeldii) Press release on recent research on Goeldi's Monkey by scientists at the University of Washington Primate Info Net Callimico goeldii Factsheet Pictures of Goeldi's Monkey | Goeldi's_marmoset |@lemmatized goeldi:10 marmoset:8 monkey:11 callimico:4 goeldii:3 small:2 south:1 american:1 new:3 world:3 live:3 upper:1 amazon:1 basin:1 region:1 bolivia:1 brazil:1 colombia:1 ecuador:1 peru:1 specie:4 classify:2 genus:2 sometimes:3 refer:1 callimicos:1 blackish:2 brown:1 color:1 body:1 inch:2 cm:2 long:2 tail:1 first:1 describe:2 make:1 one:2 last:2 old:1 classification:1 scheme:1 place:1 family:4 callimiconidae:1 abandon:1 callitrichidae:1 contain:2 tamarin:3 recently:1 cebidae:2 well:1 capuchin:1 squirrel:1 eat:1 butterfly:1 female:1 reach:1 sexual:1 maturity:1 month:2 male:1 gestation:1 period:1 day:2 unlike:1 capacity:1 give:2 birth:2 twice:1 year:2 mother:1 carry:1 single:1 baby:1 per:1 pregnancy:1 whereas:1 usually:1 twin:1 infant:1 wean:1 life:1 expectancy:1 captivity:1 prefer:1 forage:1 dense:1 scrubby:1 undergrowth:1 perhaps:2 rare:1 group:3 separate:2 patch:1 suitable:1 habitat:1 mile:1 unsuitable:1 flora:1 wet:1 season:2 diet:1 include:1 fruit:1 insect:1 spider:1 lizard:1 frog:1 snake:1 dry:1 fee:1 fungi:1 tropical:1 primate:3 know:3 depend:1 source:1 food:1 social:1 approximately:1 six:1 individual:1 stay:2 within:1 foot:1 another:1 time:1 contact:1 via:1 high:1 pitch:1 call:1 also:1 form:1 polyspecific:1 x:2 link:2 polymorphism:1 enable:1 indiviuals:1 see:1 full:1 tri:1 chromatic:1 vision:2 alison:1 k:1 surridge:1 nicholas:1 mundy:1 trans:1 specific:1 evolution:1 opsin:1 allele:1 maintenance:1 trichromatic:1 colour:1 callitrichine:1 molecular:1 ecology:1 doi:1 j:1 take:1 name:1 discoverer:1 swiss:1 naturalist:1 emil:1 august:1 reference:1 external:1 arkive:1 image:1 movie:1 press:1 release:1 recent:1 research:1 scientist:1 university:1 washington:1 info:1 net:1 factsheet:1 picture:1 |@bigram goeldi_marmoset:5 amazon_basin:1 colombia_ecuador:1 ecuador_peru:1 inch_cm:2 marmoset_tamarin:2 squirrel_monkey:1 sexual_maturity:1 life_expectancy:1 external_link:1 arkive_image:1 |
6,137 | Dave_Thomas_(businessman) | David "Dave" Thomas (July 2, 1932 January 8, 2002) was an American restaurant owner and philanthropist. Thomas was the founder and chief executive officer of Wendy's Old Fashioned Hamburgers, a fast-food restaurant chain specializing in hamburgers. He is also known for appearing in more than 800 commercial advertisements for the chain from 1989 to 2002–more than any other person in television history. Biography Dave Thomas was born on July 2, 1932 in Atlantic City, New Jersey. He was raised by two adoptive parents, Rex and Auleva Thomas, who were from Lebanon and never knew or met either of his birth parents who were of Greek descent. He would become a well-known advocate for adoption, founding the Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption in 1992. At a young age, he spent much time with his grandmother Minnie Sinclair, whom he credited with teaching him the importance of service and treating others well and with respect, lessons that helped him in his future business life [Thomas, R. David (1992). Dave's Way. Berkeley Publishing. ISBN 0425135012.] Thomas did not graduate from high school until later in his adult life, when he obtained a GED. One of his first cousins (Greg Bach) was influential in Dave's business. Early restaurant experience Thomas first became involved in the restaurant industry at the age of 12, when he got a job as a counterman at the Regas Restaurant in Knoxville, TN. He was fired after a misunderstanding with his boss about his vacation and vowed never to lose another job in his life. According to a 2001 interview, Thomas lived in Ipple, Michigan. He used to love eating at a Kewpee restaurant and said it was one of the reasons he was inspired to go into the business. Kewpee’s sold square hamburgers and thick malt milkshakes, much like the restaurant that Thomas eventually founded in Columbus, Ohio in 1969. U.S. Army During the Korean War, rather than waiting for the the draft, he volunteered for the U.S. Army to have some choice in assignments. Having food production and service experience, Thomas requested the Cook's and Baker's School at Fort Benning, Georgia. He was sent overseas to Germany as a mess sergeant and was responsible for the daily meals of 2000 soldiers. He later attributed his success in fast food to this experience in feeding large groups. Thomas was honorably discharged in 1953, with the rank of Staff Sergeant. Kentucky Fried Chicken After his discharge, Thomas was offered a chance to turn around a failing Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurant. He helped save the restaurant, and revolutionized the fast food industry, by simplifying the menu. At the time, there was an excessive number of items on the menu (possibly more than one hundred). Working with KFC founder Col. Harland Sanders, Thomas stripped the menu down to just the basic fried chicken and salads. Wendy's Thomas then sold his KFC franchises and opened his first Wendy's in Columbus, Ohio, in 1969. (This original restaurant would remain operational until March 2, 2007, when it was closed due to lagging sales.) Hundreds bid farewell to 1st Wendy's - Boston.com Thomas named the restaurant after his eight-year-old daughter Melinda Lou, whose nickname was Wendy, stemming from the child's inability to say her own name at a young age. According to Bio TV, Dave claims himself that people nicknamed his daughter "Wenda. Not Wendy but Wenda. So one day, I looked at her and said...'I'm going to call it Wendy's Old Fashioned Hamburgers'." In 1982, Thomas resigned from his day-to-day operations at Wendy’s. However, business mistakes resulting in problems and damaged sales caused the company’s new president to urge Thomas back into a more active role with Wendy's. Thomas began to visit franchises and espouse his hardworking, so-called “mop-bucket attitude.” In 1989, he took on a significant role as the TV spokesman in the company's series of highly successful commercials. With his folksy style and his relaxed pitch for his restaurants, Thomas quickly became a household name. A company survey during the 1990s, a decade during which Thomas starred in every Wendy’s commercial that aired, found that 90% of Americans knew who Thomas was. After more than 800 commercials, it was clear that Thomas played a major role in Wendy’s status as the country's third most popular burger restaurant. Honors and memberships Thomas, realizing that his success as a high school dropout might convince other teenagers to quit school (something he later admitted was a mistake), became a student at Coconut Creek High School. He earned a GED in 1993. He later earned an honorary membership of Duke University's Sigma Phi Epsilon. Thomas was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1999. Thomas was a Freemason, and a member of the Shriners. He was also an honorary Kentucky colonel, as was former boss Colonel Sanders. The History Channel - American Eats Death Thomas died at his home in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, after a decade-long battle with liver cancer. He was buried in Union Cemetery in Columbus, Ohio. At the time of his death, there were more than 6,000 Wendy's restaurants operating in North America. References External links Wendy's tribute to Dave Thomas The Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption Wendys.com "Dave Thomas Biography". Retrieved June 1, 2005 Dave Thomas at findagrave.com | Dave_Thomas_(businessman) |@lemmatized david:2 dave:10 thomas:31 july:2 january:1 american:3 restaurant:14 owner:1 philanthropist:1 founder:2 chief:1 executive:1 officer:1 wendy:13 old:3 fashion:2 hamburger:4 fast:3 food:4 chain:2 specialize:1 also:2 know:3 appear:1 commercial:4 advertisement:1 person:1 television:1 history:2 biography:2 bear:1 atlantic:1 city:1 new:2 jersey:1 raise:1 two:1 adoptive:1 parent:2 rex:1 auleva:1 lebanon:1 never:2 meet:1 either:1 birth:1 greek:1 descent:1 would:2 become:4 well:2 advocate:1 adoption:3 found:2 foundation:2 young:2 age:3 spend:1 much:2 time:3 grandmother:1 minnie:1 sinclair:1 credit:1 teach:1 importance:1 service:2 treat:1 others:1 respect:1 lesson:1 help:2 future:1 business:5 life:3 r:1 way:1 berkeley:1 publishing:1 isbn:1 graduate:1 high:3 school:5 later:4 adult:1 obtain:1 ged:2 one:4 first:3 cousin:1 greg:1 bach:1 influential:1 early:1 experience:3 involve:1 industry:2 get:1 job:2 counterman:1 regas:1 knoxville:1 tn:1 fire:1 misunderstanding:1 bos:2 vacation:1 vow:1 lose:1 another:1 accord:2 interview:1 live:1 ipple:1 michigan:1 use:1 love:1 eat:1 kewpee:2 say:3 reason:1 inspire:1 go:2 sell:2 square:1 thick:1 malt:1 milkshake:1 like:1 eventually:1 columbus:3 ohio:3 u:3 army:2 korean:1 war:1 rather:1 wait:1 draft:1 volunteer:1 choice:1 assignment:1 production:1 request:1 cook:1 baker:1 fort:2 benning:1 georgia:1 send:1 overseas:1 germany:1 mess:1 sergeant:2 responsible:1 daily:1 meal:1 soldier:1 attribute:1 success:2 feed:1 large:1 group:1 honorably:1 discharge:2 rank:1 staff:1 kentucky:3 fried:2 chicken:3 offer:1 chance:1 turn:1 around:1 failing:1 fry:1 save:1 revolutionize:1 simplify:1 menu:3 excessive:1 number:1 item:1 possibly:1 hundred:2 work:1 kfc:2 col:1 harland:1 sander:2 strip:1 basic:1 salad:1 franchise:2 open:1 original:1 remain:1 operational:1 march:1 close:1 due:1 lag:1 sale:2 bid:1 farewell:1 boston:1 com:3 name:3 eight:1 year:1 daughter:2 melinda:1 lou:1 whose:1 nickname:2 stem:1 child:1 inability:1 bio:1 tv:2 claim:1 people:1 wenda:2 day:3 look:1 call:2 resign:1 operation:1 however:1 mistake:2 result:1 problem:1 damage:1 cause:1 company:3 president:1 urge:1 back:1 active:1 role:3 begin:1 visit:1 espouse:1 hardworking:1 mop:1 bucket:1 attitude:1 take:1 significant:1 spokesman:1 series:1 highly:1 successful:1 folksy:1 style:1 relaxed:1 pitch:1 quickly:1 household:1 survey:1 decade:2 star:1 every:1 air:1 find:1 knew:1 clear:1 play:1 major:1 status:1 country:1 third:1 popular:1 burger:1 honor:1 membership:2 realize:1 dropout:1 might:1 convince:1 teenager:1 quit:1 something:1 admit:1 student:1 coconut:1 creek:1 earn:2 honorary:2 duke:1 university:1 sigma:1 phi:1 epsilon:1 induct:1 junior:1 achievement:1 hall:1 fame:1 freemason:1 member:1 shriners:1 colonel:2 former:1 channel:1 eats:1 death:2 die:1 home:1 lauderdale:1 florida:1 long:1 battle:1 liver:1 cancer:1 bury:1 union:1 cemetery:1 operate:1 north:1 america:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 tribute:1 wendys:1 retrieve:1 june:1 findagrave:1 |@bigram honorably_discharge:1 fried_chicken:2 fry_chicken:1 bid_farewell:1 sigma_phi:1 phi_epsilon:1 hall_fame:1 fort_lauderdale:1 lauderdale_florida:1 external_link:1 findagrave_com:1 |
6,138 | Boston_Red_Sox | The Boston Red Sox are a member of the Major League Baseball’s American League Eastern Division. Since , the Red Sox's home ballpark has been Fenway Park. The "Red Sox" name originates from the iconic uniform feature. The club was founded in , as one of the American League's eight charter franchises. They were a dominant team in the new league—defeating the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first World Series in . They won four more championships by , and then went into one of the longest championship droughts in baseball history, which ended in , when the team won their sixth World Series Championship. Since , the Red Sox have competed in four ALCS, have won two World Series, and have emerged as arguably the most successful MLB team of the last decade. The Red Sox led all MLB teams in average road attendance in , while the small capacity of Fenway Park caused them to rank 11th in home attendance. Every home game since May 15, 2003 has been sold out—a span of over five years and an MLB record. Nickname The name Red Sox, chosen by owner John I. Taylor after the 1907 season, refers to the red hose in the team uniform beginning . Actually, Sox was adopted by newspapers needing a headline-friendly form of Stockings, as "Stockings Win!" in large type would not fit on a page. The Spanish language media sometime refers to the team as Medias Rojas for Red Stockings. The name originated with the Cincinnati Red Stockings, 1867–1870 member of the pioneering National Association of Base Ball Players. Managed by Harry Wright, Cincinnati adopted a uniform with white knickers and red stockings, and earned the famous nickname, a year or two before hiring the first fully professional team in 1869. When the club folded after the 1870 season, Wright was hired to organize a new team in Boston, and he did, bringing three teammates and the "Red Stockings" nickname along (Most nicknames were then only nicknames, neither club names nor registered trademarks, so the migration was informal). The Boston Red Stockings won four championships in the five seasons of the new National Association, the first professional league. Boston and a new Cincinnati club were charter members of the National League in 1876. Perhaps in deference to the Cincinnati history, many people reserved the "Red Stockings" nickname for that city with the Boston team commonly referred to as the "Red Caps" today. Other names were sometimes used before Boston officially adopted the nickname "Braves" in ; that club is now based in Atlanta. In , the upstart American League established a competing club in Boston. (Originally, the team was supposed to be the Buffalo Bisons, currently a minor league team, but league ownership at the last minute removed Buffalo from the league in favor of the expansion Boston franchise.) For seven seasons, the AL team wore dark blue stockings and had no official nickname. They were simply "Boston", "Bostonians" or "the Bostons"; or the "Americans" or "Boston Americans" as in "American Leaguers", Boston being a two-team city. Their 1901-1907 jerseys, both home and road, simply read "Boston", except for 1902 when they sported large letters "B" and "A" denoting "Boston" and "American." Newspaper writers of the time used other nicknames for the club, including "Somersets" (for owner Charles Somers), "Plymouth Rocks," "Beaneaters," and the "Collinsites" (for manager Jimmy Collins)" The National League club, though seldom called the "Red Stockings" anymore, still wore red trim. In , the National League club adopted an all-white uniform, and the American League team saw an opportunity. On December 18, 1907, Taylor announced that the club had officially adopted red as its new team color. The 1908 uniforms featured a large icon of a red stocking angling across the shirt front. For 1908, the National League club returned to wearing red trim, but the American League team finally had an official nickname, and would remain "The Red Sox" for good. The name is often shortened to "Bosox" or "BoSox," a combination of "Boston" and "Sox" (similar to the "ChiSox" in Chicago or the minor league "PawSox" of Pawtucket). Sportswriters sometimes refer to the Red Sox as the Crimson Hose, and the Olde Towne Team. However, most fans simply refer to the team as the "Sox" when the context is understood to mean Red Sox. For years many sources have listed the early Boston AL team as the "Pilgrims", but researcher Bill Nowlin has demonstrated that the name was barely used, if at all, at the time. Nowlin's followup article in the The National Pastime. Apparently this originated with a writer for the Washington Post during 1906, and by 1907 it started to be retroactively applied to the 1903 club, even by Boston newspapers. History 1901–1919 In , the minor Western League, led by Ban Johnson, declared its equality with the National League, then the only major league in baseball. Johnson changed the name of the league to the American League, leading teams in his league to be christened with the unofficial nickname "Americans". This was especially true in the case of the new Boston franchise, which would not adopt an official nickname until . The upstart league placed franchises in and Buffalo. After looking at his new league Ban Johnson decided that he would need a team in Boston to compete with the National League team there and so cancelled the Buffalo club's franchise, offering one to a new club in Boston. Playing their home games at Huntington Avenue Grounds, the Boston franchise finished second and third before capturing their first pennant in 1903 and repeating the next year. Those teams were led by manager and star third baseman Jimmy Collins, outfielders Chick Stahl, Buck Freeman and Patsy Dougherty and pitcher Cy Young, who in 1901 won the pitching Triple Crown with 33 wins (41.8% of the team's 79 games), 1.62 ERA and 158 strikeouts. His 1901 to seasons rank among the best four-year runs ever. In 1903, Boston participated in the first modern World Series, beating the favored Pittsburgh Pirates, winners of the NL pennant by six and a half games, winning the best-of-nine series five games to three. Aided by the modified chants of "Tessie" by the Royal Rooters fan club and by its stronger pitching staff, the Americans managed to overcome the odds, and win the World Series. The 1904 club was almost as good as the previous team, but due to the surprise emergence of the New York Highlanders, the Boston club found itself in a tight pennant race through the last games of the season. A predecessor to what would become a storied rivalry, this race featured such controversial moves as the trade of Patsy Dougherty to the Highlanders for Bob Unglaub. The climax of the season occurred on the last, dramatic doubleheader at the Highlanders’ home stadium, Hilltop Park. In order to win the pennant, the Highlanders needed to win both games. With Jack Chesbro, the Highlanders' 41-game winner, on the mound, and the score tied 2–2 with a man on third in the top of the ninth, a spitball got away from Chesbro and Lou Criger scored the go-ahead run on one of the most famous wild pitches in history. Unfortunately, the NL champion New York Giants declined to play any postseason series, fearing it would give their New York rivals credibility (they had expected the Highlanders to win), but a sharp public reaction led the two leagues immediately to make the World Series a permanent championship, starting in . These successful times soon ended, however, as Boston lost 100 games in . However, several new star players helped the newly renamed Red Sox improve almost immediately. By , legendary center fielder Tris Speaker had become a fixture in the Boston outfield, and the team worked their way to third place. However, the Red Sox would not win the pennant again until their 105-win season, finishing with a club record .691 winning percentage. Anchored by an outfield considered to be among the finest in the game—Tris Speaker, Harry Hooper and Duffy Lewis—and superstar pitcher Smoky Joe Wood, the Red Sox beat the New York Giants 4–3–1 in the classic 1912 World Series best known for Snodgrass’s Muff. From to the Red Sox were owned by Joseph Lannin, who signed Babe Ruth, soon the best-known and one of the best players ever. Another 101 wins in propelled the Red Sox to the 1915 World Series, where they beat the Philadelphia Phillies four games to one. Following the season, Tris Speaker was traded to the Cleveland Indians. His departure was more than compensated for, however, by the emergence of star pitcher Babe Ruth. The Red Sox went on to win the 1916 World Series, this time defeating the Brooklyn Robins. In , Babe Ruth led his team to another World Series championship. This time over the Chicago Cubs. Sale of Babe Ruth Harry Frazee bought the Red Sox from Joseph Lannin in for about $500,000. A couple of notable trades involving Harry Frazee and the Yankees occurred before the Babe Ruth sale. On December 18, 1918, outstanding outfielder Duffy Lewis, pitcher Dutch Leonard (who'd posted a modern record 0.96 ERA in 1914. ), and pitcher Ernie Shore were traded to the Yankees for pitcher Ray Caldwell, Slim Love, Roxy Walters, Frank Gilhooley and $15,000. As all three players were well-regarded in Boston — Lewis had been a key player on the 1910s championship teams, Shore had famously relieved Babe Ruth and retired 27 straight, and Leonard had only four years before setting a modern record for earned run average — this trade was regarded as a poor one in Boston. Then, on July 13, 1919, submarine-style pitching star Carl Mays was traded to the Yankees for Bob McGraw, Allan Russell and $40,000. Mays would go on to have several good years for the Yankees, but had been a discipline problem for the Red Sox. On December 26, 1919, The New York Times, Jun 10, 2005 USA Today, Jun 10, 2005 Frazee sold Babe Ruth, who had played the previous six seasons for the Red Sox, to the rival New York Yankees (Ruth had just broken the single-season home run record, hitting 29 in . ) Legend has it that Frazee did so in order to finance the Broadway play No, No, Nanette. That play did not actually open on Broadway until , but as Leigh Montville discovered during research for his book, The Big Bam: The Life and Times of Babe Ruth, Montville, Leigh. The Big Bam: The Life and Times of Babe Ruth Random House (2006), pp. 161-64 No, No, Nanette had originated as a non-musical stage play called My Lady Friends, which opened on Broadway in December 1919. My Lady Friends had, indeed, been financed by the Ruth sale to the Yankees. During that period, the Red Sox, Yankees and Chicago White Sox had a détente; they were called "Insurrectos" because their actions antagonized league president Ban Johnson. Although Frazee owned the Boston Red Sox franchise, he did not own Fenway Park (it was owned by the Fenway Park Trust), making his ownership a precarious one; Johnson could move another team into the ballpark. His club was in debt, but Frazee felt the need to purchase its playing site (which he did in ). Further, providing the Yankees with a box office attraction would help that mediocre club, which had sided with him against Johnson and "the Loyal Five" clubs. Finally, Ruth was considered a serious disciplinary problem, a reputation he amply confirmed while playing for the Yankees. Frazee moved Ruth to stabilize Red Sox finances and cut distractions. It was a straight sale, no players in return. New York achieved great success after acquiring Ruth and several other very good players. Boston, meanwhile, did poorly during the 20s and 30s, and the sale of Babe Ruth came to be viewed as the beginning of the Yankees-Red Sox rivalry, considered the "Greatest Rivalry on Earth" by American sports journalists. After deciding to get out of baseball, Frazee began selling many of his star players. In the winter of 1920, Wally Schang, Waite Hoyt, Harry Harper and Mike McNally were traded to the Yankees for Del Pratt, Muddy Ruel, John Costello, Hank Thormahlen, Sammy Vick and cash. The following winter, iron man shortstop Everett Scott, and pitchers Bullet Joe Bush and Sad Sam Jones were traded to the Yankees for Roger Peckinpaugh (who would be immediately shipped to the Washington Senators), Jack Quinn, Rip Collins, Bill Piercy and $50,000. On July 23, , Joe Dugan and Elmer Smith were traded to the Yankees for Elmer Miller, Chick Fewster, Johnny Mitchell, and Lefty O'Doul, who was at the time a mediocre pitching prospect. Acquiring Dugan helped the Yankees edge the St. Louis Browns in a tight pennant race, and the resulting uproar helped create a June 15 trading deadline that went into effect the next year. Perhaps an even more outrageous deal was the trade of Herb Pennock, occurring in early . Pennock was traded by the Red Sox to the Yankees for Camp Skinner, Norm McMillan, George Murray and $50,000. Over an eight-year period from to , the Red Sox averaged over 100 losses per season. One of the few bright spots on these teams was Earl Webb, who set the all-time mark for most doubles in a season in with 67. The BoSox’ fortunes began to change in when Tom Yawkey bought the team. Yawkey acquired pitcher Wes Ferrell and one of the greatest pitchers of all-time, Lefty Grove, making his team competitive once again in the late thirties. He also acquired Joe Cronin, an outstanding shortstop and manager and slugging first baseman Jimmie Foxx whose 50 home runs in 1938 would stand as a club record for 68 years. Foxx also drove in a club record 175 runs. 1939–1960 In , the Red Sox purchased the contract of outfielder Ted Williams from the minor league San Diego Padres of the Pacific Coast League, ushering in an era of the team sometimes called the "Ted Sox." Williams consistently hit for both high power and high average, and is generally considered one of the greatest hitters of all time. The right-field bullpens in Fenway were built in part for Williams' left-handed swing, and are sometimes called "Williamsburg." Before this addition, it was over to right field. He served two stints in the United States Marine Corps as a pilot and saw active duty in both World War II and the Korean War, missing at least five full seasons of baseball. His book The Science of Hitting is widely read by students of baseball. He is currently the last player to hit over .400 for a full season, batting .406 in . . Williams feuded with sports writers his whole career, calling them "The Knights of the Keyboard," and his relationship with the fans was often rocky as he was seen spitting towards the stands on more than one occasion. With Williams, the Red Sox reached the 1946 World Series, but lost to the St. Louis Cardinals in seven games in part because of the use of the "Williams Shift," a defensive tactic in which the shortstop would move to the right side of the infield to make it harder for the left-handed-hitting Williams to hit to that side of the field. Some have claimed that he was too proud to hit to the other side of the field, not wanting to let the Cardinals take away his game. His performance may have also been affected by a pitch he took in the elbow in an exhibition game a few days earlier. Either way, in his first and only World Series, Williams gathering just five singles in 25 at-bats for a .200 average. The Cardinals won the Series when Enos Slaughter scored the go-ahead run all the way from first base on a base hit to left field. The throw from Leon Culberson was cut off by shortstop Johnny Pesky, who relayed the ball to the plate just a hair too late. Some say Pesky hesitated or "held the ball" before he turned to throw the ball, but this has been disputed. Along with Williams and Pesky, the Red Sox featured several other star players during the 1940s, including second baseman Bobby Doerr and center fielder Dom DiMaggio (the younger brother of Joe DiMaggio). The Red Sox narrowly lost the AL pennant in and . In 1948, Boston finished in a tie with Cleveland, and their loss to Cleveland in a one-game playoff ended hopes of an all-Boston World Series. Curiously, manager Joseph McCarthy chose journeyman Denny Galehouse to start the playoff game when the young lefty phenom Mel Parnell was available to pitch. In 1949, the Red Sox were one game ahead of the New York Yankees, with the only two games left for both teams being against each other, and they lost both of those games. The 1950s were viewed as a time of tribulation for the Red Sox. After Williams returned from the Korean War in , many of the best players from the late 1940s had retired or been traded. The stark contrast in the team led critics to call the Red Sox' daily lineup "Ted Williams and the Seven Dwarfs." Jackie Robinson was even worked out by the team at Fenway Park, however it appeared that owner Tom Yawkey did not want an African American player on his team at that time. Willie Mays also tried out for Boston and was highly praised by team scouts. Ted Williams hit .388 at the age of 38 in , but there was little else for Boston fans to root for. Williams retired at the end of the season, famously hitting a home run in his final at-bat as memorialized in the John Updike story "Hub fans bid Kid adieu." The Red Sox finally became the last Major League team to field an African American player when they promoted infielder Pumpsie Green from their AAA farm team in . 1960s The 1960s also started poorly for the Red Sox, though 1961 saw the debut of Carl "Yaz" Yastrzemski, Williams' replacement in left field, who developed into one of the better hitters of a pitching-rich decade. Red Sox fans know as the season of the "Impossible Dream." The slogan refers to the hit song from the popular musical play "Man of La Mancha." 1967 saw one of the great pennant races in baseball history with four teams in the AL pennant race until almost the last game. The BoSox had finished the season in ninth place, but they found new life with Yastrzemski as the team went to the 1967 World Series. Yastrzemski won the American League Triple Crown (the most recent player to accomplish such a feat), hitting .326 with 44 home runs and 121 RBIs. He finished one vote short of a unanimous MVP selection, as a Minnesota sportswriter placed Twins center fielder César Tovar first on his ballot. But the Red Sox lost the series — again to the St. Louis Cardinals, in seven games. Legendary pitcher Bob Gibson stymied the Red Sox winning three games. An 18-year-old Bostonian rookie named Tony Conigliaro slugged 24 home runs in . "Tony C" became the youngest player in Major League Baseball to hit his 100th home run, a record that stands today. However, he was struck just above the left cheek bone by a fastball thrown by Jack Hamilton of the California Angels in August . Conigliaro sat out the entire next season with headaches and blurred vision. Although he did have a productive season in , he was never the same. 1970s Although the Red Sox were competitive for much of the late 1960s and early 1970s, they never finished higher than second place in their division. The closest they came to a divisional title was , when they lost by a half-game to the Detroit Tigers. The start of the season was delayed by a players' strike, and the Red Sox further lost a game to a rainout that was never replayed, which caused the Red Sox to lose the division by a half-game. On October 2, 1972, they also lost the second to last game of the year to the Tigers, 3–1, when Luis Aparicio fell rounding third after Yastremski hit a triple in the third inning, Aparicio tried to scamper back to third but this created an out as Yastremski was already on third. The Red Sox won the AL pennant in . The 1975 Red Sox were as colorful as they were talented, with Yastrzemski and rookie outfielders Jim Rice and Fred Lynn, veteran outfielder Dwight Evans, catcher Carlton Fisk, and pitchers Luis Tiant and eccentric junkballer Bill "The Spaceman" Lee. Fred Lynn won both the American League Rookie of the Year award and the Most Valuable Player award, a feat which had never previously been accomplished, and was not duplicated until Ichiro Suzuki did it in . Most Valuable Player MVP Awards & Cy Young Awards Winners - Baseball-Reference.com . In the 1975 American League Championship Series, the Red Sox swept the Oakland A's. In the 1975 World Series, they faced the heavily favored Cincinnati Reds, also known as The Big Red Machine. Luis Tiant won games 1 and 4 of the World Series but after five games, the Red Sox trailed the series 3 games to 2. Game 6 at Fenway Park is considered among the greatest games in postseason history. Down 6–3 in the bottom of the eighth inning, Red Sox pinch hitter Bernie Carbo hit a three run homer into the center field bleachers off Reds fireman Rawly Eastwick to tie the game. In the top of the eleventh inning, right fielder Dwight Evans made a spectacular catch of a Joe Morgan line drive and doubled Ken Griffey at first base to preserve the tie. In the bottom of the twelfth inning, Carlton Fisk hit a deep fly ball which sliced towards the left field foul pole above the Green Monster. As the ball sailed into the night, Fisk waved his arms frantically towards fair territory, seemingly pleading with the ball not to go foul. The ball complied, and bedlam ensued at Fenway as Fisk rounded the bases to win the game for the Red Sox 7–6. The Red Sox lost game 7, 4–3 even though they had an early 3–0 lead. Starting pitcher Bill Lee threw a slow looping curve which he called a "Leephus pitch" or "space ball" to Reds first baseman Tony Perez who hit the ball over the Green Monster and across the street. The Reds scored the winning run in the 9th inning. Carlton Fisk said famously about the 1975 World Series, "We won that thing 3 games to 4." 1978 pennant race In , the Red Sox and the Yankees were involved in a tight pennant race. The Yankees were 14½ games behind the Red Sox in July, and on September 10, after completing a 4-game sweep of the Red Sox (known as "The Boston Massacre"), the Yankees tied for the divisional lead. For the final three weeks of the season, the teams fought closely and the lead changed hands several times. By the final day of the season, the Yankees' magic number to win the division was one — with a win over Cleveland or a Boston loss to the Toronto Blue Jays clinching the division. However, New York lost 9–2 and Boston won 5–0, forcing a one-game playoff to be held at Fenway Park on Monday, October 2. The most remembered moment from the game was Bucky Dent's 7th inning three-run home run in off Mike Torrez just over the Green Monster, giving the Yankees their first lead. Reggie Jackson provided a solo home run in the 8th that proved to be the difference in the Yankees' 5–4 win, which ended with Yastrzemski popping out to Graig Nettles in foul territory with Rick Burleson representing the tying run at third. 1986 season Carl Yastrzemski retired after the season, during which the Red Sox finished sixth in the seven-team AL East, posting their worst record since . However, in , it appeared that the team's fortunes were about to change. The offense had remained strong with Jim Rice, Dwight Evans, Don Baylor and Wade Boggs. Roger Clemens led the pitching staff, going 24-4 with a 2.48 ERA, and had a 20-strikeout game to win both the American League Cy Young and Most Valuable Player awards. Clemens became the first starting pitcher to win both awards since Vida Blue in , and no starting pitcher has won the MVP award in either league since. The Red Sox won the AL East for the first time in 11 seasons, and faced the California Angels in the AL Championship Series. The teams split the first two games in Boston, but the Angels won the next two home games, taking a 3–1 lead in the series. With the Angels poised to win the series, the Red Sox trailed 5–2 heading into the ninth inning of Game 5. A two-run homer by Baylor cut the lead to one. With two outs and a runner on, and one strike away from elimination, Dave Henderson homered off Donnie Moore to put Boston up 6–5. Although the Angels tied the game in the bottom of the ninth, the Red Sox won in the 11th on a Henderson sacrifice fly off Moore. The Red Sox then found themselves with six- and seven-run wins at Fenway Park in Games 6 and 7 to win the American League title. The Red Sox faced a heavily favored New York Mets team that had won 108 games in the regular season in the 1986 World Series. Boston won the first two games in Shea Stadium but lost the next two at Fenway, knotting the series at 2 games apiece. After Bruce Hurst recorded his second victory of the series in Game 5, the Red Sox returned to Shea Stadium looking to garner their first championship in 68 years. However, Game 6 would go down as one of the most devastating losses in club history. After pitching seven strong innings, Clemens was lifted from the game with a 3–2 lead. Years later, Manager John McNamara said Clemens was suffering from a blister and asked to be taken out of the game, a claim Clemens denied. The Mets then scored a run off reliever and former Met Calvin Schiraldi to tie the score 3–3. The game went to extra innings, where the Red Sox took a 5–3 lead in the top of the 10th on a solo home run by Henderson, a double by Boggs and an RBI single by second baseman Marty Barrett. After recording two outs in the bottom of the 10th, a graphic appeared on the NBC telecast hailing Barrett as the Player of the Game, and Bruce Hurst had been named World Series MVP. A message even appeared briefly on the Shea Stadium scoreboard congratulating the Red Sox as world champions. After so many years of abject frustration, Red Sox fans around the world could taste victory. With two strikes, Mets catcher Gary Carter hit a single. It was followed by singles by Kevin Mitchell and Ray Knight. With Mookie Wilson batting, a wild pitch by Bob Stanley tied the game at 5. Wilson then hit a slow ground ball to first; the ball rolled through Bill Buckner's legs, allowing Knight to score the winning run from second. While Buckner was singled out as responsible for the loss, many observers — as well as both Wilson and Buckner — have noted that even if Buckner had fielded the ball cleanly, the speedy Wilson probably would still have been safe, leaving the game-winning run at third with two out. Many observers questioned why Buckner was in the game at that point considering he had bad knees and that Dave Stapleton had come in as a late-inning defensive replacement in prior series games. It appeared as though McNamara was trying to reward Buckner for his long and illustrious career by leaving him in the game. After falling behind 3–0, the Mets then won Game 7, concluding the devastating collapse and feeding the myth that the Red Sox were "cursed." 1988–1991 The Red Sox returned to the postseason in 1988. With the club in fourth place midway through the 1988 season at the All-Star break, manager John McNamara was fired and replaced by Joe Morgan on July 15. Immediately the club won 12 games in a row, and 19 of 20 overall, to surge to the AL East title in what would be referred to as Morgan Magic. But the magic was short-lived, as the team was swept by the Oakland Athletics in the ALCS. Ironically, the MVP of that Series was former Red Sox pitcher and Baseball Hall of Fame player Dennis Eckersley, who saved all four wins for Oakland. Two years later, in 1990, the Red Sox would again win the division and face the Athletics in the ALCS. However, the outcome was the same, with the A's sweeping the ALCS in four straight. 1992–2001 Tom Yawkey died in , and his wife Jean R. Yawkey took control of the team until her death in . Their initials are shown in two stripes on the Left field wall in Morse code. Upon Jean's death, control of the team passed to the Yawkey Trust, led by John Harrington. The trust sold the team in 2002, concluding 70 years of Yawkey ownership. In , General Manager Lou Gorman was replaced by Dan Duquette, a Massachusetts native who had worked for the Montreal Expos. Duquette revived the team's farm system, which during his tenure produced players such as Nomar Garciaparra, Carl Pavano and David Eckstein. Duquette also spent money on free agents, notably an eight-year, $160 million deal for Manny Ramírez after the season. The Red Sox won the newly-realigned American League East in , finishing seven games ahead of the Yankees. However, they were swept in three games in the ALDS by the Cleveland Indians. Their postseason losing streak reached 13 straight games, dating back to the 1986 World Series. Roger Clemens tied his major league record by fanning 20 Detroit Tigers on September 18, in what would prove to be one of his final appearances in a Red Sox uniform. After Clemens had turned 30 and then had four seasons, 1993–96, which were by his standards mediocre at best, Duquette said the pitcher was entering "the twilight of his career." Clemens went on to pitch well for another ten years and win four more Cy Young awards. Out of contention in , the team traded closer Slocum to Seattle for catching prospect Jason Varitek and right-handed pitcher Derek Lowe. Prior to the start of the season, the Red Sox dealt pitchers Tony Armas, Jr. and Carl Pavano to the Montreal Expos for pitcher Pedro Martínez. Martínez became the anchor of the team's pitching staff and turned in several outstanding seasons. In 1998, the team won the American League Wild Card, but again lost the American League Division Series to the Indians. In , Duquette called Fenway Park "economically obsolete" and, along with Red Sox ownership, led a push for a new stadium. Despite support from the Massachusetts Legislature and other politicians, issues with buying out neighboring property and steadfast opposition within Boston's city council eventually doomed the project. On the field, the 1999 Red Sox were finally able to overturn their fortunes against the Indians. Cleveland took a 2–0 series lead, but Boston won the next three games behind strong pitching by Derek Lowe, Pedro Martínez and his brother Ramón Martínez. Game 4's 23–7 win by the Red Sox was the highest-scoring playoff game in major league history. Game 5 began with the Indians taking a 5–2 lead after two innings, but Pedro Martínez, nursing a shoulder injury, came on in the fourth inning and pitched six innings without allowing a hit while the team's offense rallied for a 12–8 win behind two home runs and seven RBIs from outfielder Troy O'Leary. After the ALDS victory, the Red Sox lost the American League Championship Series to the Yankees, four games to one. The one bright spot was a lopsided win for the Red Sox in the much-hyped Martinez-Clemens game. It was during this period that Yankees fans started to chant "1918!" each time the Red Sox visited Yankee Stadium. 2002–present: Henry comes to Boston 2002 In , the Red Sox were sold by Yawkey trustee and president Harrington to New England Sports Ventures, a consortium headed by principal owner John Henry. Tom Werner served as executive chairman, Larry Lucchino served as president and CEO, and serving as vice chairman was Les Otten. Dan Duquette was fired as GM of the club on February 28, with former Angels GM Mike Port taking the helm for the 2002 season. A week later, manager Joe Kerrigan was fired and was replaced by Grady Little. While nearly all offseason moves were made under Dan Duquette, such as signing outfielder Johnny Damon away from the Oakland A's, the new ownership made additions after their purchase of the team, including trading for outfielder Cliff Floyd and relief pitcher Alan Embree. Nomar Garciaparra, Manny Ramírez, and Floyd all hit well, while Pedro Martínez put up his usual outstanding numbers. Derek Lowe, newly converted into a starter, won 20 games—becoming the first player to save 20 games and win 20 games in back-to-back seasons. The Red Sox won 93 games but they finished 10½ games behind the Yankees for the division and 6 behind the Angels for the AL wild card. 2003 In the off-season, Port was replaced by Yale graduate Theo Epstein. Epstein, raised in , and just 28 at the time of his hiring, became the youngest general manager in MLB history. The "Idiots" of arose out of the "Cowboy Up" team of , a nickname derived from first baseman Kevin Millar's challenge to his teammates to show more determination. Boston Globe, September 24, 2003, "Rallying Cry Spurs Sox To Finish Ride" By Joseph P. Kahn In addition to Millar, the team's offense was so deep that 2003 batting champion Bill Mueller batted 7th in the lineup behind sluggers Manny Ramírez and the newly acquired David Ortiz. GM Theo Epstein, noticing that Mueller was hitting very well in a limited role, traded Shea Hillenbrand to the Arizona Diamondbacks for Byung-Hyun Kim. Receiving much more playing time following the trade, Ortiz contributed significantly in the second half of the season. The trade ended up greatly benefiting the team, as the Red Sox broke many batting records and won the AL Wild Card. In the 2003 American League Division Series, the Red Sox rallied from a 0–2 series deficit against the Oakland Athletics to win the best-of-five series. Derek Lowe returned to his former relief pitching role to save Game 5, a 4–3 victory. The team then faced the Yankees in the 2003 American League Championship Series. In Game 7, Boston led 5–2 in the eighth inning, but Pedro Martínez allowed three runs to tie the game. The Red Sox could not score off Mariano Rivera over the last three innings and eventually lost the game 6–5 when Yankee third baseman Aaron Boone hit a solo home run off Tim Wakefield. Some placed the blame for the loss on manager Grady Little for failing to remove starting pitcher Martínez in the 8th inning after some observers believe he began to show signs of tiring. Others credited Little with the team's successful season and dramatic come-from-behind victory in the ALDS. Nevertheless, Boston's management decided a change was in order and did not renew Little's contract. He was replaced by former Philadelphia Phillies manager Terry Francona. 2004: World Series Championship During the 2003–04 offseason, the Red Sox acquired another ace pitcher, Curt Schilling, and a closer, Keith Foulke. Expectations once again ran high that would be the year that the Red Sox ended their championship drought. The regular season started well in April, but through mid-season the team struggled due to injuries, inconsistency, and defensive woes. Management shook up the team at the MLB trading deadline on July 31 with a blockbuster four team trade. They traded the team's popular yet often injured shortstop Nomar Garciaparra with outfielder Matt Murton to the Chicago Cubs. The Cubs sent Brendan Harris, Alex Gonzalez and Francis Beltran to the Montreal Expos, and minor leaguer Justin Jones to the Minnesota Twins. The Red Sox received first baseman Doug Mientkiewicz from the Twins, and shortstop Orlando Cabrera from the Expos. In a separate transaction, the Red Sox traded minor leaguer Henri Stanley to the Los Angeles Dodgers for center fielder Dave Roberts. Following the trades, the club immediately turned things around, winning 22 out of 25 games and qualifying for the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. Players and fans affectionately referred to the players as "The Idiots," a term coined by Johnny Damon and Kevin Millar during the playoff push to describe the team's eclectic roster and devil-may-care attitude toward their supposed "curse." Boston began the postseason by sweeping the AL West champion Anaheim Angels in the ALDS. However, Curt Schilling suffered a torn ankle tendon in Game 1 when he was hit by a line drive. In the third game of the series, Vladimir Guerrero hit a grand slam off Mike Timlin in the 7th inning to tie the game. However, David Ortiz hit a walk-off two-run homer in the 10th inning to win the game. The Red Sox advanced to a rematch in the ALCS against the Yankees. The series started very poorly for the Red Sox. Schilling, pitching injured, was routed for six runs in three innings and Boston ended up losing Game 1. In the second game, with his Yankees leading 1–0 for most of the game, John Olerud hit a two-run home run to put New York up for good. Following this, the Red Sox were down three games to none after a crushing 19–8 loss in Game 3 at home. Up to this point, no team in the history of baseball had come back to win from a 3–0 series deficit. In Game 4, the Red Sox found themselves facing elimination, trailing 4–3 in the ninth with Mariano Rivera in to close for the Yankees. After Rivera issued a walk to Kevin Millar, Dave Roberts came on to pinch run and promptly stole second base. He then scored on an RBI single by Bill Mueller, sending the game into extra innings. The Red Sox went on to win the game on a two-run home run by David Ortiz in the 12th inning. Game 5 would last 14 innings, setting the record for the longest ALCS game ever played. Both sides squandered many opportunities, until Ortiz again sealed the win with a walk-off RBI single in the bottom of the 14th. With the series returning to Yankee Stadium for Game 6, the comeback continued with Schilling pitching on a bad ankle. The three sutures in Schilling's ankle bled throughout the game, making his sock appear bloody red. Schilling only allowed one run over 7 innings to lead the Red Sox to victory. In Game 7, the Red Sox completed their historic comeback owing to the strength of Derek Lowe's pitching and Johnny Damon's two home runs (including a grand slam in the second inning). The Yankees were defeated 10–3. Ortiz, who had the game winning RBIs in Games 4 and 5, was named ALCS Most Valuable Player. The Red Sox joined the 1942 Toronto Maple Leafs and 1975 New York Islanders as the only professional sports teams in history to win a best-of-seven games series after being down three games to none. The Red Sox swept the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2004 World Series. The Red Sox began the series with an 11–9 win, marked by Mark Bellhorn's game-winning home run off Pesky's Pole. Game 2 in Boston was won thanks to another great performance by the bloody-socked Curt Schilling. Pedro Martínez (in his first World Series performance) shut out the Cardinals for seven innings and led Boston to a 4–1 victory in game 3, and Derek Lowe and the Red Sox did not allow a single run in game 4. The game ended as Edgar Rentería hit the ball back to closer Keith Foulke. After Foulke lobbed the ball to Mientkiewicz at first, the Red Sox had won their first World Championship in 86 years. Until the Red Sox won the World Series, each time they visited Yankee Stadium, Yankee fans taunted them with demeaning chants of "1918! 1918!" Players on the Red Sox said that the team would never ever hear "1918!" at Yankee Stadium again. Boston held the Cardinals' offense to only three runs in the final three games and never trailed in the series. Manny Ramírez was named World Series MVP. To add a final, surreal touch to Boston's championship season, on the night of Game 4 a total lunar eclipse colored the moon red over Busch Stadium. The city of Boston held a "rolling rally" for the team on October 30, 2004. Red Sox Nation packed the streets of Boston that Saturday to celebrate as the team rode on the city's famous Duck Boats. The Red Sox earned many accolades from the sports media and throughout the nation for their incredible season. In December, Sports Illustrated named the Boston Red Sox the 2004 Sportsmen of the Year. 2005 After winning its first World Series in 86 years, the club re-signed Jason Varitek and named him team captain. The AL East would be decided on the last weekend of the season, with the Yankees coming to Fenway Park with a one-game lead in the standings. The Red Sox won two of the three games to finish the season with the same record as the Yankees, 95–67. However, a playoff was not needed. The Yankees had won the season series, 10–9, thus they won the division, and the Red Sox settled for the Wild Card. Boston was swept in three games by the eventual 2005 World Series champion White Sox in the first round of the playoffs. 2005–2006 off-season On October 31, 2005, general manager Theo Epstein resigned on the last day of his contract. On Thanksgiving evening, the Red Sox announced the acquisition of pitcher Josh Beckett and third baseman Mike Lowell from the Florida Marlins, while sending several prospects including Hanley Ramírez to the Marlins. Fan-favorite Johnny Damon broke the hearts of Red Sox Nation by signing a four-year, $52 million deal with the Yankees. The team filled the vacancy in center field left by Damon's departure by trading for Cleveland Indians center fielder Coco Crisp. However, Crisp fractured his left index finger in April and would end up missing over 50 games in . In January 2006, Epstein came to terms with the Red Sox and was once again named General Manager. 2006 season The revamped Red Sox infield, with third baseman Mike Lowell joining new shortstop Alex Gonzalez, second baseman Mark Loretta, and first baseman Kevin Youkilis was one of the best-fielding infields in baseball. The Red Sox committed the fewest errors in the American League in 2006, and on June 30, Boston set a major league record of 17 straight errorless games. One of the brightest spots of the 2006 season was the emergence of new closer Jonathan Papelbon. Papelbon ended up setting a Red Sox rookie record with 35 saves and earning an All-Star appearance. Also, David Ortiz provided a late-season highlight when he broke Jimmie Foxx's single season Red Sox home run record by hitting 54 homers. Down the stretch, the Red Sox wilted under the pressure of mounting injuries and poor performances. Boston would compile a 9-21 record in the month of August. Injuries to Jason Varitek, Trot Nixon, and Manny Ramírez severely hurt the offense. Also, injuries to Tim Wakefield, rookie Jon Lester (diagnosed with lymphoma), and Matt Clement left the rotation with major holes to fill. The Red Sox finished 2006 with an 86–76 record and third place in the AL East. 2007: World Series Championship Theo Epstein's first step toward restocking the team for was to pursue one of the most anticipated acquisitions in baseball history. On November 14, MLB announced that Boston had won the bid for the rights to negotiate a contract with Japanese superstar pitcher Daisuke Matsuzaka. Boston placed a bid of $51.1 million and had 30 days to complete a deal. On December 13, Matsuzaka signed a 6-year, $52 million contract. Fan favorite Trot Nixon filed for free agency and agreed on a deal with the Indians. With an opening in right field, the Red Sox signed J.D. Drew on January 25, 2007 to a 5-year, $70 million contract. Free agent Shortstop Álex González was replaced by another free agent, Julio Lugo. Second baseman Mark Loretta also left via free agency for the Houston Astros, opening a spot for rookie Dustin Pedroia. The Red Sox moved into first place in the AL East by mid-April and never relinquished their division lead. While Ortiz and Ramirez provided their usual offense, it was the hitting of Lowell, Youkilis, and Pedroia that anchored the club through the first few months. While Drew, Lugo, and Coco Crisp struggled to provide offense, Lowell and Youkilis more than made up for it with averages well above .300 and impressive home run and RBI totals. Pedroia started badly, hitting below .200 in April. Manager Terry Francona stuck with him and his patience paid off as Pedroia finished the first half over .300. On the mound, Josh Beckett emerged as the ace of the staff and was 12–2 at the all-star break. His success was needed as Schilling, Matsuzaka, Wakefield and Tavarez all struggled at times. Meanwhile, the Boston bullpen, anchored by Papelbon and Hideki Okajima, was there to pick up the starters often. Papelbon served as the stopper, and the rise of Okajima as a legitimate setup man and occasional closer gave the Red Sox more options late in the game. Okajima posted an ERA of 0.88 through the first half and was selected for the All-Star Game. By the All-Star break, Boston had the best record in baseball and held their largest lead in the American League East, 10 games over the Blue Jays and Yankees. In the second half, more stars emerged for the Red Sox as they continued to lead the AL East. Beckett continued to shine, reaching 20 wins for the first time in his career. At one point, veteran Tim Wakefield found himself atop the AL in wins and finished with a 17–12 record. Minor league call-up Clay Buchholz provided a spark on September 1 by pitching a no-hitter in his second career start. Another call-up, outfielder Jacoby Ellsbury, was thrust into the starting lineup while Manny Ramírez rested through most of September. Ellsbury played brilliantly during the month, hitting .361 with 3 HR, 17 RBI, and 8 stolen bases. Mike Lowell continued to carry the club, hitting cleanup in September and leading the team with 120 RBI for the season. Eventual 2007 Rookie of the Year Dustin Pedroia finished his outstanding first full season with 165 hits and a .317 average. The Red Sox became the first team to clinch a playoff spot for the 2007 season and the Red Sox captured their first AL East title since 1995. The Red Sox swept the Angels in the ALDS. Facing the Indians in the ALCS, Josh Beckett won Game 1 but the Red Sox stumbled, losing the next three games. Facing a 3–1 deficit and a must-win situation, Beckett pitched eight innings while surrendering only one run and striking out 11 in a masterful Game 5 win. The Red Sox captured their twelfth American League pennant by outscoring the Indians 30–5 over the final three games, winning the final two games at Fenway Park. The Red Sox faced the Colorado Rockies in the 2007 World Series. Beckett set the tone in game 1, pitching seven strong innings as the offense provided more than enough in a 13–1 victory. In Game 2, Schilling, Okajima, and Papelbon held the Rockies to one run again in a 2–1 game. Moving to Colorado, the Red Sox offense made the difference again in a 10–5 win. Finally, in Game 4, Jon Lester took Wakefield's spot in the rotation and gave the Red Sox an impressive start, pitching 5 2/3 shutout innings. The Rockies threatened, but thanks to World Series MVP Mike Lowell and aided by a home run by Bobby Kielty, Papelbon registered another save as the Red Sox swept the Rockies in four games, capturing their second title in four years. 2008 Following their World Series victory, the Red Sox were forced to address a few personnel questions in the hopes of repeating as champion. The team re-signed free agents Mike Lowell, Curt Schilling, Tim Wakefield and Mike Timlin. The Red Sox also added veteran first baseman Sean Casey to back up Kevin Youkilis. Injuries to Schilling, Timlin, and Josh Beckett landed each pitcher on the disabled list before the season began, putting added pressure on young starters Jon Lester and Clay Buchholz. The Red Sox began their season by participating in the third opening day game in MLB history to be played in Japan, where they defeated the Oakland A's in the Tokyo Dome. Boston played well to start the season, settling into a top position in the AL East. However, the surprise Tampa Bay Rays took over the top of the division with a sweep over the Red Sox in early July. From May 17-22, the Sox had a winning streak of seven games, their longest of the season. Chuck, Bill. 100 random things about the Red Sox, Rays, and Yankees, The Boston Globe. Published April 2, 2009. Retrieved May 2, 2009. On May 19, Lester threw the 18th no-hitter in team history, beating the Kansas City Royals 7–0. During the season, Lester emerged as an anchor in the Red Sox rotation, leading the team in starts and innings pitched while compiling a 16–6 record and a 3.21 ERA. Buchholz meanwhile struggled mightily in 2008 to a 2–9 record, ending up back in the minors. Injuries would take a toll on the Red Sox offense during the season. David Ortiz missed 45 games with an injured wrist, Shroyer, Shawn. Wrist still giving Big Papi some trouble, Boston Red Sox. Published September 7, 2008. Mike Lowell missed weeks with a torn hip labrum, and after a blistering performance in June, J.D. Drew aggravated a back injury that shelved him for much of the second half of the season. Down the stretch, outfielder Manny Ramirez — playing in the final year of his eight year contract — became a distraction to the team. His disruptive behavior included public incidents with fellow players in the dugout (shoving Kevin Youkilis), team employees (pushing the team's 64 year old traveling secretary to the ground), criticizing ownership, and not playing due to laziness and nonexistent injuries. The front office decided to move the disgrunted outfielder at the July 31 trade deadline, shipping him to the Dodgers in a three-way deal with the Pirates that landed them Jason Bay to replace him in left field. Shaughnessy, Dan. Going, going, gone, The Boston Globe. Published August 1, 2008. With Ramirez gone, and Bay providing a new spark in the lineup, the Red Sox found new life. Kevin Youkilis had career highs in home runs (29) and RBIs (115). Closer Jonathan Papelbon set a career high in saves with 41. Daisuke Matsuzaka improved on his 2007 performance and led the team in wins, finishing with an 18–3 record. However, it was Dustin Pedroia who emerged as not only a team leader, but an American League MVP candidate. Pedroia hit over .340 in the second half, finishing the year at or near the top in the AL in batting average, hits, runs, and doubles. Despite Boston's 34–19 record following the trading deadline, the Rays held onto the AL East lead and captured their first division title in franchise history. Boston still made the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. Behind the strong pitching of Jon Lester (two games started and no earned runs allowed), the Red Sox defeated the Angels in the ALDS three games to one. The Red Sox then took on their AL East rivals the Tampa Bay Rays in the ALCS. Down three games to one in the 5th game of the ALCS, Boston mounted the greatest single game comeback in ALCS history. Trailing 7-0 in the 7th inning with elimination pending, the Red Sox came back to win the game 8-7. They tied the series at 3 games apiece before losing Game 7, 3–1, thus becoming the eighth team in a row since 2000 not to repeat as world champions. The Red Sox led the American League last season in shutouts with 16, but only two were complete games by the starter. Current roster Uniform Spring Training City of Palms Park Former left fielder Mike Greenwell is from and was instrumental in bringing his team to the city for spring training. City of Palms Park was built in for that purpose and holds 8,000 people. It is also the home of the Red Sox Rookie team, the Gulf Coast League Red Sox, from April through June. Perhaps the most memorable game played at City of Palms was on March 7, . This was the first game played between the Red Sox and New York Yankees since Aaron Boone hit the home run that eliminated the Red Sox from the playoffs the previous October. Boone's replacement at third base, Alex Rodriguez was the high profile key acquisition of the off season for the Yankees, and he was savagely booed by the 7,304 in attendance. New spring facility The Red Sox's lease with Fort Myers runs through 2019, however, team ownership had been toying with exercising the early out in their contract that allows them to leave following the spring season. Chief operating officer Mike Dee met with Sarasota officials on April 25, 2008 to discuss the possibility of the Red Sox moving to Sarasota's Ed Smith Stadium once its current spring inhabitants, the Cincinnati Reds, move to their new spring home in . John Yarborough, director of Lee County Parks and Rec, met with Jeff Mudgett, a Fort Myers architect who is volunteering his time to brain storm ideas on what can be done to keep the Red Sox in Fort Myers. “I’d like to have a project by 2012,’’ Yarborough said after the meeting. On October 28, 2008, the Lee County commission voted 3-1 to approve an agreement with the Boston Red Sox to build a new spring-training facility for the team in south Lee County. Commissioner Brian Bigelow was the lone dissenting vote. Commissioner Bob Janes was not present for the vote, but stated that he supported it. Dee was present in the chambers for the vote, and took the agreement back to Boston to meet with John Henry and other team officials. On November 1, 2008, the Red Sox signed an agreement with Lee County that will keep their spring training home in the Fort Myers area for 30 more years. Wednesday, April 30, 2009, the Lee County commissioners selected the Watermen-Pinnacle site on Daniels Parkway (a little more than a mile east of Interstate 75) as the site for the new facility. The backup choice, if negotiations between county staff and the developer falter, is the University Highland site just north of Germain Arena in Estero. Jeff Mudgett, a Fort Myers architect who is volunteering his time toward the project, envisions a facility with a mini-Fenway Park that would open for Spring 2012. Radio and television Currently, the flagship radio station of the Red Sox is WRKO, 680 AM. Joe Castiglione, in his 25th year as the voice of the Red Sox, serves as the lead play-by-play announcer, along with the rotating team of Dave O'Brien, Dale Arnold and Jon Rish. Some of Castiglione's predecessors include Curt Gowdy, Ken Coleman, and Ned Martin. He has also worked with play-by-play veterans Bob Starr and Jerry Trupiano. Many stations throughout New England and beyond pick up the broadcasts. In addition WEEI 850 AM, WRKO's sister station and former Red Sox flagship station, broadcast all weekday afternoon games and Wednesday night games. All Red Sox telecasts not shown nationally on FOX or ESPN are seen on New England Sports Network (NESN) with Don Orsillo calling play-by-play and Jerry Remy, former Red Sox second baseman, as color analyst. NESN became exclusive in 2006; before then, games were shown on such local stations as WBZ, WSBK, WLVI, WABU, and WFXT at various points in team history. Retired numbers <b>BobbyDoerr2B, CoachRetired 1988<b>JoeCroninSS, M, GMRetired 1984<b>JohnnyPeskySS, 3B, M, CoachRetired 2008<b>CarlYastrzemskiOF, 1BRetired 1989<b>TedWilliamsOFRetired 1984<b>CarltonFiskCRetired 2000<b>JackieRobinson-Retired 1997 The Red Sox have two official requirements for a player to have his number retired: Election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame At least 10 years played with the Red Sox The Red Sox previously had a requirement that the player "must have finished their career with Red Sox," but this was reconsidered after the election of Carlton Fisk to the Hall of Fame. Fisk actually retired with the White Sox, but then-GM Dan Duquette hired him for one day as a special assistant, which allowed Fisk to technically end his career with the Red Sox. After that, with the anticipation that there might be other former Red Sox players who would be denied the chance to have their number by the club (a prime example would be Roger Clemens), the team dropped the rule. Some would argue that the rule still exists de jure, as Wade Boggs' number has not been retired by Boston even though he meets the official requirements (Boggs finished his career with the Tampa Bay Rays). It should be noted that Boston did honor Boggs by voting him into the Red Sox Hall of Fame in 2004, the year before he was enshrined into Cooperstown. The only exception that has been made to date is for former Boston shortstop Johnny Pesky, whose number 6 was retired on 28 September 2008. Pesky neither spent ten years as a player nor was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame; however, Red Sox ownership cited "... his versatility of his contributions — on the field, off the field, [and] in the dugout...," including as a manager, scout, and special instructor and decided that the honor had been well-earned. The number 42 was officially retired by Major League Baseball in , but Mo Vaughn was one of a handful of players to continue wearing #42 through a grandfather clause. He last wore it for the team in . In commemoration of Jackie Robinson Day, MLB invited players to wear the number 42 for games played on April 15, Coco Crisp (CF), David Ortiz (DH), and DeMarlo Hale (Coach) did that in 2007 and again in 2008. In 2009, MLB had all uniformed players for all teams wear #42. Until the late 1990s, the numbers originally hung on the right-field facade in the order in which they were retired: 9-4-1-8. It was pointed out that the numbers, when read as a date (9/4/18), marked the eve of the first game of the 1918 World Series, the last championship series that the Red Sox won before 2004. After the facade was repainted, the numbers were rearranged in numerical order. The Red Sox have not issued several numbers since the departure of prominent players who wore them, specifically: 14 -- Jim Rice OF-DH (1974-1989), Hitting Coach (1995-2000); Rice has met the requirements based on his 16 years as a player and 2009 election into the Hall of Fame. No announcement has been made, but #14 has only been worn by Rice since 1974. 21 -- Roger Clemens RHP (1984-1996); last played in 2007 for New York Yankees 26 -- Wade Boggs 3B (1982-1992); Boggs has met the requirements based on his 11 years as a player and 2005 election into the Hall of Fame. No announcement has been made, but #26 has not been issued since Boggs' 2005 election to the Hall of Fame (Several players wore #26 between 1992-2004) 45 -- Pedro Martínez RHP (1998-2004); played in 2008 with New York Mets There is also considerable debate in Boston media circles and among fans about the potential retiring of Tony Conigliaro's number 25. Nonetheless, since Conigliaro's last full season in Boston, 1970, the number has been assigned to several players (including Orlando Cepeda, Mark Clear, Don Baylor, Larry Parrish, Jack Clark and Troy O'Leary). Number 25 is currently worn by the team's third baseman, Mike Lowell, who coincidentally won the Tony Conigliaro Award in 1999. Baseball Hall of Famers Minor league affiliations Triple-A: Pawtucket Red Sox, International League Double-A: Portland Sea Dogs, Eastern League Advanced-A: Salem Red Sox, Carolina League Single-A: Greenville Drive, South Atlantic League Short-A: Lowell Spinners, New York-Penn League Rookie: GCL Red Sox, Gulf Coast League Rookie: Dominican Summer League Red Sox, Dominican Summer League Other notable seasons and team records Pedro Martínez compiled a 1.74 ERA in a hitter's park in a big-hitting era in 2000. Nomar Garciaparra hit .372 in 2000, the club record for a right-handed hitter. David Ortiz in 2005 had 47 home runs and 148 RBIs. He also had many game winning and timely hits and came in second in the MVP voting to the New York Yankees' Alex Rodriguez. David Ortiz had a franchise record-breaking 2006 season with 54 home runs in the regular season On April 22, 2007, Manny Ramírez, J.D. Drew, Mike Lowell, and Jason Varitek hit four consecutive home runs in the 3rd inning off 10 pitches from Chase Wright of the New York Yankees in his second Major League start and his fourth above Single-A ball. This was the fifth time in Major League history, and first time in Red Sox history this feat has occurred. Additionally notable, J.D. Drew, then with the Dodgers, previously contributed to a four consecutive home run series as had Red Sox manager Terry Francona's father, Tito Francona. The overall regular season winning percentage since club inception in 1901 is .516, a record of 8595-8065 for games played through 9 July 2008. They started 2007 with winning percentage of 0.512 (8444-7960). On September 1, 2007, Clay Buchholz no-hit the Baltimore Orioles in his second Major League start. He is the first Red Sox rookie and 17th Red Sox pitcher to throw a no-hitter. On September 22, 2007, with a victory over the Tampa Bay Devil Rays, the Red Sox clinched a spot in the postseason for the fourth time in five years, the first time in club history this has happened. Also, with this postseason berth, manager Terry Francona becomes the first manager in team history to lead the club to three playoff appearances. On September 8, 2008, the Red Sox set a Major League record with their 456th consecutive home-park sellout. The previous record had been held by the Cleveland Indians, who sold out 455 games between June 12, 1995 and April 2, 2001. The streak began on May 15, 2003 against the Texas Rangers. The Red Sox are only the fourth team to sell out every home game of an entire season (the 1996 Colorado Rockies and the 2000 San Francisco Giants being the other two). (The team definition of a sell out: "The criteria used for a sellout at Fenway Park have been the same since the early 1990s," Kennedy said in an e-mail. "Our policy is simple and straightforward, and is used by many MLB clubs [and other sports teams around the country]. A sellout occurs when the number of tickets distributed to spectators is equal to or greater than the seating capacity at Fenway Park. [The 2008 seating capacity is 36,984 for day games and 37,400 for night games.]" That is: a sellout only covers ticket sales, not spectators in physical seats.) See also Active MLB playoff appearance streaks Boston Red Sox all-time roster Award winners and league leaders List of Boston Red Sox people Managers and ownership of the Boston Red Sox Post-season droughts Statistical records and milestone achievements Tony Conigliaro Award Boston Dirt Dogs The Jimmy Fund Fever Pitch – the 2004 Boston Red Sox championship run from a fan-based point of view. Mark Waitkus - the official artist of the Boston Red Sox References External links Boston Red Sox website Boston Red Sox at MLB.com Season-by-Season Records Boston Red Sox Video at ESPN Video Archive Red Sox MLB News Blog | Boston_Red_Sox |@lemmatized boston:84 red:199 sox:188 member:3 major:13 league:68 baseball:18 american:30 eastern:2 division:13 since:15 home:37 ballpark:2 fenway:17 park:20 name:15 originate:4 iconic:1 uniform:7 feature:4 club:37 found:1 one:37 eight:5 charter:2 franchise:9 dominant:1 team:102 new:41 defeat:5 pittsburgh:2 pirate:3 first:44 world:37 series:63 win:90 four:18 championship:19 go:17 long:4 drought:3 history:21 end:13 sixth:2 compete:3 alcs:11 two:29 emerge:5 arguably:1 successful:3 mlb:13 last:17 decade:2 lead:35 average:8 road:2 attendance:3 small:1 capacity:3 cause:2 rank:2 every:2 game:151 may:10 sell:8 span:1 five:9 year:41 record:34 nickname:12 choose:2 owner:4 john:10 taylor:2 season:71 refers:3 hose:2 beginning:2 actually:3 adopt:6 newspaper:3 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6,139 | AbiWord | AbiWord is a free software word processor. The name "AbiWord" (pronounced "Abby Word") is derived from the root of the Spanish word "abierto", meaning "open". It runs on Linux, Mac OS X (PowerPC), Microsoft Windows, ReactOS, BeOS (unsupported), AmigaOS 4.0 (through its Cygnix X11 engine), and other operating systems. AbiWord was originally started by SourceGear Corporation as the first component of AbiSuite, as part of a plan to create a full Office Suite that would be Free Software. However, SourceGear gradually moved on to other business interests, and now the AbiWord project is run by a team of volunteer developers. AbiWord is part of GNOME Office, a collection of office applications with some degree of integration. Features AbiWord supports the basic word processing features provided by Microsoft Wordpad such as lists, indents and character formats. AbiWord also supports table, styles, page header and footer, footnotes, template, multiple views, page column and spell checking. Although it is not as feature rich as Microsoft Word, it still features spell checking. The Presentation view of AbiWord, which displays document in full screen, is another special feature not often found in word processors. Abiword does not have rich presentation features such as text frame, multiple ways to anchor images, page styles, border styles for paragraphs, or in-document image editing (such as changing contrast, font work and drawing), like Microsoft Word and OpenOffice.org Writer have. However, it is a faster word processing program, and its system requirements are not very high. Interface AbiWord has a similar user interface to classic versions (pre-Office 2007) of Microsoft Word, which is intended to ease migration for new users. Although there are differences, the AbiWord developers aim to embrace and extend this de facto standard in business. The interface is intended to follow user interface guidelines for each respective platform. File formats AbiWord is packaged with several import/export filters, including HTML, Microsoft Word (DOC), Office Open XML (DOCX) , OpenDocument (ODT) and Rich Text Format (RTF). LaTeX is supported for export only. Plug-in filters are available to deal with many other formats, notably WordPerfect documents. The native file format, .abw, uses XML, so as to mitigate vendor lock-in concerns with respect to interoperability and also digital archiving. Grammar Check The AbiWord project includes a grammar checking plugin using Link Grammar. AbiWord had grammar checking before any other open source word processor, though there is now a grammar check plugin for OpenOffice. Link Grammar is both a theory of syntax and an open source parser which is now developed by the AbiWord project. Version differences AbiWord 2.6.x does not support Windows 9x. Users of these systems can still use AbiWord 2.4.6. See also List of word processors Comparison of word processors Office Open XML software OpenDocument software References External links AbiSource.com, official website. AbiSource.com Mirror Site. List of AbiWord translations (both complete and incomplete) Andrew Leonard: Abiword Up. Salon.com, November 15, 2002. History of the project and comparison with closed source development. AbiWord vs. MS Word Flexbeta.net, September 1, 2004. Comparison between OOo Writer, AbiWord, and KWord newsforge.com, August 23, 2005. Abi the Ant project mascot. Page includes pronunciation explanation. 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6,140 | Labyrinth | Roman mosaic picturing Theseus and the Minotaur. Rhaetia, Switzerland. Classical labyrinth. Medieval labyrinth. Walking the famous labyrinth on floor of Chartres Cathedral. Chakravyuha, a threefold seed pattern with a spiral at the centre, one of the troop formations employed at the battle of Kurukshetra, as recounted in the Mahabharata. I'itoi, the "Man in the Maze", a popular design in Native American basketry. In Greek mythology, the Labyrinth (Greek λαβύρινθος labyrinthos) was an elaborate structure designed and built by the legendary artificer Daedalus for King Minos of Crete at Knossos. Its function was to hold the Minotaur, a creature that was half man and half bull and was eventually killed by the Athenian hero Theseus. Daedalus had made the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it. Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth, p 36. Theseus was aided by Ariadne, who provided him with a fateful thread, literally the "clew", or "clue", to wind his way back again. The term labyrinth is often used interchangeably with maze, but modern scholars of the subject use a stricter definition. For them, a maze is a tour puzzle in the form of a complex branching passage with choices of path and direction; while a single-path (unicursal) labyrinth has only a single Eulerian path to the center. A labyrinth has an unambiguous through-route to the center and back and is not designed to be difficult to navigate. This unicursal design was widespread in artistic depictions of the Minotaur's Labyrinth, even though both logic and literary descriptions of it make it clear that the Minotaur was trapped in a multicursal maze. Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth, pp. 40-41. A labyrinth can be represented both symbolically and physically. Symbolically, it is represented in art or designs on pottery, as body art, etched on walls of caves, etc. Physical representations are common throughout the world and are generally constructed on the ground so they may be walked along from entry point to center and back again. They have historically been used in both group ritual and for private meditation. Ancient labyrinths Pliny's Natural History mentions four ancient labyrinths: the Cretan labyrinth, an Egyptian labyrinth, a Lemnian labyrinth and an Italian labyrinth. Labyrinth is a word of pre-Greek (Pelasgian) origin absorbed by Classical Greek and is perhaps related to the Lydian labrys ("double-edged axe", a symbol of royal power, which fits with the theory that the labyrinth was originally the royal Minoan palace on Crete and meant "palace of the double-axe"), with -inthos meaning "place" (as in Corinth). The complex palace of Knossos in Crete is usually implicated, though the actual dancing-ground, depicted in frescoed patterns at Knossos, has not been found. Something was being shown to visitors as a labyrinth at Knossos in the 1st century AD (Philostratos, De vita Apollonii Tyanei iv.34). Kerenyi, Dionysos, p. 101, n. 171. Greek mythology did not recall, however, that in Crete there was a Lady who presided over the Labyrinth. A tablet inscribed in Linear B found at Knossos records a gift "to all the gods honey; to the mistress of the labyrinth honey." All the gods together receive as much honey as the Mistress of the Labyrinth alone. "She must have been a Great Goddess," Kerenyi observes. Kerenyi, Dionysos, p. 91. The labyrinth is the referent in the familiar Greek patterns of the endlessly running meander, to give the "Greek key" its common modern name. In the 3rd century BCE, coins from Knossos were still struck with the labyrinth symbol. The predominant labyrinth form during this period is the simple seven-circuit style known as the classical labyrinth. The term labyrinth came to be applied to any unicursal maze, whether of a particular circular shape (illustration) or rendered as square. At the center, a decisive turn brought one out again. In the Socratic dialogue that Plato produced as Euthydemus, Socrates describes the labyrinthine line of a logical argument: Cretan labyrinth at Knossos Wrapped in legend, but also clearly manifested in the archaeological record, is the huge Bronze Age labyrinth at Knossos. As Hogan notes, the importance of the labyrinth to the identity of Knossos is amplified by the recurrence of the double-axe (or labrys) symbol in various artworks and architectural embellishments at the Knossos palace complex. C. Michael Hogan, Knossos fieldnotes, Modern Antiquarian (2007) That the Cretan labyrinth had been a dancing-ground and was made for Ariadne rather than for Minos was remembered by Homer in Iliad xviii.590–593, where, in the pattern that Hephaestus inscribed on Achilles' shield, one incident pictured was a dancing-ground "like the one that Daedalus designed in the spacious town of Knossos for Ariadne of the lovely locks." Even the labyrinth dance was depicted on the shield, where "youths and marriageable maidens were dancing on it with their hands on one another's wrists... circling as smoothly on their accomplished feet as the wheel of a potter...and there they ran in lines to meet each other." Herodotus' Egyptian labyrinth Even more generally, labyrinth might be applied to any extremely complicated maze-like structure. Herodotus, in Book II of his Histories, describes as a "labyrinth" a building complex in Egypt, "near the place called the City of Crocodiles," that he considered to surpass the pyramids in its astonishing ambition: During the 19th century, the remains of the Labyrinth were discovered "11 1/2 miles from the pyramid of Hawara, in the province of Faioum." Leonhard Schmitz, George Eden Marindin, Labyrinthus entry, in William Smith et al. (editors), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, published 1890. The Labyrinth was likely modified and added upon "at various times. The names of more than one king have been found there, the oldest" name being that of Amenemhat III. "It is unnecessary to imagine more than that it was monumental, and a monument of more than one king of Egypt." In 1898, the Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities described the structure as "the largest of all the temples of Egypt, the so-called Labyrinth, of which, however, only the foundation stones have been preserved." Peck, Harry Thurston (chief editor). "Hieratic Papyrus. (Twentieth Dynasty.)" in the Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, published 1898, page 29. Herodotus' description of the Egyptian Labyrinth, in Book II of The Histories, inspired some central scenes in Bolesław Prus' 1895 historical novel Pharaoh. Pliny's Lemnian labyrinth Pliny the Elder's Natural History (36.90) lists the legendary Smilis, reputed to be a contemporary of Daedalus, together with the historical mid-sixth-century BCE architects and sculptors Rhoikos and Theodoros as two of the makers of the Lemnian labyrinth, which Andrew Stewart Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works, "Smilis." regards as "evidently a misunderstanding of the Samian temple's location en limnais ['in the marsh']." Pliny's Italian labyrinth According to Pliny, the tomb of the great Etruscan general Lars Porsena contained an underground maze. Pliny's description of the exposed portion of the tomb is intractable; Pliny, it seems clear, had not observed this structure himself, but is quoting the historian and Roman antiquarian Varro. Ancient labyrinths outside Europe At about the same time as the appearance of the Greek labyrinth, a topologically identical pattern appeared in Native American culture, the Tohono O'odham labyrinth which features I'itoi, the "Man in the Maze". The Tonoho O'odham pattern has two distinct differences from the Greek: it is radial in design, and the entrance is at the top, where traditional Greek labyrinths have the entrance at the bottom (see below). A prehistoric petroglyph on a riverbank in Goa shows the same pattern and has been dated to circa 2500 BCE. Other examples have been found among cave art in northern India and on a dolmen shrine in the Nilgiri Mountains, but are difficult to date accurately. Early labyrinths in India all follow the Classical pattern; some have been described as plans of forts or cities . Labyrinths appear in Indian manuscripts and Tantric texts from the 17th century onward. They are often called "Chakravyuha" in reference to an impregnable battle formation described in the ancient Mahabharata epic. Lanka, the capital city of mythic Rāvana, is described as a labyrinth in Al-Beruni's India, p. 306. http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/digital/collections/cul/texts/ldpd_5949073_001/pages/ldpd_5949073_001_00000362.html Labyrinth as pattern In antiquity, the less complicated labyrinth pattern familiar from medieval examples was already developed. In Roman floor mosaics, the simple classical labyrinth is framed in the meander border pattern, squared off as the medium requires, but still recognisable. Often an image of a bull-man, a minotaur, appears in the centre of these mosaic labyrinths. Roman meander patterns gradually developed in complexity towards the fourfold shape that is now familiarly known as the medieval form. The labyrinth retains its connection with death and a triumphant return: at Hadrumentum in North Africa (now Sousse), a Roman family tomb has a fourfold labyrinth mosaic floor with a dying minotaur in the center and a mosaic inscription: HICINCLUSUS.VITAMPERDIT "Enclosed here, he loses life" (Kerenyi, fig.31). Medieval labyrinths and turf mazes Labyrinth in the Trappist Abbey of Our Lady of Saint-Remy, Wallonia, Belgium. The full flowering of the medieval labyrinth design came about during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries with the grand pavement labyrinths of the gothic cathedrals, notably Chartres, Reims and Amiens in northern France and the Duomo di Siena in Tuscany. These labyrinths may have originated as symbolic allusion to the Holy City; prayers and devotions may have accompanied the perambulation of their intricate paths. Labyrinth in Catholic Encyclopedia No contemporary evidence, however, supports this. It is this version of the design that is thought to be the inspiration for the many turf mazes in the UK, such as survive at Wing, Hilton, Alkborough, and Saffron Walden. Over the same period, some 500 or more non-ecclesiastical labyrinths were constructed in Scandinavia. These labyrinths, generally in coastal areas, are marked out with stones, most often in the simple classical form. They often have names which translate as "Troy Town". They are thought to have been constructed by fishing communities: trapping malevolent trolls or winds in the labyrinth's coils might ensure a safe fishing expedition. There are also stone labyrinths on the Isles of Scilly, although none is known to date back as far as the earliest Scandinavian ones. There are examples of labyrinths in many disparate cultures. The symbol has appeared in various forms and media (petroglyphs, classic-form, medieval-form, pavement, turf, and basketry) at some time throughout most parts of the world, from Native North and South America to Australia, Java, India, and Nepal. Modern labyrinths Labyrinth at St. Lambertus, Mingolsheim, Germany. Labyrinth on floor of Grace Cathedral, San Francisco. In recent years, there has been a resurgence of interest in the labyrinth symbol, which has inspired a revival in labyrinth building, notably at Willen Park, Milton Keynes; Grace Cathedral, San Francisco; Tapton Park, Chesterfield; Old Swedes Church in Wilmington; the Labyrinth in Shed 16 in the Old Port of Montreal, and Trinity Square in Toronto. Countless computer games depict mazes and labyrinths. On bobsled, luge, and skeleton tracks, a labyrinth is where there are three to four curves in succession without a straight line in between any of the turns. Modern takes on Greek labyrinth In modern imagery, the labyrinth is often confused with the maze, in which one may become lost. The myth of the labyrinth has in recent times found incarnation in a stage play by Ilinka Crvenkovska which explores notions of a man's ability to control his own fate. Theseus in an act of suicide is killed by the Minotaur, who is himself killed by the horrified townspeople. The Argentine writer Jorge Luis Borges was entranced with the idea of the labyrinth, and used it extensively in his short stories. His use of it has inspired other authors' works (e.g. Umberto Eco's The Name of the Rose, Mark Z. Danielewski's House of Leaves). Additionally, Roger Zelazny's fantasy series, The Chronicles of Amber, features a labyrinth, called "the Pattern", which grants those who walk it the power to move between parallel worlds. The avant-garde multi-screen film, In the Labyrinth, presents a search for meaning in a symbolic modern labyrinth. The labyrinth is also an important subject in contemporary fine arts. Remarkable 20th-century examples include Piet Mondrian's Dam and Ocean (1915), Joan Miró's Labyrinth (1923), Pablo Picasso's Minotauromachia (1935), M. C. Escher's Relativity (1953), Friedensreich Hundertwasser's Labyrinth (1957), Jean Dubuffet's Logological Cabinet (1970), Richard Long's Connemara sculpture (1971), Joe Tilson's Earth Maze (1975), Richard Fleischner's Chain Link Maze (1978), and István Orosz's Atlantis Anamorphosis (2000). Cultural meanings Prehistoric labyrinths are believed to have served as traps for malevolent spirits or as defined paths for ritual dances. In medieval times, the labyrinth symbolized a hard path to God with a clearly defined center (God) and one entrance (birth). Labyrinths can be thought of as symbolic forms of pilgrimage; people can walk the path, ascending toward salvation or enlightenment. Many people could not afford to travel to holy sites and lands, so labyrinths and prayer substituted for such travel. Later, the religious significance of labyrinths faded, and they served primarily for entertainment, though recently their spiritual aspect has seen a resurgence. Many newly made labyrinths exist today, in churches and parks. Labyrinths are used by modern mystics to help achieve a contemplative state. Walking among the turnings, one loses track of direction and of the outside world, and thus quiets the mind. The Labyrinth Society provides a locator for modern labyrinths in North America and other places in the world, including Australia. See also Maze Prayer Labyrinth Caerdroia Troy Town Turf maze Mizmaze Celtic maze Julian's Bower Notes References Hermann Kern, Through the Labyrinth, ed. Robert Ferré and Jeff Saward, Prestel, 2000, ISBN 3-7913-2144-7. Penelope Reed Doob, The Idea of the Labyrinth: from Classical Antiquity through the Middle Ages, ISBN 0-8014-8000-0. Herodotus, The Histories, Newly translated and with an introduction by Aubrey de Sélincourt, Harmondsworth, England, Penguin Books, 1965. Karl Kereny, Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life, Princeton University Press, 1976. Helmut Jaskolski, The Labyrinth: Symbol of Fear, Rebirth and Liberation, Shambala (1997). Adrian Fisher & Georg Gerster, The Art of the Maze, Weidenfeld & Nicolson (1990). ISBN 0-297-83027-9. Jeff Saward, Labyrinths and Mazes, Jeff Saward, Magical Paths, Mitchell Beazley (2002). ISBN 1-84000-573-4. W.H. Matthews, Mazes and Labyrinths: Their History and Development, Longmans, Green & Co.(1922). Includes bibliography. Dover Publications reprint (1970). ISBN 0-486-22614-X. Andrew Stewart, One Hundred Greek Sculptors: Their Careers and Extant Works. Henning Eichberg, 2005: "Racing in the labyrinth? About some inner contradictions of running." In: Athletics, Society & Identity. Imeros, Journal for Culture and Technology, 5:1) Athen: Foundation of the Hellenic World, 169-192. Edward Hays, The Lenten Labyrinth: Daily Reflections for the Journey of Lent, Forest of Peace Publishing (1994). External links Labyrinthos maintained by Jeff Saward The Labyrinth Society Through Mazes to Mathematics Exposition by Tony Phillips, SUNY Maze classification Extensive classification of labyrinths and algorithms to solve them. IRRGARTENWELT.DE Lars O. Heintel's collection of handdrawn labyrinths and mazes Labyrinthe in Deutschland Website (in German) with diagrams and photos of virtually all the public labyrinths in Germany. Mystery Labyrinth German website (in German and English) with descriptions, animations, links, and especially photos of (mostly European) labyrinths. British turf labyrinths by Marilyn Clark. Photos and descriptions of the surviving historical turf mazes in Britain. Jo Edkins's Maze Page An early website providing a clear overview of the territory and suggestions for further study. "Die Kretische Labyrinth-Höhle" by Thomas M. Waldmann, rev. 2009 (in German, English, French, and Greek). Description of a labyrinthine artificial cave system near Gortyn, Crete, widely considered (before the discovery of Knossos) the original labyrinth on Crete. (Presentation somewhat amateurish – including <blink> tags – but many detailed photos.) SpiralZoom.com an educational website about the science of pattern formation, spirals in nature, and spirals in the mythic imagination & labyrinths. Guerrilla Labyrinths Light-weight site by David Brazzeal, who creates "occasional" labyrinths. 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6,141 | Nanook_of_the_North | Nanook of the North (1922) is a silent documentary film by Robert J. Flaherty. In the tradition of what would later be called salvage ethnography, Flaherty captured the struggles of the Inuk Nanook and his family in the Canadian arctic. The film is considered the first feature-length documentary, though Flaherty has been criticized for staging several sequences and thereby distorting the reality of his subjects' lives. In 1989, this film was one of the first 25 films to be selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Film The film was shot near Inukjuak, on Hudson Bay in Arctic Quebec, Canada. Having worked as a prospector and explorer in Arctic Canada among the Inuit, Flaherty was familiar with his subjects and set out to document their lifestyle. Flaherty had shot film in the region prior to this period, but that footage was destroyed in a fire started when Flaherty dropped a cigarette onto the original camera negative (which was highly flammable nitrate stock). Flaherty therefore made Nanook of the North in its place. Funded by French fur company Revillon Freres, the film was shot from August 1920 to August 1921. As the first nonfiction work of its scale, Nanook of the North was ground-breaking cinema. It captured an exotic culture in a distant location, rather than a facsimile of reality using actors and props on a studio set. Traditional Inuit methods of hunting, fishing, igloo-building, and other customs were shown with accuracy, and the compelling story of a man and his family struggling against nature met with great success in North America and abroad. Criticism Flaherty has been criticized for deceptively portraying staged events as reality. Much of the action was staged and gives an inaccurate view of real Inuit life during the early 20th century. "Nanook" was in fact named Allakariallak, for instance, while the "wife" shown in the film was not really his wife. And although Allakariallak normally used a gun when hunting, Flaherty encouraged him to hunt after the fashion of his ancestors in order to capture what was believed to be the way the Inuit lived before European influence. The ending, in which Nanook and his family are supposedly in peril of dying if they can't find shelter quickly enough, was implausible, given the reality of nearby French-Canadian and Inuit settlements during filming. Flaherty also exaggerated the peril to Inuit hunters with his claim, often repeated, that Allakariallak had died of starvation two years after the film was completed, whereas it is now known that he more likely died of tuberculosis. Pamela R. Stern, Historical Dictionary of the Inuit (Lanham, MD:Scarecrow Press, 2004), p. 23. On the other hand, while Flaherty made his Inuit actors use spears instead of guns during the walrus and seal hunts, the hunting actually involved wild animals. Flaherty defended his work by stating that a filmmaker must often distort a thing to catch its true spirit. Later filmmakers have pointed out that the only cameras available to Flaherty at the time were both large and immobile, making it impossible to effectively capture most interior shots or unstructured exterior scenes without significantly modifying the environment and subject action. For example, the Inuit crew had to build a special three-walled igloo for Flaherty's bulky camera so that there would be enough light for it to capture interior shots. At the time, few documentaries had been filmed and there was little precedent to guide Flaherty's work. Since Flaherty's time both staging action and attempting to steer documentary action have come to be considered unethical amongst cinéma vérité purists, because they believe such reenactments deceive the audience. Other works The story of the film and the people it was made among is told in The Long Exile: A True Story of Deception and Survival Amongst the Inuit of the Canadian Arctic, by Melanie McGrath. Amazon review of The Long Exile The Observer review New York Times review (See also High Arctic relocation.) Kabloonak is a 1994 film about the making of Nanook of the North. Charles Dance plays Flaherty and Adamie Quasiak Inukpuk (a relative of Nanook) plays Nanook. See also Nanook Docudrama Portal:Indigenous peoples of North America References External links Great Movies: Nanook of the North (1922) by Roger Ebert How I Filmed Nanook of the North by Robert J. Flaherty Media Worlds essay by Faye D. 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6,142 | Natural_Born_Killers | Natural Born Killers is a controversial 1994 satirical crime film directed by Oliver Stone about a husband and wife pair of serial killers and the media coverage given to them. It stars Woody Harrelson and Juliette Lewis, and features appearances by Rodney Dangerfield, Robert Downey, Jr., Tom Sizemore, and Tommy Lee Jones. It is based on a screenplay by Quentin Tarantino that was heavily revised by Stone with writer Dave Veloz and associate producer Richard Rutowski. Notorious for its violent content, the film was named the 8th most controversial movie of all time by Entertainment Weekly. 25 Most Controversial Movies Ever, Entertainment Weekly, 9 June 2006 The movie was promoted with the tagline "A bold new film that takes a look at a country seduced by fame, obsessed by crime and consumed by the media.", and was released in US cinemas on August 26, 1994. Plot Introduction The film opens with Mickey Knox (Woody Harrelson) and his wife Mallory (Juliette Lewis) in a roadside café in the New Mexico desert. The pair are initially seen to be normal customers, with Mickey eating Key Lime pie and Mallory dancing to rock 'n' roll on the jukebox. A group of rednecks arrive and one of them begins dancing and flirting with Mallory. She encourages him for a moment, and then, attacks him without provocation by smashing his beer bottle as he drinks it. A fist-fight ensues between the two, with Mallory beating the man. When the redneck's friend attempts to intervene, Mickey stabs him to death. Mickey and Mallory then proceed to murder the diner's patrons, culminating in a morbid game of Eeny, meeny, miny, moe to decide who lives and who dies. After executing their final victim, the couple make sure the only survivor remembers their names before they embrace and declare their undying love, as fireworks go off in the background. Part I After the title sequence, Mickey and Mallory are shown in a desert at nighttime. Mallory tells Mickey that she is reminiscing of when they first met. A flashback sequence shows Mickey as a deliveryman who delivered some beef to the house where Mallory lived with her abusive father Ed Wilson (Rodney Dangerfield), her neglectful mother (Edie McClurg), and her younger brother/son Kevin. The flashback is portrayed as a 1950s-type sitcom with a canned laughter track, the "audience" laughing hardest when Mallory is subjected to lewd comments and hints of molestation by her father. When Mickey arrives, he instantly falls in love with Mallory, and the two leave the house together and Mickey steals a car that belongs to Mallory's father. Mickey is arrested and imprisoned for grand theft auto, but he subsequently escapes during a tornado and returns to Mallory's house. The two kill her father by drowning him in a miniature aquarium, and burn her mother alive in bed. They spare her ten-year-old brother, with Mallory telling him that he is free. They leave the house to the sound of rapturous applause from the 'audience'. Mickey and Mallory then get 'married' on the side of a bridge, with Mickey cutting both of their hands, and letting their blood intertwine to signify their eternal union. They drive through a small town, and arrive at a motel for the night. After watching television for a while, they then begin to have sex, but Mallory notices that Mickey is distracted by a female hostage. Furious with Mickey's notion that they have a threesome, Mallory leaves the motel. She drives to a nearby gas station, where she begins to flirt with the mechanic (Balthazar Getty). They begin to have sex on the hood of a car, but Mallory is angered by his over-aggressive cunnilingus and shoots him to death. Part II The pair then continue their killing-spree (which bears several parallels to Bonnie and Clyde and the Starkweather-Fugate crime spree), ultimately claiming 48 victims in the state of New Mexico. Following them are two characters who see the murderers as a chance to acquire fame for themselves. The first is a policeman, Detective Jack Scagnetti (Tom Sizemore), who seems particularly fascinated by Mallory. Scagnetti is already a well-known personality, a published author, whose book Scagnetti on Scagnetti is a best-seller amongst law enforcement. Scagnetti has a lifelong obsession with mass murderers after witnessing his mother shot and killed by Charles Whitman when he was eight, and hopes to achieve hero status by capturing the two. Despite his heroic facade, he is later shown to be psychopathic, strangling a prostitute to death. The second pursuer of the killers is journalist Wayne Gale (Robert Downey Jr.), who hosts a show called American Maniacs, which profiles mass murderers. Various clips of his program on Mickey and Mallory are shown, with Gale acting outraged on-screen as he details the pair's crimes, although off-air he clearly regards their crimes as a fantastic way of increasing his show's ratings. It is Gale who is primarily responsible for elevating Mickey and Mallory to hero status, with his show featuring interviews with people around the world expressing their admiration for the killers. Meanwhile, Mickey and Mallory become lost in the desert and encounter Warren Red Cloud, a Navajo indian (Russell Means), and his pre-adolescent grandson. After the two fall asleep, the Najavo, hoping to expel the demon he perceives in Mickey, begins chanting beside the fire, invoking nightmares in Mickey about his abusive parents. Mickey wakes up in a rage and fatally shoots the Navajo before he realizes what he is doing. Mallory and Mickey are both traumatized, marking the first time the couple feel guilty for a murder. While fleeing from the scene through the desert, they stray into a field of rattlesnakes and are both bitten. They drive to a drugstore to find snakebite antidote, but the pharmacist sets off the silent alarm before Mickey kills him, and the police arrive before Mickey and Mallory can escape. Mallory is captured immediately, and is subsequently beaten by the police. A gunfight breaks out between Mickey and the other police, until Scagnetti arrives. He tells Mickey that unless he surrenders, he'll cut Mallory's breasts off. Mickey agrees, and gives up his gun, but he then attacks Scagnetti with a knife. The police taser him, and the scene ends with Mickey being beaten by a group of policemen. Part III The film picks up one year later. The homicidal couple have been imprisoned, but are due to be placed in a mental hospital after being declared insane. Scagnetti arrives at the prison and encounters Warden Dwight McClusky (Tommy Lee Jones) and the two devise a plan to murder Mickey and Mallory: McClusky will arrange for Scagnetti to be the driver for the Knoxes' transfer. Alone with the pair during transport, Scagnetti will murder them, then claim that they tried to escape. Wayne Gale, also at the prison, persuades Mickey to agree to a live interview to air immediately after the Super Bowl, the night before he is to be sent to the mental hospital. At this time, Mallory is held in solitary confinement elsewhere in the prison, awaiting her transport to the mental hospital. As planned, Mickey is interviewed by Gale. He gives a speech about how murder is a natural component of existence, describes enlightenment through murder and declares himself a "natural born killer." His words inspire the other inmates (who are watching the interview on TV in the D Wing recreation room) and incite them to riot. Upon hearing of the riot outbreak, Warden McClusky orders the interview terminated over Gale's violent protests and heads to the control room, leaving Mickey alone with Gale, the film crew and several guards. Using a lengthy joke complete with hand gestures as a diversion, Mickey elbow-smashes a guard in the face and grabs his shotgun. Mickey kills all but two of the guards, whilst several of Gale's crew are also killed. Mickey then takes the survivors hostage, leading them through the prison riot to find Mallory. Gale follows, giving a live television report as people are being beaten and killed around him. Throughout the prison, the inmates torture and murder prison guards. Meanwhile, Scagnetti arrives in Mallory's cell and attempts to seduce her. Mallory at first responds to and then rebuffs his efforts, smashing his face against the wall and breaking his nose. The guards rush in, and they and Scagnetti begin to subdue Mallory. Still live on national television, Mickey arrives at the cell and engages in a brief Mexican Standoff with Scagnetti, eventually feigning concession to lower Scagnetti's guard. Mallory then approaches Scagnetti from behind and slashes his throat with a shank. Mickey then reveals that the shotgun was unloaded, much to Scagnetti's horror, and Mallory picks up Scagnetti's loaded gun and fatally shoots him. They continue to escape through the riot-filled prison, with Gale's entire TV crew being killed by prison guards intending on killing Mickey and Mallory. At this point, Gale snaps and begins to shoot at the prison guards. After being rescued by a mysterious prisoner named Owen Traft (Arliss Howard), Mickey, Mallory and Gale encounter Warden McClusky and a heavily armed posse of guards. They take cover in a blood-splattered shower room. As Mickey and Mallory discuss how much they love one another, Gale calls his wife and tells her he is leaving her. He then calls his mistress to tell her he will see her later, but she dumps him over the phone. Obsessed with killing Mickey and Mallory, McClusky threatens to storm the shower room, despite the protests of his guards who insist that there are more pressing problems to which they must attend, namely the hundreds of other rioting inmates heading their way. McClusky however is determined to destroy Mickey and Mallory at any cost. Having devised a plan of escape, Mickey and Mallory, together with Owen, Gale and a final surviving hostage guard emerge from the shower, Gale's camera still capturing everything. Mickey tells McClusky that if he attempts anything, both Gale and the guard will be killed live on air. McClusky is thus powerless to stop the prisoners walking out the front door, shouting threats in frustration and no little spray of spittle. After Mickey and Mallory flee, McClusky and his guards are massacred by hordes of inmates who burst into the area, trapping McClusky and the guards against a locked gate. They proceed to tear McClusky apart, literally tearing his head off and displaying it on a spike (director's cut only). After the escape, Owen is never seen or mentioned again. Mickey and Mallory have stolen a van and killed the final guard, dumping his body out of the van while being chased by police officers. Escaping to a rural location, they give a final interview to Wayne Gale before—much to his surprise and horror—they tell him he has to die. Gale attempts various arguments to convince them not to kill him, finally appealing to their trademark practice of leaving one witness to tell the tale. Mallory gestures to his still-rolling camera as she and Mickey inform him are leaving a witness to tell the tale—his camera. Gale finally accepts his fate and extends his arms as if on a cross as they execute him by shooting him numerous times with shotguns, while his unattended camera films the whole incident. They then walk away, leaving the body behind and the camera still filming. As the closing credits roll, the couple are shown several years later in an RV, with Mickey driving and Mallory (who is pregnant) watching their two children play. Cast Woody Harrelson as Mickey Knox Juliette Lewis as Mallory Wilson Knox Tom Sizemore as Detective Jack Scagnetti Rodney Dangerfield as Ed Wilson Edie McClurg as Mrs. Wilson Russell Means as Navajo man Evan Handler as David Robert Downey, Jr. as Wayne Gale Balthazar Getty as Gas Station Attendant Tommy Lee Jones as Warden Dwight McClusky Steven Wright as Dr. Emil Reingold Pruitt Taylor Vince as Deputy Warden Kavanaugh Joe Grifasi as Deputy Sheriff Duncan Homolka Everett Quinton as Deputy Wurlitzer Marshall Bell as Deputy Peter Crombie as intense cop Ashley Judd (scenes deleted) as Grace Mulberry Rachel Ticotin (scenes deleted) as Prosecutor Wanda Bisbing Barbarian Brothers (scenes deleted) as Hun Brothers Denis Leary (scenes deleted) as Prison Inmate James Gammon (uncredited) as Redneck's buddy Mark Harmon (uncredited) as Mickey Knox in Wayne Gale reconstruction Arliss Howard (uncredited) as Owen Traft, Mickey and Mallory's Guardian Angel / The Demon Adrien Brody (uncredited) as one of Wayne Gayle's crew for the prison interview. Production Natural Born Killers was based upon a screenplay written by Quentin Tarantino in which a married couple suddenly decide to go on a killing spree. Tarantino had sold an option for his script to producers Jane Hamsher and Don Murphy for $10,000 after he had tried, and failed, to direct it himself for $500,000. Hamsher and Murphy subsequently sold the screenplay to Warner Bros. Around the same time, Oliver Stone was made aware of the script. He was keen to find something more straightforward than his previous production, Heaven & Earth; a difficult shoot which had left him exhausted, and he felt that Natural Born Killers could be what he was looking for. Director Oliver Stone, associate producer Richard Rutowski, and writer David Veloz, rewrote the script, keeping much of the dialogue, but changing the focus of the film from journalist Wayne Gale (Robert Downey, Jr.) to Mickey and Mallory. Indeed, the script was changed so much that as per WGA rules, Tarantino was credited for the film's story only. In a 1993 interview, Tarantino stated that he no longer held any animosity towards Stone, and that he wished the film well; "It's not going to be my movie, it's going to be Oliver Stone's, and God bless him. I hope he does a good job with it. If I wasn't emotionally attached to it, I'm sure I would find it very interesting. If you like my stuff, you might not like this movie. But if you like his stuff, you're probably going to love it. It might be the best thing he's ever done, but not because of anything to do with me. [...] I actually can't wait to see it, to tell you the truth." Initially, when producers Jane Hamsher and Don Murphy had first brought the script to Stone's attention, he had seen it as an action movie; "something Arnold Schwarzenegger would be proud of." As the project developed however, incidents such as the O.J. Simpson case, the Menendez brothers case, the Tonya Harding/Nancy Kerrigan incident, the Rodney King incident and the Branch Davidian attack all took place. Stone came to feel that the media was heavily involved in the outcome of all of these cases, and that the media had become an all-pervasive entity which marketed violence and suffering for the good of ratings. As such, he changed the tone of the movie from one of simple action to a satiric critique of the media in general. During preproduction, to prepare for the role of Wayne Gale, Robert Downey Jr. spent time with Australian TV shock-king Steve Dunleavy. Also during preproduction, Stone tried to convince actress Juliette Lewis to bulk up for the role of Mallory so that she looked tougher, but she refused, saying she wanted the character to look like a pushover, not like a female bodybuilder. The entire film took only 56 days to shoot, but the editing process went on for 11 months, with the final film containing almost 3,000 cuts (most films have 600-700). Filming locations included the Rio Grande Gorge Bridge just west of Taos, New Mexico, where the wedding scene was filmed, and Stateville Correctional Center in Joliet, Illinois, where the prison riot was filmed. In Stateville, 80% of the prisoners were there for violent crimes. For the first two weeks on location at the prison, the extras were actual inmates with rubber weapons. For the subsequent two weeks, 200 extras were needed because the Stateville inmates were on lockdown. According to Tom Sizemore, during filming on the prison set, Stone would play African tribal music at full blast between takes to keep the frantic energy up. Whilst shooting the POV scene where Mallory runs into the wire mesh, director of photography Robert Richardson broke his finger, and the replacement cameraman cut his eye. According to Oliver Stone, he wasn’t too popular with the camera department on set that day. For the scenes involving rear projection, the projected footage was shot prior to principal photography, then edited together, and projected onto the stage, behind the live actors. For example, when Mallory drives past a building and flames are projected onto the wall, this was shot live using footage projected onto the facade of a real building. The famous Coca-Cola polar bear ad is seen twice during the movie. According to Stone, Coca-Cola approved the use of the ad without having a full idea of what the movie was about. When they saw the completed film, they were furious. The soundtrack for the film was produced by Stone and Trent Reznor, who reportedly watched the film over 50 times to "get in the mood". When putting together the music for the film, Stone and Reznor both wanted to get Snoop Dogg involved, but Warner wouldn't allow it, as Snoop was on trial for murder at the time. Style Natural Born Killers is shot and edited in a frenzied and psychedelic style consisting of black and white, animation, and other unusual color schemes, and employing a wide range of camera angles, filters, lenses and special effects. Much of the movie is told via parodies of television shows, including a scene presented in the style of a sitcom about a dysfunctional family. Commercials which were commonly on the air at the time of the film's release make brief, intermittent appearances. In his DVD Director's commentary, Oliver Stone goes into great detail about the look of the film, explaining scene by scene why a particular look was chosen for a particular scene. A selection of quotations from that commentary can be found at the IMDb FAQ for the film, located here. Stone considered Natural Born Killers his road film, specifically naming Bonnie and Clyde as a source of inspiration. Lavington, Stephen. Oliver Stone. London: Virgin Books, 2004. The famous death scene in Bonnie and Clyde used innovative editing techniques provided by multiple cameras shot from different angles at different speeds; this sporadic interchange between fast-paced and slow-motion editing that concludes Arthur Penn's film is used throughout the entirety of Natural Born Killers. Leong, Ian, Mike Sell, and Kelly Thomas. "Mad Love, Mobile Homes, and Dysfunctional Dicks." The Road Movie Book ed. Steven Cohan and Ina Rae Hark (1997): 70-89. Furthermore, both films fall under the road movie genre through their constant challenges of the society in which the characters live. While Bonnie and Clyde attempt to disintegrate the weakened economic and social landscape of the 1930s, Mickey and Mallory try to free America from the overarching conventions which influence the common masses, primarily the media. However, whilst Bonnie and Clyde concludes with a pessimistic outlook regarding individual freedom within the American sphere of influence, Oliver Stone sees Natural Born Killers as having an optimistic finale. In Bonnie and Clyde, the police's ambush of the couple exhibits the empirical control of law enforcement over the individual. Natural Born Killers however, ends with the couple symbolically destroying the mass media, as represented by Wayne Gale (Robert Downey Jr.), and successfully fleeing together to live a relatively normal life. As Stone himself says, "In its own way, Natural Born Killers is ultimately a very optimistic film about the future. It's about freedom, and the ability of every human being to get it." Recurring images Television frequently appears in the film, including real television sets and television images that play on the sky, windows, or the sides of passing buildings. Furthermore, the story is often told via TV programmes, and the characters think about their own stories through the filter of TV. One example is Mallory's flashback to her first meeting with Mickey, which is presented as an episode of a sitcom called I Love Mallory (obviously a spoof of the real sitcom I Love Lucy), in which Mallory's abusive home life is played out to the canned laughter and "aw shucks" attitude of 1950s sitcoms. Much of the pair's violence is only shown as replayed or recreated on television. During the prison interview, Mickey is shown talking on a little television in an idealized 1950s Leave it to Beaver-type living room, and on the prison television in the canteen. The last scene of the film flicks away from Mickey and Mallory as if the viewer has begun to flip channels. It flicks through a variety of images including the O.J. Simpson trial, the Menendez brothers trial, and the burning Branch Davidian compound. Intermittent breaks from the film show popular commercials from the 1990s, thus making a direct relation between the diegetic (fictional) audience and the cinematic audience. By challenging the mass media throughout the film, Mickey and Mallory represent the idolized products of a society of spectacle; by including glimpses of real life angry and violent celebrities, Stone concludes the film as a modern satire on the mass media's exploitation of violence. As Mickey and Mallory literally walk out of the media's frame at the end of the film, it suggests that only a teleological advanced being can transcend the created establishments that influence common Americans. The story of Frankenstein is referenced twice. Firstly, when Warden McClusky is explaining to Jack Scagnetti that they plan to have Mickey and Mallory undergo electroshock therapy, footage of Frankenstein is shown. Subsequently, explaining why he's going to shoot Wayne Gale, Mickey says "Frankenstein had to kill Dr. Frankenstein," implying that Gale is in some way responsible for Mickey's creation. Snakes reappear throughout the film. One of the first images in the film is of a rattlesnake. The couple later exchange wedding rings of intertwined snakes, and Mickey has a tattoo of two snakes forming a heart on his chest. When Mickey is attempting to escape from prison during the tornado, it is a snake which aids him, by snapping at the horse pursuing him, thus allowing him to make a clean getaway. When Mallory and Mickey cut themselves on the bridge to show their love for one another, their blood becomes animated and changes into a red and green snake, entwined and hissing. There are also recurring shots of a seven headed dragon, like the one depicted in the Book of Revelation. In the couple's car, there is a toy snake. Mickey and Mallory first meet a real snake at the Navajo's: a rattlesnake is coiled in the corner, a scene which Mickey recalls with fondness and admiration in his prison interview. The Navajo tells a story in his native tongue about a woman who was shocked that a snake she'd rescued from freezing to death had bitten her, to which the snake replies, "Look bitch, you knew I was a snake." Mickey and Mallory are then bitten whilst walking through a field of rattlesnakes, which leads them to the drug store (above which can be seen a neon sign of the Caduceus of Mercury). According to Oliver Stone, snakes represent wisdom and knowledge in the film; on his DVD commentary, he refers to the snake as "a creature of knowledge," and he points out that every time Mickey encounters a snake directly, he learns something from it. This is in tandem with Buddhist beliefs (Oliver Stone converted to Buddhism after Vietnam), where snakes have always been seen as symbolic of wisdom and knowledge. Mickey repeatedly uses nature and evolution to justify his killings, saying that "The wolf don't know why he's a wolf, the deer don't know why he's a deer. God just made 'em that way." He explains that he is the next step in human evolution, concluding that he's a "natural born killer". Shots of nature open the film and reoccur throughout (particularly wolves), both on television and in reality, often with a violent or disturbing undertones (a shot of an insect eating another insect is seen several times for example). Yin and Yang, an ancient symbol of moral equivalence appear more than once. Mickey and Mallory have Yin and Yang tattoos on opposite arms. Mickey's tattoo is opposite and below another tattoo of the face of Christ. Mallory's tattoo is opposite and above a tattoo of a scorpion. Mickey's left earring is a Yin Yang. During Mickey's television interview he suggests that he and Mallory are "dark and light", compatible only with one another, as they function as a single force, intending to destroy the "demons" of mass media, corrupt law enforcement and the commonalty's obsession with violence. A glowing lime green light is used throughout the film, symbolizing the sickness in Mickey's mind. It first appears in the film's opening sequence, as lights in the diner jukebox. Green is also present in the key lime pie Mickey orders. It appears again when Mallory kills a gas station attendant, and absorbs almost the entire screen during the drug store sequence. Lime green lights are last seen in the shower room in the prison, as Mickey and Mallory make their plans for a final escape. The number 666 is also seen in certain areas of the film - for example Route 666 is featured in one of Wayne Gale's shows, and there is a brief glimpse in the first scene of a diner patron, who will later appear in the prison riot scene as Owen (Arliss Howard), holding a newspaper with the headline "666 Death". Alternate versions Oliver Stone's original cut of the film was refused an R rating by the MPAA, meaning it would have to be released either unrated (many theatres won't carry unrated films) or with an NC-17 rating. This was a problem because Stone's contract with Warner Brothers stipulated the final film would earn an R. As such, Stone was forced to edit the film to ensure the MPAA dropped the NC-17. In total, roughly 4 minutes of footage was cut from the film prior to release. In 2001 however, Stone released his preferred cut of the film on DVD and home video. Some of the newly restored footage includes: three additional shots during the fight in the diner. The first is when Mallory knocks Sonny (Richard Lineback) over the small partition. In the theatrical cut, after Sonny hits the ground, the scene cuts to Sonny's friend (James Gammon) standing up. In the Director's Cut however, there is an additional shot of Mallory slamming Sonny's head into a table, and blood spraying everywhere. The second shot is when Mickey slits Sonny's friend's stomach; there are three additional slashes not found in the theatrical cut. The third shot occurs when Mallory jumps up and down on Sonny's back; there is an additional shot of her grabbing his blood soaked head and pounding it into the ground several times. the death of Ed Wilson (Rodney Dangerfield) has one additional shot. As Wilson is leaning up against the wall, Mickey hits him with the tire-iron across the back of the head. as Mallory drives to the garage after arguing with Mickey about the hostage (Corinna Laszlo), there is a shot of Mickey raping the hostage in the motel room, which is strongly implied but not shown in the theatrical version. Jack Scagnetti's (Tom Sizemore) murder of Pinky (Lorraine Farris) contains an additional shot of Scagnetti with his hands around her throat and her struggling beneath him. when Mickey kills the pharmacist (Glen Chin), there are two additional shots; one showing blood spraying onto the glass divide, the other showing the clerk falling to his knees and dying. the scene where the police beat up Mallory outside the pharmacy contains a few extra shots of policemen punching her. after Mickey has taken control of the TV crew, he breaks Kavanaugh's (Pruitt Taylor Vince) fingers. the prison riot sequences contain quite a bit of additional material. Four particularly controversial scenes are: a guard is shoved into a washing machine, which is then turned on; a guard has his head pushed in under a steam press, which is then closed; a guard is thrown into an industrial oven, which is then turned up full; a guard is flung from the top story of the prison with bed linen tied around his neck, snapping his neck. the scene where Scagnetti sprays mace in Mallory's eyes is longer. a tracking shot in a barber's during the riot show inmates slitting the throats of other inmates. during the riot, the scene where the prisoner throws a stick of dynamite into a doorway is extended; after the dynamite has been thrown, there is a shot of the explosion and a prisoner being flung from the room and rebounding off the far wall. in the scene where Mickey rescues Mallory from Jack Scagnetti, there are additional shots of the bullets hitting the two guards. there are more shots of Scagnetti thrashing about on the ground after being stabbed. when Mallory holds the gun to Scagnetti's head and asks him if he still wants her, in the theatrical version, she pulls the trigger immediately. In the Director's Cut, there is a shot of Scagnetti looking directly into the camera and then screaming. as Mickey, Mallory, and the others flee Mallory's cell, they are ambushed, and the remainder of Wayne Gale's crew is wiped out. In the theatrical version, little is seen of this, but in the Director's Cut, there are clear shots of his crew being gunned down, especially Julie (Terrylene), who is killed in slow motion. during the standoff at the stairs, Warden Dwight McClusky (Tommy Lee Jones) orders the guards to open fire at Mickey because Kavanaugh, who Mickey is using as a shield, is already dead. In the theatrical version, when McClusky gives the order to fire, nothing happens, and the scene cuts to Mallory holding Gale out as a shield. In the Director's Cut however, the guards do open fire, riddling Kavanaugh's (still living) body with bullets. after Mallory shoots Gale's hand, there is the infamous shot through the hole created by the bullet, looking down at McClusky. The shot was always intended to be darkly comedic, but the theatrical version sequence did not come across as funny. McClusky's death is far more explicit. After being dragged down from the gate by the inmates, in the theatrical version, we never seen him again, but in the Director's Cut, there are several oblique shots of him being torn apart, and after a moment, a prisoner raises a spear, with McClusky's severed head perched on top. Gale's death scene is longer and includes more bullet hits. NOTE: A common error made in relation to the Director's Cut of this film is that it contains the deleted scenes from the original DVD (such as the court room scene with Ashley Judd and Rachel Ticotin, the Denis Leary scene, the extended Steven Wright scene, and the alternative ending - all described below). However, the official Director's Cut contains only four minutes of reinstated footage, and none of the deleted scenes from the DVD have been restored to the film. Deleted scenes An alternative version of the scene where Mickey and Mallory meet the Indian Shaman (Russell Means). After Mickey makes his speech about how '90s men need choices, Mallory loses her temper with him, and forces him at gunpoint onto his knees. She then orders him to remove his pants. At this point, the Shaman appears on a hill with a herd of sheep, one of which chases after Mickey as he screams at Mallory to shoot it. After escaping the sheep, Mickey and Mallory follow the Shaman home. In his introduction to this scene, director Oliver Stone says he deeply regrets cutting this scene, which he did in an attempt to make the film shorter. A nine minute courtroom scene showing Mickey cross-examining one of the survivors of his and Mallory's rampage, Grace Mulberry (Ashley Judd). She recounts the events of the night when Mickey killed all of her girlfriends and her brother. After Mickey is finished questioning her, he attacks her with a pencil and stabs her to death in full view of the courtroom. Stone says he cut this scene because it brought Mickey and Mallory in the wrong direction. He says that the accidental killing of the shaman had changed something in them, but the murder of Mulberry was more like the old Mickey and Mallory, and he felt it didn't follow the arc that they two characters were going through at the time. A scene where Jack Scagnetti (Tom Sizemore) disposes of the body of the murdered prostitute behind a drive-in theatre. As Scagnetti dumps the body, the camera pans upwards and we see that Mickey and Mallory are parked nearby, watching the movie, and trying to figure out what they supposed to be doing (they are on their way to get snake juice, having just been bitten by the rattlesnakes). Stone cut the scene because it was too bizarre and illogical that they would stop to watch a movie whilst dying. A much longer conversation between Wayne Gale (Robert Downey Jr.) and Dr. Emil Reingold (Steven Wright). Stone cut the scene because it simply went on too long and slowed the film down too much. A scene involving the Hun Brothers (played by the Barbarian Brothers), professional body builders and still-living victims of the Knoxes' killing spree. They talk to Wayne Gale about their admiration for their attackers. (who cut off one of each of their legs) because now they are going to be forced to work even harder than before to be the best. Ironically, the Knoxes' admiration for the Huns is what kept them from killing the twins in the first place. Stone says he deleted this scene because he misdirected it, it goes on too long, slowing the movie down too much, and the brothers are overacting (something for which he himself takes sole responsibility). A deranged inmate (Denis Leary) delivers a rapid-fire monologue about how the Pittsburgh Pirates are responsible for Mickey and Mallory's killing spree, the ultimate cause being attributed to the Pittsburgh Pirates, because they didn’t draft Fidel Castro. Stone cut it because it was too long and slowed the movie down. After Mickey and Mallory escape and kill Wayne, they are travelling with Owen (Arliss Howard), who asks to accompany them. When Mickey informs him that they will be dropping him off, Owen begins making sexual advances towards Mallory. When she begins to mock him, and pulls a gun on him, he shoots Mickey, then turns the gun on Mallory; the screen cuts to black, and we hear Mallory. The film then ends the same way as the theatrical cut, with the montage of driving shots. Stone says that the idea behind the scene was that he felt audiences would want Mickey and Mallory to get their comeuppance, but he felt it couldn't come from society or the law; rather, it had to come from "one of their own ilk" (i.e., another serial killer). Box office and critical response In its opening weekend, the film grossed a total of $11,166,687 in 1,510 theaters. As of January 12, 2007, the film has grossed a total of $50,282,766 domestically, compared to its $34 million budget. In the UK, it grossed £3,923,239 during its theatrical run. The film had a mixed critical response. As of November 26, 2008, the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes records an average response of 52%, based on 29 reviews. However, Metacritic records a score of 74 out of 100 based on 20 reviews. Roger Ebert, a film critic for the Chicago Sun-Times gave the movie four stars out of four and wrote, "Seeing this movie once is not enough. The first time is for the visceral experience, the second time is for the meaning." Other critics however, found the film unsuccessful in its aims. Hal Hinson of The Washington Post claimed that "Stone's sensibility is white-hot and personal. As much as he'd like us to believe that his camera is turned outward on the culture, it's vividly clear that he can't resist turning it inward on himself. This wouldn't be so troublesome if Stone didn't confuse the public and the private." Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote, "for all its surface passions, Natural Born Killers never digs deep enough to touch the madness of such events, or even to send them up in any surprising way. Mr. Stone's vision is impassioned, alarming, visually inventive, characteristically overpowering. But it's no match for the awful truth." James Berardinelli gave the film a negative review, but his dislike of the film was different than most of the unflattering reviews from other critics, who tended to focus on the film's decrying of violence and the media while sensationalizing both of those elements. Berardinelli said that the film "hit the bullseye" as a satire of America's lust for bloodshed, but repeated this argument so often and so loudly that it became unbearable. Controversies Censorship When the film was first handed in to the MPAA, they told Stone they would give it an NC-17 unless he cut it. As such, Stone toned down the violence by cutting approximately four minutes of footage, and the MPAA re-rated the film as an R. The original cut is now available on DVD. The film was banned completely in Ireland. The UK home video release was delayed due to the Dunblane massacre in Scotland. Stone has continually maintained that the film is a satire on how serial killers are adored by the media for their horrific actions and that those who claim that the violence in the movie itself is a cause of societal violence miss the point of the movie. Entertainment Weekly ranked the film as the 8th Most Controversial Movie Ever. 'Copycat' crimes From almost the moment of its release, the film has been accused of encouraging and inspiring numerous murderers. For example: In 1994, a 14-year-old boy from Dallas, Texas decapitated a 13-year-old classmate. When asked why he did it, he allegedly said it was because he "wanted to be famous. Like the Natural Born Killers." Freedom Forum (http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=3962) In October 1994, 17-year-old Nathan Martinez from Bluffdale, Utah, shot and killed his stepmother and 10-year-old half-sister while they slept. He was apprehended several days later in O'Neill, Nebraska, following a nationwide manhunt. Martinez was allegedly obsessed with the film and claims to have seen it at least 10 times in the days prior to the murders. He had even shaved his head the way Mickey does at the end of the movie, and he had taken to wearing the same style of round sunglasses as Mickey. In 1995 after allegedly watching the movie 19 times, a gang of four people in their twenties killed a truck driver and made their getaway in his rig. Freedom Forum (http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=3962) Kunich, John Charles. "Natural Born Copycat Killers and the Law of Shock Torts", p.1160n14. On March 5, 1995 in Senoia, Georgia, 15-year-old Jason Lewis shot and killed his parents after allegedly deciding he wanted to be like Mickey and Mallory. Lewis was on the phone to a friend discussing how he was planning to kill his mother and father and take off for the road, when he suddenly announced, "I'm going to do it." According to the friend, as he listened on the phone, he heard Lewis slaughtering his parents. He grabbed his father's 12-gauge shotgun, and shot his mother, who was sitting in a recliner watching television. The shot didn’t kill her, and as she screamed, he fired again, hitting his father, who was lying on a nearby couch. A third shot to his mother’s face killed her, and a fourth shot to his father's head killed him. According to Lewis' friend, Lewis then calmly returned to the phone and announced "I did it. It's done." It was subsequently discovered that Lewis was one of four young boys who planned to kill their parents, and embark on a cross country killing spree similar to that seen in the film. All four boys were arrested. During interrogation, when asked why he did it, Lewis told investigators that it was because his parents had imposed a midnight curfew on him. On March 5, 1995, Sarah Edmondson and her boyfriend Benjamin Darras (both 18) spent the night at his family's cabin in Oklahoma, dropping acid and watching Natural Born Killers. The following morning, they left the cabin armed with a .38-caliber revolver. On March 7, they arrived at Hernando, Mississippi, when Darras killed cotton mill manager William Savage by shooting him twice in the head at point blank range. They then travelled to Ponchatoula, Louisiana, where Edmondson shot Patsy Byers, a convenient store cashier. Byers survived the attack, but was rendered paraplegic. It subsequently transpired that Savage was a friend of popular author John Grisham, who publicly accused Stone of being irresponsible in making the film, claiming that filmmakers should be held accountable for their work when it incites viewers to commit violent acts. In July 1995, Byers took legal actions against Edmondson and Darras, but in March, 1996, she amended her lawsuit to include to Oliver Stone and the Time Warner company. With the advice of Grisham, Byers used a "product liability" claim, stating that the filmmakers "'knew, or should have known that the film would cause and inspire people […] to commit crimes such as the shooting of Patsy Ann Byers." Grisham himself stated in an article called "Unnatural Killers" in the April 1996 edition of the Oxford American magazine, "The last hope of imposing some sense on Hollywood will come through another great American tradition, the lawsuit. A case can be made that there exists a direct causal link between Natural Born Killers and the death of Bill Savage. It will take only one large verdict against the likes of Oliver Stone, and then the party will be over." On January 23, 1997, on the grounds that filmmakers and production companies are protected by the First Amendment, the case was dismissed, but Byers immediately appealed the decision, and on May 15, 1998, the Intermediate Louisiana Court of Appeals overturned that decision, claiming that Byers did indeed have a valid case against the filmmakers (However,Byers herself died of cancer in late 1997). However, on March 12, 2001, judge Robert Morrison dismissed the case on the grounds that there was no evidence that either Time Warner or Oliver Stone intended to incite violence. In June 2002, the Louisiana Court of Appeal turned down an appeal from Byers attorneys, and the suit was officially closed. Freedom Forum (http://www.freedomforum.org/templates/document.asp?documentID=3962) In Avon, Massachusetts, June 1995, three men, aged 18 to 20 killed a physically handicapped 65-year-old man by stabbing him 27 times with a Bowie knife whilst he lay in bed. The attack was so ferocious that both of the man's wrists were broken due to the force of the attacks, and his body was split open from clavicle to spine. After the murder, the ringleader bragged to his girlfriend about the murder. When she expressed horror at his actions, he asked her "Haven't you ever seen Natural Born Killers before?". During the interrogation, one of the murderers told police "We know what we did was bad, but we didn't know this guy so we weren't going to cry about it." Barry, Ann Marie. Visual Intelligence, p.316 On January 3, 1997, New York firefighter James Halverson was running at the high school track at Centereach, Long Island when William Sodders (21) shot and killed him in an act of random violence. Sodders had purchased a 9 mm pistol and he and his friend Eric Calvin, had gone to the track to practice shooting. When they got there, Sodders encountered Halverson. He went out onto the track, and bent over pretending to tie his show laces. As Halverson approached, Sodders stood up and shot him at point blank range. He also shot and killed Halverson's dog. The next day, Sodder's father, Patrick, turned him into police, after Sodder's girlfriend, Nicole, told Patrick that she thought William had something to do with the killing. According to Patrick Sodders, Natural Born Killers was his son's favorite film, and he deeply admired Mickey and Mallory. According to his father, ever since seeing the film, Sodders had even begun to act like Mickey. Sodders was sentenced to life in prison. O'Kane, James M. Wicked Deeds: Murder in America, p.47 On December 1, 1997, in Paducah, Kentucky, 14-year-old Michael Carneal went to school carrying four .22 rifles, 2 .30-30 Winchester rifles and a Ruger .22 handgun. Upon arriving at the school, he inserted a pair of earplugs and opened fire with the handgun at a prayer meeting, killing three of his classmates and wounding five others. After he was finished shooting, Carneal calmly dropped the gun and surrendered to the school principal. Carneal was charged with murder and attempted murder and initially sentenced to three life sentences for murder plus 150 years for five counts of attempted murder. Following appeal, this was altered to life in prison with no possibility of parole. In April 1999, Jack Thompson, attorney for the parents of the murdered children filed a $33 million lawsuit against Time Warner, Polygram Film, Palm Pictures, Island Pictures, New Line Cinema, Atari, Nintendo and Sony Computer Entertainment. Specifically mentioned were Natural Born Killers and the 1995 film The Basketball Diaries, as well as the video games Doom and Mortal Kombat. Thompson argued that the films and games had encouraged Carneal to act the way he did, and that Doom had provided him with excellent target practice. The case was dismissed in July 2001 by the US Court of Appeals. Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold, the perpetrators of the 1999 Columbine High School Massacre were allegedly both fans of Natural Born Killers. Prior to the massacre, they had used the initials 'NBK' as their code. In a journal entry dated, April 10, 1998, Harris wrote "When I go NBK and people say things like "Oh, it was so tragic," or "oh he is crazy!" or "It was so bloody", just because your mommy and daddy told you blood and violence is bad, you think it's a fucking law of nature? Wrong, only science and math are true, everything, and I mean every fucking thing else is Man made. Before I leave this worthless place, I will kill whoever I deem unfit for anything at all, especially life." Harris also referred to April 20 as "the holy April morning of NBK", and in an undated journal entry, Klebold wrote "I'm stuck in humanity. Maybe going NBK w. Eric is the way to break free". On December 23, 2004, in Jacksonville, Florida, Angus Wallen and Kara Winn, both 27, shot and killed their roommate Brandon Murphy (22) before setting him and the apartment on fire in an attempt to cover up the crime. Wallen and Winn had only recently moved in with Murphy, and had decided to steal his debit card. When he resisted, Winn shot him in this shoulder, and Wallen shot him in the head, killing him. They had allegedly watched Natural Born Killers the night before the murder, and prosecutors argued that the crime resembled a similar crime in the film where a couple kill a man, light his remains on fire, and then escape together (the prosecutors have these facts slightly wrong; the film's protagonists murder a woman, not a man; they don't shoot her and set her remains on fire, they burn her alive – so the real life murder is in fact slightly different from the scene in the film which inspired it). They were arrested the next day in Biloxi, Mississippi, and during the subsequent trial, they turned on one another, each saying the murder was the other's idea. They were both sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole. On April 23, 2006, Jeremy Allan Steinke, (23) and his 12-year-old girlfriend, murdered her parents, Marc and Debra Richardson, as well as her 8-year-old brother, Jacob in Medicine Hat, Alberta, in an incident which has become known as the Richardson family murders. Steinke and Richardson were arrested the next day in Leader, Saskatchewan, and were charged with three counts of first-degree murder. Apparently, just prior to the incident, her parents had forbidden her from seeing Steinke. On July 9, 2007, Richardson was found guilty of three counts of first-degree murder and was sentenced to ten years in prison, which is the maximum penalty for a person under 14 years of age. On December 5, 2008, Steinke was also found guilty of three counts of first-degree murder, and on December 15, he was sentenced to life in prison with no possibility for parole for at least 25 years. The Natural Born Killers connection is to be found in the fact that Steinke had allegedly watched the film the night before the incident. However Steinke's mental stability was highly questionable even prior to watching the film; he would allegedly tell friends that he was a 300 year old werewolf. On July 19, 2008, in Milwaukee, Eric Tavulares (18) strangled his girlfriend, Lauren Aljubouri (also 18) to death. Tavulares and Aljubouri, both 18, had been watching the movie, and stopped it about half way through before going to bed. According to Tavulares, he and Aljubouri were lying in bed talking, when he "switched mentally" and began strangling her. Upon arriving at the scene, Tavulares told police "I did it, I can't believe it. I did it." He later claimed that he had seen Natural Born Killers between 10 and 20 times. On January 31, 2009, Tavulares (who pleaded guilty during the trial) was sentenced to a minimum of 40 years in prison. Soundtrack The soundtrack was released August 23, 1994 by Interscope Records. "Waiting for the Miracle" (Edit) - Leonard Cohen "Shitlist" - L7 "Moon Over Greene County" (Edit) - Dan Zanes "Rock N Roll Nigger" (Flood Remix) - Patti Smith "Sweet Jane" (Edit) - Cowboy Junkies "You Belong to Me" - Bob Dylan "The Trembler" (Edit) - Duane Eddy "Burn" - Nine Inch Nails "Route 666" - BB Tone Brian Berdan feat. Robert Downey, Jr. "Totally Hot" - Remmy Ongala & Orchestre Super Matimila "Back in Baby's Arms" - Patsy Cline "Taboo" (Edit) - Peter Gabriel and Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan "Sex is Violent" - Jane's Addiction and Diamanda Galas (based on "Ted, Just Admit It...") "History Repeats Itself" (Edit) - A.O.S. "Something I Can Never Have" (Edited and Extended) - Nine Inch Nails "I Will Take You Home" - Russell Means "Drums a Go-Go" (Edit) - The Hollywood Persuaders "Hungry Ants" - Barry Adamson "The Day the Niggaz Took Over" - Dr. Dre "Born Bad" - Juliette Lewis "Fall of the Rebel Angels" (Edit) - Sergio Cervetti "Forkboy" - Lard "Batonga in Batongaville" (Edit) - "A Warm Place" (Edit) - Nine Inch Nails "Allah, Mohammad, Char, Yaar" - Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan "The Future" (Edit) - Leonard Cohen "What Would U Do?" - Tha Dogg Pound Tracks 10, 13, 18, 21, 23, 25 are assembled from various recordings and dialogue from the film. References External links "Natural Born Killers: Beyond Good and Evil", by Heidi Nelson Hochenedel, Ph.D. "Natural Born Copycats", a 2002 article from The Guardian on Stone's response to claims that the film inspired several murders. | Natural_Born_Killers |@lemmatized natural:26 born:19 killer:30 controversial:5 satirical:1 crime:11 film:83 direct:4 oliver:15 stone:44 husband:1 wife:3 pair:7 serial:3 medium:13 coverage:1 give:9 star:2 woody:3 harrelson:3 juliette:5 lewis:12 feature:3 appearance:2 rodney:5 dangerfield:4 robert:10 downey:8 jr:8 tom:6 sizemore:6 tommy:4 lee:4 jones:4 base:5 screenplay:3 quentin:2 tarantino:5 heavily:3 revise:1 writer:2 dave:1 veloz:2 associate:2 producer:4 richard:3 rutowski:2 notorious:1 violent:7 content:1 name:4 movie:24 time:24 entertainment:4 weekly:3 ever:5 june:3 promote:1 tagline:1 bold:1 new:7 take:14 look:9 country:2 seduce:2 fame:2 obsess:3 consume:1 release:8 u:4 cinemas:1 august:2 plot:1 introduction:2 open:6 mickey:105 knox:7 mallory:93 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6,143 | Joachim_II_Hector,_Elector_of_Brandenburg | Joachim II Hector ( or Hektor; 13 January 1505 – 3 January 1571) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg (1535-1571). A member of the House of Hohenzollern, Joachim II was the son of Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg and his wife, Elizabeth of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. He was nicknamed after Hector of Greek mythology. Biography Joachim II was born in Cölln. His first marriage was to Magdalene of Saxony. Joachim Nestor had made his sons sign an inheritance contract in which they promised to remain Roman Catholic; had Joachim Hector not signed this pact, he would likely have been passed over in the line of inheritance. After the death of Magdalena in 1534, Joachim Hector married Hedwig (Jadwiga) of Poland, daughter of Sigismund I the Old of Poland-Lithuania, in 1535. As the Jagiellon dynasty was Catholic, Joachim II promised Sigismund he would not make Hedwig change her religion. In 1542 Ferdinand I, Duke of Austria, was fighting against the Ottomans in Buda. Joachim commanded a great Christian army (Austrian, Hungarian, German, Bohemian, Italian and Dalmatian forces), but the Elector was not a seasoned warlord and beat a retreat from Buda. History of Hungary 1526-1686, Edit: Zsigmond Pach and Ágnes R. Várkonyi, Akadémia Publisher, Budapest 1985. ISBN 963 05 0929 6 In 1545 Joachim II held a gala double wedding celebration for his two children, John George and Barbara. They were married to Sophie and George, both children of the Silesian Piasta Duke of Liegnitz, Frederick II. Long drawn to the Lutheran faith and always seeking balance between Protestant and Roman Catholic factions, Joachim II did not officially profess the Lutheran Creed until 1555, after the deaths of Joachim Nestor (1535) and Sigismund I (1548). Joachim Hector became co-inheritor of Ducal Prussia upon the death of his uncle Duke Albert of Brandenburg Prussia. Joachim II died in Köpenick. External links Joachim Hector co-inherits Ducal Prussia References Ancestors +Joachim II Hector's ancestors in three generations Joachim II Hector, Elector of Brandenburg Father:Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Grandfather:John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Great-Grandfather:Albert III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg Paternal Great-grandmother:Margarete of Baden Paternal Grandmother:Margaret of Thuringia Paternal Great-Grandfather:William III, Duke of Luxembourg Paternal Great-Grandmother:Anne, Duchess of Luxembourg Mother:Elizabeth Oldenburg Maternal Grandfather:John of Denmark Maternal Great-Grandfather:Christian I of Denmark Maternal Great-Grandmother:Dorothea of Brandenburg Maternal Grandmother:Christina of Saxony Maternal Great-grandfather:Frederick II, Elector of Saxony Maternal Great-Grandmother:Margarete of Austria Links Portrait of Magdalena of Saxony. {See []} | Joachim_II_Hector,_Elector_of_Brandenburg |@lemmatized joachim:18 ii:11 hector:8 hektor:1 january:2 prince:1 elector:8 margraviate:1 brandenburg:8 member:1 house:1 hohenzollern:1 son:2 nestor:4 wife:1 elizabeth:2 denmark:3 norway:1 sweden:1 nickname:1 greek:1 mythology:1 biography:1 bear:1 cölln:1 first:1 marriage:1 magdalene:1 saxony:4 make:2 sign:2 inheritance:2 contract:1 promise:2 remain:1 roman:2 catholic:3 pact:1 would:2 likely:1 pass:1 line:1 death:3 magdalena:2 marry:2 hedwig:2 jadwiga:1 poland:2 daughter:1 sigismund:3 old:1 lithuania:1 jagiellon:1 dynasty:1 change:1 religion:1 ferdinand:1 duke:4 austria:2 fight:1 ottoman:1 buda:2 command:1 great:9 christian:2 army:1 austrian:1 hungarian:1 german:1 bohemian:1 italian:1 dalmatian:1 force:1 seasoned:1 warlord:1 beat:1 retreat:1 history:1 hungary:1 edit:1 zsigmond:1 pach:1 ágnes:1 r:1 várkonyi:1 akadémia:1 publisher:1 budapest:1 isbn:1 hold:1 gala:1 double:1 wedding:1 celebration:1 two:1 child:2 john:3 george:2 barbara:1 sophie:1 silesian:1 piasta:1 liegnitz:1 frederick:2 long:1 drawn:1 lutheran:2 faith:1 always:1 seek:1 balance:1 protestant:1 faction:1 officially:1 profess:1 creed:1 become:1 co:2 inheritor:1 ducal:2 prussia:3 upon:1 uncle:1 albert:2 die:1 köpenick:1 external:1 link:2 inherits:1 reference:1 ancestor:2 three:1 generation:1 father:1 paternal:6 grandfather:6 cicero:1 iii:2 achilles:1 grandmother:6 margarete:2 baden:1 margaret:1 thuringia:1 william:1 luxembourg:2 anne:1 duchess:1 mother:1 oldenburg:1 maternal:6 dorothea:1 christina:1 portrait:1 see:1 |@bigram elector_margraviate:1 margraviate_brandenburg:1 joachim_nestor:4 elector_brandenburg:5 joachim_hector:4 jadwiga_poland:1 jagiellon_dynasty:1 ducal_prussia:2 brandenburg_prussia:1 external_link:1 brandenburg_paternal:3 paternal_grandfather:1 paternal_grandmother:1 maternal_grandfather:1 maternal_grandmother:1 elector_saxony:1 |
6,144 | History_of_St_Albans | St Albans is in southern Hertfordshire, England, around 22 miles (35km) north of London, beside the site of a Catuvellauni settlement and the Roman tonwn of Verulamium. St Albans is Hertfordshire's oldest town, a modern city shaped by over 2000 years of continuous human occupation. Pre-Roman times The town is first recorded as Verlamion, a Celtic British Iron Age settlement whose name means 'the settlement above the marsh'. After the Roman conquest of Britain in AD 43, it developed as Verulamium and became one of the largest towns in Roman Britain. Built mainly of wood, it was destroyed during the revolt of Boudica in AD 60-61, but was rebuilt and grew to feature many impressive town houses and public buildings. It was encircled by gated walls in AD 275. The Romans leave The Roman City of Verulamium slowly declined and fell into decay after the departure of the Roman Army in AD 410. However, its ruined buildings provided building materials to build the new monastic and market settlement of St Albans which was growing on the hill above, close to the site of Saint Alban's execution. In the Normans Abbey tower, you can still see the Roman bricks removed from Verulamium. Much of the post-Roman development of St Albans was in memorial to Saint Alban, the earliest known British Christian martyr, executed in AD 250 (the exact date is unknown, with scholars suggesting dates of 209, 254 and 304). The town itself was known for some time by the Saxon name 'Verlamchester'. A shrine was built on the site of his death following Emperor Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine's adoption of Christianity as the religion of the Roman Empire. In the 5th century a Benedictine monastic church was constructed. The Abbey is founded Another abbey was founded by King Offa of Mercia in 793. The settlement grew up around the precincts of another Benedictine monastery, founded in AD 900-950 by Abbot Ulsinus (also known as Wulsin). According to Matthew Paris, the 13th century chronicler of St Albans Abbey, Abbot Ulsinus (Wulsin) founded three churches in 948, reputedly to tend to the physical and spiritual needs of the growing number of pilgrims to Alban's shrine: St. Peter's Church, St. Stephen's Church, and St. Michael's Church. Each church was equidistant from the Abbey and on one of the main approaches to the town. Also in 948, Abbot Ulsinus (Wulsin) founded St Albans School (Hertfordshire an education establishment to this day. Around 500 people lived in the town in 1086 (at the time of the Domesday Book). The building of the Normans Abbey Church (now the St Albans Cathedral) was started in 1077 by Paul de Caen, the 14th Abbot, and completed in 1089. It was 350 feet long with a tower and seven apses. A nunnery, Sopwell Priory, was founded nearby in 1140 by Abbot Geoffrey de Gorham. The head of the abbey was confirmed as the premier abbot in England in 1154. The abbey was extended by John de Cella (also known as John of Wallingford) in the 1190s, and again between 1257 and 1320 but financial constraints limited the effectiveness of these later additions. In August 1213 the first draft of Magna Carta was drawn up in St Albans Abbey. In 1290 the funeral procession of [Eleanor of Castile stopped overnight in the town and an Eleanor cross was put up at a cost of £100 in the Market Place. The cross, which stood for many years in front of the 15th century Clock Tower, was demolished in 1701. A market was running outside the abbey from the 10th century; it was confirmed by King John of England in 1202 and by a Royal Charter of Edward VI of England in 1553. Conflict Abbey Gateway from the 1360s During the 14th century the Abbey came into increasing conflict with the townsfolk of St Albans, who demanded rights of their own. This led, among other things, to the construction of a large wall and gate surrounding the Abbey (for instance, the Great Gatehouse, the "Abbey Gateway", which is the only surviving monastic building other than the Abbey Church, dates from 1365). St Albans played a role in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381: the peasants, led by a local man William Grindcobbe and Jack Straw (rebel leader), forced their way into the Abbey and demanded a charter for the freedom of St Albans from the Abbot ('Charter of freedom of the villeins of St Alban's forcibly obtained from the Abbot and Convent', 16 June 1381 ). Richard of Wallingford (constable) a local landowner, who had presented demands to Richard II of England on behalf of Wat Tyler in London, brought news of this to St Albans and argued with the abbot over the charter. However, this was short-lived. Once the 14-year-old king had regained control of the capital and then the whole country, Grindcobbe was tried in the Moot Hall (on the site of the present day WH Smith store, where a plaque commemorates the event) and adjudged a 'traitor' alongside John Ball (priest) ('the mad priest of Kent', one of the rebel leaders who had escaped from Smithfield, London to Coventry) and more than a dozen others. He was hung, drawn and quartered in July 1381. Another notable building dating from around this time, the Clockhouse belfy or Clock Tower, built between 1403 and 1412, seems to have been intended both as a visible and audible statement of the town's continuing civic ambitions against the power of the Abbot. During the Wars of the Roses two battles were fought in and around St Albans. The First Battle of St Albans on 22 May 1455 was a Lancastrian defeat that opened the war. The Lancastrian army occupied the town but the Yorkist forces broke in and a battle took place in the streets of the town. On 17 February 1461 the Second Battle of St Albans on Bernards Heath north of the town centre resulted in a Lancastrian victory. Following the English Reformation, the Abbey was dissolved in 1539 and the Abbey Church sold to the town in 1553 for £400: it became a Protestant parish church for the borough and the Lady Chapel was used as a St Albans School. The Great Gatehouse was used as a prison until the 19th century, when it was taken over by the school. In May 1553, in response to a public petition, the first royal charter for the town was issued by King Edward VI of England, granting it the status of borough. The charter defined the powers of the mayor and councillors, then known as burgesses, as well as specifying the Wednesday and Saturday market days which continue to this day. In 1555, during the reign of Mary I of England|Mary Tudor, a Protestant Yorkshire baker, George Tankerfield, was brought from London and burnt to death on Romeland because of his refusal to accept the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation During the English Civil War (1642-45) the town sided with parliament but was largely unaffected by the conflict. An early transport hub Three main roads date from the medieval period - Holywell Hill, St Peter's Street, and Fishpool Street. These remained the only major streets until around 1800 when London Road was constructed, to be followed by Hatfield Road in 1824 and Verulam Road in 1826. Verulam Road was created specifically to aid the movement of stage coaches, since St Albans was the first major stop on the stagecoach|coaching route north from London. The large number of coaching inns is, in turn, one reason why the City has so many public house|pubs today (another being that it was, and remains, a major centre for Christian pilgrimage). The railway arrived in 1868, off-setting the decline in coaching since the 1840s. Growth was always slow and steady, with no sudden burst: in 1801 there were 6,000 people living in St Albans, in 1850 11,000, in 1931 29,000, and in 1950 44,000. The City Charter In 1877, in response to a public petition, Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom issued the second royal charter, which granted city status to the borough and Cathedral status to the former Abbey Church. Lord Grimthorpe financed a £130,000 renovation and rebuilding of the then dilapidated cathedral, which is most apparent in his generally poorly regarded Neo-Gothic- rebuild of the west front (1880-1883). However, without Grimthorpe's money, it seems reasonable to assume that the Abbey Church would now almost certainly be a ruin, like many other former monastic churches, despite the work performed under Sir George Gilbert Scott in the years 1860 to 1877. The football club was founded in 1880. Ralph Chubb, the poet and printer, lived on College Street in St Albans from 1892 to 1913, and attended St Albans School. His work frequently references the Abbey of St Albans, and he ascribed mystical significance to the geography and history of the town. Modern growth Between the wars In the inter-war years St Albans, in common with much of the surrounding area, became a centre for emerging high-technology industries, most notably aerospace. Nearby Radlett was the base for Handley Page Aircraft Company, while Hatfield, Hertfordshire became home to de Havilland. St Albans itself became a centre for the Marconi plc company, specifically, Marconi Instruments. Marconi (later part of The General Electric Company) remained the city's largest employer (with two main plants) until the 1990s. A third plant - working on top secret defence work - also existed. Even Marconi staff only found out about this when it closed down. All of these industries are now gone from the area. In 1936 St Albans was the last but one stop for the Jarrow Crusade. Post-war growth The City was expanded significantly after World War II, as government policy promoted the creation of New Towns and the expansion of existing towns. Substantial amounts of local authority housing were built at Cottonmill (to the south), Mile House (to the south-east) and New Greens (to the north). The Marshalswick area to the north-east was also expanded, completing a pre-war programme. In 1974 St Albans City Council, St Albans Rural District Council and Harpenden Town Council were merged to form City and District of St Albans|St Albans District Council (part of a much wider local government reorganisation). The 2001 census returns show a population of 129,000 for St Albans City and District. References External links St Albans History and Archaeology; Chris Saunders. St Albans, 1911 encyclopedia article. British History Online - the city of St Albans Diocesan House, St Albans Verulam House, St Albans | History_of_St_Albans |@lemmatized st:39 albans:34 southern:1 hertfordshire:4 england:7 around:6 mile:2 north:5 london:6 beside:1 site:4 catuvellauni:1 settlement:5 roman:11 tonwn:1 verulamium:4 old:2 town:19 modern:2 city:11 shape:1 year:5 continuous:1 human:1 occupation:1 pre:2 time:4 first:5 record:1 verlamion:1 celtic:1 british:3 iron:1 age:1 whose:1 name:2 mean:1 marsh:1 conquest:1 britain:2 ad:6 develop:1 become:5 one:5 large:4 build:5 mainly:1 wood:1 destroy:1 revolt:2 boudica:1 rebuild:2 grow:4 feature:1 many:4 impressive:1 house:5 public:4 building:6 encircle:1 gated:1 wall:2 leave:1 slowly:1 decline:2 fell:1 decay:1 departure:1 army:2 however:3 ruined:1 provide:1 material:1 new:3 monastic:4 market:4 hill:2 close:2 saint:2 alban:4 execution:1 norman:2 abbey:21 tower:4 still:1 see:1 bricks:1 remove:1 much:3 post:2 development:1 memorial:1 early:2 known:1 christian:2 martyr:1 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february:1 second:2 bernard:1 heath:1 centre:4 result:1 victory:1 english:2 reformation:1 dissolve:1 sell:1 protestant:2 parish:1 borough:3 lady:1 chapel:1 use:2 prison:1 response:2 petition:2 issue:2 grant:2 status:3 define:1 mayor:1 councillor:1 burgess:1 well:1 specify:1 wednesday:1 saturday:1 reign:1 mary:2 tudor:1 yorkshire:1 baker:1 george:2 tankerfield:1 burn:1 romeland:1 refusal:1 accept:1 catholic:1 doctrine:1 transubstantiation:1 civil:1 side:1 parliament:1 largely:1 unaffected:1 transport:1 hub:1 road:5 medieval:1 period:1 holywell:1 fishpool:1 remain:3 major:3 hatfield:2 verulam:3 create:1 specifically:2 aid:1 movement:1 stage:1 coach:4 since:2 stagecoach:1 route:1 inn:1 turn:1 reason:1 pub:1 today:1 pilgrimage:1 railway:1 arrive:1 set:1 growth:3 always:1 slow:1 steady:1 sudden:1 burst:1 queen:1 victoria:1 united:1 kingdom:1 former:2 lord:1 grimthorpe:2 finance:1 renovation:1 rebuilding:1 dilapidated:1 apparent:1 generally:1 poorly:1 regard:1 neo:1 gothic:1 west:1 without:1 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online:1 diocesan:1 |@bigram st_albans:34 verulamium_st:1 revolt_boudica:1 offa_mercia:1 benedictine_monastery:1 domesday_book:1 magna_carta:1 funeral_procession:1 jack_straw:1 plaque_commemorate:1 doctrine_transubstantiation:1 queen_victoria:1 handley_page:1 de_havilland:1 external_link:1 |
6,145 | B_(programming_language) | B is a programming language that was developed at Bell Labs. It is almost extinct, as it was replaced by the C language. It was mostly the work of Ken Thompson with contributions from Dennis Ritchie, and first appeared in 1969 or near that time. History B was essentially the BCPL system stripped of any component that Thompson felt he could do without, in order to make it fit within the memory capacity of the minicomputers of the time. The language also included some changes made to suit Thompson's preferences (mostly along the lines of reducing the number of non-whitespace characters in a typical program). Like BCPL and FORTH, B had only one datatype: the computer word. Most operators (e.g., +, -, *, /) treated this as an integer, but others treated it as a memory address to be dereferenced. In most other ways it looked a lot like an early version of C. A few library functions existed, including some that vaguely resemble functions from the standard I/O library in C. Early implementations were for the DEC PDP-7 and PDP-11 minicomputers using early Unix, and Honeywell 36-bit mainframes running the operating system GCOS. The earliest PDP-7 implementations compiled to threaded code, then Ritchie wrote a compiler using TMG which produced machine code. http://www.multicians.org/tmg.html http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/chist.html In 1970 a PDP-11 was acquired and threaded code was used for the port. The first version of yacc was produced with this PDP-11 configuration. Ritchie took over maintenance during this period. The typeless nature of B made sense on the Honeywell, PDP-7 and many older computers, but was a problem on the PDP-11 because it was difficult to elegantly access the character data type that the PDP-11 and most modern computers fully support. Starting in 1971 Ritchie made changes to the language while converting its compiler to produce machine code, most notably adding data typing for variables. During 1971 and 1972 B evolved into "New B" and then C, with the preprocessor being added in 1972 and early 1973 at the urging of Alan Snyder. The effort was sufficiently complete that during the summer of 1973 the Unix kernel for the PDP-11 was rewritten in C. During the 1972-73 period there was a need to port to Honeywell 635 and IBM 360/370 machines, so Mike Lesk wrote the "portable I/O package" which would become the C "standard I/O" routines. B continued to see use as late as the 1990s on Honeywell mainframes, and on certain embedded systems for a variety of reasons, including limited hardware in the small systems; extensive libraries, tools, licensing cost issues; and simply being good enough for the job on others. The highly influential AberMUD was originally written in B. B was greatly influenced by BCPL, and its name is most likely to be a contraction of BCPL. However it is possible that its name may be based on Bon, an earlier but unrelated, and rather different, programming language which Thompson designed for use on Multics. Example The following example is from the Users' Reference to B by Ken Thompson: /* The following function will print a non-negative number, n, to the base b, where 2<=b<=10, This routine uses the fact that in the ASCII character set, the digits 0 to 9 have sequential code values. */ printn(n,b) { extrn putchar; auto a; if(a=n/b) /* assignment, not test for equality */ printn(a, b); /* recursive */ putchar(n%b + '0'); } See also The B-Method, a formal method with its own Abstract Machine Notation (AMN), not to be confused with the B programming language. Another language, also called B, was a simple interactive programming language by Lambert Meertens and Steven Pemberton. This B was the predecessor of ABC. Notes External links The Development of the C Language, Dennis M. Ritchie. Puts B in the context of BCPL and C. Users' Reference to B, Ken Thompson. Describes the PDP-11 version. The Programming Language B, S. C. Johnson & B. W. Kernighan, Technical Report CS TR 8, Bell Labs (January 1973). The GCOS version on Honeywell equipment. | B_(programming_language) |@lemmatized b:24 programming:4 language:10 develop:1 bell:3 lab:3 almost:1 extinct:1 replace:1 c:10 mostly:2 work:1 ken:3 thompson:6 contribution:1 dennis:2 ritchie:5 first:2 appear:1 near:1 time:2 history:1 essentially:1 bcpl:5 system:4 strip:1 component:1 felt:1 could:1 without:1 order:1 make:4 fit:1 within:1 memory:2 capacity:1 minicomputer:2 also:3 include:3 change:2 suit:1 preference:1 along:1 line:1 reduce:1 number:2 non:2 whitespace:1 character:3 typical:1 program:2 like:2 forth:1 one:1 datatype:1 computer:3 word:1 operator:1 e:1 g:1 treat:2 integer:1 others:2 address:1 dereferenced:1 way:1 look:1 lot:1 early:6 version:4 library:3 function:3 exist:1 vaguely:1 resemble:1 standard:2 implementation:2 dec:1 pdp:10 use:6 unix:2 honeywell:5 bit:1 mainframe:2 run:1 operating:1 gcos:2 compile:1 thread:2 code:5 write:3 compiler:2 tmg:2 produce:3 machine:4 http:2 www:1 multicians:1 org:1 html:2 cm:2 com:1 dmr:1 chist:1 acquire:1 port:2 yacc:1 configuration:1 take:1 maintenance:1 period:2 typeless:1 nature:1 sense:1 many:1 old:1 problem:1 difficult:1 elegantly:1 access:1 data:2 type:2 modern:1 fully:1 support:1 start:1 convert:1 notably:1 add:2 variable:1 evolve:1 new:1 preprocessor:1 urging:1 alan:1 snyder:1 effort:1 sufficiently:1 complete:1 summer:1 kernel:1 rewrite:1 need:1 ibm:1 mike:1 lesk:1 portable:1 package:1 would:1 become:1 routine:2 continue:1 see:2 late:1 certain:1 embedded:1 variety:1 reason:1 limited:1 hardware:1 small:1 extensive:1 tool:1 license:1 cost:1 issue:1 simply:1 good:1 enough:1 job:1 highly:1 influential:1 abermud:1 originally:1 greatly:1 influence:1 name:2 likely:1 contraction:1 however:1 possible:1 may:1 base:2 bon:1 unrelated:1 rather:1 different:1 design:1 multics:1 example:2 following:2 user:2 reference:2 print:1 negative:1 n:4 fact:1 ascii:1 set:1 digit:1 sequential:1 value:1 printn:2 extrn:1 putchar:2 auto:1 assignment:1 test:1 equality:1 recursive:1 method:2 formal:1 abstract:1 notation:1 amn:1 confuse:1 another:1 call:1 simple:1 interactive:1 lambert:1 meertens:1 steven:1 pemberton:1 predecessor:1 abc:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 development:1 put:1 context:1 describe:1 johnson:1 w:1 kernighan:1 technical:1 report:1 cs:1 tr:1 january:1 equipment:1 |@bigram bell_lab:3 ken_thompson:3 dennis_ritchie:2 vaguely_resemble:1 dec_pdp:1 pdp_pdp:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
6,146 | Transport_in_Guinea | Railways total:mm 1,086 km standard gauge: 279 km 1.435-m gauge narrow gauge: 807 km 1.000-m gauge (includes 662 km in common carrier service from Kankan to Conakry) The lines do not all connect. Railway links with adjacent countries Guinea-Bissau - no railways Senegal - no - 1000mm gauge Mali - no - 1000mm gauge Ivory Coast - no - 1000mm gauge Liberia - no - break of gauge 1000mm/1435mm & 1067mm Sierra Leone - no Break of gauge 1000mm/1435mm - 1067mm Maps UN map UNHCR Atlas map ReliefWeb Map - Topography and Rail ReliefWeb Map - Population density and Roads Cities served by rail Northern line This line is 1435mm gauge and carries about 12MT per annum. Port Kamsar - port Boké Sangarédi - bauxite mine Central line This line is 1000mm gauge and head off in a northwestern direction. Conakry - capital and port. Dubréka Fria - bauxite mine Southern line This line is 1000mm gauge. Conversion to 1435mm gauge has been proposed. Janes World Railways 2002-2003 p182 Conakry - capital and port. Kindia - provincial capital. Kolèntèn Konkouré - several km north of railway Mamou - provincial capital Kégnégo Dabola - junction and break of gauge Bissikrima Cisséla - Kouroussa - bridge over Niger River Kankan - terminus and provincial capital. This line is 1435mm. Dabola - junction and break of gauge Tougué - bauxite Janes World Railways 2002-2003 p102 South Western line This line is 1435mm and parallels the Southern line. Conakry - capital and port. Rail Map (red dots) Rail Map (gray lines) Kindia - bauxite mine. Proposed Trans-Guinean Railways The heavy duty Transguinean Railways is about 750km long and would be standard gauge (1435mm). It goes from iron ore mines in the south east and bauxite mines in the north to a new port a Matakong. Transguinean Matakong - Deepwater port Forécariah Madina Woula - way station Bambafouga - junction Marela - way station Faranah Tiro Kissidougou - way station Macenta Koule Nzerekore Lola Simandou iron ore deposit near Diéké Nimba - iron ore Pontiola - bauxite Tougué - branch terminus - bauxite Timeline 2008 July 2008 - wobbles over Simandou leases http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,23855122-5001641,00.html four ex-Croatian locomotives refurbished and regauged in Russia Railway Gazette International February 2008 p73 1994 Progress http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/1994/9214094.pdf Statistics Length Highways total: 30,500 km paved: 5,033 km unpaved: 25,467 km (1996 est.) The Trans-West African Coastal Highway crosses Guinea, connecting it to Bissau (Guinea-Bissau), and when construction in Sierra Leone and Liberia is complete, to a total of 13 other nations of ECOWAS. Waterways 1,295 km navigable by shallow-draft native craft Ports and harbors Boké, Conakry, Kamsar Merchant marine none (1999 est.) Airports 15 (1999 est.) Airports - with paved runways total: 5 over 3,047 m: 1 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 (1999 est.) <p>The airport code for the capital, Conakry, is CKY. Airports - with unpaved runways total: 10 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5 914 to 1,523 m: 4 under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.) See also Guinea Guinea#Transportation References | Transport_in_Guinea |@lemmatized railway:5 total:5 mm:1 km:9 standard:2 gauge:16 narrow:1 include:1 common:1 carrier:1 service:1 kankan:2 conakry:6 line:12 connect:2 link:1 adjacent:1 country:2 guinea:5 bissau:3 railways:4 senegal:1 mali:1 ivory:1 coast:1 liberia:2 break:4 sierra:2 leone:2 map:7 un:1 unhcr:1 atlas:1 reliefweb:2 topography:1 rail:4 population:1 density:1 road:1 city:1 serve:1 northern:1 carry:1 per:1 annum:1 port:8 kamsar:2 boké:2 sangarédi:1 bauxite:7 mine:5 central:1 head:1 northwestern:1 direction:1 capital:7 dubréka:1 fria:1 southern:2 conversion:1 propose:2 janes:2 world:2 kindia:2 provincial:3 kolèntèn:1 konkouré:1 several:1 north:2 mamou:1 kégnégo:1 dabola:2 junction:3 bissikrima:1 cisséla:1 kouroussa:1 bridge:1 niger:1 river:1 terminus:2 tougué:2 south:2 western:1 parallel:1 red:1 dot:1 gray:1 trans:2 guinean:1 heavy:1 duty:1 transguinean:2 long:1 would:1 go:1 iron:3 ore:3 east:1 new:1 matakong:2 deepwater:1 forécariah:1 madina:1 woula:1 way:3 station:3 bambafouga:1 marela:1 faranah:1 tiro:1 kissidougou:1 macenta:1 koule:1 nzerekore:1 lola:1 simandou:2 deposit:1 near:1 diéké:1 nimba:1 pontiola:1 branch:1 timeline:1 july:1 wobble:1 lease:1 http:2 www:1 theaustralian:1 news:1 com:1 au:1 story:1 html:1 four:1 ex:1 croatian:1 locomotive:1 refurbish:1 regauged:1 russia:1 gazette:1 international:1 february:1 progress:1 mineral:2 usgs:1 gov:1 pubs:1 pdf:1 statistic:1 length:1 highway:2 pave:2 unpaved:2 est:5 west:1 african:1 coastal:1 cross:1 construction:1 complete:1 nation:1 ecowas:1 waterways:1 navigable:1 shallow:1 draft:1 native:1 craft:1 harbor:1 merchant:1 marine:1 none:1 airport:4 runway:2 p:1 code:1 cky:1 see:1 also:1 transportation:1 reference:1 |@bigram narrow_gauge:1 guinea_bissau:2 sierra_leone:2 per_annum:1 iron_ore:3 deepwater_port:1 ore_deposit:1 http_www:1 usgs_gov:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 leone_liberia:1 waterways_km:1 merchant_marine:1 pave_runway:1 capital_conakry:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 |
6,147 | Gunpowder | A modern black powder substitute for muzzleloading rifles in FFG size Gunpowder, also called black powder, is an explosive mixture of sulfur, charcoal and potassium nitrate, KNO3 (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter) that burns rapidly, producing volumes of hot solids and gases which can be used as a propellant in firearms and as a pyrotechnic composition in fireworks. The term gunpowder is also often used more broadly to describe any propellant powder used in firearms. Modern firearms do not use the traditional gunpowder (black powder) described in this article, but instead use smokeless powder. Antique firearms or replicas of antique firearms are often used with black powder substitute propellants. In this article, the terms gunpowder and black powder are used interchangeably. Gunpowder is classified as a low explosive because of its slow decomposition rate and consequently low brisance. Low explosives produce a subsonic deflagration wave rather than the supersonic detonation wave produced by brisants, or high explosives. The gases produced by burning gunpowder generate enough pressure to propel a bullet, but not enough to destroy the barrel of a firearm. This makes gunpowder less suitable for shattering rock or fortifications, where high explosives such as TNT are preferred. Gunpowder (black powder) The term black powder was coined in the late 19th century to distinguish prior gunpowder formulations from the new smokeless powders and semi-smokeless powders. (Semi-smokeless powders featured bulk volume properties that approximated black powder in terms of chamber pressure when used in firearms, but had significantly reduced amounts of smoke and combustion products; they ranged in color from brownish tan to yellow to white. Most of the bulk semi-smokeless powders ceased to be manufactured in the 1920s.) The History of the 10.4×38 Swiss Cartridge Blackpowder to Pyrodex and Beyond by Randy Wakeman at Chuck Hawks The History and Art of Shotshells by Jon Farrar, Nebraskaland Magazine Black powder is a granular mixture of a nitrate, typically potassium nitrate (KNO3), which supplies oxygen for the reaction; charcoal, which provides carbon and other fuel for the reaction, simplified as carbon (C); sulfur (S), which, while also a fuel, lowers the temperature of ignition and increases the speed of combustion. Potassium nitrate is the most important ingredient in terms of both bulk and function because the combustion process releases oxygen from the potassium nitrate, promoting the rapid burning of the other ingredients. Buchanan. "Editor's Introduction: Setting the Context", in . To reduce the likelihood of accidental ignition by static electricity, the granules of modern black powder are typically coated with graphite, which prevents the build-up of electrostatic charge. The current standard composition for black powder manufactured by pyrotechnicians was adopted as long ago as 1780. Proportions by weight are 75% potassium nitrate, 15% softwood charcoal, and 10% sulfur. These ratios have varied over the centuries and by country, and can be altered somewhat depending on the purpose of the powder. For instance, low power grades of black powder, unsuitable for use in firearms but adequate for blasting rock in quarrying operations, is called blasting powder rather than gunpowder with standard proportions of 70% nitrate, 14% charcoal and 16% sulfur; blasting powder may be made with the cheaper sodium nitrate substituted for potassium nitrate and proportions may be as low as 40% nitrate, 30% charcoal and 30% sulfur. Julian S. Hatcher, Hatcher's Notebook, Military Service Publishing Company, 1947. Chapter XIII Notes on Gunpowder, pages 300-305. The burn rate of black powder can be changed by corning. Corning first compresses the fine black powder meal into blocks with a fixed density (1.7 g/cm³). The blocks are then broken up into granules. These granules are then sorted by size to give the various grades of black powder. In the United States, standard grades of black powder run from the coarse Fg grade used in large bore rifles and small cannons, through FFg (medium and smallbore arms such as muskets and fusils), FFFg (smallbore rifles and pistols), and FFFFg (extreme small bore, short pistols and most commonly for priming flintlocks). In the United Kingdom, the gunpowder grains are categorised by mesh size: the BSS sieve mesh size, being the smallest mesh size on which no grains were retained. Recognised grain sizes are Gunpowder G 7, G 20, G 40, and G 90. A simple, commonly cited, chemical equation for the combustion of black powder is 2 KNO3 + S + 3 C → K2S + N2 + 3 CO2. A more accurate, but still simplified, equation is Flash! Bang! Whiz!, University of Denver 10 KNO3 + 3 S + 8 C → 2 K2CO3 + 3 K2SO4 + 6 CO2 + 5 N2. The burning of gunpowder does not take place as a single reaction, however, and the byproducts are not easily predicted. One study's results showed that it produced (in order of descending quantities): 55.91% solid products: potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, potassium sulfide, sulfur, potassium nitrate, potassium thiocyanate, carbon, ammonium carbonate. 42.98% gaseous products: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, methane, 1.11% water. Black powder formulations where the nitrate used is sodium nitrate tend to be hygroscopic, unlike black powders where the nitrate used is saltpetre. Because of this, black powder which uses saltpetre can be stored unsealed and remain viable for centuries provided no liquid water is ever introduced. Muzzleloaders have been known to fire after hanging on a wall for decades in a loaded state, provided they remained dry. By contrast, powder that uses sodium nitrate, which is typically intended for blasting, must be sealed from moisture in the air to remain stable for long times. Advantages In firearms, black powder allows loading by volumetric measure, whereas smokeless powder requires precise measuring of the charge by weight to prevent damage due to overloading, though damage by overloading is still possible with black powder. In quarrying, high explosives are generally preferred for shattering rock. However, because of its low brisance, black powder causes fewer fractures and results in more usable stone compared to other explosives, making black powder useful for blasting monumental stone such as granite and marble. Black powder is well suited for blank rounds, signal flares, burst charges, and rescue-line launches. Black powder is also used in fireworks for lifting shells, in rockets as fuel, and in certain special effects. Disadvantages Black powder has low energy density compared to modern smokeless powders and produces a thick smoke that can impair aiming and reveal a shooter's position. Combustion converts less than half the mass of black powder to gas. The rest ends up as a thick layer of soot inside the barrel. In addition to being a nuisance, the residue from burnt black powder is hygroscopic and an anhydrous caustic substance. When moisture from the air is absorbed, the potassium oxide or sodium oxide turns into hydroxide, which will corrode wrought iron or steel gun barrels. Black powder arms must be well cleaned both inside and out to remove the residue. Transportation The UN Model Regulations on the Transportation of Dangerous Goods and national transportation authorities, such as United States Department of Transportation, have classified Gunpowder (black powder) as a Group A: Primary explosive substance for shipment because it ignites so easily. Complete manufactured devices containing black powder are usually classified as Group D: Secondary detonating substance, or black powder, or article containing secondary detonating substance, such as firework, class D model rocket engine, etc., for shipment because they are harder to ignite than loose powder. As explosives, they all fall into the category of Class 1. Sulfur-free gunpowder The development of smokeless powders, such as Cordite, in the late 19th century created the need for a spark-sensitive priming charge, such as gunpowder. However, the sulfur content of traditional gunpowders caused corrosion problems with Cordite Mk I and this led to the introduction of a range of sulfur-free gunpowders, of varying grain sizes. They typically contain 70.5 parts of saltpetre and 29.5 parts of charcoal. Like black powder, they were produced in different grain sizes. In United Kingdom, the finest grain was known as sulfur-free mealed powder (SMP). Coarser grains were numbered as sulfur-free gunpowder (SFG n): 'SFG 12', 'SFG 20', 'SFG 40' and 'SFG 90', for example, where the number was a BSS sieve mesh size, being the smallest mesh size on which no grains were retained. History A Mongol bomb thrown against a charging Japanese samurai during the Mongol invasions of Japan, 1281. China Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD) matchlock firearms Gunpowder was discovered in China in the 9th century by Taoist monks or alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality. "With its ninth century AD origins in China, the knowledge of gunpowder emerged from the search by alchemists for the secrets of life, to filter through the channels of Middle Eastern culture, and take root in Europe with consequences that form the context of the studies in this volume." "Without doubt it was in the previous century, around +850, that the early alchemical experiments on the constituents of gunpowder, with its self-contained oxygen, reached their climax in the appearance of the mixture itself." The discovery of gunpowder was probably the product of centuries of alchemical experimentation. Saltpetre was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpetre and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations. Buchanan. "Editor's Introduction: Setting the Context", in . A Chinese alchemical text from 492 noted that saltpetre gave off a purple flame when ignited, providing for the first time a practical and reliable means of distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, making it possible to evaluate and compare purification techniques. The first reference of gunpowder is probably a passage in the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe, a Taoist text tentatively dated to the mid-800s: Some have heated together sulfur, realgar and saltpeter with honey; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down. The Chinese wasted little time in applying gunpowder to warfare, and they produced a variety of gunpowder weapons, including flamethrowers, rockets, bombs, and mines, before inventing firearms. "The earliest known formula for gunpowder can be found in a Chinese work dating probably from the 800s. The Chinese wasted little time in applying it to warfare, and they produced a variety of gunpowder weapons, including flamethrowers, rockets, bombs, and mines, before inventing firearms." There was once a great deal of confusion and controversy surrounding the invention of firearms, but it is now generally accepted that firearms originated in China. "There was once a great deal of confusion and controversy surrounding the invention of firearms, but it is now generally accepted that firearms originated in China." Islamic world The Sultani Cannon, a very heavy bronze muzzle-loading cannon of type used by Ottoman Empire in the siege of Constantinople, 1453 AD. The Arabs acquired knowledge of gunpowder some time after 1240, but before 1280, by which time Hasan al-Rammah had written, in Arabic, recipes for gunpowder, instructions for the purification of saltpeter, and descriptions of gunpowder incendiaries. 'Around 1240 the Arabs acquired knowledge of saltpeter ("Chinese snow") from the East, perhaps through India. They knew of gunpowder soon afterward. They also learned about fireworks ("Chinese flowers") and rockets ("Chinese arrows"). Arab warriors had acquired fire lances before 1280. Around that same year, a Syrian named Hasan al-Rammah wrote a book that, as he put it, "treats of machines of fire to be used for amusement or for useful purposes." He talked of rockets, fireworks, fire lances, and other incendiaries, using terms that suggested he derived his knowledge from Chinese sources. He gave instructions for the purification of saltpeter and recipes for making different types of gunpowder.' However, because al-Rammah attributes his material to "his father and forefathers", argues that gunpowder became prevalent in Syria and Egypt by "the end of the twelfth century or the beginning of the thirteenth". A picture of a 15th century Granadian cannon from the book Al-izz wal rifa'a. C. F. Temler interprets Peter, Bishop of Leon, as reporting the use of cannon in Seville in 1248. C. F. Temler, Historische Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Kopenhagen ... ubersetzt ... von V. A. Heinze, Kiel, Dresden and Leipzig, 1782, i, 168, as cited in Partington, p.228, footnote 6 Al-Hassan claims that the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260 saw the Mamluks use against the Mongols in "the first cannon in history" gunpowder formulae which were almost identical with the ideal composition for explosive gunpowder. However, Khan states that it was invading Mongols who introduced gunpowder to the Islamic world and cites Mamluk antagonism towards early riflemen in their infantry as an example of how gunpowder weapons were not always met with open acceptance in the Middle East. Similarly, the refusal of their Qizilbash forces to use firearms contributed to the Safavid rout at Chaldiran in 1514. Though the consensus is that gunpowder originated in China, others have suggested that gunpowder might possibly have been invented by the Arabs, by Roger Bacon, or by Berthold Schwarz. According to , the Arabs "had developed the first real gun, a bamboo tube reinforced with iron, which used a charge of black powder to fire an arrow" some time before 1300; however, according to , the Arabs only obtained firearms in the 1300s and all evidence points to Chinese origins. Hasan al-Rammah included 107 gunpowder recipes in his al-furusiyyah wa al-manasib al-harbiyya (The Book of Military Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices), 22 of which are for rockets. If one takes the median of 17 of these 22 compositions for rockets (75% nitrates, 9.06% sulfur and 15.94% carbon), it is almost identical with the reported ideal recipe (75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulfur, and 15% carbon). Mainland Europe In 1250, the Norwegian Konungs skuggsjá mentions, in its military chapter, the use of "coal and sulphur" as the best weapon for ship-to-ship combat. , from the Konungs skuggsjá. Mixtures of coal and sulfur can produce a slow-burning effect, but are not explosive. The earliest extant written references to gunpowder in Europe are from the works of Roger Bacon. In Bacon's Epistola, "De Secretis Operibus Artis et Naturae et de Nullitate Magiae," dated variously between 1248 and 1257, he states: . "frier Bacon, our countryman, mentions the compofition in exprefs terms, in his treatife De nullitate magiæ, publifhed at Oxford, in the year 1248." We can, with saltpeter and other substances, compose artificially a fire that can be launched over long distances... By only using a very small quantity of this material much light can be created accompanied by a horrible fracas. It is possible with it to destroy a town or an army ... In order to produce this artificial lightning and thunder it is necessary to take saltpeter, sulfur, and Luru Vopo Vir Can Utriet. Cannons forged in 1667 AD at the Fortín de La Galera, Nueva Esparta, Venezuela. The last part has been interpreted as an elaborate coded anagram for the quantities needed, but it may also be simply a garbled transcription of an illegible passage. A picture of this handwritten paragraph, taken from the Sloan MSS, held in the British Library is given on page one of Cocroft (2000) In the Opus Maior of 1267, Bacon describes firecrackers: a child’s toy of sound and fire and explosion made in various parts of the world with powder of saltpeter, sulfur and charcoal of hazelwood. The Liber Ignium, or Book of Fires, attributed to Marcus Graecus, is a collection of incendiary recipes, including some gunpowder recipes. Partington dates the gunpowder recipes to approximately 1300. One recipe for "flying fire" (ingis volatilis) involves saltpeter, sulfur, and colophonium, which, when inserted into a reed or hollow wood, "flies away suddenly and burns up everything." Another recipe, for artificial "thunder", specifies a mixture of one pound native sulfur, two pounds linden or willow charcoal, and six pounds of saltpeter. Another specifies a 1:3:9 ratio. Some of the gunpowder recipes in the De Mirabilibus Mundi of Albertus Magnus are identical to the recipes of the Liber Ignium, and according to Partington, "may have been taken from that work, rather than conversely." Partington suggests that some of the book may have been compiled by Albert's students, "but since it is found in thirteenth century manuscripts, it may well be by Albert." Albertus Magnus died in 1280 AD. A major European invention was corning, which greatly increased the reliability and consistency of gunpowder. Around the late 14th century, European powdermakers began adding liquid to the constituents of gunpowder to reduce dust and with it the risk of explosion. The powdermakers would then shape the resulting paste of moistened gunpowder—known as mill cake—into "corns," or granules, to dry. Not only did "corned" powder keep better because of its reduced surface area, gunners also found that it was more powerful and easier to load into guns. The main advantage of corning is that the flame spreads between the granules, lighting them all, before significant gas expansion has occurred (when the gunpowder explodes). Without corning much of the powder away from the initial flame would be blown out of the barrel before it burnt. The size of the granules was different for different types of gun. Prior to corning, gunpowder would gradually demix into its constitutive components and was too unreliable for effective use in guns. Molerus, Otto. "History of Civilization in the Western Hemisphere from the Point of View of Particulate Technology, Part 2," Advanced Powder Technology 7 (1996): 161-66 The same granulation process is used nowadays in the pharmaceutical industry to ensure that each tablet contains the same proportion of active ingredient. Shot and gunpowder for military purposes were made by skilled military tradesmen, who later were called firemakers, and who also were required to make fireworks for celebrations of victory or peace. During the Renaissance, two European schools of pyrotechnic thought emerged, one in Italy and the other at Nürnberg, Germany. The Italian school of pyrotechnics emphasized elaborate fireworks, and the German school stressed scientific advancement. Both schools added significantly to further development of pyrotechnics, and by the mid-17th century fireworks were used for entertainment on an unprecedented scale in Europe, being popular even at resorts and public gardens. "Fireworks," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2007 © 1997-2007 Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved. By 1788, as a result of the reforms for which Lavoisier was mainly responsible, France had become self-sufficient in saltpeter, and its gunpowder had become both the best in Europe and inexpensive. The introduction of smokeless powder in the late 19th century led to a contraction of the gunpowder industry. British Isles Gunpowder production in the British Isles appears to have started in the mid 13th century with the aim of supplying The Crown. Records show that gunpowder was being made, in England, in 1346, at the Tower of London; a powder house existed at the Tower in 1461; and in 1515 three King's gunpowder makers worked there. Gunpowder was also being made or stored at other Royal castles, such as Portchester Castle and Edinburgh castle. <center>The old Powder or Pouther magazine dating from 1642, built by order of James VI. Irvine, North Ayrshire, Scotland.<center> By the early fourteenth century, according to N.J.G. Pounds's study The Medieval Castle in England and Wales, many English castles had been deserted and others were crumbling. Their military significance faded except on the borders. Gunpowder made smaller castles useless. Ross, Charles. The Custom of the Castle: From Malory to Macbeth. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1997. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft3r29n8qn/ pp. 131-130. Henry VIII was short of gunpowder when he invaded France in 1544 and England needed to import gunpowder via the port of Antwerp. The English Civil War, 1642-1645, led to an expansion of the gunpowder industry, with the repeal of the Royal Patent in August 1641. The introduction of smokeless powder in the late 19th century led to a contraction of the gunpowder industry. After the end of World War I, the majority of the British gunpowder manufacturers merged into a single company, "Explosives Trades limited"; and number of sites were closed down. This company became Nobel Industries Limited; and in 1926 became a founding member of Imperial Chemical Industries. The Home Office removed gunpowder from its list of Permitted Explosives; and shortly afterwards, on 31 December 1931, the former Curtis & Harvey's Glynneath gunpowder factory at Pontneddfechan, in Wales, closed down, and it was demolished by fire in 1932. The last remaining gunpowder mill at the Royal Gunpowder Factory, Waltham Abbey was damaged by a German parachute mine in 1941 and it never reopened. This was followed by the closure of the gunpowder section at the Royal Ordnance Factory, ROF Chorley, the section was closed and demolished at the end of World War II; and ICI Nobel's Roslin gunpowder factory which closed in 1954. This left the sole United Kingdom gunpowder factory at ICI Nobel's Ardeer site in Scotland; it too closed in October 1976. Since then gunpowder has been imported into the United Kingdom. In the late 1970s / early 1980s gunpowder was bought from eastern Europe, particularly from what were then East Germany and the former Yugoslavia. India A 17th century forge-welded iron cannon, at Thanjavur's eastern entrance (India). Gunpowder arrived in India by the mid-1300s, but could have been introduced by the Mongols perhaps as early as the mid-1200s. Khan (1996a). It was written in the Tarikh-i Firishta (1606-1607) that the envoy of the Mongol ruler Hulegu Khan was presented with a dazzling pyrotechnics display upon his arrival in Delhi in 1258 AD. Firearms known as top-o-tufak also existed in the Vijayanagara Empire of India by as early as 1366 AD. From then on the employment of gunpowder warfare in India was prevalent, with events such as the siege of Belgaum in 1473 AD by the Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani. By the 16th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad. Partington (Johns Hopkins University Press edition, 1999), 225 Guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533). Partington (Johns Hopkins University Press edition, 1999), 226 Gujarāt supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century. "India." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. Bengal and Mālwa participated in saltpeter production. The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English used Chāpra as a center of saltpeter refining. "Chāpra." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. War rockets, mines and counter mines using gunpowder were used in India by the time of Akbar and Jahangir. Partington (Johns Hopkins University Press edition, 1999), 226 Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian-Indian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire, invented the autocannon, the earliest multi-shot gun. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. A. K. Bag (2005), "Fathullah Shirazi: Cannon, Multi-barrel Gun and Yarghu", Indian Journal of History of Science 40 (3), pp. 431-436. Both Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan used black powder technology in iron-cased war rockets with considerable effect against the British, which inspired the development of the Congreve rocket. "rocket and missile system." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica 2008 Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. Manufacturing technology Edge-runner mill in a restored mill, at Eleutherian Mills For the most powerful black powder "meal", a wood charcoal is used. The best wood for the purpose is pacific willow, but others such as alder or buckthorn can be used. The ingredients are mixed as thoroughly as possible. This is achieved using a ball mill with non-sparking grinding apparatus (e.g., bronze or lead), or similar device. Historically, a marble or limestone edge runner mill, running on a limestone bed was used in Great Britain; however, by the mid 19th century this had changed to either an iron shod stone wheel or a cast iron wheel running on an iron bed. The mix is sometimes dampened with alcohol or water during grinding to prevent accidental ignition. Around the late 14th century, European powdermakers began adding liquid to the constituents of gunpowder to reduce dust and with it the risk of explosion. The powdermakers would then shape the resulting paste of moistened gunpowder, known as mill cake, into "corns", or granules, to dry. Not only did "corned" powder keep better because of its reduced surface area, gunners also found that it was more powerful and easier to load into guns. Before long, powdermakers standardized the process by forcing mill cake through sieves instead of corning powder by hand. During the 18th century gunpowder factories became increasingly dependent on mechanical energy. Frangsmyr, Tore, J. L. Heilbron, and Robin E. Rider, editors The Quantifying Spirit in the Eighteenth Century. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1990. http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft6d5nb455/ p. 292. Other uses Besides its habitual use as an explosive, gunpowder has been occasionally employed for other purposes, After the battle of Aspern-Essling (1809), the surgeon of the Napoleonic Army Larrey combated the lack of food for the wounded under his care by preparing a bouillon of horse meat seasoned with gunpowder for lack of salt. Parker, Harold T. (1983 reprint) Three Napoleonic Battles. (2nd Ed). Duke University Press. ISBN 0-82230547-X. Page 83 (in Google Books). Quoting Dominique-Jean Larrey, Mémoires de chirurgie militaire et campagnes, III 281, Paris, Smith. Larrey is quoted in French at Dr Béraud, Études Hygiéniques de la chair de cheval comme aliment, Musée des Familles (1841-42). it was also used for sterilizing on ships when there was no alcohol. See also Ballistics Ballincollig Royal Gunpowder Mills Cannon Faversham explosives industry Gunpowder Plot Gunpowder magazine Gunpowder warfare History of gunpowder Smokeless powder Technology of the Song Dynasty Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills Notes References . . . . . . . . . . Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1996a). "The Role of the Mongols in the Introduction of Gunpowder and Firearms in South Asia". Chapter 3, In Buchanan, Brenda J. (1996). Gunpowder: The History of an International Technology. Bath: Bath University Press. (ISBN 0-86197-134-5. 2006 re-issue). . . . . . 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6,148 | Greek_drachma | Drachma, pl. drachmas or drachmae (δραχμή, pl. δραχμές or δραχμαί (until 1982)) is the name of the currency used in Greece during several periods in its history: An ancient currency unit found in many Greek city states and successor states, and in many South-West Asian kingdoms of the Hellenistic era. Three modern Greek currencies, the first introduced in 1832 and the last replaced by the euro in 2001 (at the rate of 340.750 drachma to the euro). The euro did not begin circulating until 2002 but the exchange rate was fixed on 19 June 2000, with legal introduction of the euro taking place in January 2002. Ancient drachma The name drachma is derived from the verb "δράττω" (dráttō, "to grasp"). "Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon", page 180. Oxford University Press, 1979 Initially a drachma was a fistful (a "grasp") of six oboloi (metal sticks), which were used as a form of currency as early as 1100 BC. It was the standard unit of silver coinage at most ancient Greek mints, and the name 'obol' was used to describe a coin that was one-sixth of a drachma. The notion that "drachma" derived from the word for fistful apparently dates at least to Herakleides of Pontos (387-312 BCE) but the metrologist Livio C. Stecchini argued that drachma was instead a word of semitic origin. Stecchini was often out of the mainstream. His argument seems plausible (see www.metrum.org) but remains obscure. The 5th century BC Athenian tetradrachmon ("four drachmae") coin was the most widely used coin in the Greek world prior to the time of Alexander the Great. It featured the helmeted profile bust of Athena on the obverse (front) and an owl on the reverse (back). In daily use they were called glaukai (owls), hence the phrase , 'an owl to Athens', referring to something that was in plentiful supply, like 'coals to Newcastle'. The reverse is featured on the national side of the modern Greek 1 euro coin. Drachmas were minted on different weight standards at different Greek mints. The standard that came to be most commonly used was the Athenian or Attic one, which weighed a little over 4.3 grams. After Alexander the Great's conquests, the name drachma was used in many of the Hellenistic kingdoms in the Middle East, including the Ptolemaic kingdom in Alexandria. The Arabic unit of currency known as dirham (in the Arabic language, درهم), known from pre-Islamic times and afterwards, inherited its name from the drachma; the dirham is still the name of the official currencies of Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. The Armenian dram also derives its name from the drachma. Value of the ancient drachma Drachma from Lucania, c. 535–510 BC Tetradrachm from Athens about 450 BC. It is generally considered very hard or even meaningless to come up with comparative exchange rates with modern currency due to the fact that the range of products produced by economies of centuries gone by were very different from today, which makes Purchasing power parity (PPP) calculations very difficult. However, some historians and economists have estimated that in the 5th century BC a drachma had a rough value of 25 U.S. dollars (in the year 1990 - equivalent to 38 USD in 2006 The Inflation Calculator ), whereas classical historians regularly say that in the heyday of ancient Greece (the fifth and fourth centuries) the daily wage for a skilled worker or a hoplite Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 3.17.4. was one drachma, and for a heliast (juror) half a drachma since 425 BC. It was originally set at 1/6th drachma by Pericles, until Cleon raised it in 425 BC; see also Aristophanes, Knights (line 255) and Wasps (line 609, 684, 690, 788-790, 1121). Modern commentators derived from Xenophon Cf. footnote 18 of H. G. Dakyns's translation of Ways and Means: A Pamphlet on Revenues alias On Revenues (The Works of Xenophon, Macmillan, 1897). This footnote is quoting George Grote (Plato, and the Other Companions of Sokrates, vol. 3, J. Murray, 1865, p.597). that half a drachma per day (360 days per year) would provide "a comfortable subsistence" for "the poor citizens" (for the head of a household in 355 BC). Earlier in 422 BC, we also see in Aristophanes (Wasps, line 300-302) that the daily half-drachma of a juror is just enough for the daily subsistence of a family of three. As a rule of thumb, a modern person might think of one drachma as the rough equivalent of a skilled worker's daily pay in the place where they live (which could be as low as $1 USD, or as high as $100 USD, depending on the country). Perhaps the most appropriate comparison is that with modern-day Athens, where a skilled worker without a university degree earns approximately €40 per day, net of taxes. Fractions and multiples of the drachma were minted by many states, most notably in Ptolemaic Egypt, which minted large coins in gold, silver and bronze. Notable Ptolemaic coins included the gold pentadrachm and octadrachm, and silver tetradrachm, decadrachm and pentakaidecadrachm. This was especially noteworthy as it would not be until the introduction of the Guldengroschen in 1486 that coins of substantial size (particularly in silver) would be minted in significant quantities. For the Roman successors of the drachma, see Roman provincial coins. Historic currency divisions 8 chalkoi = 1 obolus 6 obolus = 1 drachma 100 drachma = 1 mina (or mna) 60 minae = 1 Athenian Talent (Athenian standard) Drachma, The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume V. Published 1909. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Nihil Obstat, May 1, 1909. Remy Lafort, Censor. Imprimatur. John M. Farley, Archbishop of New York Minae and talents were never actually minted: they represented weight measures used for commodities (e.g. grain) as well as metals like silver or gold. Modern drachma First modern drachma, 1832-1944 The drachma was reintroduced in 1832, soon after the establishment of the modern state of Greece. It replaced the phoenix at par. The drachma was subdivided into 100 lepton (λεπτά, singular lepton, λεπτόν). Coins The first coinage consisted of copper denominations of 1, 2, 5 and 10 lepta, silver denominations of ¼, ½, 1 and 5 drachmae and a gold 20 drachmae. The drachma coin weighed 4.5 g and contained 90% silver, with the 20 drachmae coin containing 5.8 g of gold. In 1868, Greece joined the Latin Monetary Union and the drachma became equal in weight and value to the French franc. The new coinage issued consisted of copper 1, 2, 5 and 10 lepta coins (with the 5 lepta coin bearing the name obolos (οβολός) and the 10 lepta, diobolon (διώβολον)), silver coins of 20 and 50 lepta, 1, 2 and 5 drachmae and gold coins of 5, 10 and 20 drachmae. (Very small numbers of gold 50 and 100 drachmae coins were also issued.) In 1894, cupro-nickel 5, 10 and 20 lepta coins were introduced, the 1 lepton and 2 lepta having not been issued since the late 1870s. Silver coins of 1 and 2 Drachmai were last issued in 1911 and no coins were issued between 1912 and 1922, during which time the Latin Monetary Union collapsed due to World War I. Between 1926 and 1930, a new coinage was introduced for the new Hellenic Republic consisting of cupro-nickel 20 and 50 lepta, 1 and 2 drachmae, nickel 5 drachmae and silver 10 and 20 drachmae coins. These were the last coins issued for the first modern drachma, with none being issued for the second. Notes In 1841, notes were issued by the National Bank of Greece until 1928, when the Bank of Greece was created. Early denominations ranged from 10 up to 500 drachmae. Smaller denominations (1, 2 and 5 drachmae) were issued from 1885, with the first 5 drachmae notes being made by cutting 10 drachmae notes in half. Between 1917 and 1920, the Greek government issued paper money in denominations of 10 lepta, 50 lepta, 1, 2, and 5 drachmae. 1000 drachmae notes were introduced by the National Bank of Greece in 1901, followed by 5000 drachmae notes by the Bank of Greece after 1928. The Greek government again issued notes between 1940 and 1944, in denominations between 50 lepta and 20 drachmae. During the German occupation of Greece (1941–1944), catastrophic hyperinflation and Nazi looting of the Greek treasury caused much higher denominations to be issued, culminating in 100 trillion drachmae notes in 1944. Second modern drachma, 1944-1954 In November 1944, after liberation from Germany, old drachmae were exchanged for new ones at the rate of 50,000,000,000 to 1. Only paper money was issued. The government issued notes of 1, 5, 10 and 20 drachmae with the Bank of Greece issuing 50, 100, 500, 1000, 5000, and 10,000 drachmae notes. This drachma also suffered from high inflation. Later government issues were of 100, 500, and 1000 drachmae, whilst the Bank of Greece issued 20,000 and 50,000 drachmae notes. Third modern drachma, 1954-2002 In 1953, in an effort to halt inflation, Greece joined the Bretton Woods system. In 1954 the drachma was revalued for a second time at a rate of 1000 to 1. The new currency was pegged at 30 drachmae = 1 US dollar. In 1973, the Bretton Woods System was abolished; over the next 25 years the official exchange rate gradually declined, reaching 400 GRD = 1 USD. It was officially replaced by the euro on January 1, 2002, and has not been legal tender since March 1, 2002. Coins The first issue of coins minted in 1954 consisted of holed, aluminium 5, 10 and 20 lepta, cupro-nickel 50 lepta, 1, 2, 5 and 10 drachmae pieces. A silver 20 drachmae piece was issued in 1960 replacing the banknote of that same value. The 50 lepta coin to the 20 Drachmae coin carried a portrait of King Paul (1947 - 1964). New coins were introduced from 1966 which saw a new portrait of King Constantine II (1964 - 1974) for the 50 lepta coins to the 10 Drachmae. The reverse of all of the circulation coins were altered in 1971 to reflect the Military Junta which were in power from 1967 to 1974. This design included a standing soldier in front of the flames of the rising phoenix. A 20 Drachmae coin minted in cupro-nickel with an image of Europa on the obverse was issued in 1973. In the latter part of 1973, several new coin types were introduced: unholed, aluminium 10 and 20 lepta, nickel-brass 50 lepta, 1 and 2 drachmae and cupro-nickel 5, 10 and 20 drachmae. These provisional coins carrying the design of the phoenix rising from the flame on the obverse, were issued with the country's new designation as the "Hellenic Republic" and replaced the coins also issued in 1973 as the Kingdom of Greece and still carrying King Constantine II's portrait. A new series of all 8 denominations was introduced in 1976 and carried images of early national heroes on the smaller values. Cupro-nickel 50 drachmae were introduced in 1980. In 1982, the spelling of the plural of drachma was changed from drachmae (δραχμαί) to drachmas (δραχμές). In 1986, nickel-brass 50 drachmas coins were introduced, followed by copper 1 and 2 drachmas in 1988 and nickel-brass 20 and 100 drachmas in 1990. In 2000 a set of 6 Olympic games themed 500 drachmas coins was issued. Coins in circulation at the time of the adoption of the euro http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/Banknotes/coins.htm were 1 drachma (€0.0029)1 2 drachmas (€0.0059)1 5 drachmas (€0.0147) 10 drachmas (€0.0293) 20 drachmas (€0.0587) 50 drachmas (€0.147) 100 drachmas (€0.293) 500 drachmas (€1.47) 1 Minted but rarely used. Usually, prices were rounded up to the next multiple of 10 drachmas. Gallery Banknotes The first issues of banknotes were in denominations of 10, 20 and 50 drachmae, soon followed by 100, 500 and 1000 drachmae by 1956. 5000 drachmas notes were introduced in 1984, followed by 10,000 drachmas in 1995 and 200 drachmas in 1997. Banknotes in circulation at the time of the adoption of the euro History of Greek Banknotes were 100 drachmas, Athena, Adamantios Korais (€0.2935) 200 drachmas, Rigas Feraios (€0.5869) 500 drachmas, Ioannis Capodistrias (€1.47) 1000 drachmas, Apollo (€2.93) 5000 drachmas, Theodoros Kolokotronis (€14.67) 10,000 drachmas, George Papanicolaou, Asclepius (€29.35) Gallery See also Commemorative coins of Greece Greek euro coins Seleucid coinage Dirham Economy of Greece References External links History of Greek Banknotes Overview of the modern Greek drachma from the BBC The Greek currency history Complete presentation of the Greek modern coins Greek Drachma Coin Information | Greek_drachma |@lemmatized drachma:98 pl:2 δραχμή:1 δραχμές:2 δραχμαί:2 name:8 currency:10 use:8 greece:15 several:2 period:1 history:5 ancient:5 unit:3 find:1 many:4 greek:17 city:1 state:4 successor:2 south:1 west:1 asian:1 kingdom:4 hellenistic:2 era:1 three:2 modern:14 first:7 introduce:10 last:3 replace:5 euro:9 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6,149 | MIDI | MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface, ) is an industry-standard protocol defined in 1982 that enables electronic musical instruments such as keyboard controllers, computers, and other electronic equipment to communicate, control, and synchronize with each other. MIDI allows computers, synthesizers, MIDI controllers, sound cards, samplers and drum machines to control one another, and to exchange system data (acting as a raw data encapsulation method for sysex commands). MIDI does not transmit an audio signal or media — it transmits "event messages" such as the pitch and intensity of musical notes to play, control signals for parameters such as volume, vibrato and panning, cues, and clock signals to set the tempo. As an electronic protocol, it is notable for its widespread adoption throughout the industry. Note names and MIDI note numbers. All MIDI compatible controllers, musical instruments, and MIDI-compatible software follow the same MIDI 1.0 specification, and thus interpret any given MIDI message the same way, and so can communicate with and understand each other. MIDI composition and arrangement takes advantage of MIDI 1.0 and General MIDI (GM) technology to allow musical data files to be shared among many different files due to some incompatibility with various electronic instruments by using a standard, portable set of commands and parameters. Because the music is simply data rather than recorded audio waveforms, the data size of the files is quite small by comparison. History By the end of the 1970s, electronic musical devices were becoming increasingly common and affordable. However, devices from different manufacturers were generally not compatible with each other and could not be interconnected. Different interfacing models included analog control voltages at various standards (such as 1 volt per octave, or the logarithmic "hertz per volt"); analog clock, trigger and "gate" signals (both positive "V-trig" and negative "S-trig" varieties, between −15V to +15V); and proprietary digital interfaces such as Roland Corporation's DCB (digital control bus), the Oberheim system, and Yamaha's "keycode" system. In 1981, audio engineer and synthesizer designer Dave Smith of Sequential Circuits, Inc. proposed a digital standard for musical instruments in a paper for the Audio Engineering Society. The MIDI Specification 1.0 was published in August 1983. Since then, MIDI technology has been standardized and is maintained by the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA). All official MIDI standards are jointly developed and published by the MMA in Los Angeles, California, USA (http://www.midi.org), and for Japan, the MIDI Committee of the Association of Musical Electronic Industry (AMEI) in Tokyo (http://www.amei.or.jp). The primary reference for MIDI is The Complete MIDI 1.0 Detailed Specification, document version 96.1, available only from MMA in English, or from AMEI in Japanese. In the early 1980s, MIDI was a major factor in bringing an end to the "wall of synthesizers" phenomenon in progressive rock band concerts, when keyboard performers were often hidden behind huge banks of analog synthesizers and electric pianos. Following the advent of MIDI, many synthesizers were released in rack-mount versions, which meant that keyboardists could control many different instruments (e.g., synthesizers) from a single keyboard. In the 1980s, MIDI facilitated the development of hardware and computer-based sequencers, which can be used to record, edit and play back performances. In the years immediately after the 1983 ratification of the MIDI specification, MIDI interfaces were released for the Apple Macintosh, Commodore 64, and the PC-DOS platform, allowing for the development of a market for powerful, inexpensive, and now-widespread computer-based MIDI sequencers. The Atari ST came equipped with MIDI ports as standard, and was commonly used in recording studios for this reason. Synchronization of MIDI sequences is made possible by the use of MIDI timecode, an implementation of the SMPTE time code standard using MIDI messages, and MIDI timecode has become the standard for digital music synchronization. In 1991, the MIDI Show Control (MSC) protocol (in the Real Time System Exclusive subset) was ratified by the MIDI Manufacturers Association. The MSC protocol is an industry standard which allows all types of media control devices to talk with each other and with computers to perform show control functions in live and canned entertainment applications. Just like musical MIDI (above), MSC does not transmit the actual show media — it simply transmits digital data providing information such as the type, timing and numbering of technical cues called during a multimedia or live theatre performance. A number of music file formats have been based on the MIDI bytestream. These formats are very compact; a file as small as 10 KiB can produce a full minute of music or more due to the fact that the file stores instructions on how to recreate the sound based on synthesis with a MIDI synthesizer rather than an exact waveform to be reproduced. A MIDI synthesizer could be built into an operating system, sound card, embedded device (e.g. hardware-based synthesizer) or a software-based synthesizer. The file format stores information on what note to play and when, or other important information such as possible pitch-bend during the envelope of the note or the note's velocity. This is advantageous for applications such as mobile phone ringtones, and some video games; however, it may be a disadvantage to other applications in that the information is not able to guarantee an accurate waveform will be heard by the intended listener, because each MIDI synthesizer will have its own methods for producing the sound from the MIDI instructions provided. One example is that any MIDI file played back through the Microsoft MIDI Synthesizer (included in any Windows operating system) should sound the same or similar, but when the same MIDI bytestream is output to a synthesizer on a generic sound card or even a MIDI synthesizer on another operating system, the actual heard and rendered sound may vary. One sound card's synthesizer might not reproduce the exact sounds of another synthesizer. As such, MIDI-based mobile phone ring tones sound different on a handset than when previewed on a PC. In the same way, most modern software synthesizers can handle MIDI files but might render them completely differently from another synthesizer, especially since most modern software synthesizers such as a VST Instrument tend to allow the loading of different patches and the modification of these patches to create different sounds for each MIDI input. The term "MIDI sound" has gotten a poor reputation from some critics, which may be the result of the poor quality sound synthesis provided by many early sound cards, which relied on FM synthesis instead of wavetables to produce audio. Almost all music recordings in the 2000s are compatible with MIDI devices. In addition, MIDI is also used to control hardware including recording devices and sound effects modules, as well as live performance equipment such as stage lights and some types of digital effect pedals. MIDI allows computers, synthesizers, MIDI controllers, sound cards, samplers and drum machines to control one another, and to exchange system data. Interfaces MIDI connector diagram The physical MIDI interface uses DIN 5/180° connectors. Opto-isolating connections are used, to prevent ground loops occurring among connected MIDI devices. Logically, MIDI is based on a ring network topology, with a transceiver inside each device. The transceivers physically and logically separate the input and output lines, meaning that MIDI messages received by a device in the network not intended for that device will be re-transmitted on the output line (MIDI-OUT). This introduces a delay, one that is long enough to become audible on larger MIDI rings. MIDI-THRU ports started to be added to MIDI-compatible equipment soon after the introduction of MIDI, in order to improve performance. The MIDI-THRU port avoids the aforementioned retransmission delay by linking the MIDI-THRU port to the MIDI-IN socket almost directly. The difference between the MIDI-OUT and MIDI-THRU ports is that data coming from the MIDI-OUT port has been generated on the device containing that port. Data that comes out of a device's MIDI-THRU port, however, is an exact duplicate of the data received at the MIDI-IN port. Such chaining together of instruments via MIDI-THRU ports is unnecessary with the use of MIDI "patch bay," "mult" or "Thru" modules consisting of a MIDI-IN connector and multiple MIDI-OUT connectors to which multiple instruments are connected. Some equipment has the ability to merge MIDI messages into one stream, but this is a specialized function and is not universal to all equipment. MIDI Thru Boxes clean up any skewing of MIDI data bits that might occur at the input stage. MIDI Merger boxes merge all MIDI messages appearing at either of its two inputs to its output, which allows a musician to plug in several MIDI controllers (e.g., two musical keyboards and a pedal keyboard) to a single synth voice device such as an EMU or Proteus. All MIDI compatible instruments have a built-in MIDI interface. Some computers' sound cards have a built-in MIDI Interface, whereas others require an external MIDI Interface which is connected to the computer via the newer D-subminiatureDA-15 game port, a USB connector or by FireWire or ethernet. MIDI connectors are defined by the MIDI interface standard. In the 2000s, as computer equipment increasingly used USB connectors, companies began making USB-to-MIDI audio interfaces which can transfer MIDI channels to USB-equipped computers. As well, due to the increasing use of computers for music-making and composition, some MIDI keyboard controllers were equipped with USB jacks, so that they can be plugged into computers that are running "software synths" or other music software. Controllers In popular parlance, piano-style musical keyboards are called "keyboards", regardless of their functions or type. Amongst MIDI enthusiasts, however, keyboards and other devices used to trigger musical sounds are called "controllers", because with most MIDI set-ups, the keyboard or other device does not make any sounds by itself. MIDI controllers need to be connected to a voice bank or sound module in order to produce musical tones or sounds; the keyboard or other device is "controlling" the voice bank or sound module by acting as a trigger. The most common MIDI controller is the piano-style keyboard, either with weighted or semi-weighted keys, or with unweighted synth-style keys. Keyboard-style MIDI controllers are sold with as few as 25 keys (2 octaves), with larger models such as 49 keys, 61 keys, or even the full 88 keys being available. MIDI controllers are also available in a range of other forms, such as electronic drum triggers; pedal keyboards that are played with the feet (e.g., with an organ); EWI wind controllers for performing saxophone-style music; and MIDI guitar synthesizer controllers. EWI, which stands for Electronic Wind Instrument, is designed for performers who want to play saxophone, clarinet, oboe, bassoon, and other wind instrument sounds with a synthesizer module. When wind instruments are played using a MIDI keyboard, it is hard to reproduce the expressive control found on wind instruments that can be generated with the wind pressure and embouchure. The EWI has an air-pressure level sensor and bite sensor in the mouthpiece, 13 touch sensors arrayed along the side of the controller, in a similar location to where sax keys are placed, and touch sensors for octaves and bends. Pad controller are used by musicians and DJs who are making music with sampled sounds or short samples of music. Pad controllers often have banks of assignable pads and assignable faders and knobs for transmitting MIDI data or changes; the better-quality models are velocity-sensitive. More rarely, some performers use more specialized MIDI controllers, such as triggers that are affixed to their clothing or stage items (e.g., magicians Penn and Teller's stage show). A MIDI footcontroller is pedalboard-style device with rows of footswitches that control banks of presets, MIDI program change commands and send MIDI note numbers (some also do MIDI merges). Another specialized type of controller is the drawbar controller; it is designed for Hammond organ players who have MIDI-equipped organ voice modules. The drawbar controller provides the keyboard player with many of the controls which are found on a vintage 1940s or 1950s Hammond organ, including harmonic drawbars, a rotating speaker speed control switch, vibrato and chorus knobs, and percussion and overdrive controls. As with all controllers, the drawbar controller does not produce any sounds by itself; it only controls a voice module or software sound device. While most controllers do not produce sounds, there are some exceptions. Some controller keyboards called "performance controllers" have MIDI-assignable keys, sliders, and knobs, which allow the controller to be used with a range of software synthesizers or voice modules; yet at the same time, the controller also has an internal voice module which supplies keyboard instrument sounds (piano, electric piano, clavichord), sampled or synthesized voices (strings, woodwinds), and Digital Signal Processing (distortion, compression, flanging, etc). These controller keyboards are designed to allow the performer to choose between the internal voices or external modules. Messages All MIDI compatible controllers, musical instruments, and MIDI-compatible software follow the same MIDI 1.0 specification, and thus interpret any given MIDI message the same way, and so can communicate with and understand each other. For example, if a note is played on a MIDI controller, it will sound at the right pitch on any MIDI instrument whose MIDI In connector is connected to the controller's MIDI Out connector. When a musical performance is played on a MIDI instrument (or controller) it transmits MIDI channel messages from its MIDI Out connector. A typical MIDI channel message sequence corresponding to a key being struck and released on a keyboard is: The user presses the middle C key with a specific velocity (which is usually translated into the volume of the note but can also be used by the synthesiser to set characteristics of the timbre as well). ---> The instrument sends one Note-On message. The user changes the pressure applied on the key while holding it down - a technique called Aftertouch (can be repeated, optional). ---> The instrument sends one or more Aftertouch messages. The user releases the middle C key, again with the possibility of velocity of release controlling some parameters. ---> The instrument sends one Note-Off message. Note-On, Aftertouch, and Note-Off are all channel messages. For the Note-On and Note-Off messages, the MIDI specification defines a number (from 0–127) for every possible note pitch (C, C, D etc.), and this number is included in the message. Other performance parameters can be transmitted with channel messages, too. For example, if the user turns the pitch wheel on the instrument, that gesture is transmitted over MIDI using a series of Pitch Bend messages (also a channel message). The musical instrument generates the messages autonomously; all the musician has to do is play the notes (or make some other gesture that produces MIDI messages). This consistent, automated abstraction of the musical gesture could be considered the core of the MIDI standard. Composition MIDI composition and arrangement takes advantage of MIDI 1.0 and General MIDI (GM) technology to allow musical data files to be shared among various electronic instruments by using a standard, portable set of commands and parameters. Because the music is simply data rather than recorded audio waveforms, the data size of the files is quite small by comparison. Several computer programs allow manipulation of the musical data such that composing for an entire orchestra of synthesized instrument sounds is possible. The data can be saved as a Standard MIDI File (SMF), digitally distributed, and then reproduced by any computer or electronic instrument that also adheres to the same MIDI, GM, and SMF standards. There are many websites offering downloads of popular songs as well as classical music in SMF and GM form, and there are also websites where MIDI composers can share their works in that same format. Many people believe that the Standard MIDI File as a music distribution format used to be much more attractive to computer users before broadband internet became available to "the masses", due to its small file size. Also, the advent of high quality audio compression such as the MP3 format has decreased the relative size advantages of MIDI music to some degree, though MP3 is still much larger than SMF. File formats Standard MIDI File (SMF) Format MIDI messages (along with timing information) can be collected and stored in a computer file system, in what is commonly called a MIDI file, or more formally, a Standard MIDI File (SMF). The SMF specification was developed by, and is maintained by, the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA). MIDI files are typically created using computer-based sequencing software (or sometimes a hardware-based MIDI instrument or workstation) that organizes MIDI messages into one or more parallel "tracks" for independent recording and editing. In most sequencers, each track is assigned to a specific MIDI channel and/or a specific instrument patch; if the attached music synthesizer has a known instrument palette (for example because it conforms to the General MIDI standard), then the instrument for each track may be selected by name. Although most current MIDI sequencer software uses proprietary "session file" formats rather than SMF, almost all sequencers provide export or "Save As..." support for the SMF format. An SMF consists of one header chunk and one or more track chunks. There exist three different SMF formats; the format of a given SMF is specified in its file header. A Format 0 file contains a single track and represents a single song performance. Format 1 may contain any number of tracks, enabling preservation of the sequencer track structure, and also represents a single song performance. Format 2 may have any number of tracks, each representing a separate song performance. Sequencers do not commonly support Format 2. Large collections of SMFs can be found on the web, most commonly with the extension .mid. These files are most frequently authored with the (rather dubious) assumption that they will be only ever be played on General MIDI players. MIDI Karaoke File (.KAR) Format MIDI-Karaoke (which uses the ".kar" file extension) files are an "unofficial" extension of MIDI files, used to add synchronized lyrics to standard MIDI files. SMF players play the music as they would a .mid file but do not display these lyrics unless they have specific support for .kar messages. These often display the lyrics synchronized with the music in "follow-the-bouncing-ball" fashion, essentially turning any PC into a karaoke machine. None of the MIDI-Karaoke file formats are maintained by any standardization body. XMF File Formats The MMA has also defined (and AMEI has approved) a new family of file formats, XMF (eXtensible Music File), some of which package SMF chunks with instrument data in DLS format (Downloadable Sounds, also an MMA/AMEI specification), to much the same effect as the MOD file format. The XMF container is a binary format (not XML-based, although the file extensions are similar). See the main article Extensible Music Format (XMF). RIFF-RMID File Format On Microsoft Windows, the system itself uses proprietary RIFF-based MIDI files with the ".rmi" extension. Note, Standard MIDI Files are not RIFF-compliant. A RIFF-RMID file, however, is simply a Standard MIDI File wrapped in a RIFF chunk. By extracting the data part of the RIFF-RMID chunk, the result will be a regular Standard MIDI File. RIFF-RMID is not an official MMA/AMEI MIDI standard. Extended RMID File Format In recommended practice RP-29 (), the MMA defined a method for bundling one Standard MIDI file (SMF) image with one Downloadable Sounds (DLS) image using the RIFF container technology. However, this method was deprecated when the MMA introduced the Extensible Music Format (XMF), which because of its many additional features is generally preferred for MIDI-related resource bundling purposes going forward. Extended MIDI File (.XMI) Format The XMI format is a proprietary extension of the SMF format introduced by the Miles Sound System, a middleware driver library targeted at PC games. XMI is not an official MMA/AMEI MIDI standard. Usage and applications Extensions of the MIDI standard Many extensions of the original official MIDI 1.0 spec have been standardized by MMA/JMSC. Only a few of them are described here; for more comprehensive information, see the MMA web site. General MIDI The General MIDI Level 1 ("GM") specification defines feature set important for MIDI content interoperability across multiple players. It addresses the indeterminacy of the basic MIDI 1.0 protocol standard regarding the meaning and behaviour of Program Change and Control Change messages. Without GM, different synthesizers can, and actually do, sound completely different in response to the same MIDI messages. The GM standard mandates: An assignment of specific instruments to each Program Number in Program Change messages (for example, Program Number 3 is "Electric Grand Piano") The mapping of several controller numbers to important effects Use of channel 10 for percussion only (a specific unpitched percussion sound in place of each note) Various minimum specifications such as number of simultaneous voices/notes and channels/parts General MIDI 1 was introduced in 1991. GM Common Misconceptions Although the GM and GM2 specifications are dependent on the basic MIDI 1.0 protocol specification, they are separate standards from MIDI 1.0. As a result, MIDI products may legitimately implement MIDI 1.0 but not GM and/or GM2. Although GM is an important feature for MIDI content interoperability across multiple players, many important MIDI applications do not require such interoperability. For example, MIDI and the SMF format are used in professional music recording production where the MIDI file content will never be distributed and custom or specialized synthesizers are used much more commonly than GM or GM2. As a direct consequence, not all SMF content is authored for GM or GM2 synthesizers. Because playing any SMF or MIDI message stream on a different synthesizer(s) than originally intended risks the generation of unintended and incorrect sounds, it is not generally safe to merely assume that any given MIDI message stream or MIDI file is intended for GM or GM2 synthesizers. In particular it is frequently assumed, incorrectly, that all or nearly all SMF content necessarily relies on the player using a GM or GM2 synthesizer, however because there is no such dependency in the actual MMA/AMEI specifications and it is also quite legitimate for SMF content to be written for non-GM synthesizers, this assumption is not reliable. Therefore, MIDI users should note well the following caveats: Not all MIDI synthesizers support GM and/or GM2, and it is inadvisable to assume that they do. Not all SMFs are intended for GM and/or GM2 synthesizers, and it is inadvisable to assume that they are. Always test MIDI content for compatibility with the intended playback synthesizer before any public performance. Unfortunately, there is currently no technical standard for indicating in advance what kind of synthesizer(s) a given SMF or MIDI message stream is intended to drive (with the exception of RTP MIDI and the audio/sp-midi MIME type definition). GS and XG To improve upon the General MIDI Standard and take advantage of the advancements in newer synthesizers, both Roland (GS) and Yamaha (XG) introduced proprietary specifications and numerous products with stricter requirements, new features, and backward compatibility with the GM specification. GS and XG are not compatible with each other, are not official MMA/AMEI MIDI standards, and adoption of each has been generally limited to the respective manufacturer. General MIDI Level 2 Later, companies in Japan's Association of Musical Electronics Industry (sic) (AMEI) developed General MIDI Level 2 (GM2), incorporating and harmonizing aspects of the Yamaha XG and Roland GS formats, further extending the instrument palette, specifying more message responses in detail, and defining new messages for custom tuning scales and other new functionality. The GM2 specs are maintained and published by the MMA and AMEI. General MIDI 2 was introduced in 1999 and is commonly implemented in some newer synthesizers. SP-MIDI Later still, GM2 became the basis of the instrument selection mechanism in Scalable Polyphony MIDI (SP-MIDI), a MIDI variant for mobile applications where different players may have different numbers of musical voices. SP-MIDI is a component of the 3GPP mobile phone terminal multimedia architecture, starting from release 5. GM, GM2, and SP-MIDI are also the basis for selecting player-provided instruments in several of the MMA/AMEI XMF file formats (XMF Type 0, Type 1, and Mobile XMF), which allow extending the instrument palette with custom instruments in the Downloadable Sound (DLS) formats, addressing another major GM shortcoming. Alternative Tunings By convention, most MIDI synthesizers generally default to the conventional Western 12-pitch-per-octave, equal-temperament tuning system. Unfortunately, this tuning system makes many types of music inaccessible, because they depend on different intonation systems. To address this issue in a standardized manner, in 1992 the MMA ratified the MIDI Tuning Standard, or MTS. Instruments that support the MTS standard can be tuned to any desired tuning system by sending the MTS System Exclusive message (a Non-Real Time Sys Ex). The MTS SysEx message uses a three-byte number format to specify a pitch in logarithmic form. This pitch number can be thought of as a three-digit number in base 128. To find the value of the pitch number p that encodes a given frequency f, use the following formula: For a note in A440 equal temperament, this formula delivers the standard MIDI note number as used in the Note On and Note Off messages. Any other frequencies fill the space evenly. While support for MTS is at present not particularly widespread in commercial hardware instruments, it is nonetheless supported by some instruments and software, for example the free software programs TiMidity and Scala, as well as other microtuners. MIDI Show Control The MIDI Show Control (MSC) protocol (in the Real Time System Exclusive subset) is an industry standard ratified by the MIDI Manufacturers Association in 1991 which allows all types of media control devices to talk with each other and with computers to perform show control functions in live and canned entertainment applications. Just like musical MIDI (above), MSC does not transmit the actual show media — it simply transmits digital data providing information such as the type, timing and numbering of technical cues called during a multimedia or live theatre performance. Console Automation Audio mixers can be controlled with MIDI during console automation. Alternate Hardware Transports In addition to the original 31.25 Kbits/sec [baud is the signalling rate and is the reciprocal of the shortest signalling element. bits/sec is the data rate.] current-loop transported on 5-pin DIN, other connectors have been used for the same electrical data, and transmission of MIDI streams in different forms over USB, IEEE 1394 a.k.a FireWire, and Ethernet is now common (see below). XLR3 Some early MIDI implementations used XLR3 connectors in place of the 5-pin DIN. The use of XLR3 connectors allowed the use of standard low-impedence microphone cables as MIDI cables. As the 31.25 Kbits/sec current-loop requires only three conductors, there was no problem with the loss of two pins. An example of this use is the Octave-Plateau Voyetra-8 synthesizer. Over Ethernet Compared to USB or FireWire, the Ethernet implementation of MIDI provides network routing capabilities, which are extremely useful in studio or stage environments (USB and FireWire are restricted to connections between one computer and some devices and do not provide any routing capabilities). Ethernet is moreover capable of providing the high-bandwidth channel that earlier alternatives to MIDI (such as ZIPI) were intended to bring. After the initial fight between different protocols (IEEE-P1639, MIDI-LAN, IETF RTP-MIDI), it appears that IETF's RTP MIDI specification for transport of MIDI streams over Ethernet and Internet is now spreading faster and faster since more and more manufacturers are integrating RTP-MIDI in their products (Apple, CME, Kiss-Box, etc...). Mac OS X, Windows and Linux drivers are also available to make RTP MIDI devices appear as standard MIDI devices within these operating systems. IEEE-P1639 is now a dead project. The other proprietary MIDI/IP protocols are slowly disappearing one after the other, since most of them require expensive licensing to be implemented (while RTP MIDI is completely opened) or the MIDI implementation does not bring any real advantage (apart from speed) over original MIDI protocol. RTP-MIDI Transport Protocol The RTP-MIDI protocol has been officially released in public domain by IETF in December 2006 (IETF RFC4695). IETF RTP-MIDI specification RTP-MIDI relies on the well-known RTP (Real Time Protocol) layer (most often running over UDP, but compatible with TCP also), widely used for real-time audio and video streaming over networks. The RTP layer is easy to implement and requires very little power from the microprocessor, while providing very useful information to the receiver (network latency, dropped packet detection, reordered packets, etc.). RTP-MIDI defines a specific payload type, that allows the receiver to identify MIDI streams. RTP-MIDI does not alter the MIDI messages in any way (all messages defined in the MIDI norm are transported transparently over the network), but it adds additional features such as timestamping and sysex fragmentation. RTP-MIDI also adds a powerful 'journalling' mechanism that allows the receiver to detect and correct dropped MIDI messages.The first part of RTP-MIDI specification is mandatory for implementors and describes how MIDI messages are encapsulated within the RTP telegram. It also describes how the journalling system works. The journalling system is not mandatory (journalling is not very useful for LAN applications, but it is very important for WAN applications). The second part of RTP-MIDI specification describes the session control mechanisms that allow multiple stations to synchronize across the network to exchange RTP-MIDI telegrams. This part is informational only, and it is not required. RTP-MIDI is included in Apple's Mac OS X, as standard MIDI ports (the RTP-MIDI ports appear in Macintosh applications as any other USB or FireWire port. Thus, any MIDI application running on Mac OS X is able to use the RTP-MIDI capabilities in a transparent way). However, Apple's developers considered the session control protocol described in IETF's specification to be too complex, and they created their own session control protocol. Since the session protocol uses a UDP port different from the main RTP-MIDI stream port, the two protocols do not interfere (so the RTP-MIDI implementation in Mac OS X fully complies to the IETF specification). Apple's implementation has been used as reference by other MIDI manufacturers. A Windows XP RTP-MIDI driver Windows XP RTP-MIDI driver download for their own products only has been released by the Dutch company Kiss-Box and a Linux implementation is currently under development by the Grame association. Grame's website So it seems probable that the Apple's implementation will become the "de-facto" standard (and could even become the MMA reference implementation). Converting instruments to MIDI Some older instruments, for example electronic organs built in the 1970s and 1980s, are becoming beyond repair, due to lack of spares and/or of technicians trained on such equipment. The best candidates for upgrade are what are referred to as "Console" sized, or have at least 2x keyboards of 61 notes, and at least a 25 note (preferably 32 note concave) pedal board. Smaller "Spinet" sized organs are probably not worth the effort to convert. In some cases, they can be modified to become to MIDI instruments. Terms coined from MIDI + modification are often used, such as midification or to midify. An old electronic organ could have almost all of its discrete component electronics replaced by modern circuitry which will cause the instrument to output MIDI signals. The instrument would then become a specialised MIDI keyboard. Its MIDI output would need to be fed to a MIDI engine of some sort. See for example: Midification of an Organ Other applications MIDI 1.0 is also used as a control protocol in applications other than music, including: show control theatre lighting special effects sound design VJ-ing recording system synchronization audio processor control Digital DJing otherwise known as Controllerism computer networking, as demonstrated by the early first-person shooter game MIDI Maze, 1987 animatronic figure control animation parameter control, as demonstrated by Apple Motion v2 Such non-musical applications of the MIDI 1.0 protocol (sometimes over MIDI-DIN, sometimes using other transports) are possible because of its general-purpose nature. Any device built with a standard MIDI Out connector should in theory be able to control any other device with a MIDI In port, just as long as the developers of both devices have the same understanding about the semantic meaning of all the MIDI messages the sending device emits. This agreement can come either because both follow the official MIDI standard specifications, or else in the case of any non-standard functionality, because the message meanings are directly agreed upon by the two manufacturers. Beyond MIDI 1.0 Although traditional MIDI connections work well for most purposes, a number of newer message protocols and hardware transports have been proposed over the years to try to take the idea to the next level. Some of the more notable efforts include: OSC The Open Sound Control (OSC) protocol was developed at CNMAT. OSC has been implemented in the well-known software synthesizer Reaktor and in other innovative projects including SuperCollider, Pure Data, Isadora, Max/MSP, Csound, vvvv and ChucK. The Lemur Input Device, a customizable touch panel with MIDI controller-type functions, also uses OSC. OSC differs from MIDI 1.0 over traditional 5-pin DIN in that it can run at broadband speeds when sent over Ethernet connections, however the differences are smaller compared to MIDI is also running at broadband speeds over Ethernet connections. Unfortunately few mainstream musical applications and no standalone instruments support the protocol so far, making whole-studio interoperability problematic. OSC is not owned by any private company, however it is also not maintained by any standards organization. Since September 2007, there is a proposal for a common namespace within OSC for communication between and controllers, synthesizers and hosts, however this too would not be maintained by any standards organization. mLAN Yamaha has its mLAN protocol, which is based on the IEEE 1394 transport (also known as FireWire) and carries multiple MIDI 1.0 message channels and multiple audio channels. mLAN is not maintained by a standards organization as it is a proprietary protocol. mLAN is open for licensing, although covered by patents owned by Yamaha. HD Protocol Development of a version of MIDI for new products which is fully backward compatible is now under discussion in the MMA. First announced as "HD-MIDI" in 2005 and tentatively called "HD Protocol" since 2008, this new standard would support modern high-speed transports, provide greater range and/or resolution in data values, increase the number of Channels, and support the future introduction of entirely new kinds of messages. Representatives from all sizes and types of companies are involved, from the smallest speciality show control operations to the largest musical equipment manufacturers. No technical details or projected completion dates have been announced. MMA Hosts HD-MIDI Discussion, MIDI Manufacturers Association. Finally: MIDI 2.0, O'Reilly Digital Media Blog. Various transports have been proposed for use for the HD-Protocol physical layer, including a call for ACN to be used as the sole or primary transport in show control environments. MIDI software Example Standard MIDI files Drum sample #1 Drum sample #2 Bass sample #1 Bass sample #2 See also List of MIDI editors and sequencers Comparison of MIDI standards Commons Portal about MIDI (under construction). Karaoke and midi *.kar files. LRC (file format) The MIDI 1.0 Protocol MIDI Machine Control MIDI Show Control MIDI timecode MIDI controller MIDI mockup MIDI usage and applications Midiboard Module file Multitrack recording Music sequencer Sound design Show control Tracker Soundfonts References External links Official MIDI Standards Organizations MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA) – Source for English-language MIDI specs Association of Musical Electronics Industry (AMEI) – Source for Japanese-language MIDI specs Unofficial Sources The original MIDI portal for the web - unfortunately hijacked. Last original content according to archive.org: Oct, 4th 2006 A guide for composers using MIDI software, technical information about MIDI Hinton Instruments' MIDI Protocol Guide Hinton Instruments' Professional MIDI Guide midi files download The MIDI Show Control (MSC) standard TWEAKHEADZ Labs Introduction to Midi How MIDI Works MIDI Cable Length limitations Scheme of PC MIDI cable MIDI controllers come in all shapes and sizes. Music Tech author Keith Gemmell explains how they work. Songstuff Midi - Midi Message Format Crash Course in MIDI format Other resources Disklavier World Public Domain MIDI-music in FIL (e-SEQ format) for YAMAHA Disklavier pianos ~ live performances! Virtual MIDI Machine - VMM is a c-like multithreading language that allows a composer to write low-level MIDI algorithms MIDI keyboard, frequencies, note names, numbers and Note systems midi troubleshooting MIDI Tutorials, Guides, Tunings, Examples, MIDI Samples and Latest News MIDI Electronic Circuits Thousands of MIDI files on BlueMan Web Site : French Variety (some with karaoké), International Success, Movies and TV, Jazz, Classic, XG Creation | MIDI |@lemmatized midi:306 musical:26 instrument:48 digital:11 interface:10 industry:7 standard:51 protocol:29 define:8 enable:2 electronic:13 keyboard:23 controller:38 computer:20 equipment:8 communicate:3 control:41 synchronize:3 allow:18 synthesizer:41 sound:40 card:7 sampler:2 drum:5 machine:5 one:16 another:7 exchange:3 system:22 data:24 act:2 raw:1 encapsulation:1 method:4 sysex:3 command:4 transmit:11 audio:13 signal:7 medium:6 event:1 message:45 pitch:10 intensity:1 note:30 play:13 parameter:6 volume:2 vibrato:2 panning:1 cue:3 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6,150 | Holmium | Holmium () is a chemical element with the symbol Ho and atomic number 67. Part of the lanthanide series, holmium is a relatively soft and malleable silvery-white metallic element, which is stable in dry air at room temperature. A rare earth metal, it is found in the minerals monazite and gadolinite. Characteristics A trivalent metallic rare earth element, holmium has the highest magnetic moment (10.6µB) of any naturally-occurring element and possesses other unusual magnetic properties. When combined with yttrium, it forms highly magnetic compounds. Holmium is a relatively soft and malleable element that is fairly corrosion-resistant and stable in dry air at standard temperature and pressure. In moist air and at higher temperatures, however, it quickly oxidizes, forming a yellowish oxide. In pure form, holmium possesses a metallic, bright silvery luster. Holmium oxide has some fairly dramatic color changes depending on the lighting conditions. In daylight, it is a tannish yellow color. Under trichromatic light, it is a fiery orange red, almost indistinguishable from the way erbium oxide looks under this same lighting. This has to do with the sharp emission bands of the phosphors, and the absorption bands of both oxides. Applications Because of its magnetic properties, holmium has been used to create the strongest artificially-generated magnetic fields when placed within high-strength magnets as a magnetic pole piece (also called a magnetic flux concentrator). Since it can absorb nuclear fission-bred neutrons, the element is also used in nuclear control rods. Other commercial applications of the element abound: It is used in yttrium-iron-garnet (YIG) and yttrium-lanthanum-fluoride (YLF) solid state lasers found in microwave equipment (which are in turn found in a variety of medical and dental settings). It is used as a yellow or red glass coloring. Holmium-containing glass has been used as a calibration standard for UV/visible spectrophotometers Holmium is one of the colorants used for cubic zirconia for use in jewelry, providing a dichroic color in peach or yellow, depending on the lighting source. Holmium may be used as the active ion in some solid state lasers. The radioactive but long-lived Ho-166m1 (see "Isotopes" below) is used in calibration of gamma ray spectrometers. History Holmium (Holmia, Latin name for Stockholm) was discovered by Marc Delafontaine and Jacques-Louis Soret in 1878 who noticed the aberrant spectrographic absorption bands of the then-unknown element (they called it "Element X"). Later in 1878, Per Teodor Cleve independently discovered the element while he was working on erbia earth (erbium oxide). Using the method developed by Carl Gustaf Mosander, Cleve first removed all of the known contaminants from erbia. The result of that effort was two new materials, one brown and one green. He named the brown substance holmia (after the Latin name for Cleve's home town, Stockholm) and the green one thulia. Holmia was later found to be the holmium oxide and thulia was thulium oxide. Holmium (as the oxide) would not be obtained reasonably pure until the 20th century, and would not become commercially available in high purity until the late 1950s. The Lindsay Chemical Division of American Potash and Chemical Corporation was one of the first producers, using the newly-developed ion-exchange technology to purify holmium as isolated from monazite, in which it was present in trace amounts. In 1960, one pound of 99% holmium oxide was priced at US $105, and the 99.9% grade cost US $125, which were the same prices as were charged for the comparable oxides of gadolinium, dysprosium, and erbium. One of the early applications was in the form of a glass called a "holmium oxide plate" which was used (by 1965) as a calibration standard for UV/visible spectroscopy. Occurrence Like all other rare earths, holmium is not naturally found as a free element. It does occur combined with other elements in the minerals gadolinite, monazite, and in other rare-earth minerals. It is commercially extracted via ion-exchange from monazite sand (0.05% holmium) but is still difficult to separate from other rare earths. The element has been isolated through the reduction of its anhydrous chloride or fluoride with metallic calcium. Its estimated abundance in the Earth's crust is 1.3 milligrams per kilogram. Holmium obeys the Oddo-Harkins rule: as an odd-numbered element, it is less abundant than its immediate even numbered neighbors, dysprosium and erbium. However, it is the most abundant of the odd-numbered heavy lanthanides. The principal current source are some of the ion-adsorption clays of southern China. Some of these have a rare-earth composition similar to that found in xenotime or gadolinite. Yttrium makes up about two-thirds of the total by weight; holmium is around 1.5%. The original ores themselves are very lean, maybe only 0.1% total lanthanide, but are easily extracted. Isotopes Natural holmium contains one stable isotope, holmium-165. Some synthetic radioactive isotopes are known, the most stable one is holmium-163, with a half life of 4570 years. All other radioisotopes have ground-state half lives not greater than 1.117 days, and most have half lives under 3 hours. However, the metastable 166m1Ho has a half life of around 1200 years because of its high spin. This fact, combined with a high excitation energy resulting in a particularly rich spectrum of decay gamma rays produced when the metastable state de-excites, makes this isotope useful in nuclear physics experiments as a means for calibrating energy responses and intrinsic efficiencies of gamma ray spectrometers. Precautions The element, as with other rare earths, appears to have a low degree of acute toxicity. Holmium plays no biological role in humans but may be able to stimulate metabolism. C. R. Hammond, "The Elements", in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81th edition, CRC press. See also Holmium compounds References Guide to the Elements – Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1 It's Elemental – Holmium External links WebElements.com – Holmium (also used as a reference) American Elements – Holmium (also used as a reference) | Holmium |@lemmatized holmium:28 chemical:3 element:18 symbol:1 ho:2 atomic:1 number:1 part:1 lanthanide:3 series:1 relatively:2 soft:2 malleable:2 silvery:2 white:1 metallic:4 stable:4 dry:2 air:3 room:1 temperature:3 rare:7 earth:9 metal:1 find:6 mineral:3 monazite:4 gadolinite:3 characteristic:1 trivalent:1 high:6 magnetic:7 moment:1 naturally:2 occur:2 possess:2 unusual:1 property:2 combine:3 yttrium:4 form:4 highly:1 compound:2 fairly:2 corrosion:1 resistant:1 standard:3 pressure:1 moist:1 however:3 quickly:1 oxidize:1 yellowish:1 oxide:11 pure:2 bright:1 luster:1 dramatic:1 color:3 change:1 depend:2 lighting:2 condition:1 daylight:1 tannish:1 yellow:3 trichromatic:1 light:2 fiery:1 orange:1 red:2 almost:1 indistinguishable:1 way:1 erbium:4 look:1 sharp:1 emission:1 band:3 phosphor:1 absorption:2 application:3 use:14 create:1 strong:1 artificially:1 generate:1 field:1 place:1 within:1 strength:1 magnet:1 pole:1 piece:1 also:5 call:3 flux:1 concentrator:1 since:1 absorb:1 nuclear:3 fission:1 bred:1 neutron:1 control:1 rod:1 commercial:1 abound:1 iron:1 garnet:1 yig:1 lanthanum:1 fluoride:2 ylf:1 solid:2 state:4 laser:2 microwave:1 equipment:1 turn:1 variety:1 medical:1 dental:1 setting:1 glass:3 coloring:1 contain:2 calibration:3 uv:2 visible:2 spectrophotometer:1 one:9 colorants:1 cubic:1 zirconia:1 jewelry:1 provide:1 dichroic:1 peach:1 source:2 may:2 active:1 ion:4 radioactive:2 long:1 live:2 see:2 isotope:5 gamma:3 ray:3 spectrometer:2 history:1 holmia:3 latin:2 name:3 stockholm:2 discover:2 marc:1 delafontaine:1 jacques:1 louis:1 soret:1 notice:1 aberrant:1 spectrographic:1 unknown:1 x:1 later:2 per:2 teodor:1 cleve:3 independently:1 work:1 erbia:2 method:1 develop:2 carl:1 gustaf:1 mosander:1 first:2 remove:1 known:1 contaminant:1 result:2 effort:1 two:2 new:1 material:1 brown:2 green:2 substance:1 home:1 town:1 thulia:2 thulium:1 would:2 obtain:1 reasonably:1 century:1 become:1 commercially:2 available:1 purity:1 late:1 lindsay:1 division:1 american:2 potash:1 corporation:1 producer:1 newly:1 exchange:2 technology:1 purify:1 isolate:2 present:1 trace:1 amount:1 pound:1 price:2 u:2 grade:1 cost:1 charge:1 comparable:1 gadolinium:1 dysprosium:2 early:1 plate:1 spectroscopy:1 occurrence:1 like:1 free:1 extracted:1 via:1 sand:1 still:1 difficult:1 separate:1 reduction:1 anhydrous:1 chloride:1 calcium:1 estimated:1 abundance:1 crust:1 milligram:1 kilogram:1 obeys:1 oddo:1 harkins:1 rule:1 odd:2 numbered:3 less:1 abundant:2 immediate:1 even:1 neighbor:1 heavy:1 principal:1 current:1 adsorption:1 clay:1 southern:1 china:1 composition:1 similar:1 xenotime:1 make:2 third:1 total:2 weight:1 around:2 original:1 ore:1 lean:1 maybe:1 easily:1 extract:1 natural:1 synthetic:1 know:1 half:4 life:3 year:2 radioisotope:1 grind:1 great:1 day:1 hour:1 metastable:2 spin:1 fact:1 excitation:1 energy:2 particularly:1 rich:1 spectrum:1 decay:1 produce:1 de:1 excites:1 useful:1 physic:2 experiment:1 mean:1 calibrate:1 response:1 intrinsic:1 efficiency:1 precaution:1 appear:1 low:1 degree:1 acute:1 toxicity:1 play:1 biological:1 role:1 human:1 able:1 stimulate:1 metabolism:1 c:1 r:1 hammond:1 handbook:1 chemistry:1 edition:2 crc:1 press:2 reference:3 guide:1 revise:1 albert:1 stwertka:1 oxford:1 university:1 isbn:1 elemental:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 com:1 |@bigram soft_malleable:2 silvery_white:1 corrosion_resistant:1 holmium_oxide:5 magnetic_field:1 magnetic_flux:1 nuclear_fission:1 gamma_ray:3 ray_spectrometer:2 carl_gustaf:1 mineral_gadolinite:1 monazite_sand:1 earth_crust:1 odd_numbered:2 stable_isotope:1 radioactive_isotope:1 acute_toxicity:1 crc_press:1 albert_stwertka:1 stwertka_oxford:1 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 webelements_com:1 |
6,151 | Detroit_Red_Wings | The Detroit Red Wings are a professional ice hockey team based in Detroit, Michigan, who are the current Stanley Cup champions. They are members of the Central Division of the Western Conference of the National Hockey League (NHL). The club is one of the Original Six teams of the NHL. The Red Wings have won the most Stanley Cup championships (11) of any NHL franchise based in the United States, and are third overall in total NHL championships, behind the Montreal Canadiens (24) and Toronto Maple Leafs (13). They currently play home games in the 20,066 capacity Joe Louis Arena after having spent over 40 years playing in Olympia Stadium. Between the 1933–34 and 1965–66 seasons, the Red Wings only missed the playoffs four times. After almost two decades as an also-ran, the Red Wings have made the playoffs in 23 of the last 25 seasons, including the last 18 in a row. This is the longest current streak of post-season appearances in all of American professional sports. Franchise history 1926–49: Early years When the Western Canada Hockey League folded after the 1925–26 WHL season, a deal was made, so that a new NHL expansion franchise in Detroit bought the rights to the players of one of the most successful of the teams in that league, the 1925 Stanley Cup champion Victoria Cougars. However, the NHL does not consider the Red Wings to be a continuation of the Victoria team. Since no arena in Detroit was ready at the time, the new Detroit Cougars (named in Victoria's honor) played their first season in Windsor, Ontario at the Border Cities Arena. For the 1927–28 season, the Cougars moved into the new Detroit Olympia, which would be their home rink until December 15, 1979. This was also the first season behind the bench for Jack Adams, who would be the face of the franchise for the next 36 years as either coach or general manager. The Cougars made the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time in 1929 with Carson Cooper leading the team in scoring. The Cougars were outscored 7–2 in the two-game series with the Toronto Maple Leafs. In 1930, the Cougars were renamed the Falcons, but their woes continued, as they usually finished near the bottom of the standings, even though they made the playoffs again in 1932. NHL president Frank Calder sought a way to extinguish this league, and convinced the other owners of the NHL to let grain merchant James E. Norris buy the Falcons. Norris had made two previous unsuccessful bids to buy an NHL team. Norris' first act was to choose a new name--the Red Wings. Earlier in the century, Norris had played on one of hockey's early powers, the Montreal HC, nicknamed the "Winged Wheelers." Because of the team’s location in Detroit, the Motor City, Norris transformed the club's logo into the first version of the Red Wings logo as it is known today. He also gave Adams a year on his job on probation. The renamed franchise won its first playoff series in the NHL, over the now-defunct Montreal Maroons. They lost in the semi-finals against the New York Rangers. In 1934 the Wings made the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time, with John Sorrell scoring 21 goals over 47 games and Larry Aurie leading the team in scoring. However, the Chicago Black Hawks had an easy time with Detroit in the finals, winning the best-of-five series in four games and winning their own first title. The Red Wings won their first Stanley Cup in 1936, defeating Toronto in four games. Detroit repeated its championship season in 1937, winning over the Rangers in the full five games. They made the Stanley Cup Finals in three consecutive years during the early 1940s. In 1941 they were swept by the Boston Bruins, in 1942 they lost a seven-game series against Toronto in the finals after winning the first three games, but in 1943, with Syd Howe and Mud Bruneteau scoring 20 goals apiece, Detroit won their third Cup by sweeping the Bruins. They remained a solid team through the rest of the decade, making the playoffs every year, and reaching the finals three more times. In 1946, one of the greatest players in hockey history came into the NHL with the Red Wings. Gordie Howe, a right-winger from Floral, Saskatchewan, only scored seven goals and 15 assists in his first season and would not reach his prime for a few more years. It was also the last season as head coach for Adams, who stepped down after the season to concentrate on his duties as general manager. He was succeeded by minor league coach Tommy Ivan. By his second season, Howe was paired with Sid Abel and Ted Lindsay to form what would become one of the great lines in NHL history — the "Production Line". Lindsay's 33 goals propelled the Wings to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they were swept by the Maple Leafs. Detroit reached the Finals again the following season, only to be swept again by Toronto. 1950–66: The Gordie Howe Era The Wings returned to the top in 1950, with Pete Babando scoring the game winner in double overtime of game 7 to beat the Rangers in the Finals. After the game, Lindsay skated around the Olympia ice with the Cup, beginning a tradition that continues today. After being upset by the Montreal Canadiens in the 1951 semifinals, Detroit won its fifth Cup in 1952, sweeping both the Leafs and the Canadiens, with the Production Line of Howe, Abel and Lindsay joined by second-year goalie Terry Sawchuk. Detroit would become the first team in 17 years to go undefeated in the playoffs. They also scored an amazing 24 playoff goals, compared to Toronto and Montreal's combined total of 5. Abel left the Wings for Chicago following the season, and his spot on the roster was replaced by Alex Delvecchio. James E. Norris died in December 1952. He was succeeded as team president by his daughter, Marguerite--the first (and as of the 2006–07 season, only) woman to head an NHL franchise. She made no secret of her dislike for Adams. While she could have summarily fired him, since he was still without a contract, she chose not to do so. Following another playoff upset in 1953 at the hands of the Bruins, the Red Wings won back to back Stanley Cups in 1954; over Montreal, when Habs defenseman Doug Harvey redirected a Tony Leswick shot into his own net; and 1955 (also over Montreal in the full seven games). The 1954–55 season ended a run of eight straight regular season titles, an NHL record. Also during the 1955 off-season, Marguerite Norris lost an intrafamily power struggle, and was forced to turn over the Wings to younger brother Bruce, who had inherited his father's grain business. Detroit and Montreal once again met in the 1956 finals, but this time the Canadiens won the Cup, their first of five in a row. In 1957 Ted Lindsay, who scored 30 goals and led the league in assists with 55, teamed up with Harvey to help start the NHL Players' Association and, along with outspoken young netminder Glenn Hall, was promptly traded to Chicago (which was owned by James D. Norris, Bruce's elder brother) after his most productive year. This was one of several questionable trades made by Adams in the late 1950s. For example, a year earlier, he had traded Sawchuk to Boston; while he managed to get Sawchuk back two years later, he had to trade up-and-coming John Bucyk to do it. It was one of the most one-sided trades in hockey history; Bucyk went on to play 21 more years with the Bruins. The Wings lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Bruins. In 1959 the Red Wings missed the playoffs for the first time in 21 years. Within a couple of years, Detroit was rejuvenated and made the Finals for four of the next six years between 1961 and 1966. However, despite having Delvecchio, Norm Ullman, Howe and Parker MacDonald as consistent goal-scorers, Lindsay's sudden one-year comeback in 1964–65, and Sawchuk and later Roger Crozier between the pipes, the Wings came away empty-handed. Adams was fired as general manager in 1963. He had coached for 15 years and served as general manager for 31 years on a handshake, and his 36–year tenure as general manager is still the longest for any general manager in NHL history. 1967–82: The "Dead Wings" Era Only a year after making the Finals, the Red Wings finished a distant fifth, 24 points out of the playoffs. It was the beginning of a slump from which they would not emerge for almost 20 years. Between 1967 and 1983, Detroit only made the playoffs twice, winning one series. From 1968 to 1982, the Wings had 14 head coaches (not counting interim coaches), with none lasting more than three seasons. In contrast, their first six full-time coaches – Art Duncan, Adams, Ivan, Jimmy Skinner and Abel – covered a 42–year period. During this dark era in franchise history, the team was derisively known as the "Dead Wings" or "Dead Things". One factor was the end of the old "development" system, which allowed Adams to get young prospects to commit to playing for Detroit as early as their 16th birthday. Another factor was Ned Harkness, who was hired as coach in 1970 and was promoted to general manager midway through the season. A successful college hockey coach, Harkness tried to force his two-way style of play on a veteran Red Wings team resistant to change. The Wings chafed under his rule in which he demanded short hair, no smoking, and put other rules in place regarding drinking and phone calls. Harkness was forced to resign in 1973, and to this day Red Wings fans consider his tenure (known as the "Darkness of Harkness" ) to be the lowest point in team history. In the "expansion season" of 1967–68, the Red Wings also acquired longtime star left-winger Frank Mahovlich from the defending Cup champs in Toronto. Mahovlich would go on a line with Howe and Delvecchio, and in 1968–69, he scored a career-high 49 goals and had two All-Star seasons in Detroit. But this could not last. Mahovlich was traded to Montreal in 1970, and Howe retired after the 1970–71 season. Howe returned to pro hockey shortly after to play with his two sons Mark and Marty Howe (Mark would later join the Red Wings at the end of his career) in the upstart World Hockey Association in 1972. Through the decade, with Mickey Redmond having two 50–goal seasons and Marcel Dionne starting to reach his prime (which he did not attain until he was traded to the Los Angeles Kings), a lack of defensive and goaltending ability continually hampered the Wings. Interior of the Joe Louis Arena, where the Red Wings have played at home since 1979, when they left the Detroit Olympia. During 1979–80, the Wings left the Olympia for Joe Louis Arena. In 1982, after 50 years of family ownership, Bruce Norris sold the Red Wings to Mike Ilitch, founder of Little Caesars Pizza. 1983–2003: The Yzerman Era In 1983 the Wings drafted Steve Yzerman, a center from Cranbrook, British Columbia, Canada. He led the team in scoring in his rookie year, and started the Wings' climb back to the top. That season, with John Ogrodnick scoring 42 times and Ivan Boldirev and Ron Duguay also with 30–goal seasons, Detroit made the playoffs for the first time in six years. Defenseman Brad Park, acquired from the Boston Bruins in the 1983 free-agent market, also helped the Wings reach the postseason and ended up winning the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy the same season. Later Park was asked to coach the Wings, but was sacked after 45 games in 1985–86. He admitted, “I took over a last-place team, and I kept them there.” They did indeed end up in the basement with a 17–57–6 record for only 40 points. This was the same year that the Wings added enforcer Bob Probert, one of the most familiar faces of the Wings in the 1980s and 1990s. By 1987, with Yzerman joined by Petr Klima, Adam Oates, Gerard Gallant, defenceman Darren Veitch and new head coach Jacques Demers, the Wings won a playoff series for only the second time in the modern era. They made it all the way to the conference finals against the powerful Edmonton Oilers, but lost in five games. In 1988 they won their first division title in 23 years (since 1964–65, when they finished first in a one-division league). They did so, however, in a relatively weak division; no other team in the Norris finished above .500. As was the case in the previous season, they made it to the conference finals only to lose to the Oilers in five games. In 1989, Yzerman scored a career-best 65 goals, but Detroit was upset in the first round by the Chicago Blackhawks. The following season Yzerman scored 62 goals, but the team missed the playoffs for what turned out to be the last time to date. Rumors spread that maybe "Stevie Wonder" should be traded. But it was Demers, not Yzerman, who got the pink slip. New coach Bryan Murray was unable to get them back over .500, but they returned to the playoffs. Yzerman was joined by Sergei Fedorov (who defected from the USSR), who would be an award-winner and frequent all-star for the team in the 1990s. In 1992, the team acquired Ray Sheppard, who had a career-best 52 goals two years later; and in '93, top defenseman Paul Coffey. Also joining the Red Wings around this time were draft picks like Slava Kozlov, Darren McCarty, Vladimir Konstantinov, and Nicklas Lidstrom. 1994–2004: The Russian Five and return to glory The Yzerman trade rumors ended very soon after Scotty Bowman got behind the Motown bench in 1993. In his second season, the lockout-shortened 1994–95 NHL season, he guided Detroit to its first Finals appearance in 29 years, only to be promptly swept by the New Jersey Devils, who won the Stanley Cup for the first time, as they brought it from "the Garden to the Garden State," as the New York Rangers won the Stanley Cup the year before. The Wings kept adding more star power, picking up Slava Fetisov, Igor Larionov, and goaltender Mike Vernon in trades and winning an NHL record 62 games in 1996. After defeating the St. Louis Blues (with a Game 7, double-overtime goal by Yzerman), the Wings would fall in the Western Conference Finals to the eventual champion Colorado Avalanche (formerly Quebec Nordiques). Throughout the 1997–98 season the Red Wings wore a patch with the initials of former defenseman Vladimir Konstantinov and team masseur Sergei Mnatsakanov featured prominently, with the word "Believe" written in both English and Russian. Both were severely injured in an automobile accident after celebrating their Stanley Cup win the previous year. The following year, Detroit, joined by Brendan Shanahan and Larry Murphy during the season, once again reached the Finals in 1997. After defeating the St. Louis Blues in six games, the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim and the Colorado Avalanche in the first three rounds, the Wings went on to beat the Philadelphia Flyers in four straight games in the Stanley Cup Finals. It was the Wings' first Stanley Cup since 1955, breaking the longest drought (42 years long) in the league at that time. Mike Vernon accepted the Conn Smythe Trophy as the Most Valuable Player in the 1997 playoffs. Tragedy struck the Wings six days after their championship; defenseman Vladimir Konstantinov, one of the "Russian Five", suffered a brain injury in a limousine accident, and his career came to an abrupt end. Wings trainer Sergei Mnatsakanov suffered similar injuries. Red Wings defenseman Slava Fetisov was also injured in the accident, but was released from the hospital the next day. The Red Wings dedicated the 1997–98 season, which also ended in a Stanley Cup victory (another sweep, this time over the Washington Capitals), to Konstantinov, who came out onto the ice in his wheelchair on victory night to touch the Cup. Yzerman, who had won the Conn Smythe Trophy as postseason Most Valuable Player that year, immediately gave the Cup to Konstantinov after he hoisted it. He later reported that he had intended to pass it to goalie Chris Osgood for his stellar surprise performance. "Not very often does a moment in hockey transcend sports," remarked Brendan Shanahan later. The following season, the Wings looked poised to "three-peat" for the first time in franchise history, acquiring three-time top blueliner Chris Chelios from his hometown Chicago Blackhawks in March 1999, but it was not to be as they would end up losing the Western Conference Semifinals to Colorado in six games. The Wings had built up a fierce rivalry with the Avalanche in this time. With the Red Wings beating the Avs in the third round in 1997, and Colorado beating Detroit in the second round in both 1999 and 2000, the battles between these two teams had become one of the fiercest in sports. During a game on March 26, 1997, a brawl ensued between Colorado goalie Patrick Roy and his Detroit counterpart Mike Vernon. In a separate fight, Darren McCarty paid back Avalanche player Claude Lemieux for his hit from behind on Kris Draper the year before. Fittingly, it was Darren McCarty who scored the overtime goal to give the Red Wings the 6–5 victory in the game that became known as "Fight Night at the Joe." In 2001, Detroit, the league's second-best team in the regular season, were upset in the playoffs by the Los Angeles Kings. During the summer that followed, they acquired legendary goalie Dominik Hasek (the defending Vezina Trophy winner) in a trade with the Buffalo Sabres. They also landed left-wing Luc Robitaille and right-wing Brett Hull through free agency, all three are now retired. Rookie center Pavel Datsyuk joined the Wings from the Russian Super League the same year. The Wings became the hands-down favorite to win the Cup in 2002. They did not disappoint, posting the league's best record in the regular season and defeating Colorado in seven games in the Western Conference Finals after beating the Vancouver Canucks and St. Louis Blues in rounds one and two. The Red Wings went on to capture another Cup in five games over the Cinderella-story Carolina Hurricanes, with Nicklas Lidstrom winning the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoff's Most Valuable Player. Bowman and Hasek both elected to retire after the season. The 2003 season saw the Red Wings promote associate coach Dave Lewis to the head coach position after Bowman's retirement. Needing a new starting goaltender after Hasek's retirement, the Red wings signed Curtis Joseph from the Toronto Maple Leafs to a three year, $24 million deal. Also new to the lineup was highly touted Swedish prospect Henrik Zetterberg. The Red Wings finished the season second in the Western Conference and third overall in the NHL. The Red Wings were favored in their first round matchup against the 7th seeded Mighty Ducks of Anaheim. But the Ducks shocked the hockey world by sweeping the Red Wings in four games, thanks in large part to the strong performance of Ducks goaltender J. S. Giguere. The Ducks later advanced to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they lost in Game 7 to the New Jersey Devils. Longtime Wing Sergei Fedorov signed with the Mighty Ducks as a free agent during the offseason, after a long contract dispute. More importantly, Dominik Hasek decided to come out of retirement, and joined the Wings for the 2003–04 season. This caused a problem for the Wings, as Joseph still had 2 years remaining on his contract. The Wings also added defenseman Derian Hatcher from the Dallas Stars via free agency, as well as forward Ray Whitney from the Columbus Blue Jackets. Joseph, despite being one of the highest-paid players in the NHL, had to spend part of the season with the Grand Rapids Griffins, Detroit's American Hockey League affiliate. The Wings attempted to trade him; but, perhaps because of his large contract, there were no suitors. Ultimately, Hasek called it quits after just 14 games because of a groin injury, and Joseph became the Wings' No. 1 goalie again, and helped lead the team to the top of the Central Division and the National Hockey League standings. Hatcher was also injured just a few games into the regular season with a torn MCL. Hatcher would not return until the end of the regular season. The Wings acquired veteran center Robert Lang from the Capitals at the trade deadline. The Red Wings eliminated the Nashville Predators in six games in the first round of the playoffs, which led to a second round matchup with the Calgary Flames. In Game 5, with the series tied at two games apiece, a deflected puck struck Steve Yzerman in the left eye, sidelining him for the remainder of the playoffs. The Red Wings lost that game 1–0, and were eliminated the next game in Calgary by the same score in overtime. During the 2004 offseason, the Wings focused on keeping players they already had instead of being active on the free agent market. They re-signed Frank J. Selke Trophy-winning forward Kris Draper, who had just had a career season, to a four-year deal, and captain Yzerman to a one-year deal. They also re-signed Brendan Shanahan, Jiri Fischer, Jason Williams, and Mathieu Dandenault as well head coach Dave Lewis. Deals were not reached with veteran defensemen Chris Chelios and Mathieu Schneider or star forward Pavel Datsyuk before the NHL owners triggered their lockout on September 15. There also was a parting of ways with veteran forward Brett Hull, who signed with the Phoenix Coyotes as did forward Boyd Devereaux. 2005 and beyond: New Era for Detroit On July 15, 2005, Mike Babcock, former bench boss in Anaheim, became the new head coach for the Wings. On August 8, the Wings brought back goaltender Chris Osgood, who had spent time with the New York Islanders and St. Louis Blues since his last stint in Detroit, by signing him to a one-year contract. Approximately fourteen minutes into a game on November 21, 2005, against the Nashville Predators, defenseman Jiri Fischer suffered a seizure and collapsed on the bench. His heart had stopped, and he was resuscitated by CPR and an AED. The game was canceled because of his injury, and was made up on January 23, 2006. This was the first time in NHL history a game had been postponed by injury. The game was played for the full 60 minutes; however, the Predators were allowed to maintain their 1–0 lead from the original game and won, 3–2. For the 2006 Winter Olympics in Torino, Italy, the NHL again agreed to allow players to participate for their home countries. The Red Wings sent 10 players to the competition. Gold medal winners from Team Sweden included Lidstrom, Henrik Zetterberg, Mikael Samuelsson, Tomas Holmstrom, and Niklas Kronwall. Robert Lang represented the Bronze medal winning Team Czech Republic. The Red Wings won the Presidents' Trophy with a 58–16–8 record, earning them 124 points.(NHL Standings), and secured home ice advantage for the entire playoffs. The Detroit Red Wings opened the 2006 Stanley Cup playoffs against the Edmonton Oilers with a 3–2 overtime victory at Joe Louis Arena. However, the Oilers won 4 of the next 5 games to take the series. After the playoffs, Detroit management informed goaltender Manny Legace that he would not be a part of the team next season, while Chris Osgood and Nicklas Lidstrom signed 2–year extensions. Continuing the shakeup of the Red Wings roster, July 9 brought the signing of alternate captain Brendan Shanahan to a free agent deal with the New York Rangers after spending the previous 9 seasons with the club. Shanahan turned down equal offers from the Wings and Montreal Canadiens to sign with the Rangers, stating that he felt he was part of the Red Wings past, not future. July 31 brought the re-signing of Dominik Hasek to a one-year deal from the Ottawa Senators, marking the beginning of his third stint with the Wings. Nicklas Lidstrom, the current captain of the Wings. Perhaps the biggest change to the roster in the off season was the announcement that Steve Yzerman would retire from playing hockey after playing 23 seasons with the Wings. He subsequently was offered the job of Vice President of Operations, and remained with the team. Not long after, it was announced that Yzerman's number 19 would be retired during the following season. Yzerman retired with the distinction of having been the longest serving team captain in NHL history. The Red Wings opened the 2006–07 season with Steve Yzerman "passing the torch" to Nicklas Lidstrom when Lidstrom was named Captain for the 2006–07 season. The Red Wings retired Steve Yzerman's jersey number 19 on January 2 before a game with the Anaheim Ducks. The Red Wings hold the longest current playoff streak of all professional North American sports teams, at 18 consecutive seasons. At the 2007 NHL trade deadline, the Wings acquired forwards Kyle Calder and the injured Todd Bertuzzi. Calder came to Detroit in return for Jason Williams. Bertuzzi was acquired from the Florida Panthers for conditional draft picks and prospect Shawn Matthias. That April, the Wings signed Pavel Datsyuk to a seven-year contract extension, along with re-signing gritty forward Kirk Maltby to a three-year deal. The Wings finished first in the Western Conference and tied for first in the NHL with the Buffalo Sabres, but the Sabres were awarded the Presidents' Trophy by virtue of having the greater number of wins. Game 1 of the opening round saw the Red Wings' 452–game home sellout streak (dating back to December 10, 1996) come to end with an announced crowd of 19,204. They advanced to the third round of the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs after defeating the Calgary Flames and San Jose Sharks both in six games, coming back three straight after the Sharks' 2–1 series lead. The Red Wings lost to the eventual Stanley Cup winning team - the Anaheim Ducks, in the Western Conference Finals four games to two. In doing so, the 2007 Playoffs marked the most successful run for Detroit since their 2002 Stanley Cup Championship, finishing two games away from a berth in the Stanley Cup Finals. On July 1, free agent defenseman Mathieu Schneider signed a deal with the Ducks. However, Detroit filled the void by immediately signing former New Jersey Devil and Dearborn, Michigan native Brian Rafalski to a 5–year deal. A short time later, Todd Bertuzzi followed in Schneider's footsteps to a free agent deal with Anaheim. Kyle Calder signed a free agent deal with the Los Angeles Kings and Robert Lang signed with the Chicago Blackhawks. The Red Wings then signed former St. Louis Blues captain Dallas Drake to a 1 year deal. Drake was originally drafted by Detroit in 1989 and played for them from 1992–1994 before being traded to Winnipeg. To start the 2007–2008 campaign, Henrik Zetterberg recorded at least a point in each of Detroit's first 16 games, setting a club record. At the 2008 trade deadline, the Red Wings announced that they had signed former Wing Darren McCarty to a one year contract for the remainder of the season. The Red Wings also acquired defenseman Brad Stuart from the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for a second-round pick in 2008 and a fourth-round pick in 2009. Nearing the end of the 2007-2008 season, Detroit signed Michigan State University senior Justin Abdelkader to a three-year contract. The Red Wings won their eleventh Stanley Cup on June 4, 2008, against the Pittsburgh Penguins in Game Six of the Stanley Cup Finals by a score of 3-2. This was their fourth Stanley Cup in 11 years. Henrik Zetterberg scored the Stanley Cup winning goal and was also named the winner of the Conn Smythe Trophy as the Most Valuable Player of the playoffs. Nicklas Lidstrom became the first European Captain to win the Stanley Cup. On July 2, 2008, the Detroit Red Wings announced the signing on unrestricted free agent Marian Hossa to a one year deal worth approximately $7.4 million. Hossa was a member of the Pittsburgh Penguins team that the Red Wings defeated in the 2008 Stanley Cup Final. Hossa reportedly turned down several other longer termed and higher paid offers from other teams to join the Red Wings, stating that he felt Detroit gave him his best opportunity to win a Stanley Cup. The Red Wings also re-signed free agents Brad Stuart and Valtteri Filppula to four and five year deals, respectively. The Red Wings also signed goaltender Ty Conklin to a one year deal upon the retirement of Dominik Hasek; Conklin was also a member of the Penguins the previous season along with Hossa. Winger Dallas Drake announced his retirement in July, and in early August it was announced that former coach Scotty Bowman had taken a senior advisor position with the Chicago Blackhawks, citing the opportunity to work with his son (Chicago assistant GM Stan Bowman) was too good to pass up. From the beginning of the 2008–09 season to New Year's Day, the Wings have, again, enjoyed great success, being although second to the San Jose Sharks. On January 1, 2009, the Red Wings played the Chicago Blackhawks in the third NHL Winter Classic, beating the Blackhawks 6 - 4. Ty Conklin was the starting goaltender for the Detroit Red Wings, but he also started in net for the 2003 and 2008 Winter Classic. In those games, he played for the Edmonton Oilers and Pittsburgh Penguins, respectively. It was announced in February of 2009 that the Red Wings would start the 2009–10 season in Stockholm, Sweden against the St. Louis Blues inside the Globe Arena. Currently 8 players for Detroit are from Sweden including Jonathan Ericsson, Johan Franzen, Tomas Holmstrom, Niklas Kronwall, Mikael Samuelsson, Andreas Lilja, Henrik Zetterberg and team captain Nicklas Lidstrom. On March 15, 2009, the Red Wings defeated the Columbus Blue Jackets by the score of 4 - 0, and became the first team in NHL history to top 100 points in nine straight seasons, breaking a tie with the Montreal Canadiens (1974–75 through 1981–82). Team information Uniforms The Red Wings, like all NHL teams, updated their jerseys (traditionally known in hockey as "sweaters") to the new Rbk Edge standard for the 2007–08 NHL season. The Red Wings kept their design as close as possible, with a few exceptions: On the road (white) jersey, there is more red on the sleeves as the color panel begins closer to the shoulder. The white sleeve numbers on both jerseys were also moved up a bit, creating more red space between the bottom of the number and the wraparound white trim. The letters of the captain and alternate captains were moved to the player's right shoulder; Detroit is the only team in the league that made this change, although the 2008 NHL All Star jerseys featured this as well. All teams now have an NHL shield panel on the front of the jersey near the collar, and a rounded hemline at the bottom of the jersey which goes up at the hips, providing more mobility. The Red Wings have not used any alternate logos or uniforms since the trend became popular in the 1990s, the sole exceptions were select games of the 1991–92 season commemorating the league's 75th Anniversary, and for a commemorative game in 1994 at Chicago Stadium. Those jerseys were based on the uniforms worn by the team (then the Detroit Cougars) in 1927-28. The throwbacks are primarily white with five red horizontal stripes on the body, the broadest middle stripe bearing "DETROIT" in bold letters, and three red stripes on the sleeves. The striped throwbacks have been a popular design, as replicas continue to be marketed by the NHL . This jersey was also a basis for the uniforms worn by Wayne Gretzky's team of NHLPA All-Stars, nicknamed the "99ers", for their exhibition tour in Europe during the 1994–95 NHL lockout; a picture of Gretzky in this jersey was used for the cover art of a video game bearing his name. Alternate jerseys for the RBK Edge system are expected for 2008-2009, but Detroit has thus far opted not to use alternates. The Red Wings wore alternative "Retro" jerseys for the 2009 NHL Winter Classic in Chicago. The one-time jerseys were based on the uniforms worn by the then-Detroit Cougars during their inaugural season of 1926–27. These jerseys were white, with a single bold red stripe on the sleeves and chest, and a uniquely-styled white Old English "D" (a Detroit sports tradition, also currently used by the Detroit Tigers but formerly used by both the Wings and the University of Detroit Titans) centered on the chest stripe. These jerseys were also worn for their final 2009 regular season home game, again against the Chicago Blackhawks. Fan tradition: The Octopus The "Legend of the Octopus" is a sports tradition during Detroit Red Wings playoff games, in which an octopus is thrown onto the ice surface for good luck. During the playoffs, Joe Louis Arena is generally adorned with a giant octopus with red eyes, nicknamed "Al" after Joe Louis Arena head ice manager Al Sobotka. The 1952 playoffs featured the start of the tradition—the octopus throw. The owner of a local fish market, Peter Cusimano, threw one from the stands onto the ice. The eight legs were purportedly symbolic of the eight wins it took to win the Stanley Cup at the time. The Red Wings went on to sweep both of their opponents that year en route to a Stanley Cup championship. The NHL has, at various times, tried to eliminate this tradition but it continues to this day. There is a certain etiquette that must be followed for fans that wish to throw octopuses onto the ice. The most appropriate time to throw an octopus onto the ice is after the national anthem is sung or after the Red Wings have scored a goal. Under these circumstances, the eight-legged creature must be thrown onto the ice surface in an area that is clear of all players. It is never acceptable to aim for opposing players. Beforehand, octopuses are usually boiled to reduce the amount of "slime" coating and facilitate the time it takes to clean up the ice and prevent further delay. Since Joe Louis Arena does not condone the throwing of any foreign objects onto the ice, fans often sneak the sea creatures in wrapped around their bellies in trash bags. The boiling process also lessens the odor and allows the fans to get past security. Tactics are also used to protect the identity of octopus-throwers from arena security. It is common practice for the hurler to ask the surrounding people to stand up with him to shroud the task in anonymity. Al Sobotka is the man responsible for removing the thrown creatures from the ice. He is known for swinging the tossed octopuses above his head when walking off the ice. On April 19, 2008, NHL director of hockey operations Colin Campbell sent a memo to the Detroit Red Wings organization that forbids Zamboni drivers from cleaning up any octopuses thrown onto the ice and that violating the mandate would result in a $10,000 fine. Instead, it will be the linesmen who will perform this duty. In an email to the Detroit Free Press NHL spokesman Frank Brown justified the ban because "matter flies off the octopus and gets on the ice" when Al Sobotka does it. This ban, however, was later loosened to allow for the octopus twirling to take place at the zamboni entrance. Radio and television The Red Wings' flagship radio stations are Detroit sister stations WXYT-AM 1270 and WXYT-FM 97.1. Games are carried on both stations unless there is a conflict with Detroit Lions football or Detroit Tigers baseball (to whom the stations are also flagships). There are several affiliate stations. The Red Wings' exclusive local television rights are held by Fox Sports Detroit. FSN Detroit Nets Pro Sports 3 pointer It shared rights with WKBD, which simulcasted games on a small network of stations across Michigan and Northwestern Ohio until the end of the 2003-2004 season. Broadcasters: Ken Daniels: Television Play by Play (FS Detroit) Mickey Redmond: Television Color Commentator (FS Detroit, Home Games) John Keating: Television pre-game and post game show host (FS Detroit) Larry Murphy: Television Color Commentator / reporter (FS Detroit) Ken Kal: Radio Play by Play Paul Woods: Radio Analyst Trevor Thompson, Mickey York: FS Detroit pre-game and post-game show reporters During many home games on FS Detroit where Ken Daniels and Mickey Redmond are in the booth, Larry Murphy also provides analysis "between the benches" during games. Season-by-season record This is a partial list of the last five seasons completed by the Red Wings. For the full season-by-season history, see List of Detroit Red Wings seasons Note: GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; T = Ties; OTL = Overtime losses; Pts = Points; GF = Goals for; GA = Goals against; PIM = Penalties in minutes Records as of May 21, 2007. {| class="wikitable" |- style="font-weight:bold; background-color:#dddddd;" | |Season || GP || W || L || T || OTL || Pts || GF || GA || PIM || Finish || Playoffs |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" | 2003–04 || 82 || 48 || 21 || 11 || 2 || 109 || 255 || 189 || 966 || 1st, Central || Lost in Conference Semifinals, 2–4 (Flames) |- | 2004–05 || colspan="11"| Season cancelled because of 2004–05 NHL lockout |- bgcolor="#eeeeee" | 2005–061 || 82 || 58 || 16 || — || 8 || 124 || 305 || 209 || 1127 || 1st, Central || Lost in Conference Quarterfinals, 2–4 (Oilers) |- | 2006–07 || 82 || 50 || 19 || — || 13 || 113 || 254 || 199 || 982 || 1st, Central || Lost in Conference Finals, 2–4 (Ducks) |- style="font-weight:bold" bgcolor="#eeeeee" |2007–08 || 82 || 54 || 21 || — || 7 || 115 || 257 || 184 || 937 || 1st, Central || Stanley Cup Champions, 4–2 (Penguins) |- |2008-09 || 82 || 51 || 21 || — || 10 || 112 || 295 || 24 || 824 || 1st, Central || TBD |} 1 As of the 2005–06 NHL season, all games will have a winner; the OTL column includes SOL (Shootout losses). Notable players Current roster Team captains Art Duncan, 1926–27 Reg Noble, 1927–30 George Hay, 1930–31 Carson Cooper, 1931–32 Larry Aurie, 1932–33 Herbie Lewis, 1933–34 Ebbie Goodfellow, 1934–35 Doug Young, 1935–38 Ebbie Goodfellow, 1938–42 Sid Abel, 1942–43 Mud Bruneteau, 1943–44 William Hollett, 1944–46 Sid Abel, 1946–52 Ted Lindsay, 1952–56 Red Kelly, 1956–58 Gordie Howe, 1958–62 Alex Delvecchio, 1962–73 Rotating captains: Nick Libett, Red Berenson, Gary Bergman, Ted Harris, Mickey Redmond, & Larry Johnston, 1973–74 Marcel Dionne, 1974–75 Danny Grant, 1975–77 Terry Harper, 1975–76 Dennis Polonich, 1976–77 Dan Maloney, 1977–78 Dennis Hextall, 1978–79 Nick Libett & Paul Woods, 1979 (co-captains) Dale McCourt, 1979–80 Errol Thompson & Reed Larson, 1980–81 (co-captains) Reed Larson, 1981–82 Danny Gare, 1982–86 Steve Yzerman, 1986–2006 Nicklas Lidstrom, 2006–present Honored membersHall of Famers: Players Sid Abel, C/LW, 1938–52, inducted 1969 Marty Barry, C, 1935–39, inducted 1965 Andy Bathgate, RW, 1965–67, inducted 1978 Johnny Bucyk, LW, 1955–57, inducted 1981 Paul Coffey, D, 1993–96, inducted 2004 Roy Conacher, LW, 1946–47, inducted 1998 Alex Delvecchio, LW/C, 1951–73, inducted 1977 Marcel Dionne, C, 1971–75, inducted 1992 Viacheslav Fetisov, D, 1995–98, inducted 2001 Frank Fredrickson, C, 1926–1927 & 1930–1931, inducted 1958 Bill Gadsby, D, 1961–66, inducted 1970 Eddie Giacomin, G, 1975–78, inducted 1987 Ebbie Goodfellow, D, 1929–43, inducted 1963 Doug Harvey, D, 1967, inducted 1973 George Hay, LW, 1927–31 & 1932–33, inducted 1958 Gordie Howe, RW, 1946–71, inducted 1972 Syd Howe, LW, 1934–46, inducted 1965 Gordon "Duke" Keats, C, 1926-27, inducted 1958 Red Kelly, D/C, 1947–60, inducted 1969 Igor Larionov, C, 1995-2000, 2001-03, inducted 2008 Herbie Lewis, D, 1928–39, inducted 1989 Ted Lindsay, LW, 1944–57, 1964–65, inducted 1966 Harry Lumley, G, 1944–50, inducted 1980 Larry Murphy, D, 1997–2001, inducted 2004 Reg Noble, 1927–32, inducted 1962 Brad Park, D, 1983–85, inducted 1988 Marcel Pronovost, D, 1950–67, inducted 1978 Bill Quackenbush, D, 1942–49, inducted 1976 Borje Salming, D, 1989–90, inducted 1996 Terry Sawchuk, G, 1949–55, 1957–64, 1968–69, inducted 1971 Earl Seibert, D, 1943–46, inducted 1963 Darryl Sittler, C, 1984–85, inducted 1989 "Black" Jack Stewart, D, 1938–50, inducted 1964 Tiny Thompson, G, 1938–40, inducted 1959 Norm Ullman, C, 1955–68, inducted 1982 Staff Jack Adams, Head coach, 1927–47, inducted 1959 Scotty Bowman, Head coach, 1993–2002, inducted in 1991 Mike Ilitch, Owner, 1982–present, inducted 2003 Tommy Ivan, Head coach, 1947–54, inducted 1974 Numbers out of circulationRetired jerseys: The banners hanging at Joe Louis Arena. 1 Terry Sawchuk, G, 1949–55, 1957–64 & 1968–69, number retired March 6, 1994 7 Ted Lindsay, LW, 1944–57 & 1964–65, number retired November 10, 1991 9 Gordie Howe, RW, 1946–71, number retired March 12, 1972 10 Alex Delvecchio, C, 1950–73, number retired November 10, 1991 12 Sid Abel, LW, 1938–52, number retired April 29, 1995 19 Steve Yzerman, C, 1983–2006, number retired January 2, 2007 (the banner features the captain "C" to honor his tenure as the longest serving captain in NHL history)Retired numbers: 6 Larry Aurie, RW, 1927-1939, following his retirement from the NHL. This was the first number ever retired by the Detroit Red Wings; however, Aurie does not have a banner hanging in Joe Louis Arena. The NHL's official information publication, the Official NHL Guide And Record Book, listed the number as being retired from 1975 until 2000 when reference to it was removed at the request of the Red Wings organization. The team no longer considers the number to be retired, although it is not available for use. 16 Vladimir Konstantinov, D, 1991-97, following a career-ending vehicular accident. 99 Wayne Gretzky, Although he was never a member of the Red Wings, his number was retired league-wide February 6, 2000 First-round draft picks 1963: Pete Mahovlich (2nd overall) 1964: Claude Gauthier (1st overall) 1965: George Forgie (3rd overall) 1966: Steve Atkinson (6th overall) 1967: Ron Barkwell (9th overall) 1968: Steve Andrascik (11th overall) 1969: Jim Rutherford (10th overall) 1970: Serge Lajeunesse (12th overall) 1971: Marcel Dionne (2nd overall) 1972: None (Pierre Guite 2nd round (26th overall)) 1973: Terry Richardson (11th overall) 1974: Bill Lochead (9th overall) 1975: Rick Lapointe (5th overall) 1976: Fred Williams (4th overall) 1977: Dale McCourt (1st overall) 1978: Willie Huber (9th overall) 1979: Mike Foligno (3rd overall) 1980: Mike Blaisdell (11th overall) 1981: None (Claude Loiselle 2nd round (23rd overall) 1982: Murray Craven (17th overall) 1983: Steve Yzerman (4th overall) 1984: Shawn Burr (7th overall) 1985: Brent Fedyk (8th overall) 1986: Joe Murphy (1st overall) 1987: Yves Racine (11th overall) 1988: Kory Kocur (17th overall) 1989: Mike Sillinger (11th overall) 1990: Keith Primeau (3rd overall) 1991: Martin Lapointe (10th overall) 1992: Curtis Bowen (22nd overall) 1993: Anders Eriksson (22nd overall) 1994: Yan Golubovsky (23rd overall) 1995: Maxim Kuznetsov (26th overall) 1996: Jesse Wallin (26th overall) 1997: None (Yuri Butsayev 2nd round (49th overall)) 1998: Jiri Fischer (25th overall) 1999: None (Jari Tolsa 4th round (120th overall)) 2000: Niklas Kronwall (29th overall) 2001: None (Igor Grigorenko (62nd overall)) 2002: None (Jiri Hudler 2nd round (58th overall)) 2003: None (Jimmy Howard 2nd round (64th overall)) 2004: None (Johan Franzen 3rd round (97th overall)) 2005: Jakub Kindl (19th overall)) 2006: None (Cory Emmerton 2nd round (41st overall)) 2007: Brendan Smith (27th overall) 2008: Thomas McCollum (30th overall) Franchise scoring leaders These are the top-ten point-scorers in franchise history. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season.Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games Played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; P/G = Points per game; * = current Red Wings player PointsGoalsAssists Player Pos GP G A Pts P/G Gordie Howe RW 1687 786 1023 1809 1.07 Steve Yzerman C 1514 692 1063 1755 1.16 Alex Delvecchio C 1549 456 825 1281 0.83 Nicklas Lidstrom* D 1330 228 769 997 0.75 Sergei Fedorov C 908 400 554 954 1.05 Norm Ullman C 875 324 434 758 0.87 Ted Lindsay LW 862 335 393 728 0.84 Brendan Shanahan LW 716 309 324 633 0.88 Reed Larson D 708 188 382 564 0.80 John Ogrodnick RW 539 259 275 534 0.99 Player Pos G Gordie Howe RW 786 Steve Yzerman C 692 Alex Delvecchio C 456 Sergei Fedorov C 400 Ted Lindsay LW 335 Norm Ullman C 324 Brendan Shanahan LW 309 John Ogrodnick RW 259 Nicklas Lidstrom* D 228 Vyacheslav Kozlov RW 202 Player Pos A Steve Yzerman C 1063 Gordie Howe RW 1023 Alex Delvecchio C 825 Nicklas Lidstrom* D 769 Sergei Fedorov C 554 Norm Ullman C 434 Ted Lindsay LW 393 Reed Larson D 382 Pavel Datsyuk* C 351 Brendan Shanahan LW 324 NHL awards and trophies Stanley Cup 1935–36, 1936–37, 1942–43, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1996–97, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2007–08 Presidents' Trophy 1994–95, 1995–96, 2001–02, 2003–04, 2005–06, 2007–08 Clarence S. Campbell Bowl 1994–95, 1996–97, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2007–08, 2008–09 Prince of Wales Trophy 1935–36, 1936–37, 1942–43, 1949–50, 1950–51, 1951–52, 1952–53, 1953–54, 1954–55, 1956–57, 1964–65 Art Ross Trophy Ted Lindsay: 1949–50 Gordie Howe: 1950–51, 1951–52, 1952–53, 1953–54, 1956–57, 1962–63 Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy Brad Park: 1983–84 Steve Yzerman: 2003–04 Calder Memorial Trophy Jim McFadden: 1947–48 Terry Sawchuk: 1950–51 Glenn Hall: 1955–56 Roger Crozier: 1964–65 Conn Smythe Trophy Roger Crozier: 1965–66 Mike Vernon: 1996–97 Steve Yzerman: 1997–98 Nicklas Lidstrom: 2001–02 Henrik Zetterberg: 2007–08 Frank J. Selke Trophy Sergei Fedorov: 1993–94, 1995–96 Steve Yzerman: 1999–00 Kris Draper: 2003–04 Pavel Datsyuk: 2007–08 Hart Memorial Trophy Ebbie Goodfellow: 1939–40 Sid Abel: 1948–49 Gordie Howe: 1951–52, 1952–53, 1956–57, 1957–58, 1959–60, 1962–63 Sergei Fedorov: 1993–94 James Norris Memorial Trophy Red Kelly: 1953–54 Paul Coffey: 1994–95 Nicklas Lidstrom: 2000–01, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08 Jack Adams Award Bobby Kromm: 1977–78 Jacques Demers: 1986–87, 1987–88 Scotty Bowman: 1995–96King Clancy Memorial Trophy Brendan Shanahan: 2002–03 Lady Byng Memorial Trophy Marty Barry: 1936–37 Bill Quackenbush: 1948–49 Red Kelly: 1950–51, 1952–53, 1953–54 Earl Reibel: 1955–56 Alex Delvecchio: 1958–59, 1965–66, 1968–69 Marcel Dionne: 1974–75 Pavel Datsyuk: 2005–06, 2006–07, 2007–08 Lester B. Pearson Award Steve Yzerman: 1988–89 Sergei Fedorov: 1993–94 Lester Patrick Trophy Jack Adams: 1965–66 Gordie Howe: 1966–67 Terry Sawchuk: 1970–71 Alex Delvecchio: 1973–74 Tommy Ivan and Bruce Norris: 1974–75 Mike Ilitch: 1990–91 Scotty Bowman: 2000–01 Marcel Dionne: 2006–07 Reed Larson: 2006–07 Steve Yzerman: 2006–07 NHL Plus/Minus Award Paul Ysebaert: 1991–92 Vladimir Konstantinov: 1995–96 Chris Chelios: 2001–02 Pavel Datsyuk: 2007–08 Vezina Trophy Normie Smith: 1936–37 Johnny Mowers: 1942–43 Terry Sawchuk: 1951–52, 1952–53, 1954–55 William M. Jennings Trophy Chris Osgood & Mike Vernon: 1995–96 Chris Osgood & Dominik Hasek: 2007–08 Mark Messier Leadership Award Chris Chelios: 2006–07 NHL All-Rookie Team 1984: Steve Yzerman 1991: Sergei Fedorov 1992: Nicklas Lidstrom & Vladimir Konstantinov 2003: Henrik Zetterberg Franchise individual recordsThis is a partial list. For the more franchise records, see Detroit Red Wings records'' Most goals in a season: Steve Yzerman, 65 (1988–89) Most assists in a season: Steve Yzerman, 90 (1988–89) Most points in a season: Steve Yzerman, 155 (1988–89) Most penalty minutes in a season: Bob Probert, 398 (1987–88) Most points in a season, defenseman: Nicklas Lidstrom, 80 (2005–06) Most points in a season, rookie: Steve Yzerman, 87 (1983–84) Most wins in a season: Terry Sawchuk, 44 (1950–51 and 1951–52) Most shutouts in a season: Terry Sawchuk, 12 (1951–52, 1953–54, and 1954–55) Most shutouts in post-season: Dominik Hasek, 6 (2002) References See also Russian Five The Grind Line Victoria Cougars List of NHL players List of NHL seasons List of Stanley Cup champions "Curse of Detroit" External links The Official website of the Detroit Red Wings List of Detroit Red Wings by number be-x-old:Дэтройт Рэд Ўінгз | Detroit_Red_Wings |@lemmatized detroit:69 red:85 wing:127 professional:3 ice:16 hockey:16 team:45 base:4 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6,152 | Afonso_de_Albuquerque | Afonso de Albuquerque Dom Afonso de Albuquerque (or Afonso d'Albuquerque - disused) (; 1453, Alhandra - Goa, December 16, 1515) was a Portuguese fidalgo, or nobleman, a naval general officer whose military and administrative activities conquered and established the Portuguese colonial empire in the Indian ocean. Generally considered as a world conquest military genius by means of his successful strategy, he was created first Duke of Goa by king Manuel I of Portugal shortly before his death, being the first Portuguese duke not of the royal family, and the first Portuguese title landed overseas. He attempted to close all the Indian ocean naval passages to the Atlantic, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and to the Pacific, transforming it into a Portuguese Mare Nostrum established over the Turkish power and their Muslim and Hindu allies. Early life Born in Alhandra in the year of 1453, near Lisbon, Portugal, he was for some time known as The Great, The Caesar of the East, Lion of the Seas and as The Portuguese Mars. Through his father, Gonçalo de Albuquerque, Lord of Vila Verde dos Francos (married to Dona Leonor de Menezes), who held an important position at court, he was connected by remote illegitimate descent with the royal family of Portugal. He was educated in mathematics and classical Latin at the court of Afonso V of Portugal, and served ten years in North Africa, where he acquired military experience. He was present at Afonso V's conquest of Arzila and Tangier in Morocco in 1471. Afonso de Albuquerque -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia On his return he was appointed estribeiro-mor (chief equerry) to John II. He took part in the expedition against the Turkish invasion of Italy that culminated in a Christian victory in 1481. CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Afonzo de Albuquerque In 1489 he again served in North Africa. Expeditions to the East First Expedition, 1503-1504 In 1503 he set out on his first expedition to the East, which was to be the scene of his future triumphs. In company with his kinsman Francisco he sailed round the Cape of Good Hope to India, and succeeded in establishing the king of Cochin securely on his throne, obtaining in return for this service permission to build a Portuguese fort at Cochin, and thus laying the foundation of his country's empire in the East. Operations in the Persian Gulf and Malabar, 1504-1508 Albuquerque returned home in July 1504, and was well received by King Manuel I of Portugal, who entrusted him with the command of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen which sailed for India in 1506 under Tristão da Cunha. After a series of successful attacks on the Arab cities on the east coast of Africa, Albuquerque separated from Tristão, and sailed with his squadron against the island of Hormuz, in the Persian Gulf, which was then one of the chief centers of commerce in the East. He arrived on September 25, 1507, and soon obtained possession of the island, though he was unable to maintain his position for long. He was responsible for building the Fort of Our Lady of the Conception on Hormoz Island. With his squadron increased by three vessels, he reached the Malabar coast at the end of 1508, and immediately made known the commission he had received from the king empowering him to supersede the governor Dom Francisco de Almeida. The latter, however, refused to recognize Albuquerque's credentials and cast him into prison, from which he was only released, after three months' confinement, on the arrival of the grand-marshal of Portugal with a large fleet, in November 1509. Almeida having returned home, Albuquerque speedily showed the energy and determination of his character. On this date he became the second viceroy of the State of India, a position he would hold until his death. Andaya, Barbara Watson and Leonard Y. Andaya. (1984) A History of Malaysia "Palgrave" 376 pages. ISBN 0-312-38121-2. Operations in Goa and Malacca, 1510-1511 Afonso de Albuquerque Albuquerque intended to dominate the Muslim world and control the spices' trading network. An unsuccessful attack upon Calicut (modern Kozhikode) in January 1510, in which the commander-in-chief received a severe wound, was immediately followed by the investment and capture of Goa. Albuquerque, finding himself unable to hold the town on his first occupation, abandoned it in August, to return with the reinforcements in November, when he obtained undisputed possession. In April 1511, he set sail from Goa to Malacca with a force of some 1200 men and seventeen or eighteen ships. He conquered Malacca by August 24, 1511 after a severe struggle throughout July. Albuquerque remained in Malacca until November 1511 preparing its defences against any Malay counterattack. He ordered the slaughter of all the Muslim population in an effort to reduce religious divergence hoping that it would force Hindus and Muslims to convert to Christianity. Benton, Lauren. (2001) Law and Colonial Cultures "Cambridge University Press". 300 pages. ISBN 0-521-00926-X. He also ordered the first Portuguese ships to sail east in search of the 'Spice Islands' of Maluku. Various operations, 1512-1515 In 1512 he sailed for the coast of Malabar. On the voyage a violent storm arose, Albuquerque's vessel, the Flor De La Mar, which carried the treasure he had amassed in his conquests, was wrecked, and he himself barely escaped with his life. In September of the same year he arrived at Goa, where he quickly suppressed a serious revolt headed by Idalcan, and took such measures for the security and peace of the town that it became the most flourishing of the Portuguese settlements in India. Albuquerque had been for some time under orders from the home government to undertake an expedition to the Red Sea, in order to secure that channel of communication exclusively to Portugal. He accordingly laid siege to Aden in 1513, but was repulsed; and a voyage into the Red Sea, the first ever made by a European fleet, led to no substantial results. In order to destroy the power of Egypt, he is said to have entertained the idea of diverting the course of the Nile River and so rendering the whole country barren. His last warlike undertaking was a second attack upon Ormuz in 1515. The island yielded to him without resistance, and it remained in the possession of the Portuguese until 1622. Perhaps most tellingly, he intended to steal the body of the Prophet Muhammad, and hold it for ransom until all Muslims had left the Holy Land. China expeditions, 1513 In early 1513, Jorge Álvares—sailing in a mission under Albuquerque—was allowed to land at Lintin Island in the Pearl River Delta of southern China, and soon after Albuquerque sent Rafael Perestrello to southern China to seek out trade relations with the Ming Dynasty of China. In ships from Portuguese Malacca, Rafael sailed to Canton (Guangzhou) in 1513 and again from 1515–1516 to trade with Chinese merchants there. These ventures, along with those of Tomé Pires and Fernão Pires de Andrade, were the first direct European diplomatic and commercial ties to China. However, after the death of the Chinese Zhengde Emperor on April 19, 1521, conservative factions at court seeking to limit eunuch influence rejected the new Portuguese embassy, fought sea battles with the Portuguese around Tuen Mun, and Tomé was forced to write letters to Malacca stating that he and other ambassadors would not be released from prison in China until the Portuguese relinquished their control of Malacca and returned it to the deposed Sultan of Malacca (who was previously a Ming tributary vassal). Mote, Frederick W. and Denis Twitchett. (1998). The Cambridge History of China; Volume 7–8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24333-5 (Hardback edition). Page 340. Nonetheless, Portuguese relations with China became normalized again by the 1540s and in 1557 a permanent Portuguese base at Macau in southern China was established with consent from the Ming court. Political downfall and last years Albuquerque Monument on Afonso de Albuquerque Square in Lisbon (1902). Albuquerque's career had a painful and ignominious close. He had several enemies at the Portuguese court who lost no opportunity of stirring up the jealousy of King Manuel against him, and his own injudicious and arbitrary conduct on several occasions served their end only too well. On his return from Ormuz, at the entrance of the harbour of Goa, he met a vessel from Europe bearing dispatches announcing that he was superseded by his personal enemy Lopo Soares de Albergaria. The blow was too much for him and he died at sea on December 16, 1515. Before his death he wrote a letter to the king in dignified and affecting terms, vindicating his conduct and claiming for his son the honours and rewards that were justly due to himself. His body was buried at Goa in the Church of our Lady. The king of Portugal was convinced too late of his fidelity, and endeavoured to atone for the ingratitude with which he had treated him by heaping honours upon his natural son Brás de Albuquerque (1500—1580). Stier, Hans Erich (1942) Die Welt als Geschichte: Zeitschrift für Universalgeschichte "W. Kohlhammer". In 1576, the latter published a selection from his father's papers under the title Commentarios do Grande Affonso d'Alboquerque which had been gathered in 1557. Forbes, Jack D. (1993) Africans and Native Americans "University of Illinois Press". 344 pages. ISBN 0-252-06321-X. An exquisite and expensive variety of mango, that he used to bring on his journeys to India, has been named in his honour, and is today sold throughout the world as Alphonso mangoes. References Bibliography Albuquerque, Braz de (1774). Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque. Lisbon: Na Regia Officina Typografica. Available in English as The Commentaries of the Great Afonso Dalboquerque, Second Viceroy of India. Laurier Books Ltd. /AES 2000. ISBN 978-8120615144 Danvers, Frederick Charles (1894). The Portuguese in India. London: W. H. Allen. ISBN 978-1402150807 (reprint). Diffie, Bailey W. and George D. Winius (1977). Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0816607826. Marques, António Henrique R. de Oliveira (1972). History of Portugal, 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 023108353X. Panikkar, K. M. (1929). Malabar and the Portuguese: Being a History of the Relations of the Portuguese with Malabar from 1500 to 1663. Bombay: D.B. Taraporevala Sons. ASIN B000878T7Q. 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6,153 | Blackjack | Blackjack (also known as Twenty-one, Vingt-et-un (French for Twenty-one), or Pontoon is the most widely played casino banking game in the world. Scarne's New Complete Guide to Gambling, p. 342 Much of blackjack's popularity is due to the mix of chance with elements of skill, and the publicity that surrounds card counting (calculating the probability of advantages based on the ratio of high cards to low cards). The casino version of the game should not be confused with the British card game Black Jack (a variant of Crazy Eights). History of blackjack Blackjack's precursor was "twenty-one," a game of unknown origin. The first written reference is to be found in a book of Miguel de Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote, and a gambler himself. The main characters of his tale "Rinconete y Cortadillo", from "Novelas Ejemplares", are a couple of cheaters working in Seville. They are proficient at cheating at "veintiuna" (Spanish for twenty-one), and stated that the object of the game is to reach 21 points without busting, and that the Ace values 1 or 11. The game is played with the Spanish deck, that is without tens, which makes the game similar to the current Spanish 21. This short story was written between 1601 and 1602, so the game was played in Castilia since the beginning of the 17th Century or even earlier. Later references of this game are to be found in France and Spain. Historia del Juego en España, Marc Fontbona, 2008, ISBN 978-84-96495-30-2 When 21 was first introduced in the United States it was not very popular, so gambling houses tried offering various bonus payouts to get the players to the tables. One such bonus was a 10-to-1 payout if the player's hand consisted of the ace of spades and a black Jack (either the Jack of clubs or the Jack of spades). This hand was called a "blackjack" and the name stuck to the game even though the bonus payout was soon abolished. As the game is currently played, a "blackjack" may not necessarily contain a jack or any black cards at all. How to play blackjack In casino blackjack, the dealer faces one to seven players from behind a kidney-shaped table. Each player plays his hand independently against the dealer. At the beginning of each round, the player places a bet in the "betting box" and receives an initial hand of two cards. The object of the game is to get a higher card total than the dealer, but without going over 21 which is called "busting" or "too many." (The spot cards count 2 to 9; the 10, jack, queen, and king count as ten; an ace can be either 1 or 11 at the player's choice). The player goes first and plays his hand by taking additional cards if he desires. If he busts, he loses. Then the dealer plays his/her hand. If the dealer busts, he/she loses to all remaining players. If neither busts, the higher hand total wins. In case of a tie, no one wins - the hand is a "push" and all bets are returned. It is possible for the dealer to lose to some players but still beat other players in the same round. Example of a Blackjack game. The top half of the picture shows the beginning of the round, with bets placed and an initial two cards for each player. The bottom half shows the end of the round, with the associated losses or payoffs. Cards are dealt in three ways, either from one or two hand-held decks, from a box containing four to eight decks called a "shoe," or from a shuffling machine. When dealt by hand, the player's two initial cards are face-down, while the dealer has one face-up card called the "upcard" and one face-down card called the "hole card." (In European blackjack, the hole card is not actually dealt until the players all play their hands.) When dealt from a shoe, all player cards are normally dealt face-up, with minor exceptions. It shouldn't matter to the player whether his cards are dealt face-down or face-up since the dealer must play according to predetermined rules. If the dealer has less than 17, she must hit. If the dealer has 17 or more, she must stand (take no more cards), unless it is a "soft 17" (a hand that includes an ace valued as "11," for example a hand consisting of Ace+6, or Ace+2+4). With a soft 17, the dealer follows the casino rules printed on the blackjack table, either to "hit soft 17" or to "stand on all 17's." The highest possible hand is a "blackjack" or "natural," meaning an initial two-card total of 21 (an ace and a ten-value card). A player blackjack is an automatic winner unless the dealer also has blackjack, in which case the hand is a "push" (a tie). When the dealer upcard is an ace, the player is allowed to make a side bet called "insurance," supposedly to guard against the risk that the dealer has a blackjack (i.e., a ten-value card as her hole card). The insurance bet pays 2-to-1 if the dealer has a blackjack. Whenever the dealer has a blackjack, she wins against all player hands except those that also have a blackjack (which are a "push"). The minimum and maximum bets are posted on the table. The payoff on most bets is 1:1, meaning that the player wins the same amount as he bets. The payoff for a player blackjack is 3:2, meaning that the casino pays $3 for each $2 originally bet. (There are many single-deck games which pay only 6:5 for a blackjack.) Player decisions After receiving his initial two cards, the player has four standard options: he can "Hit," "Stand," "Double Down," or "Split a pair." Each option requires the use of a hand signal. At some casinos or tables, the player may have a fifth option called "Surrender." Hit: Take another card. signal: (handheld) scrape cards against table; (face up) touch finger to table Stand: Take no more cards, also "stick" or "stay". signal: (handheld) slide cards under bet; (face up) move hand horizontally Double down: On his first two cards, the player may "double down," i.e., "double" his bet and receive only one card face "down." To do this he moves a second bet equal to the first into the betting box next to his original bet. (If desired, the player is usually allowed to "double down for less," although this is generally not a good idea as the player should only double in favorable situations but should then increase the bet as much as possible.) signal: place additional chips next to (not on top of) original bet, make "one finger" sign Split a pair: If his first two cards are a "pair," meaning two cards of the same value, the player can "split the pair." To do this, he moves a second bet equal to the first into the betting box next to his original bet. The dealer splits the cards to create two hands, placing one bet with each hand. The player then plays two separate hands. signal: place additional chips next to (not on top of) original bet, make "two fingers" sign Surrender: Some casinos offer a fifth option called "Surrender." After the dealer has checked for blackjack, the player may "surrender" by giving up half his bet and not playing out the hand. signal: There is no commonly accepted hand signal; it is just done verbally. The reason for requiring hand signals is to assist the "eye in the sky," a person or video camera located above the table but concealed behind one-way glass. It is used in order to protect the casino against dealers or players who cheat. (It may also be used to protect the casino against card-counters, even though card-counting is not illegal.) The player can take as many hits as he wants (except on a "double down"). However, if he busts, he loses that hand. After all the players have finished making their decisions, the dealer then reveals her hole card and plays out her hand according to predetermined rules. Rule variations and the "house advantage" The blackjack player will encounter many rule variations which affect the house advantage and therefore affect his chances of winning. Some rules are determined by law or regulation, others by the casino itself. Not all rules are posted, so the player may have to ask either beforehand or when the situation occurs. Over 100 variations exist. QFIT.com 100+ Blackjack variations The casino has a "house advantage" at blackjack just as it does at any other casino game. If a particular casino game has a house advantage of 5%, it means that - over the long run - the casino will win about 5% of any initial bet. As long as the blackjack player uses the best possible strategy (a strategy which is known as "Basic Strategy"), the house advantage in blackjack is less than 1%. This is very favorable to the player compared to other casino games. Of course, many blackjack players do not know Basic Strategy or do not follow it, so the true house advantage in those cases is much higher. Dealer hits soft 17? Each casino has a rule about whether or not the dealer hits soft 17, a rule which is printed on the table itself. In the "S17" game, the dealer stands on all 17s. In the "H17" game, the dealer hits on soft 17s. Of course, the dealer always stands on hard 17s. In either case, the dealer has no choice; she either must or must not hit. The "Hit soft 17" game is substantially less favorable to the player with about a 0.2% higher house advantage. Number of decks The number of decks used has a major effect on the player's chance of winning, because it affects the house advantage. (See comparative statistics below.) All things being equal, fewer decks are always more favorable for the basic strategy player. One cause of this is that player blackjack is slightly more likely in single deck blackjack (because blackjack requires two different cards, by removing a card of one type (e.g., a Ten), getting one of a different type (e.g. an Ace) is more likely - and the effect is much bigger in a single deck game than in a multi-deck game), and if the player does have blackjack, the dealer is significantly less likely to have blackjack as well (which is a push), meaning that the player will get paid at 3:2 more often in the single deck game. In reality, multi-deck games almost always have otherwise better rules than single-deck games. However, card counting is much more effective for single deck games. For illustrative purposes, the statistics below all use the same rules—double after split, no resplits, one card to split Aces, no surrender, double on any two cards, original bets only lost on dealer Blackjack, dealer hits soft 17. The single deck game is much better than double deck, which is significantly better than four decks, while from six decks and up there is very little difference. Number of DecksHouse AdvantageSingle deck0.04%Double deck0.42%Four decks0.61%Six decks 0.67%Eight decks0.70% Surrender Some casinos offer a favorable option called "surrender," which allows the player to give up half his bet and not play out the hand. This option is sometimes referred to as "late" surrender because it occurs after the dealer has checked her hole card for a blackjack. (When casinos first opened in Atlantic City, the surrender option was available before the dealer checked for blackjack - a rule highly advantageous to the player - but this "early surrender" option soon disappeared.) Early Surrender variations still exist in several countries. The player will only surrender on the very worst hands, because having even a 25% chance of winning will result in a better average return than giving up half of his bet. See strategy table below for details. With early surrender, a player will surrender very often against a dealer Ace - even including hard 17. Resplit to nn If the player splits a pair other than aces and a third card of that value appears, the player can usually resplit by putting up another bet equal to the original bet. Then there will be three bets on the table and three separate hands. Some casinos allow unlimited resplitting of cards other than aces, while others may limit it to a certain number of hands, such as four hands (for example, "resplit to 4"). Hit/resplit split aces After splitting aces, the usual rule is that only one card will be dealt - the player cannot split, double or even hit. Rule variants include allowing resplitting aces and allowing the player to hit split aces. Allowing the player to hit Aces reduces the casino edge by about 0.13%, allowing resplitting Aces reduces the edge by about 0.03%. Double after split After splitting a pair, some casinos allow the player to "double down" on each of the new two-card hands. This is called "double after split" (DAS) and provides an advantage to the player of about 0.12%. Double on 9/10/11 or 10/11 only Often called "Reno" rules, this rule restricts the player to doubling down only on an initial player total of 10 or 11 (sometimes 9, 10, or 11 - more common in Europe). It prevents doubling on soft hands such as soft 17 (ace-6), and is unfavorable for the player. It increases the house advantage by between 0.09% (8 decks) and 0.15% (1 deck) for the 9-11 rule, and between 0.17% (8 decks) and 0.26% (single deck) for the 10-11 rule. These numbers can vary due to interaction with other rules. European no-hole-card rule In most non-U.S. casinos, a 'no hole card' game is played. This means that there is no dealer hole card. This affects the player's strategy when deciding whether to double and/or split since a dealer Blackjack will result in the loss of the split and double bets. For instance, holding 11 against a dealer 10, the correct strategy is to double in a hole card game (where the player knows the dealer's second card is not an Ace), but to hit in a no hole card game. The no hole card rule adds approximately 0.11% to the house edge. In some places, if the dealer is later found to have blackjack, the player loses only his original bet but not any additional bets (doubles or splits). This has the same advantage as the usual game, and as such does not change basic strategy. Altered payout for blackjack In some places, a blackjack pays only 6:5 or even 1:1 instead of the usual 3:2. This is the most unfavorable variation, increasing the house edge significantly more than any other player restriction. Since blackjack occurs in approximately 4.8% of hands, the 1:1 game increases the house edge by 2.3%, while the 6:5 game adds 1.4% to the house edge. The 1:1 payout for video blackjack is a key reason why it has never approached the table version in terms of popularity. The 6:5 rule is most commonly employed on table blackjack at single deck games - which are otherwise the most attractive game for a basic strategy player. Dealer wins ties This is catastrophic to the player, though rarely used in standard Blackjack. It is sometimes seen in "blackjack-like" games. Six card charlie With this rule, the player wins if six cards have been drawn without busting. It may or may not win if the dealer has a Blackjack. This rule adds about 0.16% to the player edge if an altered strategy is used. The advantage is less with normal Basic Strategy. Insurance If the dealer's upcard is an ace, the player is offered the option of taking Insurance before the dealer checks her 'hole card'. Insurance is a side bet of up to half the original bet placed on a special portion of the table usually marked "Insurance Pays 2 to 1". This side bet is offered only when the dealer's exposed card is an ace. The idea is that the dealer's second card has a fairly high probablility (nearly one-third) to be ten-valued, giving the dealer a blackjack and a certain loss for the player. It is attractive (although not necessarily wise) for the player to insure against this possibility by making an "insurance" bet, which pays 2-to-1 if the dealer has a blackjack, in which case the "insurance proceeds" will make up for the concomitant loss on the original bet. The insurance bet is lost if the dealer does not have blackjack, although the player can still win or lose on the original bet. Insurance is a poor bet for the player unless he is counting cards, because in an infinite deck 4/13 of the cards are "tens" (10, J, Q, or K) (and 9/13 therefore are not), so the theoretical return for an infinite deck game is 4/13 * 2 * bet - 9/13 * bet = -1 /13 * bet, or -7.69%. In practice, the average house edge will be lower than this, because by eliminating even one non-ten card from the shoe (the dealer's Ace), the proportion of the remaining cards that are tens is higher. Even so, the bet is generally to be avoided, as the the house's average edge is still more than 7%. A player who is counting cards can keep count of the remaining tens in the shoe, and use it to make insurance bets only when he has an edge (i.e. when more than one third of the remaining cards are tens). In addition, in a multi-hand single deck game, it is possible for insurance to be a good bet simply by observing the other cards on the table - if the dealer has an Ace, then there are 51 cards left in the deck, of which 16 are tens. However, if there are as few as 2 players playing, and none of their two initial cards are tens, then that means that 16 out of 47 remaining cards, are ten - better than 1 in 3, and so the insurance bet is a good one. When the player has blackjack and the dealer has an ace, the insurance bet may be offered as "even money", meaning that the player's blackjack is paid immediately at 1:1 before checking the dealer's hand. 'Even money' is just a way of expressing the actual payout on the insurance bet, given that the player has blackjack, it is not a different bet, and taking even money is generally even worse than average, because one of the player's two cards is tens, so the proportion of tens remaining in the deck is lower. In casinos where a hole card is dealt, a dealer who is showing a card with a value of Ace or 10 may slide the corner of her hole card over a small mirror or electronic sensor on the tabletop in order to check whether she has a blackjack. This practice minimizes the risk of inadvertently revealing the hole card, which may give the sharp-eyed player a considerable advantage. Side bets Some casinos offer a side bet with their blackjack games. Examples include side bets based on getting 3 7s, a three card poker-style bet, a pair, and many others. For the sidebet, the player will typically put up an additional wager alongside his main bet. Typically the player can win or lose the sidebet, regardless of the main game result. As there is little or no strategy involved, the house edge for side bets is usually much higher than the main game (which requires accurate play). Blackjack strategy Basic strategy Because blackjack has an element of player choice, players can reduce casino advantage by playing optimally. The complete set of optimal plays is known as basic strategy. There are slight variations depending on the house rules and number of decks. Your hand Dealer's face-up card 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A Hard totals (excluding pairs) 17-20 S S S S S S S S S S 16 S S S S S H H SU SU SU 15 S S S S S H H H SU H 13-14 S S S S S H H H H H 12 H H S S S H H H H H 11 Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh H 10 Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh H H 9 H Dh Dh Dh Dh H H H H H 5-8 H H H H H H H H H H Soft totals 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A A,8 A,9 S S S S S S S S S S A,7 S Ds Ds Ds Ds S S H H H A,6 H Dh Dh Dh Dh H H H H H A,4 A,5 H H Dh Dh Dh H H H H H A,2 A,3 H H H Dh Dh H H H H H Pairs 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A A,A SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP 10,10 S S S S S S S S S S 9,9 SP SP SP SP SP S SP SP S S 8,8 SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP SP 7,7 SP SP SP SP SP SP H H H H 6,6 SP SP SP SP SP H H H H H 5,5 Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh Dh H H 4,4 H H H SP SP H H H H H 2,2 3,3 SP SP SP SP SP SP H H H H The above is a basic strategy table for 3 or more decks, dealer stands on soft 17, double on any 2 cards, double after split allowed, dealer peeks for blackjack, and blackjack pays 3:2. Key: S = Stand H = Hit Dh = Double (if not allowed, then hit) Ds = Double (if not allowed, then stand) SP = Split SU = Surrender (if not allowed, then hit) Most Las Vegas strip casinos hit on soft 17. This rule change requires a slightly modified basic strategy table—double on 11 vs A, double on A/7 vs 2, and double on A/8 vs 6. Most casinos outside of Vegas still stand on soft 17. Card counting Basic strategy provides the player with the optimal play for any blackjack situation based on millions of hands played in the long run. However in the short run, as the cards are dealt from the deck, the remaining deck is no longer complete. By keeping track of the cards that have already been played, it is possible to know when the cards remaining in the deck are advantageous for the player. Card counting creates two opportunities: The player can make larger bets when he has the advantage. For example, the player can increase the starting bet if there are many aces and tens left in the deck, in the hope of hitting a blackjack. The player can use information about the remaining cards to improve upon the basic strategy rules for specific hands played. For example, with many tens left in the deck, the player may double down in more situations since there is a better chance of making a strong hand. Virtually all card-counting systems do not require the player to remember which cards have been played. Rather, a point system is established for the cards, and the player keeps track of a simple point count as the cards are played out from the dealer. Depending on the particular blackjack rules in a given casino, basic strategy reduces the house advantage to near 0 with some single-deck games, and less than 1% in a multi-deck game. Rules & House Edge Table Card-counting, if done correctly, can give the player an advantage, typically ranging from 0 to 2% over the house. Theory of Blackjack, p. 5 To counter card-counting, many casinos switched from a single deck to multiple decks, with the cards dealt out of a container known as a "shoe". In most US jurisdictions, card-counting mentally is legal and is not considered cheating. Theory of Blackjack, pp 6–7 However, most casinos have the right to ban players, with or without cause, and card-counting is frequently used as a justification to ban a player. Usually, the casino host will simply inform the player that he or she is no longer welcome to play at that casino. Players must be careful not to signal the fact that they are counting. The use of electronic or other counting devices is usually illegal. See also: Martingale (betting system) See also: MIT Blackjack Team Composition-dependent strategy Basic strategy is based on a player's point total and the dealer's visible card. A player's ideal decision may depend on the composition of his hand, not just the information considered in the basic strategy. For example, a player should ordinarily stand when holding 12 against a dealer 4. However, in a single deck game, the player should hit if his 12 consists of a 10 and a 2; this is because the player wants to receive any card other than a 10 if hitting, and the 10 in the player's hand is one less card available to cause a bust for the player or the dealer. However, in situations where basic and composition-dependent strategy lead to different actions, the difference in expected value between the two decisions will be small. Additionally, as the number of decks used in a blackjack game rises, both the number of situations where composition determines the correct strategy and the house edge improvement from using a composition-dependent strategy will fall. Using a composition-dependent strategy only reduces house edge by 0.0031% in a six-deck game, less than one tenth the improvement in a single-deck game (0.0387%). Shuffle tracking and other advantage-play techniques Techniques other than card-counting can swing the advantage of casino blackjack towards the player. All such techniques are based on the value of the cards to the player and the casino, as originally conceived by Edward O. Thorp. . The Mathematics of Gambling One technique, mainly applicable in multi-deck games, involves tracking groups of cards (aka slugs, clumps, packs) during the play of the shoe, following them through the shuffle and then playing and betting accordingly when those cards come into play from the new shoe. This technique, which is admittedly much more difficult than straight card-counting and requires excellent eyesight and powers of visual estimation, has the additional benefit of fooling the casino people who are monitoring the player's actions and the count, since the shuffle tracker could be, at times, betting and/or playing opposite to how a straightforward card-counter would. Shuffle Tracking Counts Arnold Snyder's articles in Blackjack Forum magazine brought shuffle tracking to the general public. His book, The Shuffle Tracker's Cookbook, mathematically analyzed the player edge available from shuffle tracking based on the actual size of the tracked slug. Jerry L. Patterson also developed and published a shuffle-tracking method for tracking favorable clumps of cards and cutting them into play and tracking unfavorable clumps of cards and cutting them out of play. The Gambling Times Guide to Blackjack; Gambling Times Incorporated, Hollywood, CA; © 1984; Page 110; ISBN 0-89746-015-4 Shuffle-Tracking An Easy Way to Start ] Break the Dealer; by Jerry L. Patterson and Eddie Olsen; Perigee Books; A Division of Penguin Putnam; © 1986; ISBN 0-399-51233-0 Shuffle-Tracking; Chapter 6, Page 83] Blackjack: A Winner’s Handbook; by Jerry L. Patterson; Perigee Books; A Division of Penguin Putnam; © 1990; ISBN 0-399-51598-4 Shuffle-Tracking; Chapter 4, Page 51] Another legal method of gaining a player advantage at blackjack include a wide variety of techniques for hole carding or gaining information about the next card to be dealt. In addition, match-play coupons give the skillful basic-strategy blackjack player an edge. And finally, a special promotion-such as 2:1 for a blackjack-can temporarily swing the advantage to the player. Variants Pontoon is an English variation of blackjack with significant rule and strategy differences. However, in Australia and Malaysia, Pontoon is an unlicensed version of the American game Spanish 21 played without a hole card; despite the name, it bears no relation to English Pontoon. Spanish 21 provides players with many liberal blackjack rules, such as doubling down any number of cards (with the option to 'rescue', or surrender only one wager to the house), payout bonuses for five or more card 21s, 6-7-8 21s, 7-7-7 21s, late surrender, and player blackjacks always winning and player 21s always winning, at the cost of having no 10 cards in the deck (though there are jacks, queens, and kings). 21st Century Blackjack (also known as "Vegas Style" Blackjack) is commonly found in many California card rooms. In this form of the game, a player bust does not always result in an automatic loss; there are a handful of situations where the player can still push if the dealer busts as well, provided that the dealer busts with a higher total. Certain rule changes are employed to create new variant games. These changes, while attracting the novice player, actually increase the house edge in these games. Double Exposure Blackjack is a variant in which the dealer's cards are both face-up. This game increases house edge by paying even money on blackjacks and players losing ties. Double Attack Blackjack has very liberal blackjack rules and the option of increasing one's wager after seeing the dealer's up card. This game is dealt from a Spanish shoe, and blackjacks only pay even money. The French and German variant "Vingt-et-un" (Twenty-one) and "Siebzehn und Vier" (Seventeen and Four) don't include splitting. An ace can only count as eleven, but two aces count as a Blackjack. This variant is seldom found in casinos, but is more common in private circles and barracks. Chinese Blackjack is played by many in Asia, having no splitting of cards, but with other card combination regulations. Another variant is Blackjack Switch, a version of blackjack in which a player is dealt two hands and is allowed to switch cards. For example, if the player is dealt 10-6 and 5-10, then the player can switch two cards to make hands of 10-10 and 6-5. Natural blackjacks are paid 1:1 instead of the standard 3:2, and a dealer 22 is a push. In Multiple Action Blackjack the player places between 2 or 3 bets on a single hand. The dealer then gets a hand for each bet the player places on a hand. This essentially doubles the number of hands a single dealer can play per hour. Splitting and Doubling are still allowed. Recently, thanks to the popularity of poker, Elimination Blackjack has gained a following. Elimination Blackjack is a tournament format of blackjack. Many casinos offer optional side bets at standard blackjack tables. For example, one common side-bet is "Royal Match", in which the player is paid if his first two cards are in the same suit, and receives a higher payout if they are a suited queen and king (and a jackpot payout if both the player and the dealer have a suited queen-king hand). Another increasingly common variant is "21+3," in which the player's two cards and the dealer's up card form a three-card poker hand; players are paid 9 to 1 on a straight, flush or three of a kind. These side bets invariably offer worse odds than well-played blackjack. In April 2007 a new version of Blackjack, called Three Card Blackjack was approved for play in the State of Washington. Three Card Blackjack is played with one deck of 52 cards. In Three Card Blackjack the players place an ante bet. The players and dealer are then dealt 3 cards each. The players make the best blackjack (21) hand they can using 2 or all 3 cards. If the player likes his hand he makes a play bet that is equivalent to the ante bet. The dealer must qualify with an 18 or better. If the dealer qualifies and the player beats the dealer, the player is paid 1-1 on both the Ante and Play bets. If the dealer does not qualify, the player is paid 1-1 on his Ante bet and Play bet pushes. There is no hitting and no busting. At the same time that the player makes the Ante bet, he has the option of making an Ace Plus bet. If the player has one Ace in his hand of 3 cards, he gets paid 1-1. An Ace and a 10 or Face Card pays 3-1. An Ace and two 10's or Face cards is paid 5-1. Two Aces pays 15-1. Three Aces pays 100-1. Blackjack Hall of Fame In 2002, professional gamblers around the world were invited to nominate great blackjack players for admission into the Blackjack Hall of Fame. Seven members were inducted in 2002, with new people inducted every year afterwards. The Hall of Fame is at the Barona Casino in San Diego, California. Members include Edward O. Thorp, author of the 1960s book Beat the Dealer which proved that the game could be beaten with a combination of basic strategy and card counting; Ken Uston, who popularized the concept of team play; Arnold Snyder, author and editor of the Blackjack Forum trade journal; Stanford Wong, author and popularizer of the "Wonging" technique of only playing at a positive count, and several others. Notes Sources Beat the Dealer : A Winning Strategy for the Game of Twenty-One, Edward O. Thorp, 1966, ISBN 978-0-394-70310-7 Blackbelt in Blackjack, Arnold Snyder, 1998 (1980), ISBN 978-0-910575-05-8 Blackjack: A Winner’s Handbook, Jerry L. Patterson, 2001, (1978), ISBN 0-399-52638-8 Ken Uston on Blackjack, Ken Uston, 1986, ISBN 978-0-8184-0411-5 Knock-Out Blackjack, Olaf Vancura and Ken Fuchs, 1998, ISBN 978-0-929712-31-4 Luck, Logic, and White Lies: The Mathematics of Games, Jörg Bewersdorff, 2004, ISBN 978-1-56881-210-6, 121-134 Million Dollar Blackjack, Ken Uston, 1994 (1981), ISBN 978-0-89746-068-2 Playing Blackjack as a Business, Lawrence Revere, 1998 (1971), ISBN 978-0-8184-0064-3 Professional Blackjack, Stanford Wong, 1994 (1975), ISBN 978-0-935926-21-7 The Theory of Blackjack, Peter Griffin, 1996 (1979), ISBN 978-0-929712-12-3 The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic, Richard A. Epstein, 1977, ISBN 978-0-12-240761-1, 215-251 The World's Greatest Blackjack Book'', Lance Humble and Carl Cooper, 1980, ISBN 978-0385153829 Regulation in the United Kingdom Statutory Instrument 1994 No. 2899 The Gaming Clubs (Bankers' Games) Regulations 1994 Statutory Instrument 2000 No. 597 The Gaming Clubs (Bankers' Games) (Amendment) Regulations 2000 Statutory Instrument 2002 No. 1130 The Gaming Clubs (Bankers' Games) (Amendment) Regulations 2002 External links BlackjackinColor Blackjack calculators Server based calculator Browser based calculator (using JavaScript) Card-counting.com - Multiple calculators and charts | Blackjack |@lemmatized blackjack:111 also:9 know:8 twenty:6 one:34 vingt:2 et:2 un:2 french:2 pontoon:4 widely:1 play:45 casino:37 banking:1 game:60 world:3 scarne:1 new:6 complete:3 guide:2 gambling:1 p:2 much:8 popularity:3 due:2 mix:1 chance:5 element:2 skill:1 publicity:1 surround:1 card:129 counting:12 calculate:1 probability:1 advantage:22 base:8 ratio:1 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6,154 | Asian_Development_Bank | The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a regional development bank established in 1966 to promote economic and social development in Asian and Pacific countries through loans and technical assistance. It is a multilateral development financial institution owned by 67 members (as of 2 February 2007) Asian Development Bank (2008). Membership. URL (accessed: 3rd January 2009) , 48 from the region and 19 from other parts of the globe. ADB's vision is a region free of poverty. Its mission is to help its developing member countries reduce poverty and improve the quality of life of their citizens. The work of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) is aimed at improving the welfare of the people in Asia and the Pacific, particularly the 1.9 billion who live on less than $2 a day. Despite many success stories, Asia and the Pacific remains home to two thirds of the world's poor. The bank was conceived with the vision of creating a financial institution that would be "Asian in character" to foster growth and cooperation in a region that back then was one of the world's poorest. ADB raises funds through bond issues on the world's capital markets, while also utilizing its members' contributions and earnings from lending. These sources account for almost three quarters of its lending operations. Although recent economic growth in many member countries have led to a change in emphasis to some degree, throughout most of its history the bank has operated on a project basis, specifically in the areas of infrastructure investment, agricultural development and loans to basic industries in member countries. Although by definition the bank is a lender to governments and government entities, it also provides direct assistance to private enterprises and has also participated as a liquidity enhancer and best practice enabler in the private sectors of regional member countries. The primary human capital asset of the bank is its staff of professionals, encompassing academic and/or practical experts in the areas of agriculture, civil engineering, economics, environment, health, public policy and finance. Professional staff are drawn from its member countries and given various incentives to relocate to Manila. It is conceivable that once all of Asia-Pacific reaches a certain level of living standard the bank will be wound down or reconfigured to operate as a commercial enterprise. Organization The highest policy-making body of the bank is the Board of Governors composed of one representative from each member state. The Board of Governors, in turn, elect among themselves the 12 members of the Board of Directors and their deputy. Eight of the 12 members come from regional (Asia-Pacific) members while the others come from non-regional members. The Board of Governors also elect the bank's President who is the chairperson of the Board of Directors and manages ADB. The president has a term of office lasting five years, and may be reelected. Traditionally, and because Japan is one of the largest shareholders of the bank, the President has always been Japanese. The current President is Haruhiko Kuroda. The headquarters of the bank is at 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong City, Metro Manila, Philippines, and it has representative offices around the world. The bank employs approximately 2,400 people, coming from 55 of its 67 member countries, and with more than half of the staff being Filipino. ADB Lending ADB's annual project lending amounts to about US$7 billion per year with typical lending per project being in the $100 million range. Notable ADB projects and Technical Assistance Afghan Diaspora Project Funding Utah State University led projects to bring labor skills in Thailand Earthquake and Tsunami Emergency Support Project in Indonesia Greater Mekong Subregional Program ROC Ping Hu Offshore Oil and Gas Development Strategic Private Sector Partnerships for Urban Poverty Reduction in the Philippines Trans-Afghanistan Gas Pipeline Feasibility Assessment Loan of $1.2 billion to bail it out of an impending economic crisis in Pakistan and on going funding for the countries growing energy needs, specifically Hydro-power projects http://feeds.bignewsnetwork.com/index.php?sid=443457 Micro finance support for private enterprises, in conjunction with governments, including Pakistan and India. Effectiveness Given ADB's annual lending volume, the return on investment in lesson learning for operational and developmental impact is likely to be high and maximizing it is a legitimate concern. All projects funded by ADB are evaluated to find out what results are being achieved, what improvements should be considered, and what is being learned. There are two types of evaluation: independent and self-evaluation. Self-evaluation is conducted by the units responsible for designing and implementing country strategies, programs, projects, or technical assistance activities. It comprises several instruments, including project/program performance reports, midterm review reports, technical assistance or project/program completion reports, and country portfolio reviews. All projects are self-evaluated by the relevant units in a project completion report. ADB’s project completion reports are publicly disclosed on ADB’s Internet site. Client governments are also required to prepare their own project completion reports. Independent evaluation is a foundation block of organizational learning: it is essential to transfer increased amounts of relevant and high-quality knowledge from experience into the hands of policy makers, designers, and implementers. ADB’s Operations Evaluation Department (OED) conducts systematic and impartial assessment of policies, strategies, country programs, and projects, including their design, implementation, results, and associated business processes to determine their relevance, effectiveness, efficiency, and sustainability following prescribed methods and guidelines, How ADB Evaluates its Policies & Operations - ADB.org . It also validates self-evaluations. By this process of evaluation, ADB demonstrates three elements of good governance: (i) accountability, by assessing the effectiveness of ADB's operations; (ii) transparency, by independently reviewing operations and publicly reporting findings and recommendations; and (iii) improved performance, by helping ADB and its clients learn from past experience to enhance ongoing and future operations. Operations evaluation has changed from the beginnings of evaluation in ADB in 1978. Initially, the focus was on assessing after completion the extent to which projects had achieved their expected economic and social benefits. Operations evaluation now shapes decision making throughout the project cycle and in ADB as a whole. Since the establishment of its independence in 2004, OED reports directly to ADB’s Board of Directors through the Board's Development Effectiveness Committee. Behavioral autonomy, avoidance of conflicts of interest, insulation from external influence, and organizational independence have made evaluation a dedicated tool—governed by the principles of usefulness, credibility, transparency, and independence—for greater accountability and making development assistance work better. Independent Evaluation at the Asian Development Bank presents a perspective of evaluation in ADB from the beginnings and looks to a future in which knowledge management plays an increasingly important role. Independent Evaluation at the Asian Development Bank - ADB.org In recent years, there has been a major shift in the nature of OED’s work program from a dominance of evaluations of individual projects to one focusing on broader and more strategic studies. To select priority topics for evaluation studies, OED seeks input from the Development Effectiveness Committee, ADB Management, and the heads of ADB departments and offices. The current thrusts are to: (i) improve the quality of evaluations by using more robust methodologies; (iii) give priority to country/sector assistance program evaluations; (iv) increase the number of joint evaluations; (v) validate self-evaluations to shorten the learning cycle; (vi) conduct more rigorous impact evaluations; (vii) develop evaluation capacity, both in ADB and in DMCs; (viii) promote portfolio performance; (ix) evaluate business processes; and (x) disseminate findings and recommendations and ensure their use. OED's work program has also been reinterpreted to emphasize organizational learning in a more clearly defined results architecture and results framework. It entails (i) conducting and disseminating strategic evaluations (in consultation with stakeholders), Resources - Independent Evaluation at the Asian Development Bank (ii) harmonizing performance indicators and evaluation methodologies, Harmonization Work - Evaluation at Asian Development Bank (ADB) - ADB.org and (iii) developing capacity in evaluation and evaluative thinking. Evaluation Capacity Development in ADB's Developing Member Countries All evaluation studies are publicly disclosed on OED's website (some evaluations of private sector operations are redacted to protect commercially confidential information). Independent Evaluation at the Asian Development Bank - ADB.org OED's evaluation resources are displayed by resource type, topic, region and country, and date. Evaluation Reports - ADB.org Learnings are also gathered in an online Evaluation Information System offering a database of lessons, recommendations, and ADB Management responses to these. ADB Evaluation Information System Details of ongoing evaluations and updates on their progress are made public too. Ongoing Evaluations of ADB Policies & Operation in Asia & the Pacific - ADB.org Beginning 2006, acting within the knowledge management framework of ADB, OED has applied knowledge management to lesson learning, using knowledge performance metrics. Linking to Results Learning Lessons in ADB sets the strategic framework for knowledge management in operations evaluation. Learning Lessons in ADB: Strategic Framework, 2007-2009 - ADB.org Improvements have been made that hold promise not only in OED but, more importantly, vis-à-vis its interfaces with other departments and offices in ADB, developing member countries, and the international evaluation community. In the medium term, OED will continue to improve the organizational culture, management system, business processes, information technology solutions, community of practice, and external relations and networking for lesson learning. Among the new knowledge products and services developed, Learning Curves are handy, two-paged quick references designed to feed findings and recommendations from evaluation to a broader range of clients Evaluation Reports - ADB.org Evaluation News report on events in monitoring and evaluation. Evaluation Reports - ADB.org Evaluation Presentations offer short photographic or Powerpoint displays on evaluation topics. Auditing the Lessons Architecture highlights the contribution that knowledge audits can make to organizational learning and organizational health. Auditing the Lessons Architecture - ADB.org Of the 1,106 ADB-funded projects evaluated and rated so far (as of December 2007), 65% were assessed as being successful, 27% partly successful and 8% as unsuccessful. Criticism Oxfam Australia has criticized the Asian Development Bank of insensitivity to local communities. "Operating at a global and international level, these banks can undermine people's human rights through projects that have detrimental outcomes for poor and marginalized communities." Oxfam Australia. "The Mekong and Asian Development Bank. The bank also received criticism from the United Nations Environmental Program, stating in a report that "much of the growth has bypassed more than 70 percent of its rural population, many of whom are directly dependent on natural resources for livelihoods and incomes." IPS. "UNEP faults Asian development project." The bank has also been criticized by Vietnam War veterans for funding projects in Laos, because of the United States' 15% stake in the bank, underwritten by taxes. Laos became a communist country after the U.S. withdrew from Vietnam and the Laotian Civil War was won by the Pathet Lao, which is widely understood to have been supported by the North Vietnamese Army. Members ADB has 67 members (as of 2 February 2007). Asian Development Bank (2008). Membership. URL (accessed: 18 April 2009) Names are as recognized by ADB. The year after a member's name indicates the year of membership. The largest share holders of the ADB are Japan and USA, each holding 15.57% of the shares . At the time a country ceases to be a member, the Bank shall arrange for the repurchase of such country's shares by the Bank as a part of the settlement of accounts with such country in accordance with the provisions of paragraphs 3 and 4 of this Article. Republic of China (Taiwan) initially joined as "China" as a founding member representing the whole of China. However, its share of Bank capital was based on the size of Taiwan's capital, unlike the World Bank and IMF where the government in Taiwan had had a share representing the whole of China prior to the People's Republic of China joining and taking the Republic of China's seat. In 1986, a compromise was effected when the People's Republic of China joined the institution. The ROC was allowed to retain its membership, but under the name of Taipei,China — a name it protests. Uniquely, this allows both sides of the Taiwan Straits to be represented at the institution. Asian and Pacific region: 48 members Afghanistan (1966) Australia (1966) Cambodia (1966) India (1966) Indonesia (1966) Japan (1966) Korea, Republic of (1966) Lao People's Democratic Republic (1966) Malaysia (1966) Nepal (1966) New Zealand (1966) Pakistan (1966) Philippines (1966) Samoa (1966) Singapore (1966) Sri Lanka (1966) Taipei, China Taipei,China's profile on the ADB website Joined as "China" representing the whole of China until 1986 when the People's Republic of China joined. (1966) Thailand (1966) Viet Nam, Socialist Republic of (1966) Hong Kong, China Joined as "Hong Kong" (1969) Fiji (1970) Papua New Guinea (1971) Tonga (1972) Bangladesh (1973) Myanmar (1973) Solomon Islands (1973) Kiribati (1974) Cook Islands (1976) Maldives (1978) Vanuatu (1981) Bhutan (1982) China, People's Republic of (1986) Marshall Islands (1990) Micronesia, Federated States of (1990) Mongolia (1991) Nauru (1991) Tuvalu (1993) Kazakhstan (1994) Kyrgyz Republic (1994) Uzbekistan (1995) Tajikistan (1998) Azerbaijan (1999) Turkmenistan (2000) Timor-Leste (2002) Palau (2003) Armenia (2005) Brunei Darussalam (2006) Georgia (2007) Other regions: 19 members Austria (1966) Belgium (1966) Canada (1966) Denmark (1966) Finland (1966) Germany Founding member; joined as West Germany. (1966) Italy (1966) Netherlands (1966) Norway (1966) Sweden (1966) United Kingdom (1966) United States (1966) Switzerland (1967) France (1970) Spain (1986) Turkey (1991) Portugal (2002) Luxembourg (2003) Ireland (2006) Notes See also African Development Bank International Monetary Fund World Bank External links Bank Information Center The ADB website: http://www.adb.org ADB Institute: http://www.adbi.org Inequality Worsens across Asia article discussing recent reports from the ADB from Dollars & Sense magazine, November/December 2007 | Asian_Development_Bank |@lemmatized asian:15 development:22 bank:33 adb:53 regional:4 establish:1 promote:2 economic:4 social:2 pacific:7 country:19 loan:3 technical:4 assistance:7 multilateral:1 financial:2 institution:4 member:23 february:2 membership:4 url:2 access:2 january:1 region:6 part:2 globe:1 vision:2 free:1 poverty:3 mission:1 help:2 develop:6 reduce:1 improve:5 quality:3 life:1 citizen:1 work:5 aim:1 welfare:1 people:8 asia:6 particularly:1 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6,155 | Marlon_Brando | Marlon Brando, Jr. (April 3, 1924 – July 1, 2004) was an American actor whose body of work spanned over half a century. He is considered one of the greatest actors of all time, and was named the fourth Greatest Male Star of All Time by the American Film Institute. As a young sex symbol, he is best known for his roles as Stanley Kowalski in A Streetcar Named Desire and Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront, both directed by Elia Kazan in the early 1950s. In middle age, his well-known roles include his Academy Award-winning performance as Vito Corleone in The Godfather, Colonel Walter Kurtz in Apocalypse Now, both directed by Francis Ford Coppola and an Academy Award-nominated performance as Paul in Last Tango in Paris. Brando was an activist, lending his presence to many issues, including the American Civil Rights and American Indian Movements. The name Brando is the anglicization of the French name Brandeau. Early life Brando was born in Omaha, Nebraska on April 3, 1924, the son of Dorothy Julia Pennebaker Brando (1897 – 1954), an actress, and Marlon Brando, Sr. (1895 – 1965), a pesticide and chemical feed manufacturer. Bain 2004, pp.65–66. Marlon Brando Biography (1924-) The family moved to Evanston, Illinois and in 1935, when he was eleven years old, his parents separated. His mother briefly took her three children Marlon, Jocelyn Brando (1919 – 2005) and Frances Brando (1922 – 1994) to live with her mother in Santa Ana, California until 1937, when the parents reconciled and moved to Libertyville, Illinois, a village north of Chicago. The family was of mixed Dutch, Irish, German, and English descent. Brando was raised a Christian Scientist. http://www.adherents.com/people/pb/Marlon_Brando.html Contrary to what is stated in some biographies, Brando's grandfather Eugene E. Brando was not French but was born in New York state. "Ten Further Hollywood Figures (or Groups Thereof)", by Gary Boyd Roberts, part of the series "Royal Descents, Notable Kin, and Printed Sources" #78 New England Historic Genealogical Society Brando's grandmother Marie Holloway abandoned Eugene and their son Marlon Brando Sr. when he was five years old and used the money to support her gambling and constant drinking.<ref>Songs My Mother Taught Me, Marlon Brando </ref> Brando's mother, Dodie, was an unconventional, intelligent, and talented woman. She smoked, wore trousers and drove automobiles at a time when it was unusual for women to do so. However, she suffered from alcoholism and often had to be retrieved from Chicago bars by Brando's father. She later became a member of Alcoholics Anonymous. Dodie was an actress and administrator in local theater and the Omaha newspapers wrote about her for her theatrical work. She helped a young Henry Fonda to begin his own acting career, and fueled Brando's interest in stage acting. His father, Marlon Sr., was a gifted amateur photographer. Brando's maternal grandmother, Bessie Gahan Pennebaker Meyers, to whom Brando was perhaps closer than his own mother, was also unconventional. Widowed at a young age, she worked to support herself as a secretary and later as a Christian Science healer, and was well known in Omaha. Her father, Myles Gahan, was a doctor from Ireland and her mother, Julia Watts, was from England. Brando was a gifted mimic from early childhood and developed a rare ability to absorb the tics and mannerisms of people he played and to display those traits dramatically while staying in character. His sister, Jocelyn Brando, however, was the first to pursue a career in acting, going to New York to study at the American Academy of Dramatic Art. She later appeared on Broadway, in movies and on television. Next, Marlon's sister Frannie left college in California to study art in New York. Marlon followed. Brando had a tumultuous youth. He was held back a year in school and was later expelled from Libertyville High School for riding his motorcycle through the school. At the age of sixteen years, he was sent to Shattuck Military Academy in Faribault, Minnesota, where his father had gone before him. At Shattuck, he excelled at theatre and got along well within the structure of the school. In his final year (1943), he was put on probation for talking back to an officer during maneuvers. A part of his probation was that he be confined to the school campus, but he eventually tried sneaking off campus into town and was caught. The faculty voted to expel him. He received support from his fellow students who thought the punishment too harsh. He was later invited back for the next year, but decided not to finish school. Brando worked as a ditch-digger in his hometown as a summer job arranged by his father, but had decided to follow his sisters to New York. One sister was trying to be a painter and the other had already appeared on Broadway. He visited his sister Frances in New York at Christmas 1942 and liked the experience. Brando was given six months of support from his father, after which his father offered to help him get a job as a salesman. Brando left Illinois for New York City, where he studied at the American Theatre Wing Professional School, at the Dramatic Workshop of The New School with the influential German director Erwin Piscator and at the Actors' Studio. It was at the New School's Dramatic Workshop that he studied with Stella Adler and learned the techniques of the Stanislavski System. There is a possibly apocryphal story in which Adler spoke about teaching Brando, saying that she had instructed the class to act like chickens, then adding that a bomb was about to fall on them. Most of the class clucked and ran around wildly, but Brando sat calmly and pretended to lay an egg. When Adler asked Brando to explain his action, he replied, "I'm a chicken — What do I know from a bomb?" Career Early work Brando used his Stanislavski System skills for his first summer-stock roles in Sayville, New York on Long Island. His behavior got him kicked out of the cast of the New School's production in Sayville, but he was discovered in a locally produced play there and then made it to Broadway in the bittersweet drama I Remember Mama in 1944. Critics voted him "Broadway's Most Promising Actor" for his role as an anguished veteran in Truckline Café, although the play was a commercial failure. In 1946 he appeared on Broadway as the young hero in the political drama A Flag is Born, refusing to accept wages above the Actor's Equity rate because of his commitment to the cause of Israeli independence. My Seder With Brando | Arts | Jewish Journal David S. Wyman Institute for Holocaust Studies: Welcome Brando achieved stardom, however, as Stanley Kowalski in Tennessee Williams's 1947 play A Streetcar Named Desire, directed by Elia Kazan. Brando sought out that role, Pierpont writes that John Garfield was first choice for the role, but "made impossible demands." It was Elia Kazan's decision to fall back on the far less experienced (and technically too young for the role) Brando. driving out to Provincetown, Massachusetts, where Williams was spending the summer, to audition for the part. Williams recalled that he opened the screen door and knew, instantly, that he had his Stanley Kowalski. Brando's performance revolutionized acting technique and set the model for the American form of method acting. This approach to a role had never been seen before and all similar roles mirror Brando's. Afterward, Brando was asked to do a screen test for Warner Brothers studio for the film Rebel Without A Cause, Voynar, Kim. "Lost Brando Screen Test for Rebel Surfaces - But It's Not for the Rebel We Know and Love." Cinematical, Weblogs, Inc., March 28, 2006. Retrieved: [April 3, 2008. which James Dean was later cast in. The screen test appears as an extra in the 2006 DVD release of A Streetcar Named Desire. Brando's first screen role was as the bitter paraplegic veteran in The Men in 1950. True to his method, Brando spent a month in bed at a veterans' hospital to prepare for the role. Rising to the top Brando as Emiliano Zapata in a trailer for the 1952 film Viva Zapata! Brando made a strong impression in 1951 when he brought his performance as Stanley Kowalski to the screen in Kazan's adaptation of Tennessee Williams's A Streetcar Named Desire. He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor for that role, and again in each of the next three years for his roles in Viva Zapata! in 1952, Julius Caesar in 1953 as Mark Antony, and On the Waterfront in 1954. These first five films of his career established Brando as perhaps the premier acting talent in the world, as evidenced in his winning the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role in three consecutive years, 1951 to 1953. In 1953, Brando also starred in The Wild One riding his own Triumph Thunderbird 6T motorcycle which caused consternation to Triumph's importers, as the subject matter was rowdy motorcycle gangs taking over a small town. But the images of Brando posing with his Triumph motorcycle became iconic, even forming the basis of his wax dummy at Madame Tussauds. Ironically, Brando's Wild One image is now used by Triumph to advertise their motorcycles. Later that same year, Brando starred in Lee Falk's production of George Bernard Shaw's Arms and the Man in Boston. Falk was proud to tell people that Marlon Brando turned down an offer of $10,000 per week on Broadway, in favor of working on Falk's play in Boston. His Boston contract was less than $500 per week. It would be the last time he ever acted in a stage play. Brando's explosive screen presence exuded a raw sexuality that drew repeat ticket purchases among female theatre-goers of all ages. Theater managers related accounts of sold out weekday matinees at which small children ran up and down the aisle making motorcycle noises while their mothers sat transfixed. Director Nicholas Ray took the gang image from the movie The Wild One and brought it to his movie, Rebel Without A Cause, and thus emphasized Brando's effect on youth. Aspects of the rebel culture that included motorcycles, leather jackets, jeans and the rebel image, which inspired generations of rebels, came thanks to that film and Brando's own unique image and character. The sales of motorcycle-related paraphernalia, leather jackets, jeans, boots and t-shirts skyrocketed throughout the country. Hopwood, John C. "Marlon Brando (1924 - 2004)." theoscarsite.com. Retrieved: April 7, 2008. The film had a similar effect on overseas audiences. Local authorities and religious figures lamented the effect it was having on the youth of their respective countries. Marlon Brando with Eva Marie Saint in the trailer for On the Waterfront (1954) Under Kazan's direction, and with a talented ensemble around him, Brando won the Oscar for his role of Terry Malloy in On the Waterfront. For the famous I coulda' been a contender scene, Brando convinced Kazan that the scripted scene was unrealistic, and with Rod Steiger, improvised the final product. Brando followed that triumph by a variety of roles in the 1950s that defied expectations: as Sky Masterson in Guys and Dolls, where he managed to carry off a singing role; as Sakini, a Japanese interpreter for the U.S. Army in postwar Japan in The Teahouse of the August Moon; as an Air Force officer in Sayonara, and a Nazi officer in The Young Lions. Although he won an Oscar nomination for his acting in Sayonara, his acting had lost much of its energy and direction by the end of the 1950s. In the 1960s, Brando starred in films such as Mutiny on the Bounty (1962); One-Eyed Jacks (1961), a western that would be the only film Brando would ever direct; a star-studded but unsuccessful potboiler The Chase (1966), in which he played an uncorrupted Texas sheriff; Reflections in a Golden Eye (1967), portraying a repressed gay army officer, and Burn! (1969), which Brando would later claim as his personal favorite, although it was a commercial failure. Nonetheless, his career had gone into almost complete eclipse by the end of the decade, thanks to his reputation as a difficult star and his record in over-budget or marginal movies. The Godfather Brando as Don Vito Corleone in The Godfather (1972). Brando's performance as Vito Corleone in 1972's The Godfather was a mid-career turning point. Director Francis Ford Coppola convinced Brando to submit to a "make-up" test, in which Brando did his own makeup (he used cotton balls to simulate the puffed-cheek look). Coppola was electrified by Brando's characterization as the head of a crime family, but had to fight the studio in order to cast the temperamental Brando, whose reputation for difficult behavior and demands was the stuff of backlot legend. Mario Puzo always imagined Brando as Corleone. Pierpont, p.71 However, Paramount studio heads wanted to give the role to Danny Thomas in the hope that Thomas would have his own production company throw in its lot with Paramount. Thomas declined the role and actually urged the studio to cast Brando at the behest of Coppola and others who had witnessed the screen test. Eventually, Charles Bluhdorn, the president of Paramount parent Gulf + Western, was won over to letting Brando have the role; when he saw the screen test, he asked in amazement, "What are we watching? Who is this old guinea?" Brando won the Academy Award for Best Actor for his performance, but turned down the Oscar, becoming the second actor to refuse a Best Actor award (the first being George C. Scott for Patton). Brando boycotted the award ceremony, sending instead American Indian Rights activist Sacheen Littlefeather, who appeared in full Apache dress, to state Brando's reasons, which were based on his objection to the depiction of American Indians American Indians mourn Brando's death - Marlon Brando (1924-2004)- msnbc.com by Hollywood and television. The actor followed with one of his greatest performances in Bernardo Bertolucci's 1973 film, Last Tango in Paris, but the performance was overshadowed by an uproar over the erotic nature of the film. Despite the controversy which attended both the film and the man, the Academy once again nominated Brando for the Best Actor. Brando's career afterward was uneven. He was paid one million dollars a week to play the iconic Colonel Kurtz in 1979's Apocalypse Now. He was supposed to show up slim, fit, and to have read the novel Heart of Darkness, but instead arrived weighing around 220 pounds (100 kg) and had not read the book. As a result, his character was shot mostly in the shadows and most of his dialogue was improvised. After his week was over, director Francis Ford Coppola asked him to stay an extra hour so that he could shoot a close up of Brando saying, "The horror, the horror." Brando agreed for an extra $75,000. After this film his weight began to limit the roles he could play. Later career Marlon Brando as Jor-El in Superman (1978). Brando then portrayed Superman's father Jor-El in the 1978 Superman: The Movie, donning an English accent for the part. He agreed to the role only on assurance that he would be paid a large sum for what amounted to a small part, that he would not have to read the script beforehand and his lines would be displayed somewhere off-camera. It was revealed in a documentary contained in the 2001 DVD release of Superman, that he was paid $3.7 million for just two weeks of work. Brando also filmed scenes for the movie's sequel, Superman II, but after producers refused to pay him the same percentage he received for the first movie, he denied them permission to use the footage. However, after Brando's death the footage was reincorporated into the 2006 re-cut of the film, Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut. Two years after Brando's death, he "reprised" the role of Jor-El in the 2006 "loose sequel" Superman Returns, in which both used and unused archive footage of Brando as Jor-El from the first two Superman films was remastered for a scene in the Fortress of Solitude, as well as Brando's voice-overs being used throughout the film. Some later performances, such as The Island of Dr Moreau, earned Brando some of the most uncomplimentary reviews of his career. Despite announcing his retirement from acting in 1980, he subsequently gave interesting supporting performances in movies such as A Dry White Season (for which he was again nominated for an Oscar in 1989), The Freshman in 1990 and Don Juan DeMarco in 1995. In his last film, The Score (2001), he starred with fellow method actor Robert De Niro. Brando conceived the idea of a novel called Fan-Tan with director Donald Cammell in 1979, which was not released until 2005. Schickel, Richard. "A Legend 'Writes' a Novel." Time, August 7, 2005. Cammell dated and eventually married actress China Kong, the daughter of Anita Loo, with whom Brando had an affair. Brando and Cammell 2005, pp. 238–239. Personal life Brando became well known for his crusades for civil rights, Native American rights, and other political causes. He also earned a "bad boy" reputation for his public outbursts and antics. In June 1973, Brando broke paparazzo Ron Galella's jaw. His hand became infected as a result. In the following year, Galella wore a football helmet when snapping photos of Brando. In Songs My Mother Taught Me, Brando claimed he met Marilyn Monroe at a party as she played piano, unnoticed by anybody else there, and they started an affair that lasted many years until her death, receiving a telephone call from her several days before she died. He also claimed numerous other romances, although he did not discuss his marriages, his wives, or his children in his autobiography. Brando married actress Anna Kashfi in 1957. Kashfi was born in Calcutta and moved to Wales at the end of British rule in India in 1947. She is said to have been the daughter of a Welsh steel worker of Irish descent, William O'Callaghan, who had been superintendent on the Indian State railways. However, in her book, Brando for Breakfast, she claimed that she really is half Indian and that the press incorrectly thought that her stepfather, O'Callaghan, was her real father. She said her real father was Indian and that she was the result of an "unregistered alliance" between her parents. In 1959, Brando and Kashfi divorced after the birth of their son, Christian Brando, on May 11, 1958. In 1960, Brando married Movita Castaneda, a Mexican actress seven years his senior; they were divorced in 1962. Castaneda had appeared in the first Mutiny on the Bounty film in 1935, some 27 years before the 1962 remake with Brando as Fletcher Christian. Brando's behavior during the filming of Bounty seemed to bolster his reputation as a difficult star. He was blamed for a change in director and a runaway budget, though he disclaimed responsibility for either. The Bounty experience affected Brando's life in a profound way. He fell in love with Tahiti and its people. He bought a twelve-island atoll, Tetiaroa, which he intended to make partly an environmental laboratory and partly a resort. Tahitian beauty Tarita Teriipia, who played Fletcher Christian's love interest, became Brando's third wife on August 10, 1962. She was 20 years old, 18 years younger than Brando. A 1961 article on Teriipia in the fan magazine Motion Picture described Brando's delight at how naïve and unsophisticated she was. Because Teriipia was a native French speaker, Brando became fluent in the language and gave numerous interviews in French. institut nationale de l'audiovisuel archivepourtous Dailymotion Teriipia became the mother of two of his children. They divorced in July 1972. Brando eventually had a hotel built on Tetiaroa. It went through many redesigns due to changes demanded by Brando over the years. It is now closed. A new hotel, consisting of thirty deluxe villas, was due to open in 2008. Children by Anna Kashfi: Christian Devi Brando (aka Gary Brown) (b. 1958 - d. 2008), died of pneumonia by Movita Castaneda: Miko Castaneda Brando (b. 1961) Rebecca Brando Kotlizky (b. 1966) by Tarita Teriipia: Simon Teihotu Brando (b. 1963) - the only inhabitant of Tetiaroa Tarita Cheyenne Brando (b. 1970 - d. 1995), committed suicide by unknown mother Stefano Brando (AKA) Stephen Blackehart (b. 1967) Love Life as Big as the Legend Film legend Marlon Brando dies by adoption: Petra Brando-Corval (b. 1972), daughter of Brando's assistant Caroline Barrett and James Clavell (aka Charles Edmund DuMaresq de Clavell) Maimiti Brando (b. 1977) Raiatua Brando (b. 1982) by his long-time housekeeper, Maria Christina Ruiz: Ninna Priscilla Brando (b. 1989) Myles Jonathan Brando (b. 1992) Timothy Gahan Brando (b. 1994) Sexuality In Gary Carey's 1976 biography The Only Contender, Brando is quoted as saying, "Homosexuality is so much in fashion it no longer makes news. Like a large number of men, I, too, have had homosexual experiences and I am not ashamed. I have never paid much attention to what people think about me. But if there is someone who is convinced that Jack Nicholson and I are lovers, may they continue to do so. I find it amusing." British newspaper The Daily Mail reported that during the filming of A Streetcar Named Desire (1951), in the garden of Vivien Leigh's mansion, David Niven discovered Brando and Laurence Olivier swimming in the pool. Olivier was kissing Brando. Niven was quoted as saying, "I turned my back to them and went back inside to join Vivien. I'm sure she knew what was going on, but she made no mention of it. Nor did I. One must be sophisticated about such matters in life." Thornton, Michael. "TV & showbiz." Daily Mail, September 1, 2006. Scandal involving Brando's son, Christian In May 1990, Dag Drollet, the Tahitian lover of Brando's daughter and Christian's half-sister, Cheyenne, died of a gunshot wound, after a confrontation with Christian, who was drunk, at the family's hilltop home above Beverly Hills. Christian, then 31 years old, claimed the shooting was accidental. After heavily publicized pre-trial proceedings, Christian pleaded guilty to voluntary manslaughter and use of a gun. He was sentenced to ten years in prison. Before the sentence, Brando delivered an hour of testimony, in which he said he and his former wife had failed Christian. He commented softly to members of the Drollet family: "I'm sorry... If I could trade places with Dag, I would. I'm prepared for the consequences." Afterward, Drollet's father said he thought Brando was acting and his son was "getting away with murder". The tragedy was compounded in 1995, when Cheyenne, suffering from lingering effects of a serious car accident and said to still be depressed over Drollet's death, committed suicide by hanging herself in Tahiti. Christian Brando died of pneumonia at age 49, on January 26, 2008. Cheyenne's son Tuki Brando is now the advertising face of Versace menswear. Final years and death Brando's notoriety, his troubled family life, and his obesity attracted more attention than his late acting career. He gained a great deal of weight in the 1980s and by the mid 1990s he weighed over 300 lbs. (136 kg) and suffered from diabetes. He also earned a reputation for being difficult on the set, often unwilling or unable to memorize his lines and less interested in taking direction than in confronting the film director with odd and childish demands. On the other hand, most other actors found him generous, funny, and supportive. Brando also dabbled with some innovation in his last years. Brando had several patents issued in his name from the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, all of which involve a method of tensing drum heads, in June 2002 – November 2004. For example, see and its equivalents. The actor was a longtime close friend of the entertainer Michael Jackson and paid regular visits to his Neverland Ranch, resting there for weeks. Brando also participated in the singer's solo career thirtieth-anniversary celebration concerts in 2001, and starred in his 15-minute-long music video, "You Rock My World", in the same year. The actor's son, Miko, was Jackson's bodyguard and assistant for several years, and is a friend of the singer. He stated "The last time my father left his house to go anywhere, to spend any kind of time... was with Michael Jackson. He loved it... He had a 24-hour chef, 24-hour security, 24-hour help, 24-hour kitchen, 24-hour maid service." "Brando, Jackson of his closest friends Neverland as 2nd home." MJNewsOnline.com November 11, 2006. On July 1, 2004, Brando died, aged 80. The cause of death was intentionally withheld, his lawyer citing privacy concerns. It was later revealed that he had died at UCLA Medical Center of respiratory failure brought on by pulmonary fibrosis. He also suffered from congestive heart failure, "Marlon Brando dies at 80." CNN.com 2 July, 2004. Retrieved: April 3, 2008. failing eyesight due to diabetes, and liver cancer. New Netherland Institute, Brando biography Karl Malden, Brando's fellow actor in A Streetcar Named Desire, On The Waterfront, and One Eyed Jacks (the only film directed by Brando), talks in a documentary accompanying the DVD of A Streetcar Named Desire about a phone call he received from Brando shortly before Brando's death. A distressed Brando told Malden he kept falling over. Malden wanted to come over, but Brando put him off telling him there was no point. Three weeks later, Brando was dead. Shortly before his death, Brando had apparently refused permission for tubes carrying oxygen to be inserted into his lungs, which, he was told, was the only way to prolong his life. Brando was cremated, his ashes scattered partly in Tahiti and partly in Death Valley. In 2007, a 165-minute biopic of Brando, Brando: The Documentary, produced by Mike Medavoy (the executor of Brando's will) for Turner Classic Movies, was released. Brooks, Xan. "The last word on Brando." The Guardian, May 22, 2007. Retrieved: April 6, 2008. Politics Civil rights Brando with James Baldwin at the 1963 Civil Rights March on Washington, D.C. In 1946, Brando showed his dedication to the Jewish desire for a homeland by performing in Ben Hecht's Zionist play "A Flag is Born". Brando's involvement had an impact on three of the most contentious issues of the early postwar period: the fight to establish a Jewish state, the smuggling of Holocaust survivors to Palestine, and the battle against racial segregation in the United States. Brando attended some fundraisers for John F. Kennedy in the 1960 presidential election. In August 1963, Brando participated in the March on Washington along with fellow celebrities Harry Belafonte, James Garner, Charlton Heston, Burt Lancaster, and Sidney Poitier. Baker, Russell. "Capital Is Occupied by a Gentle Army." (PDF) The New York Times, August 28, 1963, p. 17. Brando also, along with Paul Newman, participated in the freedom rides. In the aftermath of the 1968 slaying of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Brando made one of the strongest commitments to furthering Dr. King's work. Shortly after Dr. King's death, Brando announced that he was bowing out of the lead role of a major film (The Arrangement) which was about to begin production, in order to devote himself to the civil rights movement. "I felt I’d better go find out where it is; what it is to be black in this country; what this rage is all about", Brando said on the late night ABC-TV Joey Bishop Show. The actor's participation in the African-American civil rights movement actually began well before King's death. In the early 1960s Brando contributed thousands of dollars to both the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (S.C.L.C.) and to a scholarship fund established for the children of slain Mississippi N.A.A.C.P. leader Medgar Evers. By this time, Brando was already involved in films that carried messages about human rights: "Sayonara", which addressed interracial romance, and the "The Ugly American", depicting the conduct of US officials abroad and its deleterious effect on the citizens of foreign countries. For a time Brando was also donating money to the Black Panther Party and considered himself a friend of founder Bobby Seale. However, Brando ended his financial support for the group over his perception of its increasing radicalization, specifically a passage in a Panther pamphlet put out by Eldridge Cleaver advocating indiscriminate violence, "for the Revolution". At the 1973 Academy Awards ceremony, Brando refused to accept the Oscar for his performance in The Godfather. Sacheen Littlefeather represented Mr. Brando at the ceremony. She appeared in full Apache clothing. She stated that owing to the "poor treatment of Native Americans in the film industry" Mr. Brando would not accept the award. The Academy. "Marlon Brando's Oscar Win For The Godfater" At this time the 1973 standoff at Wounded Knee occurred, causing rising tensions between the government and Native American activists. Outside of his film work, Brando not only appeared before the California Assembly in support of a fair housing law, but personally joined picket lines in demonstrations protesting discrimination in housing developments. Comments on Jews and Hollywood In an interview in Playboy magazine in January 1979, Brando said: "You've seen every single race besmirched, but you never saw an [unfavorable] image of the kike because the Jews were ever so watchful for that—and rightly so. They never allowed it to be shown on screen. The Jews have done so much for the world that, I suppose, you get extra disappointed because they didn't pay attention to that." Grobel, Lawrence. "Playboy Interview: Marlon Brando." Playboy, January 1979, ISSN 0032-1478. Retrieved: April 3, 2008. Brando made a similar allegation on Larry King Live in April 1996, saying "Hollywood is run by Jews; it is owned by Jews, and they should have a greater sensitivity about the issue of — of people who are suffering. Because they've exploited — we have seen the — we have seen the Nigger and Greaseball, we've seen the Chink, we've seen the slit-eyed dangerous Jap, we have seen the wily Filipino, we've seen everything but we never saw the Kike. Because they knew perfectly well, that that is where you draw the wagons around." King replied, "When you say — when you say something like that you are playing right in, though, to anti-Semitic people who say the Jews are — " at which point Brando interrupted, "No, no, because I will be the first one who will appraise the Jews honestly and say 'Thank God for the Jews.'" Brando was heavily criticized by some Jewish organizations, including the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) and the American Jewish Congress for these remarks about Jews and for his use of antisemitic language. http://www.adl.org/presrele/asus_12/2708_12.asp The American Jewish Congress described his remarks as "gross stereotyping". Rabbi Marvin Hier, dean of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, after speaking with Brando, said that he was "not basically an anti-Semite," but that his remarks concerning Jewish ownership of media were "simply not factual." Irv Rubin of the Jewish Defense League said his group intended to make the rest of Brando's life "a living hell." Jewish groups riled over Brando's attacks April 1996, Tom Tugend, Jewish Telegraphic Agency] Jay Kanter, Brando's agent, producer and friend told Daily Variety, "Marlon has spoken to me for hours about his fondness for the Jewish people, and he is a well-known supporter of Israel." Awards and nominations Filmography References Bibliography Bain, David Haward. The Old Iron Road: An Epic of Rails, Roads, and the Urge to Go West. New York: Penguin Books, 2004. ISBN 0-14303-526-6. Bosworth, Patricia. Marlon Brando. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2001. ISBN 0-297-84284-6. Brando, Anna Kashfi and E. P. Stein. Brando for Breakfast. New York: Berkley Pub Group, 1980. ISBN 0-42504698-2. Brando, Marlon, and Donald Cammell. Fan-Tan. New York: Knopf, 2005. ISBN 1-40004-471-5. Brando, Marlon with Robert Lindsey. Brando: Songs My Mother Taught Me. New York: Random House, 1994. ISBN 0-67941-013-9. Pierpont, Claudia Roth. Method Man. New Yorker, October 27, 2008. Porter, Darwin. Brando Unzipped. New York: Blood Moon, 2006. ISBN 0-9748-1182-3. External links Official website of Marlon Brando The Oddfather, Rolling Stone'', Jod Kaftan, April 25, 2002 Marlon Brando: The Actor's Actor Quotes from an interview with Newsweek March 13, 1972 Court TV: Christian Brando: A Hollywood Family Tragedy Premiere: Remembering Brando Vanity Fair: The King Who Would Be Man by Budd Schulberg. The New Yorker: The Duke in His Domain - Truman Capote's influential 1957 interview. Obituaries Marlon Brando, Oscar-Winning Actor, Is Dead at 80 Obituary from The Washington Post Obituary at Slate MSNBC: Marlon Brando dies in Los Angeles hospital Long article on auction of Brando's possessions at The Observer (UK) be-x-old:Марлон Брандо | Marlon_Brando |@lemmatized marlon:26 brando:191 jr:2 april:10 july:4 american:17 actor:21 whose:2 body:1 work:9 span:1 half:3 century:1 consider:2 one:12 great:5 time:12 name:11 fourth:1 male:1 star:9 film:25 institute:3 young:7 sex:1 symbol:1 best:6 know:9 role:24 stanley:4 kowalski:4 streetcar:7 desire:8 terry:2 malloy:2 waterfront:5 direct:5 elia:3 kazan:6 early:6 middle:1 age:6 well:9 include:4 academy:9 award:10 win:8 performance:11 vito:3 corleone:4 godfather:5 colonel:2 walter:1 kurtz:2 apocalypse:2 francis:3 ford:3 coppola:5 nominated:2 paul:2 last:8 tango:2 paris:2 activist:3 lend:1 presence:2 many:3 issue:4 civil:6 right:10 indian:7 movement:3 anglicization:1 french:4 brandeau:1 life:8 bear:5 omaha:3 nebraska:1 son:7 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6,156 | James_Madison_University | James Madison University (also known as JMU, Madison, or James Madison) is a public coeducational research university located in Harrisonburg, Virginia, U.S. Founded in 1908 as the State Normal and Industrial School for Women at Harrisonburg, the university has undergone four name changes until settling with James Madison University. The university is situated in the Shenandoah Valley, with the campus quadrangle located on South Main Street in Harrisonburg. The university is also home to the Edith J. Carrier Arboretum, the only active publicly-oriented arboretum on a Virginia state-supported university campus, and the student run radio station WXJM, as well as National Public Radio station WMRA. JMU made national sports headlines in 2004 with its first NCAA Division I-AA national football championship. History Founded in 1908 as a women's college, university was established by the Virginia General Assembly. It was originally called The State Normal and Industrial School for Women at Harrisonburg. In 1914, the name of the university was changed to the State Normal School for Women at Harrisonburg. At first, academic offerings included only today's equivalent of technical training or junior college courses, however authorization to award bachelor's degrees was granted in 1916. During this initial period of development, the campus plan was established and six buildings were constructed. The university became the State Teachers College at Harrisonburg in 1924 and continued under that name until 1938, when it was named Madison College in honor of the fourth president of the United States. In 1976 the university's name was changed to James Madison University. The first president of the university was Julian Ashby Burruss. The university opened its doors to its first student body in 1909 with an enrollment of 209 students and a faculty of 15. Its first 20 graduates received diplomas in 1911. In 1919, Dr. Burruss resigned the presidency to become president of Virginia Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Samuel Page Duke was then chosen as the second president of the university. During Duke's administration, nine major buildings were constructed. Aerial view of campus from 1937, showing the original campus plan, prior to major expansions of the campus. In 1946 men were first enrolled as regular day students. Dr. G. Tyler Miller became the third president of the university in 1949, following the retirement of Duke. During Miller's administration, from 1949 to 1970, the campus was enlarged by 240 acres (1 km²) and 19 buildings were constructed. Major curriculum changes were made and the university was authorized to grant master's degrees in 1954. In 1966, by action of the Virginia General Assembly, the university became a coeducational institution. Dr. Ronald E. Carrier, JMU's fourth president, headed the institution from 1971 to 1998. During Carrier's administration, student enrollment and the number of faculty and staff tripled, doctoral programs were authorized, more than twenty major campus buildings were constructed and the university was recognized repeatedly by national publications as one of the finest institutions of its type in America. Carrier Library is named for him. In the 2000s, the university continued to expand, not only through new construction east of Interstate 81, but also on the west side of campus. In early 2005, JMU purchased the Rockingham Memorial Hospital building north of the main campus. JMU is expected to occupy the building following the hospital's move to its new location. Additionally, the university has expanded across South High Street with the finalizing of the purchase of the former Harrisonburg High School building after initially leasing it for a year, operating it as Memorial Hall. The university also received state and private funding to begin construction of a state of the art Performing Arts Complex near the quad in 2007. A second, $30 million library located on the east side of campus, has completed construction. East Campus Library (ECL), opened on August 11 2008, just before students returned for the fall semester. Wilson Hall, centerpiece of the JMU quad. Academics James Madison University is considered "More Selective" by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. For the Class of 2012, the university received more than 19,350 applications, with there currently being 3,960 freshman spots available for the 2008-2009 academic year. Currently, James Madison University offers more than 100 degree programs on the bachelor's, master's, educational specialist and doctoral levels. The university comprises seven colleges and 78 academic programs. Colleges College of Arts and Letters College of Business College of Education College of Graduate and Outreach Programs College of Integrated Science and Technology College of Science and Mathematics College of Visual and Performing Arts On June 24, 2005, the Board of Visitors approved the Madison College Proposal, which created the College of Visual and Performing Arts out of the College of Arts and Letters. The new College of Visual and Performing Arts includes the School of Art and Art History, the School of Music, the School of Theatre and Dance, and the Madison Art Collection. On January 9, 2007, a new School of Engineering was approved by the Virginia higher education governing body. The school will begin accepting undergraduates in Fall 2008. The theme of the program is sustainability with a large focus on the environmental sciences, and will only offer general engineering degrees with no specializations. School of Music Keezell Hall, home of the university's English and Foreign Language departments The School of Music is nationally renowned and features degrees in music composition, performance, education, theater, and music industry. Currently, the University is home to over ten ensembles. Among them is The Wind Ensemble, The JMU Brass Band, a Pep Band, several choirs, and The Marching Royal Dukes, the marching band with almost 500 members who were the recipients of the Sudler Trophy, the highest honor available for a college marching band. In 2005, the School of Music received an anonymous gift of 65 Steinway Pianos worth $1 million. Rankings The school is nationally recognized for its academics. U.S. News & World Report has ranked JMU as the top public (4th overall), masters-level university in the South for 14 consecutive years, and among public colleges Forbes.com ranks JMU 22nd in the nation. The University is also ranked 22nd overall in value for money in the nation amongst public colleges and universities, according to Kiplinger Magazine's 100 Best Values in Public Colleges. According to BusinessWeek magazine in its 2009 ranking of undergraduate colleges of business, JMU's undergraduate business school is ranked 44th in the nation, and 3rd in Virginia. Money Magazine, in 1996 ranked JMU 5th in the nation for best value among in-state students. Princeton Review, in its 2007 rankings, called JMU one of "America's Best Value Colleges". Campus Newman Lake The campus of JMU originally consisted of two buildings, known today as Jackson and Maury Halls. The early campus design was modeled after that of Union College, thus resembling the ideal city of Renaissance. Today, the campus of James Madison University has 102 major buildings on . The campus is divided into five parts: Bluestone, Hillside, Lakeside, Skyline, and the Village. The Skyline area is located on the east side of Interstate 81, while the Bluestone, Hillside, Lakeside, and Village areas of the campus are located on the west side. The two sides of campus are connected both by a bridge and a tunnel underneath the highway (Duke Dog Alley). Other unique features on the campus include Newman Lake, a pond located in the Lake Area next to Greek Row and Sonner Hall , the Edith J. Carrier Arboretum, and one set of railroad tracks passing directly through the campus. The original portion of campus was situated on South Main Street and has, since the late-1990's, expanded east across the Interstate 81. The expansion included, the addition of The College of Integrated Science and Technology (CISAT), the University Recreation Center (UREC), the Festival Conference and Student Center, the Leeolou Alumni Center, several residence halls, the Chemistry and Physics Building, which houses the chemistry department as well as the department of Physics and Astronomy, and athletic fields. The East Campus Library, completed in the August of 2008 "Book Club." Bowser, Heather. The Daily News-Record. May, 2008. , is one of the most recently added building to the east side of JMU's campus. Several new construction projects on the campus of James Madison University have been included in Governor Tim Kaine's $1.65 billion higher education bond package. Governor Kaine's proposal designates more than $96 million for JMU projects. Among the projects included in the proposal are the construction of a new biotechnology building, Centennial Hall, ($44.8 million) and the renovation and expansion of Duke Hall ($43.4 million). The proposal also includes $8.6 million as the final installment payment for Rockingham Memorial Hospital. Student life Students on the James Madison University quad The Princeton Review also recognized James Madison as one of 81 schools in America "with a conscience", and in the latest year ranked behind only the University of Virginia in the number of Peace Corps volunteers it sent from its student body among "medium-sized" universities. Alcohol use on and around campus is prevalent, and The Princeton Review ranked JMU eighteenth for the most beer usage on campus. The school has 35 residence halls, nine of which serve as sorority houses. While most residence halls are only for housing, several halls are used for multiple purposes. For example, Chandler Hall, located in the Lake area, has a basement dining facility and a computer lab, in addition to upperclass housing. As freshmen must live on campus, a large portion of JMU's housing availability is set aside for incoming students. Consequently, most upperclassmen and graduate students live off campus; those who wish to live on campus must apply for housing each year. While occasional exceptions are granted, generally freshmen are not granted parking permits. JMU's Greek life makes up roughly 12% of the student body. Administration CISAT side of campus with Potomac Hall (left) and Chesapeake Hall (right). Board of Visitors Like all public universities in Virginia, James Madison is governed by a Board of Visitors, mostly appointed by the Governor of Virginia. In addition to the 15 members appointed by the governor, the speaker of the Faculty Senate and an elected student representative serve as representatives for the faculty and the student body respectively. The appointed members serve for a maximum of two consecutive 4 year terms, while the student representative is limited to two one-year terms. The faculty representative serves for as long as he or she remains the speaker of the JMU Faculty Senate. President Dr. Linwood H. Rose has served as the university's fifth president since September 1998. Before being named president, Rose served as a member of the institution's administration for 23 years, including service as Executive Vice President and Chief Operating Officer. Past presidents Julian Ashby Burruss (1908-1919) Dr. Samuel Page Duke (1919-1949) Dr. G. Tyler Miller (1949-1971) Dr. Ronald E. Carrier (1971-1998) Community relations The University’s rapid expansion has created tension in the city-university relationship with issues such as growth planning. The Board of Visitors recently approved the invocation of eminent domain against a neighboring business, a funeral parlor, to make way for the school's new Performing Arts Center, which is already under construction. Before eminent domain was exercised, the property owner chose to accept a purchase offer from the University. In the May 2006 city election, incumbent mayor Larry Rogers, who also serves on JMU’s Board of Visitors, lost his bid for reelection. JMU has nearly doubled in size in the last 20 years. JMU purchased the former Harrisonburg High School building, now known as Memorial Hall, and promised to keep some of the important features intact for the benefit of the community. Athletics Duke Dog Athletics Identity. James Madison University's athletic teams use the name "Dukes" in competition, with the Duke Dog, a gray bulldog dressed in a purple cape and crown, as the school's mascot. "Dukes" is in honor of Samuel Page Duke, the university's second president. Madison competes in the NCAA's Division I (Football Championship Subdivision for football), the Colonial Athletic Association, and the Eastern College Athletic Conference. The Dukes played football in the Atlantic 10 Football Conference until it disbanded after the 2006 season and currently play in the Colonial Athletic Association, which picked up the Atlantic 10's football operations beginning fall 2007 Students compete in football, basketball, soccer, women's swimming, diving, women's volleyball, baseball, women's lacrosse, field hockey, golf, track and field, and softball. James Madison's two national championships ranks them tied for third most national titles in Virginia. James Madison's baseball team advanced to the 1983 College World Series, the only Division I institution in Virginia to do so. The JMU women's field hockey gave the university their first national title in 1994. JMU football also won the NCAA Division I-AA national title in 2004 and appeared in the playoffs in 2006, 2007 and 2008. In 2006, considerable controversy arose after the decision to cut 10 varsity teams (including both mens' and women's teams) was deemed necessary to comply with Title IX restrictions. Notable alumni Jim Acosta, reporter Marcia Angell, Harvard University Medical School faculty member Dr. Marcia Angell at the National Library of Medicine. Accessed July 17, 2007. Margaret Becker, composer Melanie Blunt, First Lady of Missouri (2005-2009) Steve Buckhantz, basketball play-by-play announcer Gary Clark, former football player Ross Copperman, recording artist Lindsay Czarniak - sports anchor Charles Haley, football player Barbara Hall, TV producer and writer Keith Howland, musician (Chicago) Steve James, documentary producer and director Akeem Jordan, football player John-Paul Lee, founder & CEO of Tavalon Tea. Mark Jordan Legan, TV and film writer Kellen Kulbacki, baseball player Karen McCullah Lutz, screenwriter Leroi Moore, musician (Dave Matthews Band) Scott Norwood, football player Tracey Neale, WUSA anchorwoman Ed Perry, football player Colin Pine, interpreter for Yao Ming John Roberts, SPEED host Elliott Sadler, racecar driver (did not graduate) Billy Sample, baseball player and broadcaster Chris Sprouse, comic book artist Steven Smith, Fuse TV Video Jockey Phoef Sutton, film and television writer Butch Taylor, musician (Dave Matthews Band) Chuck Taylor, music journalist Phil Vassar, country music singer Mike Venafro, baseball player Andrew York, musician and composer Tamera Young, basketball player Ryan McDougle, Virginia General Assembly Senator References External links Official website | James_Madison_University |@lemmatized james:15 madison:19 university:46 also:9 know:3 jmu:24 public:7 coeducational:2 research:1 locate:7 harrisonburg:8 virginia:13 u:2 found:2 state:9 normal:3 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6,157 | Double_bass | The double bass, also known as contrabass or upright bass, is the largest and lowest-pitched bowed string instrument used in the modern symphony orchestra. It is a standard member of the string section of the symphony orchestra The Orchestra: A User's Manual, Andrew Hugill with the Philharmonia Orchestra and smaller string ensembles Chamber Music in the Vienna Double Bass Archive, Alfred Planyavsky in Western classical music. In addition, it is used in other genres such as jazz, 1950s-style blues and rock and roll, rockabilly/psychobilly, bluegrass, and tango. Double basses are constructed from several types of wood, including maple for the back, spruce for the top, and ebony for the fingerboard. It is uncertain whether the instrument is a descendant of the viola da gamba or from the violin, but it is traditionally considered to be a member of the violin family. While the double bass is nearly identical in construction to the other violin family instruments, it also has features which may be derived from the viols. Like many other string instruments, the double bass is played either with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings (Pizz). In orchestral repertoire and tango music, both bowing and plucking styles are used. In jazz music, the bass is mostly plucked, except for some solos which are performed with the bow. In most other genres, such as blues and rockabilly, the bass is plucked. History The double bass is generally regarded as the modern descendant of the string family of instruments, a family which originated in Europe in the 15th century, and as such it has been described as a "bass violin." The Double Bass, Jacob Head Before the 20th century many double basses had only three strings, in contrast to the five to six strings typical of instruments in the string family or the four strings of instruments in the violin family. Some existing instruments, such as those by Gasparo da Salò, were converted from sixteenth-century six-string contrabass violoni. Planyavsky 1998 The double bass's proportions are dissimilar to those of the violin and cello; for example, it is deeper (the distance from top to back is proportionally much greater than the violin). In addition, while the violin has bulging shoulders, most double basses have shoulders carved with a more acute slope, like members of the viola da gamba family. Many very old double basses have had their shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing with modern techniques. Before these modifications, the design of their shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family. The double bass is the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like viols), rather than fifths (see Tuning, below). The issue of the instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, and the supposition that the double bass is a direct descendant of the viola da gamba family is one that has not been entirely resolved. In his A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun asserts, with many references, that the double bass has origins as the true bass of the violin family. He states that, while the exterior of the double bass may resemble the viola da gamba, the internal construction of the double bass is nearly identical to that of other instruments in the violin family, and is very different from the internal structure of viols. A New History of the Double Bass, Paul Brun Terminology A person who plays this instrument is called a bassist, double bassist, double bass player, contrabassist, contrabass player, or bass player. There are several theories behind the instrument's standard English name, double bass. Some music historians argue that it is a reference to the older notation of naming notes where notes below C3 were notated with two of the letter of the note name twice. (Such as, E2 would be EE, or Double E). This is similar to the term BBb Flat Tuba. Despite the prevalence of a folk etymology which purports that the name is a reference to fact that the bass is larger than the cello, the term "double bass" is not related to its physical size. The name may derive from its alleged viol family heritage, in that it is tuned lower than the standard bass viola da gamba. The name also refers to the fact that the sounding pitch of the double bass is an octave below the bass clef. Other terms for the instrument among classical performers are contrabass (which comes from the instrument's Italian name, contrabasso), string bass (to distinguish it from a brass bass instrument in a concert band), or simply bass. Jazz and other genre musicians often call it the upright bass, standup bass, or acoustic bass to distinguish it from the electric bass guitar. Especially when used in folk and bluegrass music, the instrument can also be referred to as a bass fiddle or bass violin (or more rarely as doghouse bass or bull fiddle). Other colourful nicknames are found in other languages; in Hungarian, for instance, the double bass is sometimes called nagy bőgő, which roughly translates as "big crier", referring to its large voice. Design Example of a Busetto-shaped double bass: Copy of a Matthias Klotz (1700) by Rumano Solano In general there are two major approaches to the design outline shape of the double bass, these being the violin form, and the viol da gamba form. A third less common design called the busetto shape (and very rarely the guitar or pear shape) can also be found. The back of the instrument can vary from being a round, carved back similar to that of the violin, or a flat and angled back similar to the viol family. The double bass features many parts that are similar to members of the violin family including a bridge, f-holes, a tailpiece, a scroll and a sound post. Unlike the rest of the violin family, the double bass still reflects influence and can be considered partly derived from the viol family of instruments, in particular the violone, the bass member of the viol family. The double bass also differs from members of the violin family in that the shoulders are (sometimes) sloped, the back is often angled (both to allow easier access to the instrument, particularly in the upper range), and machine tuners are always fitted. Lack of standardization in design means that one double bass can sound and look very different from another. Construction Salient parts of the double bass The double bass is closest in construction to violins, but has some notable similarities to the violone (literally "large viol"), the largest and lowest member of the viola da gamba family. Unlike the violone, however, the fingerboard of the double bass is unfretted, and the double bass has fewer strings (the violone, like most viols, generally had six strings, although some specimens had five or four). An important distinction between the double bass and other members of the violin family is the construction of the pegbox. While the violin, viola, and cello all use friction pegs for gross tuning adjustments, the double bass has metal machine heads. The key on the tuning machine turns a metal "worm" which drives a worm gear that winds the string. While this development makes fine tuners unnecessary, a very small number of bassists use them nevertheless. At the base of the double bass is a metal rod with a spiked end called the endpin, which rests on the floor. This endpin is generally more robust than that of a cello, because of the greater mass of the double bass. The soundpost and bass bar are components of the internal construction. The materials most often used are maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top), and ebony (fingerboard, tailpiece). Exceptions to this include less-expensive basses which have laminated (plywood) tops, backs, and ribs, and some newer mid-range basses made of willow. These basses are resistant to changes in heat and humidity, which can cause cracks in spruce tops. Plywood laminate basses, which are used in music schools, youth orchestras, and in popular and folk music settings, are very resistant to humidity and heat, as well to the physical abuse they are apt to encounter in a school environment (or, for blues and folk musicians, to the hazards of touring and performing in bars). All the parts of a double bass are glued together, except the soundpost, bridge and tailpiece, which are held in place by string tension, although the soundpost will usually remain in place when the instrument's strings are loosened or removed. The metal tuning machines are attached to the sides of the pegbox with metal screws. While tuning mechanisms generally differ from the higher-pitched orchestral stringed instruments, some basses have non-functional, ornamental tuning pegs projecting from the side of the pegbox, in imitation of the tuning pegs on a cello or violin. Strings Detail of the bridge and strings Gut strings Prior to the mid-20th century, double bass strings were usually made of gut, but since that time, steel strings have largely replaced gut strings, because steel strings hold their pitch better and yield more volume when played with the bow. Gainesville Violins Gut strings are also more vulnerable to changes of humidity and temperature, and they break much more easily than steel strings. Gut strings are nowadays mostly used by bassists who perform in baroque ensembles, rockabilly bands, traditional blues bands, and bluegrass bands TheBassShop claims that gut strings recreate the tone used in bluegrass, rockabilly, Paul Chambers-era jazz, and baroque music. Available at: http://www.thebassshop.com/bass_accessories.html Gut strings create the dark, "thumpy" sound heard on 1940s and 1950s recordings. The late Jeff Sarli, a blues upright bassist, stated that "starting in the 1950s, they began to reset the necks on basses for steel strings", and double bass players switched from gut strings to steel strings. Jeff Sarli Rockabilly and bluegrass bassists also prefer gut because it is much easier to perform the "slapping" upright bass style (in which the strings are percussively slapped and clicked against the fingerboard) with gut strings than with steel strings. (For more information on slapping, see the sections below on Modern playing styles, Double bass in bluegrass music, Double bass in jazz, and Double bass in popular music). The change from gut to steel has also affected the instrument's playing technique over the last hundred years, because playing with steel strings allows the strings to be set up closer to the fingerboard, and, additionally, steel strings can be played in higher positions on the lower strings and still produce clear tone. The classic 19th century Franz Simandl method does not utilize the low E string in higher positions because with older gut strings set up high over the fingerboard, the tone was not clear in these higher positions. However, with modern steel strings, bassists can play with clear tone in higher positions on the low E and A strings, particularly when modern lighter-gauge, lower-tension steel strings (e.g., Corelli/Savarez strings) are used. Bows The double bass bow comes in two distinct forms (shown below). The "French" or "overhand" bow is similar in shape and implementation to the bow used on the other members of the orchestral string instrument family, while the "German" or "Butler" bow is typically broader and shorter, and is held in a "hand shake" position. French and German bows compared These two bows provide for different ways of moving the arm and distributing force on the strings. Proponents of the French bow argue that it is more maneuverable, due to the angle at which the player holds the bow. Advocates of the German bow claim that it allows the player to apply more arm weight on the strings. The differences between the two, however, are minute for a proficient player, and both bows are used by modern players in major orchestras. German bow German-style bow The German bow (sometimes called Dragonetti bow) is the older of the two designs. The design of the bow and the manner of holding it are descended from the older viol family of instruments. With older viols, before screw threads were used to tighten the bow, players held the bow with two fingers between the stick and the hair to maintain tension of the hair. Proponents of the use of German bow claim that the German bow is easier to use for light bow strokes as staccato, spiccato, and detaché. In comparison with the French bow, the German bow has a taller frog, and it is held with the palm angled upwards, as is done for the upright members of the viol family. When held in correct manner, the thumb rests on the side of the stick. The index finger balances the bow at the point where the frog meets the stick. The index finger is also used to apply an upward torque to the frog when tilting the bow. The little finger (or "pinky") supports the frog from underneath, while the ring finger and middle finger are used to apply the force to move the bow across the strings. French bow French-style bow The French bow was not widely popular until its adoption by 19th-century virtuoso Giovanni Bottesini. This style is more similar to the traditional bows of the smaller string family instruments. It is held as if the hand is resting by the side of the performer with the palm facing toward the bass. The thumb rests on the shaft of the bow, next to the frog while the other fingers drape on the other side of the bow. Various styles dictate the curve of the fingers and thumb, as do the style of piece; a more pronounced curve and lighter hold on the bow is used for virtuosic or more delicate pieces, while a flatter curve and sturdier grip on the bow provides more power for loud orchestral passages. A bassist holding a French bow; note how the thumb rests on the shaft of the bow next to the frog. Bow construction and materials Double bass bows vary in length, ranging from 60 cm (24") to 75 cm (30"). Pernambuco, also known as Brazilwood, is regarded as an excellent quality stick material, but due to its scarcity and expense, other materials are increasingly being used. Less expensive student bows may be constructed of solid fiberglass, or of less valuable varieties of brazilwood. Snakewood and carbon fiber are also used in bows of a variety of different qualities. The frog of the double bass bow is usually made out of ebony, although Snakewood and buffalo horn are used by some luthiers. The wire wrapping is gold or silver in many quality bows, and the hair is usually horsehair. Some of the lowest-quality student bows are made from molded plastic and synthetic fiberglass "hair". The double bass bow is strung with either white or black horsehair, or a combination of the two (known as "salt and pepper"), as opposed to the customary white horsehair used on the bows of other string instruments. Some bassists argue that the slightly rougher black hair "grabs" the heavier, lower strings better. As well, some bassists and luthiers believe that it is easier to produce a smoother sound with the white variety. Red hair (chestnut) is also used by some bassists. Rosin String players apply rosin to the hair of their bow so that the hair will "grip" the string and make it vibrate. Double bass rosin is generally softer and stickier than violin rosin to allow the hair to grab the thicker strings better, but players use a wide variety of rosins that vary from quite hard (like violin rosin) to quite soft, depending on the weather, the humidity, and the preference of the player. The amount used generally depends on the type of music being performed as well as the personal preferences of the player. Bassists may apply more rosin in works for large orchestra (e.g., Brahms symphonies) than for delicate chamber works. Some brands of rosin, such as Pop's double bass rosin, are softer and more prone to melting in hot weather. Other brands, such as Carlsson or Nyman Harts double bass rosin, are harder and less prone to melting. Pitch The bass (or F) clef is used for most orchestral double bass music. The lowest note of a double bass is an E1 (on standard four-string basses) at approximately 41 Hz or a B0 (when five strings are used) at approximately 31 Hz. This is slightly above the lowest frequency that the average human ear can perceive as a distinctive pitch—about 20 Hz. The highest notes are almost down at the bridge. Five-string instruments either use the additional string tuned to a low B below the E string, or to a C above the G string. In many double bass concertos harmonic tones are used. The use of natural harmonics (a technique often used by Giovanni Bottesini) and sometimes even artificial harmonics, where the thumb stops the note and the octave or other harmonic is activated by lightly touching the string at the relative node point, extend the double bass' range considerably. The double bass parts from most orchestral music rarely exceed three octaves. However, a virtuoso solo player could cover five or six octaves in solo bass repertoire, using natural and artificial harmonics. Since the range of the double bass lies largely below the standard bass clef, it is notated an octave higher (hence sounding an octave lower than written). This transposition applies even when reading the tenor and treble clef, which are used to avoid excessive ledger lines when notating the instrument's upper range. Tuning The double bass is generally tuned in fourths, in contrast to the other members of the orchestral string family, which are tuned in fifths. This avoids a too-long finger stretch Some players nickname stretching the fingers to reach a note an "extension", a term that should not be confused with the wooden fingerboard attachment used to obtain the low "C", which is also called an extension). Modern double basses are usually tuned, low to high, E-A-D-G, at the same pitch as a bass guitar and one octave lower than the four lowest-pitch strings on a guitar. Throughout classical repertoire, there are notes that fall below the range of a standard double bass. Notes below low E appear regularly in double bass parts in the Baroque and Classical eras, when the double bass was typically doubling the cello part an octave below. In the Romantic era and the 20th-century, composers such as Mahler, Beethoven, and Prokofiev also requested notes below the low E. There are two common methods for making these notes available to the player. Major European orchestras generally use basses with a fifth string, tuned to B three octaves and a semitone below middle C. Bill Bentgen - 5 String Basses Players with standard double basses (E-A-D-G) typically play the notes below "E" an octave higher. A low-C extension with wooden mechanical "fingers" that can be used to stop the string at C#, D, Eb, or E. In the United States, Canada and United Kingdom, most professional orchestral players use four-string double basses with a "C extension" which extends the lowest string down as far as low C, an octave below the lowest note on the cello (more rarely, this string may be tuned to a low B A few works in the orchestral repertoire call for a low "B", including Respighi's The Pines of Rome ). The extension is an extra section of fingerboard mounted up over the head of the bass. There are several varieties of extensions. In the simplest version, there are no mechanical aids attached to the fingerboard extension except a locking nut for the "E" note. To play the extension notes, the player reaches back over the pegs to press the string to the fingerboard. The advantage of this "fingered" extension is that the player can adjust the intonation of all of the stopped notes on the extension, and there are no mechanical noises from metal keys and levers. The disadvantage of the "fingered" extension is that it can be hard to perform rapid alternations between low notes on the extension and notes on the regular fingerboard, such as a bassline which quickly alternates between "G" and the low "D". The simplest type of mechanical aid is the use of wooden "fingers" that can be closed to press the string down and fret the C#, D, Eb, or E notes. This system is particularly useful for basslines that have a repeating pedal point such as a low D, because once the note is locked in place with the mechanical "finger", the lowest string then sounds a different note when it is played "open" (e.g., a low D). The most complicated mechanical aid for use with extensions are mechanical lever systems nicknamed "machines". These lever systems, which superficially resemble the mechanisms of reed instruments such as the bassoon, include levers mounted beside the regular fingerboard (near the nut, on the "E" string side) which remotely activate metal "fingers" on the extension fingerboard. The most expensive metal lever systems also give the player the ability to "lock" down notes on the extension fingerboard, as with the wooden "finger" system. One criticism of these devices is that they may lead to unwanted metallic clicking noises. A small number of bass players tune their strings in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (C-G-D-A low to high). This tuning was used by the jazz player Red Mitchell and is increasingly used by classical players, notably the Canadian bassist Joel Quarrington. In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone higher (F-B-E-A). This higher tuning is called "solo tuning," whereas the regular tuning is known as "orchestral tuning." String tension differs so much between solo and orchestral tuning that a different set of strings is often employed that has a lighter gauge. Strings are always labelled for either solo or orchestral tuning, and published solo music is arranged for either solo or orchestral tuning. Some popular solos and concerti, such as the Koussevitsky Concerto are available in both solo and orchestral tuning arrangements. A variant and much less-commonly used form of solo tuning used in some Eastern European countries is (A-D-G-C), which uses three of the strings from orchestral tuning (A-D-G) and then adds a high "C" string. Some bassists with five-string basses use a high "C" string as the fifth string, instead of a low "B" string. Adding the high "C" string facilitates the performance of solo repertoire with a high tessitura (range). When using more than four strings, the player generally must choose between adding a higher or lower-tuned string, as construction of a six-stringed instrument is generally regarded as impractical. With the additional string, fingerboards must be made wider, and the tops must be made thicker in order to deal with the extra tension and stress from the additional string. Some five-stringed instruments are converted from ones originally constructed to utilize fewer strings, where the fingerboards have not been widened (often making for awkwardness and difficulties in fingering and bowing). Generally, however, there is no way around having a thicker top when an additional string is present. Playing and performance considerations Body and hand position Double bassists have the option to either stand or sit while playing the instrument. When standing, the double bass' height is set (by adjusting the endpin) so that the player may easily place the right hand close to the bridge, either with the bow (arco) or plucking (pizzicato). While personal opinions vary, often the endpin is set by aligning the first finger in either first or half position with the player's eye level. While sitting, a stool (which is measured by the player's seam length) is used. Traditionally, standing has been preferred by soloists although many now choose to play sitting down. Proponents of playing while sitting on a stool argue that it is easier to perform high-register passages, because the instrument can be steadied between the two knees. When playing in the instrument's upper range (above the G below middle C), the player shifts his hand out from behind the neck and flattens it out, using the side of the thumb to press down the string. This technique is called thumb position and is also a technique used on the cello. While playing in thumb position, the fourth (little) finger is not usually used, as it is too short to produce a reliable tone. Physical considerations Performing on the bass can be physically demanding because the strings of the instrument are larger and thicker than those of smaller stringed instruments. Also, the spacing between notes on the fingerboard is larger due to the bass's size. This means that bass players have to shift positions more frequently. The increased use of playing techniques such as thumb position and modifications to the bass, such as the use of lighter-gauge strings at lower tension, have eased the difficulty of playing the instrument. Bass parts have relatively fewer fast passages, double stops, or large jumps in range. As with all unfretted string instruments, performers must learn to precisely place their fingers to produce the correct pitch. Again, due to the instrument's size, more frequent hand movement is required, increasing the likelihood of intonation errors. For bassists with smaller hands, the large spaces between pitches may present a significant challenge, especially in the lowest range, where the spaces between notes are largest. Until the 1990s, child-sized double basses were not widely available, and the large size of the bass meant that children were not able to start playing the instrument until their hand size and height would allow them to play a 3/4-size model (the most commonly available size). Starting in the 1990s, smaller half, quarter, eighth and even sixteenth-sized instruments became more widely available, which meant that children could start at a younger age. Volume Despite the size of the instrument, it does not project a loud volume, because its range is so low. When the bass is being used as an ensemble instrument in orchestra, usually between four and eight bassists will play the part in unison. In the largest orchestras, bass sections may be as large as ten or twelve players, but in the 1990s and 2000s, budget constraints make bass sections this large a rarity. When writing solo passages for the bass in orchestral or chamber music, composers typically ensure that the orchestration is light so it will not obscure the soloist's sound. While amplification is rarely used in classical settings, in some cases where a bass soloist is performing a concerto backed by a full orchestra, a subtle type of amplification called acoustic enhancement may be used. The use of microphones and amplifiers in a classical setting has led to debate within the classical community, as "...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of [Classical] voices [or] instruments in a given hall should not be altered." Sound Systems- Why?! In many non-orchestral settings, such as jazz and blues, amplification via a specialized amplifier and loudspeakers is employed. In bluegrass and jazz, less amplification is used than in blues, psychobilly, or jam band-music. In the latter, the high overall volume due to other amplifiers and instruments may lead to acoustic feedback, a problem that is accentuated by the bass's large surface area and interior volume. Transportation The double bass's large size, combined with its relative fragility, causes some difficulty in safely transporting the instrument. Most bassists use soft cases, often referred to as "gig bags," to protect the instrument while it is being transported to performances. The most basic, unpadded gig bags, which tend to be used by students, cost less than $100 USD; thickly padded gig bags, which are used by professional players, typically cost between $300 and $500 USD, although some more feature-filled examples with backpack straps cost over $1000 USD. Some bassists use a hard case similar in size to a pool cue case (for a screw-apart pool cue) to protect their bow during transportation. Some players use wheeled carts or endpin-attached wheels to assist in transporting the instrument. Professional touring double bass players who have to have their instrument shipped in the cargo hold of a plane use flight cases or trunks that cost over $2,500 USD. Hard flight cases have tough exteriors made from carbon fiber, graphite, fiberglass or Kevlar, and they have airbag cushions and padding to protect the instrument. Classical repertoire Solo works for double bass 1700s The double bass as a solo instrument enjoyed a period of popularity during the 18th century and many of the most popular composers from that era wrote pieces for the double bass. The double bass, then often referred to as the Violone used different tunings from region to region. The "Viennese tuning" (A-D-F-A) was popular, and in some cases a fifth string or even sixth string was added. The popularity of the instrument is documented in Leopold Mozart's second edition of his Violinschulë, where he writes "One can bring forth difficult passages easier with the five-string violone, and I heard unusually beautiful performances of concertos, trios, solos, etc." The earliest known concerto to exist for the double bass was written by Joseph Haydn ca.1763, which was presumably lost in the fire at the Eisenstadt library. The earliest concertos that exist today are by Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf, who composed two concertos for the double bass and a Sinfonia Concertante for viola and double bass. Other composers that have written concertos from this period include Johann Baptist Vanhal, Franz Anton Hoffmeister (3 concertos), Leopold Kozeluch, Anton Zimmermann, Antonio Capuzzi, Wenzel Pichl (2 concertos), and Johannes Matthias Sperger (18 concertos). While many of these names were leading figures to the music public of their time, they are generally unknown by contemporary audiences. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's concert aria, "Per Questa Bella Mano", K.612 for bass, double bass obbligato, and orchestra contains impressive writing for solo double bass of that period. It remains popular among both singers and double bassists today. The double bass eventually evolved to fit the needs of orchestras that required lower notes and a louder sound. The leading double bassists from the mid- to late 18th century, such as Josef Kämpfer, Friedrich Pischelberger, and Johannes Mathias Sperger employed the "Viennese" tuning. Bassist Johann Hindle (1792-1862), who composed a concerto for the double bass, pioneered tuning the bass in fourths, which marked a turning point for the double bass and its role in solo works. Bassist Domenico Dragonetti was a prominent musical figure and an acquaintance of Haydn and Ludwig van Beethoven. His playing was known all the way from his native Italy to the Tsar of Russia and he found a prominent place performing in concerts with the Philharmonic Society of London. The Italian bass virtuoso Domenico Dragonetti helped to encourage composers to give more difficult parts for his instrument. Beethoven's friendship with Dragonetti may have inspired Beethoven to write difficult, separate parts for the double bass in his symphonies which do not double the cello and the impressive passages in the third movement of the Fifth Symphony and last movement of the Ninth Symphony. Dragonetti wrote ten concertos for the double bass and many solo works for bass and piano. During Rossini's stay in London in the summer of 1824, he composed his Duetto for cello and double bass for Dragonetti and the cellist David Salomons. Dragonetti frequently played on a three string double bass tuned G-D-A from top to bottom. The use of only the top three strings was popular for bass soloists and Principal bassists in orchestras in the 19th century, because it reduced the pressure on the wooden top of the bass, which was thought to create a more resonant sound. As well, the low "E" strings used during the 19th century were thick cords made of gut, which were difficult to tune and play. 1800s In the 19th century, the opera conductor, composer, and bassist Giovanni Bottesini was considered the "Paganini of the double bass" of his time. His compositions were written in the popular Italian opera style of the 19th century, which exploit the double bass in a way that was not seen beforehand. They require virtuosic runs and great leaps to the highest registers of the instrument, even into the realm of harmonics. These compositions were considered to be unplayable by many bassists in the early part of the 20th century, but are now frequently performed. During the same time, a prominent school of bass players in the Czech region arose, which included Franz Simandl, Theodore Albin Findeisen, Josef Hrabe, Ludwig Manoly, and Adolf Mišek. Simandl and Hrabe were also pedagogues whose method books and studies continue to be used in modern times. 1900s-present The leading figure of the double bass in the early 20th century was Serge Koussevitzky, best known as conductor of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, who popularized the double bass in modern times as a solo instrument. Because of improvements to the double bass with steel strings and better set-ups, the bass is now played at a more advanced level than ever before and more and more composers have written works for the double bass. In the mid-century and in the following decades, many new concerti were written for the double bass, including Nikolaos Skalkottas's Concerto (1942), Eduard Tubin's Concerto (1948), Lars-Erik Larsson's Concertino (1957), Charles Wuorinen's Concert for Double Bass Alone (1961), Gunther Schuller's Concerto (1962), and Hans Werner Henze's Concerto (1966). thumb| Serge Koussevitzky popularized the double bass in modern times as a solo instrument In the 1970s and 1980's, new concerti included Nino Rota's Divertimento for Double Bass and Orchestra (1973), Jean Françaix's Concerto (1975), Einojuhani Rautavaara's Angel Of Dusk (1980), Gian Carlo Menotti's Concerto (1983), Christopher Rouse's Concerto (1985), and Henry Brant's Ghost Nets (1988). In the 2000s, new concerti include Kalevi Aho's Concerto (2005), John Harbison's Concerto for Bass Viol (2006), and André Previn's Double Concerto for violin, double bass, and orchestra (2007). Krzysztof Penderecki and Wolfgang Rihm are currently writing concertos for the double bass . Reinhold Glière wrote and Intermezzo and Tarantella for double bass and piano, Op. 9, No. 1 and No. 2 and a Praeludium and Scherzo for double bass and piano, Op. 32 No.1 and No.2. Paul Hindemith wrote a rhythmically-challenging Double Bass Sonata in 1949. Giacinto Scelsi wrote two double bass pieces called Nuits in 1972, and then in 1976, he wrote Maknongan, a piece for any low-voiced instrument, such as double bass, contrabassoon, or tuba. Vincent Persichetti wrote solo works for many instruments which he called "Parables"; he wrote Parable XVII for Double Bass, Op. 131 in 1974. Sofia Gubaidulina penned a Sonata for double bass and piano in 1975. In 1987 Lowell Liebermann wrote his Sonata for Contrabass and Piano Op.24. Fernando Grillo wrote the "Suite No.1" for double bass (1983/2005). Jacob Druckman wrote a piece for solo double bass entitled Valentine. US double bass soloist and composer Bertram Turetzky (born 1933) has performed and recorded more than 300 pieces written by and for him. He writes chamber music, baroque music, classical, jazz, renaissance music, improvisational music and world music US minimalist composer Philip Glass wrote a prelude focused on the lower register which was scored for timpani and double bass. Italian composer Sylvano Bussotti, whose composing career spans from the 1930s to the 2000s, wrote a solo work for bass in 1983 entitled Naked Angel Face per contrabbasso. Fellow Italian composer Franco Donatoni wrote a piece called Lem for contrabbasso in the same year. In 1989, French composer Pascal Dusapin (born 1955) wrote a solo piece called In et Out for double bass. In 1996, the Sorbonne-trained Lebanese composer Karim Haddad composed Ce qui dort dans l'ombre sacrée ("He who sleeps in the sacred shadows") for Radio France's Presence Festival. Renaud Garcia-Fons (born 1962) is a French double-bass player and composer, notable for drawing on jazz, folk, and Asian music for recordings of his pieces like Oriental Bass (1997). Two significant recent works written for solo bass include, Mario Davidovsky's Synchronisms No.11 for double bass and electronic sounds and Elliott Carter's Figment III, for solo double bass. Chamber music with double bass Since there is no established instrumental ensemble that includes the double bass, its use in chamber music has not been as exhaustive as the literature for ensembles such as the string quartet or piano trio. Despite this, there is a substantial amount of chamber works that incorporate the double bass in both small and large ensembles. There is a small body of works written for piano quintet with the instrumentation of piano, violin, viola, cello, and double bass. The most famous is Franz Schubert's Piano Quintet in A major, known as "The Trout Quintet" for its set of variations in the fourth movement of Schubert's "Die Forelle". Other works for this instrumentation written from roughly the same period include those by Johann Nepomuk Hummel, George Onslow, Jan Ladislav Dussek, Louise Farrenc, Ferdinand Ries, Franz Limmer, Johann Baptist Cramer, and Hermann Goetz. Later composers who wrote chamber works for this quintet include Ralph Vaughan Williams, Colin Matthews, Jon Deak, Frank Proto, and John Woolrich. Slightly larger sextets written for piano, string quartet, and double bass have been written by Felix Mendelssohn, Mikhail Glinka, and Charles Ives. In the genre of string quintets, there are a few works for string quartet with double bass. Antonín Dvořák's String Quintet in G major, Op.77 and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's Serenade in G major, K.525 ("Eine kleine Nachtmusik") are the most popular pieces in this repertoire, along with works by Darius Milhaud, Luigi Boccherini (3 quintets), Harold Shapero, and Paul Hindemith. Slightly smaller string works with the double bass include six string sonatas by Gioacchino Rossini, for two violins, cello, and double bass written at the age of twelve over the course of three days in 1804. These remain his most famous instrumental works and have also been adapted for wind quartet. Larger works that incorporate the double bass include Beethoven's Septet in E-flat major, Op.20, one of his most famous pieces during his lifetime, which consists of clarinet, horn, bassoon, violin, viola, cello, and bass. When the clarinetist Ferdinand Troyer commissioned a work from Franz Schubert for similar forces, he added one more violin for his Octet in F major, D.803. Paul Hindemith used the same instrumentation as Schubert for his own Octet. In the realm of even larger works, Mozart included the double bass in addition to 12 wind instruments for his "Gran Partita" Serenade, K.361. Other examples of chamber works that use the double bass in mixed ensembles include Serge Prokofiev's Quintet in G minor, Op.39 for oboe, clarinet, violin, viola, and double bass; Erwin Schulhoff's Concertino for flute/piccolo, viola, and double bass; Fred Lerdahl's Waltzes for violin, viola, cello, and double bass; Mario Davidovsky's Festino for guitar, viola, cello, and double bass; and Iannis Xenakis's Morsima-Amorsima for piano, violin, cello, and double bass. Orchestral passages and solos The double bass in the baroque and classical periods would typically double the cello part in orchestral passages. A notable exception would be Haydn, who composed solo passages for the double bass in his Symphonies No.6 “Le Matin”, No.7 “Le midi”, No.8 “Le Soir”, No. 31 “Horn Signal, and No. 45 “Farewell”, but who otherwise would group the bass and cello parts together. Beethoven paved the way for separate double bass parts which would become more common in the romantic era. The scherzo and trio from Beethoven's Fifth Symphony is a famous orchestral excerpt as is the recitative at the beginning of the fourth movement of Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony. While orchestral bass solos are somewhat rare, there are some notable examples. Johannes Brahms, whose father was a double bass player, wrote many difficult and prominent parts for the double bass in his symphonies. Richard Strauss assigned the double bass daring parts, and his symphonic poems and operas stretch the instrument to its limits. "The Elephant" from Camille Saint-Saëns' The Carnival of the Animals is a satirical portrait of the double bass, and American virtuoso Gary Karr made his televised debut playing "The Swan" (originally written for the cello) with the New York Philharmonic conducted by Leonard Bernstein. The third movement of Gustav Mahler's first symphony features a solo for the double bass which quotes the children's song "Frere Jacques", transposed into a minor key. Sergei Prokofiev's "Lieutenant Kijé Suite" features a difficult and very high double bass solo in the "Romance" movement. Benjamin Britten's The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra contains a prominent passage for the double bass section. Double bass ensembles Ensembles made up entirely of double basses, though relatively rare, also exist, and several composers have written or arranged for such ensembles. Gunther Schuller and Jacob Druckman both composed quartets for four basses. Bertold Hummel wrote a Sinfonia piccola for eight double basses. Larger ensemble works include Galina Ustvolskaya's Composition No. 2, “Dies Irae” (1973), for eight double basses, piano, and wooden cube, Jose Serebrier's George and Muriel (1986), for solo bass, double bass ensemble, and chorus, and Gerhard Samuel's What of my music! (1979), for soprano, percussion, and 30 double basses. Active double bass ensembles include L'Orchestre de Contrebasses (6 members), Official website of L'Orchestre de Contrebasses Bass Instinct (6 members), LOVEFiLM.com: Bass Instinct - Live In Vienna by none on DVD Bassiona Amorosa (6 members), www.bassiona-amorosa.de the Chicago Bass Ensemble (4+ members), Chicago Bass Ensemble - Home The Bass Gang (4 members), The Bass Gang, The Bass Gang, The Bass Gang, The Bass Gang, The Bass Gang,The Bass Gang and the ensembles of Ball State University (12 members) and the Hartt School of Music. The Amarillo Bass Base of Amarillo, Texas once featured 52 double bassists, http://home.mchsi.com/~donovan.stokes/volumeone.html http://www.bassgirls.com/bass_wyrickinez.htm , and The London Double Bass Sound, who have released a CD on Cala Records, have 10 players. Amazon.com: The London Double Bass Sound: Gary Karr, Ernest Bloch, Paul Desmond, Edward "Duke" Ellington, Jerome Kern, John & Paul McCartney Lennon, Niccolo Paganini, Cole Por... In addition, the double bass sections of some orchestras perform as an ensemble, such as the Chicago Symphony Orchestra's Wacker Consort. Wacker Consort and Northwestern Music Faculty to Perform, NewsCenter, Northwestern University There is an increasing number of published compositions and arrangements for double bass ensembles, and the International Society of Bassists regularly features double bass ensembles (both smaller ensembles as well as very large "mass bass" ensembles) at its conferences, and sponsors the biennial David Walter Composition Competition, which includes a division for double bass ensemble works. Use in jazz See also List of jazz bassists (which includes both double bass and electric bass guitar players) Bassist Larry Gales performing with Thelonious Monk at Expo 67 in Montreal; note the jazz bass pizzicato technique, in which the strings are plucked with the side of the fingers. Beginning around 1890, the early New Orleans jazz ensemble (which played a mixture of marches, ragtime, and dixieland music) was initially a marching band with sousaphone (or occasionally bass saxophone) supplying the bass line. As the music moved into bars and brothels, the double bass gradually replaced these wind instruments. Many early bassists doubled on both the "brass bass" and "string bass," as the instruments were then often referred to. Bassists played "walking" basslines, scale-based lines which outlined the harmony. Because an unamplified double bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling the strings so that they make a rhythmic "slap" sound against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings, and allowed the bass to be more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the recording equipment of that time did not favor low frequencies. Historic Jazz Fotos For more about the slap style, see "Modern playing styles," below. Double bass players have contributed to the evolution of jazz. Examples include swing era players such as Jimmy Blanton, who played with Duke Ellington, and Oscar Pettiford, who pioneered the instrument's use in bebop. Paul Chambers (who worked with Miles Davis on the famous Kind of Blue album) achieved renown for being one of the first jazz bassists to play bebop solos in arco (bowed) style. Charlie Haden, best known for his work with Ornette Coleman, defined the role of the bass in Free Jazz. Jazz bassist Charles Mingus was also an influential bandleader and composer whose musical interests spanned from bebop to free jazz. A number of other bassists were central to the history of jazz. Charles Mingus was a highly regarded composer as well as a bassist noted for his technical virtuosity and powerful sound. Nat Hentoff, Gadfly Online, Aprill 1999, http://www.gadflyonline.com/archive/April99/archive-mingus.html, retrieved 3/11/2009. Scott LaFaro influenced a generation of musicians by liberating the bass from contrapuntal "walking" behind soloists instead favoring interactive, conversational melodies. Jazz Improv Magazine, http://www.jazzimprov.com/links/legends.cfm?legend_id=12, retrieved 3/11/2009. Scott Yanow, AllMusic Guide, http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=11:3jfuxqr5ldde, retrieved 3/11/2009. Beginning in the 1970s bassist Bob Cranshaw, playing with saxophonist Sonny Rollins, and fusion pioneers Jaco Pastorius and Stanley Clarke began to substitute the electric bass guitar for the double bass. Apart from the jazz styles of jazz fusion and Latin-influenced jazz, the double bass is still widely used in jazz. The sound and tone of the plucked double bass is distinct from that of the fretted bass guitar. The bass guitar produces a different sound than the double bass, because its strings are usually stopped with the aid of metal frets. As well, bass guitars usually have a solid wood body, which means that the sound is produced by electronic amplification of the vibration of the strings. Use in bluegrass and related genres The string bass is the most commonly-used bass instrument in bluegrass music and is almost always plucked, though some modern bluegrass bassists have also used a bow. The bluegrass bassist is part of the rhythm section, and is responsible for keeping a steady beat, whether fast, slow, in 4/4 time, 2/4 or 3/4 time. The Englehardt and Kay brands of laminate basses have long been popular choices for bluegrass bassists. Most bluegrass bassists use the 3/4 size bass, but the full-size and 5/8 size basses are also used. 250pix|Upright bass used by a bluegrass group; the cable for a piezoelectric pickup can be seen extending from the bridge. Early pre-bluegrass traditional music was often accompanied by the cello; Natalie Haas points out that in the US, you can find "... old photographs, and even old recordings, of American string bands with cello." However, "the cello dropped out of sight in folk music and became associated with the orchestra". Looming Large: What's a cello got to do with a famous fiddler's tale? By Natalie Haas. Available at: http://www.allthingsstrings.com/article/default.aspx?articleid=21495 The cello did not reappear in bluegrass until the 1990s and 2000s. Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the electric bass, because it is easier to transport on tour than the large and delicate upright bass. However, the bass guitar has a different musical quality than the plucked upright bass. The slower attack and the percussive, woody tone of the upright bass gives it a more "earthy" or "natural" sound than an electric bass, particularly when gut strings are used. Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some exceptions) plucking on beats 1 and 3 in 4/4 time; beats 1 and 2 in 2/4 time, and on the downbeat in 3/4 time (waltz time). Bluegrass bass lines are usually simple, typically staying on the root and fifth of each chord throughout most of a song. There are two main exceptions to this "rule". Bluegrass bassists often do a diatonic "walkup" or "walkdown" in which they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, typically when there is a chord change. In addition, if a bass player is given a solo, they may play a walking bass line with a note on every beat or play a pentatonic scale-influenced bassline. Country music bassist "Too Slim" (Fred LaBour) performing in Ponca City, Oklahoma in 2008. (photo: Hugh Pickens) An early bluegrass bassist to rise to prominence was Howard Watts (also known as Cedric Rainwater), who played with Bill Monroe's Blue Grass Boys beginning in 1944. Howard "Cedric Rainwater" Watts, Stewart Evans The classical bassist Edgar Meyer has frequently branched out into newgrass, old-time, jazz, and other genres. An upright bass was the standard bass instrument in traditional country western music. While the upright bass is still occasionally used in country music, the electric bass has largely replaced its bigger cousin in country music, especially in the more pop-infused country styles of the 1990s and 2000s, such as new country. Slap-style bass Slap-style bass is sometimes used in bluegrass bass playing. When bluegrass bass players slap the string by pulling it until it hits the fingerboard or hit the strings against the fingerboard, it adds the high-pitched percussive "clack" or "slap" sound to the low-pitched bass notes, sounding much like the clacks of a tap dancer. Slapping is a subject of minor controversy in the bluegrass scene. Even slapping experts such as Mike Bub say, "...don't slap on every gig" or in songs where it is "not appropriate." As well, bluegrass bassists who play slap-style on live shows often slap less on records. Bub and his mentor Jerry McCoury rarely do slap bass on recordings. While bassists such as Jack Cook slap bass "...on the occasional faster Clinch Mountain boys song", bassists such as "...Gene Libbea, Missy Raines, Jenny Keel, or Barry Bales [rarely] slap bass." iBluegrass.com Article: The Low End February-02-2001 ©2001 iBluegrass.com. All rights reserved. By Kip Martin http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:opbTh79jK-8J:www.ibluegrass.com/vi_posting3.CFM%3Fp__i%3D1004%26p__r%3D%26p__a%3Dbass+bluegrass+%22slap+bass%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=2 Bluegrass bassist Mark Schatz, who teaches slap bass in his Intermediate Bluegrass Bass DVD acknowledges that slap bass "...has not been stylistically very predominant in the music I have recorded." He notes that "Even in traditional bluegrass slap bass only appears sporadically and most of what I've done has been on the more contemporary side of that (Tony Rice, Tim O'Brien)." Schatz states that he would be "... more likely to use it [slap] in a live situation that on a recording - for a solo or to punctuate a particular place in a song or tune where I wouldn't be obliterating someone's solo.". http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:0bSxq7Zh3tYJ:www.rockabillybass.com/markschatz.htm+bluegrass+%22slap+bass%22&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1 Another bluegrass method, Learn to Play Bluegrass Bass, by Earl Gately, also teaches bluegrass slap bass technique. Use in popular music In 1952, the upright bass was a standard instrument in rock and roll music, Marshall Lytle of Bill Haley & His Comets being but one example. In the 1940s, a new style of dance music called rhythm and blues developed, incorporating elements of the earlier styles of blues and swing. Louis Jordan, the first innovator of this style, featured a double bass in his group, the Tympany Five. Dallas Bartley - Small town Boy: Playing in the bands, Special Collections and Archives Department, Missouri State University The double bass remained an integral part of pop lineups throughout the 1950s, as the new genre of rock and roll was built largely upon the model of rhythm and blues, with strong elements also derived from jazz, country, and bluegrass. However, double bass players using their instruments in these contexts faced inherent problems. They were forced to compete with louder horn instruments (and later amplified electric guitars), making bass parts difficult to hear. The double bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert venue settings, because it can be prone to feedback "howls". The double bass is large and awkward to transport, which also created transportation problems for touring bands. In 1951, Leo Fender independently released his Precision Bass, the first commercially successful electric bass guitar. The Electric Guitar: How We Got From Andrés Segovia To Kurt Cobain, Monica M. Smith The electric bass was easily amplified with its built-in pickups, easily portable (less than a foot longer than an electric guitar), and easier to play in tune, thanks to the metal frets. In the 1960s and 1970s bands were playing at louder volumes and performing in larger venues. The electric bass was able to provide the huge, highly-amplified stadium-filling bass tone that the pop and rock music of this era demanded, and the double bass receded from the limelight of the popular music scene. The upright bass began making a modest comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of rock and country music. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument. Some popular bands decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric bass. A trend for "unplugged" performances further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass guitars. The double bass is also favored over the electric bass guitar in many rockabilly and psychobilly bands. In such bands the bassist often plays with great showmanship, using slapping technique, sometimes spinning the bass around or even physically climbing onto the instrument while performing; this style was pioneered c. 1953 by Marshall Lytle, the bassist for Bill Haley & His Comets, Marshall Lytle: Granddaddy of the Doghouse, Rod Glaze and modern performers of such stunts include Lee Rocker of the Stray Cats, Scott Owen from The Living End and Jimbo from Reverend Horton Heat. Primus's Les Claypool used an upright bass for the song "Mr. Krinkle," from Pork Soda, and for the song "Over the Falls," from the Brown Album. Jeff Ament of Pearl Jam uses a double bass in the song "Nothing as It Seems," on the album Binaural. Flea of the Red Hot Chili Peppers uses a double bass for the song "Cabron," on the 2002 album By the Way. Rapper & producer Dr. Dre used a double bass during the beginning of the track Deep Cover, featuring Snoop Doggy Dogg. The same double bass was used later again for the Big Pun song "Twinz (Deep COver '98)" featuring Fat Joe off Big Pun's album, Capital Punishment. Shannon Burchell, of the Australian folk-rock group The John Butler Trio "In Australia, the John Butler Trio has established itself as one of the most successful independent acts in recent history. Their U.S. debut, Sunrise Over Sea, features gritty and soulful vocals, elements of hip-hop and Appalachian folk."http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4814948 , makes extensive use of double basses, performing extended live solo's in songs such as Betterman. On the 2008 album In Ear Park by the indie/pop band Department of Eagles, a bowed double bass is featured quite prominently on the songs "Teenagers" and "In Ear Park". The bassist for psychobilly band The HorrorPops, seen here at a 2006 show, uses a colorful, custom-painted upright bass with a cutaway upper shoulder for easier access to the higher positions. Modern playing styles In popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with amplification and almost exclusively played with the fingers, pizzicato style. The pizzicato style varies between different players and genres. Some players perform with the sides of one, two, or three fingers, especially for walking basslines and slow tempo ballads, because this is purported to create a stronger and more solid tone. Some players use the more nimble tips of the fingers to play fast-moving solo passages or to pluck lightly for quiet tunes.The use of amplification allows the player to have more control over the tone of the instrument, because amplifiers have equalization controls which allow the bassist to accentuate certain frequencies (often the bass frequencies) while de-accentuating some frequencies (often the high frequencies, so that there is less finger noise). An unamplified acoustic bass' tone is limited by the frequency responsiveness of the instrument's hollow body, which means that the very low pitches may not be as loud as the higher pitches. With an amplifier and equalization devices, a bass player can boost the low frequencies, which evens out the frequency response. As well, the use of an amplifier can increase the sustain of the instrument, which is particularly useful for accompaniment during ballads and for melodic solos with held notes. In traditional jazz, swing, polka, rockabilly, and psychobilly music, it is sometimes played in the slap style. This is a vigorous version of pizzicato where the strings are "slapped" against the fingerboard between the main notes of the bass line, producing a snare drum-like percussive sound. The main notes are either played normally or by pulling the string away from the fingerboard and releasing it so that it bounces off the fingerboard, producing a distinctive percussive attack in addition to the expected pitch. Notable slap style bass players, whose use of the technique was often highly syncopated and virtuosic, sometimes interpolated two, three, four, or more slaps in between notes of the bass line. "Slap style" may have influenced electric bass guitar players who from about 1970 developed a technique called "slap and pop," where the thumb of the plucking hand is used to hit the string, making a slapping sound but still allowing the note to ring, and the index or middle finger of the plucking hand is used to pull the string back so it hits the fretboard, achieving the pop sound described above. Double bassists Historical Domenico Dragonetti (1763-1846) Virtuoso, composer, conductor Giovanni Bottesini (1821-1889) Virtuoso, composer, conductor Franz Simandl (1840-1912) Virtuoso, composer Edouard Nanny (1872-1943) Virtuoso, composer Serge Koussevitzky (1874-1951) Conductor, virtuoso, composer Contemporary (1900s-present) Classical Some of the most influential contemporary classical double bass players are known as much for their contributions to pedagogy than for their performing skills, such as US bassist Oscar G. Zimmerman (1910-1987), known for his teaching at the Eastman School of Music and, for 44 summers at the Interlochen National Music Camp in Michigan and French bassist François Rabbath (b. 1931) who developed a new bass method which divided the entire fingerboard into six positions. Bassists noted for their virtuoso solo skills include US player Gary Karr (b. 1941), Finnish composer Teppo Hauta-Aho (b. 1941), Italian composer Fernando Grillo, and US player-composer Edgar Meyer. For a longer list, see the List of contemporary classical double bass players. Jazz Notable jazz bassists from the 1940s to the 1950s included bassist Jimmy Blanton (1918–1942) whose short tenure in the Duke Ellington Swing band (cut short by his death from tuberculosis) introduced new melodic and harmonic solo ideas for the instrument; bassist Ray Brown (1926–2002), known for backing Beboppers Dizzy Gillespie, Art Tatum and Charlie Parker, and forming the Modern Jazz Quartet; hard bop bassist Ron Carter (born 1937), who has appeared on 3,500 albums make him one of the most-recorded bassists in jazz history, including LPs by Thelonious Monk and Wes Montgomery and many Blue Note Records artists; and Paul Chambers (1935–1969), a member of the Miles Davis Quintet (including the landmark cool jazz recording Kind of Blue) and many other 1950s and 1960s rhythm sections, was known for his virtuosic improvisations. In the experimental post 1960s eras, which saw the development of free jazz and jazz-rock fusion, some of the influential bassists included Charles Mingus (1922–1979), who was also a composer and bandleader whose music fused hard bop with black gospel music, free jazz and classical music; free jazz and post-bop bassist Charlie Haden (born 1937) is best known for his long association with saxophonist Ornette Coleman and for his role in the 1970s-era Liberation Music Orchestra, an experimental group; and fusion virtuoso Stanley Clarke (born 1951) is notable for his dexterity on both the double bass and the electric bass. In the 1990s and 2000s, one of the new "young lions" was Christian McBride (born 1972), who has performed with a range of veterans ranging from McCoy Tyner to fusion gurus Herbie Hancock and Chick Corea, and who has released albums such as 2003's Vertical Vision. For a longer list, see the List of jazz bassists, which includes both double bass and electric bass players. Other popular genres Edgar Meyer (b. 1960) is a notable classical, bluegrass, and newgrass player. Well-known rockabilly bassists include Marshall Lytle (with Bill Haley & His Comets) and Lee Rocker (with 1980s-era rockabilly revivalists the Stray Cats). Notable rockabilly revivalists and psychobilly performers from the 1990s and 2000s include Scott Owen (from the Australian band The Living End), Jimbo Wallace (from the US band Reverend Horton Heat), Kim Nekroman (Nekromantix), Geoff Kresge (Tiger Army, ex-AFI). Scott Owen, double bass player for Australian rock band The Living End performing with his checker-painted bass. Pedagogy and training The pedagogy and training for the double bass varies widely by genre and country. Classical double bass has a history of pedagogy dating back several centuries, including teaching manuals, studies, and progressive exercises that help students to develop the endurance and accuracy of the left hand, and control for the bowing hand. Classical training methods vary by country: many of the major European countries are associated with specific methods (e.g., the Edouard Nanny method in France or the Franz Simandl method in Germany. In Classical training, the majority of the instruction for the right hand focuses on the production of bowing tone; little time is spent studying the varieties of pizzicato tone. In contrast, in genres that mainly or exclusively use pizzicato (plucking), such as jazz and blues, a great deal of time and effort is focused on learning the varieties of different pizzicato styles used for music of different styles of tempi. For example, in jazz, aspiring bassists have to learn how to perform a wide range of pizzicato tones, including using the sides of the fingers to create a full, deep sound for ballads, using the tips of the fingers for fast walking basslines or solos, and performing a variety of percussive "ghost notes" by "raking" muted or partially-muted strings. Formal training Of all of the genres, Classical and jazz have the most established and comprehensive systems of instruction and training. In the Classical milieu, children can begin taking private lessons on the instrument and performing in childrens' or youth orchestras. Teens who aspire to becomnig professional Classical bassists can continue their studies in a variety of formal training settings, including colleges, conservatories, and universities. Colleges offer certificates and diplomas in bass performance. Conservatories, which are the standard musical training system in France and in Quebec (Canada) provide lessons and amateur orchestral experience for double bass players. Universities offer a range of double bass programs, including Bachelor's degrees, Master of Music degrees, and Doctor of Musical Arts degrees. As well, there are a variety of other training programs such as Classical summer camps and orchestral, opera, or chamber music training festivals, which give students the opportunity to play a wide range of music. Bachelor's degrees in bass performance (referred to as B.Mus. or B.M) are four-year programs that include individual bass lessons, amateur orchestra experience, and a sequence of courses in music history, music theory, and liberal arts courses (e.g., English literature), which give the student a more well-rounded education. Usually, bass performance students perform several recitals of solo double bass music, such as concertos, sonatas, and Baroque suites. Master of music degrees in double bass performance consist of private lessons, ensemble experience, coaching in playing orchestral double bass parts, and graduate courses in music history and music theory, along with one or two solo recitals. A Master's degree in music (referred to as an M.Mus. or M.M.) is often a required credential for people who wish to become a professor of double bass at a university or conservatory. The Doctor of Musical arts degree in double bass performance trains bass players for a career as a university professor. Throughout the early history of jazz, double bass players either learned the instrument informally, or from gettkng Classical training early on, as in the case of Ron Carter and Charles Mingus. In the 1980s and 1990s, colleges and universities began to introduce diplomas and degrees in jazz performance. Students in jazz diploma or Bachelor of Music programs take individual bass lessons, get experience in small jazz combos with coaching from an experienced player, and play in jazz big bands. As with Classical training programs, jazz programs also include classroom courses in music history and music theory. In a jazz program, these courses focus on the different eras of jazz history. such as Swing, Bebop, and fusion. The theory courses focus on the musical skills used in jazz improvisation and in jazz "comping" (accompanying) amd the composition of jazz tunes. There are also jazz summer camps and training festivals/seminars, which offer students the chance to learn new skills and styles. Informal training In other genres, such as blues, rockabilly, and psychobilly, the pedagogical systems and training sequences are not as formalized and institutionalized. There are not degrees in blues bass performance, or conservatories offering multiple-year diplomas in rockabilly bass. However, there are a range of books, playing methods, and, since the 1990s, instructional DVDs (e.g., on how to play rockabilly-style slap bass). As such, performers in these other genres tend to come from a variety of routes, including informal learning by using bass method books or DVDs, taking private lessons and coaching, and learning from records and CDs. In some cases, blues or rockabilly bassists may have obtained some initial training through the Classical or jazz pedagogy systems (e.g. youth orchestra or high school big band). In genres such as tango which use a lot of bowed passages and jazz-style pizzicato lines. the bassists tend to come from the Classical or jazz training routes. Careers Careers in double bass vary widely by genre and by region or country. Most bassists earn their living from a mixture of performance and teaching jobs. Performance jobs include playing as a freelancer in small groups, large ensembles, or performing solo music, either live onstage or as a "session player" for radio or TV broadcasts or for recordings; and working as the employee of an orchestra, big band, or recording studio (as the studio's "house bassist"). Many bass players find extra work by substituting ("subbing") for bassists who are double-booked or ill. It is hard for bass players to be able to find full-time, full-year work at a single job. About the closest that a bass player can come to this is in the case of Classical bass players who win an audition at a professional orchestra or the tiny number of top session pros that are hired by recording studios. Even full-time orchestra jobs do not usually last for the entire year. When the orchestra stops playing (which is often in the summer), orchestral bassists have to find other work, either as a teacher or coach, or in another group. Teaching work for double bassist includes giving private lessons in the home or at colleges and universities; coaching bass players who are preparing for recordings or auditions; doing group coaching at music camps or for youth ensembles; and working as a high school music teacher. In jazz, blues, rockabilly and other genres, most bassists cannot earn a living from playing in a single group (with the exception of a the small number of bassists in top touring bands or groups with recording contracts), so they work in different bands, and supplement their income with session playing and teaching. Due to the limited number of full-time orchestral jobs, many Classical bassists are similarly not able to find full-time work with a single orchestra. Some bassists increase their employability by learning several different styles, such as Classical and jazz or rockabilly and bluegrass. In some cases, bassists supplement their performing and teaching income with other related music jobs, such as working as a bass repairperson (luthier); acting as a contractor who hires musicians for orchestras or big bands. composing music (e.g., Jaco Pastorius), songwriting, conducting (e.g.,David Currie), or acting as a bandleader (e.g., Charles Mingus). In some regions, there may not be enough work in music to make a living, even if a bassist can play several styles and he or she does recordings and teaching. As such, in some regions, bassists may have to supplement their musical work with income from another field outside of music. See also Electric upright bass List of jazz bassists List of classical bassists Octobass Piccolo bass Bass guitar International Society of Bassists Bazantar References External links http://www.jazzdoublebass.com - Site featuring notable jazz Double Bass players and educational resources http://www.bluegrassbassplace.com - Site featuring Double Bass instruction as it relates to Bluegrass, New Grass & Rock-A-Billy be-x-old:Кантрабас | Double_bass |@lemmatized double:204 bass:366 also:34 know:16 contrabass:5 upright:19 large:28 low:46 pitch:15 bow:60 string:130 instrument:80 use:107 modern:17 symphony:13 orchestra:31 standard:10 member:18 section:9 user:1 manual:2 andrew:1 hugill:1 philharmonia:1 small:15 ensemble:25 chamber:13 music:75 vienna:2 archive:4 alfred:1 planyavsky:2 western:2 classical:34 addition:6 genre:18 jazz:62 style:37 blue:19 rock:9 roll:3 rockabilly:16 psychobilly:7 bluegrass:37 tango:3 construct:3 several:8 type:4 wood:2 include:41 maple:2 back:13 spruce:3 top:12 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6,158 | Gecko | Geckos are small to average sized lizards belonging to the family Gekkonidae, found in warm climates throughout the world. Geckos are unique among lizards in their vocalizations, making chirping sounds in social interactions with other geckos. An estimated 2,000 different species of geckos exist worldwide, with many likely yet to be discovered. The name stems from the Indonesian/Javanese word gekok, inspired by the sound these animals make. The Malay word for gecko is cicak. All geckos, excluding the Eublepharinae family, have no eyelids and instead have a transparent membrane which they lick to clean. Many species will, in defense, expel a foul-smelling material and faeces onto their aggressors. There are also many species that will drop their tails in defense, a process called autotomy. Many species are well known for their specialized toe pads that enable them to climb smooth and vertical surfaces, and even cross indoor ceilings with ease (it is believed that the Van der Waal's force may contribute to this capability). These antics are well-known to people who live in warm regions of the world, where several species of geckos make their home inside human habitations. These species (for example the House Gecko) become part of the indoor menagerie and are often welcome guests, as they feed on insects, including mosquitoes. The largest species, Delcourt's gecko, is only known from a single, stuffed specimen found in the basement of a museum in Marseille, France. This gecko was 60 cm long and it was native to New Zealand. It was probably wiped out along with much of the native fauna of these islands at the end of the 19th century, when new predators were introduced there. The smallest gecko, the jaragua sphaero, is a mere 16 mm long and was discovered in 2001 on a small island off the coast of the Dominican Republic. Piper, Ross (2007), Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals, Greenwood Press. Common traits Geckos come in various colors and patterns. Some are subtly patterned and somewhat rubbery looking, while others are brightly colored. Some species can change color to blend in with their environment or with particular temperatures. Some species are parthenogenic, which means the female is capable of reproducing without copulating with a male. This improves the gecko's ability to spread to new islands. Gecko toes: setae and van der Waals forces The toes of the gecko have developed a special adaptation that allows them to adhere to most surfaces without the use of liquids or surface tension. Recent studies of the spatula tipped setae on gecko footpads demonstrate that the attractive forces that hold geckos to surfaces are van der Waals interactions between the finely divided setae and the surfaces themselves. Every square millimeter of a gecko's footpad contains about 14,000 hair-like setae. Each seta has a diameter of 5 micrometers. Human hair varies from 18 to 180 micrometers, so a human hair could hold between 3 to 36 setae. Each seta is in turn tipped with between 100 and 1,000 spatulae. Each spatula is 0.2 micrometres long (200 billionths of a metre), or just below the wavelength of visible light. Uroplatus fimbriatus clinging to glass. These van der Waals interactions involve no fluids; in theory, a boot made of synthetic setae would adhere as easily to the surface of the International Space Station as it would to a living room wall, although adhesion varies with humidity and is dramatically reduced under water, suggesting a contribution from capillarity. The setae on the feet of geckos are also self cleaning and will usually remove any clogging dirt within a few steps. How Geckos Stick to Walls Teflon, which has very low van der Waals forces, is the only known surface to which a gecko cannot stick. Adhesives, Anne Peattie, University of California-Berkeley. Geckos' toes seem to be "double jointed", but this is a misnomer. Their toes actually bend in the opposite direction from our fingers and toes. This allows them to overcome the van der Waals force by peeling their toes off surfaces from the tips inward. In essence, this peeling action alters the angle of incidence between millions of individual setae and the surface, reducing the van der Waals force. Geckos' toes operate well below their full attractive capabilities for most of the time. This is because there is a great margin for error depending upon the roughness of the surface, and therefore the number of setae in contact with that surface. If a typical mature gecko had every one of its setae in contact with a surface, it would be capable of holding aloft a weight of : Kellar Autumn, Scientific American: Ask the experts. Accessed 5 June 2007 each spatula can exert an adhesive force of . Each seta can resist , which is equivalent to 10 atmospheres of pull.. This means a gecko can support about eight times its weight hanging from just one toe on smooth glass. Nocturnal vision A study from Lund University proved that nocturnal geckos such as the helmet gecko, Tarentola chazaliaei, discriminate colors in dim moonlight when humans are color blind. The sensitivity of the helmet gecko eye was calculated to be 350 times higher than human cone vision at the color vision threshold. The optics in the gecko's eyes, having distinct concentric zones of different refractive powers that constitute a multifocal optical system, together with the large cones of the gecko, are important reasons why they can use color vision at low light intensities. Although the intraspecific variation is large, in most of the individuals studied the concentric zones differed by 15 diopters. This is of the same magnitude as needed to focus light of the wavelength range to which gecko photoreceptors are most sensitive. In contrast, the optical system of a different day gecko species showed no signs of distinct concentric zones and is thereby monofocal. Another feature of the nocturnal geckos – and other lizards – in which they differ from most other vertebrates is that they only have cones in their retina. Fossil Cretaceogekko A gecko, partly preserved in Burmese amber for 100 million years, is the oldest fossilized gecko ever found, being about 50 million years older than Yanatarogecko, previously the oldest known preserved gecko. The preserved foot and partial tail show that the Lower Cretaceous already possessed the tiny lamellae, or sticking toe setae; counting them convinced paleontologists that the fossil was a juvenile. It had a striped skin pattern that probably served as camouflage. The amber, which was mined in the isolated Hukawng Valley, Myanmar, began its existence as tree sap, in which the lizard was caught. The new species has been given the name Cretaceogekko burmae. Science News, "Oldest Gecko Fossil Ever Found, Entombed In Amber" Accessed 3 September 2008. Taxonomy The family Gekkonidae is divided into five subfamilies, containing numerous genera of gecko species. Many geckos are kept as pets and will eat various kinds of insects and sometimes fruit. Not all species of geckos change their sexes in different seasons. Geckos are found (rarely) in the Galápagos Islands. Classification Gold dust day gecko licking nectar from the 'bird of paradise' flower of Strelitzia. 'Family Gekkonidae subfamily Aeluroscalabotinae single genus Aeluroscalabotes, only one species A. felinus, Southeast Asia subfamily Diplodactylinae 16 genera, found in Oceania subfamily Eublepharinae 5 genera subfamily Gekkoninae biggest subfamily, with 74 genera worldwide, some of the biggest genera are: genus Gehyra, Web-toed Geckos or Dtellas genus Gekko, true geckos genus Hemidactylus genus Phelsuma, day geckos, most are endemic to Madagascar. genus Phyllodactylus, leaf-toed geckos ... subfamily Teratoscincinae single genus Teratoscincus (7 species) Common species of geckos Pores on the skin are often used in classification. Bibron's gecko, Pachydactylus bibroni — Native to Southern Africa, this hardy arboreal gecko is relatively common as a pet. Crested gecko, Rhacodactylus ciliatus — Believed extinct until rediscovered in 1994. Gaining in popularity as a pet. Crocodile gecko or Moorish gecko, Tarentola mauritanica — very strong and heavily built for their size usually growing up to 15 cm (6 in). They are commonly found in the Mediterranean region from the Iberian Peninsula and southern France to Greece and northern Africa. Their most distinguishing characteristic is their pointed head and spiked skin with their tail resembling that of a crocodile's. Cyrtopodion brachykolon; commonly known as "bent-toed gecko", found in north-western Pakistan. Suras Gecko Gargoyle gecko, Rhacodactylus auriculatus — commonly known as the New Caledonian bumpy gecko or gargoyle gecko. Gold dust day gecko (Phelsuma laticauda laticauda (Boettger, 1880) (syn. Pachydactylus laticauda Boettger, 1880)) is a diurnal subspecies of geckos. It lives in northern Madagascar and on the Comoros. Golden Gecko, Gekko ulikovskii — native to the warm rainforests of Vietnam. House Gecko, Hemidactylus frenatus — A species that thrives around man and human habitation structures in the tropics and subtropics world wide. Indo-Pacific gecko, Hemidactylus garnotii — Also known as a fox gecko because of its long, narrow snout. This species is found in houses throughout the tropics. This gecko may eat leafcutter ants. New Caledonian giant gecko, Rhacodactylus leachianus — first described by Cuvier in 1829, is the largest of the Rhacodactylus geckos. Leopard gecko, Eublepharis macularius — The most common gecko kept as a pet is the leopard gecko, which does not have toe pads with setae, but rather claws. These enable it to more easily climb on rough surfaces like tree bark. This gecko cannot climb the glass of a terrarium. The leopard gecko tends to be docile and calm. This gecko can eat butterworms, cockroaches, crickets, mealworms, waxworms, superworms, and pink mice. Mediterranean gecko, Hemidactylus turcicus — residential and wild, introduced species (USA). Mourning gecko, originally an East Asian and Pacific species, Lepidodactylus lugubris is equally at home in the wild as in residential neighborhoods. Found in Hawaii, it may have been an early Polynesian introduction. A parthenogenic species. There is a report from Hawaii of someone having seen a larger gecko of this type eating a smaller one (or rather, running away from view with a smaller gecko halfway out of its mouth) on two occasions. Ptychozoon, — a genus of arboreal gecko from Southeast Asia, known as Flying Geckos or Parachute Geckos, has wing-like flaps from the neck to the upper leg, to help it conceal itself on trees and provide lift while jumping. Stump-toed gecko, Gehyra mutilata (Peropus mutilatus) — This gecko, commonly referred to as a Gheckl, can vary its color from very light to very dark to blend into a background. At home in the wild as well as in residential neighborhoods. Tree gecko, Hemiphyllodactylus typus — Tree geckos are forest dwellers. Tokay gecko, Gekko gecko — a large, common, Southeast Asian gecko known for its aggressive temperament, loud mating calls, and bright markings. Western banded gecko, Coleonyx variegatus — Native to southwestern United States and northwest Mexico. Dwarf gecko, Sphaeordactylus ariasae — native to the Caribbean islands, and the world's smallest lizard Geckos in popular culture Corporate symbols In the past few years, geckos have entered into the consciousness of the USA as the advertising icon for the insurance company GEICO, whose advertisements feature an animated anthropomorphic gecko (of the Phelsuma genus) that speaks with a British Cockney accent. The current mascot of SUSE Linux distribution is a gecko called Geeko, also known as the "SUSE Lizard", but is a Chameleon for the shape. The logo of the car builder Wiesmann is a gecko. The beverage company SoBe uses a dancing gecko as a mascot. Video games Gex is an anthropomorphic, wise-cracking gecko and the protagonist of the GEX series. The Pokémon Treecko, and its evolved forms Grovyle and Sceptile are based on the gecko. Fallout 2 features mutated geckos as low-level enemies, with more powerful variants appearing later in the game. There is also a town called Gecko, and gecko skins can be harvested. Metal Gear Solid 4: Guns of the Patriots features Metal Gear Gecko, which is a new Metal Gear in the series. Literature A gecko called Geronimo features in the book My Family and Other Animals by the celebrated naturalist Gerald Durrell. Edgar, a character from the webcomic Pandect is an Ace of Blue and White geckos. He is possibly a piebald blue gecko. In the book Spud, the narrator's friend (who dies of malaria) is named Gecko (due to the fact that he's always sick). Film and television The horror film Aberration featured mutated geckos. In the animated film Madagascar, there is a dancing Gecko used as the King Lemur's new crown The design of the Malaysian superhero Cicak Man is based on the gecko; cicak is Malay for gecko. In the sitcom Frasier episode The First Temptation Of Daphne'', Martin and Frasier use a gecko to catch a cricket in Frasier's apartment. See also Gu Adhesion Dispersive adhesion Geckel References Further reading Forbes, Peter (4th Estate, London 2005) 'The Gecko's Foot - Bio Inspiration: Engineered from Nature' ISBN 0-00-717990-1 in H/B External links Gecko-Conservation How Geckos Stick to Walls Comprehensive Gecko Care Information Global gecko association site with pictures, caresheets, species list Gecko anatomy picture The Gecko's Foot GeckoWebcam Artificial Gecko feet for a Spiderman suit (BBC 2007-08-28) | Gecko |@lemmatized gecko:113 small:6 average:1 sized:1 lizard:6 belong:1 family:5 gekkonidae:3 find:10 warm:3 climate:1 throughout:2 world:4 unique:1 among:1 vocalization:1 make:4 chirp:1 sound:2 social:1 interaction:3 estimated:1 different:4 specie:20 exist:1 worldwide:2 many:5 likely:1 yet:1 discover:2 name:3 stem:1 indonesian:1 javanese:1 word:2 gekok:1 inspire:1 animal:4 malay:2 cicak:3 exclude:1 eublepharinae:2 eyelid:1 instead:1 transparent:1 membrane:1 lick:2 clean:1 defense:2 expel:1 foul:1 smell:1 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6,159 | George_Whipple | George Hoyt Whipple (August 28, 1878 – February 1, 1976) was an American physician, biomedical researcher, and medical school educator and administrator. Whipple shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1934 with George Richards Minot and William Parry Murphy "for their discoveries concerning liver therapy in cases of anemia." Whipple was born to Ashley Cooper Whipple and Frances Anna Hoyt in Ashland, New Hampshire. He was the son and grandson of physicians. Whipple attended Phillips Academy and then Yale University from which he graduated with a B.A. degree in 1900. He attended medical school at the Johns Hopkins University from which he received the M.D. degree in 1905. After graduation. Whipple worked in the pathology department at Hopkins until he went to Panama, during the time of the construction of the Panama Canal, as pathologist to the Ancon Hospital in 1907-08. Whipple returned to Baltimore, serving successively as Assistant, Instructor, Associate and Associate Professor in Pathology at The Johns Hopkins University between 1910 and 1914. In 1914, Whipple was appointed Professor of Research Medicine and Director of the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research at the University of California Medical School. He was dean of that medical school in 1920 and 1921. At the urging of Abraham Flexner, who had done pioneering studies of medical education, and University of Rochester President Rush Rhees, Whipple agreed in 1921 to become Dean of the newly funded and yet-to-be-built medical school in Rochester, New York. Whipple thus became Professor and Chairman of Pathology and the founding Dean of the new School of Medicine and Dentistry at the University of Rochester. Whipple served the School as the Dean until 1954 and remained at Rochester for the rest of his life. Many at the university remember him as a superb teacher. Whipple died in 1976 at the age of 97 and is interred in Rochester's Mount Hope Cemetery. Whipple's research Whipple's main research was concerned with anemia and with the physiology and pathology of the liver. He won the Nobel Prize for his discovery that liver fed to anemic dogs reverses the effects of the anemia. This remarkable discovery led directly to successful liver treatment of pernicious anemia by Minot and Murphy. Before that time, pernicious anemia had been truly pernicious in that it was invariably fatal. In presenting the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1934, Professor I. Holmgren of the Nobel committee observed that "Of the three prize winners, it was Whipple who first occupied himself with the investigations for which the prize is now awarded. ... Whipple's experiments were planned exceedingly well, and carried out very accurately, and consequently their results can lay claim to absolute reliability. These investigations and results of Whipple's gave Minot and Murphy the idea that an experiment could be made to see whether favorable results might also be obtained in the case of pernicious anemia...by making use of the foods of the kind that Whipple had found to yield favorable results in his experiments regarding anemia from loss of blood." Whipple was also the first person to describe an unknown disease he called lipodystrophia intestinalis because there were abnormal lipid deposits in the small intestine wall. Whipple also correctly pointed to the bacterial cause of the disease in his original report in 1907. The condition has since come to be called Whipple's disease. References External links National Academy of Sciences biography Nobel biography Other biography | George_Whipple |@lemmatized george:2 hoyt:2 whipple:21 august:1 february:1 american:1 physician:2 biomedical:1 researcher:1 medical:7 school:7 educator:1 administrator:1 share:1 nobel:5 prize:5 physiology:3 medicine:4 richards:1 minot:3 william:1 parry:1 murphy:3 discovery:3 concern:2 liver:4 therapy:1 case:2 anemia:7 bear:1 ashley:1 cooper:1 france:1 anna:1 ashland:1 new:3 hampshire:1 son:1 grandson:1 attend:2 phillips:1 academy:2 yale:1 university:7 graduate:1 b:1 degree:2 john:2 hopkins:3 receive:1 graduation:1 work:1 pathology:4 department:1 go:1 panama:2 time:2 construction:1 canal:1 pathologist:1 ancon:1 hospital:1 return:1 baltimore:1 serve:2 successively:1 assistant:1 instructor:1 associate:2 professor:4 appoint:1 research:4 director:1 hooper:1 foundation:1 california:1 dean:4 urging:1 abraham:1 flexner:1 pioneer:1 study:1 education:1 rochester:5 president:1 rush:1 rhees:1 agree:1 become:2 newly:1 fund:1 yet:1 build:1 york:1 thus:1 chairman:1 founding:1 dentistry:1 remain:1 rest:1 life:1 many:1 remember:1 superb:1 teacher:1 die:1 age:1 inter:1 mount:1 hope:1 cemetery:1 main:1 win:1 feed:1 anemic:1 dog:1 reverse:1 effect:1 remarkable:1 lead:1 directly:1 successful:1 treatment:1 pernicious:4 truly:1 invariably:1 fatal:1 present:1 holmgren:1 committee:1 observe:1 three:1 winner:1 first:2 occupy:1 investigation:2 award:1 experiment:3 plan:1 exceedingly:1 well:1 carry:1 accurately:1 consequently:1 result:4 lay:1 claim:1 absolute:1 reliability:1 give:1 idea:1 could:1 make:2 see:1 whether:1 favorable:2 might:1 also:3 obtain:1 use:1 food:1 kind:1 find:1 yield:1 regard:1 loss:1 blood:1 person:1 describe:1 unknown:1 disease:3 call:2 lipodystrophia:1 intestinalis:1 abnormal:1 lipid:1 deposit:1 small:1 intestine:1 wall:1 correctly:1 point:1 bacterial:1 cause:1 original:1 report:1 condition:1 since:1 come:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 national:1 science:1 biography:3 |@bigram nobel_prize:3 prize_physiology:2 physiology_medicine:2 panama_canal:1 physiology_pathology:1 pernicious_anemia:3 external_link:1 |
6,160 | History_of_the_Falkland_Islands | Map of the modern Falkland Islands with British nomenclature. The history of the Falkland Islands goes back at least five hundred years, with active exploration and colonisation only taking place in the 18th century. Nonetheless, the islands have been a matter of controversy, as they have been claimed by the French, Spaniards, British and Argentines at various points. Pre-European discovery The extinct warrah is sometimes taken as evidence of pre-European discovery. The Falkland Islands were uninhabited when discovered by Europeans, but recent discoveries of arrowheads in Lafonia (on the southern half of East Falkland) as well as the remains of a wooden canoe provide strong evidence that they had been visited previously, most likely by the Yaghan people of Tierra del Fuego. It has also been suggested that the Falkland Island foxes, or warrahs, found on the islands were introduced by the Yaghans or another Amerindian tribe, bearing as they did a resemblance to the culpeo or Fuegian fox. It is not known if these are evidence of one-way journeys, but there is no known evidence of pre-Columbian buildings or structures. The islands had no native trees when discovered but there is some ambiguous evidence of past forestation, that may be due to wood being transported by oceanic currents from Patagonia. All modern trees have been introduced by Europeans. European discovery An archipelago in the region of the Falkland Islands appeared on maps from the early 16th century, suggesting they may have been sighted by Ferdinand Magellan's or another expedition of the 1500s. Amerigo Vespucci is believed to have sighted the islands in 1502, but did not name them. In 1519 or 1520, Esteban Gómez of the San Antonio, one of the captains in the expedition of Magellan, deserted this enterprise and encountered several islands, which members of his crew called "Islas de Sansón y de los Patos" ("Islands of Samson and the Ducks"). Although these islands were probably the Jason Islands, a group northwest of West Falkland, the names "Islas de Sansón" (or "San Antón", "San Son", and "Ascensión") were used for the Falklands on Spanish maps during this period. 1773 Map by J. Hawkesworth and J. Byron showing Hawkins' discovery Islands that may well have been the Falkland Islands are also shown on the maps of Piri Reis, a Turkish admiral of the period who drew remarkably accurate maps. When English explorer John Davis, commander of the Desire, one of the ships belonging to Thomas Cavendish's second expedition to the New World, separated from Cavendish off the coast of what is now southern Argentina, he decided to make for the Strait of Magellan in order to find Cavendish. On 9 August 1592 a severe storm battered his ship, and Davis drifted under bare masts, taking refuge "among certain Isles never before discovered." Consequently, for a time the Falklands were known as "Davis Land" or "Davis' Land." In 1594, they were visited by English commander Richard Hawkins, who, combining his own name with that of Queen Elizabeth I, the "Virgin Queen", gave the islands the name of "Hawkins' Maidenland." In 1600, Sebald de Weert, a Dutchman, visited them and called them the Sebald Islands (in Spanish, "Islas Sebaldinas" or "Sebaldes"), a name which they bore on some Dutch maps into the 19th century. English Captain John Strong sailed between the two principal islands in 1690 and called the passage "Falkland Channel" (now Falkland Sound), after Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland (1659-1694), who as Commissioner of the Admiralty had financed the expedition and later became First Lord of the Admiralty. From this body of water the island group later took its collective name. Early colonisation France established a colony at Port St. Louis, on East Falkland's Berkeley Sound coast in 1764. The French name Îles Malouines was given to the islands – malouin being the adjective for the Breton port of Saint-Malo. The Spanish name Islas Malvinas is a translation of the French denomination. John Byron, by Joshua Reynolds, 1759. In 1765, Capt. John Byron, who was unaware of the French presence in the east, explored Saunders Island, in the west, named the harbour Port Egmont, and claimed this and other islands for Britain on the grounds of prior discovery. The next year Captain John McBride established a British settlement at Port Egmont. These events were nearly the cause of a war between Britain and Spain, both countries having sent armed fleets to contest the barren but strategically important sovereignty of the islands. In 1766, France agreed to leave, and Spain agreed to reimburse Louis de Bougainville, who had established a settlement at his own expense. The Spaniards assumed control in 1767 and re-named Port St. Louis as Puerto Soledad. Meanwhile, the British presence in the west continued, until interrupted by Spain during the Falkland Crisis from July, 1770 to 22 January 1771. As a result of economic pressures stemming from the upcoming American War of Independence, Britain unilaterally chose to withdraw from many overseas settlements in 1774. Falkland Islands Timeline: A Chronology of events in the history of the Falkland Islands, Accessed 2007-10-02 On 20 May 1776 the British forces under the command of Lt. Clayton formally took their leave of Port Egmont, while leaving a plaque asserting Britain's continuing sovereignty over the islands. A brief history of the Falkland Islands Part 2 - Fort St. Louis and Port Egmont., Accessed 2007-07-19 Spain ruled the Islands from Buenos Aires until 1811, withdrawing due to the pressures of war with Britain and the move toward independence in her South American colonies. Like Britain earlier, Spain left behind a plaque claiming her sovereignty. Inter-colonial period Following the departure of the Spanish settlers, the Falkland Islands became the domain of whalers and sealers who used the islands to shelter from the worst of the South Atlantic weather. By merit of their location, the Falkland Islands have often been the last refuge for ships damaged at sea. Most numerous among those using the islands were British and American sealers, where typically between 40 and 50 ships were engaged in exploiting fur seals. This represents an itinerant population of up to 1000 sailors, which outnumbered any permanent population by an order of magnitude. The Isabella incident On 8 February 1813 the British ship Isabella, a ship of 193 tons and a crew of fourteen, was wrecked of the coast of Eagle Island (now known as Speedwell Island). Captain George Higton and five other men volunteered to make the hazardous voyage to the River Plate in one of the ship's longboats. Braving the South Atlantic in a boat little more than 18 ft long, they made landfall a month later. The British gun brig Nancy was sent to rescue the survivors. Australian Shipwrecks - vol 1 1622-1850, Charles Bateson, AH and AW Reed, Sydney, 1972, ISBN 0 589 07112 2 p48 On 5 April Captain Charles Barnard of the American sealer Nanina was sailing off the shore of Eagle Island, with a discovery boat deployed looking for seals. Having seen smoke and heard gunshots the previous day, he was alert to the possibility of survivors of a ship wreck. This suspicion was heightened, when the crew of the discovery boat came aboard and informed the captain they had come across a new moccasin as well as the partially butchered remains of a seal. At dinner that evening, the crew observed a man approaching the ship who was shortly joined by eight to ten others. Both Barnard and the survivors from the Isabella had harboured concern the other party was Spanish and were relieved to discover their respective nationalities. Barnard dined with the Isabella survivors that evening and finding that the British party were unaware of the War of 1812 informed the survivors that technically they were at war with each other. Nevertheless Barnard promised to rescue the British party and set about preparations for the voyage to the River Plate. Realising that they had insufficient stores for the voyage he set about acquiring additional food including the killing wild pigs on the island. However, while Barnard was gathering supplies, the British took the opportunity to seize the Nanina and departed leaving Barnard and three of his crew marooned. Shortly thereafter the Nanina encountered the British ship Nancy under Lt D'Aranda who had sailed from the River Plate in order to rescue the survivors of the Isabella. Lt D'Aranda took the Nanina as a prize. Barnard and his party survived for eighteen months marooned on the islands until rescued by the British ships and Asp in November 1814. The British admiral in Rio de Janeiro had requested their masters to divert to the area to look for him. Hunt, Freeman, The Merchants Magazine and Commercial Review, New York, 1842 In 1829, Barnard published an account of his survival entitled A Narrative of the Sufferings and Adventures of Capt Charles H. Barnard. Barnard, Charles H., A narrative of the sufferings and adventures of Capt. Charles H. Barnard., Wesleyan University Press, 1979, ISBN 0819550310 Barnard, Charles H., A narrative of the sufferings and adventures of Capt. Charles H. Barnard. Argentinian colonial aspirations Colonel Jewett In October 1820, the Frigate Heroína under the command of American privateer Colonel David Jewett arrived in Puerto Soledad following an eight-month voyage and with most of her crew incapacitated by scurvy and disease. A storm had resulted in severe damage to the Heroína and had sunk the prize Carlota forcing Jewett to put into Puerto Soledad for repairs. Captain Jewett chose to rest and recover in the islands, seeking assistance from the British explorer James Weddell. Weddell reported only 30 seamen and 40 soldiers fit for duty out of a crew of 200, and how Jewett slept with pistols over his head following an attempted mutiny. On 6 November 1820, Jewett raised the flag of the United Provinces of the River Plate (a predecessor of modern-day Argentina) and claimed possession of the islands. Weddell reported the letter he received from Jewett as: Weddell, James, A Voyage Towards the South Pole, London, Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown and Green, 1827 Sir, I have the honor of informing you that I have arrived in this port with a commission from the Supreme Government of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata to take possession of these islands on behalf of the country to which they belong by Natural Law. While carrying out this mission I want to do so with all the courtesy and respect all friendly nations; one of the objectives of my mission is to prevent the destruction of resources necessary for all ships passing by and forced to cast anchor here, as well as to help them to obtain the necessary supplies, with minimum expenses and inconvenience. Since your presence here is not in competition with these purposes and in the belief that a personal meeting will be fruitful for both of us, I invite you to come aboard, where you'll be welcomed to stay as long as you wish; I would also greatly appreciate your extending this invitation to any other British subject found in the vicinity; I am, respectfully yours. Signed, Jewett, Colonel of the Navy of the United Provinces of South America and commander of the frigate Heroína. Many modern authors report this letter as the declaration issued by Jewett. Laurio H. Destéfani, The Malvinas, the South Georgias and the South Sandwich Islands, the conflict with Britain, Buenos Aires, 1982 Weddell did not believe that Jewett was acting with the interests of the United Provinces of the River Plate in mind, rather Jewett had merely put into the harbour in order to obtain refreshments for his crew, and that the assumption of possession was chiefly intended for the purpose of securing an exclusive claim to the wreck of the French ship Uranie that had foundered at the entrance of Berkeley Sound a few months prior. Weddell left the islands on 20 November 1820 noting that Jewett had not completed repairs to the Heroína. Luis Vernet's enterprise Luis Vernet In 1823, the United Provinces of the River Plate granted fishing rights to Jorge Pacheco and Luis Vernet. Traveling to the islands in 1824, the first expedition failed almost as soon as it landed, and Pacheco chose not to continue with the venture. Vernet persisted, but the second attempt, delayed until Winter 1826 by a Brazilian blockade, was also unsuccessful. The expedition intended to exploit the feral cattle on the islands but the boggy conditions meant the Gauchos could not catch cattle in their traditional way. Vernet was by now aware of conflicting British claims to the islands and sought permission from the British consulate before departing for the islands. In 1828, the United Provinces government granted Vernet all of East Falkland including all its resources, and exempted him from taxation if a colony could be established within three years. He took settlers, including British Captain Matthew Brisbane (who had sailed to the islands earlier with Weddell), and before leaving once again sought permission from the British Consulate in Buenos Aires. The British asked for a report for the British government on the islands, and Vernet asked for British protection should they return. A brief history of the Falkland Islands Part 3 - Louis Vernet: The Great Entrepreneur, Accessed 2007-07-19 On 10 June 1829, Vernet was formally designated as governor of the islands and granted a monopoly on seal hunting rights. A protest was lodged by the British Consulate in Buenos Aires. By 1831, the colony was successful enough to be advertising for new colonists, although the Lexingtons report suggests that the conditions on the islands were quite miserable. Commander Silas Duncan and the Falkland Island Affair, Accessed 2007-10-02 Charles Darwin's visit in 1833 confirmed the squalid conditions in the settlement, although Captain Matthew Brisbane (Vernet's deputy) later claimed that this was the result of the Lexington raid. Fitzroy, R., VOYAGES OF THE ADVENTURE AND BEAGLE. VOLUME II., Accessed 2007-10-02 USS Lexingon raid In 1831, Vernet attempted to assert his monopoly on seal hunting rights. This led him to capture the American ships Harriet, Superior and Breakwater. As a reprisal, the United States sent Captain Silas Duncan of the USS Lexington to recover the confiscated property. After finding what he considered proof that at least four American fishing ships had been captured, plundered, and even outfitted for war, Duncan took seven prisoners aboard the Lexington and charged them with piracy. Also taken on board, Duncan reported, "were the whole of the (Falklands') population consisting of about forty persons, with the exception of some 'gauchos', or cowboys who were encamped in the interior." The group, principally German citizens from Buenos Aires, "appeared greatly rejoiced at the opportunity thus presented of removing with their families from a desolate region where the climate is always cold and cheerless and the soil extremely unproductive". Brisbane's capture and the destruction of the settlement caused quite a stir among government officials in Buenos Aires, and a long dispute between U.S. and Argentine diplomats followed. Attempted establishment of a penal colony In the aftermath of the Lexington incident, Major Esteban Mestivier, the new governor of the islands, was commissioned by the Buenos Aires government to set up a penal colony. He arrived at his destination on 15 November 1832 but his soldiers mutinied and killed him. Lt. Col. José María Pinedo quelled the rebellion and took charge of the settlement. British return A watercolour by HMS Beagle's draughtsman, Conrad Martens. Painted during the survey of Tierra del Fuego, it depicts the Beagle being hailed by native Fuegians. The Beagle visited the Falklands in 1834, and a Fuegian "mission" was later planted on Keppel Island in the west of the Falklands The Argentinian assertions of sovereignty provided the spur for Britain to send a naval task force in order to finally and permanently return to the islands. On 2 January 1833, Captain James Onslow, of the brig-sloop HMS Clio, arrived at Vernet's settlement at Port Louis to request that the flag of the United Provinces of the River Plate be replaced with the British one, and for the administration to leave the islands. While Lt. Col. José María Pinedo, commander of the schooner Sarandí, wanted to resist, his numerical disadvantage was obvious, particularly as a large number of his crew were British mercenaries who were unwilling to fight their own countrymen. Such a situation was not unusual in the newly independent states in Latin America, where land forces were strong, but navies were frequently quite undermanned. As such he protested verbally, but departed without a fight on 5 January. Argentina claims that Vernet's colony was also expelled at this time, though sources from time appear to dispute this, suggesting that the colonists were encouraged to remain initially under the authority of Vernet's storekeeper, William Dixon and later his deputy, Matthew Brisbane. Initial British plans for the Islands were based upon the continuation of Vernet's settlement at Port Louis. An Argentine immigrant of Irish origin, William Dixon, was appointed as the British representative and provided with a flagpole and flag to be flown whenever ships were in harbour. In March 1833, Vernet's Deputy, Matthew Brisbane returned and presented his papers to Captain Fitzroy of HMS Beagle, which coincidentally happened to be in harbour at the time. Fitzroy encouraged Brisbane to continue with Vernet's enterprise with the proviso that whilst private enterprise was encouraged, Argentine assertions of sovereignty would not be welcome. Brisbane re-asserted his authority over Vernet's settlement and recommenced the practise of paying employees in promissory notes. Due to Vernet's reduced status, the promissory notes were devalued, which meant that the employees received fewer goods at Vernet's stores for their wages. After months of freedom following the Lexington raid this accentuated dissatisfaction with the leadership of the settlement. In August 1833, under the leadership of Antonio Rivero, a gang of Creole and Indian gauchos ran amok in the settlement. Armed with muskets obtained from American sealers, the gang killed five members of Vernet's settlement including both Dickson and Brisbane. Shortly afterward the survivors fled Port Louis, seeking refuge on Turf Island in Berkeley Sound until rescued by the British sealer 'Hopeful' in October 1833. Lt Henry Smith was installed as the first British resident in January 1834. One of his first actions was to pursue and arrest Rivero's gang for the murders committed the previous August. The gang was sent for trial in London but due to a quirk of the British Legal system could not be tried as the Crown Court did not have jurisdiction over the Falkland Islands. In the British colonial system, colonies had their own, distinct governments, finances, and judicial systems. British colonies - Hutchinson encyclopedia article about British colonies Karsten, Peter, Between Law and Custom, "High" and "Low" Legal Cultures in the Lands of the British Diaspora - The United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, 1600-1900 Rivero was not tried and sentenced because the British local government and local judiciary had not yet been installed in 1834; these were created later, by the 1841 British Letters Patent. Subsequently, Rivero has acquired the status of a folk hero in Argentina, where he is portrayed as leading a rebellion against British rule. Ironically it was the actions of Rivero that were responsible for the ultimate demise of Vernet's enterprise on the Falklands. Charles Darwin revisited the Falklands in 1834, Darwin and Fitzroy both take their names from this visit. After the arrest of Rivero, Smith set about restoring the settlement at Port Louis, repairing the damage done by the Lexington raid and renaming it 'Anson's Harbour'. Lt Lowcay succeeded Smith in April 1838, followed by Lt Robinson in September 1839 and Lt Tyssen in December 1839. Vernet later attempted to return to the Islands but was refused permission to return. The British Crown reneged on promises and refused to recognise rights granted by Captain Onslow at the time of the reoccupation. Eventually, after traveling to London, Vernet received paltry compensation for horses shipped to Port Louis many years before. G.T. Whittington obtained a concession of from Vernet that he later exploited with the formation of the Falkland Islands Commercial Fishery and Agricultural Association. Islas del Atlántico Sur, Islas Malvinas, Historia, Ocupación Inglesa: Port Stanley, Accessed 2007-10-02 British colonisation John Russell, 1st Earl Russell, KG, GCMG, PC (18 August 1792 28 May 1878). Following the British occupation of the Falkland Islands and the failure of Vernet's settlement, the British had largely maintained Port Louis as a military outpost. Pressure to develop the islands as a colony began to mount as the result of a campaign mounted by British merchant G.T. Whittington. Whittington formed the Falkland Islands Commercial Fishery and Agricultural Association and (based on information indirectly obtained from Vernet) published a pamphlet entitled "The Falkland Islands". Later a petition signed by London merchants was presented to the British Government demanding the convening of a public meeting to discuss the future development of the Falkland Islands. Whittington petitioned the Colonial Secretary, Lord Russell, proposing that his association be allowed to colonise the islands. In May 1840, the British Government made the decision to colonise the Falkland Islands. Unaware of the decision by the British Government to colonise the islands, Whittington grew impatient and decided to take action of his own initiative. Obtaining two ships, he sent his brother, J. B. Whittington, on a mission to land stores and settlers at Port Louis. On arrival he presented his claim to land that his brother had bought from Vernet. Lt. Tyssen was taken aback by Whittington's arrival, indicating that he had no authority to allow this; however, he was unable to prevent the party from landing. Whittington constructed a large house for his party, and using a salting house built by Vernet established a fish-salting business. A Brief History of the Falkland Islands, Part 4 - The British Colonial Era, Accessed 2007-10-02 In 1836, East Falkland was surveyed by Admiral George Grey, and further in 1837 by Lowcay. Admiral George Grey, conducting the geographic survey in November 1836 had the following to say about their first view of East Falkland - We anchored a little after sunset off a creek called 'Johnson's Harbour'. The day having been cloudy with occasional showers, these islands at all times dreary enough, looked particularly so on our first view of them, the shores of sound, steep, with bare hills intersected with ravines rising from them, these hills without a tree and the clouds hanging low, gave them exactly the appearance of the Cheviots or a Scotch moor on a winter's day and considering we were in the May of these latitudes, the first impression of the climate was not favourable, the weather however, was not called, the thermometer was 63 degrees [i.e. Fahrenheit] which is Howick mid-summer temperature. Establishment of Port Stanley Halfpenny postage stamp, issued 1891. The British Government continued with its plans to colonise the Falkland Islands, appointing Lt Richard Moody as the first Lieutenant Governor of the Islands. He was transported to the Falkland Islands aboard the ship Hebe, arriving in Anson's Harbour in October 1841. He was accompanied by twelve sappers and miners and their families, together with Whittington's colonists this brought the population of Anson's Harbour to approximately 50. In 1842, Lieutenant Governor Moody was instructed by Lord Stanley the British Secretary of State for War and the Colonies to report on the potential of the Port William area as the site of the new capital. Moody assigned the task of surveying the area to Captain Ross, leader of the Antarctic Expedition. Captain Ross delivered his report in 1843, concluding that Port William afforded a good deep-water anchorage for naval vessels, and that the southern shores of Port Jackson was a suitable location for the proposed settlement. Not everyone was enthused with the selection of the location of the new capital, J. B. Whittington famously remarked that "Of all the miserable bog holes, I believe that Mr Moody has selected one of the worst for the site of his town." Construction of the new settlement started in July 1843, and in July 1845 (at Governor Moody's) suggestion the new capital of the islands was officially named Port Stanley after Lord Stanley. The structure of the Colonial Government was established in 1845 with the formation of the Legislative Council and Executive Council and work on the construction of Government House commenced.. The following year, the first officers appointed to the Colonial Government took their posts, by this time a number of residences, a large storage shed, carpenter's shop and blacksmiths shop had been completed and the Government Dockyard laid-out. With the establishment of the deep-water anchorage and improvements in port facilities, Stanley saw a dramatic increase in the number of visiting ships in the 1840s in part due to the California Gold Rush. A boom in ship provisioning and ship-repair resulted, aided by the notoriously bad weather in the South Atlantic and around Cape Horn. Stanley and the Falkland Islands are famous as the repository of many wrecks of nineteenth century ships that reached the islands to be condemned as unseaworthy and were often employed as floating warehouses by local merchants. At one point in the nineteenth century, Stanley became one of the world's busiest ports. However, the ship-repair trade began to slacken off in 1876 with the establishment of the Plimsoll line, which saw the elimination of the so-called coffin ships and unseaworthy vessels that might otherwise have ended up in Stanley for repair. With the introduction of increasingly reliable iron steamships in the 1890s the trade declined further and was no longer viable following the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914. Port Stanley continued to be a busy port supporting whaling and sealing activities in the early part of the twentieth century, British warships (and garrisons) in the First and Second World War and the fishing and cruise ship industries in the latter half of the century. Christ Church Cathedral and Whalebone Arch. Government House opened as the offices of the Lieutenant Governor in 1847. Government House continued to develop with various additions, formally becoming the Governor's residence in 1859 when Governor Moore took residence. Government House remains the residence of the Governor. Many of the colonists begin to move from Ansons' Harbour to Port Stanley. As the new town expanded the population grew rapidly reaching 200 by 1849. The population was further expanded by the arrival of 30 married Chelsea Pensioners and their families. The Chelsea Pensioners were to form the permanent garrison and police force taking over from the Royal Sappers and Miners Regiment who had garrisoned the early colony. The Exchange Building opened in 1854, part of the building was later used as a church. 1854 also saw the establishment of Marmont Row, including the Eagle Inn now known as the Upland Goose Hotel. In 1887 Jubilee Villas were built to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria. Jubilee Villas are a row of brick built houses that follow a traditional British pattern, positioned on Ross road near the waterfront they became an iconic image during the Falklands War. Peat is common on the islands and has traditionally been exploited as a fuel. Uncontrolled exploitation of this natural resource lead to peat slips in 1878 and 1886. The 1878 peat slip resulted in the destruction of several houses, whilst the 1886 peat slip resulted in the deaths of two women and the destruction of the Exchange Building. Christ Church Cathedral was consecrated in 1892 and completed in 1903. It received its famous whalebone arch, constructed from the jaws of two Blue Whales in 1933 to commemorate the centenary of continuous British administration. Also consecrated in 1892 was the Tabernacle United Free Church, constructed from an imported timber kit. Development of agriculture and the Camp One of the remaining historic corrals at Sapper Hill, near Stanley. A few years after the British had established themselves in the islands, a number of new British settlements were started. Initially many of these settlements were established in order to exploit the feral cattle on the islands. Following the introduction of the Cheviot breed of sheep to the islands in 1852, sheep farming became the dominant form of agriculture on the Islands. Salvador Settlement was one of the earliest, being started in the 1830s, by a Gibraltarian immigrant (hence its other name of "Gibraltar Settlement"), and it is still run by his descendants, the Pitalugas. Vernet furnished Samuel Fisher Lafone, a British merchant operating from Montevideo, with details of the Falklands Islands including a map. Sensing that the exploitation of feral cattle on the islands would be a lucrative venture, in 1846 he negotiated a contract with the British Government that gave him exclusive rights to this resource. Until 1846 Moody had allotted feral cattle to new settlers and the new agreement not only prevented this but made Stanley dependent upon Lafone for supplies of Beef. Cattle were concentrated in the southern part of East Falkland, an area that became known as Lafonia. Lafone was an absentee landlord and never actually set foot on the islands. His activities were not monitored by the British and rather than introducing more British settlers as he promised, he brought large numbers of Spanish and Indian Gauchos to hunt cattle. In 1846, they established Hope Place on the south shores of Brenton Loch and in 1849 a sod wall (the Boca wall) was built across the isthmus at Darwin to control the movement of cattle. Falkland Islands Company's historical building in Stanley Lafone continued to develop his business interests and in 1849 looked to establish a joint stock company with his London creditors. The company was launched as the The Royal Falkland Land, Cattle, Seal and Fishery Company in 1850 but soon thereafter was incorporated under Royal Charter as the The Falkland Islands Company Limited. Lafone became a director and his brother-in-law J.P.Dale the company's first manager in the Islands. By 1852, the feral cattle had been hunted virtually to extinction by Gauchos and the company switched to sheep farming with the introduction of the Cheviot breed of sheep. Hope Place proved to be an unsuitable location and the operation moved to Darwin. In 1860, the Lafone Beef contract was terminated but the Falkland Islands Company was given a grant to Lafonia. Ownership of the remaining cattle outside of Lafonia reverted to the Government and hunting cattle without permission was banned. In the second half of the 19th century, Darwin, Goose Green, Fox Bay and Port Howard were established. Port Howard was founded by James Lovegrove Waldron, and his brother in 1866; the Waldron brothers later left for Patagonia, but left the farm under local management. Wigglesworth, Angela. (1992) Falkland People. Pub. Peter Owen. ISBN 0-7206-0850-3 Darwin was initially the haunt of gauchos, and cattle farmers, but sheep farming came to dominate the area, and Scottish shepherds were brought in. A few years later, the first large tallow works in the islands (though not the first) was set up by the FIC in 1874. It handled 15,891 sheep in 1880. From the 1880s, until 1972, Darwin and Fox Bay had their own separate medical officers. Nowadays, most medical care is based in Stanley. Exploitation of maritime resources The Falkland Islands were used as a base for whaling ships hunting the Southern Right Whale and Sperm Whale from the 1770s until British authority was established over the islands and surrounding seas. Whaling was briefly revived with the establishment of a whaling station on New Island from 1909 to 1917 until whaling operations moved to South Georgia. Fur seals had long been exploited for their pelts but numbers entered a drastic decline in the early 1800s. As a result seal hunting died off, although continuing at a low level. In order to conserve stocks, a ban on the hunting of fur seals during summers months was enacted in 1881 but it was not until 1921 that hunting was banned entirely. Elephant seals were exploited for oil but like the fur seals their numbers declined drastically in the mid-1850s. Sealers instead turned their attention to the South American Sea Lion resulting in a dramatic decline in their numbers that made sealing uneconomic. Attempts to revive the trade, including a sealing station at Albermarle, were unsuccessful. Even penguins were exploited for oil. Rockhopper and Gentoo penguins were rendered down in trypots from 1860 until the 1880s. Twentieth century Establishment of communications Although the first telephone lines were installed by the Falkland Islands Company in the 1880s, the Falkland Islands Government was slow to embrace telephony. It was not until 1897 that a telephone line was installed between Cape Pembroke lighthouse and the police station. The islands isolation was broken in 1911 when Marconi installed a wireless telegraphy station that enabled telegrams to be sent to mainland Uruguay. Cable & Wireless, The Falkland Islands, Our History A line was laid between Darwin and Stanley, with the ship Consort landing poles on the coast. Construction commenced in 1906 and was finished in 1907 (a length of nearly 50 miles). The line was initially only for business but the public could make calls occasionally. Lines continued to be laid to most of the major settlements in the islands, with the Falkland Islands police responsible for their maintenance till 1927. Communications among the settlements relied on the telephone network until radio telephones were introduced in the 1950s, although the telephone network continued until 1982. Telecommunications improved dramatically after the Falklands War, when an earth station was installed to allow direct dialling for the first time. In 1997, an Internet service was launched and by 2002 nearly 90% of Falkland homes had Internet access. Economic development The freezer plant at Ajax Bay. Most of the workers' cottages were moved to Stanley A canning factory was opened in 1911 at Goose Green and was initially extremely successful. It absorbed a large proportion of surplus sheep but during the postwar slump suffered a serious loss and closed down in 1921. Despite this setback, a mere year later, the settlement grew after it became the base for the Falkland Islands Company's sheep farm in Lafonia in 1922, with improved sheep handling and wool shed being built. In 1927, the settlement's huge sheep shearing shed was built, which is claimed to be the world's largest, with a capacity of five thousand sheep. In 1979, 100,598 sheep were shorn at Goose Green The mid twentieth century saw a number of abortive attempts to diversify the islands' economy away from large scale sheep ranching. In the period just after the Second World War, Port Albemarle in the south west of West Falkland, was enlarged during the post-WWII period by the Colonial Development Company and included its own power station, jetty, Nissen huts etc - this was an attempt to revive the old sealing industry which had flourished during the 19th century. However, the project proved to be a "white elephant", not least because seal numbers had declined massively. Islanders shoveling peat (1950s) Similarly, Ajax Bay on Falkland Sound, was developed by the Colonial Development Corporation in the 1950s, which was also responsible for developing Port Albemarle. It was mainly a refrigeration plant, and was supposed to freeze Falkland mutton, but this was found to be economically unviable, despite the huge expense incurred. Many of the pre-fabricated houses here were moved to Stanley. The site later became a British field hospital during the landings of Operation Sutton. The seas around the Falkland Islands were not well policed prior to the Falklands War, and many foreign boats fished off the islands, despite protests that potential revenue was being lost. Fishing licences were only later to be introduced. Education In 1956, J.L. Waldron Ltd built a school at Port Howard, possibly inspired by the "gift" of the FIC at Darwin, a few years earlier. Strange, Ian, The Falkland Islands, 1983 Up until the 1970s, Goose Green was the site of a boarding school, run by the state. "Camp" children boarded here, and there were 40 spaces. The boarding school was later transferred to Stanley, although the recent emphasis has been on locally based education. The school itself became an Argentine HQ, and was burnt down. A new (day) school has been built for local children. First World War HMS Canopus, Canopus Hill in the Falkland Islands commemorates her role in the Battle of the Falkland Islands. The Battle of the Falkland Islands, 8 December 1914. The German armoured cruisers under Admiral von Spee that had been raiding British sealanes were sunk by a British battlecruiser task force. Port Stanley became an important coaling station for the Royal Navy. This led to ships based here being involved in the major naval engagements in both the First and Second World Wars. Their strategic significance of the Falkland Islands was confirmed by the second major naval engagement of the First World War. Admiral Graf Maximilian von Spee's East Asia Cruiser Squadron called at the islands on their trip from the Pacific Ocean back to Germany intending to destroy the Royal Navy radio relay station and coaling depot there. Unknown to Spee, a British squadron, including two battlecruisers considerably more powerful than his forces had been sent to hunt down his squadron and happened to be in the harbour coaling. In the one-sided battle which followed, most of Spee's squadron was sunk. In commemoration of the events, Canopus Hill, south of Stanley received its name. Second World War In December, 1939 a British naval squadron comprising HMS Ajax, HMNZS Achilles and HMS Exeter engaged the German Pocket Battleship Admiral Graf Spee. Despite being outgunned by the guns of the Graf Spee, the British squadron aggressively engaged Graf Spee inflicting major damage. The guns of Exeter were a more significant threat than the guns of Ajax and Achilles and inflicted more serious damage to the Graf Spee. As a result the Graf Spee concentrated fire upon the Exeter inflicting some 40 direct hits and causing major damage. On the 16 December, Exeter limped into Stanley Harbour, with 60 of the 600 crew dead and 49 wounded. The crew had to be boarded out in Stanley as Exeter was too badly damaged. The County class heavy cruiser HMS Cumberland, which had been self-refitting in the Falkland Islands at the time of the battle, steamed to join Ajax and Achilles at the mouth of the River Plate. Convinced by British propaganda and false intelligence that a major naval task force awaited his ship and short of ammunition, Captain Langsdorf of the Graf Spee chose instead to scuttle the ship rather than face the Royal Navy. Argentine incursions A series of incidents in the 1960s marked the intensification of Argentine sovereignty claims. The first of these took place in 1964, when a light plane piloted by Miguel Fitzgerald touched down on the racecourse at Stanley. Leaping from the aircraft he handed a letter claiming sovereignty to a bemused islander before flying off again. The stunt was timed to coincide with Argentine diplomatic efforts at the UN Decolonisation Committee. Miguel L. Fitzgerald flew to the Falkland Islands in light aircraft in 1964 and 1968. (Originally published by Crónica, 9 September 1964.) The more serious incident took place in 1966. An Aerolíneas Argentinas DC-4 on an internal flight was hijacked. A group of ardent Argentine nationalists, styling themselves as 'Condors', forced the pilot to fly to Stanley. On arrival they attempted to land at the racecourse but hit telegraph poles and the undercarriage sank into the mud. The islanders assuming the plane was in trouble rushed to assist but found themselves taken hostage by the terrorists (included in the group was a young Terry Peck who became a local hero in the Falklands War). In response to declarations of no surrender, the Falkland Islands police used sleep deprivation techniques playing Country and Western music at full volume. After 24 hrs the terrorists surrendered and were detained in an annex to St Mary's Church. Wishing to avoid a prolonged incident the British Government chose to repatriate the terrorists to Argentina where they received only nominal prison sentences and were treated as heroes (a plaque was later unveiled in Buenos Aires honouring their escapade). Again the incident was timed to coincide with diplomatic efforts at the UN. On October of the same year a group of Argentine naval special forces conducted covert landings from the submarine ARA Santiago del Estero. The 12 men team, which landed some from Stanley, was led by Juan Jose Lombardo who later as Chief of Naval Operations planned the 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands. Malvinas: los secretos de la guerra The locally upgraded Balao class submarine ARA Santiago del Estero (S-12), Argentine Naval Base at Mar del Plata, circa 1969 In November 1968, Miguel Fitzgerald was hired by the Argentine press to attempt a reprise of his 1964 landing. Accompanied by one of the 1966 hijackers he flew to Stanley but on arrival found he could not land at the racecourse due to obstacles placed following the hijacking. The plane was forced to crash land on Eliza Cove road but the two occupants were unharmed. The stunt was intended to coincide with the visit of Lord Chalfont to the islands. The latter incident proved counter-productive to the Argentine sovereignty push as Lord Chalfont had been talking to a public meeting at the time of the plane's arrival. The Islanders made it plain to Lord Chalfont that they rejected a Memorandum of Agreement negotiated between Britain and Argentina that August that stated Britain was prepared to discuss sovereignty provided the islanders' wishes were respected. This spurred the formation of the Falkland Islands Committee by London Barrister Bill Hunter-Christie and others. The Emergency Committee as it became known proved to be an effective lobbying organisation, constantly undermining Foreign Office initiatives on sovereignty negotiations. In December 1968, the lobbying effort managed to force the British Government to state that the islanders' wishes would be paramount. Growing links with Argentina Argentine Air Force LADE's Fokker F-28 which used to serve the islands during the 1970s.© www.esquel.gov.ar. Partly as the result of diplomatic pressure, economic and political links with Argentina increased in the 1960s and 70s. These became severed after the end of the Falklands War, but before the War they were not entirely negative, and some islanders sent their children to boarding schools in Argentina. Realising that any talks on the sovereignty issue would be derailed if it did not meet with the islander's wishes, the British and Argentine Governments enacted a series of measures designed to encourage dependence on Argentina. In 1971, following secret talks between the two Governments (and without consulting the islanders), the communications agreement was signed. The thrust of the agreement was the establishment of direct air and sea links between the islands and Argentina, together with agreements on postal and telephony services. Following the agreement the subsidised shipping link with Montevideo ended, a passenger and cargo ship service to the mainland (that would ameliorate any dependence on Argentina) was promised by the British but never provided. Lineas Aereas del Estado (LADE), the airline operated by the Argentine Air Force (Fuerza Aérea Argentina or FAA), began an air link to the islands. Initially this service operated amphibious aircraft between Comodoro Rivadavia and Stanley using Grumman HU-16 Albatross aircraft. Commemorative Stamps of first flights The inauguration of the service was commemorated by a series of stamps issued by both the Argentine and Falkland Island postal services. In 1972, a temporary airstrip was constructed by Argentina near Stanley. Britain constructed a small permanent airstrip in 1976 suitable only for short haul flights. As part of the agreement, islanders had to travel via Argentina and were forced to carry Argentine Identity Cards issued in Buenos Aires. The Tarjeta Provisoria or "white card" as they were known were hated by the islanders, who felt they were a de facto Argentine passport, since only islanders were required to use them and not other temporary residents of the islands. Tensions were raised further with the agreement that male Falkland Islanders would not have to undertake conscription into the Argentine Army, since this carried the implication that Falkland Islanders were Argentine citizens. LADE set up an office in Stanley and mail was routed through Argentina. Medical treatments unavailable in the islands were provided in Argentina and scholarships were made available for study in Buenos Aires, Córdoba and other Argentine cities. Spanish language teachers were provided by Argentina. Foreign Office officials in Stanley were instructed to do everything possible to foster good relations between the Islands and Argentina. The islands became more dependent upon Argentina, when the British and Argentine governments agreed that the islands would be supplied with petrol, diesel and oil by YPF, the Argentine national oil and gas company (now part of Repsol YPF). Prime Minister Jim Callaghan sent a naval task force in response to Argentine pressure in 1976. Despite these tensions relationships between the islanders and the Argentines operating the new services in the islands were cordial. Although there was apprehension, politics were generally avoided and on a one-to-one basis there was never any real hostility. On the international level, relations began to sour in 1975 when Argentine delegates at the London meeting of the International Parliamentary Union condemned Britain's "act of international piracy" in establishing a colony in the Falkland Islands. Diplomatic relations between Britain and Argentina were broken but resumed in 1976. In October 1975, the British Government tasked Lord Shackleton (son of the Antarctic explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton) with an economic survey of the Falkland Islands. The Argentine Government reacted furiously and refused permission for Lord Shackleton to travel via Argentina. Later the ship transporting Shackleton to the islands, the RRS Shackleton, was fired upon by the Argentine destroyer ARA Almirante Storni. In 1976, Argentina covertly established a military base on Southern Thule. It was discovered by the British Antarctic Survey ship RRS Bransfield in 1977. The British protested but restricted their response to a diplomatic protest. Backing up the diplomatic efforts, the British Prime Minister Jim Callaghan sent a naval task force consisting of surface ships and a nuclear submarine. Nevertheless Argentine aircraft and warships harassed ships fishing in Falkland waters. Lord Shackletons report was delivered in 1977 and documented the economic stagnation in the islands. It nevertheless concluded that the islands made a net contribution to the British economy and had economic potential for development. Recommendations included oil exploation, exploitation of the fisheries, extension of the Stanley runway, the creation of a development agency, the expansion of the road network, expansion of the facilities at Stanley harbour and the breakdown of absentee landlord owned farms into family units. The report was largely ignored at the time, as it was felt that acting upon it would sour relations with Argentina. A reprise of the report by Lord Shackleton in 1982 following the Falklands War became the blueprint for subsequent economic development of the islands. Falklands War General Galtieri, Argentina's leader during the Falklands War. Argentina invaded the islands on 2 April 1982, using special forces, which landed at Mullet Creek and advanced on Government House in Stanley, with a secondary force coming in from Yorke Bay. They encountered little opposition, there being only a small force of fifty seven British marines and eleven sailors, in addition to the Falkland Islands Defence Force (who were later sent to Fox Bay). There was only one Argentine fatality. The event garnered international attention at a level which the islands had never experienced before, and made them a household name in the UK. For a brief period, the Falkland Islands found themselves under Argentine control. This included Spanish language signage, and attempts to make the islanders drive on the right (although few roads in the Falklands at the time actually had two lanes). In many parts of the Camp, such as Goose Green and Pebble Island, the islanders found themselves under house arrest. The British responded with an expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fierce fighting forced the Argentine garrison to surrender on 14 June 1982. The war proved to be an anomaly in a number of different respects, not least that it proved that small arms still had a role to play. It also had major consequences for the Junta, which was toppled soon afterwards. While Margaret Thatcher's general political legacy remains controversial and divisive within the UK, within the Falklands, she is considered a heroine. The islands celebrate "Margaret Thatcher Day" on every 10 January, and named a street, Thatcher Drive, after her, in Stanley. Post-war President Nestor Kirchner continued to pursue Argentine claims to the islands. His wife Cristina Fernández is the incumbent. Following the war, Britain focused on improving is facilities on the islands. It increased its military presence significantly, building a large base at RAF Mount Pleasant and its port at Mare Harbour. It also invested heavily in improving facilities in Stanley and transportation and infrastructure around the islands, tarmacking many roads. The population has risen due to the growth of Stanley, but has declined in Camp (the countryside). It has been proposed to set up a ferry service between the East and West (Port Howard) islands, but the falling population of West Falkland makes this difficult to justify. A major change to the way the Falkland Islands are governed was introduced by the 1985 constitution. Under the 1985 constitution the Falkland Islands Government (FIG) became a parliamentary representative democratic dependency, with the governor as head of government and representative of the Queen. Members of the FIG are democratically elected; the Governor is purely a figurehead with no executive powers. Effectively under this constitution, the Falkland Islands are self-governing with the exception of foreign policy, although the FIG represents itself at the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonisation as the British Government no longer attends. Links with Argentina became severed during the post-war period, with laws being introduced to forbid Argentine citizens from buying land. An alternative trading partner was found in Chile, and over the years, the islands found themselves with closer links to that country, with flights being introduced to Punta Arenas, in the far south of Patagonian Chile, near Tierra del Fuego. In recent years, Argentines have been allowed to visit the islands again, often to visit the military cemeteries where their friends and loved ones are buried. War legacy: Argentine minefield at Port William. Mines continue to be a persistent problem, and though some areas have been cleared, massive minefields are still to be found on both the main islands and elsewhere, particularly in the areas immediately around Stanley. Because peat moves over time, the mines themselves have shifted location. As well as the military build-up, the UK also passed the British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983 which granted full British citizenship to the islanders. High-profile British dignitaries also visited to show British commitment to the islands, including Margaret Thatcher, the Prince of Wales and Princess Alexandra. In 1985, the Falkland Islands Dependency was split into the Falkland Islands proper and a new separate territory of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Relations between the UK and Argentina remained hostile following 1982, and diplomatic relations were not restored until 1989. Although the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution calling for the UK and Argentina to return to negotiations over the Islands' future, A/RES/37/9. Question of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas) the UK ruled out any further talks over the Islands' sovereignty. The UK also maintained an arms embargo against Argentina that was initiated during the 1982 war, which forced Argentine armed forces, a traditional UK buyer, switch to other markets. Relations between the UK and Argentina improved further in the 1990s. In 1998, Carlos Menem, the President of Argentina visited London, where he reaffirmed his country's claims to the Islands, although he stated that Argentina would use only peaceful means for their recovery. In 2001, Tony Blair, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom visited Argentina where he stated that he hoped the UK and Argentina could resolve their differences that led to the 1982 war. However, no talks on sovereignty took place during the visit. His reception in Argentina was more welcoming than that of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1995, who was heckled by the mother of an Argentine soldier killed in the war. Increased British military presence and new bases After the war ended, the British still faced the problem of potential Argentine aggression in the future, so an aircraft carrier had to remain on station to guard the islands with its squadron of Sea Harriers until the local airfield was prepared for jet aircraft. HMS Hermes was the first to take guard duty, whilst HMS Invincible went north to change a gearbox that had broken while departing the mainland UK, the Argentines claimed the aircraft carrier was hit on 30 May, and needed repairs. Invincible then returned to relieve Hermes which urgently needed to return to the UK to have its boilers cleaned. Invincible returned until the ship was relieved by HMS Illustrious, which was quickly rushed south and commissioned during the journey. Once the Port Stanley runway was available for jets, Illustrious was relieved by several RAF Phantoms. The British government later decided to construct a new RAF base as the centrepiece of plans to considerably strengthen the island's defences. This was intended to deter any future Argentine attempts to take the islands by force again. It was a massive undertaking, requiring the construction of the world's longest corridor, a half-mile long, linking barracks, messes and recreational and the welfare areas of the base. Obituary of former commander, British Forces, Falkland Islands, Brig. David Nicholls. The base is occasionally referred to by its residents as the Death Star because of its vast size, and sometimes confusing layout. RAF Mount Pleasant Mount Pleasant, to the west of Stanley, was chosen as the site for the new base. The airfield was opened by The Duke of York in 1985, and became fully operational in 1986. Falkland Islands Government Using the IATA airport code MPN''', RAF Mount Pleasant also acts as the Falkland Islands' only international airport, in addition to its military role. Flights open to civilian passengers are operated twice-weekly. These flights are currently operated by a civilian airline on behalf of the Royal Air Force, and fly to and from RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire, UK with a refuelling stop at RAF Ascension Island in the south-central Atlantic Ocean. Chilean airline LAN Airlines also operate weekly flights from Santiago. In May 2005, some English tabloid newspapers reported that Argentina might be considering another invasion of the Islands. The Sunday Express carried the frontpage headline, "Falklands Invasion Alert" on its 22 May edition, citing an increase in Argentine military activity near the Islands, as well as a reported increase in the British garrison, including a Royal Navy ship allegedly carrying tactical nuclear weapons (the last Royal Navy tactical nuclear weapons were withdrawn in the late 1990s). The only nuclear armed RN vessels in service at the time were the four Vanguard class submarines, which were armed with Trident missiles. Two days later, India Daily published speculation that the islands could be a nuclear flashpoint in the future if Argentina were to gain a nuclear arsenal, citing the findings of an unnamed international thinktank.. Indiadaily.com - Falkland Islands can become a nuclear flashpoint in South/Central America There was no official comment on the stories by the British or Argentine governments, and other writers have denounced the stories as "nonsense" Mercopress - any such invasion would meet with a considerably larger Falklands based British force than in 1982. Attempts at diversifying the economy A squid trawler, and a cruise ship in Port William representing two trends in recent economic development There have been small-scale attempts to diversify the economy of the Falkland Islands since the war, but many of these have failed; instead the island's economy is moving into fishing licences with various foreign interests, which have generated the so-called "Squidocracy". Gold, oil and diamonds have all been found on or near the islands, but have not begun to be exploited. Oil extraction has been considered an environmental risk. Some of the small businesses attempted at Fox Bay have included a market garden, a salmon farm and a knitting mill with "Warrah Knitwear". One of the biggest growth industries has been tourism. The war brought the islands newfound fame, and tourists came both to see the islands' wildlife and go on war tours. Medium-sized cruise ships have started to visit Stanley on a fairly regular basis, frequently as a tie-in to cruises of Antarctica. Nonetheless, the remoteness of the archipelago, and the lack of direct flights to major cities, have made the islands an expensive holiday destination, and as a result mass tourism has not really begun. Conservation In line with the increasing global interest in environmental issues, some nature reserves have been set up around the islands, although there are no national parks. In the 1990s, two of the Jason Islands, Steeple Jason Island and Grand Jason Island, were bought by New York philanthropist Michael Steinhardt, who later donated them to the Bronx Zoo-based Wildlife Conservation Society. Untitled Document He also gave them US$425,000 to build a conservation station named after himself and his wife Judy. Likewise in Sea Lion Island, in 1990, the Clifton family who had owned the island sold it to the Falkland Island Development Company. They had planted 60,000 stands of tussac grass, which was considered important as much of the tussac grass on the two main islands had been depredated by grazing. A similar trend may be seen on Bleaker Island, where the farm "went organic" in 1999. See also Origins of Falkland Islanders Puerto Soledad History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Timeline of the history of the Falkland Islands Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands References External links Falkland Islands History Early history adapted from the ninth edition of an encyclopedia (1879) and other sources.'' Falklands Islands History - timeline 1987 American report by Richard D. Chenette, Lieutenant Commander, USN, laying out the history and background of the disputed claims The History of the Falkland Islands - Chronology Silas Duncan and the Falkland Islands' Incident Historia de las Relaciones Exteriores Argentinas, Obra dirigida por Carlos Escudé y Andrés Cisneros, desarrollada y publicada bajo los auspicious del Consejo Argentino para las Relaciones Internacionales (CARI), GEL/Nuevohacer (Buenos Aires), 2000. 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6,161 | A_Modest_Proposal | A Modest Proposal: For Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Public, commonly referred to as A Modest Proposal, is a Juvenalian satirical essay written and published anonymously by Jonathan Swift in 1729. Swift appears to suggest in his essay that the impoverished Irish might ease their economic troubles by selling children as food for rich gentlemen and ladies. Details Swift goes to great lengths to support his argument, including a list of possible preparation styles for the children, and calculations showing the financial benefits of his suggestion. He uses common methods of argument throughout his essay, such as appealing to the authority of "a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London" and "the famous Psalmanazar, a native of the island Formosa" (who had already confessed to not being from Formosa in 1706). Swift couches his arguments in then-current events, exploiting common prejudice against Catholics (misnomed Papists) and suggesting that it is the absence of "so many good Protestants" (i.e., English landlords) that allows them to hope to surrender the kingdom to the Pretender. After enumerating the benefits of his proposal, Swift addresses possible objections including the depopulation of Ireland and a litany of other solutions which he dismisses as impractical. This essay is widely held to be one of the greatest examples of sustained irony in the history of the English language. Much of its shock value derives from the fact that the first portion of the essay describes the plight of starving beggars in Ireland, so that the reader is unprepared for the surprise of Swift's solution when he states, "A young healthy child well nursed, is, at a year old, a most delicious nourishing and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout." Readers unacquainted with its reputation as a satirical work often do not immediately realize that Swift was not seriously proposing cannibalism and infanticide, nor would readers unfamiliar with the satires of Horace and Juvenal recognize that Swift's essay follows the rules and structure of ancient Roman satires. The satirical element of the pamphlet is often only understood after the reader notes the allusions made by Swift to the attitudes of absentee (often English) landlords, such as the following: "I grant this food may be somewhat dear, and therefore very proper for Landlords, who as they have already devoured most of the Parents, seem to have the best Title to the Children." Swift extends the metaphor to further his critique of England’s mistreatment of Ireland, noting that "For this kind of commodity will not bear exportation, and flesh being of too tender a consistence, to admit a long continuance in salt, although perhaps I could name a country, which would be glad to eat up our whole nation without it." In the tradition of Roman satire, Swift introduces the reforms he is actually suggesting by deriding them: Population solutions It has been argued Wittkowsky, Swift’s Modest Proposal, p76 that Swift’s main target in A Modest Proposal was not the conditions in Ireland, but rather the can-do spirit of the times that led people to devise a number of illogical schemes that would purportedly solve social and economic ills. Swift was especially insulted by projects that tried to fix population and labor issues with a simple cure-all solution. Wittkowsky, Swift’s Modest Proposal, p85 A memorable example of these sorts of schemes "involved the idea of running the poor through a joint-stock company". In response, Swift’s Modest Proposal was "a burlesque of projects concerning the poor", Wittkowsky, Swift’s Modest Proposal, p88 that were in vogue during the early 18th century. A Modest Proposal also targets the calculating way people perceived the poor in designing their projects. The pamphlet targets reformers who "regard people as commodities". Wittkowsky, Swift’s Modest Proposal, p101 In the piece, Swift adopts the "technique of a political arithmetician" Wittkowsky, Swift’s Modest Proposal, p95 to show the utter ridiculousness of trying to prove any proposal with dispassionate statistics. Critics differ about Swift’s intentions in using this faux-mathematical philosophy. Edmund Wilson argues that statistically "the logic of the 'Modest proposal' can be compared with defense of crime (arrogated to Marx) in which he argues that crime takes care of the superfluous population". Wittkowsky counters that Swift's satiric use of statistical analysis is an effort to enhance his satire that "springs from a spirit of bitter mockery, not from the delight in calculations for their own sake". Wittkowsky, Swift’s Modest Proposal, p98 Rhetoric Charles K. Smith argues that Swift’s rhetorical style persuades the reader to detest the speaker and pity the Irish. Swift’s specific strategy is twofold, using a "trap" Lewis 135 to create sympathy for the Irish and a dislike of the narrator who, in the span of one sentence, "details vividly and with rhetorical emphasis the grinding poverty" but feels emotion solely for members of his own class. Smith, Toward a Participatory Rhetoric, p136 Swift’s use of gripping details of poverty and his narrator’s cool approach towards them creates "two opposing points of view" which "alienate the reader, perhaps unconsciously, from a narrator who can view with 'melancholy' detachment a subject that Swift has directed us, rhetorically, to see in a much less detached way". Lewis 136 Swift has his proposer further degrade the Irish by using language ordinarily reserved for animals. Lewis argues that the speaker uses "the vocabulary of animal husbandry" Lewis 138 to describe the Irish. Once the children have been commoditized, Swift’s rhetoric can easily turn "people into animals, then meat, and from meat, logically, into tonnage worth a price per pound". Swift uses the proposer’s serious tone to highlight the absurdity of his proposal. In making his argument, the speaker uses the conventional, text book approved order of argument from Swift’s time. Lewis 139 The contrast between the "careful control against the almost inconceivable perversion of his scheme" and "the ridiculousness of the proposal" create a situation in which the reader has "to consider just what perverted values and assumptions would allow such a diligent, thoughtful, and conventional man to propose so perverse a plan". Possible inspirations Some scholars have argued that A Modest Proposal was largely influenced and inspired by Tertullian’s Apology. While Tertullian’s Apology is a satirical attack against early Roman persecution of Christianity, Swift’s A Modest Proposal addresses the Anglo-Irish situation in the 1720s. James William Johnson believes that Swift saw major similarities between the two situations. Johnson, Tertullian and A Modest Proposal, p563 Johnson notes Swift’s obvious affinity for Tertullian and the bold stylistic and structural similarities between the works A Modest Proposal and Apology. Johnson, Tertullian and A Modest Proposal, p562 In structure, Johnson points out the same central theme; that of cannibalism and the eating of babies; and the same final argument; that "human depravity is such that men will attempt to justify their own cruelty by accusing their victims of being lower than human". Stylistically, Swift and Tertullian share the same command of sarcasm and language. In agreement with Johnson, Donald C. Baker points out the similarity between both authors' tones and use of irony. Baker notes that both authors imply an ironic "justification by ownership" over the subject of sacrificing children—Tertullian while attacking pagan parents, and Swift while attacking the English mistreatment of the Irish poor. Baker, Tertullian and Swift's A Modest Proposal, p219 It has also been argued that A Modest Proposal was, at least in part, a response to the 1728 essay The Generous Projector or, A Friendly Proposal to Prevent Murder and Other Enormous Abuses, By Erecting an Hospital for Foundlings and Bastard Children by Swift's rival Daniel Defoe. Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal is also partially a satire of William Petty's Political Arithmetic from 1691, in which Petty proposed that Ireland's citizens be removed, and that their country be used as a farm for England. Economic themes Robert Phiddian's article "Have you eaten yet? The Reader in A Modest Proposal" focuses on two aspects of A Modest Proposal: the voice of Swift and the voice of the Proposer. Phiddian stresses that a reader of the pamphlet must learn to distinguish between the satiric voice of Jonathan Swift and the apparent economic projections of the Proposer. He reminds readers that "there is a gap between the narrator’s meaning and the text’s, and that a moral-political argument is being carried out by means of parody". Phiddian, Have You Eaten Yet?, p6 While Swift’s proposal is obviously not a serious economic proposal, George Wittkowsky, author of "Swift’s Modest Proposal: The Biography of an Early Georgian Pamphlet", argues that it in order to fully understand the piece, it is important to understand the economics of Swift’s time. Wittowsky argues that not enough critics have taken the time to directly focus on the mercantilism and theories of labor in 18th century England. "[I]f one regards the Modest Proposal simply as a criticism of condition, about all one can say is that conditions were bad and that Swift's irony brilliantly underscored this fact". Phiddian, Have You Eaten Yet?, p3 At the start of a new industrial age in the 18th century, it was believed that "people are the riches of the nation", and there was a general faith in an economy which paid its workers low wages because high wages would mean workers would work less. Phiddian, Have You Eaten Yet?, p4 Furthermore, "in the mercantilist view no child was too young to go into industry". In those times, the "somewhat more humane attitudes of an earlier day had all but disappeared and the laborer had come to be regarded as a commodity". People are the riches of a nation Louis A. Landa presents Swift’s A Modest Proposal as a critique of the popular and unjustified mercantilist maxim in the eighteenth century that "people are the riches of a nation". Landa, A Modest Proposal and Populousness, p161 Swift presents the dire state of Ireland and shows that population did not always mean greater wealth and economy. Landa, A Modest Proposal and Populousness, p165 The uncontrolled maxim fails to take into account that a person who does not produce in an economic or political way makes a country poorer, not richer. Swift also recognizes the implications of such a fact in making mercantilist philosophy a paradox: the wealth of a country is based on the poverty of the majority of its citizens. Landa argues that Swift is not merely criticizing economic maxims. but also addressing the fact that England was denying Irish citizens their natural rights and dehumanizing them, by viewing them as a mere commodity. Modern usage A Modest Proposal is included in many literature programs as an example of early modern western satire. It also serves as an exceptional introduction to the concept and use of argumentative language, lending itself well to secondary and post-secondary essay courses. Outside of the realm of English studies, A Modest Proposal is a relevant piece included in many comparative and global literature and history courses, as well as those of numerous other disciplines in the arts, humanities, and even the social sciences. In his 1984 book A Modest Proposal, evangelical author Franky Schaeffer emulated Swift's work in social conservative polemic against abortion and euthanasia in a future dystopia that advocated recycling of aborted embryos and fetuses, as well as some disabled infants with compound intellectual, physical and physiological difficulties. (Such Baby Doe Rules cases were then a major concern of the pro-life movement of the early 1980s, which viewed selective treatment of those infants as disability discrimination.) In Hunter S. Thompson's Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist, which contains hundreds of private letters written by Thompson over the years, contains a letter in which he uses A Modest Proposal'''s satire technique against the Vietnam War. Thompson writes a letter to a local Aspen newspaper informing them that, on Christmas Eve, he was going to use napalm to burn a number of dogs and hopefully any humans they find. This letter protests the burning of Vietnamese people occurring overseas. Notes References (subscription needed) External links A Modest Proposal (HTML via the University of Oregon) A Modest Proposal (Gutenberg) Free audiobook from LibriVox A Modest Proposal BBC Radio 4 In Our Time'' with Melvyn Bragg | A_Modest_Proposal |@lemmatized modest:34 proposal:41 prevent:2 child:9 poor:5 people:9 ireland:7 burden:1 parent:3 country:5 make:6 beneficial:1 public:1 commonly:1 refer:1 juvenalian:1 satirical:4 essay:8 write:3 publish:1 anonymously:1 jonathan:3 swift:50 appear:1 suggest:3 impoverished:1 irish:8 might:1 ease:1 economic:7 trouble:1 sell:1 food:3 rich:4 gentleman:1 lady:1 detail:3 go:3 great:3 length:1 support:1 argument:7 include:4 list:1 possible:3 preparation:1 style:2 calculation:2 show:3 financial:1 benefit:2 suggestion:1 use:14 common:2 method:1 throughout:1 appeal:1 authority:1 knowing:1 american:1 acquaintance:1 london:1 famous:1 psalmanazar:1 native:1 island:1 formosa:2 already:2 confess:1 couch:1 current:1 event:1 exploit:1 prejudice:1 catholic:1 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6,162 | Breathy_voice | Breathy voice (also called murmured voice, soughing, or susurration) is a phonation in which the vocal cords vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are held further apart, so that a larger volume of air escapes between them. This produces an audible noise. A breathy-voiced phonation (not actually a fricative, as a literal reading of the IPA chart would suggest) can sometimes be heard as an allophone of English /h/ between vowels, e.g. in the word behind, for some speakers. A stop with breathy-voiced release (symbolized either as etc. or as etc.) is like aspiration in that it delays the onset of full voicing. This is the phonation of the Hindi "voiced aspirated stops": bh, dh, ḍh, jh, and gh. Breathy-voiced vowels are written etc. There are several ways to generate breathy-voiced sounds like . One is to hold the vocal cords apart, so that they are lax as they are for , but to increase the volume of airflow so that they vibrate loosely. A second is to bring the vocal cords closer together along their entire length than in voiceless , but not as close as in modally voiced sounds such as vowels. This results in an airflow intermediate between and vowels, and is the case with English intervocalic /h/. A third is to constrict the glottis, but separate the arytenoid cartilages that control one end. This results in the vocal cords being drawn together for voicing in the back, but separated to allow the passage of large volumes of air in the front. This is the situation with Hindi. From the Latin, murmur, a soft-sounded and quiet utterance, often where the speaker does not want to be known. Breathy voice as a phonological property A number of languages use breathy voicing in a phonologically contrastive way. Indic languages, such as Hindi, typically have a four-way contrast among plosives and affricates (voiced, breathy voiced, tenuis, aspirated) and a two-way contrast among nasals (voiced, breathy voiced). The Nguni languages in the southern Bantu languages family, including Phuthi, Xhosa, Zulu, Ndebele and Swati, also have contrastive breathy voice. In the case of Xhosa, there is a four-way contrast analogous to Indic in oral clicks, and similarly a two-way contrast among nasal clicks, but a three-way contrast among plosives and affricates (breathy voiced, aspirated, and ejective), and two-way contrasts among fricatives (voiceless and breathy voiced) and nasals (voiced and breathy voiced). In some Bantu languages, historically breathy-voiced stops have been phonetically devoiced, Traill, Anthony, James S. M. Khumalo and Paul Fridjhon (1987). Depressing facts about Zulu. African Studies 46: 255-274. but the four-way contrast in the system has been retained. In all five of the southeastern Bantu languages named, the breathy voiced stops (even if they are realised phonetically as devoiced aspirates) have a marked tone-lowering (or tone-depressing) effect on the following tautosyllabic vowels. For this reason, such stop consonants are frequently referred to in the local linguistic literature as 'depressor' stops. Swati, and even more so Phuthi, display good evidence that breathy voicing can be used as a morphological property independent of any consonant voicing value. For example, in both languages, the standard morphological mechanism for achieving the morphosyntactic copula is to simply execute the noun prefix syllable as breathy voiced (or 'depressed'). Proto-Indo-European is traditionally reconstructed with a breathy-voiced series of consonants, but no aspirates. This typologically highly unusual situation, attested only in Kelabit in Borneo, has caused historical linguists to look for other possibilities. (See glottalic theory.) See also Aspiration Creaky voice List of phonetics topics Slack voice Whispering References | Breathy_voice |@lemmatized breathy:18 voice:20 also:3 call:1 murmured:1 sough:1 susurration:1 phonation:3 vocal:4 cord:4 vibrate:2 normal:1 modal:1 voicing:5 hold:2 apart:2 large:2 volume:3 air:2 escape:1 produce:1 audible:1 noise:1 actually:1 fricative:2 literal:1 reading:1 ipa:1 chart:1 would:1 suggest:1 sometimes:1 hear:1 allophone:1 english:2 h:2 vowel:5 e:1 g:1 word:1 behind:1 speaker:2 stop:6 voiced:5 release:1 symbolize:1 either:1 etc:3 like:2 aspiration:2 delay:1 onset:1 full:1 hindi:3 aspirated:1 bh:1 dh:1 ḍh:1 jh:1 gh:1 write:1 several:1 way:9 generate:1 sound:3 one:2 lax:1 increase:1 airflow:2 loosely:1 second:1 bring:1 closer:1 together:2 along:1 entire:1 length:1 voiceless:2 close:1 modally:1 result:2 intermediate:1 case:2 intervocalic:1 third:1 constrict:1 glottis:1 separate:2 arytenoid:1 cartilages:1 control:1 end:1 draw:1 back:1 allow:1 passage:1 front:1 situation:2 latin:1 murmur:1 soft:1 quiet:1 utterance:1 often:1 want:1 know:1 phonological:1 property:2 number:1 language:7 use:2 phonologically:1 contrastive:2 indic:2 typically:1 four:3 contrast:7 among:5 plosive:2 affricate:2 tenuis:1 aspirate:4 two:3 nasal:3 nguni:1 southern:1 bantu:3 family:1 include:1 phuthi:2 xhosa:2 zulu:2 ndebele:1 swati:2 analogous:1 oral:1 click:2 similarly:1 three:1 ejective:1 historically:1 phonetically:2 devoice:1 traill:1 anthony:1 james:1 khumalo:1 paul:1 fridjhon:1 depress:2 fact:1 african:1 study:1 system:1 retain:1 five:1 southeastern:1 name:1 even:2 realise:1 devoiced:1 mark:1 tone:2 lowering:1 effect:1 following:1 tautosyllabic:1 reason:1 consonant:3 frequently:1 refer:1 local:1 linguistic:1 literature:1 depressor:1 display:1 good:1 evidence:1 morphological:2 independent:1 value:1 example:1 standard:1 mechanism:1 achieve:1 morphosyntactic:1 copula:1 simply:1 execute:1 noun:1 prefix:1 syllable:1 depressed:1 proto:1 indo:1 european:1 traditionally:1 reconstruct:1 series:1 typologically:1 highly:1 unusual:1 attest:1 kelabit:1 borneo:1 cause:1 historical:1 linguist:1 look:1 possibility:1 see:2 glottalic:1 theory:1 creaky:1 list:1 phonetics:1 topic:1 slack:1 whisper:1 reference:1 |@bigram breathy_voice:12 vocal_cord:4 breathy_voiced:4 aspirated_stop:1 plosive_affricate:2 voice_breathy:3 nasal_click:1 fricative_voiceless:1 proto_indo:1 indo_european:1 creaky_voice:1 phonetics_topic:1 |
6,163 | Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom | The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is the supreme legislative body in the United Kingdom and British overseas territories. It alone has parliamentary sovereignty, conferring upon it ultimate power over all other political bodies in the UK and its territories. At its head is the Sovereign, Queen Elizabeth II. The parliament is bicameral, with an upper house, the House of Lords, and a lower house, the House of Commons. The Queen is the third component of Parliament. http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Parliament/DG_073604 The House of Lords includes three different types of members: the Lords Spiritual (the senior bishops of the Church of England), the Lords Temporal (members of the Peerage), and Law Lords (judges that carry out the House of Lords' judicial responsibilities); its members are not elected by the population at large, but are appointed by the Queen on advice of the Prime Minister. The House of Commons is a democratically elected chamber with elections to it held at least every 5 years. The two Houses meet in separate chambers in the Palace of Westminster (commonly known as the "Houses of Parliament"), in the City of Westminster in London. By constitutional convention, all government ministers, including the Prime Minister, are members of the House of Commons or, less often, the House of Lords, and are thereby technically accountable to the respective branches of the legislature. The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in 1707 following the ratification of the Treaty of Union by both the Parliament of England and Parliament of Scotland passing Acts of Union. However, in practice the parliament was a continuation of the English parliament with the addition of Scottish MPs and peers. The Parliament of England had itself evolved from the early medieval councils that advised the sovereigns of England. England has been called "the mother of parliaments", its democratic institutions having set the standards for many democracies throughout the world, and the United Kingdom parliament is the largest Anglophone legislative body in the world. In theory, supreme legislative power is vested in the Queen-in-Parliament; in practice in modern times, real power is vested in the House of Commons; the Sovereign generally acts on the advice of the Prime Minister and the powers of the House of Lords are limited. History In the Middle Ages and early modern period there were the three separate kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland and these developed separate parliaments. The 1707 Acts of Union brought England and Scotland together under the Parliament of Great Britain, and the 1800 Act of Union included Ireland under the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament of England English parliament in front of the king c. 1300 The English Parliament traces its origins to the Anglo-Saxon . In 1066, William of Normandy brought a feudal system, by which he sought advice of a council of tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics before making laws. In 1215, the tenants-in-chief secured the Magna Carta from King John, which established that the king may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of his royal council, which slowly developed into a parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester summoned the first elected Parliament. The franchise in parliamentary elections for county constituencies was uniform throughout the country, extending to all those who owned the freehold of land to an annual rent of 40 shillings (Forty-shilling Freeholders). In the boroughs, the franchise varied across the country; individual boroughs had varying arrangements. This set the scene for the so-called "Model Parliament" of 1295 adopted by Edward I. By the reign of Edward II, Parliament had been separated into two Houses: one including the nobility and higher clergy, the other including the knights and burgesses, and no law could be made, nor any tax levied, without the consent of both Houses as well as of the Sovereign. The Laws in Wales Acts of 1535–42 annexed Wales as part of England and brought Welsh representatives to Parliament. When Elizabeth I was succeeded in 1603 by the Scottish King James VI, (thus becoming James I of England), the countries both came under his rule but each retained its own Parliament. James I's successor, Charles I, quarrelled with the English Parliament and, after he provoked the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, their dispute developed into the English Civil War. Charles was executed in 1649 and under Oliver Cromwell's Commonwealth of England the House of Lords was abolished, and the House of Commons made subordinate to Cromwell. After Cromwell's death, the Restoration of 1660 restored the monarchy and the House of Lords. Amidst fears of a Roman Catholic succession, the Glorious Revolution of 1688 deposed James II (James VII of Scotland) in favour of the joint rule of Mary II and William III, whose agreement to the English Bill of Rights introduced a constitutional monarchy, though the supremacy of the Crown remained. For the third time, a Convention Parliament, i.e., one not summoned by the king, was required to determine the succession. The Curia Regis in England was a council of tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics that advised the King of England on legislative matters. It replaced its Anglo-Saxon predecessor, the Witenagemot, a popular assembly that developed into a sort of crown council, after the Norman invasion of 1066. Parliament originated in the 1200s, during the reign of John's grandson Edward I. As previous kings, Edward called leading nobles and church leaders to converse government ailments. A meeting in 1295 became known as the Model Parliament because it set the pattern for later Parliaments. In 1307, Edward I agreed not to collect certain taxes without consent of the realm. He also enlarged the court system. The tenants-in-chief often struggled with their spiritual counterparts (Christian Humphreys) and with the King for power. In 1215, they secured from John the Magna Carta, which established that the King may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of a council. It was also established that the most important tenants-in-chief and ecclesiastics be summoned to the council by personal writs from the Sovereign, and that all others be summoned to the council by general writs from the sheriffs of their counties. Modern government has its origins in the Curia Regis; parliament descends from the Great Council later known as the parliamentum established by Magna Carta. The first English Parliament was formed during the reign of King Henry III in the 13th century. In 1265, Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, who was in rebellion against Henry III, summoned a parliament of his supporters without any or prior royal authorisation. The archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls and barons were summoned, as were two knights from each shire and two burgesses from each borough. Knights had been summoned to previous councils, but the representation of the boroughs was unprecedented. De Montfort's scheme was formally adopted by Edward I in the so-called "Model Parliament" of 1295. William of Normandy brought to England the feudal system of his native Normandy, and sought the advice of the curia regis, before making laws. This body is the germ from which Parliament, the higher courts of law, and the Privy Council and Cabinet have sprung. Of these, the legislature is formally the High Court of Parliament; judges sit in the Supreme Court of Judicature; and only the executive government is no longer conducted in a royal court. estate debated independently; by the reign of Edward III, however, Parliament had been separated into two Houses and was assuming recognisably its modern form. Parliament of Scotland Parliament House in Edinburgh, the former home of the Estates of Scotland. From the time of Kenneth mac Alpin, the early Kingdom of Scotland (see Kingdom of Alba) had been ruled by chieftains and kings under the suzerainty of the King of Scots, all offices being filled through election by an assembly under the Gaelic system of tanistry, which combined a hereditary element with the consent of those ruled. After Macbeth was overthrown by Malcolm III in 1057 the feudal system of primogeniture was gradually introduced, as Scotland came increasingly under Norman influence. In the High Middle Ages the King's Council of Bishops and Earls evolved into the unicameral Estates of Parliament of 1235, with the colloquium at Kirkliston (the first meeting of Parliament for which records survive), which had both a political and judicial role. K. Brown and R. Tanner, History of the Scottish Parliament, i, 'introduction'. From 1326 the Three Estates () had clerics, lay tenants-in-chief and the burgh Commissioners (approximately equivalent to early burgesses, later Members of Parliament, in the contemporaneous Parliament of England) sitting in a single chamber, with powers over taxation and a strong influence over justice, foreign policy, war, and legislation. Brown and Tanner, passim; R. Tanner, The Late Medieval Scottish Parliament; K. Brown and A. Mann, History of the Scottish Parliament The Parliament chose a committee called the Lords of the Articles (comparable to a modern select committee) to draft legislation, which was then presented to the full Parliament to be confirmed. R. Rait, 'Parliaments of Scotland' (1928) R. Tanner, 'The Lords of the Articles before 1542', in Scottish Historical Review (2000) Following the Reformation and pressure from the Kirk, Catholic clergy were excluded from 1567, and after Protestant bishops were abolished in 1638 (see Bishops' Wars) the Scottish Parliament became an entirely lay legislature. Rait, Parliaments of Scotland During the reign of James VI, the Lords of the Articles came more under the influence of the Crown, and following his accession to the throne of England in 1603 (see Union of the Crowns) he used them to run Scotland from London. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in the Covenanting period (1638–51) the Scottish Parliament took control of the executive, effectively wresting sovereignty from Charles I. After Scotland was invaded by Oliver Cromwell, his Protectorate government imposed a brief Anglo-Scottish parliamentary union in 1657. The Scottish Parliament returned after the Restoration of Charles II to the thrones of England and Ireland in 1660 (he had already been crowned King of Scots at Scone on 1 January 1651). After the Glorious Revolution formally changed England's monarch in February 1689, William II of Scotland (William III of England) summoned a Convention of the Estates, which considered competing letters from both William and from James VII of Scotland (James II of England), and set out its terms and conditions in the Claim of Right, and duly proclaimed William and Mary II to be the joint monarchs of Scotland, at Edinburgh on 11 April 1689. The Scottish Parliament was reconstituted in 1999; see Scottish Parliament. Parliament of Ireland The Irish House of Commons by Francis Wheatley (1780). The Irish Parliament was founded to represent the English community in the Lordship of Ireland, while the native or Gaelic Irish were ineligible to vote or stand for office, the first known meeting being in 1264. The English presence shrank to an enclave around Dublin known as the Pale. In 1541 Henry VIII declared the Kingdom of Ireland and embarked on the Tudor re-conquest of Ireland. The Gaelic Irish lords were now entitled to attend the Irish Parliament as equals of the majority of English descent. Disputes followed the English Reformation, when most of the population remained Roman Catholic, and in 1613–15 constituencies were fixed so that Protestant settlers held the majority in the Irish Parliament. After the Irish Rebellion of 1641, Catholics were barred from voting or attending the Parliament in the Cromwellian Act of Settlement 1652. Under James II, the Catholics regained ground and during the Jacobite war in Ireland he agreed to the Irish Parliament's demands for autonomy and restitution of lands. After the victory of William III of England these gains were reversed, with the Penal Laws making things worse. Poyning's Law of 1494 had made the Irish Parliament subordinate to the Parliament of England, but the Constitution of 1782 removed these restrictions and about a decade later Catholics gained the right to vote, though they were still barred from membership. Parliament of Great Britain Following the Treaty of Union in 1707, Acts of Union were passed in both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, which created a new Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain based in the former home of the English parliament. All the traditions, procedures, and standing orders of the English parliament were retained, as were the incumbent officers, and English members comprised the overwhelming majority of the new body. It was not even considered necessary to hold a new general election. While Scots law and Scottish legislation remained separate, the legislation was now dealt with by the new parliament. Act of Union 1707, Article 1. After the Hanoverian George I ascended the throne in 1714 through an Act of Parliament, power began to shift from the Sovereign, and by the end of his reign the position of the ministers — who had to rely on Parliament for support — was cemented. Towards the end of the 18th century the monarch still had considerable influence over Parliament, which was dominated by the English aristocracy, by means of patronage, but had ceased to exert direct power: for instance, the last occasion Royal Assent was withheld, was in 1708 by Queen Anne. At general elections the vote was restricted to freeholders and landowners, in constituencies that were out of date, so that in many "rotten boroughs" seats could be bought while major cities remained unrepresented. Reformers and Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the Napoleonic Wars developed the government became repressive against dissent and progress toward reform was stalled. Parliament of the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was created in 1801 by the merger of the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland under the Act of Union. The principle of ministerial responsibility to the lower House did not develop until the 19th century — the House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an antiquated electoral system, under which constituencies of vastly different sizes existed. Thus, the borough of Old Sarum, with seven voters, could elect two members, as could the borough of Dunwich, which had completely disappeared into the sea due to land erosion. In many cases, members of the Upper House also controlled tiny constituencies, known as pocket or rotten boroughs, and could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. Many seats in the House of Commons were "owned" by the Lords. After the reforms of the 19th century, beginning with the Reform Act 1832, the electoral system in the lower House was much more regularised. No longer dependent on the upper House for their seats, members of the House of Commons began to grow more assertive. Modern era Parliament at night, with the London Eye visible in the background. The supremacy of the British House of Commons was established in the early 20th century. In 1909, the Commons passed the so-called "People's Budget", which made numerous changes to the taxation system in a manner detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which consisted mostly of powerful landowners, rejected the Budget. On the basis of the Budget's popularity and the Lords' consequent unpopularity, the Liberal Party narrowly won two general elections in 1910. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith, introduced the Parliament bill, which sought to restrict the powers of the House of Lords. (He did not reintroduce the land tax provision of the People's Budget). When the Lords refused to pass the bill, Asquith countered with a promise extracted from the King in secret before the second general election of 1910 and requested the creation of several hundred Liberal peers so as to erase the Conservative majority in the House of Lords. In the face of such a threat, the House of Lords narrowly passed the bill. The Parliament Act 1911, as it became, prevented the Lords from blocking a money bill (a bill dealing with taxation), and allowed them to delay any other bill for a maximum of three sessions (reduced to two sessions in 1949), after which it could become law over their objections. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 created the parliaments of Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland and reduced the representation of both parts at Westminster (the number of Northern Ireland seats was increased again after the introduction of direct rule in 1973). The Irish Free State became independent in 1922, and in 1927 parliament was renamed as Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Further reforms to the House of Lords have been made during the 20th century. The Life Peerages Act 1958 authorised the regular creation of life peerage dignities. By the 1960s, the regular creation of hereditary peerage dignities had ceased; thereafter, almost all new peers were life peers only. More recently, the House of Lords Act 1999 removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to sit in the Upper House (although it made an exception for 92 of them on a temporary basis, to be elected to life-terms by the other hereditary peers with bi-elections upon their death). The House of Lords is now a chamber that is subordinate to the House of Commons. Composition and powers There are three elements to Parliament: the Crown, the House of Lords, and the House of Commons. These three components are separate from each other; no individual may be a part of more than one component. Members of the House of Lords are legally barred from voting in elections for members of the House of Commons; the Sovereign by convention does not vote, although there is no statutory impediment. As an institution the Crown is still powerful, as Royal Assent is still required for all Bills to become law, through prerogative powers and the appointment of the government. The prerogative powers include among others the abilities to dissolve Parliament, make treaties, declare war, and award honours. In practice these are always exercised by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister and the other ministers of the government. The monarch also chooses the Prime Minister, who then forms a government from members of the houses of parliament. This must be someone who can command a majority in the House of Commons. This is usually a straightforward decision, though occasionally the monarch has to make a judgment, as in the appointment of Alec Douglas-Home in 1963 when it was thought that the incumbent Prime Minister, Harold Macmillan, had contracted a terminal cancer. The Upper House is mostly made up of appointed members ("Lords of Parliament"). The whole House is formally styled The Right Honourable The Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament Assembled, the Lords Spiritual being clergymen of the Church of England and the Lords Temporal being Peers of the Realm. The Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal are considered separate "estates," but they sit, debate and vote together. Since the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, the powers of the House of Lords have been very much less than those of the House of Commons. All bills except money bills are debated and voted upon in House of Lords; however by voting against a bill, the House of Lords can only delay it for a maximum of two parliamentary sessions over a year. After this time, the House of Commons can force the Bill through without the Lords' consent under the Parliament Acts. The House of Lords can also hold the government to account through questions to government ministers and the operation of a small number of select committees. Currently the highest English court is a committee of the House of Lords, but it will shortly become an independent supreme court. The Lords Spiritual formerly included all of the senior clergymen of the Church of England — archbishops, bishops, abbots and priors. Upon the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII the abbots and priors lost their positions in Parliament. All diocesan bishops continued to sit in Parliament, but the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847, and later acts, provide that only the 26 most senior are Lords Spiritual. These always include the incumbents of the "five great sees", namely the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Archbishop of York, the Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham and the Bishop of Winchester. The remaining 21 Lords Spiritual are the most senior diocesan bishops, ranked in order of consecration. The Lords Temporal are all members of the Peerage. Formerly, they were hereditary peers. The right of some hereditary peers to sit in Parliament was not automatic: after Scotland and England united into Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that all peers whose dignities had been created by English Kings could sit in Parliament, but those whose dignities had been created by Scottish Kings were to elect a limited number of "representative peers". A similar arrangement was made in respect of Ireland when that nation merged with Great Britain in 1801, but when southern Ireland left the United Kingdom in 1922 the election of Irish representative peers ceased. By the Peerage Act 1963, the election of Scottish representative peers also ended, and all Scottish peers were granted the right to sit in Parliament. Under the House of Lords Act 1999, only life peerage dignities (that is to say, peerage dignities which cannot be inherited) automatically entitle their holders to seats in the House of Lords. Of the hereditary peers, only 92 — the Earl Marshal, the Lord Great Chamberlain and the 90 elected by other peers — retain their seats in the House. The Commons, the last of the "estates" of the Kingdom, are represented in the House of Commons, which is formally styled The Honourable The Commons in Parliament Assembled (commons coming not from the term commoner, but from , the old French term for a district). The House currently consists of 646 members. Until the 2005 general election, it consisted of 659 members, but the number of Scottish Members was reduced by the Scotland Act 1998. Each "Member of Parliament" or "MP" is chosen by a single constituency according to the First-Past-the-Post electoral system. Universal adult suffrage exists for those 18 and over; citizens of the United Kingdom, and those of the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth nations resident in the United Kingdom are qualified to vote. The term of members of the House of Commons depends on the term of Parliament; a general election, during which all the seats are contested, occurs after each dissolution (see below). All legislation must be passed by the House of Commons to become law and it controls taxation and the supply of money to the government. Government ministers (including the Prime Minister) must regularly answer questions in the House of Commons and there are a number of select committees that scrutinise particular issues and the workings of the government. There are also mechanisms that allow members of the House of Commons to bring to the attention of the government particular issues affecting their constituents. Procedure See also the stages of a bill section in Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom Both houses of the British Parliament are presided over by a speaker, the Speaker of the House for the Commons and the Lord Speaker in the House of Lords. For the Commons, the approval of the Sovereign is theoretically required before the election of the Speaker becomes valid, but it is, by modern convention, always granted. The Speaker's place may be taken by three deputies, known as the Chairman, First Deputy Chairman and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means. (They take their name from the Committee of Ways and Means, of which they were once presiding officers, but which no longer exists.) Prior to July 2006, the House of Lords was presided over by a Lord Chancellor (a Cabinet member), whose influence as Speaker was very limited (whilst the powers belonging to the Speaker of the House of Commons are vast). However, as part of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the position of Speaker of the House of Lords (as it is termed in the Act) was separated from the office of Lord Chancellor, though the Lords remain largely self-governing. Decisions on points of order and on the disciplining of unruly members are made by the whole body in the Upper House, but by the Speaker alone in the Lower House. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole (using the words "My Lords"), but those in the House of Commons are addressed to the Speaker alone (using "Mr Speaker" or "Madam Speaker"). Speeches may be made to both Houses simultaneously. As of March 2008, French President Nicholas Sarkozy was the most recent person to address both Houses. Both Houses may decide questions with voice voting; members shout out "Aye" and "No" in the Commons — or "Content" and "Not-Content" in the Lords —, and the presiding officer declares the result. The pronouncement of either Speaker may be challenged, and a recorded vote (known as a division) demanded. (The Speaker of the House of Commons may choose to overrule a frivolous request for a division, but the Lord Speaker does not have that power). In each House, a division requires members to file into one of the two lobbies alongside the Chamber; their names are recorded by clerks, and their votes are counted as they exit the lobbies to re-enter the Chamber. The Speaker of the House of Commons is expected to be non-partisan, and does not cast a vote except in the case of a tie; the Lord Speaker, however, votes along with the other Lords. Both Houses normally conduct their business in public, and there are galleries where visitors may sit. (For further details on procedure, see the separate articles on the House of Lords and the House of Commons.) Term Following a general election, a new Parliamentary session begins. Parliament is formally summoned 40 days in advance by the Sovereign, who is the source of parliamentary authority. On the day indicated by the Sovereign's proclamation, the two Houses assemble in their respective chambers. The Commons are then summoned to the House of Lords, where Lords Commissioners (representatives of the Sovereign) instruct them to elect a Speaker. The Commons perform the election; on the next day, they return to the House of Lords, where the Lords Commissioners confirm the election and grant the new Speaker the royal approval in the Sovereign's name. The business of Parliament for the next few days of its session involves the taking of the oaths of allegiance. Once a majority of the members has taken the oath in each House, the State Opening of Parliament may occur. The Lords take their seats in the House of Lords Chamber, the Commons appear at the Bar (immediately outside the Chamber), and the Sovereign takes his or her seat on the throne. The Sovereign then reads the Speech from the Throne — the content of which is determined by the Ministers of the Crown — outlining the Government's legislative agenda for the upcoming year. Thereafter, each House proceeds to the transaction of legislative business. By custom, before considering the Government's legislative agenda, a bill is introduced pro forma in each House — the Select Vestries Bill in the House of Lords and the Outlawries Bill in the House of Commons. These bills do not become laws; they are ceremonial indications of the power of each House to debate independently of the Crown. After the pro forma bill is introduced, each House debates the content of the Speech from the Throne for several days. Once each House formally sends its reply to the Speech, legislative business may commence, appointing committees, electing officers, passing resolutions and considering legislation. A session of Parliament is brought to an end by a prorogation. There is a ceremony similar to the State Opening, but much less well-known. Normally, the Sovereign does not personally attend the prorogation ceremony in the House of Lords; he or she is represented by Lords Commissioners. The next session of Parliament begins under the procedures described above, but it is not necessary to conduct another election of a Speaker or take the oaths of allegiance afresh at the beginning of such subsequent sessions. Instead, the State Opening of Parliament proceeds directly. To avoid the delay of opening a new session in the event of an emergency during the long summer recess, Parliament is no longer prorogued beforehand, but only after the Houses have reconvened in the autumn; the State Opening follows a few days later. Each Parliament comes to an end, after a number of sessions, either by the command of the Sovereign or by effluxion of time, the former being more common in modern times. The dissolution of Parliament is effected by the Sovereign, always on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister may seek dissolution because the time is politically advantageous to his or her party. If the Prime Minister loses the support of the House of Commons, he must either resign or seek dissolution of Parliament to renew his or her mandate. Originally there was no fixed limit on the length of a Parliament, but the Triennial Act 1694 set the maximum duration at three years. As the frequent elections were deemed inconvenient, the Septennial Act 1715 extended the maximum to seven years, but the Parliament Act 1911 reduced it to five. During the Second World War, the term was temporarily extended to ten years by Acts of Parliament. Since the end of the war the maximum has remained five years. Modern Parliaments, however, rarely continue for the maximum duration; normally, they are dissolved earlier. For instance, the 52nd, which assembled in 1997, was dissolved after four years. Formerly, the demise of the Sovereign automatically brought a Parliament to an end, the Crown being seen as the (beginning, basis and end) of the body, but this is no longer the case. The first change was during the reign of William and Mary, when it was seen to be inconvenient to have no Parliament at a time when succession to the Crown could be disputed, and an act was passed that provided that a Parliament was to continue for six months after the death of a Sovereign, unless dissolved earlier. (This provision is today contained in the Representation of the People Act 1867.) After each Parliament concludes, the Crown issues writs to hold a general election and elect new members of the House of Commons. Membership of the House of Lords does not change due to dissolution. Each Parliament that assembles following a general election is deemed to be distinct from the one which just concluded, and is separately numbered, the present Parliament being the Fifty-Fourth Parliament of the United Kingdom since the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801. (Previous Parliaments were "of Great Britain" or "of England", "of Scotland" or "of Ireland".) Legislative functions Parliament meets in the Palace of Westminster. Laws can be made by Acts of the United Kingdom Parliament. While Acts can apply to the whole of the UK including Scotland, due to the continuing separation of Scots law many Acts do not apply to Scotland and are either matched by equivalent Acts that apply to Scotland alone or, since 1999, by legislation set by the Scottish Parliament relating to devolved matters. This has led to a paradox known as the West Lothian question. The existence of a devolved Scottish Parliament means that while Westminster MPs from Scotland may vote directly on matters that affect English constituencies, they may not have much power over their laws effecting their own constituency. While any Act of the Scottish Parliament may be overturned, amended or ignored by Westminster, in practice this has yet to happen. Furthermore, the existence of the Legislative Consent Motion enables English MPs to vote on issues nominally devolved to Scotland, as part of United Kingdom legislation. Since there is no devolved "English Parliament", the converse is not true. Laws, in draft form known as bills, may be introduced by any member of either House, but usually a bill is introduced by a Minister of the Crown. A bill introduced by a Minister is known as a "Government Bill"; one introduced by another member is called a "Private Member's Bill". A different way of categorising bills involves the subject. Most bills, involving the general public, are called "Public Bills". A bill that seeks to grant special rights to an individual or small group of individuals, or a body such as a local authority, is called a "Private Bill". A Public Bill which affects private rights (in the way a Private Bill would) is called a "Hybrid Bill". Private Members' Bills make up the majority of bills, but are far less likely to be passed than government bills. There are three methods for an MP to introduce a Private Member's Bill. The Private Members' Ballot (once per Session) put names into a ballot, and those who win are given time to propose a bill. The Ten Minute Rule is another method, where MPs are granted ten minutes to outline the case for a new piece of legislation. Standing Order 57 is the third method, which allows a bill to be introduced without debate if a day's notice is given to the Table Office. Filibustering is a danger, as an opponent to a bill can waste much of the limited time allotted to it. Private Members' Bills have no chance of success if the current government opposes them, but they are used in moral issues: the bills to decriminalise homosexuality and abortion were Private Members' Bills, for example. Governments can sometimes attempt to use Private Members' Bills to pass things it would rather not be associated with. "Handout bills" are bills which a government hands to MPs who win Private Members' Ballots. Each Bill goes through several stages in each House. The first stage, called the first reading, is a formality. At the second reading, the general principles of the bill are debated, and the House may vote to reject the bill, by not passing the motion "That the Bill be now read a second time". Defeats of Government Bills are extremely rare, the last being in 2005. Following the second reading, the bill is sent to a committee. In the House of Lords, the Committee of the Whole House or the Grand Committee are used. Each consists of all members of the House; the latter operates under special procedures, and is used only for uncontroversial bills. In the House of Commons, the bill is usually committed to a Public Bill Committee, consisting of between 16 and 50 members, but the Committee of the Whole House is used for important legislation. Several other types of committees, including Select Committees, may be used, but rarely. A committee considers the bill clause by clause, and reports the bill as amended to the House, where further detailed consideration ("consideration stage" or "report stage") occurs. However, a practice which used to be called the kangaroo (Standing Order 31) allows the Speaker to select which amendments are debated. This device is also used under Standing Order 89 by the committee chairman, to restrict debate in committee. Once the House has considered the bill, the third reading follows. In the House of Commons, no further amendments may be made, and the passage of the motion "That the Bill be now read a third time" is passage of the whole bill. In the House of Lords further amendments to the bill may be moved. After the passage of the third reading motion, the House of Lords must vote on the motion "That the Bill do now pass." Following its passage in one House, the bill is sent to the other House. If passed in identical form by both Houses, it may be presented for the Sovereign's Assent. If one House passes amendments that the other will not agree to, and the two Houses cannot resolve their disagreements, the bill fails. However, since the passage of the Parliament Act 1911 the power of the House of Lords to reject bills passed by the House of Commons has been restricted, and further restrictions were placed by the Parliament Act 1949. If the House of Commons passes a public bill in two successive sessions, and the House of Lords rejects it both times, the Commons may direct that the bill be presented to the Sovereign for his or her Assent, disregarding the rejection of the Bill in the House of Lords. In each case, the bill must be passed by the House of Commons at least one calendar month before the end of the session. The provision does not apply to bills originated in the House of Lords, to bills seeking to extend the duration of a Parliament beyond five years, or to Private Bills. A special procedure applies in relation to bills classified by the Speaker of the House of Commons as "Money Bills". A Money Bill concerns solely national taxation or public funds; the Speaker's certificate is deemed conclusive under all circumstances. If the House of Lords fails to pass a Money Bill within one month of its passage in the House of Commons, the Lower House may direct that the Bill be submitted for the Sovereign's Assent immediately. Even before the passage of the Parliament Acts, the Commons possessed pre-eminence in cases of financial matters. By ancient custom, the House of Lords may not introduce a bill relating to taxation or Supply, nor amend a bill so as to insert a provision relating to taxation or Supply, nor amend a Supply Bill in any way. The House of Commons is free to waive this privilege, and sometimes does so to allow the House of Lords to pass amendments with financial implications. The House of Lords remains free to reject bills relating to Supply and taxation, but may be overruled easily if the bills are Money Bills. (A bill relating to revenue and Supply may not be a Money Bill if, for example, it includes subjects other than national taxation and public funds). The last stage of a bill involves the granting of the Royal Assent. Theoretically, the Sovereign may either grant the Royal Assent (that is, make the bill a law) or withhold it (that is, veto the bill). Under modern conventions the Sovereign always grants the Royal Assent, in the Norman French words "" (the Queen wishes it). The last refusal to grant the Assent was in 1708, when Queen Anne withheld her Assent from a bill "for the settling of Militia in Scotland", in the words "" (the Queen will think it over). Thus, every bill obtains the assent of all three components of Parliament before it becomes law (except where the House of Lords is over-ridden under the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949). The words "BE IT ENACTED by the Queen's [King's] most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:-", or, where the House of Lords' authority has been overridden by use of the Parliament Acts, the words "BE IT ENACTED by The Queen's [King's] most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Commons in this present Parliament assembled, in accordance with the provisions of the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, and by the authority of the same, as follows:-" appear near the beginning of each Act of Parliament. These words are known as the enacting formula. Judicial functions In addition to its legislative functions, Parliament also performs several judicial functions. The Queen-in-Parliament constitutes the highest court in the realm for most purposes, but the Privy Council has jurisdiction in some cases (for instance, appeals from ecclesiastical courts). The jurisdiction of Parliament arises from the ancient custom of petitioning the Houses to redress grievances and to do justice. The House of Commons ceased considering petitions to reverse the judgements of lower courts in 1399, effectively leaving the House of Lords as the court of last resort. In modern times, the judicial functions of the House of Lords are performed not by the whole House, but by a group of "Lords of Appeal in Ordinary" (judges granted life peerage dignities under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 by the Sovereign) and by "Lords of Appeal" (other peers with experience in the judiciary). The Lords of Appeal in Ordinary and Lords of Appeal (or "Law Lords") are members of the House of Lords, but normally do not vote or speak on political matters. In the late 19th century, Acts allowed for the appointment of Scottish Lords of Appeal in Ordinary and ended appeal in Scottish criminal matters to the House of Lords, so that the High Court of Justiciary became the highest criminal court in Scotland. Nowadays the House of Lords legislative committee usually has a minimum of two Scottish Judges to ensure that some experience of Scots law is brought to bear on Scottish appeals in civil cases, from the Court of Session. Certain other judicial functions have historically been performed by the House of Lords. Until 1948, it was the body in which peers had to be tried for felonies or high treason; now, they are tried by normal juries. When the House of Commons impeaches an individual, the trial takes place in the House of Lords. Impeachments are now rare; the last one occurred in 1806. In 2006, a number of MPs attempted to revive the custom, having signed a motion for the impeachment of Tony Blair, but this was unsuccessful. Relationship with the Government The British Government is answerable to the House of Commons. However, neither the Prime Minister nor members of the Government are elected by the House of Commons. Instead, the Queen requests the person most likely to command the support of a majority in the House, normally the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, to form a government. So that they may be accountable to the Lower House, the Prime Minister and most members of the Cabinet are, by convention, members of the House of Commons. The last Prime Minister to be a member of the House of Lords was Alec Douglas-Home, 14th Earl of Home, who became Prime Minister in 1963. To adhere to the convention under which he was responsible to the Lower House, he disclaimed his peerage and procured election to the House of Commons within days of becoming Prime Minister. Governments have a tendency to dominate the legislative functions of Parliament, by using their in-built majority in the House of Commons, and sometimes using their patronage power to appoint supportive peers in the Lords. In practice, governments can pass any legislation (within reason) in the Commons they wish, unless there is major dissent by MPs in the governing party. But even in these situations, it is highly unlikely a bill will be defeated, though dissenting MPs may be able to extract concessions from the government. In 1976, Lord Hailsham created a now widely used name for this behaviour, in an academic paper called "elective dictatorship". Parliament controls the executive by passing or rejecting its Bills and by forcing Ministers of the Crown to answer for their actions, either at "Question Time" or during meetings of the parliamentary committees. In both cases, Ministers are asked questions by members of their Houses, and are obliged to answer. Although the House of Lords may scrutinise the executive through Question Time and through its committees, it cannot bring down the Government. A ministry must always retain the confidence and support of the House of Commons. The Lower House may indicate its lack of support by rejecting a Motion of Confidence or by passing a Motion of No Confidence. Confidence Motions are generally originated by the Government in order to reinforce its support in the House, whilst No Confidence Motions are introduced by the Opposition. The motions sometimes take the form "That this House has [no] confidence in Her Majesty's Government" but several other varieties, many referring to specific policies supported or opposed by Parliament, are used. For instance, a Confidence Motion of 1992 used the form, "That this House expresses the support for the economic policy of Her Majesty's Government." Such a motion may theoretically be introduced in the House of Lords, but, as the Government need not enjoy the confidence of that House, would not be of the same effect as a similar motion in the House of Commons; the only modern instance of such an occurrence involves the 'No Confidence' motion that was introduced in 1993 and subsequently defeated. Many votes are considered votes of confidence, although not including the language mentioned above. Important bills that form part of the Government's agenda (as stated in the Speech from the Throne) are generally considered matters of confidence. The defeat of such a bill by the House of Commons indicates that a Government no longer has the confidence of that House. The same effect is achieved if the House of Commons "withdraws Supply", that is, rejects the budget. Where a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister is obliged either to resign, or seek the dissolution of Parliament and a new general election. Where a Prime Minister has ceased to retain a majority in that vote and requests a dissolution, the Sovereign can in theory reject his request, forcing his resignation and allowing the Leader of the Opposition to be asked to form a new government. This power is used extremely rarely. The conditions that should be met to allow such a refusal are known as the Lascelles Principles. These conditions and principles are merely informal conventions; it is possible, though highly improbable, for the Sovereign to refuse dissolution for no reason at all. In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the Government is very weak. Since the first-past-the-post electoral system is employed in elections, the governing party tends to enjoy a large majority in the Commons; there is often limited need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. In many cases, MPs may be expelled from their parties for voting against the instructions of party leaders. During the 20th century, the Government has lost confidence issues only three times — twice in 1924, and once in 1979. Sovereignty Parliament Buildings, Stormont, Northern Ireland is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly Several different views have been taken of Parliament's sovereignty. According to the jurist Sir William Blackstone, "It has sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making, confirming, enlarging, restraining, abrogating, repealing, reviving, and expounding of laws, concerning matters of all possible denominations, ecclesiastical, or temporal, civil, military, maritime, or criminal … it can, in short, do every thing that is not naturally impossible." A different view has been taken by the Scottish judge Lord Cooper of Culross. When he decided the 1953 case of MacCormick v. Lord Advocate as Lord President of the Court of Session, he stated, "The principle of unlimited sovereignty of Parliament is a distinctively English principle and has no counterpart in Scottish constitutional law." He continued, "Considering that the Union legislation extinguished the Parliaments of Scotland and England and replaced them by a new Parliament, I have difficulty in seeing why the new Parliament of Great Britain must inherit all the peculiar characteristics of the English Parliament but none of the Scottish." Nevertheless, he did not give a conclusive opinion on the subject. Thus, the question of Parliamentary sovereignty appears to remain unresolved. Parliament has not passed any Act defining its own sovereignty. Parliament's power has often been eroded by its own Acts. Acts passed in 1921 and 1925 granted the Church of Scotland complete independence in ecclesiastical matters. More recently, its power has been restricted by membership of the European Union, which has the power to make laws enforceable in each member state. In the Factortame case, the European Court of Justice ruled that UK courts could have powers to overturn UK legislation contravening EU law. Parliament has also created national devolved assemblies with legislative authority in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Parliament still has the power over areas for which responsibility lies with the devolved institutions, but would gain the agreement of those institutions to act on their behalf. Similarly, it has granted the power to make regulations to Ministers of the Crown, and the power to enact religious legislation to the General Synod of the Church of England. (Measures of the General Synod and, in some cases proposed statutory instruments made by ministers, must be approved by both Houses before they become law.) In every case aforementioned, authority has been conceded by Act of Parliament and may be taken back in the same manner. It is entirely within the authority of Parliament, for example, to abolish the devolved governments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland or to leave the EU. However, Parliament also revoked its legislative competence over Australia and Canada with the Australia and Canada Acts: although the UK Parliament could pass an Act reversing its action, it would not take effect in Australia or Canada as the competence of the Imperial Parliament is no longer recognised there in law. One well-recognised exception to Parliament's power involves binding future Parliaments. No Act of Parliament may be made secure from amendment or repeal by a future Parliament. For example, although the Act of Union 1800 states that the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland are to be united "forever", Parliament permitted southern Ireland to leave the UK in 1922. Privileges Each House of Parliament possesses and guards various ancient privileges. The House of Lords relies on inherent right. In the case of the House of Commons, the Speaker goes to the Lords' Chamber at the beginning of each new Parliament and requests representatives of the Sovereign to confirm the Lower House's "undoubted" privileges and rights. The ceremony observed by the House of Commons dates to the reign of King Henry VIII. Each House is the guardian of its privileges, and may punish breaches thereof. The extent of parliamentary privilege is based on law and custom. Sir William Blackstone states that these privileges are "very large and indefinite", and cannot be defined except by the Houses of Parliament themselves. The foremost privilege claimed by both Houses is that of freedom of speech in debate; nothing said in either House may be questioned in any court or other institution outside Parliament. Another privilege claimed is that of freedom from arrest; at one time this was held to apply for any arrest except for high treason, felony or breach of the peace but it now excludes any arrest on criminal charges; it applies during a session of Parliament, and 40 days before or after such a session. Members of both Houses are no longer privileged from service on juries. Both Houses possess the power to punish breaches of their privilege. Contempt of Parliament — for example, disobedience of a subpoena issued by a committee — may also be punished. The House of Lords may imprison an individual for any fixed period of time, but an individual imprisoned by the House of Commons is set free upon prorogation. The punishments imposed by either House may not be challenged in any court, and the Human Rights Act does not apply. Human Rights Act 1998, section 6(3). Emblem The crowned portcullis The portcullis on a British one penny coin The quasi-official emblem of the Houses of Parliament is a crowned portcullis. The portcullis was originally the badge of various English noble families from the 14th century. It went on to be adopted by the kings of the Tudor dynasty in the 1500s, under whom the Palace of Westminster became the regular meeting place of Parliament. The crown was added to make the badge a specifically royal symbol. The portcullis probably first came to be associated with the Palace of Westminster through its use as decoration in the rebuilding of the Palace after the fire of 1512. However, at the time it was only one of many symbols. The widespread use of the portcullis throughout the Palace dates from the nineteenth century, when Charles Barry and Augustus Pugin used it extensively as a decorative feature in their designs for the new Palace built following the disastrous 1834 fire. The crowned portcullis came to be accepted during the 20th century as the emblem of both houses of parliament. This was simply a result of custom and usage rather than a specific decision. The emblem now appears on official stationery, publications and papers, and is stamped on various items in use in the Palace of Westminster, such as cutlery, silverware and china. The Portcullis (factsheet), House of Commons Information Office, November 2007 See also Hansard History of democracy List of Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom Parliament List of British Governments List of British ministries List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom List of Parliaments of Great Britain List of Parliaments of the United Kingdom MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005 Parliamentary agents Parliamentary Brief Parliamentary records of the United Kingdom References Notes Sources Blackstone, Sir William. (1765). Commentaries on the Laws of England. Oxford: Clarendon Press. K. M. Brown and R. J. Tanner, The History of the Scottish Parliament volume 1: Parliament and Politics, 1235-1560 (Edinburgh, 2004) Davies, M. (2003). Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords, 19th ed. Farnborough, Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron. (1896). Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third, 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co. "Parliament." (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press. R. Rait, The Parliaments of Scotland (Glasgow, 1924) R. J. Tanner, 'The Lords of the Articles before 1540: a reassesment', Scottish Historical Review, LXXIX (October 2000) External links United Kingdom Parliament. Official website. The Parliamentary Archives of the United Kingdom. Official website. History of Parliament. Official website. The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV. Provides online viewing of debates in The House of Lords, House of Commons and Westminster Hall debates. In addition, committee meetings can be viewed live or viewed from beginning to end. Using a 56k dial up connection streamed debates can be followed, though with erratic video and sound prone to disruption. The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). "A–Z of Parliament." International Association of Business and Parliament - UK Parliament Scheme Information links to Government, political parties and statistics. The Guardian. (2005). "Special Report: House of Commons." The Guardian. (2005). "Special Report: House of Lords." 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6,164 | Caffeine | Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid that acts as a psychoactive stimulant drug. Caffeine was discovered by a German chemist, Friedrich Ferdinand Runge, in 1819. He coined the term "kaffein", a chemical compound in coffee, which in English became caffeine. caffeine - Definitions from Dictionary.com Caffeine is also part of the chemical mixtures and insoluble complexes guaranine found in guarana, mateine found in mate, and theine found in tea; all of which contain additional alkaloids such as the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine, and often other chemicals such as polyphenols which can form insoluble complexes with caffeine. Caffeine is found in varying quantities in the beans, leaves, and fruit of some plants, where it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants. It is most commonly consumed by humans in infusions extracted from the cherries of the coffee plant and the leaves of the tea bush, as well as from various foods and drinks containing products derived from the kola nut. Other sources include yerba mate, guarana berries, and the Yaupon Holly. In humans, caffeine is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant, having the effect of temporarily warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness. Beverages containing caffeine, such as coffee, tea, soft drinks and energy drinks enjoy great popularity. Caffeine is the world's most widely consumed psychoactive substance, but unlike many other psychoactive substances it is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration lists caffeine as a "Multiple Purpose Generally Recognized as Safe Food Substance". Caffeine has diuretic properties, at least when administered in sufficient doses to subjects who do not have a tolerance for it. Regular users, however, develop a strong tolerance to this effect, and studies have generally failed to support the common notion that ordinary consumption of caffeinated beverages contributes significantly to dehydration. Really? The Claim: Caffeine Causes Dehydration The New York Times (Review article) (Placebo controlled randomized clinical trial) Occurrence Roasted coffee beans, the world's primary source of caffeine Caffeine is found in many plant species, where it acts as a natural pesticide, with high caffeine levels being reported in seedlings that are still developing foliages, but are lacking mechanical protection; caffeine paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding upon the plant. High caffeine levels have also been found in the surrounding soil of coffee bean seedlings. It is therefore understood that caffeine has a natural function as both a natural pesticide and as an inhibitor of seed germination of other nearby coffee seedlings thus giving it a better chance of survival. The most commonly used caffeine-containing plants are coffee, tea, and to a lesser extent cocoa. Less commonly used sources of caffeine include the yerba maté and guarana plants, which are sometimes used in the preparation of teas and energy drinks. Two of caffeine's alternative names, mateine and guaranine, are derived from the names of these plants. . Generally translated as mateine in articles written in English Some yerba mate enthusiasts assert that mateine is a stereoisomer of caffeine, which would make it a different substance altogether. This is not true because caffeine is an achiral molecule, and therefore has no enantiomers; nor does it have other stereoisomers. The disparity in experience and effects between the various natural caffeine sources could be due to the fact that plant sources of caffeine also contain widely varying mixtures of other xanthine alkaloids, including the cardiac stimulants theophylline and theobromine and other substances such as polyphenols which can form insoluble complexes with caffeine. The world's primary source of caffeine is the coffee "bean" (which is actually the seed of the coffee plant), from which coffee is brewed. Caffeine content in coffee varies widely depending on the type of coffee bean and the method of preparation used; even beans within a given bush can show variations in concentration. In general, one serving of coffee ranges from 40 milligrams, for a single shot (30 milliliters) of arabica-variety espresso, to about 100 milligrams for a cup (120 milliliters) of drip coffee. Generally, dark-roast coffee has less caffeine than lighter roasts because the roasting process reduces the bean's caffeine content. Arabica coffee normally contains less caffeine than the robusta variety. Coffee also contains trace amounts of theophylline, but no theobromine. Tea is another common source of caffeine. Although tea contains more caffeine than coffee, a typical serving contains much less, as tea is normally brewed much weaker. Besides strength of the brew, growing conditions, processing techniques and other variables also affect caffeine content. Certain types of tea may contain somewhat more caffeine than other teas. Tea contains small amounts of theobromine and slightly higher levels of theophylline than coffee. Preparation and many other factors have a significant impact on tea, and color is a very poor indicator of caffeine content. Teas like the pale Japanese green tea gyokuro, for example, contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like lapsang souchong, which has very little. Caffeine is also a common ingredient of soft drinks such as cola, originally prepared from kola nuts. Soft drinks typically contain about 10 to 50 milligrams of caffeine per serving. By contrast, energy drinks such as Red Bull can start at 80 milligrams of caffeine per serving. The caffeine in these drinks either originates from the ingredients used or is an additive derived from the product of decaffeination or from chemical synthesis. Guarana, a prime ingredient of energy drinks, contains large amounts of caffeine with small amounts of theobromine and theophylline in a naturally occurring slow-release excipient. Chocolate derived from cocoa contains a small amount of caffeine. The weak stimulant effect of chocolate may be due to a combination of theobromine and theophylline as well as caffeine. Chocolate contains too little of these compounds for a reasonable serving to create effects in humans that are on par with coffee. A typical 28-gram serving of a milk chocolate bar has about as much caffeine as a cup of decaffeinated coffee. In recent years various manufacturers have begun putting caffeine into shower products such as shampoo and soap, claiming that caffeine can be absorbed through the skin. However, the effectiveness of such products has not been proven, and they are likely to have little stimulatory effect on the central nervous system because caffeine is not readily absorbed through the skin. Various manufacturers market caffeine tablets, claiming that using caffeine of pharmaceutical quality improves mental alertness. These effects have been borne out by research that shows that caffeine use (whether in tablet form or not) results in decreased fatigue and increased attentiveness. These tablets are commonly used by students studying for their exams and by people who work or drive for long hours. History A coffeehouse in Palestine, circa 1900 Main articles: History of cocoa, History of coffee, Origin and history of tea Humans have consumed caffeine since the Stone Age. Early peoples found that chewing the seeds, bark, or leaves of certain plants had the effects of easing fatigue, stimulating awareness, and elevating one's mood. Only much later was it found that the effect of caffeine was increased by steeping such plants in hot water. Many cultures have legends that attribute the discovery of such plants to people living many thousands of years ago. According to one popular Chinese legend, the Emperor of China Shennong, reputed to have reigned in about 3000 BC, accidentally discovered that when some leaves fell into boiling water, a fragrant and restorative drink resulted. Chow p. 19–20 (Czech edition); also Arcimovicova p. 9, Evans p. 2 and others Shennong is also mentioned in Lu Yu's Cha Jing, a famous early work on the subject of tea. The history of coffee has been recorded as far back as the ninth century. During that time, coffee beans were available only in their native habitat, Ethiopia. A popular legend traces its discovery to a goatherder named Kaldi, who apparently observed goats that became elated and sleepless at night after browsing on coffee shrubs and, upon trying the berries that the goats had been eating, experienced the same vitality. The earliest literary mention of coffee may be a reference to Bunchum in the works of the 9th century Persian physician al-Razi. In 1587, Malaye Jaziri compiled a work tracing the history and legal controversies of coffee, entitled "Undat al safwa fi hill al-qahwa". In this work, Jaziri recorded that one Sheikh, Jamal-al-Din al-Dhabhani, mufti of Aden, was the first to adopt the use of coffee in 1454, and that in the 15th century the Sufis of Yemen routinely used coffee to stay awake during prayers. Towards the close of the 16th century, the use of coffee was recorded by a European resident in Egypt, and about this time it came into general use in the Near East. The appreciation of coffee as a beverage in Europe, where it was first known as "Arabian wine," dates from the 17th century. During this time "coffee houses" were established, the first being opened in Constantinople and Venice. In Britain, the first coffee houses were opened in London in 1652, at St Michael's Alley, Cornhill. They soon became popular throughout Western Europe, and played a significant role in social relations in the 17th and 18th centuries. The kola nut, like the coffee berry and tea leaf, appears to have ancient origins. It is chewed in many West African cultures, individually or in a social setting, to restore vitality and ease hunger pangs. In 1911, kola became the focus of one of the earliest documented health scares when the US government seized 40 barrels and 20 kegs of Coca-Cola syrup in Chattanooga, Tennessee, alleging that the caffeine in its drink was "injurious to health". On March 13, 1911, the government initiated The United States v. Forty Barrels and Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola, hoping to force Coca-Cola to remove caffeine from its formula by making claims, such as that the excessive use of Coca-Cola at one girls' school led to "wild nocturnal freaks, violations of college rules and female proprieties, and even immoralities." Although the judge ruled in favor of Coca-Cola, two bills were introduced to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1912 to amend the Pure Food and Drug Act, adding caffeine to the list of "habit-forming" and "deleterious" substances which must be listed on a product's label. The earliest evidence of cocoa use comes from residue found in an ancient Mayan pot dated to 600 BC. In the New World, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called xocoatl, often seasoned with vanilla, chile pepper, and achiote. Xocoatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is probably attributable to the theobromine and caffeine content. Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cocoa beans were often used as currency. Xocoatl was introduced to Europe by the Spaniards and became a popular beverage by 1700. They also introduced the cacao tree into the West Indies and the Philippines. It was used in alchemical processes, where it was known as Black Bean. The leaves and stems of the Yaupon Holly (Ilex vomitoria) were used by Native Americans to brew a tea called Asi or the Black Drink the use of which among Native American groups archaeologists have demonstrated to stretch back far into antiquity, possibly dating to Late Archaic times. Synthesis and properties Anhydrous (dry) USP-grade caffeine In 1819, the German chemist Friedrich Ferdinand Runge isolated relatively pure caffeine for the first time. According to Runge, he did this at the behest of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. In 1827, Oudry isolated "theine" from tea, but it was later proved by Mulder and Jobat that theine was the same as caffeine. The structure of caffeine was elucidated near the end of the 19th century by Hermann Emil Fischer, who was also the first to achieve its total synthesis. Nobel Prize Presentation Speech by Professor Hj. Théel, President of the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences on December 10, 1902. This was part of the work for which Fischer was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1902. The nitrogen atoms are all essentially planar (in sp2 orbital hybridisation), resulting in the caffeine molecule having aromatic character. Being readily available as a byproduct of decaffeination, caffeine is not usually synthesized. If desired, it may be synthesized from dimethylurea and malonic acid. Pharmacology Global consumption of caffeine has been estimated at 120,000 tonnes per annum, making it the world's most popular psychoactive substance. This number equates to one serving of a caffeine beverage for every person, per day. Caffeine is a central nervous system and metabolic stimulant, and is used both recreationally and medically to reduce physical fatigue and restore mental alertness when unusual weakness or drowsiness occurs. Caffeine stimulates the central nervous system first at the higher levels, resulting in increased alertness and wakefulness, faster and clearer flow of thought, increased focus, and better general body coordination, and later at the spinal cord level at higher doses. Once inside the body, it has a complex chemistry, and acts through several mechanisms as described below. Metabolism and half-life Caffeine is metabolized in the liver into three primary metabolites: paraxanthine (84%), theobromine (12%), and theophylline (4%) Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the stomach and small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and then distributed throughout all tissues of the body. It is eliminated by first-order kinetics. Caffeine can also be ingested rectally, evidenced by the formulation of suppositories of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine (for the relief of migraine) and chlorobutanol and caffeine (for the treatment of hyperemesis). The half-life of caffeine—the time required for the body to eliminate one-half of the total amount of caffeine—varies widely among individuals according to such factors as age, liver function, pregnancy, some concurrent medications, and the level of enzymes in the liver needed for caffeine metabolism. In healthy adults, caffeine's half-life is approximately 4.9 hours. In women taking oral contraceptives this is increased to 5–10 hours, and in pregnant women the half-life is roughly 9–11 hours. Caffeine can accumulate in individuals with severe liver disease, increasing its half-life up to 96 hours. In infants and young children, the half-life may be longer than in adults; half-life in a newborn baby may be as long as 30 hours. Other factors such as smoking can shorten caffeine's half-life. Fluvoxamine reduced the apparent oral clearance of caffeine by 91.3%, and prolonged its elimination half-life by 11.4-fold (from 4.9 hours to 56 hours). Drug Interaction: Caffeine Oral and Fluvoxamine Oral Medscape Multi-Drug Interaction Checker Caffeine is metabolized in the liver by the cytochrome P450 oxidase enzyme system (specifically, the 1A2 isozyme) into three metabolic dimethylxanthines, which each have their own effects on the body: Paraxanthine (84%): Has the effect of increasing lipolysis, leading to elevated glycerol and free fatty acid levels in the blood plasma. Theobromine (12%): Dilates blood vessels and increases urine volume. Theobromine is also the principal alkaloid in cocoa, and therefore chocolate. Theophylline (4%): Relaxes smooth muscles of the bronchi, and is used to treat asthma. The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism. Each of these metabolites is further metabolized and then excreted in the urine. Mechanism of action Caffeine's principal mode of action is as an antagonist of adenosine receptors in the brain. Like alcohol and nicotine, caffeine readily crosses the blood–brain barrier that separates the bloodstream from the interior of the brain. Once in the brain, the principal mode of action is as an antagonist of adenosine receptors. The caffeine molecule is structurally similar to adenosine, and binds to adenosine receptors on the surface of cells without activating them (an "antagonist" mechanism of action). Therefore, caffeine acts as a competitive inhibitor. Adenosine is found in every part of the body, because it plays a role in the fundamental ATP-related energy metabolism, but it has special functions in the brain. There is a great deal of evidence that concentrations of brain adenosine are increased by various types of metabolic stress including anoxia and ischemia. The evidence also indicates that brain adenosine acts to protect the brain by suppressing neural activity and by increasing blood flow. Thus, caffeine, by counteracting adenosine, has a generally disinhibitory effect on brain activity. It has not been shown, however, how these effects cause increases in arousal and alertness. Adenosine is released in the brain through a complex mechanism. There is evidence that adenosine functions as a synaptically released neurotransmitter in some cases, but stress-related adenosine increases appear to be produced mainly by extracellular metabolism of ATP. It is not likely that adenosine is the primary neurotransmitter for any group of neurons, but rather that it is released together with other transmitters by a number of neuron types. Unlike most neurotransmitters, adenosine does not seem to be packaged into vesicles that are released in a voltage-controlled manner, but the possibility of such a mechanism has not been completely ruled out. Several classes of adenosine receptors have been described, with different anatomical distributions. A1 receptors are widely distributed, and act to inhibit calcium uptake. A2A receptors are heavily concentrated in the basal ganglia, an area that plays a critical role in behavior control, but can be found in other parts of the brain as well, in lower densities. There is evidence that A 2A receptors interact with the dopamine system, which is involved in reward and arousal. (A2A receptors can also be found on arterial walls and blood cell membranes.) Beyond its general neuroprotective effects, there are reasons to believe that adenosine may be more specifically involved in control of the sleep-wake cycle. Robert McCarley and his colleagues have argued that accumulation of adenosine may be a primary cause of the sensation of sleepiness that follows prolonged mental activity, and that the effects may be mediated both by inhibition of wake-promoting neurons via A1 receptors, and activation of sleep-promoting neurons via indirect effects on A2A receptors. More recent studies have provided additional evidence for the importance of A2A, but not A1, receptors. Some of the secondary effects of caffeine are probably caused by actions unrelated to adenosine. Caffeine is known to be a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme cAMP-phosphodiesterase (cAMP-PDE), which converts cyclic AMP (cAMP) in cells to its noncyclic form, thus allowing cAMP to build up in cells. Cyclic AMP participates in activation of protein kinase A (PKA) to begin the phosphorylation of specific enzymes used in glucose synthesis. By blocking its removal caffeine intensifies and prolongs the effects of epinephrine and epinephrine-like drugs such as amphetamine, methamphetamine, or methylphenidate. Increased concentrations of cAMP in parietal cells causes an increased activation of protein kinase A (PKA) which in turn increases activation of H+/K+ ATPase, resulting finally in increased gastric acid secretion by the cell. Cyclic AMP also increases the activity of the funny current, which directly increases heart rate. Metabolites of caffeine also contribute to caffeine's effects. Paraxanthine is responsible for an increase in the lipolysis process, which releases glycerol and fatty acids into the blood to be used as a source of fuel by the muscles. Theobromine is a vasodilator that increases the amount of oxygen and nutrient flow to the brain and muscles. Theophylline acts as a smooth muscle relaxant that chiefly affects bronchioles and acts as a chronotrope and inotrope that increases heart rate and efficiency. Caffeine has a significant effect on spiders, which is reflected in the construction of their webs. Effects when taken in moderation The precise amount of caffeine necessary to produce effects varies from person to person depending on body size and degree of tolerance to caffeine. It takes less than an hour for caffeine to begin affecting the body and a mild dose wears off in three to four hours. Consumption of caffeine does not eliminate the need for sleep, it only temporarily reduces the sensation of being tired throughout the day. With these effects, caffeine is an ergogenic, increasing the capacity for mental or physical labor. A study conducted in 1979 showed a 7% increase in distance cycled over a period of two hours in subjects who consumed caffeine compared to control subjects. Other studies attained much more dramatic results; one particular study of trained runners showed a 44% increase in "race-pace" endurance, as well as a 51% increase in cycling endurance, after a dosage of 9 milligrams of caffeine per kilogram of body weight. Additional studies have reported similar effects. Another study found 5.5 milligrams of caffeine per kilogram of body mass resulted in subjects cycling 29% longer during high intensity circuits. Caffeine citrate has proven to be of short and long term benefit in treating the breathing disorders of apnea of prematurity and bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants. The only short term risk associated with caffeine citrate treatment is a temporary reduction in weight gain during the therapy, and longer term studies (18 to 21 months) have shown lasting benefits of treatment of premature infants with caffeine. While relatively safe for humans, caffeine is considerably more toxic to some other animals such as dogs, horses, and parrots due to a much poorer ability to metabolize this compound. Caffeine has a much more significant effect on spiders, for example, than most other drugs do. Noever, R., J. Cronise, and R. A. Relwani. 1995. Using spider-web patterns to determine toxicity. NASA Tech Briefs 19(4):82. Published in New Scientist magazine, 29 April 1995. Caffeine relaxes the internal anal sphincter muscles and thus should be avoided by those with fecal incontinence. Fecal incontinence, NIH Tolerance and withdrawal + Caffeine content of select common food and drugs. Product Serving size Caffeine per serving (mg) Caffeine per litre (mg) Caffeine tablet (regular strength) 1 tablet 100 — Caffeine tablet (extra strength) 1 tablet 200 — Excedrin tablet 1 tablet 65 — Hershey's Special Dark 31 — Hershey's milk chocolate 10 — Brewed coffee 80–135 386–652 Drip coffee 115–175 555–845 Coffee, decaffeinated 5 24 Coffee, espresso 100 1691–2254 Coffee, Starbucks 240 650-700 Tea, leaf or bag 50 281 Green tea 30 169 Coca-Cola Classic 34 96 Mountain Dew 54.5 154 Jolt Cola 280 402 Red Bull 80 320 XS Energy Drink 83 332 Monster Energy 160 338 Mother Energy Drink 160 320 V Energy Drink 77.5 310 Wired X344 344 727 Buckfast Tonic Wine 281 375 NOS 343 528 Because caffeine is primarily an antagonist of the central nervous system's receptors for the neurotransmitter adenosine, the bodies of individuals who regularly consume caffeine adapt to the continual presence of the drug by substantially increasing the number of adenosine receptors in the central nervous system. This increase in the number of the adenosine receptors makes the body much more sensitive to adenosine, with two primary consequences. First, the stimulatory effects of caffeine are substantially reduced, a phenomenon known as a tolerance adaptation. Second, because these adaptive responses to caffeine make individuals much more sensitive to adenosine, a reduction in caffeine intake will effectively increase the normal physiological effects of adenosine, resulting in unwelcome withdrawal symptoms in tolerant users. Other research questions the idea that up-regulation of adenosine receptors is responsible for tolerance to the locomotor stimulant effects of caffeine, noting, among other things, that this tolerance is insurmountable by higher doses of caffeine (it should be surmountable if tolerance was due to an increase in receptors), and that the increase in adenosine receptor number is modest and does not explain the large tolerance which develops to caffeine. Caffeine tolerance develops very quickly, especially among heavy coffee and energy drink consumers. Complete tolerance to sleep disruption effects of caffeine develops after consuming 400 mg of caffeine 3 times a day for 7 days. Complete tolerance to subjective effects of caffeine was observed to develop after consuming 300 mg 3 times per day for 18 days, and possibly even earlier. Caffeine - A Drug of Abuse? In another experiment, complete tolerance of caffeine was observed when the subject consumed 750–1200 mg per day while incomplete tolerance to caffeine has been observed in those that consume more average doses of caffeine. Information About Caffeine Dependence Because adenosine, in part, serves to regulate blood pressure by causing vasodilation, the increased effects of adenosine due to caffeine withdrawal cause the blood vessels of the head to dilate, leading to an excess of blood in the head and causing a headache and nausea. Reduced catecholamine activity may cause feelings of fatigue and drowsiness. A reduction in serotonin levels when caffeine use is stopped can cause anxiety, irritability, inability to concentrate and diminished motivation to initiate or to complete daily tasks; in extreme cases it may cause mild depression. Together, these effects have come to be known as a "crash". Health risks of Stimulants, healthandgoodness.com Withdrawal symptoms—possibly including headache, irritability, an inability to concentrate, drowsiness, insomnia and pain in the stomach, upper body, and joints —may appear within 12 to 24 hours after discontinuation of caffeine intake, peak at roughly 48 hours, and usually last from one to five days, representing the time required for the number of adenosine receptors in the brain to revert to "normal" levels, uninfluenced by caffeine consumption. Analgesics, such as aspirin, can relieve the pain symptoms, as can a small dose of caffeine. Most effective is a combination of both an analgesic and a small amount of caffeine. This is not the only case where caffeine increases the effectiveness of a drug. Caffeine makes pain relievers 40% more effective in relieving headaches and helps the body absorb headache medications more quickly, bringing faster relief. For this reason, many over-the-counter headache drugs include caffeine in their formula. It is also used with ergotamine in the treatment of migraine and cluster headaches as well as to overcome the drowsiness caused by antihistamines. Overuse In large amounts, and especially over extended periods of time, caffeine can lead to a condition known as caffeinism. Caffeinism usually combines caffeine dependency with a wide range of unpleasant physical and mental conditions including nervousness, irritability, anxiety, tremulousness, muscle twitching (hyperreflexia), insomnia, headaches, respiratory alkalosis, and heart palpitations. Furthermore, because caffeine increases the production of stomach acid, high usage over time can lead to peptic ulcers, erosive esophagitis, and gastroesophageal reflux disease. There are four caffeine-induced psychiatric disorders recognized by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition: caffeine intoxication, caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, caffeine-induced sleep disorder, and caffeine-related disorder not otherwise specified (NOS). Caffeine intoxication An acute overdose of caffeine, usually in excess of about 300 milligrams, dependent on body weight and level of caffeine tolerance, can result in a state of central nervous system over-stimulation called caffeine intoxication, colloquially "caffeine jitters". The symptoms of caffeine intoxication are not unlike overdoses of other stimulants. It may include restlessness, nervousness, excitement, insomnia, flushing of the face, increased urination, gastrointestinal disturbance, muscle twitching, a rambling flow of thought and speech, irritability, irregular or rapid heart beat, and psychomotor agitation. In cases of much larger overdoses mania, depression, lapses in judgment, disorientation, disinhibition, delusions, hallucinations and psychosis may occur, and rhabdomyolysis (breakdown of skeletal muscle tissue) can be provoked. In cases of extreme overdose, death can result. The median lethal dose (LD50) given orally, is 192 milligrams per kilogram in rats. The LD50 of caffeine in humans is dependent on weight and individual sensitivity and estimated to be about 150 to 200 milligrams per kilogram of body mass, roughly 80 to 100 cups of coffee for an average adult taken within a limited time frame that is dependent on half-life. Though achieving lethal dose with caffeine would be exceptionally difficult with regular coffee, there have been reported deaths from overdosing on caffeine pills, with serious symptoms of overdose requiring hospitalization occurring from as little as 2 grams of caffeine. An exception to this would be taking a drug such as fluvoxamine which blocks the liver enzyme responsible for the metabolism of caffeine, thus increasing the central effects and blood concentrations of caffeine dramatically at 5-fold. It is not contraindicated, but highly advisable to minimize the intake of caffeinated beverages, as drinking one cup of coffee will have the same effect as drinking five under normal conditions. Death typically occurs due to ventricular fibrillation brought about by effects of caffeine on the cardiovascular system. Treatment of severe caffeine intoxication is generally supportive, providing treatment of the immediate symptoms, but if the patient has very high serum levels of caffeine then peritoneal dialysis, hemodialysis, or hemofiltration may be required. Anxiety and sleep disorders Two infrequently diagnosed caffeine-induced disorders that are recognized by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) are caffeine-induced sleep disorder and caffeine-induced anxiety disorder, which can result from long-term excessive caffeine intake. In the case of caffeine-induced sleep disorder, an individual regularly ingests high doses of caffeine sufficient to induce a significant disturbance in his or her sleep, sufficiently severe to warrant clinical attention. In some individuals, the large amounts of caffeine can induce anxiety severe enough to necessitate clinical attention. This caffeine-induced anxiety disorder can take many forms, from generalized anxiety to panic attacks, obsessive-compulsive symptoms, or even phobic symptoms. Because this condition can mimic organic mental disorders, such as panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, or even schizophrenia, a number of medical professionals believe caffeine-intoxicated people are routinely misdiagnosed and unnecessarily medicated when the treatment for caffeine-induced psychosis would simply be to stop further caffeine intake. A study in the British Journal of Addiction concluded that caffeinism, although infrequently diagnosed, may afflict as many as one person in ten of the population. Parkinson's disease Several large studies have shown that caffeine intake is associated with a reduced risk of developing Parkinson's disease (PD) in men, but studies in women have been inconclusive. Cafeine may protect against parkinsons disease, Scientific American The mechanism by which caffeine affects PD remains a mystery. In animal models, researchers have shown that caffeine can prevent the loss of dopamine-producing nerve cells seen in Parkinson's Disease, but researchers still do not know how this occurs. Effects on memory and learning An array of studies found that caffeine could have nootropic effects, inducing certain changes in memory and learning. However, the tests performed contradict one another and the results have proven inconsistent and inconclusive. Researchers have found that long-term consumption of low dose caffeine slowed hippocampus-dependent learning and impaired long-term memory in mice. Caffeine consumption for 4 weeks also significantly reduced hippocampal neurogenesis compared to controls during the experiment. The conclusion was that long-term consumption of caffeine could inhibit hippocampus-dependent learning and memory partially through inhibition of hippocampal neurogenesis. . In another study, caffeine was added to rat neurons in vitro. The dendritic spines (a part of the brain cell used in forming connections between neurons) taken from the hippocampus (a part of the brain associated with memory) grew by 33% and new spines formed. After an hour or two, however, these cells returned to their original shape. Another study showed that subjects—after receiving 100 milligrams of caffeine—had increased activity in brain regions located in the frontal lobe, where a part of the working memory network is located, and the anterior cingulate cortex, a part of the brain that controls attention. The caffeinated subjects also performed better on the memory tasks. However, a different study showed that caffeine could impair short term memory and increase the likelihood of the tip of the tongue phenomenon. The study allowed the researchers to suggest that caffeine could aid short-term memory when the information to be recalled is related to the current train of thought, but also to hypothesize that caffeine hinders short-term memory when the train of thought is unrelated. In essence, caffeine consumption increases mental performance related to focused thought while it may decrease broad-range thinking abilities. Effects on the heart Caffeine binds to receptors on the surface of heart muscle cells which leads to an increase in the level of cAMP inside the cells (by blocking the enzyme that degrades cAMP), mimicking the effects of epinephrine (which binds to receptors on the cell that activate cAMP production). cAMP acts as a "second messenger," and activates a large number of protein kinase A (PKA; cAMP-dependent protein kinase). This has the overall effect of increasing the rate of glycolysis and increases the amount of ATP available for muscle contraction and relaxation. According to one study, caffeine in the form of coffee, significantly reduces the risk of heart disease in epidemiological studies. However, the protective effect was found only in participants who were not severely hypertensive (i.e. patients that are not suffering from a very high blood pressure). Furthermore, no significant protective effect was found in participants aged less than 65 years or in cerebrovascular disease mortality for those aged equal or more than 65 years. Effects on children Scientific studies contradict the common belief that caffeine consumption causes stunted growth in children. Children also can experience the same effects from caffeine as adults. Most energy drinks (containing extremely high amounts of caffeine) have been banned in many schools throughout the world. Caffeine intake during pregnancy Despite its widespread use and the conventional view that it is a safe substance, a 2008 study suggested that pregnant women who consume 200 milligrams or more of caffeine per day have about twice the miscarriage risk as women who consume none. However, another 2008 study found no correlation between miscarriage and caffeine consumption. The UK Food Standards Agency has recommended that pregnant women should limit their caffeine intake to less than 200 mg of caffeine a day – the equivalent of two cups of instant coffee or a half to two cups of fresh coffee. Food Standards Agency publishes new caffeine advice for pregnant women Study: Caffeine may boost miscarriage riskBy Danielle Dellorto - January 21, 2008 - CNN The FSA noted that the design of the studies made it impossible to be certain that the differences were due to caffeine per se, instead of other lifestyle differences possibly associated with high levels of caffeine consumption, but judged the advice to be prudent. Dr De-Kun Li of Kaiser Permanente Division of Research, writing in the American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, concluded that an intake of 200 milligrams or more per day, representing two or more cups, "significantly increases the risk of miscarriage". Kaiser Permanente Study Shows Newer, Stronger Evidence that Caffeine During Pregnancy Increases Miscarriage Risk However, Dr. David Savitz, a professor in community and preventive medicine at New York's Mount Sinai School of Medicine and lead author of the other new study on the subject published in the January issue of Epidemiology, found no link between miscarriage and caffeine consumption. Genetics and effects on health A 2006 study by Dr. Ahmed El-Sohemy at the University of Toronto discovered a link between a gene affecting caffeine metabolism and the effects of coffee on health. Heavy coffee drinkers with slow caffeine metabolism at increased risk of nonfatal MI March 7, 2006 Michael O'Riordan - theheart.org by WebMD Coffee, CYP1A2 genotype, and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA. 2006 Mar 8;295(10):1135-41. PMID: 16522833 PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE Some people have a gene to metabolize caffeine more slowly, and for them drinking large quantities of coffee was found to increase the risk of myocardial infarction. For rapid metabolizers, however, coffee seemed to have a preventative effect. Slow and fast metabolizers are comparably common in the general population, and this has been blamed for the wide variation in studies of the health effects of caffeine. Decaffeination Caffeine extraction is an important industrial process and can be performed using a number of different solvents. Benzene, chloroform, trichloroethylene and dichloromethane have all been used over the years but for reasons of safety, environmental impact, cost and flavor, they have been superseded by the following main methods: Water extraction Coffee beans are soaked in water. The water, which contains many other compounds in addition to caffeine and contributes to the flavor of coffee, is then passed through activated charcoal, which removes the caffeine. The water can then be put back with the beans and evaporated dry, leaving decaffeinated coffee with a good flavor. Coffee manufacturers recover the caffeine and resell it for use in soft drinks and over-the-counter caffeine tablets. Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction Supercritical carbon dioxide is an excellent nonpolar solvent for caffeine, and is safer than the organic solvents that are otherwise used. The extraction process is simple: CO2 is forced through the green coffee beans at temperatures above 31.1 °C and pressures above 73 atm. Under these conditions, CO2 is in a "supercritical" state: it has gaslike properties which allow it to penetrate deep into the beans but also liquid-like properties which dissolve 97–99% of the caffeine. The caffeine-laden CO2 is then sprayed with high pressure water to remove the caffeine. The caffeine can then be isolated by charcoal adsorption (as above) or by distillation, recrystallization, or reverse osmosis. Extraction by organic solvents Organic solvents such as ethyl acetate present much less health and environmental hazard than previously used chlorinated and aromatic solvents. Another method is to use triglyceride oils obtained from spent coffee grounds. Religion Some Latter-day Saints (Mormons), Seventh-day Adventists, Church of God (Restoration) adherents, and Christian Scientists do not consume caffeine. A few followers from these religions believe that God is opposed to the use of all non-medical psychoactive substances. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has said the following with regard to caffeinated beverages: “With reference to cola drinks, the Church has never officially taken a position on this matter, but the leaders of the Church have advised, and we do now specifically advise, against the use of any drink containing harmful habit-forming drugs under circumstances that would result in acquiring the habit. Any beverage that contains ingredients harmful to the body should be avoided.” (Priesthood Bulletin, Feb. 1972, p. 4.) See also Word of Wisdom. Gaudiya Vaishnava Hindus generally also abstain from caffeine, as it is alleged to cloud the mind and over-stimulate the senses. To be initiated under a guru, one must have had no caffeine (along with alcohol, nicotine and other drugs) for at least a year. See also How to determine caffeine in decaffeinated coffee by NIR spectroscopy References External links General information How Stuff Works: "How Caffeine Works" Erowid Caffeine Vaults Highly Caffeinated: The Caffeine Information Archive" National Geographic January 2005: Caffeine Caffeine Zone: Social and Medical info on caffeine and its effects. Naked Scientists Online: Why do plants make caffeine? The Physician and Sportsmedicine: Caffeine: A User's Guide The Consumers Union Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs, Caffeine-Part 1 Part 2 Coffee: A Little Really Does Go a Long Way, NPR, September 28, 2006 Does coffee really give you a buzz? by John Triggs in the Daily Express April 17 2007 Caffeine: ChemSub Online How much caffeine is in your daily habit? (Caffeine content in common foods and drinks) by Mayo Clinic Staff October 2007 News Alcohol and Drugs History Society: Caffeine news page National Post: Caffeine linked to psychiatric disorders Caffeine Withdrawal Recognized as a Disorder Health Is Caffeine a Health Hazard? eMedicine Caffeine-Related Psychiatric Disorders Protects brain from Alzheimer's? | Caffeine |@lemmatized caffeine:238 bitter:2 white:1 crystalline:1 xanthine:2 alkaloid:4 act:11 psychoactive:5 stimulant:9 drug:17 discover:3 german:2 chemist:2 friedrich:2 ferdinand:2 runge:3 coin:1 term:11 kaffein:1 chemical:4 compound:4 coffee:61 english:2 become:5 definition:1 dictionary:1 com:2 also:25 part:11 mixture:2 insoluble:3 complex:5 guaranine:2 find:20 guarana:4 mateine:4 mate:3 theine:3 tea:22 contain:16 additional:3 cardiac:2 theophylline:10 theobromine:11 often:3 polyphenols:2 form:8 vary:2 quantity:2 bean:14 leaf:7 fruit:1 plant:14 natural:5 pesticide:3 paralyze:1 kill:2 certain:6 insect:2 feed:2 commonly:4 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6,165 | Wu_Xing | In many traditional Chinese theory field, matters and its developmental movement stage can be classified into the Wu Xing (), or the Five Movements, Five Phases or Five Steps/Stages, traditionally translated as Five Elements. The Wu Xing are chiefly an ancient mnemonic device for systems with five stages; hence the preferred translation of "movements", "phases" or "steps" over "elements", and Mu is Tree rather than Wood. The movements are: Wood (Chinese: 木, pinyin: mù) Fire (Chinese: 火, pinyin: huǒ) Earth (Chinese: 土, pinyin: tǔ) Metal (Chinese: 金, pinyin: jīn) Water (Chinese: 水, pinyin: shuǐ) The system of five phases was used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. It was employed as a device in many fields of early Chinese thought, including seemingly disparate fields such as geomancy or Feng shui, astrology, traditional Chinese medicine, music, military strategy and martial arts. The system is still used as a reference in some forms of complementary and alternative medicine and martial arts. Some claim the original foundation of these are the concept of the Five Cardinal Points. Cycles The doctrine of five phases describes two cycles, a generating or creation (生, shēng) cycle, also known as "mother-son", and an overcoming or destruction (克/剋, kè) cycle, also known as "grandfather-nephew", of interactions between the phases. Generating The common memory jogs, which help to remind in what order the phases are, are: Wood feeds Fire; Fire creates/produces Earth (ash); Earth bears Metal; Metal carries Water (as in a bucket or tap, or water condenses on metal); Water nourishes Wood. Other common words for this cycle include "begets", "engenders" and "mothers." Overcoming Wood parts Earth (such as roots); Earth absorbs (or muddies) Water; Water quenches Fire; Fire melts Metal; Metal chops Wood. Also: Wood absorbs Water; Water rusts Metal; Metal breaks up Earth; Earth smothers Fire; Fire burns Wood. This cycle might also be called "controls", "restrains" or "fathers". Another illustration of the cycle. Cosmology and feng shui According to Wu Xing theory, the structure of the cosmos mirrors the five phases. Each phase has a complex series of associations with different aspects of nature, as can be seen in the following table. In the ancient Chinese form of geomancy known as Feng Shui practitioners all based their art and system on the five phases (Wu Xing). All of these phases are represented within the Ba gua. Associated with these phases are colors, seasons and shapes; all of which are interacting with each other. [ http://www.northernshaolinacademy.com/new/docs/FiveElementsChart.xls Chinese Five Elements Chart]Information on the Chinese Five Elements from Northern Shaolin Academy in Microsoft Excel 2003 Format Based on a particular directional energy flow from one phase to the next, the interaction can be expansive, destructive, or exhaustive. With proper knowledge of such aspect of energy flow will enable the Feng Shui practitioner to apply certain cures or rearrangement of energy in a way they believe to be beneficial for the receiver of the Feng Shui "Treatment." Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal WaterColor Green Red Yellow White Black or Blue Direction east south center west north Planet Jupiter Mars Saturn Venus Mercury Heavenly creature Azure Dragon青龍 or 蒼龍 Vermilion Bird朱雀 Yellow Dragon or Yellow Qilin黃龍 or 黃麟 White Tiger白虎 Black Tortoise玄武 Heavenly Stems 甲, 乙 丙, 丁 戊, 己 庚, 辛 壬, 癸Phase New Yang Full Yang Yin/Yang balance New Yin Full YinEnergyGenerative Expansive Stabilizing Contracting Conserving Season Spring Summer Change of seasons (Every third month) Autumn WinterClimateWindy Hot Damp Dry ColdDevelopment Sprouting Blooming Ripening Withering Dormant Livestock dog sheep/goat cattle chicken pig Fruit plum apricot jujube (dates) peach chestnut Grain wheat beans rice hemp millet Ba gua The movements have also been correlated to the eight trigrams of the I Ching: Movement Metal Earth Wood Wood Water Fire Earth Metal I Ching Heaven Earth Thunder Wind Water Fire Mountain Lake Trigrams☰ 乾 qián☷ 坤 kūn☳ 震 zhèn☴ 巽 xùn ☵ 坎 kǎn ☲ 離 lí☶ 艮 gèn☱ 兌 duì Chinese medicine Five Chinese Elements - Diurnal Cycle The interdependence of Zang Fu networks in the body was noted to be a circle of five things, and so mapped by the Chinese doctors onto the five phases. For instance, the Liver (Wood phase) is said to be the "mother" of the heart (Fire phase), and the Kidneys (Water phase) the mother of the Liver. The key observation was things like kidney deficiency affecting the function of the liver. In this case, the "mother" is weak, and cannot support the child. However, the Kidneys control the heart along the Ke cycle, so the Kidneys are said to restrain the heart. Many of these interactions can nowadays be linked to known physiological pathways (such as Kidney pH affecting heart activity). The key thing to keep in mind with the Chinese medical application of the five elements is that it is only a model, and it is known to have exceptions. However, in general the device seems to be useful for arriving at good clinical results, so they were kept by the critically thinking Chinese medical doctors and researchers since they were first introduced. The citation order of the Five Phases, i.e., the order in which they are cited in the Bo Hu Tong and other Han dynasty texts, is Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth. The organs are most effectively treated, according to theory, in the following four-hour periods throughout the day, beginning with the 3 a.m. to 7 a. m. period: Metal organs (see the list below), Earth organs, Fire1 organs, Water organs, Fire2 (the "non-empirical" Pericardium and Triple Burner organs), and Wood organs, which is the reverse of the citation order (plus an extra use of Fire and the non-empirical organs to take care of the sixth four-hour period of the day). These two orders are further related to the sequence of the planets going outward from the sun (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, or Water, Metal, Fire, Wood, and Earth) by a star diagram similar to the one shown above. See 5 Xing in Citation Order. The sequence of the five elements（Traditional Chinese medicine）：promotion,inhibition,Cheng (bullying),Wu(insult) promotion inhibition Cheng wu Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal Water Planet Jupiter Mars Saturn Venus Mercury Mental Quality Sensitivity Creativity Clarity Intuition Spontaneity Emotion anger happy anxiety grief, sadness fear, scare Zang (yin organs) liver heart/pericardium spleen/pancreas lung kidney Fu (yang organs) gall bladder small intestine/San Jiao stomach large intestine urinary bladder Sensory organ eye tongue Mouth nose ears Body Part Tendons Pulse Muscle Skin Bones Body Fluid Tears Sweat Saliva Mucus Urine Finger index finger middle finger thumb ring finger little finger Sense sight speech taste smell hearing Taste sour bitter sweet pungent salty Smell Rancid Scorched Fragrant Rotten Putrid Life birth youth adulthood old age death Celestial stem Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal WaterHeavenly Stem Jia 甲 Yi 乙 Bing 丙 Ding 丁 Wu 戊 Ji 己 Geng 庚 Xin 辛 Ren 壬 Gui 癸Year ends with 4, 5 6, 7 8, 9 0, 1 2, 3 Music The Yuèlìng chapter (月令篇) of the Lǐjì (禮記) and the Huáinánzǐ (淮南子) make the following correlations: Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal WaterColour Green Red Yellow White Blue Direction east south center west north The Chinese Five-note Scale jué 角 (mi) zhǐ 徵 (so) gōng 宮 (do) shāng 商 (re) yǔ 羽 (la) (Notes: The Chinese word 青 qīng, has many meanings, including green, azure, cyan, and black. It refers to green in Wu Xing. In most modern music, various seven note or five note scales (e.g., the major scale) are defined by selecting seven or five frequencies from the set of twelve semi-tones in the Equal tempered tuning. The Chinese "lǜ" tuning is closest to the ancient Greek tuning of Pythagoras. See Chinese musicology.) Martial arts Taijiquan Taijiquan uses the five elements to designate different directions, positions or footwork patterns. Either forward, backward, left, right and centre, or three steps forward (attack) and two steps back (retreat). The Five Steps (五步 wǔ bù): Chin Pu (進步 jìn bù) - Forward step. T'ui Pu (退步 tùi bù) - Backward step. Tsuo Ku (左顧 (simpl.: 左顾) zǔo gù) - Left step. You P'an (右盼 yòu pàn) - Right step. Chung Ting (中定 zhōng dìng) - The central position, balance, equilibrium. Xingyiquan Xingyiquan uses the five elements to metaphorically represent five different states of combat. Movement Fist Chinese Pinyin Description Wood Crushing 崩 Bēng To collapse, as a building collapsing in on itself. Fire Pounding 炮 Pào Exploding outward like a cannon while blocking. Earth Crossing 橫 Héng Crossing across the line of attack while turning over. Metal Splitting 劈 Pī To split like an axe chopping up and over. Water Drilling 鑽 Zuān Drilling forward horizontally like a geyser. See also Qi Zang Fu Bibliography Feng Youlan (Yu-lan Fung), A History of Chinese Philosophy, volume 2, p. 13 Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, volume 2, pp. 262-23 Maciocia, G. 2005, The Foundations of Chinese Medicine, 2nd edn, Elsevier Ltd., London References External links Acupuncture Text Book Corrections Corrections to English translation errors in textbooks Five Elements Malaysia I Ching Net Five Element Information Five Element interrelationships, concordances and causative factors. Chinese Zodiac Chart Find your Chinese Zodiac sign based on your date of birth. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) A model of transition from the traditional elements The sequence of the five elements | Wu_Xing |@lemmatized many:4 traditional:5 chinese:27 theory:3 field:3 matter:1 developmental:1 movement:11 stage:3 classify:1 wu:8 xing:6 five:29 phase:17 step:9 traditionally:1 translate:1 element:14 chiefly:1 ancient:3 mnemonic:1 device:3 system:4 hence:1 preferred:1 translation:2 mu:1 tree:1 rather:1 wood:19 木:1 pinyin:6 mù:1 fire:18 火:1 huǒ:1 earth:18 土:1 tǔ:1 metal:18 金:1 jīn:1 water:16 水:1 shuǐ:1 use:5 describe:2 interaction:4 relationship:1 phenomenon:1 employ:1 early:1 thought:1 include:3 seemingly:1 disparate:1 geomancy:2 feng:6 shui:5 astrology:1 medicine:6 music:3 military:1 strategy:1 martial:3 art:4 still:1 reference:2 form:2 complementary:1 alternative:1 claim:1 original:1 foundation:2 concept:1 cardinal:1 point:1 cycle:9 doctrine:1 two:3 generating:1 creation:1 生:1 shēng:1 also:6 know:5 mother:5 son:1 overcoming:1 destruction:1 克:1 剋:1 kè:1 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6,166 | Demographics_of_Canada | Population of Canada, Data of FAO, year 2006 and Statistics Canada, July 2008 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. This article is about the demographic features of the population of Canada, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Population of Canada: 31,612,895 (2006 Census). Population of Canada: 33,659,172 (Current estimates 2009). Provinces and territories Rank Name and flag Abbr Population Percentage of national pop. Land area (km²) Population density Seats in House of Commons 1 ON 38.8% 13.90 106 2 QC 23.4% 5.63 75 3 BC 13.2% 4.70 36 4 AB 10.5% 5.38 28 5 MB 3.6% 2.14 14 6 SK 3.0% 1.67 14 7 NS 2.8% 17.49 11 8 NB 2.3% 10.48 10 9 NL 1.5% 1.35 7 10 PE 0.4% 24.41 4 11 NT 0.1% 0.037 1 12 NU 0.1% 0.016 1 13 YT 0.1% 0.065 1 Total 100% 3.61 308 Sources: Statistics Canada Metropolitan areas Cities Age structure Age structure of Canadian population, 2001 (2006 Census) Males Females Age Group Number Per cent Number Per cent 0-4 864,600 2.7% 825,940 2.6% 5-9 926,855 2.9% 882,520 2.8% 10-14 1,065,860 3.3% 1,014,060 3.2% 15-19 1,095,285 3.5% 1,045,205 3.3% 20-24 1,047,950 3.3% 1,032,435 3.3% 25-29 975,945 3.1% 1,009,635 3.2% 30-34 987,730 3.1% 1,032,515 3.3% 35-39 1,083,495 3.4% 1,124,780 3.6% 40-44 1,285,535 4.1% 1,324,925 4.2% 45-49 1,290,125 4.1% 1,330,470 4.2% 50-54 1,158,970 3.7% 1,198,330 3.8% 55-59 1,026,395 3.2% 1,058,230 3.3% 60-64 780,135 2.5% 809,730 2.6% 65-69 593,810 1.9% 640,770 2.0% 70-74 493,460 1.6% 560,320 1.8% 75-79 386,485 1.2% 493,095 1.6% 80-84 251,420 0.8% 395,285 1.3% 85+ 161,930 0.5% 358,680 1.1% Totals 15,475,970 49.0% 16,136,930 51.0% Median age total: 39.5 years male: 38.6 years female: 40.4 years (2006) Median age by province and territory, 2006 Census Nova Scotia: 41.8 Newfoundland and Labrador: 41.7 New Brunswick: 41.5 Quebec: 41.0 British Columbia: 40.8 Prince Edward Island: 40.8 Ontario: 39.0 Saskatchewan: 38.7 Yukon: 38.4 Manitoba: 38.1 Alberta: 36.0 Northwest Territories: 31.2 Nunavut: 23.1 Total: 39.5 Sources: Statistics Canada Population growth rates Population by province and territory, 2006 and 2001 censuses, 5 year real population growth/decline, percentage population change from 2001 to 2006 and each jurisdiction's percent population of the total population of Canada as of the 2006 Census (sorted by real population growth (or decline) descending) Jurisdiction20062001Growth% Change% TOTALOntario6.638.47Alberta10.610.40Quebec4.323.87British Columbia5.313.01Manitoba2.63.63Nova Scotia0.62.89Northwest Territories11.00.13Nunavut10.20.09Yukon5.90.09Prince Edward Island0.40.43New Brunswick0.12.31Newfoundland and Labrador-1.51.60Saskatchewan-1.12.96TOTAL5.4100.00 Derived from: Statistics Canada - (table) Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, 2006 and 2001 Censuses - 100% Data Last modified (by source): N/A Compiled/added to Wikipedia: 2007-07-22 Vital statistics Birth rate: 10.28 births/1,000 population (2009 est.) Death rate: 7.61 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.) Net migration rate: 5.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2009 est.) Sex ratio: at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.78 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2009 est.) Infant mortality rate: 5.04 deaths/1,000 live births (2009 est.) total population: 81.23 years male: 78.69 years female: 83.91 years (2009 est.) Total fertility rate: 1.58 children born/woman (2009 est.) CIA - The World Factbook -- Canada Ethnicity Nationality: noun: Canadian(s) adjective: Canadian Ethnic origin Canadians were able to self-identify one or more ethnic origins in the 2001 census. It should be noted that percentages may therefore add up to more than 100%. The most common response was 'Canadian'. Since the term 'Canadian' is as much an expression of citizenship as of ethnicity, these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethnocultural ancestries. Single responses: 22.77% of respondents gave a single response of 'Canadian', while a further 16.65% identified with both 'Canadian', and one or more other ancestries. 4.99% of respondents gave a single response of English, 3.58% gave a single response of French, 3.16% gave a single response of Chinese, 2.45% gave a single response of Italian, 2.38% gave a single response of German, 2.05% gave a single response of Scottish, 1.96% gave a single response of East Indian, 1.68% gave a single response of Irish, 1.54% gave a single response of North American Indian, 1.10% gave a single response of Ukrainian and 1.07% gave a single response of Dutch (Netherlands). Multiple responses: Counting both single and multiple responses, the most commonly identified ethnic origins were (2006): Ethnic origin%Canadian32.22%English21.03%French18.82%Scottish15.11%Irish13.94%German10.18%Italian4.63%Chinese4.31%North American Indian4.01%Ukrainian3.87%Dutch (Netherlands)3.31%Polish3.15%East Indian3.08%Russian1.60%Welsh1.41%Filipino1.40%Norwegian1.38%Portuguese1.32%Métis1.31%Swedish1.07%Latin American1.04%Hungarian1.01%Jewish1.01% The same data is also grouped more geographically by Statistics Canada as follows: Ethnocultural Portrait of Canada Highlight Tables, 2006 Census 2006 %2001 %North American40.21%British Isles33.64%French15.89%Western European12.78%Eastern European8.50%Southern European7.87% 2006 %2001 %East and Southeast Asian6.03%Aboriginal4.45%South Asian3.25%Northern European3.22%Caribbean1.70%Other European1.28% 2006 %2001 %Arab1.17%African0.99%Latin, Central andSouth American0.82%West Asian0.69%Oceania0.16% <small>Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents (29,639,035 in 2001) and may total more than 100% due to dual responses. All ethnocultural ancestries with more than 56,000 responses are listed in the table above according to the exact terminology used by Statistics Canada.</small> Ethnic Origin (232), Sex (3) and Single and Multiple Responses (3) (2001 Census) Visible minorities Population Per cent ofpopulation South Asian 1,233,275 4.0% Chinese 1,168,485 3.7% Black 783,795 2.5% Filipino 389,550 1.3% Latin American 304,245 1.0% Arab 265,550 0.9% Southeast Asian 231,425 0.7% West Asian 156,700 0.5% Korean 138,425 0.4% Japanese 60,415 0.2% Multiple visible minorities 104,215 0.3% Visible minority, n.i.e. 71,420 0.2% Total visible minority population 2006 Community Profiles 2006 Community Profiles - Province/Territorie 5,068,095 16.2% Aboriginal status The 2006 census counted a total aboriginal population of 1,172,790 (3.75%) which includes 698,025 First Nations (2.23%), 389,785 Métis (1.25%), and 50,480 Inuit (0.16%). Percentages are calculated as a proportion of the total number of respondents (31,241,030) Aboriginal Identity (2006 Census) ReligionsSee also: Religion in Canada Top self-identified religious affiliations in Canada in 2001. + Top Self-Identified Religious Affiliations in Canada 19912001% change(in numbers) Number %Number %Christian 81 77 - Roman & Old Catholic12,203,62545.212,936,90543.6+4.8 - Christian Orthodox387,3951.4479,6201.6+23.8 - Coptic Orthodox5,020 0.0210,2850.03 +104.9 - Romanian Orthodox4,570 0.024,6750.02 +2.3 - Total Other Christian9,427,67534.98,654,85029.2-8.2 - United Church of Canada3,093,12011.32,839,1259.5-8.2 - Anglican Church of Canada2,188,1108.02,035,4956.8-7.0- Baptist663,3602.4729,4752.4+10.0 - Lutheran636,2052.3606,5902.0-4.7 - Presbyterian636,2952.3409,8301.4-35.6 - Pentecostal436,4351.6 369,4751.2 -15.3 - Mennonite207,9700.8 191,4650.6 -7.9 - Jehovah's Witnesses168,3750.6 154,7450.5 -8.1 - Methodist83,9100.3 106,5450.4 +27.0 - Mormon100,7700.4 104,7500.3+3.9 - Salvation Army112,3450.4 87,7850.3-21.9 - Christian Reformed Church in North America84,6850.3 76,6650.3-9.5 - Christian and Missionary Alliance59,3650.2 66,2800.2 +11.9 - Adventists52,3650.2 62,8750.2 +20.1 - Christian, not included elsewhere¹353,0401.3780,4502.6+121.1Other - Muslim253,2650.9579,6402.0+128.9 - Jewish318,1851.2329,9951.1+3.7 - Buddhist163,4150.6300,3451.0+83.8 - Hindu157,0150.6297,2001.0+89.3 - Sikh147,4400.5278,4100.9+88.8No religion3,397,00012.64,900,09516.5+44.2¹ Includes persons who report only “Christian”, only "Protestant", and those in denominations less than 60,000* For comparability purposes, 1991 data are presented according to 2001 boundaries. Sources: Statistics Canada Note(s): Roman and Old Catholic includes Roman Catholic, Eastern Catholic, Polish National Catholic Church, and Old Catholic Other Religions also includes Bahá'í Faith, Eckankar, Jainism, Shinto, Taoism, Zoroastrianism, Aboriginal belief systems, Neo-Paganism, Wicca, Unity - New Thought - Pantheist, Scientology, Rastafari movement, New Age, Gnostic, Satanism, et cetera No Religion includes Atheism, Agnosticism, Humanism, et cetera However, a more recent research in the year 2005 indicates that the non-religious group has risen significantly. Phil Zuckerman, an Associate Professor of Sociology at Pitzer College writes of several academic sources who have in recent years placed atheism rates in Canada between 19% and 30%. Languages Language used most often at work: English: 78.3% French: 21.7% Non-official languages: 2.0% Languages by mothertongue: Statistics Canada - Language used at work1 by frequency of language used at work and mother tongue, 2006 counts English: 58.2% French: 21.7% Non-official languages: 19.0% Chinese: 3.1% Italian: 1.4% German 1.2% Spanish: 1.2% Punjabi: 1.1% Tagalog: 0.9% Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 99% (2003 est.) male: 99% female: 99% City populations As of 2006, Canada's 13 largest cities (metro areas) have a combined population of 17,885,000 Canada has 100 cities with 45,000 inhabitants or more for a combined population of 20,687,000 Canada has 230 cities with 15,000 inhabitants or more See also Demographics of Canada's provinces and territories Immigration to Canada Canada 2006 Census Canada 2001 Census Aboriginal peoples in Canada Religion in Canada List of Canadian provinces and territories by population Demographics of British Columbia Demographics of Ontario Places in Canada with notable demographic characteristics List of population of Canada by years Further reading Roderic Beaujot and Don Kerr, The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population'', Canadian Scholars' Press, 2007, ISBN 978-1-55130-322-2. References | Demographics_of_Canada |@lemmatized population:32 canada:32 data:4 fao:1 year:14 statistic:9 july:1 number:8 inhabitant:3 thousand:1 article:1 demographic:5 feature:1 include:7 density:2 ethnicity:3 education:1 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:2 religious:4 affiliation:3 aspect:1 census:13 current:1 estimate:1 province:7 territory:7 rank:1 name:1 flag:1 abbr:1 percentage:5 national:2 pop:1 land:1 area:3 seat:1 house:1 common:2 qc:1 bc:1 ab:1 mb:1 sk:1 ns:1 nb:1 nl:1 pe:1 nt:1 nu:1 yt:1 total:15 source:5 metropolitan:1 city:5 age:7 structure:2 canadian:10 males:1 females:1 group:3 per:3 cent:3 median:2 male:8 female:8 nova:1 scotia:1 newfoundland:1 labrador:2 new:3 brunswick:1 quebec:1 british:3 columbia:2 prince:1 edward:2 island:1 ontario:2 saskatchewan:1 yukon:1 manitoba:1 alberta:1 northwest:1 nunavut:1 growth:3 rate:7 real:2 decline:2 change:4 jurisdiction:1 percent:1 sort:1 descend:1 derive:1 table:3 dwell:1 count:4 last:1 modified:1 n:2 compiled:1 add:2 wikipedia:1 vital:1 birth:4 est:8 death:3 net:1 migration:1 migrant:1 sex:2 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 live:1 fertility:1 child:1 bear:1 woman:1 cia:1 world:1 factbook:1 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 ethnic:5 origin:5 able:1 self:3 identify:5 one:2 note:2 may:2 therefore:1 response:19 since:1 term:1 much:1 expression:1 citizenship:1 figure:1 consider:1 exact:2 record:1 relative:1 prevalence:1 different:1 ethnocultural:3 ancestry:3 single:15 respondent:4 give:12 english:3 french:3 chinese:3 italian:2 german:2 scottish:1 east:3 indian:2 irish:1 north:4 american:3 ukrainian:1 dutch:2 netherlands:2 multiple:4 commonly:1 latin:3 also:4 geographically:1 follow:1 portrait:1 highlight:1 western:1 eastern:2 southern:1 southeast:2 south:2 northern:1 central:1 andsouth:1 west:2 small:2 calculate:2 proportion:2 due:1 dual:1 list:3 accord:2 terminology:1 use:4 visible:4 minority:4 ofpopulation:1 asian:3 black:1 filipino:1 arab:1 korean:1 japanese:1 e:1 community:2 profile:2 territorie:1 aboriginal:5 first:1 nation:1 métis:1 inuit:1 identity:1 religionssee:1 religion:4 top:2 christian:6 roman:3 old:3 coptic:1 romanian:1 united:1 church:4 anglican:1 jehovah:1 salvation:1 reform:1 missionary:1 person:1 report:1 protestant:1 denomination:1 less:1 comparability:1 purpose:1 present:1 boundary:1 catholic:5 polish:1 bahá:1 í:1 faith:1 eckankar:1 jainism:1 shinto:1 taoism:1 zoroastrianism:1 belief:1 system:1 neo:1 paganism:1 wicca:1 unity:1 think:1 pantheist:1 scientology:1 rastafari:1 movement:1 gnostic:1 satanism:1 et:2 cetera:2 atheism:2 agnosticism:1 humanism:1 however:1 recent:2 research:1 indicate:1 non:3 rise:1 significantly:1 phil:1 zuckerman:1 associate:1 professor:1 sociology:1 pitzer:1 college:1 writes:1 several:1 academic:1 place:2 language:7 often:1 work:2 official:2 mothertongue:1 frequency:1 mother:1 tongue:1 spanish:1 punjabi:1 tagalog:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:2 write:1 large:1 metro:1 combined:2 see:1 immigration:1 people:1 notable:1 characteristic:1 far:1 roderic:1 beaujot:1 kerr:1 face:1 essential:1 reading:1 scholar:1 press:1 isbn:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:3 affiliation_aspect:1 per_cent:3 nova_scotia:1 newfoundland_labrador:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 male_female:6 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 ethnicity_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 southeast_asian:1 protestant_denomination:1 bahá_í:1 í_faith:1 neo_paganism:1 rastafari_movement:1 et_cetera:2 literacy_definition:1 |
6,167 | Bernard_Montgomery,_1st_Viscount_Montgomery_of_Alamein | Field Marshal Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein, KG, GCB, DSO, PC (; 17 November 1887 24 March 1976), often referred to as "Monty", was an Anglo-Irish British Army officer. He successfully commanded Allied forces at the Battle of El Alamein, a major turning point in the Western Desert Campaign during World War II, and troops under his command played a major role in the expulsion of Axis forces from North Africa. He was later a prominent commander in Italy and North-West Europe, where he was in command of all Allied ground forces during Operation Overlord until after the Battle of Normandy. Early life Montgomery was born in Kennington, London in 1887, the fourth child of nine, to an Anglo-Irish Anglican priest, Reverend Henry Montgomery and Maud Montgomery (née Farrar). Henry Montgomery, at the time the Vicar of St Mark's, Kennington, was the second son of the noted Indian administrator, Sir Robert Montgomery, who died a month after Bernard's birth. Bernard's mother Maud was the daughter of the well-known preacher Frederic Farrar, and was eighteen years her husband's junior. Hamilton (1981), p. 3 After the death of Robert Montgomery, Henry inherited the Montgomery's ancestral estate of New Park at Moville in County Donegal. However, there was still £13,000 to pay on the mortgage, a large amount of money in the 1880s, and Henry was at the time still only a parish priest. Despite selling off farms at Ballynally, "there was barely enough to keep up New Park and pay for the summer holiday (i.e., at New Park)." It was a financial relief that in 1889 Henry was made Bishop of Tasmania, then still a colony. He considered it his duty to spend as much time as possible in the outlying country of Tasmania and was away six months at a time. While he was away his wife, still in her mid twenties gave her children "constant" beatings, Hamilton (1981), p. 31 then ignored them most of the time as she performed the public duties of the bishop's wife. The young Bernard rebelled against this miserable childhood, and never forgot it. Out of his siblings at the time, Sibyl would die prematurely in Tasmania, and Harold, Donald and Una would all emigrate. Hamilton (1981), p. 5 In the absence of Henry Montgomery, Maud took no active interest in the education of her young children other than to have them taught by tutors brought across from England. The loveless environment made Bernard something of a bully, as he himself later recalled "I was a dreadful little boy. I don't suppose anybody would put up with my sort of behaviour these days." Chalfont, (1976), p. 29 Bernard's treatment by his mother led to retribution in later life. Montgomery refused to allow his son David to have anything to do with her. He also refused to attend her funeral in 1949. Bierman & Smith 2002, p. 223. The family returned home once for the Lambeth Conference in 1897, and Bernard and his brother Harold were educated for a term at The King's School, Canterbury. Hamilton (1981), p. 36 In 1901, Bishop Montgomery became secretary of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and the family returned to London. Montgomery went to St Paul's School and then the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, from which he was almost expelled for setting fire to a fellow cadet during a fight with pokers. He joined the 1st Battalion, The Royal Warwickshire Regiment in 1908, first seeing service in India until 1913. First World War The First World War began in August 1914 and Montgomery moved to France with his regiment that month. He saw service during the retreat from Mons, during which half his battalion was destroyed. At Méteren, near the Belgian border at Bailleul on 13 October 1914, during an allied counter-offensive, he was shot through the right lung by a sniper and was injured seriously enough for his grave to be dug in preparation for his death. A Platoon sergeant came to assist him but was killed. He fell on Montgomery. The German sniper fired at him until sun set. The body of the sergeant protected Montgomery and took most of the enemy fire. Montgomery was hit once more though, in the knee. Bierman & Smith 2002, p. 224. He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for gallant leadership. After recovering in early 1915, he was appointed to be brigade-major training Kitchener's New Army and returned to the Western Front in early 1916 as an operations staff officer during the battles of the Somme, Arras, and Passchendaele. During this time he came under IX Corps, part of General Sir Herbert Plumer's Second Army. Through his training, rehearsal, and integration of the infantry with artillery and engineers, the troops of Plumer's Second Army were able to achieve their objectives efficiently and without unnecessary casualties. Montgomery served at the battles of the Lys and Chemin-des-Dames before finishing the war as General Staff Officer 1 and effectively chief of staff of the 47th (2nd London) Division, with the temporary rank of lieutenant-colonel. A photograph of October 1918 shows the then unknown Lt-Col Montgomery standing in front of Winston Churchill (Minister of Munitions) at the victory parade at Lille. Between the wars After the First World War Montgomery commanded a battalion in the British Army of the Rhine, before reverting to his substantive rank of captain. He wrote up his experiences in a series of training pamphlets and manuals. He then attended the army's Staff College, Camberley, before being appointed Brigade Major in the 17th Infantry Brigade at the end of 1920. The brigade was stationed in County Cork during the Irish War of Independence. A cousin of Montgomery's, Lt Col. Hugh Montgomery, had been assassinated by the IRA in 1920 (see the Cairo Gang). IRA officer Tom Barry said that he "behaved with great correctness". Montgomery came to the conclusion that the conflict could not be won without harsh measures, and that self-government was the only feasible solution. In 1923, after the establishment of the Irish Free State and during the Irish Civil War, Montgomery wrote to Percival of the Essex Regiment: "Personally, my whole attention was given to defeating the rebels but it never bothered me a bit how many houses were burnt. I think I regarded all civilians as 'Shinners' and I never had any dealings with any of them. My own view is that to win a war of this sort, you must be ruthless. Oliver Cromwell, or the Germans, would have settled it in a very short time. Nowadays public opinon precludes such methods, the nation would never allow it, and the politicians would lose their jobs if they sanctioned it. That being so, I consider that Lloyd George was right in what he did, if we had gone on we could probably have squashed the rebellion as a temporary measure, but it would have broken out again like an ulcer the moment we removed the troops. I think the rebels would probably [have] refused battles, and hidden their arms etc. until we had gone." Sheehan. British Voices, pp. 151-2 In 1923 Montgomery was posted to the Territorial 49th Division, eschewing the usual amounts of drill for tactical training. He returned to the 1st Royal Warwickshires in 1925 as a company commander and captain, before becoming an instructor at the Staff College, Camberley and a major (brevet lieutenant-colonel). In 1927, he met and married Elizabeth Carver, a widow, and a son, David, was born in August 1928. Elizabeth was the sister of Percy Hobart, WWII commander. Montgomery became lieutenant-colonel of the 1st Battalion of The Royal Warwickshire Regiment in 1931, and saw service in Palestine, Egypt, and India. He was promoted to full colonel and became an instructor at the Indian Army Staff College in Quetta, India. As was usual, Montgomery maintained links with the Royal Warwickshires, taking up the honorary position of Colonel-of-the-Regiment in 1947. Montgomery stirred up the resentment of his superiors for his arrogance and dictatorial ways, and also for his disregard of convention when it obstructed military effectiveness. For example, he set up a battalion brothel in Tripoli, Libya during World War II, regularly inspected by the medical officer, for the 'horizontal refreshment' of his soldiers rather than forcing them to take chances in unregulated establishments. He was quoted as saying that his men "deserved it". Harrison (2004), p. 104 He became commanding officer of the 9th Infantry Brigade in 1937, with the rank of brigadier, but that year also saw tragedy for him; his wife was bitten by an insect while on holiday in Burnham-on-Sea. The bite became infected, and his wife died in his arms from septicaemia following an amputation. The loss devastated Montgomery, but he insisted on throwing himself back into his work immediately after the funeral. Bierman & Smith 2002, p. 227 In 1938, he organised an amphibious combined operations landing exercise that impressed the new commander-in-chief, Southern Command, General Wavell. He was promoted to major-general and took command of the 8th Infantry Division in Palestine. There he quashed an Arab revolt before returning in July 1939 to Britain, suffering a serious illness on the way, to command the 3rd (Iron) Infantry Division. On hearing of the rebel defeat in April 1939, Montgomery said, "I shall be sorry to leave Palestine in many ways, as I have enjoyed the war out here". Bierman & Smith 2002, p. 226. Second World War Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. The 3rd Division was deployed to Belgium as part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). Montgomery predicted a disaster similar to that in 1914, and so spent the Phony War training his troops for tactical retreat rather than offensive operations. During this time, Montgomery faced serious trouble from his superiors after again taking a very pragmatic attitude towards the sexual health of his soldiers—outraging the clergy by stating openly in a memo that in his opinion "when a man wanted a woman, he should have one" - but was defended from dismissal by his superior Alan Brooke, commander of II Corps. Montgomery's training paid off when the Germans began their invasion of the Low Countries on 10 May 1940 and the 3rd Division advanced to the River Dijle and then withdrew to Dunkirk with great professionalism, returning to Britain intact with minimal casualties. During Operation Dynamo—the evacuation of 330,000 BEF and French troops to Britain—Montgomery had assumed command of the II Corps after Alan Brooke had taken acting command of the whole BEF. On his return Montgomery antagonised the War Office with trenchant criticisms of the command of the BEF Bierman & Smith 2002, p. 228. and was briefly relegated to divisional command. He was however made a Companion of the Order of the Bath. In July 1940, he was promoted to acting lieutenant-general, placed in command of V Corps and started a long-running feud Bierman & Smith 2002, pp. 229-230. with the new commander-in-chief, Southern Command, Claude Auchinleck. In April 1941 he became commander of XII Corps and in December 1941 South-Eastern Command which he renamed the South-Eastern Army to promote offensive spirit. During this time he developed and rehearsed his ideas and trained his soldiers, culminating in Exercise Tiger in May 1942, a combined forces exercise involving 100,000 troops. North Africa and Italy Montgomery's early command Montgomery in a Grant tank in North Africa, November 1942. His aide (shown behind him looking through binoculars) was killed in action in 1945. In 1942 a new field commander was required in the Middle East, where Auchinleck was fulfilling both the role of commander-in-chief Middle East Command and commander Eighth Army. He had stabilised the allied position at Alamein, but after a visit in August 1942, the Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, replaced him as C-in-C with Alexander and William Gott as commander of the Eighth Army in the Western Desert. After Gott was killed flying back to Cairo Churchill was persuaded by Alan Brooke to appoint Montgomery, who had only just been nominated to command the British ground forces for Operation Torch. Montgomery's assumption of command transformed the fighting spirit and abilities of the Eighth Army. Taking command on 13 August 1942, he immediately became a whirlwind of activity. He ordered the creation of a mobile British armoured corps—similar to a German Panzer Corps—to reinforce the long front line at El Alamein, something that would take two months to accomplish. He asked his commander, Gen. Alexander, to send him two new British divisions (51st Highland & 44th) that were then arriving in Egypt and were scheduled to be deployed in defense of the Nile Delta. He moved his field HQ to a new location close to the Air Force command post in order to better coordinate combined operations. (A criticism of the Eighth Army up until this point had been that the different branches of the military services fought their own separate battles. Montgomery was determined that the Army, Navy and Air Forces should fight their battles in a unified, focused manner according to a detailed plan.) He ordered immediate reinforcement of the vital heights of Alam Halfa, just behind his own lines, expecting the German commander, Erwin Rommel, to attack with the heights as his objective, something that Rommel soon did. Montgomery ordered all contingency plans for retreat to be destroyed. "I have cancelled the plan for withdrawal," he told his officers at the first meeting he held with them in the desert. "If we are attacked, then there will be no retreat. If we cannot stay here alive, then we will stay here dead." Moorehead, Alan, "Montgomery," Hamish Hamilton (1946) pp. 118-27 Montgomery made a great effort to appear before troops as often as possible, frequently visiting various units and making himself known to the men, often arranging for cigarettes to be distributed. Although he still wore a standard British officer's cap on arrival in the desert, he briefly wore an Australian broad-brimmed hat before switching to wearing the black beret (with the badge of the Royal Tank Regiment next to the British General Officer's badge) for which he became famous. The black beret had been offered to him by a soldier upon climbing into a tank to get a closer look at the front lines. Both Brooke and Alexander were astonished by the transformation in atmosphere when they visited on 19 August, less than a week after Montgomery had taken command. First battles with Rommel Rommel attempted to encircle the Eighth Army at the Battle of Alam Halfa from 31 August 1942. The German/Italian armoured infantry attack was stopped in very heavy fighting. Rommel's forces had to retreat hastily lest they be cut off from behind. Montgomery was criticised for not counter-attacking the retreating forces immediately, but he felt strongly that his methodical build-up of British forces was not yet ready. A hasty counter-attack risked ruining his strategy for an offensive on his own terms in October, planning for which had begun soon after he took command. The reconquest of North Africa was essential for airfields to support Malta and for Operation Torch. Rejecting demands for quicker action from Churchill and the British war cabinet, Montgomery prepared meticulously for the new offensive. He was determined not to fight until he thought there had been sufficient preparation for a decisive victory, and put into action his beliefs with the gathering of resources, detailed planning, the training of troops - especially in night fighting - and in the use of over 300 of the latest American-built Sherman tanks, 90 M7 Priests, and making a personal visit to every unit involved in the offensive. By the time the offensive was ready in late October, Allied forces numbered nearly 200,000 men including British, Australian, South African, Indian, Greek and Free French units. El Alamien Infantry advance during the Battle of El Alamein. The Battle of El Alamein began on 23 October 1942, and ended 12 days later with the first large-scale, decisive allied land victory of the war. Montgomery correctly predicted both the length of the battle and the number of casualties (13,500). He has been criticised for failing to capitalise immediately on his victory at El Alamein. However, soon after British armoured units and infantry broke through the German and Italian lines and were pursuing the enemy forces at speed along the coast road, a violent, unseasonable rainstorm burst over the region making rapid pursuit impossible, the tanks and support trucks bogged down in the desert mud. Montgomery had to call off the chase. Standing before his officers at headquarters, he was close to tears. Yet, the Battle of El Alamein had been a great success. Over 30,000 prisoners were taken including the German commander, von Thoma (Rommel was away), and eight other general officers. Moorehead pp. 140-41 Tunisia Montgomery was knighted and promoted to full general. The Eighth Army's subsequent advance as the Germans retreated hundreds of miles towards their bases in Tunisia used the logistical and firepower advantages of the British Army while avoiding unnecessary risks. It also gave the Allies an indication that the tide of war had genuinely turned in North Africa. Montgomery kept the initiative, applying superior strength when it suited him, forcing Rommel out of each successive defensive position. On 6 March 1943 Rommel's attack on the over-extended Eighth Army at Medenine (Operation Capri) with the largest concentration of German armour in North Africa was successfully repulsed. At the Mareth Line, 20 to 27 March, when Montgomery encountered fiercer frontal opposition than he had anticipated, he switched his major effort into an outflanking inland pincer, backed by low-flying RAF fighter-bomber support. This campaign demonstrated the battle-winning ingredients of morale (sickness and absenteeism were virtually eliminated in the Eighth Army), co-operation of all arms including the air forces, first-class logistical back-up and clear-cut orders. For his role in North Africa he was awarded the Legion of Merit by the United States government in the rank of Chief Commander. Sicily The next major Allied attack was the Allied invasion of Sicily (Operation Husky). It was in Sicily that Montgomery's famous tensions with US commanders really began. Montgomery managed to recast plans for the Allied invasion, having Patton's Seventh US Army land in the Gulf of Gela (on the left flank of Eighth Army, which landed around Syracuse in the south-east of Sicily) rather than at Palermo in the west of Sicily as Patton had wished. Inter-allied tensions grew as the American commanders Patton and Bradley (then commanding II US Corps under Patton), took umbrage at what they perceived as Montgomery's attitudes and boastfulness. They resented him, while accepting his skills as a general. Italian Campaign During the autumn of 1943 Montgomery continued to command Eighth Army during the landings on the mainland of Italy itself. In conjunction with the Anglo-American landings at Salerno (near Naples) by Mark Clark's Fifth Army and seaborne landings by British paratroops in the heel of Italy (including the key port of Taranto, where they disembarked without resistance directly into the port), Montgomery led Eighth Army up the toe of Italy. Some criticism was made of the slowness of Montgomery's advance. The Eighth Army, responsible for the eastern side of the Allied front, from the central Apennine mountain spine to the Adriatic coast, fought a succession of engagements alternating between opposed crossings of the rivers running across their line of advance and attacks against the cleverly constructed defensive positions the Germans had fashioned on the ridges in between. Eighth Army crossed the Sangro river in mid-November and penetrated the German's strongest position at the Gustav Line but as the winter weather deteriorated the advance ground to a halt as transport bogged down and air support operations became impossible. Montgomery abhorred the lack of coordination, the dispersion of effort, and the strategic muddle and opportunism he perceived in the Allied effort in Italy and was glad to leave the "dog's breakfast" on 23 December. Normandy Montgomery with officers of the First Canadian Army. From left, Major-General Vokes, General Crerar, Field Marshal Montgomery, Lieutenant-General Horrocks, Lieutenant-General Simonds, Major-General Spry, and Major-General Mathews Montgomery returned to Britain to take command of the 21st Army Group which consisted of all Allied ground forces that would take part in Operation Overlord, the invasion of Normandy. Preliminary planning for the invasion had been taking place for two years, most recently by COSSAC staff (Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander). Montgomery quickly concluded that the COSSAC plan was too limited, and strongly advocated expanding the plan from a three-division to a five-division assault. As with his takeover of the Eighth Army, Montgomery travelled frequently to his units, raising morale and ensuring training was progressing. At St Paul's School on 7 April and 15 May he presented his strategy for the invasion. He envisaged a ninety day battle, ending when all the forces reached the Seine, pivoting on an Allied-held Caen, with British and Canadian armies forming a shoulder and the US armies wheeling on the right. During the hard fought two and a half month Battle of Normandy that followed, the impact of a series of unfavourable autumnal weather conditions disrupted the Normandy landing areas and seriously hampered the tactical delivery of planned transportation of personnel and supplies which were being carried across the English Channel. Consequently, Montgomery argues in his literary account (WIP) that he was unable to follow his pre-battle plan precisely to the timescales planned outside of battle. It should be noted that the extension of the battle plan by one month was the cause of significant retrospective criticisms of Montgomery by some of his American peers, including the much respected Bradley and equally controversial Patton. Montgomery's initial plan was, most likely, for an immediate break out toward Caen. Unable to do so, as the British did not get enough forces ashore to exploit the successful landing, Montgomery's advance was checked. When it appeared unlikely that te British Second Army would breakout, Montgomery's contingency was designed to attract German forces to the British sector to ease the passing of United States Army through German defences to the west, during Operation Cobra. This series of battle plans by the British, Canadian and American armies trapped and defeated the German forces in Normandy in the Falaise pocket. The campaign that Montgomery fought was essentially attritional until the middle of July with the occupation of the Cotentin Peninsula and a series of offensives in the east, which secured Caen and attracted the bulk of German armour there. An American breakout was achieved with Operation Cobra and the encirclement of German forces in the Falaise pocket at the cost of British sacrifice with the diversionary Operation Goodwood. D'Este 1983, p. 202. Advance to the Rhine Montgomery talking to General Maczek, commanding officer of Polish 1st Armoured Division, 1945. The Supreme Commanders on June 5, 1945 in Berlin: Bernard Montgomery, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov und Jean de Lattre de Tassigny. The increasing preponderance of American troops in the European theatre (from five out of ten divisions at D-Day to 72 out of 85 in 1945) made it a political impossibility for the Ground Forces Commander to be British. After the end of the Normandy campaign, General Eisenhower himself took over Ground Forces Command while continuing as Supreme Commander, with Montgomery continuing to command the 21st Army Group, now consisting mainly of British and Canadian units. Montgomery bitterly resented this change, even though it had been agreed before the D-Day invasion. Winston Churchill had Montgomery promoted to field marshal by way of compensation. Montgomery was able to persuade Eisenhower to adopt his strategy of a single thrust to the Ruhr with Operation Market Garden in September 1944. It was the most uncharacteristic of Montgomery's battles: the offensive was strategically bold, but poorly planned. Moreover, Montgomery ignored ULTRA intelligence which warned of the presence of German armoured units near the site of the attack. As a result, the operation ended in an unmitigated disaster with the destruction of the British 1st Airborne Division at Arnhem and the loss of any hopes of invading Germany by the end of 1944. Montgomery's preoccupation with the push to the Ruhr had also distracted him from the essential task of clearing the Scheldt during the capture of Antwerp, and so after Arnhem, Montgomery's group were instructed to concentrate on doing this so that the port of Antwerp could be opened. When the surprise attack on the Ardennes took place on 16 December 1944, starting the Battle of the Bulge, the front of the U.S. 12th Army Group was split, with the bulk of the U.S. First Army on the northern shoulder of the German 'bulge'. The Army Group commander, General Omar Bradley, was located south of the penetration at Luxembourg and command of the U.S. First Army became problematic. Montgomery was the nearest commander on the ground and on 20 December, Eisenhower (who was in Versailles) transferred Courtney Hodges' U.S. First Army and William Simpson's U.S. Ninth Army to his 21st Army Group, despite Bradley's vehement objections on national grounds. Montgomery grasped the situation quickly, visiting all divisional, corps, and army field commanders himself and instituting his 'Phantom' network of liaison officers. He grouped the British XXX Corps as a strategic reserve behind the Meuse and reorganised the US defence of the northern shoulder, shortening and strengthening the line and ordering the evacuation of St Vith. The German commander of the 5th Panzer Army, Hasso von Manteuffel said "The operations of the American 1st Army had developed into a series of individual holding actions. Montgomery's contribution to restoring the situation was that he turned a series of isolated actions into a coherent battle fought according to a clear and definite plan. It was his refusal to engage in premature and piecemeal counter-attacks which enabled the Americans to gather their reserves and frustrate the German attempts to extend their breakthrough." Patrick Delaforce, The Battle of the Bulge — Hitler's Final Gamble (2004) Montgomery (left), Air Marshal Sir Arthur Coningham (centre) and the Commander of the British Second Army, Lieutenant General Sir Miles Dempsey, talking after a conference in which Montgomery gave the order for Second Army to begin the crossing of the Rhine. Eisenhower had then wanted Montgomery to go on the offensive on 1 January to meet Patton's army that had started advancing from the south on 19 December and in doing so, trap the Germans. However, Montgomery refused to commit infantry he considered underprepared into a snowstorm and for a strategically unimportant piece of land. He did not launch the attack until 3 January, by which point the German forces had been able to escape. A large part of American military opinion thought that he should not have held back, though it was characteristic of him to use drawn-out preparations for his attack. After the battle the U.S. First Army was restored to the 12th Army Group; the U.S. Ninth Army remained under 21st Army Group until it crossed the Rhine. Montgomery's 21st Army Group advanced to the Rhine with operations Veritable and Grenade in February 1945. After a meticulously-planned Rhine crossing on 24 March and the subsequent encirclement of the German Army Group B in the Ruhr, Montgomery's role was initially to guard the flank of the American advance. This was altered, however, to forestall any chance of a Red Army advance into Denmark, and the 21st Army Group occupied Hamburg and Rostock and sealed off the Danish peninsula. On 4 May 1945, on Lüneburg Heath, Montgomery accepted the surrender of German forces in northern Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands. This was done plainly in a tent without any ceremony. In the same year he was awarded the Order of the Elephant, the highest order in Denmark. On 26 October 1945 he was made a Freeman of Huddersfield. Later life Montgomery and Soviet generals Zhukov, Sokolovsky and Rokossovsky at the Brandenburg Gate 12 July 1945. After the war, Montgomery was created 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein in 1946. He was Chief of the Imperial General Staff from 1946 until 1948, but was largely a failure as it required strategic and political skills he did not possess. He clashed particularly with his old rival Arthur Tedder, who as Deputy Supreme Commander had intrigued for Montgomery's dismissal during the Battle of Normandy, and who was by now Chief of the Air Staff. When Montgomery's term of office expired, the Prime Minister Clement Attlee appointed General (later Field-Marshal) William Slim as his successor; when Montgomery protested that he had already promised the job to his protege General Crocker, a former corps commander from the 1944-5 campaign, Attlee is said to have given the memorable retort "Untell him". Montgomery was then Chairman of the Western European Union's commanders-in-chief committee. Volume 3 of Nigel Hamilton's Life of Montgomery of Alamein gives a good account of the bickering between Montgomery and his land forces chief, a French general, which created splits through the Union headquarters. He was thus pleased to become Eisenhower's deputy in creating the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation's European forces in 1951. He was an effective inspector-general and mounted good exercises, but out of his depth politically, and his exacting manner and emphasis on efficiency created ill-feeling. He continued to serve under Eisenhower's successors Matthew Ridgway and Al Gruenther until his retirement, aged seventy-one, in 1958. His mother died in 1949; Montgomery did not attend the funeral, claiming he was "too busy". Montgomery was chairman of the governing body of St John's School, Leatherhead, Surrey from 1951 to 1966 and a generous supporter. Montgomery as CIGS with Wavell and Auchinleck. In 1953, the Hamilton Board of Education in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, wrote to Montgomery and asked permission to name a new school in the city's east end after him. Viscount Montgomery Elementary was billed as "the most modern school in North America" and the largest single-storey school in Hamilton, when the sod was turned on 14 March 1951. History of Viscount Montgomery School The school officially opened on 18 April 1953, with Montgomery in attendance among almost 10,000 well-wishers. At the opening, he gave the motto "Gardez Bien" from his own family's coat of arms. Montgomery referred to the school as his "beloved school" and visited on five separate occasions, the last being in 1960. On his last visit, he said to "his" students: Let's make Viscount Montgomery School the best in Hamilton, the best in Ontario, the best in Canada. I don't associate myself with anything that is not good. It is up to you to see that everything about this school is good. It is up to the students to not only be their best in school but in their behaviour outside of Viscount. Education is not just something that will help you pass your exams and get you a job, it is to develop your brain to teach you to marshal facts and do things. Before retirement, Montgomery's outspoken views on some subjects, such as race, were often officially suppressed. After retirement these outspoken views became public and his reputation suffered. He supported apartheid (although such views were more common in the 1960s than subsequently) and Chinese communism under Mao Zedong, and argued against the legalisation of homosexuality in the United Kingdom, arguing that the Sexual Offences Act 1967 was a "charter for buggery" and that "this sort of thing may be tolerated by the French, but we're British — thank God." It is claimed - probably mythically - that he said while addressing the House of Lords "As God said - and I do think very rightly . . ." Ironically, a number of Montgomery's biographers, including Chalfont (1976) (who found something "disturbingly equivocal" in "his relations with boys and young men") and Nigel Hamilton (2002) have suggested that he may himself have been a repressed homosexual; in the late 1940s he conducted an affectionate friendship with a 12-year-old Swiss boy. Was Bernie a Bertie?, The Times Online, David Aaronovitch, May 5, 2006 The General of Love who was one of the boys, The Independent, Nicholas Fearn, October 14, 2001 Statue of Montgomery at Whitehall, London unveiled in 1980 Montgomery's memoirs (1958) were broadly judged to be tactless and arrogant. He criticised many of his wartime comrades in harsh terms, including Eisenhower (whom he accused, among other things, of prolonging the war by a year through poor leadership—allegations which ended their friendship, not least as Eisenhower was still US President at the time). He was stripped of his honorary citizenship of Montgomery, Alabama, and was challenged to a duel by an Italian officer. He was threatened with legal action by Field-Marshal Auchinleck for suggesting that Auchinleck had intended to retreat from the Alamein position if attacked again, and had to give a radio broadcast (20 November 1958) expressing his gratitude to Auchinleck for having stabilised the front at the First Battle of Alamein. The 1960 edition of his memoirs contains a publishers' note (opposite page 15) drawing attention to that broadcast, and stating that in the publishers' view the reader might assume from Montgomery's text that Auchinleck had been planning to retreat and pointing out that this was in fact not the case. Perhaps at least in part because of these controversies, Montgomery was never raised to an earldom, although unlike his wartime contemporaries Harold Alexander, Louis Mountbatten and even Archibald Wavell, he had never been a Theatre Supreme Commander or held high political office. An official task he insisted on performing in his later years was bearing the Sword of State during the State Opening of Parliament. His increasing frailty, however, raised concerns about his ability to stand for long periods while carrying the heavy weapon. Ultimately, those fears were borne out when he collapsed in mid-ceremony in 1968 and did not perform this function again. A favourite pastime of the British press during these years was to photograph Montgomery cashing his old age pension cheque at the local social security office. Due to his eminence, many assumed Montgomery was wealthy and did not need the money. In fact, he had always been a man of modest means and it caused him great anguish that many believed he was taking taxpayer money he did not need. Another blow was a break-in at his home. Despite making a televised appeal for the return of his possessions, the items were never recovered. Montgomery died in 1976 at his home in Alton, Hampshire aged 88 years. After a funeral ceremony at St George's Chapel, Windsor, he was interred in the Holy Cross Churchyard, Binsted. His portrait (by Frank O. Salisbury, 1945) hangs in the National Portrait Gallery. *Portrait of Montgomery NPG L165 A statue of Viscount Montgomery can be found outside the Defence Ministry in Whitehall, alongside those of William Slim and Alan Brooke. Another statue of Viscount Montgomery can be found in Brussels, Belgium, watching a Montgomery Square. Montgomery's Grant command tank, on display at the Imperial War MuseumThe Imperial War Museum holds a variety of material relating to Montgomery in its collections. These include Montgomery's Grant command tank (on display in the atrium at the Museum's London branch), his command caravans as used in North West Europe (on display at IWM Duxford), and his papers are held by the Museum's Department of Documents. The Museum maintains a permanent exhibition about Montgomery titled Monty: Master of the Battlefield. Character and controversy Montgomery did not get on with his contemporaries and mostly associated with junior officers. He was insensitive, conceited, and boastful. Dixon (1976), p. 373 ff He was not an easy man to know socially and not loyal to the staff officers serving immediately under him. His dismissive and occasionally insulting attitude to others often soured opinions about his abilities and personality. His failures happened when he allowed his desire for personal glory to taint his planning, causing him to abandon his usual caution. In stark contrast to Fourteenth Army commander in East Asia, William Slim, Montgomery rarely if ever admitted to making a single mistake during the Second World War. Slim was far more candid about his own mistakes, even in his wartime memoirs, than Montgomery. Often it was Montgomery's statements about battles, as much as his actual conduct of them, that formed the basis of controversy. In his career, Montgomery's orders to his subordinates were clear and complete, yet with his superiors his communications would be opaque and incomplete. Dixon (1976), p. 361 So, in Normandy, he gave the impression to Eisenhower and others that he was attempting a breakout, while playing down this possibility in his actual orders to his subordinates. For example, shortly before Operation Goodwood he removed Falaise as an objective, but did not forward these new orders to SHAEF. Throughout his career, he enraged his superiors and colleagues, partly because he would not allow convention to disrupt military effectiveness, partly because of a contempt for authority and an unwillingness to be in a situation where he was not in control, and partly because he could be quite a strange person. Walter Bedell Smith once said to him "You may be great to serve under, difficult to serve alongside, but you sure are hell to serve over!". N.Hamilton, Monty. vol. 2.xxv (1981–6) He also found it difficult to publicly admit his operations had not gone to plan, irrespective of whether they were ultimately successful (Normandy) or unsuccessful (Market Garden, where he claimed that it had been a 90% success). In the United Kingdom, Montgomery is remembered particularly for his victorious campaign in North Africa, which, with the Battle of Stalingrad, was very much seen as the turning point of World War II. The different nature of the war for the United States means that his reputation there is very much coloured by the controversies in the later stages of the war in Europe, especially around the Battle of the Bulge. These brought into relief both his virtues and failings. At the end of 1944, there was tension between the Allies owing to a campaign by the British press for Eisenhower to appoint a deputy and for Montgomery to be made the overall Allied ground commander. Immediately after the Battle of the Bulge, on 7 January 1945, Montgomery held a press conference in which he downplayed the role of the American generals, especially Patton, in the Allied victory at the Battle of the Bulge and focused on his own generalship. Many of his comments were ill-judged, particularly his statement that when the situation "began to deteriorate", Eisenhower had placed him in command in the north, and they were inflammatory to Patton, implying that he needed to be rescued by Montgomery "with a bang". In the press conference Montgomery said that he thought the counter-offensive had gone very well and did not explain his delayed attack on 3 January. According to Churchill, the attack from the south under Patton was steady but slow and involved heavy losses, and Montgomery claimed to be trying to avoid this situation. Montgomery also gave the impression that substantial British forces had been involved in the fighting that repelled the German attack (an impression explicitly corrected by Churchill in the House of Commons). A slanted version inserted by Germany within an Allied radio broadcast added to American resentment. In a memo to Eisenhower, Montgomery proposed that he should again be made Commander Ground Forces and implicitly criticised recent conduct of the war while American confidence had been shaken and nerves were raw. Eisenhower, encouraged by the Deputy Supreme Commander, Air Marshal Tedder (another person with a long running feud with Montgomery), was on the point of dismissing Montgomery, when Bedell Smith and Montgomery's chief-of-staff, Major-General Freddie de Guingand, pointed that it would be both politically unwise and difficult to justify removing a general who had just won a battle, over generals who had come so close to losing one. De Guingand was able to convince Montgomery of the impact of his words (of which he was apparently unaware) and Montgomery wrote an apology to Eisenhower. The moment passed. Eisenhower commented in his memoirs: "I doubt if Montgomery ever came to realise how resentful some American commanders were. They believed he had belittled them — and they were not slow to voice reciprocal scorn and contempt". Eisenhower (1948), p.389 Alan Brooke said of Montgomery Assessment of Montgomery as a military commander Any assessment of Montgomery is immediately entangled in his sometimes difficult, boastful personality, harshness towards those he felt did not measure up, and issues of Anglo-American national pride. Nevertheless this section attempts a balanced summing up of his general leadership from a military perspective. Was he primarily a ponderous set-piece general or was he indeed one of the most brilliant commanders of recent history, a true heir to Marlborough, at least from the British perspective? The truth lies somewhere in between. It is helpful to analyse Montgomery's generalship by looking at some central aspects of his successes and failures. Positive aspects As a trainer of men and mentor of subordinates Montgomery deserves his due as an outstanding trainer of men. His record in Palestine, North Africa, Sicily and Northern Europe shows this. His meticulous preparation of his troops, ranging from the usual physical necessities, to painstaking explanation of his vision and plans down to relatively low levels, to well articulated exercises and drills, to his insistence that formations like divisions "should fight as divisions" (i.e. gain proficiency in "big picture" coordination and integration) show the mind and skill of a keen organiser. None of this is earth-shattering for any competent military commander (though many of his contemporaries, including many remembered better by history, showed great deficiencies in this regard), but Montgomery demonstrated a great level of proficiency and made it one of his special trademarks. Montgomery was a keen advocate of physical fitness and hard training: in the desert he had all ranks from brigadier down doing daily physical training; any man, no matter what rank, was expected to be fit to fight, and if any officer could not keep up on daily runs, he was sent home - Montgomery once observed that if a middle-aged officer was going to have a heart attack, better for it to happen on a training run than in action. Montgomery was also a critic of Battle Drill Training, which he felt was a crutch used by unit commanders. His personal view, put into action during the Phony War and afterwards, was that company and battalion training in the phases of war—relief in place, passage of obstacles, hasty attack, etc.—was ignored in favour of simple drilling at the section and platoon level. Montgomery had a deep technical understanding of how the Army operated, at all levels from the infantry company to the Army Group. He helped to shape the Canadian army through assisting the formation of the fledgling First Canadian Army while they were under his command in South-Eastern Army. Montgomery personally visited most Canadian units, down to the battalion level, and assisted Canadian Army commander Harry Crerar in weeding out poor officers, giving direct criticism of battalion commanders, company commanders, and even regimental sergeants-major. Montgomery indirectly shaped the Canadian Army that saw action in Italy and NW Europe. As a strategist and tactician Montgomery's hallmark as a strategist was a detailed analysis of his enemy and development of a clear vision as to how that enemy was to be fought and defeated. Two words sum up the approach of the British commander: clarity and organisation. These were put into practice through careful preparation of what he termed a "master plan", to which all subsequent effort was to be subordinated. The "master plan" embodied the vision, and the strategic and tactical approaches that would be used. Montgomery held that, far from being rigid, the flexibility or "balance" was one of the keys to his overarching structure. Indeed, one recent scholar has described his approach as using "massive set-piece battles, based on concentration of force, massed artillery fire power... and [the] integrated use of tactical air power", designed to pummel the enemy with alternate thrusts until they lost their own sense of "balance" and "cracks" began to form in their defences. Hart, p.10. Montgomery regarded the German Army as one of hard-core professionalism, and held that wishful thinking and foggy concepts against such an opponent was a recipe for dismal failure. Montgomery sought changes along these lines in the plan for the Allied invasion of Sicily. His influence however was more limited and his own less-than-spectacular gains in the difficult terrain, were unfavorably compared by some to the thrusting mobility of US General George Patton — a foreshadowing of controversies to come. Operation Husky was a success, but the Germans were able to extract tens of thousands of troops from Sicily to fight elsewhere, indicating that Montgomery's concerns about concepts, planning and execution were not totally off the mark. His approach can be seen in his insistence on recasting or adjusting the invasion plans of Normandy, generally strengthening initial shock forces and insisting on a clear vision and method of how subsequent battles were to be fought. The success of the D-Day landings owed a great debt to Montgomery's planning. After the war, Eisenhower and his chief of staff, Lieutenant-General Walter Bedell Smith told the American military correspondent, Drew Middleton that "No one else could have got us across the Channel and into Normandy... Whatever they say about him, he got us there". Montgomery felt his approach vindicated at the Second Battle of El Alamein. His strategic vision ushered in much needed clarity, and his defensive preparations (drawing in part on the prior work of his predecessor Auchinleck) also envisioned a decisive counterattack. During the most critical point of the battle his concept of "balance" or flexibility within the confines of a master plan held, and the British were able to shift forces to see off Rommel's thrust, and mount their own riposte that shattered the back of the Axis formations. The Battle of Normandy saw similar success. He insisted on more forces for the initial landing and a clear vision for the further campaign against some planners who were primarily concerned with just getting on the beach. Despite the failure of all but the Canadians to gain the ambitious targets on D-Day, and the subsequent improvisations, his strategy of attritional battle on the left drawing in German forces and allowing a breakthrough on the right was successful. This approach could not be broadcast on the nightly news and the public perception of the struggle was typically one that saw both Allies equally attempting to break out of the beachhead, with progress being "slow." Montgomery however persisted, and deflecting pressure from his superiors (who remained in England) for quicker results, retained mastery of the developing battle. Overall, he achieved victory well within the originally planned ninety days. Normandy and El Alamein cement Montgomery's place as one of the greatest of the modern British generals in the view of some historians, and vindicate his concept of "balance" within the overall structure of a dominant "master plan". As a builder of morale Montgomery also deserves credit as a builder of morale, both that of his soldiers and that of the general public. A large part of his reputation has been sustained by the people who served under him. After his experiences in the First World War he had determined not to waste soldiers' lives: as Haig persisted in attritional battles, Montgomery wrote to his brother Donald, on seeing Canadians sent to assault Passchendaele Ridge that they were 'magnificent', but 'they forget that the whole art of war is to gain your objective with as little loss as possible', which was a doctrine that Montgomery subsequently lived by. Further to this, he also displayed a genuine concern for the welfare of the men serving under him: for example, at one time he jeopardised his career by illegally hiring out land to a fair to raise welfare funds; Dixon (1976), p. 358 he arranged for female nurses at forward casualty clearing centres in the desert war in 1943; Dixon (1976), p. 359 he took a very pragmatic view towards sexual health; Dixon (1976), p. 277 directly after the Battle of Medenine he was lobbying Brooke to allow long-serving soldiers to return to England. Montgomery, Bernard Law, Nigel Hamilton, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, OUP (2004) Coupled with this was his belief that soldiers must actually understand why they were fighting, and that they deserve to have things properly explained to them. Montgomery thought that one of the most important roles for a military commander was to motivate his men to fight, that military command is "a great human problem". In addition, Montgomery's experiences in the First World War led him to despise generals who led from the rear, well away from any fighting, Dixon (1976), p. 374. and so was visible in his campaigns. The early years of World War II saw a series of humiliating defeats and military reverses for Britain. Montgomery was not the first to unequivocally reverse. His experiences in Ireland had shown him the importance of public support in a war. Montgomery was sometimes ungracious, but he was able to painstakingly articulate a vision for victory and couple with it a good sense for publicity (the use of his distinctive black beret with two badges, for example). He continued these same methods in England prior to the invasion, insisting on a clear concept of battle beyond the beaches, all united under a powerful master plan. Later on, Montgomery was not the only leader who struck a distinctive chord for morale prior to the great invasion, but he was certainly one of the most influential, ensuring not only the troops that stepped ashore on 6 June, were thus men confident in their leaders, their plans, their equipment and their cause, but so were the public. His speaking tour of British munitions factories before D-Day had made Churchill worry that he would be "filling The Mall" with adoring crowds if he was allowed to receive his field marshal's baton at Buckingham Palace. A.Bryant, Triumph in the West, 1943–1946 (1959) Criticisms of Montgomery's generalship Montgomery's record has also been extensively criticised. The criticism of his actions tends to be bound up with his difficult personality and relationships with superiors (see "Character and controversy" above) but generally two areas in particular can be separated out, which are summarised here. Slowness and over-caution Montgomery was often accused of being slow and overcautious. Examples cited include before El Alamein, afterwards in the pursuit of Rommel, the Battle of Normandy, and in the counter-offensive in the Ardennes. In North Africa, prior to Montgomery taking command, the history of the campaign in North Africa had see-sawed as each offensive outran its supply lines: both sides won battles but neither gained a decisive advantage. Similarly, during the Battle of Normandy, the fear of stalemate made the supreme command in Britain pressure Montgomery to push harder. At one point in July 1944, it was thought that Churchill was flying to France to personally sack Montgomery at Eisenhower's request. Air Marshal Tedder complained that Montgomery had not captured suitable airfields from which to operate. Montgomery's Memoirs, chapter on Operation Overlord Much is made of the fact that many of Montgomery's initial targets were not met, especially the failure to capture Caen on the first day or even for weeks after D-Day (criticism that was compounded after the war when Montgomery insisted that all elements had gone "according to plan", which clearly was not the case, although it should be noted in fairness that the bulk of the German panzer divisions, including SS units, were stationed on the Caen sector). However his predictions, the so called "phase lines" on the maps, were never intended to be a rigid guarantee but a guide, as would be clear from previous opposed landings at Salerno and Anzio. Much of the criticism resulted from Montgomery giving his superiors and the press the impression that he was trying to achieve large-scale breakouts while actually fighting an attritional campaign. However, in the end Montgomery's success was achieved in less time than planned. Montgomery was not a dashing general, and deliberately methodical, usually not willing to sacrifice military effectiveness for other people's agenda. The realities of the wartime Britain must also be remembered. It had seen severe early defeats, an economy almost crippled, shortages caused by constant German U-boat attacks, and dwindling supplies of manpower to fight on fronts ranging from the Far East to the Mediterranean. There simply were no more big armies to commit wholesale in Normandy or elsewhere. Montgomery thus carefully husbanded the troops he had left. Hart, chapter 3; Hamilton (1984), Furthermore, much of his apparent caution sprang from his regard for human life and a desire not to throw the lives of his troops away in the manner of the generals of the First World War. Therefore, for El Alamein, Normandy and the Ardennes, he was not prepared to go into an offensive until there was complete readiness of both men, equipment, and logistics. This approach sometimes exasperated his superiors, but it generally brought success, and ensured his popularity with his men. The criticism of slowness and caution has been taken further with Montgomery being called primarily a "general of matériel": Chalfont, (1976), one who emerged at the right time and place to take advantage of the massive outpouring of American and British war production, ensuring the Allies local material superiority against their opponents. But this charge is hard to maintain in a war during which material weight counted above almost all factors. It was a mass production war in every theatre, and the same "matériel" criticism of Montgomery must then need to apply to the great Russian commanders of the Eastern Front like Zhukov or Konev, as well as to the American effort. Equally, it ignores the successful improvised actions in North Africa, Normandy, and the Ardennes, and yet as stated above, Montgomery did not have the man power or equipment to achieve those scale victories; so in essence one could say he was doing more with what he had, than any other general in Europe. Market Garden and the Scheldt estuaries A second great area of criticism centres around Montgomery's only defeat of the Second World War, the failure of Operation Market Garden at Arnhem. Three broad areas of concern have been raised in relation to Montgomery's performance as a commander in this operation. Some historians have criticised the level of risk that Montgomery was prepared to accept in the operation. In comparison to many of Montgomery's battles, Operation Market Garden was uncharacteristically bold. One writer has put it that: The conception of such a plan was impossible for a man of Montgomery's innate caution... In fact, Montgomery's decision to mount the operation aimed at the Zuider Zee was as startling as it would have been for an elderly and saintly Bishop suddenly to take up safe-cracking and begin on the Bank of England. Montgomery the Field-Marshal R.W.Thompson, Allen & Unwin (1969), p. 201 Whilst one of his military contemporaries noted that upon hearing the details of the plan: Had the pious, teetotalling Montgomery wobbled in SHAEF with a hangover, I could not have been more astonished... General Omar Bradley, cited Ryan p.94 The motivation for Montgomery's willingness to take increased risk in this instance has been put down by some to result of interpersonal friction and competition with the American generals, as well as other personality traits Dixon (1976), pp. 360–361 Others, more sympathetically, have argued that against the intelligence backdrop before the operation, and the wider political requirement to regain time and space following the delayed breakout from Normandy, Montgomery and Eisenhower's decision to pursue Market-Garden at risk appears more reasonable. Schultz, chapter three. Whilst the tactical shortcomings of the airborne landings at Arnhem may not be directly attributable to Montgomery, his operational level approach to the use of airborne forces during this part of the campaign has been questioned. Montgomery was not a natural supporter of the airborne; he had suffered some bad experiences in Sicily, Hamilton, Monty II, p. 311. and had spoken out against the somewhat risky proposal to drop the 81st Airborne into Rome. Hamilton, Monty II, p. 399. Some contemporaries in the Allied Airborne headquarters criticised Montgomery's unwillingness to concentrate airborne forces in sufficient numbers, and his willingness to retain them in the line after drops, leading one to complain to Eisenhower of his "evident misconception of the use of airborne forces". Brereton, p. 391. Nonetheless, as some writers have highlighted, there was a powerful political driver, particularly in Washington, for the use of the expensive airborne in just this sort of operation. Ryan, p. 89. Another area of criticism focuses on the opportunity cost of Market Garden. As a result of the concentration on Market Garden, the Scheldt estuary, which surrounded the vital port of Antwerp was not cleared. In the autumn of 1944 the Allies required a port to shorten their supply lines and allow supplies to be brought in for the advance into Germany. It also meant that the Germans could reinforce their defensive lines in Holland, blocking one main axis of advance into their homeland. Montgomery pleaded the difficulties of continual fighting in prior weeks and logistical problems, but one side effect of the of Market Garden was the escape of the German 15th Army and lengthy operations to clear the Scheldt. Critics have termed it "Montgomery's most agonising failure",, Montgomery the Field-Marshal R.W.Thompson, Allen & Unwin (1969) although other writers have concurred with Montgomery's own estimate that by late 1944, Eisenhower's "broad front" policy was already unravelling in the face of changing circumstances and that bolder initiatives like Market Garden were inevitable. See for example Ryan, p. 71. Nonetheless, even Montgomery himself later noted that this was "a bad mistake — I underestimated the difficulty of opening up the approaches to Antwerp ... I reckoned that the Canadian Army could do it while we were going for the Ruhr. I was wrong." Weakness as a strategist In Eisenhower's Lieutenants, historian Russell F. Weigley offers this criticism of Montgomery as a strategist: Field Marshal Montgomery almost never paid so much as lip service to the dictum that the destruction of the enemy forces is the object of military strategy. ... Montgomery's aggressiveness was that of the energetic fencer, not that of the general who annihilates enemy armies, of Napoleon, of Grant, or of Moltke. Weigley (1981), p. 566 A 1984 Encyclopedia Britannica article sums up Montgomery's generalship in ambiguous terms, reflecting both the perception of his 'over-cautious' approach, but also his reputation for leadership and popularity as a 'soldier's general': A cautious, thorough strategist, Montgomery largely eschewed military innovation. Instead he insisted on complete readiness of both men and material before attempting a strike, a policy that exasperated his superiors, but produced several successes in battle, and his ensured popularity with the men. Encyclopedia Britannica, 15ed, Micropedia, 1984 "Montgomery, Bernard, 1st Viscount of Alamein," Quotation "The U.S. has broken the second rule of war. That is, don't go fighting with your land army on the mainland of Asia. Rule One is don't march on Moscow. I developed these two rules myself." (spoken of the US approach to the Vietnam War) Quoted in Chalfont's Montgomery of Alamein. Chalfont, (1976), "Well, now I must go to meet God and try to explain all those men I killed at Alamein." (Field Marshal Montgomery in 1976 quoted in The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition) "We could not have won the battle (El Alamein) in twelve days without that magnificent 9th Australian Division." (Montgomery speaking a few days after the conclusion of the Allied breakthrough in North Africa) See also Famous military commanders Western Desert Campaign North African Campaign Afrika Korps Panzer Army Africa M. E. Clifton James (Montgomery's double during the war) Irish military diaspora References Bibliography Bierman, John & Smith, Colin. Alamien: War without hate. Pengiun Group. 2002 ISBN 0-670-91109-7 Brett-James, Anthony, Conversations with Montgomery, Irwin Pub., 1984. ISBN 978-0718305314 Bungay, Stephen, Alamein, Auram, 2002. ISBN 978-1854109293 Chalfont, Arthur Gwynne Jones, Montgomery of Alamein, Atheneum, 1976. ISBN 978-0689107443 D'Este, Carlo. Decision in Normandy: The Unwritten Story of Montgomery and the Allied Campaign. London: William Collins Sons, 1983. ISBN 0002170566. Barnett, Corelli, The Desert Generals, Cassell, 1960. ISBN 978-0304352807 Dixon, Norman, On the Psychology of Military Incompetence, Pimlico, 1976. ISBN 978-0712658898 Fraser, David, And We Shall Shock Them: The British Army in World War II, Sceptre, 1988. ISBN 978-0340426371 Hamilton, Nigel, The Full Monty: Montgomery of Alamein 1887–1942, London: Allen Lane, 2001. ISBN 0-7139-9334-0 Hamilton, Nigel, Monty: Master of the Battlefield Hamish Hamilton, 1984. ISBN 978-0241111048 Heathcote, Tony, The British Field Marshals 1736-1997, Pen & Sword Books Ltd, 1999. ISBN 0-85052-696-5 Hastings, Max, Armageddon: The Battle for Germany, 1944-1945, Knopf, 2004. ISBN 0375414339 Lattimer, Jon, Alamein, John Murray, 2002. ISBN 978-0674013766 McKee, Alexander, Caen: Anvil of Victory, 1984. ISBN 978-0333383131 Montgomery, Bernard Law,A Concise History of Warfare, 1968. ISBN 978-1840222234 Montgomery, Bernard Law, The Path to Leadership, 1957. Neillands, Robin, The Battle for the Rhine 1944, 2005. ISBN 978-1590200285 Sheehan, William, British Voices from the Irish War of Independence, 2005. ISBN 978-1905172375 Schultz, James. A framework for military decision making under risks. Thesis, Air University, Maxwell Airforce Base, Alabama, 1998. Weigley, Russel F., Eisenhower's Lieutenants, Bloomington, IN: Indiana Univ. Press, 1981. ISBN 0-253-13333-5 Notes Explanatory notes Citations External links Retrieved on 2009-03-04 Biography: Bernard Law Montgomery: jewishvirtuallibrary.org | Bernard_Montgomery,_1st_Viscount_Montgomery_of_Alamein |@lemmatized field:14 marshal:15 bernard:13 law:5 montgomery:226 viscount:9 alamein:24 kg:1 gcb:1 dso:1 pc:1 november:4 march:6 often:7 refer:2 monty:7 anglo:4 irish:7 british:39 army:70 officer:20 successfully:2 command:38 allied:17 force:39 battle:52 el:12 major:13 turn:5 point:9 western:5 desert:9 campaign:16 world:14 war:48 ii:10 troop:14 play:2 role:6 expulsion:1 axis:3 north:19 africa:14 later:5 prominent:1 commander:47 italy:7 west:5 europe:6 ally:10 ground:10 operation:32 overlord:3 normandy:21 early:6 life:7 bear:4 kennington:2 london:7 fourth:1 child:3 nine:1 anglican:1 priest:3 reverend:1 henry:6 maud:3 née:1 farrar:2 time:17 vicar:1 st:6 mark:3 second:12 son:4 noted:1 indian:3 administrator:1 sir:4 robert:2 die:5 month:6 birth:1 mother:3 daughter:1 well:10 know:3 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6,168 | Neptunium | Neptunium () is a chemical element with the symbol Np and atomic number 93. A radioactive metallic element, neptunium is the first transuranic element and belongs to the actinide series. Its most stable isotope, 237Np, is a by-product of nuclear reactors and plutonium production and it can be used as a component in neutron detection equipment. Neptunium is also found in trace amounts in uranium ores due to transmutation reactions. Characteristics Silvery in appearance, neptunium metal is fairly chemically reactive and is found in at least three allotropes: alpha-neptunium, orthorhombic, density 20.45 g/cm³ beta-neptunium (above 280 °C), tetragonal, density (313 °C) 19.36 g/cm³ gamma-neptunium (above 577 °C), cubic, density (600 °C) 18 g/cm³ Compounds This element has four ionic oxidation states while in solution: Np3+ (pale purple), analogous to the rare earth ion Pm3+ Np4+ (yellow green) NpO2+ (green blue) NpO22+ (pale pink) Neptunium forms tri- and tetrahalides such as NpF3, NpF4, NpCl4, NpBr3, NpI3, and oxides of the various compositions such as are found in the uranium-oxygen system, including Np3O8 and NpO2. Neptunium(V) fluoride, NpF5, is volatile like uranium hexafluoride. Neptunium, like other actinides, readily forms a dioxide neptunyl core (NpO2), which readily complexes with carbonate as well as other oxygen moieties (OH−, NO2−, NO3−, and SO42−) to form charged complexes which tend to be readily mobile with low affinities to soil. NpO2(OH)2− NpO2(CO3)− NpO2(CO3)23− NpO2(CO3)35− Uses Precursor in Plutonium-238 Production 237Np is irradiated with neutrons to create 238Pu, a rare and valuable isotope for spacecraft and military applications. 237Np will capture a neutron to form 238Np and beta decay with a half life of two days to 238Pu. Weapons applications Neptunium is fissionable, and could theoretically be used as fuel in a fast neutron reactor or a nuclear weapon. In 1992, the U.S. Department of Energy declassified the statement that Np-237 "can be used for a nuclear explosive device". "Restricted Data Declassification Decisions from 1946 until Present", accessed Sept 23, 2006 It is not believed that an actual weapon has ever been constructed using neptunium. In September 2002, researchers at the University of California Los Alamos National Laboratory created the first known nuclear critical mass using neptunium in combination with enriched uranium, discovering that the critical mass of neptunium is around 60 kg , showing that it "is about as good a bomb material as U-235." US officials in March 2004, planned to move the nation's supply of separated neptunium to a site in Nevada. Other Neptunium is also used in Neutron detection devices. History Neptunium (named for the planet Neptune, the next planet out from Uranus, after which uranium was named) was first discovered by Edwin McMillan and Philip H. Abelson in the year 1940 in Berkeley, California. E. McMillan, P. H. Abelson: "Radioactive Element 93", in: Physical Review 1940, 57, 1185–1186; . Initially predicted by Walter Russell's "spiral" organization of the periodic table, it was found at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory of the University of California, Berkeley where the team produced the neptunium isotope 239Np (2.4 day half-life) by bombarding uranium with slow moving neutrons. It was the first transuranium element produced synthetically and the first actinide series transuranium element discovered. Occurrence Trace amounts of neptunium are found naturally as decay products from transmutation reactions in uranium ores. Artificial 237Np is produced through the reduction of 237NpF3 with barium or lithium vapor at around 1200 °C and is most often extracted from spent nuclear fuel rods as a by-product in plutonium production. 2 + 3 Ba → 2 Np + 3 By weight, neptunium-237 discharges are about 5 % as great as plutonium discharges and about 0.05 % of spent nuclear fuel discharges. http://www.isis-online.org/publications/fmct/book/New%20chapter%205.pdf Synthesis Chemically, neptunium is prepared by the reduction of NpF3 with barium or lithium vapor at about 1200 °C, however, most Np is produced in nuclear reactions: When an 235U atom captures a neutron, it is converted to an excited state of 236U. About 81 % of the excited 236U nuclei undergo fission, but the remainder decay to the ground state of 236U by emitting gamma radiation. Further neutron capture creates 237U which has a half-life of 7 days and thus quickly decays to 237Np. 237U is also produced via an (n,2n) reaction with 238U. This only happens with very energetic neutrons. 237Np is the product of alpha decay of 241Am. Since nearly all neptunium is produced in this way or consists of heavier isotopes which decay quickly, one gets nearly pure 237Np by chemical separation of neptunium from spent nuclear fuel. Role in nuclear waste Neptunium-237 is the most mobile actinide in the deep geological repository environment. http://www.fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00818052.pdf This makes it and its predecessors such as americium-241 candidates of interest for destruction by nuclear transmutation. C. Rodriguez, A. Baxtera, D. McEacherna, M. Fikania and F. Venneri: "Deep-Burn: making nuclear waste transmutation practical", Nuclear Engineering and Design, Volume 222, Issues 2–3, June 2003, Pages 299-317; . Neptunium accumulates in commercial household ionization-chamber smoke detectors from decay of the (typically) 0.2 microgram) of americium-241 initially present as a source of ionizing radiation. With a half-life of 432 years, the americium-241 in a smoke detector includes about 5 % neptunium after 22 years, and about 10 % after 43 years. After the 432-year americium-241 half-life, a smoke detector's original americium would be more than half neptunium. Due to its long half life neptunium becomes the major contributor of the total radiation in 10000 years. As it is unclear what happens to the containment in that long time span a extraction of the neptunium would minimize the contamination of the environment if the nuclear waste could be mobilized after several thousand years. Isotopes 19 neptunium radioisotopes have been characterized, with the most stable being 237Np with a half-life of 2.14 million years, 236Np with a half-life of 154,000 years, and 235Np with a half-life of 396.1 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 4.5 days, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 50 minutes. This element also has 4 meta states, with the most stable being 236mNp (t½ 22.5 hours). The isotopes of neptunium range in atomic weight from 225.0339 u (225Np) to 244.068 u (244Np). The primary decay mode before the most stable isotope, 237Np, is electron capture (with a good deal of alpha emission), and the primary mode after is beta emission. The primary decay products before 237Np are element 92 (uranium) isotopes (alpha emission produces element 91, protactinium, however) and the primary products after are element 94 (plutonium) isotopes. 237Np is fissionable. 237Np eventually decays to form bismuth-209, unlike most other common heavy nuclei which decay to make isotopes of lead. This decay chain is known as the neptunium series. Neptunium in popular culture When Confederate scientists in Harry Turtledove's Southern Victory Series of alternate-history novels, discover the 93rd element they dub it "saturnium". When American and British scientists learn of the element, they call it "neptunium" and "mosleyium" (after Henry Moseley) respectively. References Literature Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1 Lester R. Morss, Norman M. Edelstein, Jean Fuger (Hrsg.): The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements, Springer-Verlag, Dordrecht 2006, ISBN 1-4020-3555-1. Ida Noddack: "Über das Element 93", in: Angewandte Chemie 1934, 47, 653–655. External links WebElements.com – Neptunium (also used as a reference) Lab builds world's first neptunium sphere, U.S. Department of Energy Research News NLM Hazardous Substances Databank – Neptunium, Radioactive Los Alamos National Laboratory's Chemistry Division: Periodic Table – Neptunium Neptunium: Human Health Fact Sheet C&EN: It's Elemental: The Periodic Table – Neptunium | Neptunium |@lemmatized neptunium:40 chemical:2 element:16 symbol:1 np:4 atomic:2 number:1 radioactive:4 metallic:1 first:6 transuranic:1 belongs:1 actinide:5 series:4 stable:4 isotope:9 product:6 nuclear:13 reactor:2 plutonium:5 production:3 use:7 component:1 neutron:9 detection:2 equipment:1 also:5 find:5 trace:2 amount:2 uranium:8 ore:2 due:2 transmutation:4 reaction:4 characteristic:1 silvery:1 appearance:1 metal:1 fairly:1 chemically:2 reactive:1 least:1 three:1 allotrope:1 alpha:4 orthorhombic:1 density:3 g:3 beta:3 c:8 tetragonal:1 gamma:2 cubic:1 compound:1 four:1 ionic:1 oxidation:1 state:4 solution:1 pale:2 purple:1 analogous:1 rare:2 earth:1 ion:1 yellow:1 green:2 blue:1 pink:1 form:5 tri:1 tetrahalide:1 oxide:1 various:1 composition:1 oxygen:2 system:1 include:2 v:1 fluoride:1 volatile:1 like:2 hexafluoride:1 readily:3 dioxide:1 neptunyl:1 core:1 complexes:1 carbonate:1 well:1 moiety:1 oh:2 charge:1 complex:1 tend:1 mobile:2 low:1 affinity:1 soil:1 us:1 precursor:1 irradiate:1 create:3 valuable:1 spacecraft:1 military:1 application:2 capture:4 decay:12 half:12 life:10 two:1 day:5 weapon:3 fissionable:2 could:2 theoretically:1 fuel:4 fast:1 u:6 department:2 energy:2 declassify:1 statement:1 explosive:1 device:2 restrict:1 data:1 declassification:1 decision:1 present:2 access:1 sept:1 believe:1 actual:1 ever:1 construct:1 september:1 researcher:1 university:3 california:3 los:2 alamos:2 national:2 laboratory:3 know:2 critical:2 mass:2 combination:1 enriched:1 discover:4 around:2 kg:1 show:1 good:2 bomb:1 material:1 official:1 march:1 plan:1 move:2 nation:1 supply:1 separated:1 site:1 nevada:1 history:2 name:2 planet:2 neptune:1 next:1 uranus:1 edwin:1 mcmillan:2 philip:1 h:2 abelson:2 year:9 berkeley:3 e:1 p:1 physical:1 review:1 initially:2 predict:1 walter:1 russell:1 spiral:1 organization:1 periodic:3 table:3 radiation:4 team:1 produce:7 bombard:1 slow:1 transuranium:2 synthetically:1 occurrence:1 naturally:1 artificial:1 reduction:2 barium:2 lithium:2 vapor:2 often:1 extract:1 spent:3 rod:1 ba:1 weight:2 discharge:3 great:1 http:2 www:2 isi:1 online:1 org:2 publication:1 fmct:1 book:1 new:1 pdf:2 synthesis:1 prepare:1 however:2 atom:1 convert:1 excited:2 nuclei:1 undergo:1 fission:1 remainder:1 ground:1 emit:1 thus:1 quickly:2 via:1 n:1 happen:2 energetic:1 since:1 nearly:2 way:1 consists:1 heavy:2 one:1 get:1 pure:1 separation:1 role:1 waste:3 deep:2 geological:1 repository:1 environment:2 fa:1 sgp:1 othergov:1 doe:1 lanl:1 pub:1 make:2 predecessor:1 americium:5 candidate:1 interest:1 destruction:1 rodriguez:1 baxtera:1 mceacherna:1 fikania:1 f:1 venneri:1 burn:1 making:1 practical:1 engineering:1 design:1 volume:1 issue:1 june:1 page:1 accumulate:1 commercial:1 household:1 ionization:1 chamber:1 smoke:3 detector:3 typically:1 microgram:1 source:1 ionize:1 original:1 would:2 long:2 become:1 major:1 contributor:1 total:1 unclear:1 containment:1 time:1 span:1 extraction:1 minimize:1 contamination:1 mobilize:1 several:1 thousand:1 isotopes:2 radioisotope:1 characterize:1 million:1 remain:1 less:2 majority:1 live:1 minute:1 meta:1 hour:1 range:1 primary:4 mode:2 electron:1 deal:1 emission:3 protactinium:1 eventually:1 bismuth:1 unlike:1 common:1 nucleus:1 lead:1 chain:1 popular:1 culture:1 confederate:1 scientist:2 harry:1 turtledove:1 southern:1 victory:1 alternate:1 novel:1 dub:1 saturnium:1 american:1 british:1 learn:1 call:1 mosleyium:1 henry:1 moseley:1 respectively:1 reference:2 literature:1 guide:1 revise:1 edition:1 albert:1 stwertka:1 oxford:1 press:1 isbn:2 lester:1 r:1 mors:1 norman:1 edelstein:1 jean:1 fuger:1 hrsg:1 chemistry:2 transactinide:1 springer:1 verlag:1 dordrecht:1 ida:1 noddack:1 über:1 da:1 angewandte:1 chemie:1 external:1 links:1 webelements:1 com:1 lab:1 build:1 world:1 sphere:1 research:1 news:1 nlm:1 hazardous:1 substance:1 databank:1 division:1 human:1 health:1 fact:1 sheet:1 en:1 elemental:1 |@bigram transuranic_element:1 stable_isotope:2 nuclear_reactor:1 uranium_ore:2 chemically_reactive:1 beta_decay:1 nuclear_weapon:1 los_alamos:2 alamos_national:2 enriched_uranium:1 periodic_table:3 bombard_uranium:1 transuranium_element:2 http_www:2 gamma_radiation:1 alpha_decay:1 ionization_chamber:1 smoke_detector:3 ionize_radiation:1 radioisotope_characterize:1 radioactive_isotope:1 harry_turtledove:1 albert_stwertka:1 stwertka_oxford:1 springer_verlag:1 ida_noddack:1 über_da:1 external_links:1 webelements_com:1 |
6,169 | Cheese_Shop_sketch | John Cleese (right) and Michael Palin (left) of Monty Python performing the Cheese Shop sketch.The Cheese Shop is a well-known sketch from Monty Python's Flying Circus. It appears in episode 33, "Salad Days". The script for the sketch is included in the book The Complete Monty Python's Flying Circus : All the Words, Volume 2 Summary John Cleese plays an erudite customer attempting to purchase some cheese from The National Cheese Emporium, purveyor of fine cheese to the gentry (and the poverty-stricken too). The proprietor, Mr. Henry Wensleydale (Michael Palin), appears to have no stock, not even cheddar, "the single most popular cheese in the world". A slow crescendo of bouzouki music plays in the background (for which Cleese initially expresses appreciation), but as the sketch progresses it mirrors Cleese's growing anger until he loudly demands the music cease. As Cleese lists increasingly obscure, unsavory, and, in one instance fictional, cheeses to no avail, the proprietor offers trite excuses such as "Ohh! The cat's eaten it." When Palin finally admits that there is no cheese, Cleese peremptorily shoots him, then muses, "What a senseless waste of human life!". He then puts on a Stetson, and the sketch segues into Sam Peckinpah's Rogue Cheddar and a link to further Peckinpah parodies. Cheeses Forty-two cheeses are mentioned in the original skit. In the audio version on The Monty Python Matching Tie and Handkerchief (MT&H) album and other live and recorded versions, Cleese also mentions Greek feta. Table legend Color coding of table entries: Original Cheese is mentioned in the Original sketch Other Cheese is not mentioned in the Original sketch One sentence Cheeses are mentioned in one sentence, with only one reply Table of Cheeses The table that follows lists the cheeses mentioned, in order of appearance, the reason given as to why they are unavailable to be purchased, as well as the source (Original sketch, other version(s)) in which that cheese was mentioned. Cheese Reason not available Source Red Leicester “...we're fresh out...” Original Tilsit “Never at the end of the week, sir. Always get it fresh first thing on Monday." Original Caerphilly "Ah well, it's been on order for two weeks, sir, I was expecting it this morning." Original Bel Paese “Sorry.” Original Red Windsor “Normally, sir, yes, but today the van broke down.” Original Stilton “Sorry.” Original Gruyère “No.” Original Emmental “No.” Original Norwegian Jarlsberger “No.” Original Liptauer “No.” Original Lancashire “No.” Original White Stilton “No.” Original Danish Blue “No.” Original Double Gloucester <pause> “No.” Original Cheshire “No.” Original Dorset Blue Vinney “No.” Original Brie “No.” Original Roquefort “No.” Original Pont l'Evêque “No.” Original Port Salut “No.” Original Savoyard Dorset Blue Vinney “No.” Original Saint-Paulin “No.” Original Carré de l'Est “No.” Original Bresse-Bleu “No.” Original Boursin “No.” Original Camembert “Ah! We do have some Camembert, sir......It's a bit runny, sir....'Well as a matter of fact it's very runny, sir....I think it's runnier than you like it, sir...Yes, sir." (bends below counter and reappears) "Oh...The cat's eaten it." Original Gouda “No.” Original Edam “No.” Original Caithness “No.” Original Smoked Austrian “No.” Original Japanese Sage Derby “No.” Original Wensleydale “Yes. ... Oh, I'm sorry sir, I thought you were reffering to me, Mr Wensleydale.” Original Greek Feta “Ah, not as such.” MT&H Gorgonzola “No.” Original Parmesan “No.” Original Mozzarella “No.” Original Pipo Crem' ChefsRef Encyclopedia - Cheese French “No.” Original Danish Fynbo (Tybo) Epicurious Food Dictionary - Tybo cheese “No.” Original Czech sheep's milk cheese “No.” Original Venezuelan Beaver Cheese “Not today sir, no.” Original Cheddar “Well, I'm afraid we don't get much call for it around these parts.” Original Ilchester “I'll have a look sir.” <looks around beneath counter> “No.” Original Limburger “No.” Original "Venezuelan Beaver Cheese" is fictitious but, despite this, recipes for it have since been published, and one online cheese store lists it as an item that is out of stock Venissimo Cheese venissimo.com venezuelan beaver cheese . It has also been mentioned in Monty Python's The Meaning of Life (PC game), Sierra's computer adventure game Leisure Suit Larry 7, and in the webcomic Triangle and Robert. Pastiches and parodies The sketch was reworked for The Brand New Monty Python Bok, becoming a two-player word game in which one player must keep naming different cheeses while the other player must keep coming up with different excuses otherwise "the Customer wins and may punch the Shopkeeper in the teeth". In an episode of The Young Ones, Alexei Sayle rushes into a shop (while performing a silly walk), and asks if it is a cheese shop. Rik Mayall, the Palinesque proprietor, replies "No, sir." The punchline is "Well, that's that sketch knackered then, innit?" David Welbourn wrote a text adventure game called "Cheeseshop" which is available at the Interactive Fiction Archive. The "Asian Bride Shop" sketch in an episode of Goodness Gracious Me substitutes descriptions of types of brides. At the end, another customer enters, complaining that his bride is dead - a reference to the Dead Parrot sketch. A pastiche circulated in 2004 to parody the SCO v. IBM lawsuit. The judge, taking Cleese's role, inquires of the Palinesque attorney for The SCO Group as to the evidence he will be presenting for his suit, only to discover after a similar line of questioning that SCO has no evidence at all. The script was a sharp attack on the quality of the SCO lawsuit, implying that it was exceedingly frivolous. In the webcomic The Order of the Stick, it's a polearm shop which has no stock. The characters also work in the Spam sketch, by including the Glaive in the names of polearms until the shop owner says, "I think you're drifting into another sketch, sir." Also noted is that in the bottom of the panel a cat drags out a dead parrot and a python. In the "Weird Al" Yankovic song "Albuquerque", it is a doughnut shop. The scene ends when the shopkeeper reveals that all he has is a "box of one dozen starving, crazed weasels" which the main character purchases, opens and is attacked by. The cartoon Histeria! depicts the Boston Tea Party, in which a fake tea shop is set up to distract a British guard. Each time the guard asks for a type of tea, there is a splash heard off screen, and the American says they're out, implying that each particular tea had just been thrown into the harbour. References External links The sketch on YouTube An audio web page that includes the rolling text Transcript from The Instant Monty Python Record Collection A site dedicated to photos and tastings of the mentioned cheeses. | Cheese_Shop_sketch |@lemmatized john:2 cleese:8 right:1 michael:2 palin:3 leave:1 monty:7 python:8 perform:2 cheese:28 shop:9 sketch:15 well:6 know:1 fly:2 circus:2 appear:2 episode:3 salad:1 day:1 script:2 include:3 book:1 complete:1 word:2 volume:1 summary:1 play:2 erudite:1 customer:3 attempt:1 purchase:3 national:1 emporium:1 purveyor:1 fine:1 gentry:1 poverty:1 stricken:1 proprietor:3 mr:2 henry:1 wensleydale:3 stock:3 even:1 cheddar:3 single:1 popular:1 world:1 slow:1 crescendo:1 bouzouki:1 music:2 background:1 initially:1 express:1 appreciation:1 progress:1 mirror:1 grow:1 anger:1 loudly:1 demand:1 cease:1 list:3 increasingly:1 obscure:1 unsavory:1 one:8 instance:1 fictional:1 avail:1 offer:1 trite:1 excuse:2 ohh:1 cat:3 eat:2 finally:1 admit:1 peremptorily:1 shoot:1 muse:1 senseless:1 waste:1 human:1 life:2 put:1 stetson:1 segue:1 sam:1 peckinpah:2 rogue:1 link:2 parody:3 forty:1 two:3 mention:8 original:47 skit:1 audio:2 version:3 match:1 tie:1 handkerchief:1 mt:2 h:2 album:1 live:1 recorded:1 also:4 greek:2 feta:2 table:4 legend:1 color:1 coding:1 entry:1 sentence:2 reply:2 follow:1 order:3 appearance:1 reason:2 give:1 unavailable:1 source:2 available:2 red:2 leicester:1 fresh:2 tilsit:1 never:1 end:3 week:2 sir:13 always:1 get:2 first:1 thing:1 monday:1 caerphilly:1 ah:3 expect:1 morning:1 bel:1 paese:1 sorry:3 windsor:1 normally:1 yes:3 today:2 van:1 break:1 stilton:2 gruyère:1 emmental:1 norwegian:1 jarlsberger:1 liptauer:1 lancashire:1 white:1 danish:2 blue:3 double:1 gloucester:1 pause:1 cheshire:1 dorset:2 vinney:2 brie:1 roquefort:1 pont:1 l:2 evêque:1 port:1 salut:1 savoyard:1 saint:1 paulin:1 carré:1 de:1 est:1 bresse:1 bleu:1 boursin:1 camembert:2 bit:1 runny:3 matter:1 fact:1 think:3 like:1 bend:1 counter:2 reappears:1 oh:2 gouda:1 edam:1 caithness:1 smoke:1 austrian:1 japanese:1 sage:1 derby:1 reffering:1 gorgonzola:1 parmesan:1 mozzarella:1 pipo:1 crem:1 chefsref:1 encyclopedia:1 french:1 fynbo:1 tybo:2 epicurious:1 food:1 dictionary:1 czech:1 sheep:1 milk:1 venezuelan:3 beaver:3 afraid:1 much:1 call:2 around:2 part:1 ilchester:1 look:2 beneath:1 limburger:1 fictitious:1 despite:1 recipes:1 since:1 publish:1 online:1 store:1 item:1 venissimo:2 com:1 meaning:1 pc:1 game:4 sierra:1 computer:1 adventure:2 leisure:1 suit:2 larry:1 webcomic:2 triangle:1 robert:1 pastiche:2 rework:1 brand:1 new:1 bok:1 become:1 player:3 must:2 keep:2 name:2 different:2 come:1 otherwise:1 win:1 may:1 punch:1 shopkeeper:2 teeth:1 young:1 alexei:1 sayle:1 rush:1 silly:1 walk:1 ask:2 rik:1 mayall:1 palinesque:2 punchline:1 knackered:1 innit:1 david:1 welbourn:1 write:1 text:2 cheeseshop:1 interactive:1 fiction:1 archive:1 asian:1 bride:3 goodness:1 gracious:1 substitute:1 description:1 type:2 another:2 enters:1 complain:1 dead:3 reference:2 parrot:2 circulate:1 sco:4 v:1 ibm:1 lawsuit:2 judge:1 take:1 role:1 inquires:1 attorney:1 group:1 evidence:2 present:1 discover:1 similar:1 line:1 question:1 sharp:1 attack:2 quality:1 imply:2 exceedingly:1 frivolous:1 stick:1 polearm:1 character:2 work:1 spam:1 glaive:1 polearms:1 owner:1 say:2 drift:1 note:1 bottom:1 panel:1 drag:1 weird:1 al:1 yankovic:1 song:1 albuquerque:1 doughnut:1 scene:1 reveal:1 box:1 dozen:1 starving:1 craze:1 weasel:1 main:1 open:1 cartoon:1 histeria:1 depict:1 boston:1 tea:4 party:1 fake:1 set:1 distract:1 british:1 guard:2 time:1 splash:1 heard:1 screen:1 american:1 particular:1 throw:1 harbour:1 external:1 youtube:1 web:1 page:1 roll:1 transcript:1 instant:1 record:1 collection:1 site:1 dedicate:1 photo:1 tasting:1 mentioned:1 |@bigram michael_palin:2 monty_python:7 sketch_monty:1 fly_circus:2 poverty_stricken:1 sam_peckinpah:1 milk_cheese:1 silly_walk:1 rik_mayall:1 dead_parrot:2 parrot_sketch:1 al_yankovic:1 external_link:1 |
6,170 | Kuiper's_test | Kuiper's test is a statistics' test named after Dutch mathematician Nicolaas Kuiper that compares two distributions. Kuiper's test is closely related to the more well-known Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (or K-S test as it is often called). As with the K-S test, the discrepancy statistics D+ and D− represent the maximum deviation above and below of the two cumulative distribution functions being compared. The trick with Kuiper's test is to use the quantity D+ + D− as the test statistic. This small change makes Kuiper's test as sensitive in the tails as at the median and also makes it invariant under cyclic transformations of the independent variable. The Anderson-Darling test is another test that provides equal sensitivity at the tails as the median, but it does not provide the cyclic invariance. This invariance under cyclic transformations makes Kuiper's test invaluable when testing for variations by time of year or day of the week or time of day. One example would be to test the hypothesis that computers fail more during some times of the year than others. To test this, we would collect the dates on which the test set of computers had failed and build an empirical distribution function. The null hypothesis is that the failures are uniformly distributed. Kuiper's statistic does not change if we change the beginning of the year and does not require that we bin failures into months or the like. However, this test tends to miss the fact that failures occur only on weekends, since weekends are spread throughout the year. This inability to distinguish distributions with a comb-like shape from continuous distributions is a key problem with all statistics based on a variant of the K-S test. References | Kuiper's_test |@lemmatized kuiper:7 test:18 statistic:5 name:1 dutch:1 mathematician:1 nicolaas:1 compare:2 two:2 distribution:5 closely:1 relate:1 well:1 know:1 kolmogorov:1 smirnov:1 k:3 often:1 call:1 discrepancy:1 represent:1 maximum:1 deviation:1 cumulative:1 function:2 trick:1 use:1 quantity:1 small:1 change:3 make:3 sensitive:1 tail:2 median:2 also:1 invariant:1 cyclic:3 transformation:2 independent:1 variable:1 anderson:1 darling:1 another:1 provide:2 equal:1 sensitivity:1 invariance:2 invaluable:1 variation:1 time:3 year:4 day:2 week:1 one:1 example:1 would:2 hypothesis:2 computer:2 fail:2 others:1 collect:1 date:1 set:1 build:1 empirical:1 null:1 failure:2 uniformly:1 distribute:1 beginning:1 require:1 bin:1 month:1 like:2 however:1 tend:1 miss:1 fact:1 failures:1 occur:1 weekend:2 since:1 spread:1 throughout:1 inability:1 distinguish:1 comb:1 shape:1 continuous:1 key:1 problem:1 base:1 variant:1 reference:1 |@bigram closely_relate:1 kolmogorov_smirnov:1 cumulative_distribution:1 uniformly_distribute:1 |
6,171 | Devo | Devo ( , originally dee-VOH) The DEVO FAQ, Info from Jerry Casale , often spelled DEVO or DEV-O, is an American rock group formed in Akron, Ohio in 1973. They are best known for their 1980 hit "Whip It", which made it to #14 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart. Their style has been variously classified as punk, art rock and post-punk, but they are most often remembered for their late 1970s and early 1980s New Wave sound. Devo's music and stage show mingle kitsch science fiction themes, deadpan surrealist humor, and mordantly satirical social commentary via sometimes-discordant pop songs that often feature unusual synthetic instrumentation and time signatures, and their work has proved hugely influential on subsequent popular music, particularly New Wave, industrial and alternative rock artists. Devo was also a pioneer of the music video, creating many memorable clips for the Laser Disc format Interview with Devo , with "Whip It" getting heavy airplay in the early days of MTV. Their use of the video medium dates right back to their very first appearance on stage at Kent State University in 1973, which was recorded with an early black-and-white portable video system. They were also one of the first groups in the world to regularly use radio microphones and wireless guitar amplifiers on stage. History Early years The name "Devo" comes "from their concept of 'de-evolution' - the idea that instead of evolving, mankind has actually regressed, as evidenced by the dysfunction and herd mentality of American society." Devo Bio ClubDevo.com, Retrieved September 11, 2007 This idea was developed as a joke by Kent State University art students Gerald Casale and Bob Lewis as early as the late 1960s. Casale and Lewis created a number of art pieces in a vein of devolution satirically. At this time, Casale had also performed with the local band 15-60-75. They met Mark Mothersbaugh around 1970, who introduced them to the pamphlet Jocko Homo Heavenbound, which includes an illustration of a winged devil labeled "D-EVOLUTION" and would later inspire the song "Jocko Homo". The first form of Devo was the "Sextet Devo" which performed at the 1973 Kent State performing arts festival. It included Casale, Lewis and Mothersbaugh, as well as Gerald's brother Bob Casale on guitar, and friends Rod Reisman and Fred Weber on drums and vocals, respectively. This performance was filmed and a part was included on the home video The Complete Truth About De-evolution. This lineup only performed once. Devo returned to perform in the Student Governance Center (featured prominently in the film) at the 1974 Creative Arts Festival with a line-up including the Casale brothers, Bob Lewis, Mark Mothersbaugh, and Jim Mothersbaugh on drums. Devo later formed as a quartet focusing around Mark Mothersbaugh and Gerald Casale. They recruited Mark's brothers Bob Mothersbaugh and Jim Mothersbaugh. Bob played electric guitar, and Jim provided percussion using a set of homemade electronic drums. This lineup of Devo lasted until 1976 when Jim left the band. The lineup was occasionally fluid, and Bob Lewis would sometimes play guitar during this period. In concert, Devo would often perform in the guise of theatrical characters, such as Booji Boy, and The Chinaman. Live concerts from this period were often confrontational, and would remain so until 1977. A recording of an early Devo performance from 1975 with the quartet lineup appears on DEVO Live: The Mongoloid Years, ending with the promoters unplugging Devo's equipment. Following Jim Mothersbaugh's departure, Bob Mothersbaugh found a new drummer in Alan Myers, who played a conventional, acoustic drum set with mechanical precision. Casale re-recruited his brother Bob Casale, and the popular line-up of Devo was formed. It would endure for nearly ten years. 1975–1980 Devo's gained some fame in 1976 when their short film The Truth About De-Evolution won a prize at the Ann Arbor Film Festival. In 1977 Devo were asked by Neil Young to participate in the making of his film Human Highway. Oh Yes, It’s Devo: An Interview with Jerry Casale Brian L. Knight, The Vermont Review, Retrieved December 15, 2007 Released in 1982, the film featured the band as "Nuclear garbagepersons." The band members were asked to write their own parts and Mark Mothersbaugh scored and recorded much of the soundtrack, his first of many. Interview, April 25, 2001 at liveDaily.com Retrieved September 5, 2007 Devo had also caught the attention of David Bowie and Iggy Pop, who championed the band and enabled Devo to secure a recording contract with Warner Bros. Records. By this time Alan Myers had replaced Jim Mothersbaugh as drummer. After Bowie backed out due to previous commitments, their first album, Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo! was produced by Brian Eno and featured a radical cover of the Rolling Stones' "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" and the controversially titled "Mongoloid". Devo gained national exposure with an appearance on Saturday Night Live, one week after the Rolling Stones, performing "Satisfaction" and "Jocko Homo." The band followed up with Duty Now for the Future in 1979, which moved the band more towards electronic instrumentation. While not as successful as their first record, it did produce some fan favorites with the songs "Blockhead" and "The Day My Baby Gave Me a Surprise", as well as a re-recorded version of "Secret Agent Man". "Secret Agent Man" had been recorded first in 1974 for Devo's first film and performed live as early as 1976. 1979 also brought Devo to Japan for the first time, and a live show from this tour was partially recorded. Devo also appeared on Don Kirshner's Rock Concert in 1979, performing "Blockhead", "Secret Agent Man", and "Mongoloid". During this period, Lewis successfully sued the band for theft of intellectual property. Devo gained a new level of visibility with 1980's Freedom of Choice which included their best-known hit, "Whip It", which immediately became a Top 40 hit. The album moved to an almost completely electronic sound, with the exception of acoustic drums and Bob 1's guitar. The tour for "Freedom of Choice" featured the band performing in front of large custom light boxes which could be laid on their back to form a second, smaller stage during the second half of the set. Other popular songs from "Freedom of Choice" were "Girl U Want," the title track (both of which had popular music videos, along with "Whip It"), and "Gates of Steel". Devo made two appearances on the TV show Fridays in 1980, as well as on Don Kirchner's Rock Concert, American Bandstand, and other shows. The cover of the Rhino Handmade release of the Devo Live E.P. Devo remained popular in countries such as Australia, where the nationally broadcast 1970s–1980s pop TV show Countdown was one of the first programs in the world to broadcast their video clips. They were given consistent radio support by Sydney-based noncommercial rock station Double Jay (2JJ), one of the first rock stations outside America to play their recordings. The late-night music program Nightmoves aired The Truth About De-Evolution. This paid off, as in August 1981, they found commercial success in Australia when their Devo Live E.P. spent 3 weeks at the top of the Australian charts. Later in the year, they came out to Australia and appeared on the TV show Countdown During the 1980s, Devo produced the albums New Traditionalists (1981), Oh, No! It's Devo (1982), Shout (1984), to diminishing commercial returns and critical success, though they managed to be a successful live band during this time. Following the commercial failure of Shout, Warner Bros. dropped Devo from their label. Shortly after, claiming to feel creatively uninspired, Alan Myers left the band. Devo went on hiatus for two years. Devo actively embraced the Church of the SubGenius. In concert, Devo sometimes performed as their own opening act, pretending to be a Christian soft-rock group called "Dove (the Band of Love)", which is an anagram for "Devo". They appeared as "Dove" in the 1980 televangelism spoof Pray TV. They also recorded music, later released on the CD E-Z Listening Disc (1987), with Muzak style versions of their own songs to play before their concerts. During the interim, Mark Mothersbaugh began composing music for the TV show Pee-Wee's Playhouse, and released an elaborately packaged solo cassette, Musik for Insomniaks, which was later expanded and released as two CDs in 1988. 1987–1994 In 1987, Devo reformed with new drummer David Kendrick, formerly of Sparks. Their first project was a soundtrack for the flop horror film Slaughterhouse Rock, starring Toni Basil. Devo had previously collaborated with Basil on her 1982 album Word of Mouth, and she had been in a relationship with Gerald Casale. The band released Total Devo in 1988 on Enigma Records. This album included two songs used in the Slaughterhouse Rock soundtrack. The song "Baby Doll" was used in the film Tapeheads, with newly recorded Swedish lyrics, and was credited to (and shown in a music video by) a fictitious Swedish band called Cube-Squared. Devo followed this up with a world tour, and released the live album Now It Can Be Told: DEVO at the Palace. However, Total Devo was not a commercial success, and received poor critical reviews. Here To Go became their biggest hit for years. 1990 saw the release of Smooth Noodle Maps, which would be Devo's last album for nineteen years. It, too, was not a commercial success. Devo launched a European concert tour, but poor ticket sales caused it to be ended early. The band had a falling out soon after, though played two shows in 1991 before breaking up. Around this time, members of Devo appeared in the film Spirit of '76, except for Bob Mothersbaugh. Posthumously, two albums of demo recordings from 1974 to 1977—Hardcore Devo: Volume One (1990) and Hardcore Devo: Volume Two (1991)—were released on Rykodisc, as well as an album of early live recordings, DEVO Live: The Mongoloid Years. Following the split, Mark Mothersbaugh started Mutato Muzika, a commercial music production studio, taking with him Bob Mothersbaugh and Bob Casale. The former works as a composer, and the latter as a recording engineer. David Kendrick also worked at Mutato for a period during the early 1990s. Mark has gained considerable success in writing and producing music for television programs (starting with Pee Wee's Playhouse and perhaps most famously with Rugrats), video games, cartoons, and movies (notably working alongside director Wes Anderson). Gerald Casale began a career as a director of music videos and commercials. He has worked with bands including Rush, Silverchair, and the Foo Fighters. Also, in the wake of Devo's demise, Bob Mothersbaugh attempted to start a solo career with The Bob I Band, recording an album that was never released. The tapes for this are now lost, though a bootleg of the band in concert has surfaced. 1995–2006 In 1995, Devo reappeared with a new recording of "Girl U Want" on the soundtrack to the movie Tank Girl. In January 1996, Devo performed a reunion concert at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City, Utah. The band performed on part of the 1996 Lollapalooza tour in the rotating Mystery Spot, with a setlist largely composed of material from their heyday between 1978 and 1982. Also in 1996, Devo, perhaps inspired by The Residents, also released a multimedia CD-ROM adventure game, The Adventures of the Smart Patrol with Inscape. The game was not a success, but the Lollapalooza tour was received well enough to allow Devo to return in 1997 as a headliner. While they did not release any albums during this period, Devo recorded a number of songs for various films since their reunion, including a cover of the Nine Inch Nails hit, "Head Like a Hole" for the film Supercop. In 2001, members of Devo formed the surf band The Wipeouters, describing it as a reunion of the first garage band they started while in their early teens. Devo also has used their music in advertising. In 2005 Devo recorded a new version of "Whip It" to be used in Swiffer television commercials, a decision they have said they regret. During an interview with the Dallas Observer, Gerald Casale said, "It's just aesthetically offensive. It's got everything a commercial that turns people off has." The Dallas Observer In 2005, Gerald Casale announced his "solo" project, Jihad Jerry & the Evildoers (the Evildoers themselves including the other members of Devo), and released the first EP, Army Girls Gone Wild in 2006. A full length album, Mine Is Not A Holy War was released on September 12, 2006 after a several-month delay. It features mostly new material, plus re-recordings of four very obscure Devo songs: "I Need A Chick" and "I Been Refused" (from Hardcore Devo: Volume Two), "Find Out" (which appeared on the single and EP of "Peek-A-Boo" in 1982), and "Beehive" (which was recorded by the band in 1974, at which point it was apparently abandoned with the exception of one appearance at a special show in 2001). Devo continued to tour actively in 2005 and 2006, unveiling a new stage show at shows in October 2006, and an appearance of the Jihad Jerry character performing "Beautiful World" as an encore. Also in 2006, Devo worked on a project with Disney known as Devo 2.0. A band of child performers was assembled and re-recorded Devo songs. A quote from the Akron Beacon Journal elucidates, "...Devo recently finished a new project in cahoots with Disney called Devo 2.0, which features the band playing old songs and two new ones with vocals provided by children. Mothersbaugh doesn't rule out the idea of the band gathering in the studio, eventually, to record a new Devo album." Their debut album, a two disc CD/DVD combo entitled "DEV2.0", was released on March 14, 2006. The lyrics of some of the songs have been changed for family-friendly airplay, which has been claimed by the band to be a play on irony of sorts of the messages of their classic hits. 2007-Present In an April 2007 interview, Gerald Casale mentioned an upcoming project for a movie about Devo's early days. A script is supposedly being developed, tentatively called The Beginning Was the End, though the production hasn't been confirmed yet. Casale also stated that there may be some new Devo material as well, but whether this is related to the release of a movie or not is unclear. ::Club Devo:: Devo played their first European tour since 1990 in the summer of 2007, including a performance at Festival Internacional de Benicàssim. In December 2007, Devo released their first new single since 1990, "Watch Us Work It," which was featured in a commercial for Dell. The song features a sample drum track from the song "The Super Thing" off of their 1981 album New Traditionalists. The band has announced in a July 23, 2007, MySpace bulletin that a full length music video for the song was forthcoming, and the song itself is available on iTunes and eMusic. Casale said that this song was chosen from a batch of songs that the band was working on, and that also this is the closest the band has been to a new album. Devo's song, "Gut Feeling/Slap Your Mammy", was featured in EA Sports' skateboard video game, Skate. EA : Skate The songs "Girl U Want" and "Through Being Cool" were released as downloadable content for the video game Rock Band on August 19, 2008. The song "Uncontrollable Urge" is featured in the video game Rock Band 2. All three songs have been rerecorded exclusively for Rock Band. In a December 5, 2007 article on Mutato Muzika, LA Weekly reported that "After touring sporadically over the past decade but not releasing any new material, Devo are spending December at Mutato trying to create an album’s worth of new material and contemplating a method of dispersal in the post-record-company world." LA Weekly Article In a recent interview Access Atlants Article , Mothersbaugh revealed a song title from the in-progress album: "Don't Shoot, I'm a Man". However, in a radio interview on April 17, 2008, Jerry stated that Mark had "killed the project" and that there would be no new Devo album. YouTube Radio Interview w/ Gerald Casale re: New Album Casale, however, later stated that "We're going to finish what we started." Timeout Sydney In June 2008 McDonald's released a Happy Meal toy wearing the Devo Energy Dome that they named "New Wave Nigel". It was reported by AAP that a band member had initiated legal action against McDonald's as the hamburger chain had copied trademarked elements of the band's look. McDonald's sued over Happy Meal toy AAP, June 13, 2008, Retrieved July 26, 2008 The following week it was reported a gag order had been placed on the band regarding further public statements on the matter. Devo Suing McDonald's Over Happy Meal Toy | Pitchfork By July 2008 various blogs referred to "an e-mail" from a colleague of the band's attorney that suggested the issue was "amicably resolved". Law Blog - WSJ.com : Whip It! Devo's Law Firm Says Band Isn't Suing Over McDonald's Doll Devo played dates in the United States, Japan, Australia, France, and Spain in the summer of 2008. Also in 2008 the band remixed the Attery Squash song 'Devo Was Right About Everything' which was released on the B-side to the Watch Us Work It vinyl 12" single. They also remixed a song by Datarock, "Computer Camp", which can be heard on the band's MySpace page. Datarock routinely cites Devo as an influence. 2008 also saw a Japan exclusive box set containing the band's first six albums, This is the Devo Box. On October 17, 2008, Devo performed a special concert at the Akron Civic Theater, their first in Akron since 1978, to promote Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama. They were joined at the concert by fellow Akron-area musicians The Black Keys and Chrissie Hynde. Akron Beacon Journal online In recent interviews, Devo has confirmed that they will be completing their new album. http://www.laweekly.com/2008-10-30/music/preschool-confidential/2 The Studio Notes section of the November 27 issue of Rolling Stone stated that "Devo are working on their first album of new material since 1990's Smooth Noodle Maps. 'We have about 17 songs we're testing out," says frontman Mark Mothersbaugh. 'We've already been contacted by 20 producers - including Snoop Dogg and Fatboy Slim.'" Fall 2009 has been confirmed as a release date. http://www.nme.com/news/devo/43368 http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/ent/stories/DN-devo_0318gd.ART0.State.Edition1.4a824a0.html Devo announced in early 2009, that they would be performing at SXSW on March 20th, with a warmup show in Dallas on March 18th. At these shows, Devo performed a new stage show utilizing synchronized video, similar to the 1982 tour, new costumes, and three new songs: "Don't Shoot, I'm a Man!", "What We Do", and "Fresh". All of these songs included a video backdrop which the band performed in front of. Devo also confirmed that they would be performing at All Tomorrow's Parties on May 6 and 8, with the May 6th performance featuring the band performing their first album, Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo!, in its entirety. The May 8th performance was a "greatest hits" show, for the ATP "Fans Strike Back" event. On Friday, April 10, 2009, Devo debuted the music video for "Don't Shoot (I'm a Man)" on their website, through Vimeo. http://clubdevo.com/mp/news_pgs/dontshoot_video.html Don't Shoot, I'm a Man video. In an interview for the website "Subba-Cultcha", Casale stated, "regardless of the final title, it will be 'Fresh'!" http://www.subba-cultcha.com/article_feature.php?id=5967 Subba-Culture interview revealing album title. It is slightly unclear as to whether or not this indicates the final album title or not. Discography 1978 - Q: Are We Not Men? A: We Are Devo! 1979 - Duty Now for the Future 1980 - Freedom of Choice 1981 - New Traditionalists 1982 - Oh, No! It's Devo 1984 - Shout 1988 - Total Devo 1990 - Smooth Noodle Maps 2009 - Fresh Line up Sextet Devo (1973) Gerald Casale - Bass Guitar Bob Lewis - Guitar Bob Casale - Guitar Mark Mothersbaugh - Minimoog and Mellotron Fred Weber - Vocals Rod Reisman - Drums The Sextet Devo performed only once in 1973 at the Kent State Performing Arts festivalQuartet Devo (1974-1975) Gerald Casale ("Chinaman") - Bass Guitar, Vocals Mark Mothersbaugh ("Booji Boy") - Synthesizers, Vocals Bob Mothersbaugh ("The Clown") - Guitar Jim Mothersbaugh ("Jungle" Jim) - Electronic Percussion Bob Lewis - Guitar ('74 KSU Creative Arts Festival and Pink Flamingos performances) Classic Line Up (1975-1985) Gerald Casale - Bass Guitar, Bass Synthesizer, Vocals Mark Mothersbaugh - Synthesizers, Guitar, Vocals Bob Mothersbaugh ("Bob 1") - Guitar, Vocals, Keyboards (studio) Bob Casale ("Bob 2") - Guitar, Keyboards, Vocals, Engineer Alan Myers - Drums, Electronic Percussion Enigma Records (1987-1991) Gerald Casale - Bass Guitar, Bass Synthesizer, Vocals Mark Mothersbaugh - Synthesizers, Vocals Bob Mothersbaugh ("Bob 1") - Guitar, Vocals Bob Casale ("Bob 2") - Guitar, Keyboards, Vocals, Engineer David Kendrick - Drums Current (1996-Today) Gerald Casale - Bass Guitar, Bass Synthesizer, Vocals Mark Mothersbaugh - Synthesizers, Vocals Bob Mothersbaugh ("Bob 1") - Guitar, Vocals Bob Casale ("Bob 2") - Guitar, Keyboards, Vocals, Engineer Josh Freese - Drums David Kendrick performed with Devo at several 2003 shows, including their tour of Japan due to the unavailability of Josh Freese. Neil Taylor, Devo's drum technician also performs when Freese is unavailable, and performed on the 2008 Australian Tour. See also Jihad Jerry & the Evildoers - solo project of Devo's bassist, Gerald Casale. Devo 2.0 - project between Devo and the Walt Disney Company Church of the SubGenius - A half-serious/half-humorous non-mainstream religion of which several of the band are members. References Further reading Dellinger, Jade, and Giffels, David. We Are Devo! Deviants in a Post-Modern World. SAF Publishing. 2003. ISBN 0-946719-49-7. Essay on Devo history at Kent State Readers vs. Breeders: Didactical Works re De-Evolution, originally appearing in Los Angeles Staff, 1972 External links Club DEVO - Official website DEVO MySpace - Official MySpace website DEVO Wiki | Devo |@lemmatized devo:111 originally:2 dee:1 voh:1 faq:1 info:1 jerry:6 casale:32 often:5 spell:1 dev:1 american:3 rock:13 group:3 form:6 akron:6 ohio:1 best:2 know:2 hit:7 whip:6 make:2 billboard:1 hot:1 chart:2 style:2 variously:1 classify:1 punk:2 art:7 post:3 remember:1 late:3 early:13 new:28 wave:3 sound:2 music:15 stage:6 show:17 mingle:1 kitsch:1 science:1 fiction:1 theme:1 deadpan:1 surrealist:1 humor:1 mordantly:1 satirical:1 social:1 commentary:1 via:1 sometimes:3 discordant:1 pop:3 song:28 feature:12 unusual:1 synthetic:1 instrumentation:2 time:6 signature:1 work:11 prove:1 hugely:1 influential:1 subsequent:1 popular:5 particularly:1 industrial:1 alternative:1 artist:1 also:21 pioneer:1 video:17 create:3 many:2 memorable:1 clip:2 laser:1 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6,172 | Incunable | A page from a rare Blackletter Bible (1497) printed in Strasbourg by Hans Grüninger. The coloured chapter initials were hand written after the page was printed. Incunabulum (plural incunabula) is the Latin for swaddling clothes or cradle, and can refer to "the earliest stages or first traces in the development of anything." Oxford English Dictionary, 1933, I:188. In printing, an incunabulum is a book, or even a single sheet of text, For example the Almanach cracoviense ad annum 1474 that was printed — not handwritten — before the year 1501 in Europe, at a time when some fastidious book-collectors eschewed printed books in their personal libraries. The first recorded use of incunabula as a printing term is in a pamphlet by Bernhard von Mallinckrodt, De ortu et progressu artis typographicae ("Of the rise and progress of the typographic art", Cologne, 1639), which includes the phrase prima typographicae incunabula, "the first infancy of printing", a term to which he arbitrarily set an end, 1500, which still stands as a convention. The end date for identifying a printed book as an incunabulum is convenient, but was chosen arbitrarily. It does not reflect any notable developments in the printing process around the year 1500. The term came to denote the printed books themselves from the late seventeenth century. The plural incunabula is sometimes Anglicized to incunable. A former term is fifteener, referring to the fifteenth century. Types There are two types of incunabula in printing: the block-book printed from a single carved or sculpted wooden block for each page, by the same process as the woodcut in art (these may be called xylographic), and the typographic, made with individual pieces of cast metal movable type on a printing press, in the technology made famous by Johann Gutenberg. Many authors reserve the term incunabula for the typographic ones only. The spread of printing to cities both in the north and in Italy ensured that there was great variety in the texts chosen for printing and the styles in which they appeared. Many early typefaces were modelled on local forms of writing or derived from the various European forms of Gothic script, but there were also some derived from documentary scripts (such as most of Caxton's types), and, particularly in Italy, types modelled on handwritten scripts and calligraphy. Printers congregated in urban centres where there were scholars, ecclesiastics, lawyers, nobles and professionals who formed their major customer base. Standard works in Latin inherited from the medieval tradition formed the bulk of the earliest printing, but as books became cheaper, works in the various vernaculars (or translations of standard works) began to appear. Famous examples and collections Famous incunabula include the Gutenberg Bible of 1455, the Peregrinatio in terram sanctam of 1486, printed and illustrated by Erhard Reuwich, both from Mainz, the Nuremberg Chronicle of Hartmann Schedel, printed by Anton Koberger in 1493, and the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, printed by Aldus Manutius with important illustrations by an unknown artist. Other well-known incunabula printers were Albrecht Pfister of Bamberg, Günther Zainer of Augsburg, Johannes Mentelin and Heinrich Eggestein of Strasbourg, Heinrich Gran of Haguenau and William Caxton of Bruges and London. The British Library's Incunabula Short Title Catalogue now records over 29,000 titles, of which around 27,400 are incunabula editions (not all unique works). Studies of incunabula began in the seventeenth century. Michel Maittaire (1667-1747) and Georg Wolfgang Panzer (1729-1805) arranged printed material chronologically in annals format, and in the first half of the nineteenth century, Ludwig Hain published, Repertorium bibliographicum— a checklist of incunabula arranged alphabetically by author: "Hain numbers" are still a reference point. Hain was expanded in subsequent editions, by Walter A. Copinger and Dietrich Reichling, but it is being superseded by the authoritative modern listing, a German catalogue, the Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke, which has been under way since 1925 and is still being compiled at the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin. North American holdings were listed by F. R. Goff and a worldwide union catalogue is provided by the Incunabula Short-title Catalogue The largest collections, with the approximate numbers of incunabula held, include: Hand-coloured woodcut by Erhard Reuwich of the entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem, from the first illustrated incunabulum, the Peregrinatio in terram sanctam of 1486. Bavarian State Library at Munich (19,900) Bavarian State Library - Facts and Figures 2007 British Library at London (12,500) Bibliothèque nationale de France (12,000) Vatican Library in the Vatican City (8,000) Oesterreichische Nationalbibliothek at Vienna (8,000) Württembergische Landesbibliothek at Stuttgart (7,076) National Library of Russia at Saint-Petersburg (7,000) Huntington Library (5,600) Library of Congress (5,600) Bodleian Library (5,500 editions in 7,000 copies) Incunabula at the Bodleian Library Russian State Library at Moscow (5,300) Cambridge University Library (4,600) John Rylands Library (4,500) Danish Royal Library (4,500) Berlin State Library (4,400) Jagiellonian Library in Krakow (3,666) Jagiellonian Library in numbers Harvard University (3,627 editions in 4,389 copies) Yale University (Beinecke 3,100, others 425) Biblioteca Nacional at Madrid (3,300) Uppsala University (2500) Uppsala University Library. Special collections: Incunabula Bibliothèque municipale (Municipal library) of Colmar (over 2,300) http://www.colmar.fr/adv/culture/biblio/biblio_municip.htm Morgan Library (over 2,000) Bibliothèque nationale et universitaire in Strasbourg (2,000) http://www.bnu.fr/BNU/FR/Poles+Documentaires/Patrimoine/Incunables.htm Koninklijke Bibliotheek at The Hague (2,000) Országos Széchényi Könyvtár at Budapest (1814) University of Heidelberg (1,800) Stiftsbibliothek St. Gallen (1,650) Walters Art Gallery (1250) The Walters Art Gallery - Ancient, Medieval Illuminated Manuscripts Collections Bryn Mawr College (1214) Biblioteca Colombina at Seville (1,194) University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1,130) Newberry Library (above 1000) Free Library of Philadelphia (above 800) Princeton University Library (750 including the Scheide Collection) Leiden University Library (700) Humanist Library of Sélestat (550) http://www.bh-selestat.fr/rubrique.php?id_rubrique=255 Boston Public Library (525) Bibliothèque de Genève (464) Bancroft Library (430) The College of Physicians of Philadelphia (400+) Médiathèque de la ville et de la communauté urbaine de Strasbourg (349) http://www.mediatheques-cus.fr/medias/medias.aspx?INSTANCE=exploitation&PORTAL_ID=erm_portal_003.xml&SYNCMENU=003 University of Seville at Seville (298, others 35) University of Seville at Seville Bibliothèque du Grand Séminaire, Strasbourg (237 incunabula and 525 postincunabula) http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3736520 Library of the Castle Kynžvart (230) Statistical data Extrapolated from the Incunabula Short-Title Catalogue in 2007 and subject to slight change as new copies are reported; exact figures given, but should be treated as close estimates. They refer to extant editions. The number of printing cities stands at 282. These are situated in some 20 countries in terms of present-day boundaries. In descending order of the number of editions printed in each, these are: Italy, Germany, France, Netherlands, Switzerland, Spain, Belgium, England, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Portugal, Poland, Sweden, Denmark, Turkey, Croatia, Montenegro, Balearic Islands, Hungary, and Sicily. The 18 languages that incunabula are printed in, in descending order, are: Latin, German, Italian, French, Dutch, Spanish, English, Hebrew, Catalan, Czech, Greek, Church Slavonic, Portuguese, Swedish, Breton, Danish, Frisian, and Sardinian. Only about one edition in ten (i.e. just over 3000) has any illustrations, woodcuts or metalcuts. The 'commonest' incunabulum is Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle ("Liber Chronicarum") of 1493, with c 1250 surviving copies (which is also the most heavily illustrated). Very many incunabula are unique, but on average about 18 copies survive of each. This makes the Gutenberg Bible, at 48 or 49 known copies, a rather common (though extremely valuable) edition. Counting extant incunabula is complicated by the fact that most libraries consider a single volume of a multi-volume work as a separate item, as well as fragments or copies lacking more than half the total leaves. A complete incunabulum may consist of a slip, or up to ten volumes. In terms of format, the 29,000 odd editions comprise: 2000 broadsides, 9000 folios, 15,000 quartos, 3000 octavos, 18 12mos, 230 16tos, 20 32tos, and 3 64tos. ISTC at present cites 528 extant copies of books printed by Caxton, which together with 128 fragments makes 656 in total, though many are broadsides or very imperfect (incomplete). Apart from migration to mainly North American and Japanese Universities, there has been remarkably little movement of incunabula in the last five centuries. None were printed in the Southern Hemisphere, and the latter appears to possess less than 2000 copies - i.e. about 97.75% remain north of the equator. However many incunabula are sold at auction or through the rare book trade every year. See also Blockbooks Book collecting Notes External links Centre for the History of the Book British Library worldwide Incunabula Short Title Catalogue Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (GW) History of Incunabula Studies UIUC Rare Book & Manuscript Library Grand Valley State University Incunabula & 16th Century Printing digital collections | Incunable |@lemmatized page:3 rare:3 blackletter:1 bible:3 print:15 strasbourg:5 han:1 grüninger:1 coloured:1 chapter:1 initial:1 hand:2 write:1 incunabulum:6 plural:2 incunabula:26 latin:3 swaddle:1 clothes:1 cradle:1 refer:3 early:3 stage:1 first:5 trace:1 development:2 anything:1 oxford:1 english:2 dictionary:1 printing:8 book:12 even:1 single:3 sheet:1 text:2 example:2 almanach:1 cracoviense:1 ad:1 annum:1 handwritten:2 year:3 europe:1 time:1 fastidious:1 collector:1 eschew:1 printed:3 personal:1 library:32 record:2 use:1 term:7 pamphlet:1 bernhard:1 von:1 mallinckrodt:1 de:6 ortu:1 et:3 progressu:1 artis:1 typographicae:2 rise:1 progress:1 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6,173 | New_Malden | New Malden is a town and shopping centre in the south-western London suburbs, mostly within the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames and partly in the London Borough of Merton, and is situated from Charing Cross. History New Malden was established entirely as a result of the arrival of the railway when the “Coombe for Malden” station was opened on 1 December 1846 on the main line from Waterloo. However, when Queen Victoria visited distinguished residents in the Coombe Hill area, the royal train always continued to Norbiton station where the platform was at ground level. Building started slowly in the area north of the station, gathering pace in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries with two- and three-bedroom terraced houses. Further out are larger detached and semi-detached houses from the 1930s. The road up the hill to Coombe, Traps Lane, is thought to derive from a farm owned by a Mrs Trap. Two miles (3km) to the south is the former village of Old Malden from which it gets its name, whose origins go back to Anglo-Saxon times, the name being Saxon for Mael + duna = the cross on the hill. Under the District Councils Act 1895, The Maldens & Coombe Urban District Council was created (the plural relating to Old Malden and New Malden). In 1936 Malden and Coombe was granted full Borough status, with its own Mayor, and had the rare distinction of a civic mace bearing the royal insignia of King Edward VIII. In 1965, the London Government Act 1963 came into force merging the boroughs of Malden & Coombe and Surbiton with Kingston-upon-Thames to form the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames. Description New Malden is bounded to the north by the affluent Coombe Hill and to the south and east by Raynes Park, Worcester Park and Tolworth. New Malden includes Motspur Park, home to the training ground of Fulham Football Club. To the west: Kingston upon Thames, Norbiton. To the south: Tolworth, Surbiton, Worcester Park, Old Malden To the east: Raynes Park, Motspur Park To the north: Coombe, Wimbledon, Richmond Park The busy A3 trunk road runs through part of New Malden. A minor tributary of the River Thames, Beverley Brook, flows through the east of the town, while its western boundary is along the Hogsmill, another Thames tributary. The first Parking Meters were made in New Malden at Venners Ltd. Korean culture and presence New Malden has the largest expatriate community of South Koreans in Europe, and is the most densely populated area of Koreans outside South Korea. According to different sources, the Korean population in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames is around 20,000, of whom around 8000 reside in the Kingston Borough portion of New Malden. The area has around fifteen Korean cafes and restaurants. The Anglo-Korean Cultural Institute can be found on Burlington Road. The size of this community has been attributed to the former residence of the South Korean ambassador in Wimbledon. During the 1970s many Koreans came to the area following his example, but when house prices rose in Wimbledon, they moved to New Malden. In addition, Samsung Electronics' UK division used to be based in New Malden, although it has now relocated its European headquarters to nearby Chertsey. There are also many Korean restaurants and shops to go in to. Amenities New Malden has its own sports centre, the Malden Centre, which includes a swimming pool, gym and community facilities. Beverley Park provides a football pitch, tennis courts, children's playground, allotments and open space. Tudor Williams Ltd, established in 1913, is a family run department store in the High Street. The company also has shops in Cobham and Dorking and expanded by acquiring department stores Elphicks of Farnham in October 2004, and Knights of Reigate in September 2006. Sandy's Menswear is another long established family run business, specialising in menswear and hirewear in the High Street, having been opened originally in 1955 by the current owners father. A monthly publication, The Village Voice The Village Voice , covers local history, news, topical articles and advertisements for businesses serving the community. There is an annual Malden Fortnight, which is a parade showcasing all the local schools and community groups and various other activities. Each Christmas the High Street is festooned with Christmas lights with its own switching-on ceremony. For a small town it is more than proportionately blessed with winners of the Victoria Cross. Research recently published in the Village Voice revealed the existence of a previously unknown third medal winner - see Notable Residents below. New Malden has its own youth theatre, the Green Theatre Company, established in 1986 in a converted cricket pavilion at Barton Green. Green Theatre The area's last Cinema, the Odeon at Shannon Corner on the A3 has closed and been replaced by a large retail area including several large stores. The other Cinema in the High Street (corner of Sussex Road) burnt down on Boxing Day 1936. Notable open spaces Wimbledon Common Richmond Park Bushy Park Beverley Park Sports and recreation Graham Spicer Table Tennis Club Topnotch Fitness Centre, Blagdon Road Malden Centre, Blagdon Road Kingsmeadow Sports Centre, Kingston Road Malden Wanderers Cricket Club New Malden is also home to 2008 National Cockspur Club Cup finalists, Malden Wanderers Cricket Club. Holding a strong reputation, the club has produced many professional cricketers, including former England wicketkeeper Alec Stewart. Malden Golf Club Coombe Hill Golf Club Graham Spicer Institute Education For education in New Malden see the main Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames article. Transport New Malden railway station has services provided by South West Trains to London Waterloo, Hampton Court, Kingston-upon-Thames, Richmond and Shepperton. Motspur Park railway station also has rail connections to Chessington South, Epsom, Dorking and Guildford. There are also many bus routes going through New Malden. The 213 route going towards Sutton and the 131 route going through Kingston Town Centre and Tooting Broadway along with the X26 express bus to Croydon and Heathrow Airport. The town also has a series of local bus routes, these include the K1 and K5. Notable residents Notable former residents include cricketer Alec Stewart, singer-songwriter John Martyn, fiddler Dave Swarbrick of Fairport Convention, sculptor Anthony Caro and actor, comedian and entertainer Max Wall also lived there. It is also home to the infamous Mr. Woo who famously appeared as the 'stickman' in Nike commercials. The Victorian artist John Sargent Noble lived in a house in Poplar Grove at the turn of the last century. Two young New Malden residents who both attended Beverley School (now renamed Coombe Boys School), Ian Bazalgette and Cyril Barton, were both awarded the VC during World War II. These two posthumous awards are arguably for some of the greatest acts of heroism for which a VC has ever been awarded. Bazalgette Gardens and Barton Green were named in their honour. New Malden also has links to a third recipient, Humphrey Osbaldston Brooke Firman VC, whose parents lived in Coombe at the time of his death. A plaque bearing his name was unveiled on the war memorial in the High Street during April 2008 and a road in a new housing development near the High Street has been named Firman Close. Cyril Stevens lived at "Mitchley" in Traps Lane and was the S in BKS Air Transport [2] an airline of the 1950s and 1960s that became part of British Airways. His son is Lord Stevens. Eric Clapton joined his first band the Roosters in January 1963 after seeing them play live at the Prince Of Wales pub in Kingston Road. He lived nearby and recorded his first ever record I Wish You Would with the Yardbirds in New Malden in 1964. According to local historian Richard James, Clapton also played with the Yardbirds in what is now the YMCA Hall in nearby Surbiton during the early 1960s. Cultural references In the BBC TV series The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin, New Malden features twice in the list of excuses Perrin made to his boss for his late arrival at work; one of the claims made is that a badger ate the signal box there. The house on the corner of Dukes Avenue/Howard Road featured in the 1970s ITV series Bless This House, which featured comedian Sidney James. New Malden is the centre of the universe according to Monty Python. , A fictional character Meera from Little Britain comes from New Malden. , In 2004, Tesco reported that the New Malden store was the biggest consumer of fruit and veg in the Country, in relation to items of fruit purchased per customer. It is thought that the Korean diet contributes significantly to this. New Malden Is Bananas For Fruit And Veg (from Surrey Comet) David Kynaston, noted non-fiction author resides in New Malden. Mentioned in a mid-1990s MasterCard advert - "New York? The furthest he's ever been is New Malden!" Mentioned briefly on the radio traffic report in the BBC television series "Outnumbered". Mentioned in Stephen Fry's autobiography 'Moab is my washpot'. "I suppose some rat faced weasel from New Malden will be interviewed at any minute to give the other side of the hunting debate" (page 45) References BBC Online article about Korean London External links S. 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6,174 | Binary_tree | 192|A simple binary tree of size 9 and height 3, with a root node whose value is 2. The above tree is neither a sorted nor a balanced binary tree In computer science, a binary tree is a tree data structure in which each node has at most two children. Typically the child nodes are called left and right. In type theory, a binary tree with nodes of type A is defined inductively as TA = μα. 1 + A × α × α. Binary trees are commonly used to implement binary search trees and binary heaps. Definitions for rooted trees A directed edge refers to the link from the parent to the child (the arrows in the picture of the tree). The root node of a tree is the node with no parents. There is at most one root node in a rooted tree. A leaf node has no children. The depth of a node n is the length of the path from the root to the node. The set of all nodes at a given depth is sometimes called a level of the tree. The root node is at depth zero. The height of a tree is the length of the path from the root to the deepest node in the tree. A (rooted) tree with only a node (the root) has a height of zero. Siblings are nodes that share the same parent node. If a path exists from node p to node q, where node p is closer to the root node than q, then p is an ancestor of q and q is a descendant of p. The size of a node is the number of descendants it has including itself. In-degree of a node is the number of edges arriving at that node. Out-degree of a node is the number of edges leaving that node. Root is the only node in the tree with In-degree = 0 Types of binary trees A rooted binary tree is a rooted tree in which every node has at most two children. A full binary tree (sometimes proper binary tree or 2-tree) is a tree in which every node other than the leaves has two children. A perfect binary tree is a full binary tree in which all leaves are at the same depth or same level. (This is ambiguously also called a complete binary tree.) A complete binary tree is a binary tree in which every level, except possibly the last, is completely filled, and all nodes are as far left as possible. An infinite complete binary tree is a tree with levels, where for each level d the number of existing nodes at level d is equal to 2d. The cardinal number of the set of all nodes is . The cardinal number of the set of all paths is . A balanced binary tree is where the depth of all the leaves differs by at most 1. Balanced trees have a predictable depth (how many nodes are traversed from the root to a leaf, root counting as node 0 and subsequent as 1, 2, ..., depth). This depth is equal to the integer part of where is the number of nodes on the balanced tree. Example 1: balanced tree with 1 node, (depth = 0). Example 2: balanced tree with 3 nodes, (depth=1). Example 3: balanced tree with 5 nodes, (depth of tree is 2 nodes). A rooted complete binary tree can be identified with a free magma. A degenerate tree is a tree where for each parent node, there is only one associated child node. This means that in a performance measurement, the tree will behave like a linked list data structure. The number of nodes in a perfect binary tree can be found using this formula: where is the height of the tree. The number of nodes in a complete binary tree is minimum: and maximum: where is the height of the tree. The number of nodes in a perfect binary tree can also be found using this formula: where is the number of leaf nodes in the tree. The number of leaf nodes in a perfect binary tree can be found using this formula: where is the height of the tree. The number of NULL links in a Complete Binary Tree of n-node is (n+1). The number of leaf node in a Complete Binary Tree of n-node is . - Note that this terminology often varies in the literature, especially with respect to the meaning "complete" and "full". Definition in graph theory Graph theorists use the following definition: A binary tree is a connected acyclic graph such that the degree of each vertex is no more than 3. It can be shown that in any binary tree, there are exactly two more nodes of degree one than there are of degree three, but there can be any number of nodes of degree two. A rooted binary tree is such a graph that has one of its vertices of degree no more than 2 singled out as the root. With the root thus chosen, each vertex will have a uniquely defined parent, and up to two children; however, so far there is insufficient information to distinguish a left or right child. If we drop the connectedness requirement, allowing multiple connected components in the graph, we call such a structure a forest. Another way of defining binary trees is a recursive definition on directed graphs. A binary tree is either: A single vertex. A graph formed by taking two binary trees, adding a vertex, and adding an edge directed from the new vertex to the root of each binary tree. This also does not establish the order of children, but does fix a specific root node. Combinatorics The groupings of pairs of nodes in a tree can be represented as pairs of letters, surrounded by parenthesis. Thus, (a b) denotes the binary tree whose left subtree is a and whose right subtree is b. Strings of balanced pairs of parenthesis may therefore be used to denote binary trees in general. The set of all possible strings consisting entirely of balanced parentheses is known as the Dyck language. Given n nodes, the total number of ways in which these nodes can be arranged into a binary tree is given by the Catalan number . For example, declares that (a 0) and (0 a) are the only binary trees possible that have two nodes, and declares that ((a 0) 0), (0 a) 0), (0 (a 0)), (0 (0 a)), and (a b) are the only five binary trees possible that have 3 nodes. Here 0 represents a subtree that is not present. The ability to represent binary trees as strings of symbols and parentheses implies that binary trees can represent the elements of a magma. Conversely, the set of all possible binary trees, together with the natural operation of attaching trees to one-another, forms a magma, the free magma. Given a string representing a binary tree, the operators to obtain the left and right subtrees are sometimes referred to as car and cdr. Methods for storing binary trees Binary trees can be constructed from programming language primitives in several ways. In a language with records and references, binary trees are typically constructed by having a tree node structure which contains some data and references to its left child and its right child. Sometimes it also contains a reference to its unique parent. If a node has fewer than two children, some of the child pointers may be set to a special null value, or to a special sentinel node. Binary trees can also be stored as an implicit data structure in arrays, and if the tree is a complete binary tree, this method wastes no space. In this compact arrangement, if a node has an index i, its children are found at indices (for the left child) and (for the right), while its parent (if any) is found at index (assuming the root has index zero). This method benefits from more compact storage and better locality of reference, particularly during a preorder traversal. However, it is expensive to grow and wastes space proportional to 2h - n for a tree of height h with n nodes. A small complete binary tree stored in an array In languages with tagged unions such as ML, a tree node is often a tagged union of two types of nodes, one of which is a 3-tuple of data, left child, and right child, and the other of which is a "leaf" node, which contains no data and functions much like the null value in a language with pointers. Methods of iterating over binary trees Often, one wishes to visit each of the nodes in a tree and examine the value there. There are several common orders in which the nodes can be visited, and each has useful properties that are exploited in algorithms based on binary trees. Pre-order, in-order, and post-order traversal Pre-order, in-order, and post-order traversal visit each node in a tree by recursively visiting each node in the left and right subtrees of the root. If the root node is visited before its subtrees, this is pre-order; if after, post-order; if between, in-order. In-order traversal is useful in binary search trees, where this traversal visits the nodes in increasing order. Depth-first order In depth-first order, we always attempt to visit the node farthest from the root that we can, but with the caveat that it must be a child of a node we have already visited. Unlike a depth-first search on graphs, there is no need to remember all the nodes we have visited, because a tree cannot contain cycles. Pre-order is a special case of this. See depth-first search for more information. Breadth-first order Contrasting with depth-first order is breadth-first order, which always attempts to visit the node closest to the root that it has not already visited. See Breadth-first search for more information. Also called a level-order traversal. Encodings Succinct encodings A succinct data structure is one which takes the absolute minimum possible space, as established by information theoretical lower bounds. The number of different binary trees on nodes is , the th Catalan number (assuming we view trees with identical structure as identical). For large , this is about ; thus we need at least about bits to encode it. A succinct binary tree therefore would occupy only 2 bits per node. One simple representation which meets this bound is to visit the nodes of the tree in preorder, outputting "1" for an internal node and "0" for a leaf. If the tree contains data, we can simply simultaneously store it in a consecutive array in preorder. This function accomplishes this: function EncodeSuccinct(node n, bitstring structure, array data) { if n = nil then append 0 to structure; else append 1 to structure; append n.data to data; EncodeSuccinct(n.left, structure, data); EncodeSuccinct(n.right, structure, data); } The string structure has only bits in the end, where is the number of (internal) nodes; we don't even have to store its length. To show that no information is lost, we can convert the output back to the original tree like this: function DecodeSuccinct(bitstring structure, array data) { remove first bit of structure and put it in b if b = 1 then create a new node n remove first element of data and put it in n.data n.left = DecodeSuccinct(structure, data) n.right = DecodeSuccinct(structure, data) return n else return nil } More sophisticated succinct representations allow not only compact storage of trees but even useful operations on those trees directly while they're still in their succinct form. Encoding n-ary trees as binary trees There is a one-to-one mapping between general ordered trees and binary trees, which in particular is used by Lisp to represent general ordered trees as binary trees. Each node N in the ordered tree corresponds to a node N' in the binary tree; the left child of N' is the node corresponding to the first child of N, and the right child of N' is the node corresponding to N 's next sibling --- that is, the next node in order among the children of the parent of N. This binary tree representation of a general order tree, is sometimes also referred to as a First-Child/Next-Sibling binary tree, or a Doubly-Chained Tree, or a Filial-Heir chain. One way of thinking about this is that each node's children are in a linked list, chained together with their right fields, and the node only has a pointer to the beginning or head of this list, through its left field. For example, in the tree on the left, A has the 6 children {B,C,D,E,F,G}. It can be converted into the binary tree on the right. An example of converting an n-ary tree to a binary tree The binary tree can be thought of as the original tree tilted sideways, with the black left edges representing first child and the blue right edges representing next sibling. The leaves of the tree on the left would be written in Lisp as: (((N O) I J) C D ((P) (Q)) F (M)) which would be implemented in memory as the binary tree on the right, without any letters on those nodes that have a left child See also 2-3 tree 2-3-4 tree AA tree B-tree Binary search tree Binary space partitioning Elastic binary tree Kraft's inequality Recursion (computer science) Threaded binary tree binary tree of preimages in Julia set ( IIM/J ) Strahler number Random binary tree References Donald Knuth. The art of computer programming vol 1. Fundamental Algorithms, Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 2.3, especially subsections 2.3.1–2.3.2 (pp.318–348). Kenneth A Berman, Jerome L Paul. Algorithms: Parallel, Sequential and Distributed. Course Technology, 2005. ISBN 0-534-42057-5. Chapter 4. (pp.113–166). External links flash actionscript 3 opensource implementation of binary tree — opensource library | Binary_tree |@lemmatized simple:2 binary:69 tree:124 size:2 height:7 root:22 node:89 whose:3 value:4 neither:1 sorted:1 balanced:5 computer:3 science:2 data:18 structure:17 two:10 child:28 typically:2 call:5 left:13 right:15 type:4 theory:2 define:2 inductively:1 ta:1 μα:1 α:2 commonly:1 use:7 implement:2 search:6 heap:1 definition:4 direct:2 edge:6 refers:1 link:4 parent:8 arrow:1 picture:1 one:12 rooted:5 leaf:11 depth:16 n:27 length:3 path:4 set:7 give:4 sometimes:5 level:7 zero:3 deep:1 sibling:4 share:1 exist:2 p:5 q:5 closer:1 ancestor:1 descendant:2 number:21 include:1 degree:8 arrive:1 leave:5 every:3 full:3 proper:1 perfect:4 ambiguously:1 also:8 complete:10 except:1 possibly:1 last:1 completely:1 fill:1 far:2 possible:6 infinite:1 equal:2 cardinal:2 differs:1 balance:4 predictable:1 many:1 traverse:1 counting:1 subsequent:1 integer:1 part:1 example:6 identify:1 free:2 magma:4 degenerate:1 associate:1 mean:1 performance:1 measurement:1 behave:1 like:3 list:3 find:5 formula:3 minimum:2 maximum:1 null:3 note:1 terminology:1 often:3 vary:1 literature:1 especially:2 respect:1 meaning:1 graph:8 theorist:1 following:1 connected:2 acyclic:1 vertex:6 show:2 exactly:1 three:1 single:2 thus:3 choose:1 uniquely:1 defined:1 however:2 insufficient:1 information:5 distinguish:1 drop:1 connectedness:1 requirement:1 allow:2 multiple:1 component:1 forest:1 another:2 way:4 recursive:1 directed:1 either:1 form:3 take:2 add:2 new:2 establish:2 order:24 fix:1 specific:1 combinatorics:1 grouping:1 pair:3 represent:8 letter:2 surround:1 parenthesis:4 b:7 denote:2 subtree:3 string:5 may:2 therefore:2 general:4 consist:1 entirely:1 know:1 dyck:1 language:5 total:1 arrange:1 catalan:2 declare:2 five:1 present:1 ability:1 symbol:1 implies:1 element:2 conversely:1 together:2 natural:1 operation:2 attach:1 operator:1 obtain:1 subtrees:3 refer:2 car:1 cdr:1 method:4 store:5 construct:2 program:2 primitive:1 several:2 record:1 reference:5 contain:5 unique:1 pointer:3 special:3 sentinel:1 implicit:1 array:5 waste:2 space:4 compact:3 arrangement:1 index:4 assume:2 benefit:1 storage:2 good:1 locality:1 particularly:1 preorder:3 traversal:6 expensive:1 grow:1 proportional:1 h:1 small:1 tagged:1 union:2 ml:1 tag:1 tuple:1 function:4 much:1 iterate:1 wish:1 visit:12 examine:1 common:1 useful:3 property:1 exploit:1 algorithm:3 base:1 pre:4 post:3 recursively:1 increase:1 first:13 always:2 attempt:2 farthest:1 caveat:1 must:1 already:2 unlike:1 need:2 remember:1 cannot:1 cycle:1 case:1 see:3 breadth:3 contrast:1 closest:1 encoding:2 succinct:5 absolute:1 theoretical:1 low:1 bound:2 different:1 th:1 view:1 identical:2 large:1 least:1 bit:4 encode:2 would:3 occupy:1 per:1 representation:3 meet:1 output:2 internal:2 simply:1 simultaneously:1 consecutive:1 accomplish:1 encodesuccinct:3 bitstring:2 nil:2 append:3 else:2 end:1 even:2 lose:1 convert:3 back:1 original:2 decodesuccinct:3 remove:2 put:2 create:1 return:2 sophisticated:1 directly:1 still:1 ary:2 mapping:1 particular:1 lisp:2 ordered:1 corresponds:1 corresponding:2 next:4 among:1 doubly:1 chain:3 filial:1 heir:1 think:2 linked:1 field:2 beginning:1 head:1 c:2 e:1 f:2 g:1 tilt:1 sideways:1 black:1 blue:1 write:1 j:2 memory:1 without:1 aa:1 partition:1 elastic:1 kraft:1 inequality:1 recursion:1 thread:1 preimages:1 julia:1 iim:1 strahler:1 random:1 donald:1 knuth:1 art:1 vol:1 fundamental:1 third:1 edition:1 addison:1 wesley:1 isbn:2 section:1 subsection:1 pp:2 kenneth:1 berman:1 jerome:1 l:1 paul:1 parallel:1 sequential:1 distribute:1 course:1 technology:1 chapter:1 external:1 flash:1 actionscript:1 opensource:2 implementation:1 library:1 |@bigram leaf_node:5 acyclic_graph:1 directed_graph:1 left_subtree:1 car_cdr:1 sentinel_node:1 n_ary:2 linked_list:1 donald_knuth:1 addison_wesley:1 external_link:1 flash_actionscript:1 opensource_library:1 |
6,175 | Mel_Smith | Mel Smith (born in Chiswick, London on 3 December 1952) is an English comedian, actor, film director, writer and producer. Biography Smith's father Kenneth was born in Tow Law, County Durham, and worked at a coal mine in the Second World War looking after the pit ponies. After the war he moved to London, and married Smith's mother, whose parents owned a greengrocers store in Chiswick, West London. When the government legalised High Street betting, he turned the shop into the first betting shop in Chiswick http://archive.thenorthernecho.co.uk/2001/7/22/164851.html Smith was born and raised over the shop, and was educated at Hogarth Primary School, Chiswick, Latymer Upper School and New College, Oxford. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2006/07/22/btmel22.xml While at Oxford University he produced The Tempest, and this led to his joining the Royal Court Theatre production team in London, and then Bristol Old Vic. He was also associate director of Sheffield's Crucible Theatre for two years. Later, he directed a theatre production of "Not in Front of the Audience". Also at Oxford, he performed at the Edinburgh Fringe with the Oxford University Dramatic Society. One year they shared a venue with the Cambridge Footlights, directed by John Lloyd. Lloyd later got the opportunity to develop the idea that became the satirical BBC television series Not the Nine O'clock News. Lloyd rang Smith to ask if he wanted to do it, and Smith agreed for £100 an episode. http://www.metro.co.uk/metrolife/edinburgh/interview/article.html?in_article_id=18177&in_page_id=33 This was followed briefly by Smith and Goody (with Bob Goody) and then the comedy sketch series Alas Smith and Jones, co-starring Griff Rhys Jones, its title being a pun on the name of the American TV series Alias Smith and Jones. He also starred as property dealer Tom Craig in ITV drama Muck and Brass, and guest starred on The Goodies episode "Animals". In 1981, Smith and Griff Rhys Jones founded TalkBack Productions, a company that has produced many of the most significant British comedy shows of the past two decades, including Smack the Pony, Da Ali G Show, I'm Alan Partridge and Big Train. In 2000, the company was sold to Pearson for £62 million. Smith co-wrote and took the lead role in the space comedy Morons from Outer Space but the film failed to make much impact. His next cinema effort was better received as director of The Tall Guy, giving Emma Thompson a major screen role. Perhaps his best-known motion picture in America is Brain Donors, the 1992 update of the comedy classic A Night at the Opera, starring Smith as a cheeky, opportunistic cab driver turned ballet promoter. Paramount Pictures considered this film the outstanding comedy of the year, but when the producers left Paramount for another studio, Paramount withdrew its support for the movie. In 1987, he recorded a single with Kim Wilde for Comic Relief: a cover of the Christmas song "Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree" with some extra comedy lines written by Smith and Jones. It reached number 3 in the UK charts. Smith and Jones were reunited in 2005 for a review/revival of their earlier TV series in "The Smith And Jones Sketchbook". Smith joked that "Obviously, Griff's got more money than me so he came to work in a Rolls-Royce and I came on a bicycle. But it was great fun to do and we are firmly committed to doing something new together, because you don't chuck that sort of chemistry away. Of course, I'll have to pretend I like Restoration" http://www.metro.co.uk/metrolife/edinburgh/interview/article.html?in_article_id=18177&in_page_id=33 Smith returned to the theatre stage after some 20 years in August 2006, appearing at the Edinburgh Fringe festival in Irish journalist and author Mary Kenny's play about Churchill's encounter with the Irish nationalist leader Michael Collins in 1921. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2006/07/22/btmel22.xml The play initially caused some controversy, with Smith proposing to flout the Scottish ban on smoking in public places, but the scene was quickly adapted after gaining the required amount of publicity. The play was directed by Brian Gilbert and produced by Daniel Jewel. In Autumn 2006, Smith starred opposite Belinda Lang in a tour of a new comedy "An Hour and a Half Late" by French playwright Gérald Sibleyras, which was adapted by Smith. He will then direct a West End revival of "Charley's Aunt" starring Stephen Tompkinson. From October 2007 to January 2008, he played the role of Wilbur Turnblad in the London production of Hairspray at the Shaftesbury Theatre. Personal life Smith is married to Pam, a former model who grew up in Easington and Durham, and the couple have houses in St John's Wood, Oxfordshire and Barbados. Smith ended up seriously ill in hospital in 1999 after consuming more than 50 Nurofen tablets, the culmination of a growing addiction to the pills. He said at the time that the pressures of film work were a contributing factor, along with a desperate need to ease the pain caused by gout. Partly as a result, he agreed to sell Talkback, but Smith admitted to restlessness: "I said to my wife that I needed to do something to get me out of the house". The actor has had a long time love of Rolls Royce cars, buying his first Silver Shadow at Brighton Racecourse from an advert in Sporting Life for £5000. He presently drives a Rolls Royce Corniche http://www.flickr.com/photos/herschell/200251363 On 31 December 2008, Smith appeared on Celebrity Mastermind whilst suffering from severe pharyngitis. http://www.chortle.co.uk/news/2009/01/02/8061/mel_smith_health_fears_allayed TV shows Performer Not the Nine O'Clock News (1979) Smith and Goody (1980) Fundamental Frolics (1981) Alas Smith and Jones (1982) Weekend In Wallop (1984) Comedians Do It On Stage (1986) The Home-made Xmas Video (1987) The World According To Smith And Jones (1987) Colin's Sandwich (1988) Alas Smith and Jones (1989) Wilt (1989) Amnesty International's Big 30 (1991) Comic Relief (1991) The Night Of Comic Relief (1995) A Gala Comedy Hour (Best Of The Prince's Trust) (1996) The Sittaford Mystery, an episode of Marple (2006) Hustle (2006) Celebrity Mastermind (2008) Writer Not The Nine O'clock News (1979) Smith And Goody (1980) Fundamental Frolics (1981) Alas Smith And Jones (1982) Weekend In Wallop (1984) Comedians Do It On Stage (1986) Smith And Jones (1989) Amnesty International's Big 30 (1991) A Gala Comedy Hour (Best Of The Prince's Trust) (1996) Producer Too Much Sun (2000) Filmography Director The Tall Guy (1989) Radioland Murders (1994) Bean (1997) High Heels and Low Lifes (2001) Blackball (2003) Actor Babylon (film) (1980) - Alan Bullshot (1983) - Crouch Slayground (1983) - Terry Abbatt Restless Natives (1985) - Pyle Morons from Outer Space (1985) - Bernard; also co-wrote the script with Griff Rhys Jones National Lampoon's European Vacation (1985) - London Hotel Receptionist The Princess Bride (1987) - The Albino The Wolves of Willoughby Chase (1988) - Mr. Grimshaw Wilt (from a novel by Tom Sharpe) (1989) - Inspector Flint Brain Donors (aka Lame Ducks) (1992) - Rocco Melonchek Twelfth Night (1996) - Sir Toby Belch References External links Rockin' around the Christmas tree at kimwildetv.com. | Mel_Smith |@lemmatized mel:1 smith:31 bear:3 chiswick:4 london:6 december:2 english:1 comedian:3 actor:3 film:5 director:4 writer:2 producer:3 biography:1 father:1 kenneth:1 tow:1 law:1 county:1 durham:2 work:3 coal:1 mine:1 second:1 world:2 war:2 look:1 pit:1 pony:2 move:1 marry:2 mother:1 whose:1 parent:1 greengrocer:1 store:1 west:2 government:1 legalise:1 high:2 street:1 betting:2 turn:2 shop:3 first:2 http:7 archive:1 thenorthernecho:1 co:9 uk:7 html:3 raise:1 educate:1 hogarth:1 primary:1 school:2 latymer:1 upper:1 new:3 college:1 oxford:4 www:6 telegraph:2 art:4 main:2 jhtml:2 xml:4 university:2 produce:3 tempest:1 lead:2 join:1 royal:1 court:1 theatre:5 production:4 team:1 bristol:1 old:1 vic:1 also:4 associate:1 sheffield:1 crucible:1 two:2 year:4 later:2 direct:4 front:1 audience:1 perform:1 edinburgh:4 fringe:2 dramatic:1 society:1 one:1 share:1 venue:1 cambridge:1 footlights:1 john:2 lloyd:3 get:3 opportunity:1 develop:1 idea:1 become:1 satirical:1 bbc:1 television:1 series:4 nine:3 clock:3 news:4 rang:1 ask:1 want:1 agree:2 episode:3 metro:2 metrolife:2 interview:2 article:2 follow:1 briefly:1 goody:5 bob:1 comedy:9 sketch:1 alas:1 jones:13 star:6 griff:4 rhys:3 title:1 pun:1 name:1 american:1 tv:3 alias:1 property:1 dealer:1 tom:2 craig:1 itv:1 drama:1 muck:1 brass:1 guest:1 animal:1 found:1 talkback:2 company:2 many:1 significant:1 british:1 show:3 past:1 decade:1 include:1 smack:1 da:1 ali:1 g:1 alan:2 partridge:1 big:3 train:1 sell:2 pearson:1 million:1 write:3 take:1 role:3 space:3 moron:2 fail:1 make:2 much:2 impact:1 next:1 cinema:1 effort:1 well:1 receive:1 tall:2 guy:2 give:1 emma:1 thompson:1 major:1 screen:1 perhaps:1 best:3 know:1 motion:1 picture:2 america:1 brain:2 donor:2 update:1 classic:1 night:3 opera:1 cheeky:1 opportunistic:1 cab:1 driver:1 ballet:1 promoter:1 paramount:3 consider:1 outstanding:1 leave:1 another:1 studio:1 withdraw:1 support:1 movie:1 record:1 single:1 kim:1 wilde:1 comic:3 relief:3 cover:1 christmas:3 song:1 rockin:2 around:2 tree:2 extra:1 line:1 reach:1 number:1 chart:1 reunite:1 review:1 revival:2 early:1 sketchbook:1 joke:1 obviously:1 money:1 come:2 roll:3 royce:3 bicycle:1 great:1 fun:1 firmly:1 commit:1 something:2 together:1 chuck:1 sort:1 chemistry:1 away:1 course:1 pretend:1 like:1 restoration:1 return:1 stage:3 august:1 appear:2 festival:1 irish:2 journalist:1 author:1 mary:1 kenny:1 play:4 churchill:1 encounter:1 nationalist:1 leader:1 michael:1 collins:1 initially:1 cause:2 controversy:1 propose:1 flout:1 scottish:1 ban:1 smoke:1 public:1 place:1 scene:1 quickly:1 adapt:2 gain:1 required:1 amount:1 publicity:1 brian:1 gilbert:1 daniel:1 jewel:1 autumn:1 opposite:1 belinda:1 lang:1 tour:1 hour:3 half:1 late:1 french:1 playwright:1 gérald:1 sibleyras:1 end:2 charley:1 aunt:1 stephen:1 tompkinson:1 october:1 january:1 wilbur:1 turnblad:1 hairspray:1 shaftesbury:1 personal:1 life:3 pam:1 former:1 model:1 grow:2 easington:1 couple:1 house:2 st:1 wood:1 oxfordshire:1 barbados:1 seriously:1 ill:1 hospital:1 consume:1 nurofen:1 tablet:1 culmination:1 addiction:1 pill:1 say:2 time:2 pressure:1 contributing:1 factor:1 along:1 desperate:1 need:2 ease:1 pain:1 gout:1 partly:1 result:1 admit:1 restlessness:1 wife:1 long:1 love:1 car:1 buy:1 silver:1 shadow:1 brighton:1 racecourse:1 advert:1 sport:1 presently:1 drive:1 corniche:1 flickr:1 com:2 photo:1 herschell:1 celebrity:2 mastermind:2 whilst:1 suffer:1 severe:1 pharyngitis:1 chortle:1 performer:1 fundamental:2 frolic:2 ala:3 weekend:2 wallop:2 home:1 xmas:1 video:1 accord:1 colin:1 sandwich:1 wilt:2 amnesty:2 international:2 gala:2 prince:2 trust:2 sittaford:1 mystery:1 marple:1 hustle:1 sun:1 filmography:1 radioland:1 murder:1 bean:1 heel:1 low:1 blackball:1 babylon:1 bullshot:1 crouch:1 slayground:1 terry:1 abbatt:1 restless:1 native:1 pyle:1 bernard:1 script:1 national:1 lampoon:1 european:1 vacation:1 hotel:1 receptionist:1 princess:1 bride:1 albino:1 wolf:1 willoughby:1 chase:1 mr:1 grimshaw:1 novel:1 sharpe:1 inspector:1 flint:1 aka:1 lame:1 duck:1 rocco:1 melonchek:1 twelfth:1 sir:1 toby:1 belch:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 kimwildetv:1 |@bigram http_www:6 edinburgh_fringe:2 griff_rhys:3 rhys_jones:3 motion_picture:1 paramount_picture:1 christmas_tree:2 roll_royce:3 seriously_ill:1 contributing_factor:1 flickr_com:1 amnesty_international:2 princess_bride:1 lame_duck:1 external_link:1 |
6,176 | College_football | This article covers college (American) football played in the United States. For other sorts of college football, see College football (disambiguation). NCAA Football redirects here. For the video game series, see NCAA Football series. A college football game between Colorado State Rams football and Air Force Falcons football. College football is American football played by teams of student athletes fielded by American universities, colleges, and military academies. It was the venue through which American football first gained popularity in the United States. College football remains extremely popular today among students, alumni, and other fans of the sport. History A college football game between Texas Tech and Navy. Modern American football has its origins in various games, all known as "football", played at public schools in England in the mid-19th century. By the 1840s, students at Rugby School in England were playing a game in which players were able to pick up the ball and run with it, a sport later known as Rugby football. The game was taken to Canada by British soldiers stationed there and was soon being played at Canadian colleges. The first football game played between teams representing American colleges was an unfamiliar ancestor of today's college football, as it was played under soccer-style Association rules. http://www.scarletknights.com/football/history/first-game.asp - note that the London Football Association's rules were adopted at the time The game between teams from Rutgers College (now Rutgers University) and the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) took place on November 6, 1869 at College Field (now the site of the College Avenue Gymnasium at Rutgers University) in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Rutgers won by a score of 6 "runs" to Princeton's 4. NFL History at the National Football League website, accessed 10 September 2006. Rutgers Through the Years (timeline), published by Rutgers University (no further authorship information available), accessed 12 January 2007. Tradition at www.scarletknights.com. Published by Rutgers University Athletic Department (no further authorship information available), accessed 10 September 2006. The 1869 game between Rutgers and Princeton is important in that it is the first documented game of any sport called "football" (which also encompasses the game of Association Football) between two American colleges. It is also notable in that it came a full-two years before a codified rugby game would be played in England, yet 10 years after the first Victorian (later Australian) Rules Football game. The Princeton/Rutgers game was undoubtedly different from what we today know as American football. Nonetheless it was the forerunner of what evolved into American football. Another similar game took place between Rutgers and Columbia University in 1870 and the popularity of intercollegiate competition in football would spread throughout the country. The American experience with the rugby-style game that led directly to present-day college football continued in 1874 at a meeting in Cambridge, Massachusetts, between Harvard University and Montreal's McGill University. The McGill team played a rugby union-style game, while Harvard played under a set of rules that allowed greater handling of the ball than soccer. The teams agreed to play under compromise rules. The Harvard students took to the rugby rules and adopted them as their own. Infamous 1874 McGill-Harvard game turns 132 at McGill Athletics, published by McGill University (no further authorship information available). This article incorporates text from the McGill University Gazette (April 1874), two issues of The Montreal Gazette (14 May and 19 May 1874). Accessed 29 January 2007. Walter Camp, the "Father of American Football", pictured here in 1878 as the captain of the Yale Football team The first game of intercollegiate football in America between two American colleges that most resembles the game of today was between Tufts University and Harvard on June 4, 1875 at Jarvis Field in Cambridge, Mass., won by Tufts 1-0. Smith, R.A. "Sports and Freedom: The Rise of Big-Time College Athletics", New York: Oxford University Press, 1988 A report of the outcome of this game appeared in the Boston Daily Globe of June 5, 1875. Jarvis Field was at the time a patch of land at the northern point of the Harvard campus, bordered by Everett and Jarvis Sts. to the north and south, and Oxford St. and Massachusetts Avenue to the east and west. In the Tufts/Harvard game participants were allowed to pick up the ball and run with it, each side fielded eleven men, the ball carrier was stopped by knocking him down or 'tackling' him, and the inflated ball was egg-shaped - the combination of which marks this game as the first game of American Football. A photograph of the 1875 Tufts team commemorating this milestone hangs in the College Football Hall of Fame in South Bend, Indiana. Harvard and Yale also began play in 1875 though under rules that made their game, as well as the aforementioned Princeton/Rutgers game, significantly different from what we know as American Football compared to the Tufts/Harvard contest which is more closely the antecedent to American Football than these other games. The longest running rivalry and most played game between two American colleges is between Lafayette College and Lehigh University. Walter Camp, known as the "Father of American Football", is credited with changing the game from a variation of rugby into a unique sport. Camp is responsible for pioneering the play from scrimmage (earlier games featured a rugby scrum), most of the modern elements of scoring, the eleven-man team, and the traditional offensive setup of the seven-man line and the four-man backfield. Camp also had a hand in popularizing the game. He published numerous articles in publications such as Collier's Weekly and Harper's Weekly, and he chose the first College Football All-America Team.1906 St. Louis Post-Dispatch photograph of Brad Robinson, who threw the first legal forward pass College football increased in popularity through the remainder of the 19th century. It also became increasingly violent. In 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt threatened to ban the sport following a series of player deaths from injuries suffered during games. The response to this was the formation of what became the National Collegiate Athletic Association, which set rules governing the sport. The rules committee considered widening the playing field to "open up" the game, but Harvard Stadium (the first large permanent football stadium) had recently been built at great expense; it would be rendered useless by a wider field. The rules committee legalized the forward pass instead. The first legal pass was thrown by Bradbury Robinson on September 5, 1906, playing for coach Eddie Cochems, who developed an early but sophisticated passing offense at St. Louis University. Another rule change banned "mass momentum" plays (many of which, like the infamous "flying wedge", were sometimes literally deadly). Even after the emergence of the NFL, college football remained extremely popular throughout the U.S. Harris Interactive Poll While Still the Nation's Favorite Sport, Professional Football Drops in Popularity - Baseball and college football are next in popularity Although the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs — the highest level — playing in huge stadiums (four of which have seating capacity exceeding 100,000). In many cases, the college stadiums employ bench-style seating (as opposed to individual seats with backs and arm rests). This allows them to seat more fans in a given amount of space than the typical professional stadium, which tends to be a bit more luxurious. Overall, college football draws greatly more attendees than its professional counterpart. NCAA 2006 Attendance Statistics NFL 2006 Attendance Press Release College athletes, unlike professionals, are not permitted by the NCAA to be paid salaries. Many do receive scholarships and financial assistance from the university. Injuries As research has shown, collegiate athletes are more susceptible to catastrophic injury, such as brain and quadriplegic injuries, than athletes at the high school level, particularly when it comes to football. Statistics state that 1 in every 100,000 players will suffer from a catastrophic injury. According to research published in the November 2005 issue of the Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons, enhanced injury prevention instruction, improved equipment and protective gear, and revision of sport regulations has been put into effect in order to lower the number of players at risk. Preventing Severe Head and Neck Injuries in High School and Collegiate Athletes: Orthopaedic research reveals benefits of enhanced protective gear, preventive strategies, rule revisions In addition, the National Collegiate Athletic Association has banned the form of tackle referred to as "spearing" from the game due to concerns over head and neck injuries related to head down contact. Microsoft PowerPoint - Head-Down Contact and Spearing in Football.ppt Season schedule University of California's 5th game of the season vs. Arizona State University The college football season currently begins Labor Day weekend, one week earlier than the NFL. From 1982 until 2003, the regular season was officially ushered in by the Kickoff Classic (other pre-season games such as the Eddie Robinson Classic and the Pigskin Classic have also been played). Recent NCAA rules changes have eliminated these games. The regular season continues through early December with the season's penultimate weekend holding several conference championship games and rivalry games. Starting in the 2009 season, the regular season finale, the Army–Navy Game, is one week later. The postseason consists of a series of bowl games that showcase the top 64 college teams. Bowl games generally match two teams of similar standing from different conferences. Division I Bowl Subdivision (still widely known by its former designation of Division I-A) football is the only NCAA sport which does not decide its champion with a playoff. In the past, the unofficial national champion was determined by various polls, such as the AP Poll, Coaches Poll, and the United Press International Poll. This system was problematic because two polls often named different champions and the two highest ranked teams after the regular season were not guaranteed to meet in a bowl game. NCAA Division II game between Northeastern State and East Central Universities in Oklahoma.Since 1998, the National Championship has been determined by the Bowl Championship Series (BCS). This formula, incorporating numerous computer rankings and human polls, is used to determine the top two teams in the country. From 1998 to 2005, the two teams competed in one of the four BCS bowl games in a set rotation. Starting in the 2006 season, the BCS National Championship Game, was added. The game is played after completion of the BCS Bowls and the site rotates every year between the four BCS Bowls: the Rose Bowl, Fiesta Bowl, Orange Bowl, and Sugar Bowl. The first BCS Championship game was held on January 8, 2007 in the new University of Phoenix Stadium, the new home of the Fiesta Bowl. This system is not without controversy. Some critics argue that the system unfairly favors teams from large conferences and that the process used to select the teams can be just as arbitrary as the earlier poll system. Also, the Bowl Championship Series champion has not always been the undisputed national champion; for example, in 2003, the Associated Press and Bowl Championship Series chose different champions, which is what the system was designed to prevent. However, most years do have a consensus national champion. On the other hand, as recent years have proven, a team with an unblemished, undefeated record does not always guarantee at least a share of the National Championship. Following the season, a series of all-star bowl games are played in January with the nation's best seniors being selected to participate. These games include the East-West Shrine Game, the Hula Bowl, the Senior Bowl, and the newly-established Texas vs. The Nation Game, although in 2009 the Hula Bowl was not played due to lack of interest. Under NCAA rules, players with remaining college eligibility are not allowed to participate in these games. The length of the season has gradually increased over the course of the game's history. In spring 2005, the NCAA ruled that teams could schedule twelve regular-season games (up from eleven) beginning in the 2006 season. (NCAA teams in Alaska and Hawaii, and their opponents, are allowed to schedule an extra game over and above this limit.) This decision was met with some criticism from those who claimed that expanding the season would overwork the athletes. Furthermore the ACC, Big 12, C-USA, MAC, and the SEC all offer conference championship games, while others, like the Big East, Big Ten, MWC, Pac-10, Sun Belt, and WAC do not. This extends the season for the teams eligible for those games, while teams from the latter six conferences do not have to play an extra week. Official rules and notable rule distinctions Although rules for the high school, college, and NFL games are generally consistent, there are several minor differences. The NCAA Football Rules Committee determines the playing rules for Division I (both Bowl and Championship Subdivisions), II, and III games (the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) is a separate organization, but uses the NCAA rules). A pass is ruled complete if one of the receiver's feet is inbounds at the time of the catch. In the NFL both feet must be inbounds. A player is considered down when any part of his body other than the feet or hands touches the ground (from a tackle or otherwise), with the sole exception of the holder for field goal and extra point attempts. In the NFL a player is active until he is tackled or forced down another way by a member of the opposing team (down by contact). The clock stops after the offense completes a first down and begins again—assuming it is following a play in which the clock would not normally stop—once the referee declares the ball ready for play. In the NFL the clock does not explicitly stop for a first down. Overtime was introduced in 1996, eliminating ties. When a game goes to overtime, each team is given one possession from its opponent's twenty-five yard line with no game clock, despite the one timeout per period and use of play clock. The team leading after both possessions is declared the winner. If the teams remain tied, overtime periods continue, with a coin flip determining the first possession. Possessions alternate with each overtime, until one team leads the other at the end of the overtime. Starting with the 3rd overtime, a one point PAT field goal after a touchdown is no longer allowed, forcing teams to attempt a two-point conversion after a touchdown. (In the NFL overtime is decided by a 15-minute sudden-death quarter, and regular season games can still end in a tie if neither team scores. Overtime for regular season games in the NFL began with the 1974 season. In the post-season, if the teams are still tied, teams will play additional overtime periods until either team scores.) Extra point tries are attempted from the three-yard line. The NFL uses the two-yard line. The defensive team may score two points on a point-after touchdown attempt by returning a blocked kick, fumble, or interception into the opposition's end zone. In addition, if the defensive team gains possession, but then moves backwards into the endzone and is stopped, a one point safety will be awarded to the offense, although, unlike a real safety, the offense kicks off, opposed to the team charged with the safety. In the NFL, a conversion attempt ends when the defending team gains possession of the football. The two-minute warning is not used in college football, except in rare cases where the scoreboard clock has malfunctioned and is not being used. There is an option to use instant replay review of officiating decisions. Division I-Bowl Subdivision (formerly Division I-A) schools use replay in virtually all games; replay is rarely used in lower division games. Every play is subject to booth review with coaches only having one challenge. In the NFL, challenges are only automatic in the final two minutes of each half. In the 2006 season, the game clock was started when the ball was declared ready for play after the defensive team (during a scrimmage down) or the receiving kick (during a free kick down) was awarded a first down, reducing the time of games. This rule only lasted one year. In the 1984 season, the ball was placed on the 30 yard line (instead of the 20) if a kickoff sailed through the end zone on the fly and untouched. This rule was rescinded after one year. Among other rule changes to 2007, kickoffs have been moved from the 35 yard line back five yards to the 30 yard line to match that of the NFL. Some coaches and officials are questioning this rule change as it could lead to more injuries to the players as there will likely be more kickoff returns. The rationale for the rule change was to help reduce dead time in the game. National championships Bowl Championship Series (not an official NCAA championship, includes only Division I FBS teams) National football championship (this article pertains to systems of determining a national champion prior to and including the BCS) NCAA Division I Football Championship NCAA Division I Football Championship - Official Web Site (includes only Division I FCS teams) NCAA Division I FCS Consensus Mid-Major Football National Championship NCAA Division II National Football Championship NCAA Division III National Football Championship NAIA National Football Championship NJCAA National Football Championship Team maps Bowl games 2006-2007 Bowl Games per state (and Canada) Unlike most other sports—collegiate or professional—the Football Bowl Subdivision, formerly known as Division I-A college football, does not employ a playoff system to determine a champion. Instead, it has a series of "bowl games." The annual national champion is determined by a vote of sports writers and other non-players. This system has been challenged but little headway has been made given the entrenched vested economic interests in the various bowls. A bowl game is a post-season college football game, typically in the Division I Bowl Subdivision. The first bowl game was the 1902 Rose Bowl, played between Michigan and Stanford; Michigan won 49-0. The term "bowl" originates from the shape of the stadium in Pasadena, California where the game is played. At the Division I FBS level, teams must earn the right to be bowl eligible by winning at least 6 games during the season. They are then invited to a bowl game based on their conference ranking and the tie-ins that the conference has to each bowl game. For the 2006 season, there were 32 bowl games, so 64 of the 120 Division I FBS teams were invited to play at a bowl. These games are played from mid-December to early January and most of the later bowl games are typically considered more prestigious. After the Bowl Championship Series, additional all-star bowl games round out the post-season schedule through the beginning of February. Bowl Championship Series (BCS) The Bowl Championship Series (BCS) is designed to pair the top two teams in college football against each other for a National Championship game. The system also selects matchups for the other prestigious BCS bowl games. The ten teams selected include the conference champion from each of the six BCS conferences plus four others ("at-large" selections). The top-ranked and second-ranked teams are pitted in the BCS National Championship Game in order to crown an unofficial NCAA Division I FBS national football champion. The winner is also required to be voted number one by the Coaches Poll, however the AP Poll remains free to crown a different team as national champion and thereby create a split championship. It has been in place since the 1998 season. Prior to the 2006 season eight teams competed in four BCS Bowls. The BCS replaced the Bowl Alliance (in place from 1995–1997), which followed the Bowl Coalition (in place from 1992–1994). See also 2008 NCAA Division I FBS football season College football on television College Football Hall of Fame College rivalries Division I Division II Division III List of NCAA Division I FBS football programs List of NCAA Division I FBS football stadiums NCAA Men's Division I Football Bowl Subdivision alignment history List of NCAA Division I FCS football programs List of NCAA Division I FCS football stadiums NCAA Men's Division I Football Championship Subdivision alignment history List of NAIA football programs List of defunct college football teams List of defunct college football conferences List of Division I schools that have never sponsored football List of famous American sports figures who became politicians List of media markets and college football List of sports attendance figures - college football in a worldwide context List of undefeated Division I football teams NAIA National Football Championship NCAA Division I Football Championship NCAA Division II National Football Championship NCAA Division III National Football Championship NJCAA National Football Championship Black college football national championship College basketball College hockey College baseball BUAFL - British Universities American Football League Canadian Interuniversity Sport - governing body of Canadian University level sports (inc. Canadian college football) CIS Football Canadian Colleges Athletic Association - governing body of Canadian college level sports Canadian Junior Football League - national amateur Canadian football league consisting of 20 teams playing in six provinces across Canada. Quebec Junior Football League - national amateur Canadian football league in Quebec. ONEFA - The National Student Organization of American Football, the governing body of Student American football played at Mexican Universities Notes External links NCAA football official site Bowl Championship Series College Football Hall of Fame FCS College Football Weekly Preview , Forbes An account of the first intercollegiate game College Football Video on ESPN Video Archive Statistics NCAA football stats Stassen College Football, comprehensive college football database College Football Data Warehouse Rules List of college football rule changes for 2006 NCAA Football Rule Changes for 2007 (that are meant to shorten the game) NCAA Football: Major Rule Changes (with rationales) NCAA Football: 2007 Rules and Interpretations Maps Google Map of Division II Football Programs | College_football |@lemmatized article:4 cover:1 college:60 american:22 football:107 play:32 united:3 state:7 sort:1 see:3 disambiguation:1 ncaa:34 redirect:1 video:3 game:91 series:14 colorado:1 ram:1 air:1 force:3 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6,177 | The_Cider_House_Rules | The Cider House Rules is a 1985 novel by John Irving. It has been adapted into a film of the same name and a stage play by Peter Parnell. Plot The two central protagonists are Homer Wells, an orphan, and Dr. Wilbur Larch, who directs the orphanage in which Homer grows up. From Homer's point of view, this is a coming-of-age story. After a childhood spent "being of use" as a medical assistant to Dr. Larch, Homer follows the classical Platonic arc from erotic love through love of family to love of civitas. This arc begins when Homer decides to leave the orphanage with Candy Kendall and her boyfriend Wally Worthington, a young couple who work at the Worthington family apple orchard. Wally leaves to fight in World War II, but his plane is shot down over Burma. Believing Wally to be dead, Homer and Candy have an affair and Candy consequently becomes pregnant. Candy secretly gives birth to a boy named Angel at the orphanage where she becomes the first mother to take her own child home with her. Subsequently, Wally is found alive, and so Candy and Homer return home. They lie to the family about Angel's parentage, claiming that Homer decided to adopt him. Wally and Candy marry shortly afterwards, but Candy and Homer maintain a secret affair that lasts some fifteen years. In contrast, Wilbur Larch's coming-of-age, told in flashbacks, in a sense follows the Platonic arc in reverse. After a traumatic misadventure with a prostitute as a young man, Wilbur turns his back on sex and on love, choosing instead to serve the community by helping women with unwanted pregnancies give birth and then keeping the babies in an orphanage. He makes a point of maintaining an emotional distance from the orphans, so that they can more easily make the transition into an adoptive family, but when it becomes clear that Homer is going to spend his entire childhood at the orphanage, Wilbur trains the orphan as a doctor and then comes to love him. Wilbur's and Homer's lives are complicated by the fact that the former is also secretly an abortionist at a time when abortion is illegal. He believes that he is doing the world a service because "one way the poor can help themselves would be to be in control of the size of their families." He comes to this work reluctantly, but is driven by seeing the horrors of back-alley operations. When Homer learns about this secret, he considers it evil, which leads to some angry interchanges between Homer and Wilbur. Many years later, when Angel is a teenager, he makes friends with Rose Rose, the daughter of a migrant worker at the apple orchard, who becomes pregnant with her father's child, and Homer performs an abortion on her. Homer decides to return to the orphanage after the death of Dr. Larch, and works as the new director. This is the culminating love-of-civitas step in Homer's life. Homer and Candy eventually tell Angel that they are his biological parents. The novel also follows a sub-plot of Melony, who grew up alongside Homer in the orphanage. She was Homer's first girlfriend in a relationship of circumstances. She eventually becomes an electrician and takes a female lover, Lorna. | The_Cider_House_Rules |@lemmatized cider:1 house:1 rule:1 novel:2 john:1 irving:1 adapt:1 film:1 name:2 stage:1 play:1 peter:1 parnell:1 plot:2 two:1 central:1 protagonist:1 homer:19 well:1 orphan:3 dr:3 wilbur:6 larch:4 direct:1 orphanage:7 grow:2 point:2 view:1 come:4 age:2 story:1 childhood:2 spent:1 use:1 medical:1 assistant:1 follow:3 classical:1 platonic:2 arc:3 erotic:1 love:6 family:5 civitas:2 begin:1 decide:3 leave:2 candy:8 kendall:1 boyfriend:1 wally:5 worthington:2 young:2 couple:1 work:3 apple:2 orchard:2 fight:1 world:2 war:1 ii:1 plane:1 shot:1 burma:1 believe:2 dead:1 affair:2 consequently:1 become:5 pregnant:2 secretly:2 give:2 birth:2 boy:1 angel:4 first:2 mother:1 take:2 child:2 home:2 subsequently:1 find:1 alive:1 return:2 lie:1 parentage:1 claim:1 adopt:1 marry:1 shortly:1 afterwards:1 maintain:2 secret:2 last:1 fifteen:1 year:2 contrast:1 tell:2 flashback:1 sense:1 reverse:1 traumatic:1 misadventure:1 prostitute:1 man:1 turn:1 back:2 sex:1 choose:1 instead:1 serve:1 community:1 help:2 woman:1 unwanted:1 pregnancy:1 keep:1 baby:1 make:3 emotional:1 distance:1 easily:1 transition:1 adoptive:1 clear:1 go:1 spend:1 entire:1 train:1 doctor:1 life:2 complicate:1 fact:1 former:1 also:2 abortionist:1 time:1 abortion:2 illegal:1 service:1 one:1 way:1 poor:1 would:1 control:1 size:1 reluctantly:1 drive:1 see:1 horror:1 alley:1 operation:1 learn:1 consider:1 evil:1 lead:1 angry:1 interchange:1 many:1 later:1 teenager:1 friend:1 rise:2 daughter:1 migrant:1 worker:1 father:1 performs:1 death:1 new:1 director:1 culminate:1 step:1 eventually:2 biological:1 parent:1 sub:1 melony:1 alongside:1 girlfriend:1 relationship:1 circumstance:1 electrician:1 female:1 lover:1 lorna:1 |@bigram shortly_afterwards:1 unwanted_pregnancy:1 |
6,178 | Economy_of_Finland | Finland has a highly industrialized, free-market economy with a per capita output equal to that of other western economies such as France, Germany, Sweden or the UK. The largest sector of the economy is services at 65.7 percent, followed by manufacturing and refining at 31.4 percent. Primary production is at 2.9 percent. With respect to foreign trade, the key economic sector is manufacturing. The largest industries are electronics (21.6 percent), machinery, vehicles and other engineered metal products (21.1 percent), forest industry (13.1 percent), and chemicals (10.9 percent). Finland has timber and several mineral and freshwater resources. Forestry, paper factories, and the agricultural sector (on which taxpayers spend around 2 billion euro annually) are politically sensitive to rural residents. The Greater Helsinki area generates around a third of GDP. In a 2004 OECD comparison, high-technology manufacturing in Finland ranked second largest after Ireland. Knowledge-intensive services have also ranked the smallest and slow-growth sectors – especially agriculture and low-technology manufacturing – second largest after Ireland. Investment was below expected. Finland Economy 2004, OECD Overall short-term outlook was good and GDP growth has been above many EU peers. Finland is highly integrated in the global economy, and international trade is a third of GDP. The European Union makes 60 percent of the total trade. The largest trade flows are with Germany, Russia, Sweden, United Kingdom, USA, Netherlands and China. Trade policy is managed by the European Union, where Finland has traditionally been among the free trade supporters, except for agriculture. Finland is the only Nordic country to have joined the Eurozone, although citizens of Finland sometimes criticize the fact that they were not permitted to vote on the issue. History Finland started out as a relatively poor country that was vulnerable to shocks to the economy such as the great famine of the 1860s. Until the 1930s, the Finnish economy was predominantly agrarian, and, as late as in the 1950s, more than half the population and 40 per cent of output were still in the primary sector. After World War II Property rights were strong. While nationalization committees were set up in France and UK, Finland avoided nationalizations. After failed experiments with protectionism, Finland eased restrictions and made a free trade agreement with the European Community in 1973, making its markets more competitive. Local education markets expanded and an increasing number of Finns also went abroad to study in the United States or Western Europe, bringing back advanced skills. There was a quite common, but pragmatic-minded, credit and investment cooperation by state and corporations, though it was considered with suspicion. Support for capitalism was widespread. Growth and Equity in Finland, World Bank Savings rate hovered among the world's highest, at around 8% until the 80s. In the beginning of the 1970s, Finland's GDP per capita reached the level of Japan and the UK. Finland's economic development shared many aspects with export-led Asian countries. In 1991 the Finnish economy fell into recession. This was caused by a combination of economic overheating, depressed markets with key trading partners (particularly the Swedish and Soviet markets) as well as local markets, slow growth with other trading partners, and the disappearance of the Soviet barter system. Stock market and housing prices declined by 50%. Inflation targeting: Reflection from the Finnish experience The growth in the 1980s was based on debt, and when the defaults began rolling in, GDP declined by 13% and unemployment increased from a virtual full employment to one fifth of the workforce. The crisis was amplified by trade unions' initial opposition to any reforms. Politicians struggled to cut spending and the public debt doubled to around 60% of GDP. Much of the economic growth in the 1980s was based on debt financing, and the debt defaults led to a savings and loan crisis. Total of over 10 billion euro were used to bail out failing banks, which led to banking sector consolidation. Converted After devaluations the depression bottomed out in 1993. Liberalization Like other Nordic countries, Finland has liberalized the economy somewhat since late 1980s. Financial and product market regulation was removed. State enterprises were privatized and taxes were cut. However, unlike in Denmark, trade unions blocked job market reforms, blocking social security reform proposals towards basic income or negative income tax. Finland joined the European Union in 1995. The central bank was given an inflation-targeting mandate until Finland joined eurozone. The growth rate has since been one of the highest of OECD countries and Finland has topped many indicators of national performance. Since then the growth rate has been one of the highest of OECD countries, and national debt has been reduced to 32.9 percent of GDP. Finland was one of the 11 countries joining the third phase of the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union, adopting the euro as the country's currency, on 1 January 1999. The national currency markka (FIM) was withdrawn from circulation and replaced by euro (EUR) in the beginning of 2002. The stability that the monetary union has brought to the Finnish economy has been largely welcomed as one of the cornerstones of continued economic expansion. However, some of the biggest EU trading partners, notably Sweden and UK, have not joined the monetary union, which has left the export sector vulnerable to currency changes. Industry From the 1990s, Finnish industry, which for centuries had relied on the country's vast forests, became dominated by to a larger extent by electronics and services, as globalization lead to a decline of more traditional industries. http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=28308 Outsourcing resulted in more manufacturing being transferred abroad, with Finnish-based industry focusing to a greater extent on R&D and hi-tech electronics. Forestry Nokia founded Finland's first wood pulp mill, in 1865. 72 per cent of Finland is covered with forest making it the most forested state in the EU and one in five Finns earn their livelihood from trees - directly or indirectly http://finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=56313 , accounting for almost 20 percent of total exports and 4 percent of the GDP in 2005. In 2005 Finnish forest industry companies’ investments totalled about 2.8 billion euros. http://www.lfpdc.lsu.edu/unece/Marketing/documents/2007July/3aE_03.pdf One quarter of Finland's export revenue is derived from these industries. 90 per cent of the paper made in Finland and 70 per cent of the sawmill products are exported, mainly to Western Europe. Finland has three major international forest corporations - Stora Enso, UPM and M-Real producing pulp, paper, board and sawn goods, paper machines and logging equipment. Research organisations and universities contribute to the forest industry. Wood processing also supplies materials for the packaging industry, which includes one of the world's largest packaging companies, Huhtamäki (e.g. disposable tableware, in which plastic is also a raw material). Wood is of course the most important raw material in furniture, the biggest manufacturer in Finland being Isku and the most famous perhaps Artek, which markets furniture designed by Alvar Aalto. Electronics The Finnish electronics and electrotechnics industry relies on heavy investment in R&D, and has been accelerated by the liberalisation of global markets. Electrical engineering started in the late 19th century with generators and electric motors built by Gottfried Strömberg, now part of the ABB Group. Other Finnish companies – such as Instru, Vaisala and Neles (now part of Metso) - have succeeded in areas such as industrial automation, medical and meteorological technology. Nokia is a world leader in mobile telephony. Metals, Engineering and Manufacturing Finland has an abundance of minerals but the large mines have closed down and most raw materials are now imported. For this reason, companies now tend to focus on high added-value processing of metals. The Metals Industry exports over 70 per cent of output to over 60 countries. This includes the production steel, copper, zinc and nickel and the production of finished products such as steel roofing and cladding, welded steel pipes, copper pipe and coated sheets. Outokumpu is known developing the flash smelting process for copper production and stainless steel. The manufacturing industry is a significant employer of about 400,000 people http://www.tilastokeskus.fi/tup/suoluk/suoluk_tyoelama_en.html including forest and paper industry machines, mining and quarrying equipment, forest and agricultural tractors, ship building, lifts, hoists, diesel motors, valves and power stations. Chemical Industry The chemical industry is one of the Finland's largest industrial sectors with its roots in tar making in the 17th century. http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=28308 It produces an enormous range of products for the use of other industrial sectors, especially for forestry and agriculture. In addition, its produces plastics, chemicals, paints, oil products, pharmaceuticals, environmental products, Biotech products and petrochemicals. Biotechnology is regarded as one of the most promising high-tech sectors in Finland and it is growing rapidly. http://www.etla.fi/files/915_FES_02_4_biotechnology.pdf Energy Industry Finland's energy supply is divided as follows: nuclear power - 26%, net imports - 20%, hydro power - 16%, combined production district heat - 18%, combined production industry - 13%, condensing power - 6%. http://www.stat.fi/tup/suomi90/maaliskuu_en.html One half of all the energy consumed in Finland goes to industry, one fifth to heating buildings and one fifth to transport. http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_policy/doc/factsheets/mix/mix_fi_en.pdf Companies Aleksanterinkatu, a commercial street. Notable companies in Finland include Nokia, the market leader in mobile telephony; Stora Enso, the largest paper manufacturer in the world; Neste Oil, an oil refining and marketing company; UPM-Kymmene, the third largest paper manufacturer in the world; Aker Finnyards, the manufacturer of the world's largest cruise ships (such as Royal Caribbean's Freedom of the Seas); Instrumentarium Imaging, the creator of the Orthopantomograph (Pan X-Ray machine) and world innovative leader of dental imaging systems and software; KONE, a manufacturer of elevators and escalators; Wärtsilä, a producer of power plants and ship engines; and Finnair, the largest Helsinki-Vantaa based international airline. Finland has sophisticated financial markets comparable to UK in efficiency. Though foreign investment is as not high as some other European countries, the largest foreign-headquartered companies included names such as ABB, Tellabs, Carlsberg, and Siemens. Onko omistamisella väliä (in Finnish) Companies that have their headquarters in Finland are quite international, and a few of the largest tend to dominate the economic statistics. Around 70-80% of the equity quoted on the Helsinki Stock Exchange is owned by foreign-registered entities http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/ImgLib/3/133/ecograph2.gif . The larger companies get most of their revenue from abroad, and the majority of their employees work outside the country. Cross-shareholding and other uncompetitive practices have been abolished and there is a trend towards an Anglo-Saxon style of corporate governance. However, only around 15% of residents had invested in stock market, compared to 20% in France, and 50% in the US. As elsewhere in Western Europe, the environment is less favorable to small companies and small shareholders than in the US and UK. Hence ownership is quite concentrated. Large Finnish companies tend to be older than in the US. Between 2000-2003, early stage venture capital investments relative to GDP were 8.5 percent against 4 percent in the EU and 11.5 in the US. Later stage investments fell to the EU median. [http://www.etla.fi/files/1892_the_nordic_model_complete.pdf by Torben M. Andersen, Bengt Holmström, Seppo Honkapohja, Sixten Korkman, Hans Tson Söderström, Juhana Vartiainen] Invest in Finland and other programs attempt to attract investment. Invest in Finland In 2000 FDI from Finland to overseas was 20 billion euro and from overseas to Finland 7 billion euro. Acquisitions and mergers have internationalized business in Finland. Household income and consumption Finland's income is generated by the approximately 1.8 million private sector workers, who make an average 25.1 euro per hour (before the median 60% tax wedge) in 2007. Tehdyn työtunnin hinta 23-27 euroa, Statistics Finland In 2003 residents worked on average around 10 years for the same employer Keskustelua suomalaisen työelämän luonteesta ja sen muuttumisesta and around 5 jobs in lifetime. 62 percent worked for small and medium-size enterprises. Tilastokeskus - Pienten ja keskisuurten yritysten merkitys työllistäjinä on kasvanut Female employment rate was high and gender segregation on career choices was higher than in the US. The Nordic Model of Welfare: A Historical Reappraisal, by Niels Finn Christiansen In 1999 part-time work rate was one of the smallest in OECD. Future liabilities are dominated by the pension deficit. Unlike in Sweden, where pension savers can manage their investments, in Finland employer chooses a pension fund for the employee. The pension funding rate is higher than in most Western European countries, but still only a portion of is funded and pensions exclude health insurances and other unaccounted promises. Ikääntymisen taloudelliset vaikutukset ja niihin varautuminen Directly held public debt has been reduced to around 32 percent in 2007. CIA Factbook: Public Debt In 2007, the average household savings rate was -3.8 and household debt 101 percent of annual disposable income, a typical level in Europe. (in Finnish) In 2008, the OECD reported that "the gap between rich and poor has widened more in Finland than in any other wealthy industrialized country over the past decade" and that "Finland is also one of the few countries where inequality of incomes has grown between the rich and the middle-class, and not only between rich and poor." http://www.hs.fi/english/article/Income+disparities+growing+faster+in+Finland+than+in+any+other+OECD+country/1135241060829 In 2006, there were 2,381,500 households of average size 2.1 persons. 40 percent of households consisted of single person, 32 percent two and 28 percent three or more. There were 1.2 million residential buildings in Finland and the average residential space was 38 square meters per person. The average residential property (without land) cost 1,187 euro per sq metre (without land) and residential land on 8.6 euro per sq metre. Consumer energy prices were 8-12 euro per kilowatt hour. Sähkön hinta kuluttajatyypeittäin 1994-, c/kWh 74 percent of households had a car. There were 2.5 million cars and 0.4 other vehicles. Statistics Finland: Transport and Tourism Around 92 percent has mobile phone and 58 percent Internet connection at home. The average total household consumption was 20,000 euro, out of which housing at around 5500 euro, transport at around 3000 euro, food and beverages excluding alcoholic at around 2500 euro, recreation and culture at around 2000 euro. Upper-level white-collar households (409,653) consumed an average 27,456 euro, lower-level white-collar households (394,313) 20,935 euro, and blue-collar households (471,370) 19,415 euro euro. Own-account worker households' consumption has grown most in 2001-2006 Unemployment Unemployment rate was 6.8% and employment rate 68% in early 2008. Statistics Finland: Labour Market The unemployment security benefits for those seeking employment are at an average OECD level. The labor administration funds labor market training for unemployed job seekers, which is often vocational. The aim of the training is to improve the channels of finding employment. Very much like in Sweden FT.com / World - 'Real Swedish jobless rate 15%' , the government is often accused (often by foreigners, especially in Anglo-Saxon countries) of "cleaning the unemployment statistics" by vocational training programmes. Employment vs unemployment rates in the EU - Europe Forum Public policy Finnish politicians have often emulated other Nordics and the Nordic model. The Nordic Model by Torben M. Andersen, Bengt Holmström, Seppo Honkapohja, Sixten Korkman, Hans Tson Söderström, Juhana Vartiainen Nordics have been free-trading and relatively welcoming to skilled migrants for over a century, though in Finland immigration is a relatively new phenomenon, due largely to Finland's less hospitable climate and the difficulty of the Finnish language. The level of protection in commodity trade has been low, except for agricultural products. As an economic environment, Finland's judiciary is efficient and effective. Finland is highly open to investment and free trade. Finland has top levels of economic freedom in many areas, although there is a heavy tax burden and inflexible job market. Finland is ranked 16th (ninth in Europe) in the 2008 Index of Economic Freedom. Economic freedom: Finland Recently, Finland has topped the patents per capita statistics, and overall productivity growth has been strong in areas such as electronics. While the manufacturing sector is thriving, OECD points out that the service sector would benefit substantially from policy improvements. Kilpailuvirasto: OECD:n raportti suosittelee kilpailun lisäämistä palvelualoilla The IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 2007 ranked Finland 17th most competitive, next to Germany, and lowest of the Nordics. World Competitiveness Yearbook 2007 while the World Economic Forum report has ranked Finland the most competitive country. Finland is one of the most fiscally responsible EU countries. Product market Economists attribute much growth to reforms in the product markets. According to OECD, only four EU-15 countries have less regulated product markets (UK, Ireland, Denmark and Sweden) and only one has less regulated financial markets (Denmark). Nordic countries were pioneers in liberalizing energy, postal, and other markets in Europe. The legal system is clear and business bureaucracy less than most countries. Finland economy For instance, starting a business takes an average of 14 days, compared to the world average of 43 days and Denmark's average of 6 days. Property rights are well protected and contractual agreements are strictly honored. Finland is rated one of the least corrupted countries in Corruption Perceptions Index. Finland is rated 13th in the Ease of Doing Business Index. It indicates exceptional ease to trade across borders (5th), enforce contracts (7th), and close a business (5th), and exceptional hardship to employ workers (127th) and pay taxes (83rd). Economy Rankings, Doing Business Report 2008, World Bank Job market According to the OECD, Finland's job market is the least flexible of the Nordic countries. Finland increased job market regulation in the 1970s to provide stability to manufacturers. In contrast,, during the 90s, Denmark liberalized its job market, Sweden moved to more decentralized contracts, whereas Finnish trade unions blocked many reforms. Many professions have legally recognized industry-wide contracts that lay down common terms of employment including seniority levels, holiday entitlements, and salary levels, usually as part of a Comprehensive Income Policy Agreement. Some consider these agreements to be bureaucratic, inflexible, and, along with tax rates, a key contributor to unemployment and distorted prices. Possibly it may also slow down structural change as there are fewer incentives to acquire better skills, although Finland already enjoys one of the highest skill-levels in the world. Trade unions have traditionally lobbied for anti-immigration policies, but Finland has made some efforts to improve the economy's competitiveness and marketing as a destination for skilled foreign workers. Taxation Tax is collected mainly from municipal income tax, state income tax, state value added tax, customs fees, corporate taxes and special taxes. There are also property taxes, but municipal income tax pays most of municipal expenses. Taxation is conducted by a state agency, Verohallitus, which collects income taxes from each paycheck, and then pays the difference between tax liability and taxes paid as tax rebate or collects as tax arrears afterward. Municipal income tax is a flat tax of nominally 16-20% , with deductions applied, and is paid directly to the municipality (a city or rural locality). The state income tax is a progressive tax; low-income individuals do not necessarily pay any. The state transfers some of its income as state support to municipalities, particularly the poorer ones. Additionally, the state churches - Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church and Finnish Orthodox Church - are integrated to the taxation system in order to tax their members. The middle income worker suffers from a nearly 60% tax wedge and effective marginal tax rates are very high. Economic Survey of Finland in 2004, OECD Value-added tax is 22% for most items. Capital gains tax and corporate tax are 26%, about the EU median. Property taxes are low, but there is a stamp duty (1.6% for apartments or 4% for individual houses) for home buyers. Alcoholic beverages are separately taxed and highly restricted. For instance, McKinsey estimates that a worker has to pay around 1600 euro for another's 400 euro service McKinsey: Finland's Economy - restricting service supply and demand - though some taxation is avoided in the black market and self-service culture. Another study by Karlson, Johansson & Johnsson estimates that the percentage of the buyer’s income entering the service vendor’s wallet (inverted tax wedge) is slightly over 15%, compared to 10% in Belgium, 25% in France, 40% in Switzerland and 50% in the United States. Karlson, Johansson & Johnsson (2004), p. 184. Tax cuts have been in every post-depression government's agenda and the overall tax burden is now around 43% of GDP compared to 51.1% in Sweden, 34.7% in Germany, 33.5% in Canada, and 30.5% in Ireland. Government Finance State and municipal politicians have struggled to cut their consumption, which is very high at 51.7% of GDP compared to 56.6% in Sweden, 46.9 in Germany, 39.3 in Canada, and 33.5% in Ireland. Much of the taxes are spent on public sector employees, many of which are jobs-for-life and amount to 124,000 state employees and 430,000 municipal employees. That is 113 per 1000 residents (over a quarter of workforce) compared to 74 in the US, 70 in Germany, and 42 in Japan (8% of workforce). Is Japan's bureaucracy still living in the 17th century? | The Japan Times Online The Economist Intelligence Unit's ranking for Finland's e-readiness is high at 13th, compared to 1st for United States, 3rd for Sweden, 5th for Denmark, and 14th for Germany. Also, early and generous retirement schemes have contributed to high pension costs. Social spending such as health or education is around OECD median. Social transfers are also around OECD median. In 2001 Finland's outsourced proportion of spending was below Sweden's and above most other Western European countries. Finland's health care is more bureaucrat-managed than in most Western European countries, though many use private insurance or cash to enjoy private clinics. Some reforms toward more equal marketplace have been made in 2007-2008. Three quarters would like to raise private health care KELA reimbursements (in Finnish) In education, child nurseries, and elderly nurseries private competition is bottom-ranking compared to Sweden and most other Western countries. Some public monopolies such Alko remain, and are sometimes challenged by the European Union. The state has a programme where the number of jobs decreases by attrition: for two retirees, only one new employee is hired. References See also OECD's Finland country Web site and OECD Economic Survey of Finland Finland Finnish Maritime Cluster Finland and Globalization Economy of Europe List of Finnish companies List of banks in Finland Commemorative coins of Finland Current statistics from Statistics Finland Other links Economy of Europe European Union | Economy_of_Finland |@lemmatized finland:81 highly:4 industrialized:1 free:5 market:27 economy:16 per:14 caput:3 output:3 equal:2 western:8 france:4 germany:7 sweden:12 uk:7 large:17 sector:14 service:8 percent:22 follow:2 manufacturing:6 refining:2 primary:2 production:6 respect:1 foreign:5 trade:16 key:3 economic:14 manufacture:2 industry:20 electronics:6 machinery:1 vehicle:2 engineer:1 metal:4 product:12 forest:8 chemical:4 timber:1 several:1 mineral:2 freshwater:1 resource:1 forestry:3 paper:7 factory:1 agricultural:3 taxpayer:1 spend:2 around:18 billion:5 euro:22 annually:1 politically:1 sensitive:1 rural:2 resident:4 great:3 helsinki:3 area:4 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6,179 | Juliana_Hatfield | Juliana Hatfield (born July 27, 1967 in Wiscasset, Maine, United States), is an American guitarist/singer-songwriter from the Boston area, formerly of the indie rock band Blake Babies. She currently lives in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Background The daughter of Philip M. Hatfield (a radiologist) and The Boston Globe fashion critic Julie Hatfield, Juliana was born in Maine and grew up in the Boston suburb of Duxbury. She acquired a love of rock music during the 1970s, having been introduced by a babysitter to the music of the Los Angeles punk rock band X, which proved a life-changing experience. She was also attracted to the music of more mainstream artists like Olivia Newton-John and The Police, perhaps explaining the contrast in her later music between sweet, melodic "pop" songs and more hard rock oriented material. Visualizing herself as a singer since her high school years, Hatfield sang in school choirs and briefly played in a cover band called The Squids, which played Queen and Rush songs. Blake Babies Following her graduation from Duxbury High School, where she was voted "Most Individualistic," Hatfield attended Boston University for a semester. She then transferred as a piano student to the Berklee College of Music in Boston, in the hope of finding a band with which to sing . There she soon met Freda Boner (now Freda Love) and John Strohm, forming the Blake Babies with them in 1986, at the age of 19. The band, with which she sang and played bass guitar (as well as some guitar and piano), was signed to North Carolina's Mammoth Records and received a fair amount of airplay on college radio through the early 1990s. The group toured the United States several times, performed in Europe, and made several music videos. Hatfield eventually earned a degree in songwriting from Berklee. Although Hatfield shared vocal duties with Strohm in the group, she quickly stood out due to her unique vocal quality; her somewhat thin, girlish voice gave the group a youthful, innocent sound that was nevertheless belied by often-caustic lyrics and a vocal delivery punctuated frequently by harsh, distorted screams (in live performances more so than on recordings). Although the group's early work was essentially punk-oriented, they quickly settled into a sunny, melodic, and slightly jangly pop style reminiscent in style of early R.E.M. and Neil Young. Hatfield and Strohm shared songwriting credits and often sang together in harmony or octaves, creating a memorable "boy-girl" sound rarely encountered in rock (except in the work of X and a few later indie bands such as Velocity Girl, Hazel, Quasi, Low, Mates of State, and Rainer Maria). The group formally disbanded in 1991 but, largely due to the persistent efforts of Freda, reunited briefly in late 1999, performing a few shows in 1999 and 2000 and embarking on one last U.S. tour in 2001. Coinciding with the tour The Blake Babies recorded and released a new album titled God Bless The Blake Babies which received strong reviews. The album featured new original songs as well as renditions of songs by Ben Lee and Madder Rose. Frequent collaborator Evan Dando also made a guest appearance on the album. After the tour Hatfield released a Blake Babies EP titled Epilogue at her live shows featuring the band covering Fleetwood Mac, The Ramones and MC5. Solo career Hatfield began her solo career following the Blake Babies' breakup in 1991, releasing her first solo album (Hey Babe) in 1992. The album was one of the highest selling independent albums of 1992. Hatfield recruited a rhythm section consisting of former Moving Targets and Bullet LaVolta drummer Todd Phillips, and Thudpucker bassist Dean Fisher, and thus becoming The Juliana Hatfield Three. Hatfield achieved alterna-rock stardom with the release of 1993's Become What You Are (recorded under the group name The Juliana Hatfield Three). Several songs from the album received regular airplay on major North American rock stations, with Hatfield's song "My Sister" becoming the biggest hit of her career, with a #1 placing on the Modern Rock Tracks chart, and the video becoming an MTV staple. Another one of her songs ("Spin the Bottle") was used in the soundtrack of the Hollywood film Reality Bites (1994). Hatfield also made the cover of Spin magazine. Hatfield's popularity coincided with the success, in the mid-1990s, of many other female alternative rock musicians. Such artists include Liz Phair, P J Harvey, Belly, Letters to Cleo, Velocity Girl, The Breeders, Hole, Veruca Salt, Poe, Throwing Muses, Magnapop, Bettie Serveert, and Frente!. Although she has always maintained that her gender is of only incidental importance to her music, Hatfield was pleased to have been invited, in 1997, to tour with the first Lilith Fair, a prominent all-female rock festival founded by singer Sarah McLachlan. Hatfield was profiled in a number of girls' magazines at this time and was embraced by many pre-teen and teenage girls as a role model due to the positive way she addressed serious issues faced by young women in her songs and interviews. About this period she says: "I was never comfortable with the attention. I thought it had come too soon. I hadn’t earned it yet." She gained notoriety in 1992 for saying that she was still a virgin in her mid-twenties in Interview magazine. In a 1994 interview for the magazine Vox she said she was surprised by the effect 'outing' herself had: "I think there are a lot of people out there who don't care about sex, but who you never hear from, so I thought I should say it. The magazine I did the interview for is full of beef-cake hunky guys and scantily-clad models, so I thought it would be really funny to say that I didn't care about sex in a magazine that's full of sex and beauty - but no one really got the joke." In 1995, following the success of Become What You Are she released her followup album, Only Everything, in which she "turned up the volume and the distortion and had a lot of fun". One reviewer describes it as "a fun, engaging pop album". The album spawned another alternative radio hit for Hatfield in Universal Heart-Beat. The video featured Hatfield as an overly demanding aerobics instructor. Prior to the tour for 'Only Everything', Hatfield released Phillips and brought on Jason Sutter (American Hi-Fi, Chris Cornell, Jack Drag), as well as Ed Slanker (Thudpucker, Tinsel) on 2nd guitar, and Lisa Mednick on keyboards. Two weeks into the tour, Hatfield canceled the tour, which her publicist explained as due to "nervous exhaustion," and took a month long break. In her memoir Hatfield writes that in truth she was suffering from depression severe enough to the point of being suicidal. Hatfield disagreed with the decision not to be upfront about her depression. Depression way more badass than 'nervous exhaustion,' Juliana Hatfield says prefixmag.com July 21, 2008 The drummer was, once again, replaced, this time by Phillips, and touring resumed with Jeff Buckley as the opening act. In 1996 she traveled to Woodstock, New York where she recorded tracks for God's Foot, which was to be her fourth solo album (third if not counting Become What You Are, which was recorded with the Juliana Hatfield Three), intended for 1997 release. After three failed attempts to satisfy requests from Atlantic Records to come up with a "single" that the label could release, Juliana requested she be released from her contract. The label obliged, but kept the rights to the songs produced during these sessions (Atlantic had reportedly paid $180,000 to that point on the recordings). Two tracks -- "Mountains of Love" and "Fade Away" -- were eventually released on a greatest hits collection entitled Gold Stars, while still another, "Can't Kill Myself," was available for download from Juliana's official website. The remaining tracks have surfaced only as substandard bootleg versions (which do not meet Hatfield's approval) and she has rarely featured them in her subsequent live performances. Following the traumatic experiences surrounding God's Foot, and now freed from her major label obligations, Juliana recorded a six song EP for indie label Bar/None in 1997 titled Please Do Not Disturb. Produced by Hatfield herself, the album featured several different musicians, including drummer Todd Phillips, guitarists Ed Slanker and Mike Leahy, and new bass player Mikey Welsh (Weezer) among others. The EP features a particularly tender song, "Trying Not To Think About It," which is a tribute to the deceased musician Jeff Buckley, who was a friend of Hatfield's. Almost as a reaction to the seemingly endless studio sessions surrounding God's Foot, Hatfield recorded the album Bed in 1998 in six days, about which she says on her website: "It sounds as raw as I felt. It has no pretty sheen. The mistakes and unattractive parts were left in, not erased. Just like my career. Just like life." In 2000, she released Beautiful Creature, an album which was among the most critically well-received of her career. This album left the rockier side of Hatfield's musical personality unexpressed, however, so at the same time she also recorded Juliana's Pony: Total System Failure with Zephan Courtney and Mikey Welsh, which she describes as "a loud release of tension", with "lots of long sloppy guitar solos. And no love songs...a not-at-all attractive reaction to the ugly side of humanity, specifically American culture." The two albums were initially released in a set as a pair. Juliana's Pony: Total System Failure was however received very badly by the critics., who much preferred the acoustic songwriting on Beautiful Creature. On Beautiful Creature Hatfield worked with Austin-based musician Davíd Garza who co-produced much of the album. Wally Gagel a producer for Sebadoh and Tanya Donelly helped Hatfield record her most electronica influenced songs "Cool Rock Boy" and "Don't Rush Me" which added texture to the otherwise acoustic album. 2002 saw the release of Hatfield's first "best-of" album. The album, titled Gold Stars 1992-2002: The Juliana Hatfield Collection, featured the singles from her solo albums. It also contained two of the songs from the previously unreleased God's Foot, a cover of Neil Young's Only Love Can Break Your Heart, as well as four new recordings. In 2004 Hatfield released In Exile Deo, which was arguably an attempt at a more commercial sound, with input from producers and engineers who'd worked with Pink and Avril Lavigne. Hatfield did, however, produce the album herself with David Leonard receiving co-production credits on "Jamie's In Town" and the bright rocker "Sunshine." The critics loved it, with a couple calling it her best work since the start of her solo career. By contrast, the 2005 album Made in China was released on her own new record label, Ye Olde Records, and has a much rawer feel. John Doe of the band X described the disc as "A frighteningly dark & beautiful record filled w/ stark, angular, truly brutal songs & guitars. This is surely a 'Woman Under the Influence', though I'm not sure of what." Reviews were very mixed, with some liking the lo-fi sound, but others seeing it as slackness. In December 2005 Hatfield toured the United States with the band X, whom she idolized during her teenage years. 2006, Hatfield released her first live album. Titled The White Broken Line: Live Recordings, the album featured performances from her tour with X. This was Hatfield's third release for her record label. Hatfield's new album, How To Walk Away, was released on August 19, 2008 on her own label, Ye Olde Records. Style and influences From her work with the Blake Babies to the present, Hatfield's output has been characterized by an alternation between heavy, rocking tunes and songs written in a gentler, more melodic or folk-oriented style. Hatfield has stated that in the 1990s she tried smoking cigarettes for a short time in the hope of giving her voice a rougher quality, but eventually reconciled herself with her distinctive vocal instrument . A survey of her releases shows her voice to be remarkably agile, with little vibrato but capable of both forcefulness and sensitivity, making it well suited to the multitracked vocal harmonies that feature prominently on most of her albums. Christina Kelly wrote in Sassy Magazine that Hatfield's frail girlish voice "gives hope to everyone trying to sing." Hatfield's musical influences are diverse, ranging from punk groups like X, The Stooges, the MC5, and The Replacements to more folk-oriented rock artists like Neil Young, whose songs the Blake Babies frequently covered in live shows. Her work has also cross-fertilized with some other contemporaneous indie rock bands such as Dinosaur Jr and Lemonheads, whose musicians are also friends of Hatfield's. From an early age, she has also had a special love for pretty-sounding pop music. In a 1998 interview, she stated, "I just always liked pop music and really good melodies and major chords. That's just the type of music that comes naturally to me" . In a 1993 interview in Melody Maker magazine, Hatfield stated that her enthusiasm for the music of the pop group Wilson Phillips apparently led, at least in part, to the breakup of the Blake Babies . Hatfield has been based in the northeastern United States for most of her life, although she tried living for a short time (1999) in Los Angeles, an experience that left her disenchanted with that city's scene, which she found artificial and soulless. Lyrics Although Hatfield's lyrics are often autobiographical, some listeners have sometimes mistakenly interpreted fictional songs as representing her own experience. Her "My Sister"—one of her best known songs—is not about a real sister; Hatfield does not have one. The song, however, comes across as convincing because other details (including the mention of her first rock concert, featuring the Violent Femmes and the The Del Fuegos) are real events from her life. A recurrent theme in her songs has been a skewering of figures in society that she finds ridiculous: self-important men ("I'm Not Your Mother"), groupies ("Rider"), fashion models ("Supermodel"), and men who make tragic fashion choices ("Leather Pants"). Other songs have dealt with more serious issues such as body image ("Ugly" and "Feed Me") as well as the failure to connect fully with other people or achieve meaningful and lasting relationships ("How Would You Know" and "Perfection"). Some of her songs deal more or less explicitly with her anger towards people she sees as not taking responsibility for their actions ("Stay Awake ", several of the songs from the album "Total System Failure", notably "The Victim"). A few songs ("Let's Blow it All," "Give Me Some of That") are more lighthearted in tone. Her quieter, more acoustic songs often deal with relationships ("When You Loved Me") and particular places ("Trying Not To Think About It"). Sometimes they have a wistful melancholy, a sense of struggling to carry on, trying to find some meaning in life ("Backseat", "Feelin' Massachusetts"). Since the mid-1990s songs such as "Sellout" have dealt in a more or less overtly sarcastic way with the demands the music industry places on artists (particularly female ones) in order to ensure their "success." Although much of Hatfield's output is exuberant and hard-rocking, Hatfield nonetheless describes herself as very shy and somewhat of a loner, and has said that "happy lyrics don't come naturally to me." She has also described her music and songwriting as a form of therapy, an outlet that helps her to overcome rough periods and depression. Instruments The guitar (both electric and acoustic) is Hatfield's primary instrument, and she is a highly proficient technician, her work often featuring alternate tunings and intricate, unusual voicings executed high up on the neck. She has not received as much acknowledgement for her imaginative bass playing, which can be best heard on the Blake Babies albums Earwig and Sunburn as well as throughout the Lemonheads' It's A Shame About Ray. Unusually for the instrument, she plays melodically and harmonically rather than simply holding down a bass line; she often plays on two strings simultaneously, using expressive sliding tones on the upper string to add another melodic voice to the group's sound. Since her work with the Blake Babies she has gravitated more towards the guitar and has largely lost interest in the bass, generally assigning parts for the instrument to other band members, and not playing as melodically when overdubbing with it in recordings. She has periodically also played piano, electric piano, and organ on her releases, and on her album Made in China (2005) she played drums for the first time. Collaborations Hatfield has also performed with the Lemonheads, even living for a time with Evan Dando in the college student ghetto neighborhood of Allston in Boston, and contributed backing vocals to recordings by Belly, Giant Sand, Susanna Hoffs, Aimee Mann, and Mary Lou Lord. She teamed up with Dando in 1999 to record Gram Parsons's song "$1,000 Wedding" on the various artists' compilation, Return of the Grievous Angel: A Tribute to Gram Parsons. In 2001, she joined with Freda Love and Heidi Gluck (of The Pieces and The Only Children) to form the trio Some Girls, with which she performs in addition to her solo work; the group has toured the United States twice and has released two albums. The trio is another outlet for Hatfield's more lighthearted material. Their first album, entitled Feel It, was released by Koch Records in 2003. The lead single "Necessito" is a funky affirmation of the power of music, sung in a mixture of English and Spanish. Some Girls' second album, Crushing Love, was released in July 2006. In 2007 Hatfield signed the Boston (now Austin)-based band Frank Smith to her record label, Ye Olde Records. Along with releasing their 2007 album Heavy Handed Peace and Love Hatfield also recorded an EP with the band titled Sittin' In A Tree. The EP, produced by Frank Smith's Aaron Sinclair, features banjos, pedal steel, and other instruments normally associated with country music. Outside projects Beyond her musical accomplishments, Hatfield has also guest-starred on several television shows, including The Adventures of Pete & Pete as a lunch lady and on the cult classic My So-Called Life's Christmas episode as the ghost of a deceased homeless girl. During the mid-1990s she was a staple on MTV's 120 Minutes alternative music program, and she performed on Late Night with Conan O'Brien in 1995. Hatfield and Dando are mentioned in the Barenaked Ladies song "Jane," from their 1994 album Maybe You Should Drive. In it, the singer claims there is "No Juliana next to my Evan." On March 25, 2008, Hatfield began her own blog through her website titled An Arm and A Leg. Each week she reveals the influences behind one of her songs. Hatfield briefly appeared on an episode of Space Ghost Coast to Coast named "Surprise," which aired on June 19, 1996. Instead of being interviewed, she simply said "uhh" and then was zapped by Zorak. Hatfield released When I Grow up: A Memoir on September 22, 2008. Amazon.com Discography Solo: Studio Albums 1992 – Hey Babe 1993 – Become What You Are (as The Juliana Hatfield Three) 1995 – Only Everything 1996 - God's Foot (not released - this was slated for a Spring 1997 release) 1998 – Bed 2000 – Beautiful Creature 2000 – Juliana's Pony: Total System Failure (Beautiful Creature and Juliana's Pony: Total System Failure were also released as a box set with bonus EP/CD-ROM) 2004 – In Exile Deo 2005 – Made in China 2008 - How To Walk Away Collections and Live Albums: 2002 – Gold Stars 1992-2002: The Juliana Hatfield Collection 2006 – The White Broken Line: Live Recordings Singles and EP's 1992 - I See You (EP) 1992 - Forever Baby (EP) 1993 - My Sister (EP) (as The Juliana Hatfield Three)US MOD #1,US #112 1993 - For the Birds EP (as The Juliana Hatfield Three) 1993 - Spin the Bottle (EP) (as The Juliana Hatfield Three) US #97 1995 - Universal Heart-Beat (EP)US MOD #5,US #84 1997 – Please Do Not Disturb (EP) With the Blake Babies 1987 – Nicely, Nicely (Chewbud Records) 1989 – Earwig 1989 – Slow Learner (Utility Records) 1990 – Sunburn 1991 – Rosy Jack World (EP) 1993 – Innocence & Experience 2001 – God Bless The Blake Babies 2002 – Epilogue (EP) With Some Girls 2003 - Feel It 2006 - Crushing Love With Frank Smith 2007 - Sittin' In A Tree (EP) Film soundtracks featuring songs by Juliana Hatfield 1992 - Fathers And Sons: song "Yeh, Yeh" 1994 - Reality Bites: song "Spin The Bottle" 1995 - My So-Called Life (TV series): song "Make It Home" 1996 - The Craft: song "Witches' Song" 1998 - Urban Legend: song "Trying Not To Think About It" 2000 - Condo Painting: song "Harder and Deeper" Compilations 1995 - A cover of Josie and the Pussycats, performed by Juliana Hatfield and Tanya Donelly, is included on the tribute album Saturday Morning: Cartoons' Greatest Hits, produced by Ralph Sall for MCA Records. CD liner notes: Saturday Morning: Cartoons' Greatest Hits, 1995 MCA Records 1995 - Volume 13: The Lucky Issue: song "Waves" 1997 - Kerouac- Kicks Joy Darkness: song "Silly Goofball Pomes" 1999 - Return of the Grievous Angel: A Tribute to Gram Parsons: song, a duet with Evan Dando "$1,000 Wedding" 2005 - Too Many Years (benefiting Clear Path International's work with landmine survivors): song "Going Nowhere" 2006 - Big Star Small World: song "Don't Lie to Me" 2008 - The Green Owl Compilation: song "Back To Freedom" Book Juliana Hatfield. When I Grow Up: A Memoir. Wiley Publishing, September 22, 2008. ISBN 0470189592. 336 pp. External links Juliana Hatfield official site Some Girls official site Blake Babies official site Juliana Hatfield (interview by Matt Ryan from MAGNET magazine) Unofficial Ye Olde Records Discography Discography and Lyrics Topher's Juliana Hatfield lyrics database Boston Phoenix article naming Juliana Hatfield the All time Best Solo Artist from Maine Interview in Paste magazine Article from The Boston Globe, August 24, 2008 Juliana Hatfield interview/audio in Salon.com Juliana Hatfield interview in Sadie Magazine Footnotes References LeRoy, Dan (2007). The Greatest Music Never Sold: Secrets of Legendary Lost Albums by David Bowie, Seal, Beastie Boys, Chicago, Mick Jagger, and More!. Backbeat Books. ISBN 0879309059. ISBN 9780879309053. Reisfeld, Randi (1996). This Is the Sound!: The Best of Alternative Rock. New York: Simon Pulse. 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6,180 | Americium | Americium () is a synthetic element that has the symbol Am and atomic number 95. A radioactive metallic element, americium is an actinide that was obtained in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg who was bombarding plutonium with neutrons and was the fourth transuranic element to be discovered. It was named for the Americas, by analogy with europium. Americium is widely used in commercial ionization-chamber smoke detectors as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges. Properties Pure americium has a silvery and white luster. At room temperatures it slowly tarnishes in dry air. It is more silvery than plutonium or neptunium and apparently more malleable than neptunium or uranium. Alpha emission from 241Am is approximately three times that of radium. Gram quantities of 241Am emits alpha particles and low energy gamma rays (60 keV, giving a dose at 1 metre of 0.0011 mSv/yr). Americium is also fissile; the critical mass for an unreflected sphere of 241Am is approximately 60 kilograms. It is unlikely that Americium would be used as a weapons material, as its minimum critical mass is considerably larger than that of more readily obtained plutonium or uranium isotopes. Applications Americium can be produced in kilogram amounts and has some uses, mostly involving 241Am since it is easiest to produce relatively pure samples of this isotope. Americium is the only synthetic element to have found its way into the household, where one common type of smoke detector contains a tiny amount (about 0.2 microgram) of 241Am as a source of ionizing radiation. Americium dioxide is used in smoke detectors. (Internet Archive) This amount emits about 1 microcurie of nuclear radiation when new, with the amount declining slowly as the americium decays into neptunium, a different transuranic element, with a much longer half-life (about 2.14 million years). With its half-life of 432 years, the americium-241 in a smoke detector includes about 5% neptunium after 22 years, and about 10% after 43 years. After the 432-year americium-241 half-life, a smoke detector's original americium would, by definition, be more than half neptunium. 241Am has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a number of medical and industrial uses. Gamma ray emissions from 241Am can be used for indirect analysis of materials radiography and for quality control in manufacturing fixed gauges. For example, the element has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass. 241Am gamma rays were also used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid function. This medical application is obsolete. 241Am can be combined with lighter elements (e.g., beryllium or lithium) to become a neutron emitter. This application has found uses in neutron radiography as well as a neutron emitting radioactive source. The most widespread use of 241AmBe neutron sources is found in moisture/density gauges used for quality control in highway construction. 241Am neutron sources are also critical for well logging applications. 242mAm has been cited for use as an advanced nuclear rocket propulsion fuel. This isotope is, however, extremely expensive to produce in usable quantities. 241Am has recently been suggested for use as a denaturing agent in plutonium reactor fuel rods to render the fuel unusable for conversion to nuclear weapons. History Americium was first isolated by Glenn T. Seaborg, Leon O. Morgan, Ralph A. James, and Albert Ghiorso in late 1944 at the wartime Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago (now known as Argonne National Laboratory). The team created the isotope 241Am by subjecting 239Pu to successive neutron capture reactions in a nuclear reactor. This created 240Pu and then 241Pu which in turn decayed into 241Am via beta decay. G. T. Seaborg, R. A. James, L. O. Morgan: "The New Element Americium (Atomic Number 95)", NNES PPR (National Nuclear Energy Series, Plutonium Project Record), Vol. 14 B The Transuranium Elements: Research Papers, Paper No. 22.1, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1949; Abstract; Typoskript (Januar 1948). Seaborg was granted a patent for "Element 95 and Method of Producing Said Element," whose unusually terse claim number 1 reads simply, "Element 95." Patent The discovery of americium and curium was first announced informally on a children's quiz show in 1945. Isotopes Sample of americiumEighteen radioisotopes of americium have been characterized, with the most stable being 243Am with a half-life of 7370 years, and 241Am with a half-life of 432.2 years. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 51 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 100 minutes. This element also has 8 meta states, with the most stable being 242mAm (t½ 141 years). The isotopes of americium range in atomic weight from 231.046 u (231Am) to 249.078 u (249Am). Chemistry In aqueous systems the most common oxidation state is +3. It is very much harder to oxidize Am(III) to Am(IV) than it is to oxidise Pu(III) to Pu(IV). Currently the solvent extraction chemistry of americium is important as in several areas of the world scientists are working on reducing the medium term radiotoxicity of the waste from the reprocessing of used nuclear fuel. See liquid-liquid extraction for some examples of the solvent extraction of americium. Americium, unlike uranium, does not readily form a dioxide americyl core (AmO2). This is because americium is very hard to oxidise above the +3 oxidation state when it is in an aqueous solution. In the environment, this americyl core could complex with carbonate as well as other oxygen moieties (OH-, NO2-, NO3-, and SO4-2) to form charged complexes which tend to be readily mobile with low affinities to soil. AmO2(OH)+1 AmO2(OH)2+2 AmO2CO3+1 AmO2(CO3)2-1 AmO2(CO3)3-3 A large amount of work has been done on the solvent extraction of americium, as it is the case that americium and the other transplutonium elements are responsible for the majority of the long lived radiotoxicity of spent nuclear fuel. It is thought that by removal of the americium and curium that the used fuel will only need to be isolated from people and the environment for a shorter time than that required for the isolation of untreated used fuel. One recent funded project on this topic was known by the codename "EUROPART". Within this project triazines and other compounds were studied as potential extraction agents. References Further reading Nuclides and Isotopes - 14th Edition, GE Nuclear Energy, 1989. Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition, Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1 Gmelins Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie, System Nr. 71, Band 7 a, Transurane: Teil A 1 I, S. 30–34; Teil A 1 II, S. 18, 315–326, 343–344; Teil A 2, S. 42–44, 164–175, 185–188; Teil B 1, S. 57–67. External links WebElements.com – Americium Los Alamos National Laboratory – Americium It's Elemental – Americium ATSDR – Public Health Statement: Americium - World Nuclear Association | Americium |@lemmatized americium:29 synthetic:2 element:15 symbol:1 atomic:3 number:4 radioactive:3 metallic:1 actinide:1 obtain:2 glenn:2 seaborg:4 bombard:1 plutonium:5 neutron:8 fourth:1 transuranic:2 discover:1 name:1 america:1 analogy:1 europium:1 widely:1 use:12 commercial:1 ionization:1 chamber:1 smoke:5 detector:5 well:4 source:6 industrial:2 gauge:4 property:1 pure:2 silvery:2 white:1 luster:1 room:1 temperature:1 slowly:2 tarnish:1 dry:1 air:1 neptunium:5 apparently:1 malleable:1 uranium:3 alpha:3 emission:2 approximately:2 three:1 time:2 radium:1 gram:1 quantity:2 emits:1 particle:2 low:2 energy:3 gamma:4 ray:4 kev:1 give:1 dose:1 metre:1 msv:1 yr:1 also:4 fissile:1 critical:3 mass:2 unreflected:1 sphere:1 kilogram:2 unlikely:1 would:2 weapon:2 material:2 minimum:1 considerably:1 large:2 readily:3 isotope:7 application:4 produce:4 amount:5 us:3 mostly:1 involve:1 since:1 easy:1 relatively:1 sample:2 find:3 way:1 household:1 one:2 common:2 type:1 contain:1 tiny:1 microgram:1 ionize:1 radiation:2 dioxide:2 internet:1 archive:1 emit:2 microcurie:1 nuclear:9 new:3 decline:1 decay:3 different:1 much:2 longer:1 half:8 life:6 million:1 year:8 include:1 original:1 definition:1 portable:1 medical:2 indirect:1 analysis:1 radiography:2 quality:2 control:2 manufacture:1 fix:1 example:2 employ:1 glass:2 thickness:1 help:1 create:3 flat:1 provide:1 passive:1 diagnosis:1 thyroid:1 function:1 obsolete:1 combine:1 light:1 e:1 g:2 beryllium:1 lithium:1 become:1 emitter:1 widespread:1 moisture:1 density:1 highway:1 construction:1 log:1 cite:1 advanced:1 rocket:1 propulsion:1 fuel:7 however:1 extremely:1 expensive:1 usable:1 recently:1 suggest:1 denaturing:1 agent:2 reactor:2 rod:1 render:1 unusable:1 conversion:1 history:1 first:2 isolate:2 leon:1 morgan:2 ralph:1 james:2 albert:2 ghiorso:1 late:1 wartime:1 metallurgical:1 laboratory:3 university:2 chicago:1 know:2 argonne:1 national:3 team:1 subject:1 successive:1 capture:1 reaction:1 turn:1 via:1 beta:1 r:1 l:1 nne:1 ppr:1 series:1 project:3 record:1 vol:1 b:2 transuranium:1 research:1 paper:2 mcgraw:1 hill:1 book:1 co:1 inc:1 york:1 abstract:1 typoskript:1 januar:1 grant:1 patent:2 method:1 say:1 whose:1 unusually:1 terse:1 claim:1 read:2 simply:1 discovery:1 curium:2 announce:1 informally:1 child:1 quiz:1 show:1 isotopes:1 americiumeighteen:1 radioisotope:1 characterize:1 stable:2 remain:1 less:2 hour:1 majority:2 live:1 minute:1 meta:1 state:3 range:1 weight:1 u:2 chemistry:2 aqueous:2 system:2 oxidation:2 hard:2 oxidize:1 iii:2 iv:2 oxidise:2 pu:2 currently:1 solvent:3 extraction:5 important:1 several:1 area:1 world:2 scientist:1 work:2 reduce:1 medium:1 term:1 radiotoxicity:2 waste:1 reprocessing:1 see:1 liquid:2 unlike:1 form:2 americyl:2 core:2 solution:1 environment:2 could:1 complex:2 carbonate:1 oxygen:1 moiety:1 oh:3 charge:1 tend:1 mobile:1 affinity:1 soil:1 case:1 transplutonium:1 responsible:1 long:1 lived:1 spent:1 think:1 removal:1 need:1 people:1 short:1 require:1 isolation:1 untreated:1 used:1 recent:1 fund:1 topic:1 codename:1 europart:1 within:1 triazine:1 compound:1 study:1 potential:1 reference:1 far:1 nuclides:1 edition:2 ge:1 guide:1 revise:1 stwertka:1 oxford:1 press:1 isbn:1 gmelins:1 handbuch:1 der:1 anorganischen:1 chemie:1 nr:1 band:1 transurane:1 teil:4 ii:1 external:1 links:1 webelements:1 com:1 los:1 alamos:1 elemental:1 atsdr:1 public:1 health:1 statement:1 association:1 |@bigram glenn_seaborg:2 transuranic_element:2 ionization_chamber:1 smoke_detector:5 silvery_white:1 gamma_ray:4 ionize_radiation:1 rocket_propulsion:1 nuclear_weapon:1 albert_ghiorso:1 metallurgical_laboratory:1 argonne_national:1 nuclear_reactor:1 beta_decay:1 transuranium_element:1 mcgraw_hill:1 americium_curium:2 radioactive_isotope:1 solvent_extraction:3 aqueous_solution:1 albert_stwertka:1 stwertka_oxford:1 handbuch_der:1 external_links:1 webelements_com:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 |
6,181 | Miami_Dolphins | The Miami Dolphins are a professional American football team based in the Miami, Florida metropolitan area. They play home games at Land Shark Stadium, in the suburb of Miami Gardens. They are headquartered at the Miami Dolphins Training Facility in Davie, Florida. The Dolphins belong to the Eastern Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Dolphins were founded by Joseph Robbie, began play in the American Football League as an expansion team in 1966, and joined the NFL as part of the AFL-NFL merger. The Dolphins are the oldest major-league professional sports franchise in the state of Florida. The team made its first Super Bowl appearance following the 1971 season in Super Bowl VI, but lost to the Dallas Cowboys. In 1972, the Dolphins completed the NFL's first and only completely perfect season culminating in a Super Bowl win, winning all 14 regular season games, two playoff games and Super Bowl VII. To date, they are the only team to have done so. The 1972 Dolphins held the fourth perfect regular season in NFL history. The team also won Super Bowl VIII, becoming the first team to appear in three consecutive Super Bowls, and the second team (first AFL/AFC team) to win back-to-back championships. Miami also appeared in Super Bowl XVII and Super Bowl XIX, losing both games. For most of their history, the Dolphins were coached by Don Shula, the most successful head coach in professional football history. His Dolphins teams posted losing records in only two of his 26 seasons with the club. Six future Hall of Fame members played for Miami during the 1970s, including running back Larry Csonka and quarterback Bob Griese. During the 1980s and 1990s quarterback Dan Marino became the most prolific passer in NFL history, breaking numerous league passing records. He led the Dolphins to five division titles, 10 playoff appearances and Super Bowl XIX before retiring after the 1999 season. The Dolphins recently clinched the AFC East on December 28, 2008 to win their first AFC East division title since 2000. In winning their division, it was even more miraculous how the team came into the season with a record of 1 win and 15 losses from the previous year and finished out their 2008 season with 11 wins and only 5 losses. History Miami joined the American Football League (AFL) when an expansion team franchise was awarded to lawyer Joseph Robbie and actor Danny Thomas in 1965 for $7.5 million dollars, although Thomas would eventually sell his stake in the team to Robbie. CarlyNovoselskys History AFL awarding Miami franchise. Accessed 20 April 2006. A contest was held in 1965 to find the name of the new Miami franchise for the American Football League. A total of 19,843 entries were submitted with over a thousand different names. A dozen finalists were screened through by a seven-member committee made up of the local media, names considered included the Mariners, Marauders, Mustangs, Missiles, Moons, Sharks, and Suns. The winning name, "Dolphins," was submitted by 622 entrants. Mrs. Robert Swanson of West Miami won lifetime passes to Dolphin games when her nickname entry successfully predicted the winner and score of the 1965 football game between Notre Dame and the University of Miami, a scoreless tie. 1970s The Dolphins had a combined 15–39–2 record in their first four seasons (under head coach George Wilson) when Don Shula was hired as head coach. Shula was a former Paul Brown disciple who had been lured from the Baltimore Colts after first losing Super Bowl III two seasons earlier to the AFL's New York Jets and finishing 8–5–1 the following season. The Colts charged the Dolphins with tampering in their hiring of Shula, costing them their first round draft pick in 1970. Shula introduced himself to the Miami press by saying that he didn't have any magic formulas and that the only way he knew to make his teams successful was through hard work. Shula's early training camps with the Dolphins, with four workouts a day, would soon be the stuff of sweltering, painful legend. But Shula's hard work paid immediate dividends, as Miami improved to a 10–4 record and their first-ever playoff appearance, losing 21–14 at Oakland. The Dolphins were successful in the early 1970s, becoming the first team to advance to the Super Bowl for three consecutive seasons. They captured the AFC championship in 1971 behind quarterback Bob Griese, running backs Larry Csonka and Jim Kiick, and wide receiver Paul Warfield. The AFC Divisional Playoff Game, in which the Dolphins defeated the Kansas City Chiefs, was the longest contest in NFL history (82 minutes 40 seconds). In Super Bowl VI, however, Miami lost to the Dallas Cowboys 24–3. In 1972 the Dolphins completed the NFL's only perfect season, winning 14 regular season games, two playoff games and Super Bowl VII, defeating the Washington Redskins 14-7. QB Griese fell victim to a broken leg and dislocated ankle in Week 5 versus the San Diego Chargers and was replaced by veteran Earl Morrall for the rest of the regular season, but returned to the field as a substitute during the AFC Championship game versus the Pittsburgh Steelers and then started in Super Bowl VII. The Dolphins set the NFL single-season rushing record, and running backs Csonka and Mercury Morris became the first teammates to each rush for 1,000 yards in a season. The offensive line included future Hall of Fame members Jim Langer and Larry Little and Pro Bowler Bob Kuechenberg. The 1972 Dolphins defensive unit, called the No-Name Defense because Miami’s impressive offense received much more publicity, was the league’s best that year. It was led by linebacker Nick Buoniconti, end Bill Stanfill, tackle Manny Fernandez and safeties Dick Anderson and Jake Scott. Before the 1972 Dolphins, only the Chicago Bears, in 1934 NFL Historical Standings and 1942 NFL Historical Standings , had finished an NFL regular season with no losses or ties. The 1934 team lost the NFL Championship Game that year to the New York Football Giants, and the 1942 team lost the Championship to the Redskins. The Cleveland Browns were undefeated in the 1948 All-America Football Conference season. The Dolphins finished 12–2 after the 1973 regular season and repeated as NFL Champions, beating the Minnesota Vikings 24–7 in Super Bowl VIII at Rice Stadium in Houston. Miami reached the playoffs again in 1974 but lost in the first round to the Oakland Raiders, in what has entered NFL lore as the "Sea of Hands" game, considered one of the greatest games ever played. Following the 1974 season, the Dolphins lost Csonka, Kiick, and Warfield to the World Football League. Miami rebounded from a 6–8 record in 1976 by winning ten or more games in four of the next five seasons. Shula built a solid defense around a new set of stars, including linebacker A.J. Duhe and linemen Bob Baumhower and Doug Betters. The Dolphins went 10–4 again in 1977, but again lost the division title (and playoff spot) to the Colts. They made the playoffs as a wild card in 1978, but lost in the first round to the Houston Oilers 17-9. Csonka returned to the Dolphins in time for the 1979 season. After winning the division with a 10–6 record, the Dolphins lost the divisional playoff 34–14 to the eventual Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers at Three Rivers Stadium. 1980s In 1980, David Woodley, an athletic quarterback out of LSU, took over for Bob Griese, who severely injured his shoulder in a game against the Baltimore Colts. Griese would never play again, retiring after the season. The Dolphins finished 8–8 and did not make the playoffs. The Dolphins were back up on top of the AFC East in the 1981 NFL season, with an 11–4–1 record. That season, the Dolphins quarterback position was actually manned by both Woodley and back-up quarterback Don Strock, causing the local media to identify the Miami quarterback as "Woodstrock." They reached the divisional playoff against the San Diego Chargers, known as The Epic in Miami and remembered as one of the most memorable games in NFL history, After being down 24–0 after the end of the first quarter, back-up quarterback Don Strock entered the game and engineered a frenetic comeback, culminating in the historic "Hook and Lateral" play, in which wide receiver Duriel Harris caught a pass from Strock and immediately lateralled the ball to the streaking running back Tony Nathan for the score on the last play of the half, which cut the Chargers lead to 24–17. After the Dolphins took the lead in the 4th quarter, San Diego tied it up 38–38 with under a minute to play. Chargers tight end Kellen Winslow, playing through exhaustion, blocked Uwe von Schamann's field goal try on the last play of regulation. In overtime, Von Schamann had another field goal attempt blocked, and Rolf Benirschke kicked the game-winner for San Diego (final score 41-38) after missing a chip shot field goal earlier. Strock finished the game with 403 passing yards and 4 touchdowns. Killer B's In the strike-shortened 1982 NFL season, the Dolphins, led by the "Killer B's" defense (Bob Baumhower, Bill Barnett, Lyle Blackwood, Kim Bokamper, Glenn Blackwood, Doug Betters, and Bob Brudzinski), held five of their nine opponents to 14 or fewer points en route to their fourth Super Bowl appearance. During the first two rounds of the playoffs, they got revenge for previous losses, crushing the Patriots, 28–13 (revenge for the infamous Snow Plow game at Schaeffer Stadium played earlier in the season) and the San Diego Chargers, 34–13 at the Orange Bowl. After shutting out the New York Jets in the AFC Championship 14–0 (aided by Shula's instructions to the Stadium's grounds crew to leave the field uncovered throughout a week long rain in Miami). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NFL_playoffs,_1982-83 This was done to negate the Jets superior edge in team speed. They lost Super Bowl XVII to Washington, 27–17. After enjoying success rooted in a defense-first philosophy, and employing a ball control offense to take pressure off of lackluster quarterbacks, the next 17 seasons would be marked by an average rushing game and defense that limited a great quarterback. During the third game of the 1983 season at the Los Angeles Raiders on Monday Night Football, Shula replaced quarterback David Woodley with rookie Dan Marino, who went on to win the AFC passing title with a ratio of 20 touchdowns versus 6 interceptions. Seldom sacked by defenders, Marino was protected by an outstanding offensive line as he passed to receivers such as Mark Clayton and Mark Duper. Despite the regular season success (the Dolphins went 12–4 winning their last five regular season games, the only team in the AFC East with a winning record), they were upset in the divisional playoff by the Seattle Seahawks at the Orange Bowl. Defensive end Doug Betters was named the NFL Defensive Player of the Year. In 1984, the Dolphins won their first 11 games en route to a 14–2 season (the franchise's best 16-game season to date). Marino, in his first full season, produced the most impressive set of passing statistics in NFL history, setting single-season records for most yards (5,084), touchdown passes (48), and completions (362). He was voted NFL MVP. Miami avenged the Seahawks loss from the previous year 31-10 and crushed the Steelers 45–28 in the AFC Championship to get to Super Bowl XIX. In the title game, however, Miami lost to the San Francisco 49ers 38-16. It would be Marino's only Super Bowl appearance. Miami finished 12–-4 in 1985 and, in an epic Monday Night Football showdown, handed the previously-undefeated Chicago Bears their only defeat of the season. After rallying from a 21-3 third quarter deficit in the divisional playoffs to beat the Cleveland Browns 24–21, many people were looking forward to a rematch with Chicago in Super Bowl XX. The Cinderella New England Patriots, the Dolphins' opponents in the AFC Championship, had different plans. New England forced six turnovers on the way to a 31–14 win - the Patriots' first in Miami since 1966. The Patriots had lost 18 games in a row at the Orange Bowl. In 1969, the Boston Patriots had beaten the Dolphins at Tampa Stadium. In 1986, the Dolphins, hampered by defensive struggles, stumbled to a 2–5 start and finished 8–8, missing the playoffs for the first time since 1980. The Dolphins lost their last ever game at the Orange Bowl to the New England Patriots 34–27 on Monday Night Football. The problems continued in 1987, with an 8–7 (7-5 in non-strike games) record in a strike-shortened year, their first at new Joe Robbie Stadium. Miami had their first losing season (6–10) since 1976 in 1988, and finished 8–8 following the 1989 regular season. 1990s 1990–1991 By 1990, the Dolphins had finally shaped up on defense and finished with a 12–4 record, second in the AFC East. They came from behind to beat the Kansas City Chiefs 17–16 in the Wild Card round, but lost to the Buffalo Bills 44–34 in the divisional playoffs. The team struggled with defensive injuries in 1991, and narrowly missed the playoffs in an overtime loss to the New York Jets during the final week of the season, losing the AFC's final playoff berth to their arch rivals from New York. 1992 The Dolphins rebounded in 1992 by finishing 11–5 and capturing the AFC East title behind a career year from running back Mark Higgs and tight end Keith Jackson, newly acquired from the Philadelphia Eagles as an unrestricted free agent. They crushed the Chargers in the divisional playoffs 31–0, but were defeated by the Buffalo Bills 29–10 in the AFC Championship. 1993–1994 A season-ending Achilles injury to Dan Marino led to the team missing the playoffs in 1993 despite a league-leading 9-2 start. Marino returned in 1994 to lead the Dolphins to a 10–6 record and the AFC East crown. After defeating Joe Montana and the Kansas City Chiefs in the Wild Card round, the Dolphins gave up a 15-point halftime lead and suffered a heart-breaking 22–21 loss to the San Diego Chargers. Pete Stoyanovich missed a 46 yard field goal on the last play of the game and denied Marino a chance to play the Steelers in his hometown of Pittsburgh in the AFC Championship Game. 1995 In 1995, Marino broke the career passing records formerly held by Fran Tarkenton for yards (48,841), touchdowns (352), and completions (3,913), though two of the games where he broke those records were losses to the Indianapolis Colts. The Dolphins finished 9–7, second in the AFC East, but still made the playoffs as a wild card, losing to Buffalo in the first round. Following the 1995 season, Don Shula retired and became an executive in the Dolphins’ front office. Jimmy Johnson, who had won a collegiate national championship at the University of Miami and two Super Bowls with the Dallas Cowboys, was named as Shula’s replacement. At the press conference announcing his retirement, Shula said that he "agreed to step aside", leading some to speculate that Huizenga had all but fired him. 1996–1998 In 1996, Miami finished 8-8 and out of the playoffs, with rookie Karim Abdul-Jabbar's 1,116-yard rushing season and the standout play of rookie linebacker Zach Thomas serving as two of the few bright spots. In 1997, Miami stumbled late and backed into the playoffs with a 9–7 season, losing to the New England Patriots in the Wild Card round. Miami had a solid 10-6 season in 1998 with a career season for receiver O.J. McDuffie, but it was not enough to get past the New York Jets into first place in the division. The Dolphins beat the Bills in the Wild Card round, but lost in the next round to the eventual champion Denver Broncos. (The Broncos lost only two regular season games in 1998, one of which was to the Dolphins.) 1999 In 1999, the team advanced to the playoffs at 9-7. After a close win at Seattle in the Wild Card round 20-17, they suffered the worst playoff loss in NFL history against the Jacksonville Jaguars: 62-7. Noteworthy, in the 1940 NFL Championship game, the Chicago Bears beat the host Washington Redskins 73-0 for the second worst playoff game in history. After the season, Jimmy Johnson left the team and Marino retired. 2000s 2000–2001 Zach Thomas contributed heavily to the Dolphins 00' and 01' playoff runs. Before the 2000 season, Dave Wannstedt, formerly of the Chicago Bears, became the new coach, and ex-Jacksonville Jaguars backup Jay Fiedler became the new quarterback, even though former Marino backup Damon Huard had been considered the favorite. Despite lowered expectations, the defense broke through with Jason Taylor and Trace Armstrong each getting 10 sacks, and four players (Sam Madison, Brian Walker, Brock Marion and Patrick Surtain) tallying at least five interceptions. All-pro linebacker Zach Thomas also contributed many tackles. In addition, Lamar Smith rushed for 1,139 yards, and Miami finished atop the AFC East with an 11–5 record. In the first round of the playoffs, Miami took the Indianapolis Colts to overtime and won on a Lamar Smith touchdown run. Smith finished with 209 yards on 40 carries, but in the next round, the Dolphins were shut out by the Oakland Raiders, and a worn-out Smith was barely able to run. The 2001 offseason brought in rookie Chris Chambers at wide receiver, but Trace Armstrong left, as did two offensive linemen, Richmond Webb, a Pro Bowl anchor since 1990, and Kevin Donnalley. During the 2001 season, the Dolphins relied on a strong defense to finish 11–5, earning a Wild Card spot and finishing second in the AFC East behind the eventual Super Bowl champions, the New England Patriots. The Dolphins lost in the first round of the playoffs 20–3 to the Baltimore Ravens. 2002 Ricky Williams during a Pro Bowl stintMiami revitalized its running game in time for the 2002 season by trading for New Orleans Saints running back Ricky Williams. In addition, rookie tight end Randy McMichael made his presence felt. The Dolphins, behind a new offensive scheme under freshly hired offensive coordinator Norv Turner, and a power running game led by Williams, quickly rushed out to a 5–1 start, including an incredible last minute comeback by Fiedler against the Broncos. However, Fiedler injured his thumb and would be out for an extended period of time. This intrigued some Dolphins fans, who believed backup Ray Lucas could outdo the much-maligned Fiedler. However, Lucas was abysmal in his first two games and merely average in his third, and the team dropped three straight. Miami rebounded with wins over Baltimore and an impressive thumping of San Diego, but lost to Buffalo. Still, Miami pulled off an impressive win over the Oakland Raiders and sat at 9–5 with two weeks left in the season, in prime position to steal the AFC East. However, despite dominating the New England Patriots for most of the game in Week 17, the Dolphins blew an 11-point lead late in the fourth quarter of a devastating loss. Due to a tiebreaker, both the Dolphins and Patriots lost out on the playoffs as the Jets took the AFC East title. Many fans called for Wannstedt's firing, but he was kept on for the 2003 season. Despite it all, the team believed it had plenty to look forward to, as Ricky Williams broke Dolphins records with 1,853 rushing yards and 16 touchdowns on the ground. 2003 The 2003 Miami Dolphins were a hard team to pinpoint. The defense was again solid and forced a lot of turnovers, and opposing offenses found running the ball extremely difficult. However, poor offensive line play (despite most of the starters returning) gave little room for Ricky to run, and the offense was stagnant. The Dolphins began with a repeat of 2002's season end, with a complete meltdown against the Houston Texans, but they rebounded to win four straight games. During a crushing overtime loss at the hands of the Patriots, Jay Fiedler was injured, forcing newly acquired backup Brian Griese to lead the Dolphins to victory the next week over San Diego. That, however, was Griese's high point, and after a good showing against Indianapolis in a losing effort, he was lousy against the Titans and highly ineffective against the Ravens. When Griese and the Dolphins fell behind to the Washington Redskins, Jay Fiedler came off the bench and saved their season, leading them to a comeback victory, 24–23. Miami looked like it might rebound thanks to a victory over the Dallas Cowboys that took them to 8–4, but two key losses to the Patriots and the Eagles ended Miami's postseason hopes. Miami finished 10–6. 2004 The 2004 offseason was disastrous for the Dolphins. Tight end Randy McMichael was arrested for domestic violence and wide receiver David Boston (signed from San Diego) suffered an injury in training camp and missed the entire season (Boston also failed a drug test for steroids later in the season). But the biggest shock came when Ricky Williams retired for then-unspecified reasons, until it was eventually revealed that a) Williams had recently suffered his third strike under the NFL's substance abuse policy, and b) to a lesser degree felt he was unnecessarily overused by Wannstedt. Many experts predicted a disastrous season for the Dolphins. These predictions proved right as Miami dropped their first six games of the 2004 season, marking the worst start in franchise history at the time. After the team fell to 1–8, Wannstedt resigned on November 9, 2004. He was replaced on an interim basis by defensive coordinator Jim Bates. The Dolphins fared slightly better under Bates, winning three of their final seven games, including a 29–28 upset victory over the defending champion Patriots on December 20 in a nationally televised Monday Night Football contest. Despite this, the Dolphins decided not to hire Bates for the permanent coaching position. 2005–2006 After a 4-12 season, the Dolphins selected running back Ronnie Brown with their first pick.Instead of retaining Jim Bates, the Dolphins hired LSU coach Nick Saban. With the second pick the 2005 NFL Draft, Nick Saban elected to go with Auburn running back Ronnie Brown. And with that, the Nick Saban era kicked off with a 34–10 win against the Denver Broncos. From there, however, the Dolphins struggled, losing seven of their next nine games to fall to 3–7. The two wins came over the Carolina Panthers and the New Orleans Saints, a game that took place in Tiger Stadium due to Hurricane Katrina. After a frustrating two months, however, the Dolphins would rally late in the season, as they won their final six games, including a win to end the season over the New England Patriots. The team finished the year 9–7, and narrowly missed the playoffs. In Saban's second season, the Dolphins were expected to contend for a playoff spot. The season, however, turned out to be a major disappointment. Quarterback Daunte Culpepper never recovered from his devastating knee injury from the previous season, and was ultimately benched after the fourth game of the season and eventually put on Injured Reserve. After starting the season 1–6, they won four straight games, back in the playoff hunt at 5–6, but a few losses later ended their playoff hopes. This was Saban's first and last losing season as a head coach of the Miami Dolphins. On January 3, 2007, Saban announced that he had accepted a contract for eight years and a guaranteed $32 million to coach at the University of Alabama. Saban left despite making several public statements in the preceding weeks assuring fans and owner Wayne Huizenga that he would be staying on as coach of the Dolphins. Cam Cameron, previously the offensive coordinator for the San Diego Chargers, was then introduced as the new head coach of the Dolphins. 2007 The Dolphins began their season with Trent Green as their starting quarterback but after four games, Green was put on the injured reserve. For the rest of the way, the Dolphins went with Cleo Lemon and rookie John Beck as their quarterbacks. The Dolphins also suffered another setback with then NFL leading rusher Ronnie Brown went down for the season with a knee injury. Midway through the 2007 season, the NFL scheduled the Dolphins' home game against the New York Giants to be played in London's Wembley Stadium; this was the NFL's first regular-season game to be played outside of North America. The Giants defeated the Dolphins, 13-10. Shortly afterwards, one of Miami's top wide receivers Chris Chambers, who was acquired in 2001, was traded to the San Diego Chargers. On December 16, the Dolphins ended a 16 game losing streak by defeating the Baltimore Ravens at home 22–16 in overtime on a 64 yard touchdown from Cleo Lemon to Greg Camarillo, making the wideout an instant cult hero with the fans. Despite the win over the Ravens, the team would lose its next two games to finish an NFL worst 1–15, which tied the then NFL record for most losses in a season with 15, a record shared by 7 other teams, according to Steve Hirdt of the Elias Sports Bureau. The record for most losses has since been held by the 2008 Detroit Lions with an 0-16 record. 2008 Late in the 2007 season, two-time Super Bowl winning coach Bill Parcells was named Executive Vice President of the Dolphins football operations. Shortly after the season finale, Parcells fired general manager Randy Mueller and on January 3, 2008, head coach Cam Cameron was fired along with almost all of his staff. That same offseason, the Dolphins also parted ways with two Pro Bowlers and long-time Dolphins, releasing linebacker Zach Thomas (who later signed with the Dallas Cowboys) and trading defensive end Jason Taylor to the Washington Redskins for a second round draft pick. Parcells then proceeded to hire Tony Sparano, who was previously an assistant under Parcells during his days as the head coach of the Dallas Cowboys. The Dolphins ultimately took Jake Long, star offensive lineman out of the University of Michigan with the first pick of the 2008 draft and drafted quarterback (Chad Henne) with their second round pick for a second consecutive year. After the New York Jets traded for Brett Favre and released quarterback Chad Pennington the same day, the Dolphins quickly signed Pennington, who was a former Parcells draft pick. Going into their bye week (week 4), the only Dolphins victory was over the New England Patriots in week 3. Their next game was against the San Diego Chargers on October 5, 2008 in which the Dolphins prevailed 17–10 and earned a .500 record 2–2; however, the two wins were against the two teams that contested the 2007–08 AFC Championship game. The implementation of the "Wildcat" offense or single-wing offense was covered heavily by the media, despite the package being used sparingly during their two upset victories vs the Patriots and Chargers. Early on, Miami suffered the narrowest of defeats when they lost 29-28 to the Houston Texans. The team, however, would bounce back with four consecutive victories over the Buffalo Bills, Denver Broncos, Seattle Seahawks, and Oakland Raiders. After a crushing twenty point loss to New England, the Dolphins fell to third in the AFC East division. Again Miami rebounded to win their next four games, against the (St. Louis Rams, Bills in Toronto, 49ers, and Chiefs). This brought their record to 10-5 and let them control their destiny against the New York Jets in the regular season finale. Pennington, the former Jet, outdueled future Hall of Famer Brett Favre to lead the Dolphins to victory 24-17 to win the AFC East past the New England Patriots. A year after going 1–15, the Dolphins completed a remarkable turnaround under first-year coach Tony Sparano, joining the 1999 Indianapolis Colts as the only teams in NFL history to make 10-win improvements. Miami, which ended the regular season by winning five straight and nine of 10, made the playoffs for the first time in seven seasons. It was the Dolphins' first AFC East title since 2000. However, the Dolphins lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Baltimore Ravens 27–9. 2009 On March 25, 2009 it was reported by ESPN reporter Chris Mortensen that the Dolphins intend to have Chad Henne be the starting quarterback by the 2010 season. Leaving current starting quarterback, Chad Pennington's future with the team in doubt after the 2009 season. Henne will receive at least 12 quarters of play in the 2009 preseason to prepare him for the 2010 season. Miami Dolphins know it's time to make room for Chad Henne Facilities Stadiums The Dolphins originally played at all of their home games in the Orange Bowl in Miami, Florida. After the 1986 season, they moved to Joe Robbie Stadium. Later the statium would change names to Pro Player Stadium, then to Dolphins Stadium, and then another name change to Dolphin Stadium. Spring of 2009 it was announced that a new sponsor would be named for the stadium and LandShark Stadium was born. LandShark Stadium is located in Miami Gardens, Florida|Miami Gardens,a suburb of Miami located approximately fifteen miles north of downtown Miami. Training According to a local newspaper, St. Petersburg Beach hosted the Dolphins very first training camp in 1966. The players were housed next to Sea World. The Dolphins trained at Biscayne College, later renamed St. Thomas University, from 1970 until 1993. In 1993, the Dolphins opened the Miami Dolphins Training Facility at Nova Southeastern University in Davie, Florida. In 2006, the facility added a domed field which allows the team to practice during thunderstorms which are frequent during summer training camps. ASATI Franchise Information Logos and Uniforms The Dolphin logo 1997-current. The Dolphins logo and uniforms have remained essentially the same since the team's founding. The team's colours are aqua and orange; navy was added as a trim color in 1997. The logo consists of a sunburst and a leaping dolphin wearing a football helmet bearing the letter M. The uniform features white helmets with either white or aqua jerseys and either white or aqua pants. The pants are composed of a high grade cotton/lycra polymer. The debut logo of 1966 placed the dolphin's head near the center of the sunburst. By 1974 the dolphin's body was centered on the sunburst. The Dolphins shorthand nickname, "The Fins," has been recognized and used by the team. Dolphins Tickets Example of use of Fins by team. Accessed 21 December 2008. Fins Frenzy Contest Example of use of Fins by team. Accessed 21 December 2008. Miami Dolphins uniform combination Miami Dolphins uniform: 1974-1986 Miami Dolphins alternate uniform: 2003-2004 The most substantial revisions took place in 1997. Navy was introduced as a trim color. The logo was reworked to make the dolphin appear proportionally larger and more three-dimensional in effect. The hashmarks around the perimeters of the logo's sunburst were removed. Dolphins History Logo design information. Accessed 15 April 2006. Navy drop shadows were added to the uniform numbers. The new road uniform featured aqua rather than white pants. The Dolphins made a cameo appearance in Ace Ventura: Pet Detective. For much of their history the Dolphins have worn their white jerseys at home for daytime games, thus forcing their opponents to suffer in their darker jerseys in the humid weather that is typical of South Florida for most of the year. The aqua home jerseys are typically worn for night games. The Dolphins began this tradition during the perfect season of 1972 and have continued it ever since. Miami Dolphins Official Online Pro Shop Example of white jersey referred as the home jersey. Accessed 20 April 2006. Aqua jerseys are sometimes worn for road games in the early season against opponents such as the Houston Texans or Baltimore Ravens who prefer to wear white at home when the weather is hot. Three NFL teams—Miami, Dallas and Washington--prefer to wear white at home all season. In 2003 the Dolphins introduced an alternate orange jersey worn once each season for home night contests in 2003 and 2004. They recorded wins both times, against Washington in 2003 and New England in 2004. The alternate jersey was not worn in 2005 or 2006. In 2005 and 2006 the Dolphins wore white pants with the white jerseys, recalling the solid-white look worn in Super Bowl VII by the undefeated 1972 team. From 2000 through 2004 the Dolphins usually wore all-white at home and aqua pants with white jerseys on the road under former coach Dave Wannstedt (2000–2004) and interim coach Jim Bates (2004). This trend continued in 2007 under head coach Cam Cameron. However, in a pre-season game on August 16, 2008 at Jacksonville, the Dolphins did wear the white jersey/aqua pants road combination made popular in the 1990s/2000s. The aqua pants have returned for the 2008 season and were worn on September 14, 2008 against the Arizona Cardinals and the rest of the season's away games when other teams were wearing their color jerseys. On three occasions the Dolphins have worn an all-aqua combination for prime-time games: a win over the Chicago Bears in 2002, a loss to the Philadelphia Eagles in 2003, and a win over the Cleveland Browns in 2004. For 2008 the navy blue drop shadow on the uniform numbers were thinned in order to make them easier to read. Despite rumors, the Dolphins have no plans to change the logo. Fight song The Dolphins fight song is played after every score, including extra points. The song was written and composed by Lee Ofman. Ofman approached the Dolphins with it before the 1972 season because he wanted music to inspire his favorite team. The fight song would soon serve as a good luck charm for the Dolphins that season. The Dolphins became the first team in NFL history to record an undefeated season, going 17-0 en route to victory over the Washington Redskins in Super Bowl VII. The following season, Miami posted an equally impressive 15-2 record, and capped the season with another title, defeating the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl VIII. The back-to-back championship runs, coupled with the popularity of the fight song amongst Dolphins fans, have ensured the song's longevity. Cheerleaders Miami Dolphins Cheerleaders in performance The team's cheerleaders are known collectively as the Miami Dolphins Cheerleaders. The company had its debut in 1978 as the Dolphins Starbrites. (The name referred to the co-sponsor, Starbrite Car Polish.) The cheerleaders' founding choreographer was June Taylor, famed colleague of Jackie Gleason, who led the squad until her retirement in 1990. The Dolphin Dolls, a 125-member pep squad of girls aged 8 to 18, cheered the team at home games from 1966 to 1977. http://www.miamidolphins.com/newsite/cheerleaders/cheerleaderhistory/cheerleaderhistory.asp Radio and television The Miami Dolphins' flagship radio station is 560 WQAM. Jimmy Cefalo and Jim Mandich are the announcers, and Joe Rose joined WQAM and the Dolphins Radio Network crew before the 2007 NFL season started. The 2007 Miami Dolphins Radio Network is a statewide network of radio stations in Florida. Most preseason games are seen on WFOR (CBS) in Miami/Fort Lauderdale, WTVX (CW) in West Palm Beach/Fort Pierce, and WXCW (CW) in Naples, Florida/Fort Myers with announcers Craig Bolerjack, Bob Griese, and Nat Moore. ESPN reporter Hank Goldberg was a longtime color analyst on the Miami Dolphins Radio Network and hosted the Orange Bowl Express/Dolphin Express pre-game show on 610 WIOD. Dolphins radio announcers Years Flagship station Play-by-Play Color commentator Sideline Reporter 1966 610 WIODJohnny BellDan Bossler 1967-69 610 WIODBob GallagherHenry Barrow 1970 610 WIODJoe Croghan Larry King 1971 610 WIODRick Weaver Larry King 1972 610 WIODRick Weaver Lou Creekmur 1973 610 WIODRick Weaver Fred Woodson 1974-76 610 WIODRick Weaver Henry Barrow 1977-91 610 WIODRick Weaver Hank Goldberg Henry Barrow1992-93 610 WIODRick Weaver Jim Mandich 1994-01 610 WIODBill Zimpfer Jim Mandich 2002-04 560 WQAM Howard David Jim Mandich 2005-06 790 WAXYJimmy CefaloJoe RoseNat Moore2007-present 560 WQAM Jimmy Cefalo Jim Mandich and Joe Rose<td> Season-by-season records Players Current players The script logo. Pro Football Hall of Famers Paul Warfield 42, WR (1970–74), Elected 1983 Larry Csonka 39, FB (1968–74, 1979), Elected 1987 Jim Langer 62, C (1970–79), Elected 1987 Bob Griese 12, QB (1968–80), Elected 1990 Larry Little 66, G (1969–80), Elected 1993 Don Shula, Head Coach (1970–95), Elected 1997 Dwight Stephenson 57, C (1980–87), Elected 1998 Nick Buoniconti 85, LB (1969–76), Elected 2001 Dan Marino 13, QB (1983–99), Elected 2005 Each of these players is honored with a placard on the facing of the upper level of one end zone at Dolphins Stadium. So is team founder-owner Joe Robbie, who has not yet been elected to the Hall of Fame. In place of a uniform number, Shula has the number 347, representing his record number of NFL coaching victories, 274 of them as Dolphins head coach. Retired numbers 12 Bob Griese, QB, 1967–80 (retired May 6, 1982, at the Dolphins' annual awards banquet) Dolphins History Griese retired jersey information. Accessed 15 April 2006. 13 Dan Marino, QB, 1983–99 (retired September 17, 2000, at halftime of the Dolphins-Baltimore Ravens game) Dolphins History Marino tribute section. Accessed 15 April 2006. 39 Larry Csonka, FB, 1968–74, 1979 (retired December 9, 2002, at halftime of the Dolphins-Chicago Bears game) Dolphins History Csonka retired jersey information. Accessed 15 April 2006. Dolphins Honor Roll The Miami Dolphin Honor Roll is a ring around the second tier of Dolphins Stadium that honor former players, coaches, owners and contributors that have made significant contributions to the Miami Dolphins franchise throughout their history. Bold indicates those elected to the NFL Hall of Fame. The Inductees as of 2008 include: Joe Robbie, Owner/Founder (1966–1989), Inducted 1990 Larry Csonka 39, FB (1968–74, 1979), Inducted 1990 Bob Griese 12, QB (1967–80), Inducted 1990 Jim Langer 62, C (1970–79), Inducted 1990 Paul Warfield 42, WR (1970–74), Inducted 1990 Nick Buoniconti 85, LB (1969–76), Inducted 1991 1972 Undefeated Team, (1972), Inducted 1992 Larry Little 66, G (1969–80), Inducted 1993 Dwight Stephenson 57, C (1980–87), Inducted 1994 Bob Kuechenberg 67, G (1970–1984), Inducted 1995 Don Shula, Head Coach (1970–1995), Inducted 1996 Nat Moore 89, WR (1974–1986), Inducted 1999 Dan Marino 13, QB (1983–1999), Inducted 2000 Mark Clayton 83, WR (1983–1992), Inducted 2003 Mark Duper 85, WR (1982–1992), Inducted 2003 Dick Anderson 40, S (1968–1977), Inducted 2006 Richmond Webb 78, OT (1990–2000), Inducted 2006 Bob Baumhower 73, DT (1977–1986), Inducted 2008 Doug Betters 75, DE (1978–1987), Inducted 2008 All-time first-round draft picks Coaches and Staff Head coaches NameFromToRegular Season RecordPost Season RecordWLTWLGeorge Wilson (AFL)1966196915392----Don Shula1970199525713321714Jimmy Johnson199619993628023Dave Wannstedt200020044231012Jim Bates (interim)2004340----Nick Saban2005200615170----Cam Cameron20071150----Tony Sparano2008Present115001 Current staff Notes and references See also Dolphins–Jets rivalry History of the Miami Dolphins List of American Football League players Miami Dolphins Training Facility The Marino Curse External links Official Website Sports E-Cyclopedia.com | Miami_Dolphins |@lemmatized miami:66 dolphin:128 professional:3 american:6 football:19 team:48 base:1 florida:9 metropolitan:1 area:1 play:22 home:12 game:67 land:1 shark:2 stadium:18 suburb:2 garden:3 headquarter:1 dolphins:22 train:6 facility:5 davie:2 belong:1 eastern:1 division:8 conference:3 afc:28 national:2 league:10 nfl:36 found:2 joseph:2 robbie:7 begin:4 expansion:2 join:3 part:2 afl:6 merger:1 old:1 major:2 sport:3 franchise:8 state:1 make:17 first:39 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6,182 | Missouri | Missouri (, Missouri. (2009). In Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Retrieved May 13, 2009. is a state in the Midwest region of the United States http://www.census.gov/const/regionmap.pdf bordered by Iowa, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas and Nebraska. Missouri is the 18th most populous state. It comprises 114 counties and one independent city. Missouri's capital is Jefferson City. The four largest urban areas are, in descending order, St. Louis, Kansas City, Springfield, and Columbia. http://www.census.gov/geo/www/ua/ua2k.txt Missouri was originally acquired from France as part of the Louisiana Purchase and became defined as the Missouri Territory. Part of the Missouri Territory was admitted into the union as the 24th state in August 10, 1821. Missouri mirrors the demographic, economic and political makeup of the nation with a mix of urban and rural culture. It has long been considered a political bellwether state. Topic Galleries - chicagotribune.com With the exception of the 1956 and 2008 presidential elections, Missouri's election results have accurately predicted the next President of the United States since United States presidential election, 1904. It has both Midwestern and Southern cultural influences, reflecting its history as a border state. It is also a transition between the eastern and western United States, as St. Louis is often called the "western-most eastern city" and Kansas City the "eastern-most western city." Missouri's geography is highly varied. The northern part of the state lies in dissected till plains while the southern part lies in the Ozark Mountains a (dissected plateau), with the Missouri River dividing the two. The confluence of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers is located near St. Louis. Introduction to Missouri - The Show Me State Capital Jefferson City Etymology and pronunciation The state is named after the Missouri River which in turn is named after the Siouan Indian tribe whose Illinois name, ouemessourita (wimihsoorita McCafferty, Michael. 2004. Correction: Etymology of Missouri (restricted access). American Speech, 79.1:32 ), means "those who have dugout canoes". American Heritage Dictionary: Missouri The etymology lies behind Bob Dyer's tribute song, "River of the Big Canoes". The pronunciation of the final syllable of "Missouri" is a matter of some controversy, with some insisting on a relatively tense vowel (as in "meet"), while others prefer a lax vowel ("mitt" or "mutt"). The most thorough study of the question was done by dialectologist Donald Max Lance. From a linguistic point of view, there is no correct pronunciation, but rather, there are simply patterns of variation, diachronic as well as synchronic, according to such divisions as geography, age, education, and/or rural vs. urban location. In general, the schwa vowel correlates with proximity to Kansas City, with older speakers (born before 1945), with lower levels of formal education and rural location. Lance notes less controversial but also systematic variations in pronunciation: the second consonant is most often voiced ("misery") but unvoiced by some speakers ("missive"), and the medial vowel is variously raised and unrounded ("lurk") or rounded ("lure"). Geography Missouri, showing major cities and roads Missouri borders eight different states, as does its neighbor, Tennessee. No state in the U.S. touches more than eight states. Missouri is bounded on the north by Iowa; on the east, across the Mississippi River, by Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee; on the south by Arkansas; and on the west by Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska (the last across the Missouri River). The two largest Missouri rivers are the Mississippi, which defines the eastern boundary of the state, and the Missouri, which flows from west to east through the state, essentially connecting the two largest metros, Kansas City and St. Louis. Although today the state is usually considered part of the Midwest, http://www.eduplace.com/ss/maps/pdf/midwestus_nl.pdf Midwest Region Economy at a Glance historically Missouri was sometimes considered a Southern state, UNC-CH surveys reveal where the ‘real' South lies chiefly because of the settlement of migrants from the South and its status as a slave state before the Civil War. The counties that made up "Little Dixie" were those along the Missouri River in the center of the state, settled by Southern migrants who held the greatest concentration of slaves. Residents of cities farther north and of the state's large metropolitan areas, where most of the state's population resides (Kansas City, St. Louis, and Columbia), typically consider themselves Midwestern. In rural areas and cities farther south, such as (Cape Girardeau, Poplar Bluff, Springfield, and Sikeston), residents typically self-identify as more Southern. In 2005, Missouri received 16,695,000 visitors to its national parks and other recreational areas totaling 202,000 acres, giving it $7.41 mil. in annual revenues, 26.6% of its operating expenditures. Topography North of the Missouri River lie the Northern Plains that stretch into Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas. Here, gentle rolling hills remain behind from the glaciation that once extended from the north to the Missouri River. Missouri has many large river bluffs along the Mississippi, Missouri, and Meramec Rivers. Southern Missouri rises to the Ozark Mountains, a dissected plateau surrounding the Precambrian igneous St. Francois Mountains. This region also hosts Karst topography characterized by high limestone content and the formation of sinkholes and caves. http://www.mostateparks.com/karst.htm The southeastern part of the state is the Bootheel region, part of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain or Mississippi embayment. This region is the lowest, flattest, and wettest part of the state, and among the poorest, as the economy is mostly agricultural. Income Inequality in Missouri It is also the most fertile, with cotton and rice crops predominant. The Bootheel was the epicenter of the New Madrid Earthquake of 1811–1812. Climate Missouri generally has a humid continental climate (Koppen climate classification Dfa), with cold winters and hot and humid summers. In the southern part of the state, particularly in the Bootheel, the climate borders on a humid subtropical climate (Koppen Cfa). Located in the interior United States, Missouri often experiences extremes in temperatures. Without high mountains or oceans nearby to moderate temperature, its climate is alternately influenced by air from the cold Arctic and the hot and humid Gulf of Mexico. Monthly Normal High and Low Temperatures For Various Missouri Cities City Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Columbia 37/18 44/23 55/33 66/43 75/53 84/62 89/66 87/64 79/55 68/44 53/33 42/22 Kansas City 36/18 43/23 54/33 65/44 75/54 84/63 89/68 87/66 79/57 68/46 52/33 40/22 Springfield 42/22 48/26 58/35 68/44 76/53 85/62 90/67 90/66 81/57 71/46 56/35 46/26 St. Louis 38/21 44/26 55/36 67/46 76/57 85/66 90/71 88/69 80/60 68/48 54/37 42/26 History The Gateway Arch behind the Old Courthouse in St. Louis Originally part of the 1803 Louisiana Purchase, Missouri was admitted as a slave state in 1821 as part of the Missouri Compromise. It earned the nickname "Gateway to the West" because it served as a departure point for settlers heading to the west. It was the starting point and the return destination of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. River traffic and trade along the Mississippi was integral to the state's economy. To try to control flooding, by 1860 the state had completed construction of of levees on the Mississippi. New York Times, "Louisiana: The Levee System of the State", 10/8/1874; accessed 11/15/2007 The state was site of the epicenter of the 1812 New Madrid earthquake, possibly the most powerful earthquake in the United States since the founding of the country. Casualties were light due to the sparse population. Originally the state's western border was a straight line, defined as the meridian passing through the Kawsmouth, Hoffhaus. (1984). Chez Les Canses: Three Centuries at Kawsmouth. Kansas City: Lowell Press. ISBN 0-913504-91-2. the point where the Kansas River enters the Missouri River. The river has moved since this designation. This line is known as the Osage Boundary. MISSOURI V. IOWA, 48 U. S. 660 (1849) - US Supreme Court Cases from Justia & Oyez In 1835 the Platte Purchase was added to the northwest corner of the state after purchasing the land from the native tribes, making the Missouri River the border north of the Kansas River. This addition made what was already the largest state in the Union at the time (about to Virginia's 65,000 square miles (which included West Virginia at the time) even larger. Meinig, D.W. (1993). The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, Volume 2: Continental America, 1800–1867. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05658-3; pg. 437 As many of the early settlers in western Missouri migrated from the Upper South, they brought along enslaved African Americans and a desire to continue their culture and the institution of slavery. They settled predominantly in 17 counties along the Missouri River, in an area of flatlands that enabled plantation agriculture and became known as "Little Dixie." In the early 1830s, Mormon migrants from northern states and Canada began settling near Independence and areas just north of there. Conflicts over slavery and religion arose between the 'old settlers' (mainly from the South) and the Mormons (mainly from the North and Canada). The 'Mormon War' erupted. By 1839 settlers expelled the Mormons from Missouri. Conflicts over slavery exacerbated border tensions among the states and territories. In 1838–1839 a border dispute with Iowa over the so-called Honey Lands resulted in both states' calling up militias along the border. After many incidents with Kansans crossing the western border for attacks (including setting a fire in the historic Westport area of Kansas City), a border war erupted between Missouri and Kansas. From the 1830s to the 1860s, Missouri's population almost doubled with every decade. Most of the newcomers were Americans, but many Irish and German immigrants arrived in the late 1840s and 1850s. Having fled famine, oppression and revolutionary upheaval, they were not sympathetic to slavery. Most Missouri farmers practiced subsistence farming. The majority of those who held slaves had fewer than 5 each. Planters, defined by historians as those holding 20 or more slaves, were concentrated in the counties known as "Little Dixie", in the central part of the state along the Missouri River. The tensions over slavery had chiefly to do with the future of the state and nation. In 1860 enslaved African Americans made up less than 10% of the state's population of 1,182,012. Historical Census Browser, 1860 Federal Census, University of Virginia Library, accessed 21 March 2008 After the secession of Southern states began, the Missouri legislature called for the election of a special convention on secession. The convention voted decisively to remain within the Union. Pro-Southern Governor Claiborne F. Jackson ordered the mobilization of several hundred members of the state militia who had gathered in a camp in St. Louis for training. Alarmed at this action, Union General Nathaniel Lyon struck first, encircling the camp and forcing the state troops to surrender. Lyon then directed his soldiers, largely non-English-speaking German immigrants, to march the prisoners through the streets, and opened fire on the largely hostile crowds of civilians who gathered around them. Soldiers killed unarmed prisoners as well as men, women and children of St. Louis in the incident that became known as the "St. Louis Massacre." These events heightened Confederate support within the state. Governor Jackson appointed Sterling Price, president of the convention on secession, as head of the new Missouri State Guard. In the face of General Lyon's rapid advance in the state, Jackson and Price were forced to flee the capital of Jefferson City on June 14, 1861. In the town of Neosho, Missouri, Jackson called the state legislature into session. They enacted a secession ordinance, recognized by the Confederacy on October 30, 1861. With the elected governor absent from his capital and the legislators largely dispersed, Union forces installed an unelected pro-Union provisional government with Hamilton Gamble as provisional governor. President Lincoln's Administration immediately recognized Gamble's government as the legal government. This decision provided both pro-Union militia forces for service within the state and volunteer regiments for the Union Army. Fighting ensued between Union forces and a combined army of General Price's Missouri State Guard and Confederate troops from Arkansas and Texas under General Ben McCulloch. After winning victories at the battle of Wilson's Creek and the siege of Lexington, Missouri and suffering losses elsewhere, the Confederate forces had little choice but to retreat to Arkansas and later Marshall, Texas, in the face of a largely reinforced Union Army. Though regular Confederate troops staged some large-scale raids into Missouri, the fighting in the state for the next three years consisted chiefly of guerrilla warfare. "Citizen soldiers" such as Colonel William Quantrill, Frank and Jesse James, the Younger brothers, and William T. Anderson made use of quick, small-unit tactics. Pioneered by the Missouri Partisan Rangers, such insurgencies also arose in other portions of the Confederacy occupied during the Civil War. Recently historians have assessed the James brothers' outlaw years as continuing guerrilla warfare after the official war was over. The activities of the 'Bald Knobbers' of south-central Missouri in the 1880s has also been seen as an unofficial continuation of hostilities long after the official end of the war. In 1930, there was a diphtheria epidemic in the area around Springfield which killed approximately 100 people. Serum was rushed to the area and stopped the epidemic. During the mid-1950s and 1960s, St. Louis suffered deindustrialization and loss of jobs in railroads and manufacturing as did other major industrial cities. At the same time highway construction made it easy for middle-class residents to leave the city for newer housing in the suburbs. St. Louis has gone through decades of readjustment to developing a different economy. Suburban areas have developed separate job markets, both in knowledge industries and services, such as major retail malls. In 1956 St. Charles was the site of the first interstate highway project. http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/rw96h.cfm First interstate project Notable Missourians Famous Missourians include Samuel Langhorne Clemens (better known as Mark Twain) and President Harry Truman. Clemens was born in 1835 in Florida, Missouri and lived in Hannibal, Missouri from 1839 until 1853. His best known books, The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn were set in the town of Hannibal. His boyhood home is a museum. Truman was born in Lamar, Missouri, but lived in the Kansas City suburb of Independence for most of his life. Truman designated Independence as the site of his Presidential Library. Other notable persons born in Missouri include: Astronomer Edwin Hubble, scientist and inventor George Washington Carver, psychologist Virginia E. Johnson, zoologist Marlin Perkins, painter Thomas Hart Benton, dramatist and poet T.S. Eliot, author and poet Eugene Field, animator & cartoonist Friz Freleng, autobiographer and poet Maya Angelou, novelist and poet Langston Hughes, novelist and social critic William S Burroughs, science fiction author Robert A. Heinlein, writer Dale Carnegie, singer Josephine Baker, singer Michael McDonald, musician Chuck Berry, musician Eminem, songwriter & musician Sheryl Crow, composer & pianist Burt Bacharach, film director John Huston, film director Robert Altman, actor Ed Asner, actor John Goodman, actress Betty Grable, actor Robert Guillaume, actor Kevin Kline, entertainer and professional athlete Jonathan Aldridge, actor Vincent Price, actor Scott Bakula, actor Dick Van Dyke, actress Kathleen Turner, actress Linda Blair, rapper Nelly, broadcast journalist Walter Cronkite, basketball player and former US Senator Bill Bradley, baseball player & manager Yogi Berra, baseball player & announcer Joe Garagiola, baseball player Casey Stengel, baseball announcer Harry Caray, boxers Leon Spinks & Michael Spinks, golfer Hale Irwin, comedian Redd Foxx, comedian and actor Cedric the Entertainer, comedian and social activist Dick Gregory, educator Susan Blow, businessman J.C. Penney, confederate guerillas & outlaws Jesse James, Frank James and Cole Younger, outlaw Belle Starr, political activist and author Phyllis Schlafly, talk radio show host Rush Limbaugh, General Omar Bradley, General John Joseph Pershing and Rear Admiral Wayne E. Meyer. Screenwriter and Director Dan O'Bannon Demographics Missouri Population Density Map In 2007, Missouri had an estimated population of 5,878,415; an increase of 283,204 (5.1 percent) since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase of 137,564 people since the last census (480,763 births less 343,199 deaths), and an increase of 88,088 people due to net migration into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 50,450 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 37,638 people. Over half of Missourians (3,145,584 people, or 56.2%) live within the state's two largest metropolitan areas–St. Louis and Kansas City. The state's population density 81.2 in 2000, is also closer to the national average (79.6 in 2000) than any other state. The U.S. Census of 2000 found that the population center of the United States is in Phelps County, Missouri. The center of population of Missouri itself is located in Osage County, in the city of Westphalia. As of 2004, the population included 194,000 foreign-born (3.4 percent of the state population). The five largest ancestry groups in Missouri are: German (23.5 percent), Irish (12.7 percent), American (10.5 percent), English (9.5 percent) and French (3.5 percent). "American" includes some of those reported as Native American or African American, but also European Americans whose ancestors have lived in the United States for a considerable time. German Americans are an ancestry group present throughout Missouri. African Americans are a substantial part of the population in St. Louis, Kansas City, and in the southeastern Bootheel and some parts of the Missouri River Valley, where plantation agriculture was once important. Missouri Creoles of French ancestry are concentrated in the Mississippi River Valley south of St. Louis. Approximately 40,000-50,000 recent Bosniak immigrants live mostly in the St. Louis area. In 2004, 6.6 percent of the state's population was reported as younger than 5 years old, 25.5 percent younger than 18, and 13.5 percent was 65 or older. Females were approximately 51.4 percent of the population. 81.3 percent of Missouri residents were high school graduates (more than the national average), and 21.6 percent had a bachelor's degree or higher. 3.4 percent of Missourians were foreign-born, and 5.1 percent reported speaking a language other than English at home. In 2000, there were 2,194,594 households in Missouri, with 2.48 people per household. The homeownership rate was 70.3 percent, and the mean value of an owner-occupied dwelling was $89,900. The median household income for 1999 was $37,934, or $19,936 per capita. There were 11.7 percent (637,891) Missourians living below the poverty line in 1999. The mean commute time to work was 23.8 minutes. Religion Of those Missourians who identify with a religion, three out of five are Protestants. There is also a moderate-sized Roman Catholic community in some parts of the state; approximately one out of five Missourians are Roman Catholic. Areas with large Catholic communities include St. Louis, Westplex, and the Missouri Rhineland, particularly that south of the Missouri River. http://www.valpo.edu/geomet/pics/geo200/religion/catholic.gif Valparaiso University The St. Louis and Kansas City metropolitan areas also have important Jewish communities who have contributed much to the culture and charities of the cities. More recent Indian and Pakistani immigrants have created Hindu and Muslim congregations as well. The religious affiliations of the people of Missouri according to the American Religious Identification Survey: 2001 American Religious Identification Survey, City University of New York Christian – 77% Protestant Baptist – 22% Methodist – 7% Episcopal – 4% Lutheran – 4% Other Protestant – 12% Roman Catholic – 19% Latter Day Saint – 1%* Other or unspecified Christian – 8% Other religions – 2% Not religious – 15% No answer – 5% The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 856,964; the Southern Baptist Convention with 797,732; and the United Methodist Church with 226,578. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/29_2000.asp Several religious organizations have headquarters in Missouri, including the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod, which has its headquarters in Kirkwood, as well as the United Pentecostal Church International in Hazelwood, both outside St. Louis. Kansas City is the headquarters of the Church of the Nazarene. Independence, outside of Kansas City, is the headquarters for the Community of Christ (formerly the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints), and the Latter Day Saints group Remnant Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. This area and other parts of Missouri are also of significant religious and historical importance to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), which maintains several sites/visitors centers, and whose members make up about 1 percent of Missouri's population. Springfield is the headquarters of the Assemblies of God and the Baptist Bible Fellowship International. The General Association of General Baptists has its headquarters in Poplar Bluff. The Pentecostal Church of God is headquartered in Joplin. The Unity Church is headquartered in Unity Village. Economy The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Missouri's total state product in 2006 was $225.9 billion. Per capita personal income in 2006 was $32,705 , ranking 26th in the nation. Major industries include aerospace, transportation equipment, food processing, chemicals, printing/publishing, electrical equipment, light manufacturing, and beer. The agriculture products of the state are beef, soybeans, pork, dairy products, hay, corn, poultry, sorghum, and eggs. Missouri is ranked 6th in the nation for the production of hogs and 7th for cattle. Missouri is ranked in the top five states in the nation for production of soy beans. As of 2001, there were 108,000 farms, the second largest number in any state after Texas. Missouri actively promotes its rapidly growing wine industry. Missouri has vast quantities of limestone. Other resources mined are lead, coal, Portland cement, and crushed stone. Missouri produces the most lead of all of the states. Most of the lead mines are in the central eastern portion of the state. Missouri also ranks first or near first in the production of lime. Tourism, services and wholesale/retail trade follow manufacturing in importance. Personal income is taxed in 10 different earning brackets, ranging from 1.5 percent to 6.0 percent. Missouri's sales tax rate for most items is 4.225 percent. Additional local levies may apply. More than 2,500 Missouri local governments rely on property taxes levied on real property (real estate) and personal property. Most personal property is exempt, except for motorized vehicles. Exempt real estate includes property owned by governments and property used as nonprofit cemeteries, exclusively for religious worship, for schools and colleges and for purely charitable purposes. There is no inheritance tax and limited Missouri estate tax related to federal estate tax collection. Missouri is the only state in the Union to have two Federal Reserve Banks: one in Kansas City (serving western Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Colorado, northern New Mexico, and Wyoming) and one in St. Louis (serving eastern Missouri, southern Illinois, southern Indiana, western Kentucky, western Tennessee, northern Mississippi, and all of Arkansas). http://www.federalreserve.gov/OTHERFRB.HTM Transportation Air The state of Missouri has two major airport hubs: Lambert-St. Louis International Airport and Kansas City International Airport. Lambert-St. Louis International Airport is the fourth largest worldwide hub for American Airlines. It is the largest and busiest airport in Missouri. Rail Two of the nation's three busiest rail centers are located in Missouri. Kansas City is a major railroad hub for BNSF Railway, Norfolk Southern Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway, and Union Pacific Railroad. Kansas City is the second largest freight rail center in the US. Like Kansas City, St. Louis is a major destination for train freight. Amtrak passenger trains serve Kansas City, Jefferson City, St. Louis, Lee's Summit, Independence, Warrensburg, Hermann, Kirkwood, Sedalia, and Poplar Bluff. The only urban light rail/subway system in Missouri is the St. Louis MetroLink which connects the City of St. Louis with suburbs in Illinois and St. Louis County. It is one of the largest (track mileage) systems in the USA. In 2007 preliminary planning was being performed for a light rail system in the Kansas City area, but was defeated by voters in November 2008. The Gateway Multimodal Transportation Center in St. Louis is the largest active multi-use transportation center in the state. It is located in Downtown St. Louis next to the historic St. Louis Union Station complex. It serves as a hub center/station for the city's rail system St. Louis MetroLink and regional bus system MetroBus, Greyhound, Amtrak and city taxi services. Springfield remains an operational hub for BNSF Railway. Waterway in Forest Park, St. Louis Rivers The Mississippi River and Missouri River are commercially navigable over their entire lengths in Missouri. The Missouri was channelized through dredging and jettys and the Mississippi was given a series of locks and dams to avoid rocks and deepen the river. St. Louis is a major destination for barge traffic on the Mississippi River. Roads Missouri License Plate unit 2009 Several highways, detailed below, traverse the state. Following the passage of Amendment 3 in late 2004, the Missouri Department of Transportation (MoDOT) began its Smoother, Safer, Sooner road-building program with a goal of bringing of highways up to good condition by December 2007. From 2006-2008 traffic deaths have decreased annually from 1,257 in 2005 ... to 1,096 in 2006 ... to 974 for 2007 ... to 941 for 2008. http://www.missourinet.com/gestalt/go.cfm?objectid=6E21CB5D-BFAD-2701-8B2D3DFAD9B9ED54 Interstate Freeways Interstate 29, Interstate 229 Interstate 35, Interstate 435 (Perimeter around Kansas City), Interstate 635 Interstate 44 Interstate 55, Interstate 155, Interstate 255 (the perimeter around the Illinois side of St. Louis) Interstate 57 Interstate 64 Interstate 70, Interstate 170, Interstate 270 (the perimeter around the Missouri side of St. Louis), Interstate 470, Interstate 670 Interstate 72 Interstate 49 (Proposed) Interstate 66 (Proposed) United States Routes <tr>North-south routesEast-west routes U.S. Route 59 U.S. Route 159 U.S. Route 61 U.S. Route 63 U.S. Route 65 U.S. Route 67 U.S. Route 69 U.S. Route 169 U.S. Route 71 U.S. Route 275 U.S. Route 412 U.S. Route 24 U.S. Route 36 U.S. Route 136 U.S. Route 40 U.S. Route 50 U.S. Route 54 U.S. Route 56 U.S. Route 60 U.S. Route 160 U.S. Route 460 (decommissioned in Missouri) U.S. Route 62 U.S. Route 66 (decommissioned) U.S. Route 166 U.S. Route 400 Law and government Framework The current Constitution of Missouri, the fourth constitution for the state, was adopted in 1945. It provides for three branches of government: the legislative, judicial, and executive branches. The legislative branch consists of two bodies: the House of Representatives and the Senate. These bodies comprise the Missouri General Assembly. The House of Representatives has 163 members who are apportioned based on the last decennial census. The Senate consists of 34 members from districts of approximately equal populations. The judicial department comprises the Supreme Court of Missouri, which has seven judges, the Missouri Court of Appeals (an intermediate appellate court divided into three districts, sitting in Kansas City, St. Louis, and Springfield), and 45 Circuit Courts which function as local trial courts. The executive branch is headed by the Governor of Missouri and includes five other statewide elected offices. Following the Election of 2008, all but one of Missouri's statewide elected offices are held by Democrats. Status as a political bellwether Missouri is widely regarded as a state bellwether in American politics. The state has a longer stretch of supporting the winning presidential candidate than any other state, having voted with the nation in every election since 1904 with two exceptions: in 1956 when they voted for Governor Adlai Stevenson of Illinois over the winner, incumbent President Dwight Eisenhower of Kansas, and in 2008 when they voted for Senator John McCain of Arizona over national winner Senator Barack Obama of Illinois, both by extremely narrow margins. + Past Presidential Elections Results Year Republican Democratic Third Parties200849.39% 1,445,814 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|49.25% 1,441,9111.36% 39,889 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|2004 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|53.30% 1,455,71346.10% 1,259,171 |align="center" |0.60% 16,480200050.42% 1,189,924 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|47.08% 1,111,1382.50% 58,830 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|1996 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|41.24% 890,01647.54% 1,025,935 |align="center" |11.22% 242,114199233.92% 811,159 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|44.07% 1,053,87322.00% 526,238 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1988 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|51.83% 1,084,95347.85% 1,001,619 |align="center" |0.32% 6,656198460.02% 1,274,188 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|39.98% 848,583 0.00% None |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1980 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|51.16% 1,074,18144.35% 931,182 |align="center" |4.49% 94,461197647.47% 927,443 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|51.10% 998,3871.42% 27,770 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1972 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|62.29% 1,154,05837.71% 698,531 |align="center" |0.00% None196844.87% 811,932 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|43.74% 791,44411.39% 206,126 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|1964 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|35.95% 653,53550.92% 1,164,344 |align="center" |0.00% None196049.74% 962,221 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|50.26% 972,2010.00% None |- |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|1956 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|49.89% 914,28950.11% 918,273 |align="center" |0.00% None195250.71% 959,429 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|49.14% 929,8300.15% 2,803 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|1948 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|41.49% 655,03958.11% 917,315 |align="center" |0.39% 6,274194448.43% 761,524 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|51.37% 807,8040.20% 3,146 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|1940 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|47.50% 871,00952.27% 958,476 |align="center" |0.23% 4,244193638.16% 697,891 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|60.76% 1,111,0431.08% 19,701 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|1932 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|35.08% 564,71363.69% 1,025,406 |align="center" |1.22% 19,775192855.58% 834,080 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|44.15% 662,5620.27% 4,079 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1924 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|49.58% 648,48643.79% 572,753 |align="center" |6.63% 86,719192054.56% 727,162 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|43.13% 574,7992.32% 30,839 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|1916 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|46.94% 369,33950.59% 398,032 |align="center" |2.46% 19,398191229.75% 207,821 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|47.35% 330,746 22.89% 159,999 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|1908 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|48.50% 347,20348.41% 346,574 |align="center" |3.08% 22,150190449.93% 321,449 |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|46.02% 296,3124.05% 26,100 |- |align="center" bgcolor="#f0f0ff"|1900 |align="center" bgcolor="#fff3f3"|45.94% 314,09251.48% 351,922 |align="center" |2.58% 17,642 Laissez-faire alcohol and tobacco laws The packaging plant at the Anheuser-Busch headquarters in St. Louis, where Budweiser beer is produced. Missouri has been known for its population's generally "stalwart, conservative, noncredulous" attitude toward regulatory regimes, which is one of the origins of the state's unofficial nickname, the "Show-Me State." Missouri Secretary of State - State Archives - Origin of "Show Me" slogan As a result, and combined with the fact that Missouri is one of America's leading alcohol and tobacco-producing states, regulation of alcohol and tobacco in Missouri is among the most laissez-faire in America. With a large German immigrant population and the development of a brewing industry, Missouri always has had among the most permissive alcohol laws in the United States. It never enacted statewide prohibition. Missouri voters rejected prohibition in three separate referenda in 1910, 1912, and 1918. Alcohol regulation did not begin in Missouri until 1934. Today, alcohol laws are controlled by the state government, and local jurisdictions are prohibited from going beyond those state laws. Missouri has no statewide open container law or prohibition on drinking in public, no alcohol-related blue laws, no local option, no precise locations for selling liquor by the package (thus allowing even drug stores and gas stations to sell any kind of liquor), and no differentiation of laws based on alcohol percentage. Missouri had no laws prohibiting "consumption" of alcohol by minors (as opposed to possession), and state law protects persons from arrest or criminal penalty for public intoxication. Section 67.305, Revised Statutes of Missouri Missouri law expressly prohibits any jurisdiction from going dry. Section 311.170, Revised Statutes of Missouri Missouri law also expressly allows parents and guardians to serve alcohol to their children. Section 311.310, Revised Statutes of Missouri The Power & Light District in Kansas City is one of the few places in the United States where a state law explicitly allows persons over the age of 21 to possess and consume open containers of alcohol in the street (as long as the beverage is in a plastic cup). Section 311.086, Revised Statutes of Missouri See also: Smoking laws of Missouri As for tobacco, as of December 2008 Missouri has the second-lowest cigarette excise taxes in the United States (behind only South Carolina) at 17 cents per pack, Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, State Excise Tax Rates and Rankings, October 2008 "State Tax Rates on Cigarettes," Federation of Tax Administrators, January 1, 2008 and the electorate voted in 2002 and 2006 to keep it that way. "A burning issue," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, November 12, 2006 In 2007, Forbes named Missouri's largest metropolitan area, St. Louis, America's "best city for smokers." "Best Cities for Smokers," Forbes Magazine, November 1, 2007 Missouri has the third highest percentage of adult smokers of any U.S. state. Rob Roberts, "Critics: Don't expect smoking ban for years, if ever," Kansas City Business Journal, November 24, 2004 No statewide smoking ban ever has been seriously entertained before the Missouri General Assembly, and in October 2008, a statewide survey by the Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services found that only 27.5% of Missourians support a statewide ban on smoking in all bars and restaurants. Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services, County Level Survey 2007: Secondhand Smoke for Missouri Adults, October 1, 2008 Missouri state law permits bars, restaurants which seat less than 50 people, bowling alleys, and billiard parlors to decide their own smoking policies, without limitation. Section 191.769, Revised Statutes of Missouri Additionally, in Missouri, it is "an improper employment practice" for an employer to refuse to hire, to fire, or otherwise to disadvantage any person because that person lawfully uses alcohol and/or tobacco products when he or she is not at work. Section 290.145, Revised Statutes of Missouri Counties Missouri has 114 counties and one independent city (St. Louis). The largest county by size is Texas County (1,179 sq. miles) and Shannon County is second (1,004 sq. miles). Worth County is the smallest (266 sq. miles). The independent city of St. Louis City has only of area. St. Louis City is the most densely populated area in Missouri. The largest county by population (2000 U.S. Census) is St. Louis County (1,016,315 residents), with Jackson County the second (654,880 residents). Worth County is the least populous, with 2,382 residents. Important cities and towns The seven largest cities in Missouri are Kansas City, St. Louis, Springfield, Independence, Columbia, Lee's Summit, and O'Fallon . St. Louis is the principal city of the largest metropolitan area in Missouri, comprising seventeen counties and the independent city of St. Louis; eight of those counties lie in the state of Illinois. As of 2007, Greater St. Louis was the 18th largest metropolitan area in the nation with 2.81 million people. However, if ranked using Combined Statistical Area, it is 16th largest with 2.87 million people. Some of the major cities making up the St. Louis Metro area in Missouri include St. Charles, St. Peters, Florissant, Chesterfield, Creve Coeur, Maryland Heights, O'Fallon, Clayton, Ballwin, and University City. Kansas City is Missouri's largest city and the principal city of the fifteen-county Kansas City Metropolitan Statistical Area, including six counties in the state of Kansas. As of 2008, it was the 29th largest metropolitan area in the nation, with 2.002 million people. Some of the other major cities comprising the Kansas City metro area in Missouri include Independence, Lee's Summit, Blue Springs, Raytown, Liberty, and Gladstone. Branson is a major tourist attraction in the Ozarks of southwestern Missouri. Education Missouri State Board of Education The Missouri State Board of Education has general authority over all public education in the state of Missouri. It is made up of eight citizens appointed by the governor and confirmed by the Missouri Senate. Jesse Hall and the Francis Quad on the University of Missouri campus Primary and secondary schools Education is compulsory from ages seven to sixteen in Missouri, commonly but not exclusively divided into three tiers of primary and secondary education: elementary school, middle school or junior high school and high school. The public schools system includes kindergarten to 12th grade. District territories are often complex in structure. In some cases, elementary, middle and junior high schools of a single district feed into high schools in another district. High school athletics and competitions are governed by the Missouri State High School Activities Association or MSHSAA. Homeschooling is legal in Missouri and is an option to meet the compulsory education requirement. It is neither monitored or regulated by the state's Department of Elementary and Secondary Education http://www.dese.mo.gov/schoollaw/HomeSch/ A supplemental education program, the Missouri Scholars Academy, provides an extracurricular learning experience for gifted high school students in the state of Missouri. The official MSA website describes the goals of the Academy to be as such: "The academy reflects Missouri's desire to strive for excellence in education at all levels. The program is based on the premise that Missouri's gifted youth must be provided with special opportunities for learning and personal development in order for them to realize their full potential." Colleges and universities The University of Missouri System is Missouri's statewide public university system, the flagship institution and largest university in the state is the University of Missouri in Columbia. The others in the system are University of Missouri–Kansas City, University of Missouri–St. Louis, and Missouri University of Science and Technology. A. T. Still University was the first osteopathic medical school in the world. Kansas City University of Medicine and Biosciences, originally the University of Health Sciences, was the first medical school in Kansas City. Brookings Hall at Washington University Notable highly rated “America's Best Colleges 2008: National Universities: Top Schools.” USNews.com: . January 18, 2008. private institutions include Washington University in St. Louis and Saint Louis University. Lincoln University in Jefferson City is one of a number of historically black colleges and universities. Founded in 1866, it was created by members of the 62nd and 65th United States Colored Troops as "Lincoln Institute", to provide education to freedmen. It was created on a model of combining academics and labor. In 1921, the state officially recognized the growth of Lincoln's undergraduate and graduate programs by classifying it as a university. The institution changed its name to "Lincoln University of Missouri." In 1954, the university began to accept applicants of all races. To develop new teachers for needed public schools, in 1905 the state established a series of normal schools at colleges in each region of the state. This was based on the widely admired German model of public education. Normal schools were for the training of teachers of students in primary/elementary schools. The initial network consisted of Southeast Missouri State University in Cape Girardeau, Missouri State University (formerly Southwest Missouri State University) in Springfield, Truman State University (formerly Northeast Missouri State University) in Kirksville, Northwest Missouri State University in Maryville, and University of Central Missouri (formerly Central Missouri State University) in Warrensburg. Within several years, the normal school curriculum expanded to a full four years of academic subjects. There are numerous junior colleges, trade schools, church universities and private universities in the state. The state also funds a $2000, renewable merit-based scholarship, Bright Flight, given to the top 3 percent of Missouri High School graduates who attend a university in-state. The 19th c. border wars between Missouri and Kansas have continued as a sports rivalry between the University of Missouri and University of Kansas. The rivalry is chiefly expressed through football and basketball games between the two universities. It is the oldest college rivalry west of the Mississippi River and the second oldest in the nation. Each year when the universities meet to play, the game is coined "Border Showdown." An exchange occurs following the game where the winner gets to take a historic marching band drum, which has been passed back and forth for decades. Sports Baseball: St. Louis Cardinals and Kansas City Royals Football: St. Louis Rams and Kansas City Chiefs Hockey: St. Louis Blues (NHL) and St. Louis Chill (MWHL) Soccer: Kansas City Wizards Indoor Soccer: St. Louis Steamers and Kansas City Comets Arena Football: Kansas City Brigade and River City Rage (UIFL) Tennis: Kansas City Explorers, Springfield Lasers and St. Louis Aces Cycling: Tour of Missouri Minor leagues Baseball: Springfield Cardinals (Class AA, Texas League) Mid-Missouri Mavericks (Independent, Frontier League) River City Rascals (Independent, Frontier League) Farmington Firebirds (Independent, KIT League) Marysville Magpies (Independent, Jayhawk League) Nevada Griffins (Independent, Jayhawk League) Sikeston Bulls (Independent, KIT League) St. Joseph Blacksnakes (Independent, American Association) Ice Hockey: Kansas City Blades (Central Hockey League) St. Louis Chill (Midwest Hockey League) Former professional sports teams National Football League: St. Louis Cardinals (moved from Chicago in 1960; moved to Tempe, Arizona in 1988 and are now the Arizona Cardinals) St. Louis All Stars (active in 1923 only) Kansas City (NFL) (Blues/Cowboys) (active 1924–1926, folded) St. Louis Gunners (independent team, joined the NFL for the last three weeks of the 1934 season and folded thereafter) Major League Baseball (American League): St. Louis Browns (moved from Milwaukee in 1902; moved to Baltimore, Maryland after the 1953 season and are now the Baltimore Orioles) Kansas City Athletics (moved from Philadelphia in 1955; moved to Oakland, California after the 1967 season and are now the Oakland Athletics National Basketball Association: St. Louis Bombers (charter BAA franchise in 1946, joined the NBA when it formed in 1949; ceased operations in 1950) St. Louis Hawks (moved from Milwaukee in 1955; moved to Atlanta in 1968 and are now the Atlanta Hawks) Kansas City Kings (moved to Sacramento in 1985 and are now the Sacramento Kings) National Hockey League: Kansas City Scouts (1974 expansion team, moved to Denver, Colorado in 1976 and became the Colorado Rockies, and would move again to Newark, New Jersey; now called the New Jersey Devils) St. Louis Eagles (1934 relocation of the original Ottawa Senators, folded after the 1934-35 season) Continental Basketball Association: Teams in Kansas City and St. Louis. Miscellaneous topics USS Missouri, a U.S. Navy Iowa class battleship, was named in honor of the state. State Nickname The use of the unofficial nickname the Show-Me State has several possible origins. The phrase "I'm from Missouri" means I'm skeptical of the matter and not easily convinced. This is related to the state's unofficial motto of "Show Me," whose origin is popularly ascribed to an 1899 speech by Congressman Willard Vandiver, who declared that "I come from a country that raises corn and cotton, cockleburs and Democrats, and frothy eloquence neither convinces nor satisfies me. I'm from Missouri, and you have got to show me." However, according to researchers, the phrase was in circulation earlier in the 1890s. "I'm from Missouri -- Show Me." http://www.barrypopik.com/index.php/new_york_city/entry/summary3 According to another legend, the phrase was a reference to Missouri miners brought to Leadville, Colorado to take the place of striking miners and being unfamiliar with the mining methods there required frequent instruction. Origin of "Show Me" Slogan. Secretary of State, Missouri. http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/history/slogan.asp It has also been known as the Puke State, perhaps on account of an 1827 gathering at the Galena Lead Mines. George Earlie Shankle State Names, Flags, Seals, Songs, Birds, Flowers and Other Symbols, 1938, "...so many Missourians had assembled, that those already there declared the State of Missouri had taken a 'puke.'" http://www.netstate.com/states/intro/mo_intro.htm Within the state, “pukes” referred before the Civil War to impoverished citizens who nonetheless supported slavery, the equivalent of “poor white trash.” William G. Cutler, A History of the State of Kansas, Ch 6. (1883).) Walt Whitman has listed “pukes” as a nickname for Missourians. A note first published by William White, W. L. McAtee and A. L. H. in American Speech, Vol. 36, No. 4 (December, 1961), pp. 296-301. Missouri is also known as "The Cave State" with over 6000 recorded caves (second to Tennessee). Perry County has both the largest number of caves and the single longest cave in the state. Other nicknames include "The Lead State", "The Bullion State", "The Ozark State", "Mother of the West", "The Iron Mountain State", and "Pennsylvania of the West". "Introduction to Missouri", Netstate http://www.netstate.com/states/intro/mo_intro.htm> There is no official state nickname http://www.sos.mo.gov/archives/history/slogan.asp however the official state motto is "Salus Populi Suprema Lex Esto,", Latin for "Let the welfare of the people be the supreme law." The Great Seal of Missouri, Secretary of State, Missouri. http://www.sos.mo.gov/symbols/symbols.asp?symbol=seal See also Index of Missouri-related articles List of people from Missouri References External links Missouri Government State Historical Society of Missouri, Columbia Missouri's African American History Missouri State Tourism Office Energy & Environmental Data for Missorui USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Missouri U.S. Census Bureau. Missouri QuickFacts. Geographic and demographic information. 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6,183 | Luigi_Alamanni | Luigi Alamanni. Luigi Alamanni (sometimes spelt Alemanni; March 6, 1495 – April 18, 1556) was an Italian poet and statesman. Luigi Alamanni Biography - Biography.com He was regarded as a prolific and versatile poet, and is credited with introducing the epigram into Italian poetry. Biography Alamanni was born in Florence. His father was a devoted adherent of the Medici party, but Luigi, smarting under a supposed injustice, joined with others in an unsuccessful conspiracy against Giulio de' Medici, afterwards Pope Clement VII. He was obliged in consequence to take refuge in Venice, and, on the accession of Clement, to flee to France. When Florence shook off the papal yoke in 1527, Alamanni returned, and took a prominent part in the management of the affairs of the republic. On the restoration of the Medici in 1530 he had again to take refuge in France, where he composed the greater part of his works. He was a favourite with Francis I, who sent him as ambassador to Charles V after the Peace of Crepy in 1544. As an instance of his tact in this capacity, it is related that, when Charles interrupted a complimentary address by quoting from a satirical poem of Alamanni's the words:"l' aquila grifagna, Che per piu devorar, duoi rostri porta" ("Two crooked bills the ravenous eagle bears, The better to devour"), the latter at once replied that he spoke them as a poet, who was permitted to use fictions, but that he spoke now as an ambassador, who was obliged to tell the truth. The ready reply pleased Charles, who added some complimentary words. After the death of Francis, Alamanni enjoyed the confidence of his successor Henry II, and in 1551 was sent by him as his ambassador to Genoa. He died at Amboise on April 18, 1556. He wrote a large number of poems, distinguished by the purity and excellence of their style. The best is a didactic poem, La Coltivazione (Paris, 1546), written in imitation of Virgil's Georgics. His Opere Toscane (Lyon, 1532) consists of satirical pieces written in blank verse. An unfinished poem, Avarchide, in imitation of the Iliad, was the work of his old age and has little merit. It has been said by some that Alamanni was the first to use blank verse in Italian poetry, but the distinction belongs rather to his contemporary Giangiorgio Trissino. Bibliography a poetical romance, Girone il Cortese (Paris, 1548) a tragedy, Antigone a comedy, Flora References | Luigi_Alamanni |@lemmatized luigi:4 alamanni:8 sometimes:1 spell:1 alemanni:1 march:1 april:2 italian:3 poet:3 statesman:1 biography:3 com:1 regard:1 prolific:1 versatile:1 credit:1 introduce:1 epigram:1 poetry:2 bear:2 florence:2 father:1 devoted:1 adherent:1 medici:3 party:1 smart:1 supposed:1 injustice:1 join:1 others:1 unsuccessful:1 conspiracy:1 giulio:1 de:1 afterwards:1 pope:1 clement:2 vii:1 oblige:2 consequence:1 take:3 refuge:2 venice:1 accession:1 flee:1 france:2 shake:1 papal:1 yoke:1 return:1 prominent:1 part:2 management:1 affair:1 republic:1 restoration:1 compose:1 great:1 work:2 favourite:1 francis:2 send:2 ambassador:3 charles:3 v:1 peace:1 crepy:1 instance:1 tact:1 capacity:1 relate:1 interrupt:1 complimentary:2 address:1 quote:1 satirical:2 poem:4 word:2 l:1 aquila:1 grifagna:1 che:1 per:1 piu:1 devorar:1 duoi:1 rostri:1 porta:1 two:1 crook:1 bill:1 ravenous:1 eagle:1 good:1 devour:1 latter:1 reply:2 speak:2 permit:1 use:2 fiction:1 tell:1 truth:1 ready:1 pleased:1 add:1 death:1 enjoy:1 confidence:1 successor:1 henry:1 ii:1 genoa:1 die:1 amboise:1 write:3 large:1 number:1 distinguish:1 purity:1 excellence:1 style:1 best:1 didactic:1 la:1 coltivazione:1 paris:2 imitation:2 virgil:1 georgics:1 opere:1 toscane:1 lyon:1 consist:1 piece:1 blank:2 verse:2 unfinished:1 avarchide:1 iliad:1 old:1 age:1 little:1 merit:1 say:1 first:1 distinction:1 belong:1 rather:1 contemporary:1 giangiorgio:1 trissino:1 bibliography:1 poetical:1 romance:1 girone:1 il:1 cortese:1 tragedy:1 antigone:1 comedy:1 flora:1 reference:1 |@bigram pope_clement:1 clement_vii:1 didactic_poem:1 blank_verse:2 |
6,184 | Karl_Benz | Replica of the Benz Patent Motorwagen built in 1885 Karl Friedrich Benz, sometimes spelled as Carl, (November 16, 1844, Karlsruhe, – April 4, 1929, Ladenburg, Germany) was a German engine designer and automobile engineer, generally regarded as the inventor of the gasoline-powered automobile and pioneering founder of the automobile manufacturer, Mercedes-Benz. Other German contemporaries, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach working as partners, also worked on similar types of inventions, without knowledge of the work of the other, but Benz patented his work first and, after that, patented all of the processes that made the internal combustion engine feasible for use in automobiles. In 1879 Benz was granted a patent for his first engine, which he designed in 1878. Early life Karl Benz was born Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant, in Karlsruhe, Baden, which is part of modern Germany, to Josephine Vaillant and a locomotive driver, Johann George Benz, whom she married a few months later. http://www.geographic.hu/index.php?act=napi&rov=5&id=6102 1844. november 25-én Karlsruheban született Karl Friedrich Vaillant, a Benz autógyár alapítója. Mivel születésekor anyja még hajadon volt, ezért az ő neve után anyakönyvezték. Vaillant csak később vette fel apja nevét, a Benz-et. http://www.personatti.com/card.data/Karl%20Benz_10080459.htm Realname:, Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant. Birthdate:, 25 Nov 1844. Deathdate:, 4 Apr 1929. Birthplace:, Germany, Baden-württemberg, Karlsruhe ... http://www.morgenweb.de/region/mannheim/daimler_benz/622204232.html Bei seiner Geburt am 25. November 1844 in Karlsruhe erhielt der spätere Auto-Pionier den Namen Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant. Seine Mutter Josephine Vaillant heiratete ein Jahr danach Johann Georg Benz, den Vater des Kindes. http://www.egoproject.nl/star/automerk%20symbolen.htm Tegelijkertijd met Daimler was Karl Benz ook zeer succesvol in het produceren van auto's. Karl werd geboren als Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant in 1844 in Muelburb (tegenwoordig Karlsruheen als zoon van Josephine Vaillant en treinmachinist Johann George Benz. Hij kreeg de naam van zijn moeder, omdat zijn ouders pas een jaar na zijn geboorte met elkaar trouwden. Toen Karl 2 jaar oud was verongelukte zijn vader in een spoorwegongeluk. Karl kreeg nu de naam van zijn vader en heette voortaan Karl Friedrich Benz. http://linx3314.wordpress.com/feed/ Karl Benz wurde alls Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant in heutige Kalruher Stadtteil Mühlburg geboren. Sein mutter hat ein man bei der name Johann Georg Benz.l Er storp eine veile nach das hochzeit. When he was two years old, his father was killed in a railway accident, and his name was changed to Karl Friedrich Benz in remembrance of his father. Karl Benz family gravestone Karl is the spelling of his first name on all of his official personal and municipal documents throughout his life, such as birth, school, honorary doctorate, the Baden State Metal certificate, and on his family grave marker as displayed to the right. Carl is the spelling variant he used for one company, C. Benz Söhne, he formed with his son Eugen after leaving the active management of his long standing company, but remaining on its board of directors for the rest of his life (through its merger with Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft in which the two companies became Daimler-Benz), and it is used for his autobiography by a recent publisher. This spelling variant has been copied often and may be found frequently. Karl Benz, twenty-five years old, in 1869 (collection of Zenodot Verlagsgesellschaft mbH) Despite living near poverty, his mother strove to give him a good education. Benz attended the local Grammar School in Karlsruhe and was a prodigious student. In 1853, at the age of nine he started at the scientifically oriented Lyzeum. Next he studied in the Poly-Technical University under the instruction of Ferdinand Redtenbacher. Benz had originally focused his studies on locksmithing, but eventually followed his father's steps toward locomotive engineering. On September 30, 1860, at age fifteen, he passed the entrance exam for mechanical engineering at the University of Karlsruhe, which he subsequently attended. Benz was graduated July 9, 1864 at nineteen. During these years, while riding his bicycle, he started to envision concepts for a vehicle that would eventually become the horseless carriage. Following his formal education, Benz had seven years of professional training in several companies, but did not fit well in any of them. The training started in Karlsruhe with two years of varied jobs in a mechanical engineering company. He then moved to Mannheim to work as a draftsman and designer in a scales factory. In 1868 he went to Pforzheim to work for a bridge building company Gebrüder Benckiser Eisenwerke und Maschinenfabrik. Finally, he went to Vienna for a short period to work at an iron construction company. Benz's Factory and his first inventions (1871 to 1882) In 1871, at the age of twenty-seven, Karl Benz joined August Ritter in launching a mechanical workshop in Mannheim, also dedicated to supplying construction materials: the Iron Foundry and Mechanical Workshop, later renamed, Factory for Machines for Sheet-metal Working. The enterprise's first year was a complete disaster. Ritter turned out to be unreliable and local authorities confiscated the business. The difficulty was solved when Benz's fiancée, Bertha Ringer, bought out Ritter's share in the company using her dowry. Mercedes-Benz, Home of Mercedes-Benz Luxury Automobiles at www.mbusa.com On July 20, 1872 Karl Benz and Bertha Ringer married, later having five children: Eugen (1873), Richard (1874), Clara (1877), Thilde (1882), and Ellen (1890). Despite such business misfortunes, Karl Benz led in the development of new engines. To get more revenues, in 1878 he began to work on new patents. First, he concentrated all his efforts on creating a reliable gas two-stroke engine. Benz finished his two-stroke engine on December 31, 1878, New Year's Eve, and was granted a patent for it in 1879. Karl Benz showed his real genius, however, through his successive inventions registered while designing what would become the production standard for his two-stroke engine. Benz soon patented the speed regulation system, the ignition using sparks with battery, the spark plug, the carburetor, the clutch, the gear shift, and the water radiator. Benz's Gasmotoren-Fabrik Mannheim (1882 to 1883) Problems arose again when the banks at Mannheim demanded that Karl Benz's Gas Factory enterprise be incorporated due to the high production costs it maintained. Benz was forced to improvise an association with photographer Emil Bühler and his brother (a cheese merchant), in order to get additional bank support. The company became the joint-stock company Gasmotoren Fabrik Mannheim in 1882. After all the necessary agreements, Benz was unhappy because he was left with merely five percent of the shares and a modest position as director. Worst of all, his ideas weren't considered when designing new products, so he withdrew from that corporation just one year later, in 1883. Benz & Cie. and the Motorwagen + 1885 Benz Patent Motorwagen 1885 Benz Tri-CarThree wheelsTubular steel frameRack and pinion steering, connected to a driver end tiller; wheel chained to front axleElectric ignitionDifferential rear end gears (mechanically operated inlet valves)Water-cooled internal combustion engine Gas or petrol four-stroke horizontally mounted engine Single cylinder, Bore 116 mm, Stroke 160 mm Patent model: 958 cc, 0.8 hp, 600 W, 16 km/h Commercialized model: 1600 cc, ¾ hp, Early logo used on automobiles by Karl Benz Benz's lifelong hobby brought him to a bicycle repair shop in Mannheim owned by Max Rose and Friedrich Wilhelm Eßlinger. In 1883, the three founded a new company producing industrial machines: Benz & Company Rheinische Gasmotoren-Fabrik, usually referred to as, Benz & Cie. Quickly growing to twenty-five employees, it soon began to produce gas engines as well. The success of the company gave Benz the opportunity to indulge in his old passion of designing a horseless carriage. Based on his experience with, and fondness for, bicycles, he used similar technology when he created an automobile. It featured wire wheels (unlike carriages' wooden ones) Georgano, G. N. Cars: Early and Vintage, 1886-1930. (London: Grange-Universal, 1985) with a four-stroke engine of his own design between the rear wheels, with a very advanced coil ignition Georgano and evaporative cooling rather than a radiator. Power was transmitted by means of two roller chains to the rear axle. Karl Benz finished his creation in 1885 and named it the Benz Patent Motorwagen. It was the first automobile entirely designed as such to generate its own power, not simply a motorized stage coach or horse carriage, which is why Karl Benz was granted his patent and is regarded as its inventor. The Motorwagen was patented on January 29, 1886 as DRP-37435: "automobile fueled by gas". DRP's patent No. 37435 (PDF, 561 kB, German) was filed January 29, 1886 and granted November 2, 1886, thus taking effect January 29. The 1885 version was difficult to control, leading to a collision with a wall during a public demonstration. The first successful tests on public roads were carried out in the early summer of 1886. The next year Benz created the Motorwagen Model 2 which had several modifications, and in 1887, the definitive Model 3 with wooden wheels was introduced, showing at the Paris Expo the same year. Benz began to sell the vehicle (advertising it as the Benz Patent Motorwagen) in the late summer of 1888, making it the first commercially available automobile in history. The second customer of the Motorwagen was a Parisian bicycle manufacturer Emile Roger who had already been building Benz engines under license from Karl Benz for several years. Roger added the Benz automobiles (many built in France) to the line he carried in Paris and initially most were sold there. Engine of the Benz Patent Motorwagen Early customers could only buy gasoline from pharmacies that sold small quantities as a cleaning product. The early-1888 version of the Motorwagen had no gears and could not climb hills unaided. This limitation was rectified after Bertha Benz made her famous trip driving one of the vehicles a great distance and suggested to her husband the addition of another gear. The popular story about this first long distance automobile trip is that, supposedly without the knowledge of her husband, on the morning of August 5, 1888, Bertha Benz took this vehicle on a 106 km (65 mile) trip from Mannheim to Pforzheim to visit her mother, taking her sons Eugen and Richard with her. In addition to having to locate fuel at pharmacies on the way, she also overcame various technical and mechanical problems and finally arrived at nightfall, announcing the achievement to Karl by telegram. It had been her intention to demonstrate the feasibility of using her husband's invention for travel and to obtain publicity that would make more people aware of it. Today the event is celebrated every two years in Germany with an antique automobile rally. In 2008 Bertha Benz Memorial Route Bertha Benz Memorial Route was officially approved as a route of industrial heritage of mankind, because it follows Bertha Benz's tracks of the world's first long-distance journey by automobile in 1888. Now everybody can follow the 194 km of signposted route from Mannheim via Heidelberg to Pforzheim (Black Forest) and back. Benz's Model 3 made its wide-scale debut to the world in the 1889 World's Fair in Paris, and about twenty-five Motorwagens were built between 1886 and 1893. Benz & Cie. expansion Karl Benz introduced the Velo in 1894, becoming the first production automobile First bus in history: a Benz truck modified by Netphener company (1895) Benz "Velo" model presentation in London 1898 The great demand for stationary, static internal combustion engines forced Karl Benz to enlarge the factory in Mannheim, and in 1886 a new building located on Waldhofstrasse (operating until 1908) was added. Benz & Cie. had grown in the interim from 50 employees in 1889 to 430 in 1899. During the last years of the nineteenth century, Benz was the largest automobile company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899. Because of its size, in 1899, Benz & Cie. became a joint-stock company with the arrival of Friedrich Von Fischer and Julius Ganß, who came aboard as members of the Board of Management. Ganß worked in the commercialization department, which is somewhat similar to marketing in contemporary corporations. The new directors recommended that Benz should create a less expensive automobile suitable for mass production. In 1893, Karl Benz created the Victoria, a two-passenger automobile with a 3-hp engine, which could reach the top speed of 11 mph and had a pivotal front axle operated by a roller-chained tiller for steering. The model was successful with 85 units sold in 1893. In 1894, Benz improved this design in his new Velo model. It would also be copied by Marshall (Manchester), Star (Wolverhampton; later named Belsize), and Arnold (Paddock Wood, Kent), with wire wheels supplied by bicycle maker Adler. Cf Georgano This was produced on such a remarkably large scale for the era—1,200 total from 1894 to 1901—it may be considered the first production automobile. The other main contenders are the Duryea and Olds Runabout. The Model T is the first truly mass-produced car. The Benz Velo also participated in the first automobile race, the 1894 Paris to Rouen Rally. In 1895, Benz designed the first truck in history, with some of the units later modified by the first bus company: the Netphener, becoming the first buses in history. In 1896, Karl Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first flat engine. It had horizontally-opposed pistons, a design in which the corresponding pistons reach top dead centre simultaneously, thus balancing each other with respect to momentum. Flat engines with four or fewer cylinders are most commonly called boxer engines, boxermotor in German, and also are known as horizontally opposed engines. This design is still used by Porsche, Subaru and some high performance engines used in racing cars. In motorcycles, the most famous boxer engine is found in BMW motorcycles, though the boxer engine design was used in many other models, including Zundapp, Wooler, Douglas Dragonfly, the Brough Superior Golden Dream, Ratier, Universal, IMZ-Ural, Dnepr, Gnome et Rhône, Chang Jiang, Marusho, and the Honda Gold Wing. Although Gottlieb Daimler died in March 1900—and there is no evidence that Benz and Daimler knew each other nor that they knew about each other's early achievements—eventually, competition with Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) in Stuttgart began to challenge the leadership of Benz & Cie. In October 1900 the main designer of DMG, Wilhelm Maybach, built the engine that would be used later, in the Mercedes-35hp of 1902. The engine was built to the specifications of Emil Jellinek under a contract for him to purchase thirty-six vehicles with the engine and for him to become a dealer of the special series. Jellinek stipulated the new engine be named Daimler-Mercedes (for his daughter). Maybach would quit DMG in 1907, but he designed the model and all of the important changes. After testing, the first was delivered to Jellinek on December 22, 1900. Jellinek continued to make suggestions for changes to the model and obtained good results racing the automobile in the next few years, encouraging DMG to engage in commercial production of automobiles, which they did in 1902. logo with laurels used on Benz & Cie automobiles after 1909 Benz countered with Parsifil, introduced in 1903 with a vertical twin engine that achieved a top speed of . Then, without consulting Benz, the other directors hired some French designers. France was a country with an extensive automobile industry based on Maybach's creations. Because of this action, after difficult discussions, Karl Benz announced his retirement from design management on January 24, 1903, although he remained as director on the Board of Management through its merger with DMG in 1926 and, remained on the board of the new Daimler-Benz corporation until his death in 1929. Benz's sons Eugen and Richard left Benz & Cie. in 1903, but Richard returned to the company in 1904 as the designer of passenger vehicles. 1909 Blitzen Benz - built by Benz & Cie., which held the land speed record for ten years That year, sales of Benz & Cie. reached 3,480 automobiles, and the company remained the leading manufacturer of automobiles. Along with continuing as a director of Benz & Cie., Karl Benz soon would found another company—with his son, Eugen—closely held within the family, manufacturing automobiles under another brand and using a French spelling variant of Benz's first name for the first initial of the privately-held company (see discussion in the next section). In 1909, the Blitzen Benz was built in Mannheim by Benz & Cie. The bird-beaked vehicle had a 21.5-liter (1312ci), engine, and on November 9, 1909 in the hands of Victor Hémery of France, Northey, Tom, "Land Speed Record", in The World of Automobiles (London: Orbis Publishing, 1974), Volume 10, p.1163. the land speed racer at Brooklands, set a record of 202.68 km/h (125.94 mph), said to be "faster than any plane, train, or automobile" at the time, a record that was not exceeded for ten years by any other vehicle. It was transported to several countries, including the United States, to establish multiple records of this achievement. Benz Söhne (1906 to 1923) Karl and Bertha Benz c. 1914 (collection of Zenodot Verlagsgesellschaft mbH) Karl Benz, Bertha Benz, and their son, Eugen, moved 10 km east of Mannheim to live in nearby Ladenburg, and solely with their own capital, founded the private company, C. Benz Sons (German: Benz Söhne) in 1906, producing automobiles and gas engines. The latter type was replaced by petrol engines because lack of demand. logo on family held business production vehicles This company never issued stocks publicly, building its own line of automobiles independently from Benz & Cie., which was located in Mannheim. The Benz Sons automobiles were of good quality and became popular in London as taxis. In 1912, Karl Benz liquidated all of his shares in Benz Sons and left this family-held company in Ladenburg to Eugen and Richard, but he remained as a director of Benz & Cie. During a birthday celebration for him in his home town of Karlsruhe on November 25, 1914, the seventy year-old Karl Benz was awarded an honorary doctorate by his alma mater, the Karlsruhe University, thereby becoming—Dr. Ing. h. c. Karl Benz. 1923 Benz "Teardrop" aerodynamic racecar Almost from the very beginning of the production of automobiles, participation in sports car racing became a major method to gain publicity for manufacturers. At first, the production models were raced and the Benz Velo participated in the first automobile race: Paris to Rouen 1894. Later, investment in developing racecars for motorsports produced returns through sales generated by the association of the name of the automobile with the winners. Unique race vehicles were built at the time, as seen in the photograph here of the Benz, the first mid-engine and aerodynamically designed, Tropfenwagen, a "teardrop" body introduced at the 1923 European Grand Prix at Monza. In the last production year of the Benz Sons company, 1923, three hundred and fifty units were built. During the following year, 1924, Karl Benz built two additional 8/25 hp units of the automobile manufactured by this company, tailored for his personal use, which he never sold; they are still preserved. Toward Daimler-Benz and the first Mercedes Benz in 1926 During the First World War, Benz & Cie. and Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft both had massively increased their production for the war effort. After the conflict ended, both manufacturers resumed their normal activities, but the German economy was chaotic. The automobile was considered a luxury item and as such, was charged a 15% extra tax. At the same time, the country suffered a severe lack of petroleum. To survive this difficult situation, in 1919 Benz & Cie. proposed a cooperation suggested by Karl Benz through a representative, Karl Jahn, but DMG rejected the proposal in December. The German economic crisis worsened. In 1923 Benz & Cie. produced only 1,382 units in Mannheim, and DMG made only 1,020 in Stuttgart. The average cost of an automobile was 25 million marks because of rapid inflation. Negotiations between the two companies resumed and in 1924 they signed an Agreement of Mutual Interest valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, sales, and advertising—marketing their automobile models jointly—although keeping their respective brands. On June 28, 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the Daimler-Benz company, baptizing all of its automobiles, Mercedes Benz, honoring the most important model of the DMG automobiles, the 1902 Mercedes-35hp, along with the Benz name. The name of that DMG model had been selected after ten-year-old Mercedes Jellinek, the daughter of Emil Jellinek who had set the specifications for the new model. Between 1900 and 1909 he was a member of DMG's board of management and long before the merger Jellinek had resigned. Last home of Karl and Bertha Benz, now the location of the Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz Foundation in Ladenburg, Germany Karl Benz was a member of the new Daimler Benz board of management for the remainder of his life. A new logo was created, consisting of a three pointed star (representing Daimler's motto: "engines for land, air, and water") surrounded by traditional laurels from the Benz logo, and the brand of all of its automobiles was labeled Mercedes Benz. Model names would follow the brand name in the same convention as today. The next year, 1927, the number of units sold tripled to 7,918 and the diesel line was launched for truck production. In 1928 the Mercedes Benz SS was presented. On April 4, 1929, Karl Benz died at home in Ladenburg at the age of eighty-four from a bronchial inflammation. Until her death on May 5, 1944, Bertha Benz continued to reside in their last home. Members of the family resided in the home for thirty more years. The Benz home now has been designated as historic and is used as a scientific meeting facility for a nonprofit foundation, the Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz Foundation, that honors both Bertha and Karl Benz for their roles in the history of automobiles. See also benz (unit) History of the internal combustion engine Bertha Benz, his wife and automotive pioneer German inventors and discoverers Notes References (autobiography) The life of a German inventor: my memories / Karl Benz (first edition) (bibrec) The life of a German inventor; memories of an octogenarian Mercedes-Benz AG (Hrsg.), Benz & Cie.: Zum 150. Geburtstag von Karl Benz, Motorbuch Verlag: Stuttgart, 1994 1. Aufl. 296 S., 492 Abb., 124 in Farbe, ISBN 3-613-01643-5, (biography) Benz & Cie.: On the Occasion of the 150th Birthday of Karl Benz Two men - one star: Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz in pictures, data and documents (biography) Image of cover. Carl Benz: a Baden history; the vision of the "horseless car" changes the world Karl Benz : A pioneer of motorization External links Brief biographies of Karl Benz and Bertha Benz, with portraits, an extensive archive, and detailed histories presented at the Mercedes-Benz Museum. Mercedes-Benz corporate archives , company archives , history , media management archives , and publications copies of the honorary doctorate and Baden State medal in gold, both awarded to Karl Benz in his lifetime. Das Automuseum Dr. Carl Benz in der alten Benz Fabrik is the Dr. Carl Benz Auto Museum created by a private group in 1996 in a former Benz factory for an ancillary business founded with his sons in Ladenburg, which was separate from his major companies. The company opened in 1906 and closed in 1923, the site has a description of this museum and contemporary photographs with "C. BENZ SÖHNE KG" painted on the building, which contains historical photographs, some restored automobiles, and a chronology of the life of Karl Benz Karl Benz on 3-wheelers.com Bertha Benz Memorial Route Prof. John H. Lienhard on BERTHA BENZ's RIDE The Karl Benz family grave site in Ladenburg The urn contains the ashes of their son, Richard Benz, and the inscription on the gavestone reads: Dr. Ing. h. c. Karl Benz Geb. 26. Nov. 1844 Gest. 4. April 1929 Bertha Benz Geb. Ringer Geb. 3. Mai 1849 Gest. 4. 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6,185 | Hobart | Hobart ( ) is the state capital and most populous city of the Australian island state of Tasmania. Founded in 1803 as a penal colony, Frank Bolt, The Founding of Hobart 1803-1804, ISBN 0 975 71660 3 Hobart is Australia's second oldest capital city after Sydney. In 2006, the city had a greater area population of approximately 205,566. The city is the financial and administrative heart of Tasmania, and also serves as the home port for both Australian and French Antarctic operations. The city is located in the state's south-east on the estuary of the Derwent River. The skyline is dominated by Mount Wellington at 1,271 metres high. History The first settlement began in 1803 as a penal colony at Risdon Cove on the eastern shores of the Derwent River, amid British concerns over the presence of French explorers. In 1804 it was moved to a better location at the present site of Hobart at Sullivan's Cove. The city, initially known as Hobart Town or Hobarton, was named after Lord Hobart, the Colonial Secretary. The area's original inhabitants were members of the semi-nomadic Mouheneener tribe. Parliament of Tasmania - House of Assembly Standing Orders "We acknowledge the traditional people of the land upon which we meet today, the Mouheneener people." A series of bloody encounters with the Europeans and the effects of diseases brought by the settlers forced away the aboriginal population, which was rapidly replaced by free settlers and the convict population. Charles Darwin visited Hobart Town in February, 1836 as part of the Beagle expedition. He writes of Hobart and the Derwent estuary in his Voyage of the Beagle: ...The lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are cleared; and the bright yellow fields of corn, and dark green ones of potatoes, appear very luxuriant... I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses, either built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained 13,826 inhabitants, and the whole of Tasmania 36,505. But since the Derwent River was one of Australia's finest deepwater ports and was the centre of the Southern Ocean whaling and the sealing trade, it rapidly grew into a major port, with allied industries such as shipbuilding. Hobart Town became a city on 21 August 1842, and was renamed Hobart in 1875. Geography ' Topography This section discusses the topography of the Greater Hobart area and as such pinpoints the regions of urban sprawl of the suburbs and the towns included in the Greater Hobart area as well as land formations. Hobart is located on the estuary of the Derwent River in the state's south-east at . Geologically Hobart is built predominantly on Jurassic Dolerite around the foothills interspersed with smaller areas of Triassic siltstone and Permian Mudstone. Much of the waterfront of the Hobart CBD is built on Reclaimed land such as the Sullivans Cove and Salamanca areas, done during the convict era of Tasmania. Hobart extends along both sides of the Derwent River, on the Western Shore from the Derwent Valley in the North through the flatter areas of Glenorchy which rests on older Triassic sediment and into the hilly areas of New Town, Lenah Valley both resting on the younger Jurassic dolerite deposits, before stretching into the lower areas such as the beaches of Sandy Bay in the South, in the Derwent Estuary. The Eastern Shore also extends from the Derwent Valley area in a Southerly direction hugging the Meehan Ranges in the East before sprawling into flatter land in suburbs such as Bellerive. These flatter areas of the Eastern Shore rest on far younger deposits from the Quaternary. From there the city extends in an easterly direction through the Meehan Ranges into the hilly areas of Rokeby and Oakdowns, before reaching into the tidal flatland area of Lauderdale Hobart has access to a number of beach areas including those in the Derwent Estuary itself; Sandy Bay, Nutgrove, Kingston, Bellerive and Howrah Beaches as well as many more in Frederick Henry Bay such as; Seven Mile, Roaches, Cremorne, Clifton and Goats Beaches. Climate Hobart has a mild temperate oceanic climate (Koppen Cfb), with four distinct seasons. The highest maximum temperature recorded was 40.8°C on 4 January 1976 and the lowest minimum was -2.8°C on 25 June 1972. Compared to other major Australia cities Hobart has the second least daily average hours of sunshine, with 5.9 hours. (Melbourne has the least) www.bom.gov.au Although the city rarely receives snow during winter, the adjacent Mount Wellington is often seen with a covering. Unseasonal mountain snow covering has been known to occur during all seasons. Hobart during the 20th century did receive many snowfalls at sea level because of cold masses arriving from Antarctica. These snow-bearing winds often carried on through Tasmania and Victoria to the Snowy Mountains in New South Wales and Northern Victoria. Though snow is unusual in general at sea level in Australia, Hobart has most probably had the most sea level snowfalls out of any State Capital, though Sydney, Melbourne and Adelaide have also recorded snow. See also: A graph of the climate of Hobart as measured and recorded on Ellerslie Road (Wikimedia Commons) Demographics As of the 2006 census there were 200,525 people in the greater Hobart area and the City of Hobart local government area has a population of 47,700. According to the 2006 census, approximately 12.0% of greater Hobart's residents were born overseas, commonly the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Germany and Netherlands. Most common occupations are Professionals 21.6%, Clerical and Administrative Workers 16.1%, Technicians and Trades Workers 13.8%, Managers 11.5% and Community and Personal Service Workers 10.6%. Median weekly household income was $869, compared with $1,027 nationally. In the 2006 census, 63.8% of residents specified a Christian religion. Major religious affiliations are Anglican 29.8%, Catholic 21.1%, Uniting Church 4.2% and Presbyterian and Reformed 2.0%. In addition, 21.6% specified "No Religion" and 12.0% did not answer. Religious Affiliation (broad groups) by Sex - Greater Hobart Economy Hobart is a busy seaport, notably serving as the home port for the Antarctic activities of Australia and France. The port loads around 2,000 tonnes of Antarctic cargo a year for the Australian research vessel Aurora Australis. The city also supports several other industries, including a high-speed catamaran factory Incat and a zinc smelter operated by Nyrstar, as well as a vibrant tourist industry. Visitors come to the city to explore its historic inner suburbs, to visit the weekly market in Salamanca Place, as well as to use the city as a base from which to explore the rest of Tasmania. Other notable businesses in the area include the Cadbury chocolate factory and the Cascade Brewery located in South Hobart near the natural spring waters of Mount Wellington. The Hobart surrounding area has many vineyards, including Moorilla Estate at Berriedale. Distinctive Features The Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens is a popular recreation area a short distance from the City centre. It is the second-oldest Botanic Gardens in Australia and holds extensive significant plant collections as well as built heritage. Mount Wellington, accessible by passing through Fern Tree, is the dominant feature of Hobart's skyline, indeed many descriptions of Hobart have used the phrase "nestled amidst the foothills", so undulating is the geographical landscape. At 1,271 metres, the mountain has its own ecosystems, is rich in biodiversity and plays a large part in determining the local weather. The Tasman Bridge is also a uniquely important feature of the city, connecting the two shores of Hobart and visible from many locations. Culture Arts and Entertainment Hobart is home to the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra, which is resident at the Federation Concert Hall on the city's waterfront. It offers a year-round program of concerts and is thought to be one of the finest small orchestras in the world. Hobart also plays host to the University of Tasmania's acclaimed Australian International Symphony Orchestra Institute (AISOI) which brings pre-professional advanced young musicians to town from all over Australia and internationally. The AISOI plays host to a public concert season during the first two weeks of December every year focusing on large symphonic music. Like the Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra, the AISOI uses the Federation Concert Hall as its performing base. Hobart has also long been home to a thriving classical, jazz, folk, punk, hip-hop, electro, metal and rock music scene. Internationally recognised musicians such as singer/songwriters Michael Noga (of The Drones), The Paradise Motel, The Scientists of Modern Music Sacha Lucashenko of The Morning After Girls, two thirds of indie rock band Love Of Diagrams, post punk band Sea Scouts, Monique Brumby, blues guitarist Phil Manning (of blues-rock band Chain), power-pop group The Innocents, maverick DIY overlord Sean Bailey (Lakes, Paeces, Wasted Truth) and metal bands Striborg and Psycroptic are all successful expatriates. In addition, founding member of Violent Femmes, Brian Ritchie, now calls Hobart home, and has formed a local band, The Green Mist. Several festivals such as the Hobart Fringe Festival, Hobart Summer Festival, Southern Roots Festival, Ten Days On The Island and the Falls Festival in Marion Bay all capitalise on the Hobart's artistic communities. Hobart is home to the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery. Hobart also hosts the bulk of the 10 Days on the Island festival, a biannual international arts festival. Australia's first legal casino was the 17-storey Wrest Point Hotel Casino in Sandy Bay, opened in 1973. It is still the tallest building in the city, despite being several kilometres out of the CBD, and is a nationally recognised icon. The Hobart nightlife primarily revolves around Salamanca Place, the waterfront area and Elizabeth St in North Hobart, but popular pubs, bars and nightclubs exist around the city as well. Major national and international music events are usually held at the Derwent Entertainment Centre, or the Casino. Popular restaurant strips include Elizabeth Street in North Hobart, and Salamanca Place near the waterfront. These include a large number of ethnic restaurants including Chinese, Thai, Greek, Pakistani, Italian, Indian and Mexican. Hobart is home to Australia's oldest theatre, the Theatre Royal. It also has three Village Cinema complexes, one each in the city, Glenorchy and Rosny. The State Cinema in North Hobart specializes in arthouse and foreign films. State Cinema Events Hobart is internationally famous among the yachting community as the finish of the Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race which starts in Sydney on Boxing Day (the day after Christmas Day). The arrival of the yachts is celebrated as part of the Hobart Summer Festival, a food and wine festival beginning just after Christmas and ending in mid-January. The Taste of Tasmania is a major part of the festival, where locals and visitors can taste fine local and international food and wine. Hobart is the finish point of the Targa Tasmania rally car event held annually in April since 1991. The annual Tulip Festival at the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens is a popular Spring celebration in the City. The Australian Wooden Boat Festival is a bi-annual event held in Hobart celebrating wooden boats. It is held concurrently with the Royal Hobart Regatta, which began in 1830 and is therefore Tasmania's oldest sporting event. Sport Due to Tasmania's small population in contrast to other states, most Hobart sporting teams in national competitions are statewide teams rather than exclusively city teams. These include the Tasmanian Tigers cricket team, which plays home games at Bellerive Oval on the eastern shore. Despite Australian rules football's huge popularity in the state, Tasmania does not have a team in the Australian Football League. However, a Tasmanian AFL team is a popular topic among supporters as well as the state government (one of the potential sponsors of such a team). Tasmania's small population has always been a drawback in starting and maintaining state sports teams resulting in the state not being represented in national, rugby union, rugby league, netball, soccer and basketball leagues; although the Oasis Hobart Chargers do represent Hobart in the South East Australian Basketball League (SEABL). As well as the AFL bid, there is also a Tasmanian bid lobbying for entry into the A-League. Media Hobart's major newspaper is The Mercury, which was founded by John Davies in 1854 and has been continually published ever since. The paper is currently owned and operated by Rupert Murdoch's News Limited. Six free-to-air television channels service Hobart. Commercial television channels are provided by Southern Cross Tasmania, Tasmanian Digital Television (TDT) and WIN Television. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation provides ABC1 and ABC2. Multicultural broadcaster SBS provides SBS Television. Until 1986, television broadcasts in the city were restricted to two channels: TVT-6 and the ABC. In 1986, SBS began transmission to the city. In 1994 market aggregation allowed Launceston based station TNT-9 (now Southern Cross Tasmania) to broadcast to Hobart as well. TVT-6 (since known as TasTV, now WIN Television) took on a Nine Network affiliation, with Southern Cross carrying both Seven and Ten programming. All stations commenced digital broadcasting during 2003, and in December 2003, a fifth station, TDT, began broadcasting. TDT is a joint venture between Southern Cross and WIN. In March 2005, ABC2 came on-line. Pay TV services are provided by Austar and SelecTV via satellite. Community Television services are Tasmainia's community TV channel Channel 31 Melbourne will air relay on analogue and digital TV for 2009. Commercial radio stations licensed to cover the Hobart market include 7HO FM, Sea FM and Heart 107.3. Local community radio stations include Christian radio station Ultra106five, youth station Edge Radio and 92FM which targets the wider community with specialist programmes. All five ABC radio networks broadcast to Hobart via 936 ABC Hobart, Radio National, Triple J, Newsradio and ABC Classic FM. Government The Greater Hobart Metropolitan consists of five local government areas of which three, City of Hobart, City of Glenorchy and City of Clarence are designated as cities. Hobart also includes the urbanised local governments of the Municipality of Kingborough and Municipality of Brighton. All of the local governments are responsible for their own urban, up to a certain scale, and residential planning as well as waste management and mains water storage. Most city wide events such as the Taste of Tasmania and Hobart Summer Festival, are funded by the Tasmanian State Government as a joint venture with the local council. Urban planning of the Hobart CBD in particular the Heritage listed areas such as Sullivans Cove are also intensly scrutinised by State Government, which is operated out of Paliarment House on the waterfront. See also List of Hobart suburbs Education Hobart is home to the main campus of the University of Tasmania, situated in Sandy Bay. On-site accommodation colleges include Christ College, Jane Franklin Hall and St John Fisher College. Other campuses are in Launceston and Burnie. Infrastructure Transport The only public transport within the city is via a network of Metro buses funded by the Tasmanian Government and some private bus services. Like many large cities, Hobart once operated passenger tram services, a Trolleybus network consisting of six routes which operated until 1968. However, the tramway closed in the early 1960s - the tracks are still visible in the older streets of Hobart. Suburban passenger trains, run by the Tasmanian Government Railways, closed in 1974 and the intrastate passenger service, the Tasman Limited, ceased in 1979. The main arterial routes within the urban area are the Brooker Highway to Glenorchy and the northern suburbs, the Tasman Bridge and Bowen Bridge across the river to Rosny and the Eastern Shore. The East Derwent Highway to Lindisfarne, Geilston Bay, and Northwards to Brighton, the South Arm Highway leading to Howrah, Rokeby, Lauderdale and Opossum Bay and the Southern Outlet south to Kingston and the D'Entrecasteaux Channel. Leaving the city, motorists can travel the Lyell Highway to the west coast, Midland Highway to Launceston and the north, Tasman Highway to the east coast, or the Huon Highway to the far south. Ferry services from Hobarts Eastern Shore into the city were once a common form of public transport, but no government funding as well as a lack of interest from the private sector has led to the demise of a regular commuter ferry service leaving commuters reliant soley on travel by car and bus. Hobart is served by Hobart International Airport with flights to/from Melbourne (Qantas, Virgin Blue, Jetstar and Tiger Airways), Sydney (Qantas, Jetstar and Virgin Blue), Brisbane (Virgin Blue), Adelaide (Virgin Blue and Tiger Airways) and Canberra (Virgin Blue). The smaller Cambridge Aerodrome mainly serves small charter airlines offering local tourist flights. Sister cities Yaizu, Japan Sister Cities. City of Hobart (2006). Retrieved on 24 December, 2006. L'Aquila, Italy See also List of Tasmanians References Further reading Bolt, Frank (2004) The Founding of Hobart 1803 - 1804'' Peregrine Pty Ltd, Kettering Tasmania. ISBN 0-9757166-0-3 External links Hobart City Council Images of the city from Rose Hill High Live from the School Satellite image from Google Maps Street map from Whereis.com | Hobart |@lemmatized hobart:77 state:14 capital:3 populous:1 city:38 australian:9 island:3 tasmania:19 found:3 penal:2 colony:2 frank:2 bolt:2 founding:2 isbn:2 australia:9 second:3 old:6 sydney:5 great:7 area:23 population:6 approximately:2 financial:1 administrative:2 heart:2 also:15 serve:4 home:9 port:5 french:2 antarctic:3 operation:1 locate:3 south:9 east:6 estuary:5 derwent:12 river:6 skyline:2 dominate:1 mount:4 wellington:4 metre:2 high:4 history:1 first:3 settlement:1 begin:5 risdon:1 cove:4 eastern:6 shore:8 amid:1 british:1 concern:1 presence:1 explorer:1 move:1 good:1 location:2 present:1 site:2 sullivan:3 initially:1 know:3 town:7 hobarton:1 name:1 lord:1 colonial:1 secretary:1 original:1 inhabitant:2 member:2 semi:1 nomadic:1 mouheneener:2 tribe:1 parliament:1 house:3 assembly:1 stand:1 order:1 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6,186 | Hit_(baseball) | In Major League Baseball history, Ty Cobb had a record 4,191 hits (later revised to 4,189) by 1928; Pete Rose would surpass it 57 years later, and finish with 4,256 career hits. In baseball statistics, a hit (denoted by H), sometimes called a base hit, is credited to a batter when the batter safely reaches first base after hitting the ball into fair territory, without the benefit of an error or a fielder's choice. To do this, the batter must reach first base before any fielder can either tag him with the ball, throw to another player protecting the base before the batter reaches it, or tag first base while carrying the ball. The hit is scored the moment the batter reaches first base safely - if the runner is put out while attempting a double or triple on the same play, he still gets credit for the hit. A hit is defined by rule 10.05 of MLB's Official Rules. The term "base hit" is not an official baseball term, but is typically used by play-by-play announcers to distinguish over-the-wall home runs from other varieties of hits that are in play. It is more commonly used for balls that bounce within fair territory and pass by the infielders into the outfield, thus guaranteeing the batter at least a single. An "infield hit" is a hit where the ball does not leave the infield. Infield hits are uncommon by nature, and most often earned by speedy runners. A hit for one base is called a single - the number of singles is equal to the total number of hits minus the number of extra base hits. A home run is also scored as a hit. If a batter reaches first base because of offensive interference by a preceding runner (including if a preceding runner is hit by a batted ball), he is also credited with a hit. A no-hitter is a game in which one of the teams prevented the other from getting a hit. Throwing a no-hitter is rare and considered an extraordinary accomplishment for a pitcher or pitching staff. In most cases in the professional game, no-hitters are accomplished by a single pitcher who throws a complete game. And while they are similar, a no-hitter is different from a perfect game, in that a pitcher who throws a no-hitter still allows runners to reach base safely, through a combination of walks, errors, or hit batsmen. In 1887, Major League Baseball counted bases on balls (walks) as hits. The result was skyrocketing batting averages, including some near .500; Tip O'Neill of the St. Louis Browns batted .485 that season, which would still be a major league record if recognized. The experiment was abandoned the following season. There is some controversy regarding how the records of 1887 should be interpreted; as the number of legitimate walks is known for all players that year, computing averages using the standard method used in other years is quite simple. In 1968, Major League Baseball formed a Special Baseball Records Committee to resolve this issue, among others, and the Committee ruled that walks in 1887 should not be counted as hits; in 2000, Major League Baseball reversed its decision, ruling that the statistics which were recognized in each year's official records should stand, even in cases where they were later proven incorrect. Most current sources list O'Neill's 1887 average as .435, as calculated by omitting his walks; he would retain his American Association batting championship. However, the variance between methods results in differing recognition for the 1887 National League batting champion; Cap Anson would be recognized, with his .421 average, if walks are included, but Sam Thompson would be the champion at .372 if they are not. | Hit_(baseball) |@lemmatized major:5 league:6 baseball:7 history:1 ty:1 cobb:1 record:5 hit:23 later:3 revise:1 pete:1 rise:1 would:5 surpass:1 year:4 finish:1 career:1 statistic:2 denote:1 h:1 sometimes:1 call:2 base:12 credit:3 batter:7 safely:3 reach:6 first:5 ball:7 fair:2 territory:2 without:1 benefit:1 error:2 fielder:2 choice:1 must:1 either:1 tag:2 throw:4 another:1 player:2 protect:1 carry:1 score:2 moment:1 runner:5 put:1 attempt:1 double:1 triple:1 play:4 still:3 get:2 define:1 rule:4 mlb:1 official:3 term:2 typically:1 use:4 announcer:1 distinguish:1 wall:1 home:2 run:2 variety:1 commonly:1 bounce:1 within:1 pas:1 infielder:1 outfield:1 thus:1 guarantee:1 least:1 single:4 infield:3 leave:1 uncommon:1 nature:1 often:1 earn:1 speedy:1 one:2 number:4 equal:1 total:1 minus:1 extra:1 also:2 offensive:1 interference:1 preceding:2 include:3 bat:3 hitter:5 game:4 team:1 prevent:1 rare:1 consider:1 extraordinary:1 accomplishment:1 pitcher:3 pitching:1 staff:1 case:2 professional:1 accomplish:1 complete:1 similar:1 different:1 perfect:1 allow:1 combination:1 walk:6 batsman:1 count:2 result:2 skyrocket:1 batting:2 average:4 near:1 tip:1 neill:2 st:1 louis:1 brown:1 season:2 recognize:3 experiment:1 abandon:1 following:1 controversy:1 regard:1 interpret:1 legitimate:1 know:1 compute:1 standard:1 method:2 quite:1 simple:1 form:1 special:1 committee:2 resolve:1 issue:1 among:1 others:1 reverse:1 decision:1 stand:1 even:1 prove:1 incorrect:1 current:1 source:1 list:1 calculate:1 omit:1 retain:1 american:1 association:1 championship:1 however:1 variance:1 differ:1 recognition:1 national:1 champion:2 cap:1 anson:1 sam:1 thompson:1 |@bigram league_baseball:4 ty_cobb:1 fielder_choice:1 pitching_staff:1 batting_average:1 tip_neill:1 cap_anson:1 |
6,187 | History_painting | The Last Day of Pompeii (1833) is a quintessential history painting. History painting, as formulated in 1667 by André Félibien, a historiographer, architect and theoretician of French classicism, was in the hierarchy of genres considered to be the grand genre. Description History painting is the painting of scenes with narrative content from classical history, Christian history, and mythology, as well as depicting the historical events of the near past. These include paintings with religious, mythological, historical, literary, or allegorical subjects--they embodied some interpretation of life or conveyed a moral or intellectual message. The historical events chosen would be iconographic, not only depicting important events, but ones of particular significance to the painter's society, as for instance, the signing of the declaration of independence in American history painting. The event, if suitable, does not need to have actually occurred, and artists have frequently taken great liberties with historical facts in order to portray the message desired. The gods and goddesses from the ancient mythologies represented different aspects of the human psyche, figures from religions represented different ideas, and history, like the other sources, represented a dialectic or play of ideas. For a long time, especially during the French Revolution, history painting often focused on depiction of the heroic male nude; though this waned into the 19th century. Benjamin West, "The Death of General Wolfe" Other artists depicted scenes, regardless of when they occurred, in classical dress. When, in 1770, Benjamin West proposed to depict "The Death of General Wolfe" in contemporary dress, he was firmly instructed to use classical attire by many people. He did depict the scene in clothing that had occurred on the scene. Although George III refused to purchase the work, West succeeded both in overcoming his critics' objections and inaugurating a more historically accurate style in such paintings. In the mid-nineteenth-century there arose a style known as historicism, which marked a formal imitation of historical styles and/or artists. Another development in the nineteenth century was the blending of this genre with that known as genre painting: the depiction of scenes of everyday life. Grand depictions of events of great public importance were supplemented with scenes depicting more personal incidents in the lives of the great, or the everyday life in historical settings. The artists who depicted them sometimes connected the change with the moral messages conveyed by the public events; they asserted that moral messages were also instructive in the ordinary life, and indeed, were even superior because more people would be able to apply the lesson implicit in a depiction of family life than in one of a heroic death on the battle field. History painters Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii (1784) dramatises a historical event A history painter is not only a painter of historical motifs but depicts, in a "grand" style, man in general, and particularly the great events of Greek and Roman fable and history, the capital subjects of scripture history, a scene from a great literary work, or a famous event in the life of a baroque potentate. The subject commonly ought to be either some eminent instance of heroic action or heroic suffering, with characters painted in classical poses. History painting was the dominant form of academic painting (the painting that came from the various national academies) in the 19th century, in particular, but also in the post-revolutionary France as well. As such, history painting was a target for later movements. The Impressionists rejected all historical subjects and tableau. In other nations, such movements as the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood in England focused on subjects from national literature and myth, rather than classical subjects. At the turn of the 20th century, it was possible to see paintings emerging from the official national academies depicting Nausicaa at the same time that other painters were leaving the studio to paint in available light and focus only on humble subjects and pure sensation. See also Academic art Classicism Neoclassicism Genre Grand manner References General information Ayers, William, ed., Picturing History: American Painting 1770-1903, ISBN 0-8478-1745-8 External links History Painting | History_painting |@lemmatized last:1 day:1 pompeii:1 quintessential:1 history:16 painting:16 formulate:1 andré:1 félibien:1 historiographer:1 architect:1 theoretician:1 french:2 classicism:2 hierarchy:1 genre:5 consider:1 grand:4 description:1 scene:7 narrative:1 content:1 classical:5 christian:1 mythology:2 well:2 depict:8 historical:9 event:9 near:1 past:1 include:1 religious:1 mythological:1 literary:2 allegorical:1 subject:7 embody:1 interpretation:1 life:7 convey:2 moral:3 intellectual:1 message:4 choose:1 would:2 iconographic:1 important:1 one:2 particular:2 significance:1 painter:5 society:1 instance:2 signing:1 declaration:1 independence:1 american:2 suitable:1 need:1 actually:1 occur:3 artist:4 frequently:1 take:1 great:5 liberty:1 fact:1 order:1 portray:1 desire:1 god:1 goddess:1 ancient:1 represent:3 different:2 aspect:1 human:1 psyche:1 figure:1 religion:1 idea:2 like:1 source:1 dialectic:1 play:1 long:1 time:2 especially:1 revolution:1 often:1 focus:3 depiction:4 heroic:4 male:1 nude:1 though:1 wan:1 century:5 benjamin:2 west:3 death:3 general:4 wolfe:2 regardless:1 dress:2 propose:1 contemporary:1 firmly:1 instruct:1 use:1 attire:1 many:1 people:2 clothing:1 although:1 george:1 iii:1 refuse:1 purchase:1 work:2 succeed:1 overcome:1 critic:1 objection:1 inaugurate:1 historically:1 accurate:1 style:4 mid:1 nineteenth:2 arise:1 know:2 historicism:1 mark:1 formal:1 imitation:1 another:1 development:1 blending:1 everyday:2 public:2 importance:1 supplement:1 personal:1 incident:1 setting:1 sometimes:1 connect:1 change:1 assert:1 also:3 instructive:1 ordinary:1 indeed:1 even:1 superior:1 able:1 apply:1 lesson:1 implicit:1 family:1 battle:1 field:1 jacques:1 louis:1 david:1 oath:1 horatii:1 dramatise:1 motif:1 depicts:1 man:1 particularly:1 greek:1 roman:1 fable:1 capital:1 scripture:1 famous:1 baroque:1 potentate:1 commonly:1 ought:1 either:1 eminent:1 action:1 suffering:1 character:1 paint:2 pose:1 dominant:1 form:1 academic:2 come:1 various:1 national:3 academy:2 post:1 revolutionary:1 france:1 target:1 late:1 movement:2 impressionist:1 reject:1 tableau:1 nation:1 pre:1 raphaelite:1 brotherhood:1 england:1 literature:1 myth:1 rather:1 turn:1 possible:1 see:2 emerge:1 official:1 nausicaa:1 leave:1 studio:1 available:1 light:1 humble:1 pure:1 sensation:1 art:1 neoclassicism:1 manner:1 reference:1 information:1 ayers:1 william:1 ed:1 picture:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram declaration_independence:1 nineteenth_century:2 oath_horatii:1 pre_raphaelite:1 raphaelite_brotherhood:1 external_link:1 |
6,188 | Abatement_of_debts_and_legacies | Abatement of debts and legacies is a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a dividend. In the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy. Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies. The order of abatement usually goes as follows: Intestate property (property not disposed of in the will itself) will abate first The residuary estate will abate next General devises (gifts of cash) will abate next Demonstrative devises (gifts of stock, or orders to sell property and give the proceeds to the beneficiary) will abate next Specific devises (gifts of tangible property) will abate last Definitions A specific devise, is a specific gift in a will to a specific person other than an amount of money. For example, if James's will states that he is leaving his $500,000 yacht to his brother Paul, the yacht would be a specific devise. A general devise, is a monetary gift to a specific person to be satisfied out of the overall estate. For example, if James's will states that he is leaving $500,000 to his son Sam then the money would be a general devise. A residual devise is one left to a devisee after all specific and general devices have been made. For example James's will might say: "I give all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate to my daughter Lilly." Lilly would be the residual devisee. | Abatement_of_debts_and_legacies |@lemmatized abatement:2 debt:2 legacy:5 common:1 law:1 doctrine:1 hold:1 equitable:1 asset:2 deceased:1 person:3 sufficient:2 satisfy:2 fully:1 creditor:1 must:2 abate:7 proportionately:1 accept:1 dividend:1 case:1 fund:1 payable:1 pay:1 full:1 proportion:1 unless:1 priority:1 give:3 specially:1 particular:1 annuity:1 also:1 subject:1 rule:1 general:5 order:2 usually:1 go:1 follow:1 intestate:1 property:4 dispose:1 first:1 residuary:1 estate:3 next:3 devise:8 gift:5 cash:1 demonstrative:1 stock:1 sell:1 proceeds:1 beneficiary:1 specific:7 tangible:1 last:1 definition:1 amount:1 money:2 example:3 james:3 state:2 leave:2 yacht:2 brother:1 paul:1 would:3 monetary:1 overall:1 son:1 sam:1 residual:2 one:1 left:1 devisee:2 device:1 make:1 might:1 say:1 rest:1 residue:1 remainder:1 daughter:1 lilly:2 |@bigram |
6,189 | Ceres_Brewery | The Ceres Brewery is a brewery located in Aarhus, Denmark. Today, it is part of Royal Unibrew. It was founded by a grocer named Malthe Conrad Lottrup, with help from the chemists A. S. Aagard and Knud Redelien, as the city's seventh brewery. It was named after the Roman goddess Ceres, and its opening was announced in the local newspaper, Stiftstidende, in 1856. The brewery was successful, and Lottrup became one of the most prominent people of Aarhus. After ten years, he extended the brewery, adding a grand building as his own private residence, where he entertained other local figures. Lottrup's son-in-law, Laurits Christian Meulengracht, took over the running of the brewery after that, and was in charge for nearly thirty years, expanding it further. He then sold it to another brewery, Østjyske Bryggerier A/S. The brewery gained more esteem in 1914 when it was made "Purveyor to the Royal Danish Court". The 7th of January 2009, Ceres in Aarhus have been closed, because of the very attractive buildings they live in. External links The official web-site of the Ceres Brewery Danish version English version - includes a history of the brewery | Ceres_Brewery |@lemmatized cere:4 brewery:10 locate:1 aarhus:3 denmark:1 today:1 part:1 royal:2 unibrew:1 found:1 grocer:1 name:2 malthe:1 conrad:1 lottrup:3 help:1 chemist:1 aagard:1 knud:1 redelien:1 city:1 seventh:1 roman:1 goddess:1 opening:1 announce:1 local:2 newspaper:1 stiftstidende:1 successful:1 become:1 one:1 prominent:1 people:1 ten:1 year:2 extend:1 add:1 grand:1 building:2 private:1 residence:1 entertain:1 figure:1 son:1 law:1 laurits:1 christian:1 meulengracht:1 take:1 running:1 charge:1 nearly:1 thirty:1 expand:1 far:1 sell:1 another:1 østjyske:1 bryggerier:1 gain:1 esteem:1 make:1 purveyor:1 danish:2 court:1 january:1 close:1 attractive:1 live:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 web:1 site:1 version:2 english:1 include:1 history:1 |@bigram aarhus_denmark:1 external_link:1 |
6,190 | Fossil | Three small ammonite fossils, each approximately 1.5 cm across. Eocene fossil fish Priscacara liops from Green River Formation of Utah Petrified wood. The internal structure of the tree and bark are maintained in the permineralization process. Fossils (from Latin fossus, literally "having been dug up") are the preserved remains or traces of animals, plants, and other organisms from the remote past. The totality of fossils, both discovered and undiscovered, and their placement in fossiliferous (fossil-containing) rock formations and sedimentary layers (strata) is known as the fossil record. The study of fossils across geological time, how they were formed, and the evolutionary relationships between taxa (phylogeny) are some of the most important functions of the science of paleontology. Such a preserved specimen is called a "fossil" if it is older than some minimum age, most often the arbitrary date of 10,000 years ago. Frequently Asked Questions about Paleontology. San Diego Natural History Museum Hence, fossils range in age from the youngest at the start of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from the Archaean Eon several billion years old. The observations that certain fossils were associated with certain rock strata led early geologists to recognize a geological timescale in the 19th century. The development of radiometric dating techniques in the early 20th century allowed geologists to determine the numerical or "absolute" age of the various strata and thereby the included fossils. Like extant organisms, fossils vary in size from microscopic, such as single bacterial cells only one micrometer in diameter, to gigantic, such as dinosaurs and trees many meters long and weighing many tons. A fossil normally preserves only a portion of the deceased organism, usually that portion that was partially mineralized during life, such as the bones and teeth of vertebrates, or the chitinous exoskeletons of invertebrates. Preservation of soft tissues is rare in the fossil record. Fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as the footprint or feces (coprolites) of a reptile. These types of fossil are called trace fossils (or ichnofossils), as opposed to body fossils. Finally, past life leaves some markers that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of biochemical signals; these are known as chemofossils or biomarkers. Places of exceptional fossilization Fossil sites with exceptional preservation — sometimes including preserved soft tissues — are known as Lagerstätten. These formations may have resulted from carcass burial in an anoxic environment with minimal bacteria, thus delaying decomposition. Lagerstätten span geological time from the Cambrian period to the present. Worldwide, some of the best examples of near-perfect fossilization are the Cambrian Maotianshan shales and Burgess Shale, the Devonian Hunsrück Slates, the Jurassic Solnhofen limestone, and the Carboniferous Mazon Creek localities. Earliest fossiliferous sites Lower Proterozoic Stromatolites from Bolivia, South America Earth’s oldest fossils are the stromatolites consisting of rock built from layer upon layer of sediment and other precipitants. Based on studies of now-rare (but living) stromatolites (specifically, certain blue-green bacteria), the growth of fossil stromatolitic structures was biogenetically mediated by mats of microorganisms through their entrapment of sediments. However, abiotic mechanisms for stromatolitic growth are also known, leading to a decades-long and sometimes-contentious scientific debate regarding biogenesis of certain formations, especially those from the lower to middle Archaean eon. It is most widely accepted that stromatolites from the late Archaean and through the middle Proterozoic eon were mostly formed by massive colonies of cyanobacteria (formerly known as blue-green "algae"), and that the oxygen byproduct of their photosynthetic metabolism first resulted in earth’s massive banded iron formations and subsequently oxygenated earth’s atmosphere. Even though it is extremely rare, microstructures resembling cells are sometimes found within stromatolites; but these are also the source of scientific contention. The Gunflint Chert contains abundant microfossils widely accepted as a diverse consortium of 2.0 Ga microbes. Knoll, A. H., Barghorn, E.S, Awramik, S.M,. (1978). New organisms from the Aphebian Gunflint Iron Formation. Journal of Paleontology(52), 1074-1082. In contrast, putative fossil cyanobacteria cells from the 3.4 Ga Warrawoona Group in Western Australia are in dispute since abiotic processes cannot be ruled out. Lowe, D. R. (1994). Abiological origin of described stromatolites older than 3.2 Ga. Geology, 22, 387-390 Confirmation of the Warrawoona microstructures as cyanobacteria would profoundly impact our understanding of when and how early life diversified, pushing important evolutionary milestones further back in time (reference). The continued study of these oldest fossils is paramount to calibrate complementary molecular phylogenetics models. Developments in interpretation of the fossil record Silurian Orthoceras Fossil Ever since recorded history began, and probably before, people have noticed and gathered fossils, including pieces of rock and minerals that have replaced the remains of biologic organisms, or preserved their external form. Fossils themselves, and the totality of their occurrence within the sequence of Earth's rock strata is referred to as the fossil record. The fossil record was one of the early sources of data relevant to the study of evolution and continues to be relevant to the history of life on Earth. Paleontologists examine the fossil record in order to understand the process of evolution and the way particular species have evolved. Explanations Fossil shrimp (Cretaceous) A fossil gastropod from the Pliocene of Cyprus. A serpulid worm is attached. Various explanations have been put forth throughout history to explain what fossils are and how they came to be where they were found. Many of these explanations relied on folktales or mythologies. In China the fossil bones of ancient mammals including Homo erectus were often mistaken for “dragon bones” and used as medicine and aphrodisiacs. In the West the presence of fossilized sea creatures high up on mountainsides was seen as proof of the biblical deluge. Greek scholar Aristotle realized that fossil seashells from rocks were similar to those found on the beach, indicating the fossils were once living animals. Leonardo da Vinci concurred with Aristotle's view that fossils were the remains of ancient life. Correlating Earth's History, Paul R. Janke In 1027, the Persian geologist, Ibn Sina (known as Avicenna in Europe), explained how the stoniness of fossils was caused in The Book of Healing. However, he rejected the explanation of fossils as organic remains. Intute Timeline - Fossils (Subject: Science Engineering and Technology) Aristotle previously explained it in terms of vaporous exhalations, which Ibn Sina modified into the theory of petrifying fluids (succus lapidificatus), which was elaborated on by Albert of Saxony in the 14th century and accepted in some form by most naturalists by the 16th century. Ibn Sina gave the following explanation for the origin of fossils from the petrifaction of plants and animals: More scientific views of fossils emerged during the Renaissance. For example, Leonardo Da Vinci noticed discrepancies with the use of the biblical flood narrative as an explanation for fossil origins: William Smith (1769-1839), an English canal engineer, observed that rocks of different ages (based on the law of superposition) preserved different assemblages of fossils, and that these assemblages succeeded one another in a regular and determinable order. He observed that rocks from distant locations could be correlated based on the fossils they contained. He termed this the principle of faunal succession. Smith, who preceded Charles Darwin, was unaware of biological evolution and did not know why faunal succession occurred. Biological evolution explains why faunal succession exists: as different organisms evolve, change and go extinct, they leave behind fossils. Faunal succession was one of the chief pieces of evidence cited by Darwin that biological evolution had occurred. Georges Cuvier came to believe that most if not all the animal fossils he examined were remains of species that were now extinct. This led Cuvier to become an active proponent of the geological school of thought called catastrophism. Near the end of his 1796 paper on living and fossil elephants he said: All of these facts, consistent among themselves, and not opposed by any report, seem to me to prove the existence of a world previous to ours, destroyed by some kind of catastrophe. Georges Cuvier - Fossil discoveries Biological explanations Early naturalists well understood the similarities and differences of living species leading Linnaeus to develop a hierarchical classification system still in use today. It was Darwin and his contemporaries who first linked the hierarchical structure of the great tree of life in living organisms with the then very sparse fossil record. Darwin eloquently described a process of descent with modification, or evolution, whereby organisms either adapt to natural and changing environmental pressures, or they perish. Petrified cone of Araucaria sp. from Patagonia, Argentina dating from the Jurassic Period (approx. 210 Ma) When Charles Darwin wrote On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, the oldest animal fossils were those from the Cambrian Period, now known to be about 540 million years old. The absence of older fossils worried Darwin about the implications for the validity of his theories, but he expressed hope that such fossils would be found, noting that: "only a small portion of the world is known with accuracy." Darwin also pondered the sudden appearance of many groups (i.e. phyla) in the oldest known Cambrian fossiliferous strata. Darwin, C (1859) On the Origin of Species. Chapter 10: On the Imperfection of the Geological Record. Further discoveries Since Darwin's time, the fossil record has been pushed back to between 2.3 and 3.5 billion years before the present. Schopf JW (1999) Cradle of Life: The Discovery of the Earth's Earliest Fossils, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Most of these Precambrian fossils are microscopic bacteria or microfossils. However, macroscopic fossils are now known from the late Proterozoic. The Ediacaran biota (also called Vendian biota) dating from 575 million years ago collectively constitutes a richly diverse assembly of early multicellular eukaryotes. The fossil record and faunal succession form the basis of the science of biostratigraphy or determining the age of rocks based on the fossils they contain. For the first 150 years of geology, biostratigraphy and superposition were the only means for determining the relative age of rocks. The geologic time scale was developed based on the relative ages of rock strata as determined by the early paleontologists and stratigraphers. Since the early years of the twentieth century, absolute dating methods, such as radiometric dating (including potassium/argon, argon/argon, uranium series, and, for very recent fossils, carbon-14 dating) have been used to verify the relative ages obtained by fossils and to provide absolute ages for many fossils. Radiometric dating has shown that the earliest known stromatolites are over 3.4 billion years old. Various dating methods have been used and are used today depending on local geology and context, and while there is some variance in the results from these dating methods, nearly all of them provide evidence for a very old Earth, approximately 4.6 billion years. Modern view "The fossil record is life’s evolutionary epic that unfolded over four billion years as environmental conditions and genetic potential interacted in accordance with natural selection." The earth’s climate, tectonics, atmosphere, oceans, and periodic disasters invoked the primary selective pressures on all organisms, which they either adapted to, or they perished with or without leaving descendants. Modern paleontology has joined with evolutionary biology to share the interdisciplinary task of unfolding the tree of life, which inevitably leads backwards in time to the microscopic life of the Precambrian when cell structure and functions evolved. Earth’s deep time in the Proterozoic and deeper still in the Archaean is only "recounted by microscopic fossils and subtle chemical signals." Knoll, A, (2003) Life on a Young Planet. (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ) Molecular biologists, using phylogenetics, can compare protein amino acid or nucleotide sequence homology (i.e., similarity) to infer taxonomy and evolutionary distances among organisms, but with limited statistical confidence. The study of fossils, on the other hand, can more specifically pinpoint when and in what organism branching occurred in the tree of life. Modern phylogenetics and paleontology work together in the clarification of science’s still dim view of the appearance of life and its evolution during deep time on earth. Paul CRC and Donovan SK, (1998) An overview of the completeness of the fossil record. in The Adequacy of the Fossil Record (Paul CRC and Donovan SK eds). 111-131 (John Wiley, New York). Phacopid trilobite Eldredgeops rana crassituberculata named after Niles Eldredge. Crinoid columnals (Isocrinus nicoleti) from the Middle Jurassic Carmel Formation at Mount Carmel Junction, Utah. Scale in mm. Niles Eldredge’s study of the Phacops trilobite genus supported the hypothesis that modifications to the arrangement of the trilobite’s eye lenses proceeded by fits and starts over millions of years during the Devonian. Fortey R, Trilobite!: Eyewitness to Evolution. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2000. Eldredge's interpretation of the Phacops fossil record was that the aftermaths of the lens changes, but not the rapidly occurring evolutionary process, were fossilized. This and other data led Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge to publish the seminal paper on punctuated equilibrium in 1971. Example of modern development An example of modern paleontological progress is the application of synchrotron X-ray tomographic techniques to early Cambrian bilaterian embryonic microfossils that has recently yielded new insights of metazoan evolution at its earliest stages. The tomography technique provides previously unattainable three-dimensional resolution at the limits of fossilization. Fossils of two enigmatic bilaterians, the worm-like Markuelia and a putative, primitive protostome, Pseudooides, provide a peek at germ layer embryonic development. These 543-million-year-old embryos support the emergence of some aspects of arthropod development earlier than previously thought in the late Proterozoic. The preserved embryos from China and Siberia underwent rapid diagenetic phosphatization resulting in exquisite preservation, including cell structures. This research is a notable example of how knowledge encoded by the fossil record continues to contribute otherwise unattainable information on the emergence and development of life on Earth. For example, the research suggests Markuelia has closest affinity to priapulid worms, and is adjacent to the evolutionary branching of Priapulida, Nematoda and Arthropoda. Donoghue, PCJ, Bengtson, S, Dong, X, Gostling NJ, Huldtgren, T, Cunningham, JA, Yin, C, Yue, Z, Peng, F and Stampanoni, M (2006) Synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy of fossil embryos. Nature 442, 680-683 Rarity of fossils Megalodon and Carcharodontosaurus Teeth. The Carcharodontosaurus tooth was found in the Sahara Desert. Fossilization is an exceptionally rare occurrence, because most components of formerly-living things tend to decompose relatively quickly following death. In order for an organism to be fossilized, the remains normally need to be covered by sediment as soon as possible. However there are exceptions to this, such as if an organism becomes frozen, desiccated, or comes to rest in an anoxic (oxygen-free) environment. There are several different types of fossils and fossilization processes. Due to the combined effect of taphonomic processes and simple mathematical chance, fossilization tends to favor organisms with hard body parts, those that were widespread, and those that existed for a long time before going extinct. On the other hand, it is very unusual to find fossils of small, soft bodied, geographically restricted and geologically ephemeral organisms, because of their relative rarity and low likelihood of preservation. Larger specimens (macrofossils) are more often observed, dug up and displayed, although microscopic remains (microfossils) are actually far more common in the fossil record. Some casual observers have been perplexed by the rarity of transitional species within the fossil record. The conventional explanation for this rarity was given by Darwin, who stated that "the extreme imperfection of the geological record," combined with the short duration and narrow geographical range of transitional species, made it unlikely that many such fossils would be found. Simply put, the conditions under which fossilization takes place are quite rare; and it is highly unlikely that any given organism will leave behind a fossil. Eldredge and Gould developed their theory of punctuated equilibrium in part to explain the pattern of stasis and sudden appearance in the fossil record. Furthermore, in the strictest sense, nearly all fossils are "transitional," due to the improbability that any given fossil represents the absolute termination of an evolutionary path. Types of preservation Permineralization A permineralized trilobite, Asaphus kowalewskii Permineralization occurs after burial, as the empty spaces within an organism (spaces filled with liquid or gas during life) become filled with mineral-rich groundwater and the minerals precipitate from the groundwater, thus occupying the empty spaces. This process can occur in very small spaces, such as within the cell wall of a plant cell. Small scale permineralization can produce very detailed fossils. For permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decaying process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil. Some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth; other fossils contain traces of skin, feathers or even soft tissues. This is a form of diagenesis. External mold of a bivalve from the Logan Formation, Lower Carboniferous, Ohio. Casts and molds In some cases the original remains of the organism have been completely dissolved or otherwise destroyed. When all that is left is an organism-shaped hole in the rock, it is called an external mold. If this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is a cast. An internal mold is formed when sediments or minerals fill the internal cavity of an organism, such as the inside of a bivalve or snail. Replacement and recrystallization Replacement occurs when the shell, bone or other tissue is replaced with another mineral. In some cases mineral replacement of the original shell occurs so gradually and at such fine scales that microstructural features are preserved despite the total loss of original material. A shell is said to be recrystallized when the original skeletal minerals are still present but in a different crystal form, as from aragonite to calcite. Compression fossils Compression fossils, such as those of fossil ferns, are the result of chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules composing the organism's tissues. In this case the fossil consists of original material, albeit in a geochemically altered state. Often what remains is a carbonaceous film. This chemical change is an expression of diagenesis. Bioimmuration The star-shaped holes (Catellocaula vallata) in this Upper Ordovician bryozoan represent a soft-bodied organism preserved by bioimmuration in the bryozoan skeleton. Palmer, TJ, and Wilson, MA (1988) Parasitism of Ordovician bryozoans and the origin of pseudoborings. Palaeontology 31,939-949 Bioimmuration is a type of preservation in which a skeletal organism overgrows or otherwise subsumes another organism, preserving the latter, or an impression of it, within the skeleton. Taylor, PD. (1990) Preservation of soft-bodied and other organisms by bioimmuration: A review. Palaeontology 33,1-17 Usually it is a sessile skeletal organism, such as a bryozoan or an oyster, which grows along a substrate, covering other sessile encrusters. Sometimes the bioimmured organism is soft-bodied and is then preserved in negative relief as a kind of external mold. There are also cases where an organism settles on top of a living skeletal organism which grows upwards, preserving the settler in its skeleton. Bioimmuration is known in the fossil record from the Ordovician Wilson, MA, Palmer, TJ and Taylor, PD (1994) Earliest preservation of soft-bodied fossils by epibiont bioimmuration: Upper Ordovician of Kentucky. Lethaia 27, 269-270 to the Recent. Taylor, PD. (1990) Preservation of soft-bodied and other organisms by bioimmuration: A review. Palaeontology 33,1-17 To sum up, fossilization processes proceed differently for different kinds of tissues and under different kinds of conditions. Trace fossils Trace fossils are the remains of trackways, burrows, bioerosion, eggs and eggshells, nests, droppings and other types of impressions. Fossilized droppings, called coprolites, can give insight into the feeding behavior of animals and can therefore be of great importance. Microfossils 'Microfossil' is a descriptive term applied to fossilized plants and animals whose size is just at or below the level at which the fossil can be analyzed by the naked eye. A commonly applied cut-off point between "micro" and "macro" fossils is 1 mm, although this is only an approximate guide. Microfossils may either be complete (or near-complete) organisms in themselves (such as the marine plankters foraminifera and coccolithophores) or component parts (such as small teeth or spores) of larger animals or plants. Microfossils are of critical importance as a reservoir of paleoclimate information, and are also commonly used by biostratigraphers to assist in the correlation of rock units. Resin fossils A mosquito and a fly in Baltic amber that is between 40 and 60 million years old Fossil resin (colloquially called amber) is a natural polymer found in many types of strata throughout the world, even the Arctic. The oldest fossil resin dates to the Triassic, though most dates to the Tertiary. The excretion of the resin by certain plants is thought to be an evolutionary adaptation for protection from insects and to seal wounds caused by damage elements. Fossil resin often contains other fossils called inclusions that were captured by the sticky resin. These include bacteria, fungi, other plants, and animals. Animal inclusions are usually small invertebrates, predominantly arthropods such as insects and spiders, and only extremely rarely a vertebrate such as a small lizard. Preservation of inclusions can be exquisite, including small fragments of DNA. Pseudofossils Manganese dendrites on a limestone bedding plane from Solingen, Germany. Scale in mm. Pseudofossils are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by naturally occurring geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as dendrites, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and moss agates, which look like moss or plant leaves. Concretions, spherical or ovoid-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be dinosaur eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well. Ginkgo biloba Eocene fossil, MacAbee, B.C., Canada. Living fossils Living fossil is an informal term used for any living species which is apparently identical or closely resembles a species previously known only from fossils -- that is, it is as if the ancient fossil had "come to life." This can be (a) a species or taxon known only from fossils until living representatives were discovered, such as the lobe-finned coelacanth, primitive monoplacophoran mollusk, and the Chinese maidenhair tree, or (b) a single living species with no close relatives, such as the New Caledonian Kagu, or the Sunbittern, or (c) a small group of closely-related species with no other close relatives, such as the oxygen-producing, primoidial stromatolite, inarticulate lampshell Lingula, many-chambered pearly Nautilus, rootless whisk fern, armored horseshoe crab, and dinosaur-like tuatara that are the sole survivors of a once large and widespread group in the fossil record. See also Bioerosion Coprolite Cryptospores Elvis taxon Fossil collecting History of paleontology Ichnology Lazarus taxon List of fossil sites List of fossils List of transitional fossils Paleobiology Paleobotany Petrification Shark teeth Subfossil Taphonomy Trace fossil References Further reading It’s extremely hard to become a fossil, writes Olivia Judson at the New York Times Bones Are Not the Only Fossils, by Olivia Judson at the New York Times External links The Virtual Fossil Museum throughout Time and Evolution Paleoportal, geology and fossils of the United States Palaeos, a multi-authored wiki encyclopedia on the history of life on Earth The Fossil Record, a complete listing of the families, orders, class and phyla found in the fossil record Bioerosion website, including fossil record Fossil record of life in the Coal Age | Fossil |@lemmatized three:2 small:10 ammonite:1 fossil:114 approximately:2 cm:1 across:2 eocene:2 fish:1 priscacara:1 liops:1 green:3 river:1 formation:8 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6,191 | Transport_in_the_Netherlands | Rail transport Railway tracks in the Netherlands Railway tracks The Netherlands has an extensive and much-used railway network, which connects virtually all cities and many towns with each other. (Large towns without a train station are well aware of this status, e.g. Katwijk and Amstelveen.) Trains are frequent, with one or two trains per hour on lesser lines, two to four trains per hour on most lines in the country and up to 8 or 10 trains an hour between the big cities. Trains are divided into two categories: stoptreinen (local trains, which call at all stations; these are called Sprinters on some lines) and intercities, which provide fast connections between the bigger cities. A intermediate category of sneltreinen (fast trains) is being phased out, starting in 2007, but is still used on some lines. The railways of the Netherlands are all (standard gauge) From 1839 until 1864 it was , see 1,945 mm (6 ft 4 in) and Parovoz, it was changed because Germany and Belgium had , see komlos spatial1 , and they have a total length of 2809 route-kilometers or 6505 track-kilometers. 2061 kilometers are electrified (2001) at 1500 volt DC Elektrificatie Nederland . Only 931 km is single track. The country counts 3,004 level crossings, of which 2,144 are protected. ProRail takes care of maintenance and extensions of the national railway network infrastructure (but excluding metros and trams, for which see below), allocating rail capacity, and traffic control. The rail capacity supplied by ProRail is used by five public transport operators (see below) as well as cargo operators: Railion, ERS, ACTS, Rail4Chem. Aside from these, there are a few tiny operators, amongst whom for example Herik Rail, with seven carriages, where trains can be chartered for parties, meetings, etc. A complete list of licensed operators can be found at europa.eu Recent and new tracks The "Utrechtboog" each track over a separate viaduct, now completed. Some catenary poles are already mounted. Photo 10 July 2005 Betuweroute, A freight line from Rotterdam to Germany. Hemboog between Schiphol/Amsterdam-Lelylaan and Zaandam, bypassing the crossing at Amsterdam Sloterdijk. sporenplan w It provides a direct connection between Schiphol and Zaandam/Hoorn. Technically it also allows for a direct train service from Schiphol to Alkmaar, but such a service is not provided yet. Gooiboog between Hilversum/Naarden-Bussum and Almere Muziekwijk. sporenplan o Utrechtboog between Schiphol/Amsterdam-Rai and Bijlmer/Utrecht, bypassing the crossing at Duivendrecht. sporenplan o (in Dutch) utrechtboog Under construction The HSL Zuid (see below) The Hanzelijn, a planned railway line Lelystad-Dronten-Kampen-Zwolle. The re-building of the railway between Maastricht and Lanaken (B). Dutch part scheduled to be complete in 2009. Two stations are located at a bilevel crossing of railway lines: Amsterdam Sloterdijk and Duivendrecht. Non-electrified lines (with timetable number) Groningen-Delfzijl 84 Groningen-Roodeschool 83 Groningen-Nieuweschans Grens 85 Groningen-Leeuwarden 80 Leeuwarden-Harlingen 81 Leeuwarden-Stavoren 82 Zwolle-Kampen 63 Zwolle-Wierden 65 Almelo-Marienberg 72 Zutphen-Hengelo 73 Enschede-Glanerbrug Grens 522 Zutphen-Apeldoorn 67 Zutphen-Winterswijk 71 Arnhem-Winterswijk 70 Arnhem-Tiel 68 Nijmegen-Roermond 29 Landgraaf-Landgraaf Grens 525 Railways for public transport operated mainly by Nederlandse Spoorwegen (NS), minor parts by Arriva, Syntus, Connexxion, DB Regionalbahn Westfalen, Veolia Transport Veolia Transportation, Veolia Transport, retrieved June 10 2008. and Prignitzer Eisenbahn (PE Holding AG, Arriva) (for the latter two, see Enschede); all have a common tariff system. Most trains have 1st and 2nd class; some local trains belonging to Syntus only have 2nd class. See also: Train routes in the Netherlands Railway stations in the Netherlands Trains in the Netherlands International trains InterCity Amsterdam C - Schiphol Airport - The Hague HS - Rotterdam C - Dordrecht - Roosendaal - Antwerp - Berchem - Mechelen - Brussels Noord - Brussels Centraal - Brussels Zuid). Also known as the Benelux train. See also Train number series (series 9200). This service will be replaced in 2008 or 2009 by the HSL-Zuid. The train has a Belgian multisystem locomotive which is designed for Belgian 3000 volt DC, but can also run under the Dutch 1500 volt DC system (at reduced performance). Thalys see Mercurio 4300 : Amsterdam C - Schiphol Airport - The Hague HS - Rotterdam C - Antwerp Berchem - Brussels Midi -Paris Nord; twice a week also to Marne-La-Vallée-Chessy (Disneyland Resort Paris) The train can use 1500 volt DC (Netherlands), 3000 volt DC (Belgium) and 25000 volt AC 50 Hz (France). High-speed between Brussels and Paris. HSL Zuid-project: a new high-speed railway is being built between Schiphol Airport and Brussels. Schiphol - Berlin ICE see Mercurio 4650 from Amsterdam to Frankfurt Hbf, Germany and Basel SBB, Switzerland CityNightLine from Amsterdam to Munich, Germany and Vienna Westbf, Austria InterCity Maastricht-Brussels There are several regional cross-border connections. For an overview of both passenger and freight traffic, see Belgium-Netherlands and Netherlands-Germany. See also Rail transport by country, Europe. Night service There is a Night Network (Nachtnet) as follows. On four nights a week it is just a single U-shaped line with an hourly service connecting Rotterdam Central , Delft, The Hague Central, Leiden Central , Schiphol Airport, Amsterdam Central, Utrecht Central (i.e., most of the large cities in the Randstad as well as the main airport). Due to the U-shape, journey time from the first five stations to Utrecht is longer than during the day. From Thursday to Sunday the night service is extended to several other cities, mainly in the Province of North Brabant. Also the shorter route connecting Rotterdam and Utrecht is operated. Series Route Material Frequency 1400 Eindhoven - Tilburg - Breda - Dordrecht - Rotterdam Centraal - Delft - Den Haag HS - Leiden Centraal - Schiphol - Amsterdam Centraal - Utrecht Centraal - 's Hertogenbosch - Eindhoven VIRM 1x per hour - operates between Eindhoven and Rotterdam/Utrecht Thursday, Friday, Saturday nights only 2400 Rotterdam Centraal - Gouda - Utrecht Centraal VIRM, ICM 1x per hour, Thursday, Friday, Saturday nights only 21400 's-Hertogenbosch - Tilburg VIRM, ICM 1x per hour, Thursday, Friday, Saturday nights only "Thursday night" means the night between Thursday and Friday, etc. Off-Peak Discount Pass In Dutch: Voordeelurenkaart. For trains in the Netherlands there is an Off-Peak Discount Pass for €55/year, giving a 40% discount. Its validity starts at 09:00 AM (until 4:00 AM the next morning) on weekdays, and all day at weekends and in July and August. In the case of a group of up to four people, all get the discount even if only one has a pass. Rail passes not requiring an additional ticket come in two versions: for a fixed route, and for the whole network. Both are mainly used by commuters. No off-peak discount version of these passes is offered since there is insufficient demand; commuters usually cannot avoid the rush hour. Public transport in general Public transport authorities in the Netherlands; see :nl:OV-autoriteit (in Dutch) Metros and trams usually run from around 06:00 until midnight. There are night buses in a number of cities, but only on Friday and Saturday night in the smaller ones. Sometimes these will only run during the first part of the night, or in one direction only; e.g. the Connexxion-Niteliner. A public transport pass for train (2nd class), bus, metro and tram costs €3876.50/year (2009). It is also valid on the ferries Vlissingen-Breskens, Amsterdam-IJmuiden, Rotterdam-Dordrecht, Dordrecht-Zwijndrecht, Dordrecht-Papendrecht, and Dordrecht-Sliedrecht. It is not valid on most other ferries, nor on the Thalys. Night services by train are included, those by bus are not. Students can get an OV-card for free, either one valid on weekdays, or one valid in weekends. On the HSL-Zuid there will be a surcharge of approximately 60% of the full price of a ticket on a regular train. Other public transport All metros and trams and almost all buses share the . For buses exceptions are: neighborhood buses (small 8-person vans driven by mostly elderly volunteers in lowly populated areas; operated by bus companies but with different tariff system) night buses some bus services that are mainly for pleasure, such as serving an amusement park or beaches, e.g.: special summer bus service from Zandvoort train station to the south side (near the nude beach) and to Bloemendaal aan Zee Metro (all (standard gauge) Amsterdam, Diemen, Ouder-Amstel, operated by Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf (GVB) (GVB site, Urbanrail site) power 750 volt DC Rotterdam, Schiedam, Spijkenisse, Albrandswaard, Capelle aan den IJssel, operated by Rotterdamse Elektrische Tram (RET); see Rotterdam metro.(RET site, Urbanrail site) power 750 volt DC The eastern parts of the system have some level crossings (with priority), and could therefore be called light rail instead of metro; however, they are integrated in the system; these parts have overhead wires, while the rest has third-rail, the vehicles can handle both. Tram / light rail All have (standard gauge). Amsterdam, Diemen, Amstelveen, operated by GVB power 600 volt DC, length appr. 85 km Rotterdam, Schiedam, Vlaardingen, Barendrecht operated by RET lines: 2 Charlois - Lombardijen NS, 4 Molenlaan - CS - Marconiplein, 7 Willemsplein - CS - Woudestein, 8 Spangen - CS - Kleiweg, 20 Schiebroek - CS - Lombardijen, 21 Schiedam Woudhoek - CS - De Esch, 23 Vlaardingen Holy - CS - Beverwaard, 25 Schiebroek - CS - Carnisselande, total length appr. 100 km The Hague, Rijswijk, Leidschendam-Voorburg, Delft, Nootdorp, Wateringen, Zoetermeer, operated by HTM power 600 volt DC, length appr. 92 km (except RandstadRail) Utrecht, Nieuwegein, IJsselstein, operated by Connexxion (light rail in the sense of intermediate form between tram and train, with its own right-of-way, with level crossings with priority). Stops for both branches: Moreelsepark - Stadsbusstation - Westplein - Graadt van Roggenweg - Ziekenhuis Oudenrijn - Vijf Meiplein - Vasco da Gamalaan - Kanaleneiland Zuid - Westraven - Zuilenstein - Batau Noord - Wijckersloot - Nieuwegein Centrum. Further stops on Nieuwegein branch: Merwestein - Fokkesteeg - Wiersdijk - Nieuwegein Zuid. Further stops on IJsselstein branch: St. Antonius Ziekenhuis - Doorslag - Hooge Waard - Eiteren - Clinckhoef - Achterveld - Binnenstad - Zenderpark Houten, operated by NS (light rail tram-line, could be called "metro", though not underground, with its own right-of-way, without level crossings). power 1500 volt DC (TW 6000-tram has been adapted with a so-called 'downchopper' to allow the use of this higher voltage), overhead wires picture: RandstadRail and other light rail projects RandstadRail (named after the Randstad agglomeration) connects Rotterdam, The Hague, Zoetermeer and the suburbs in between with each other. One line of the Rotterdam metro system now connects all the way to The Hague central station. From the south end of The Hague, two RandstadRail lines are lightrail connections to Zoetermeer. Existing tram tracks in The Hague have been adapted for the longer and wider vehicles. The RijnGouweLijn connects Gouda and Alphen aan den Rijn, and will probably be expanded via Leiden to Katwijk. There are plans to convert an existing railway line to light rail between Maastricht and Kerkrade, and between Dordrecht and Geldermalsen. Bus Both regional and city buses can be found throughout the country. Because of the extensive train system, the number of long-distance buses is limited to a few missing railway connections. Arnhem has a trolleybus system. Bus companies include Arriva, Connexxion, Hermes, Syntus and Veolia. Cycling The Netherlands have a very high amount of well-constructed bicycle lanes with some including traffic lights. Biking is a common way of transport, and there are big bicycle parkings near stations. also it is considered safe enough not to wear helmets See Cycling in the Netherlands for further information. Highways Highway A15 - A16 in the Netherlands total: 125,575 km paved: 113,018 km (including 2,235 km of expressways) unpaved: 12,557 km (1998 est.) See List of highways in the Netherlands The Netherlands has one of the most dense highway networks in the world. There are 135,470 km of public roads, of which 5,012 km are national roads, 7,899 km are provincial roads, and 122,559 km are local and other roads. The Netherlands has a motorway density of 57,5 kilometers per 1,000 km², the most dense motorway network in the European Union. History The first motorway dates back to 1936, when the current A12 was opened to traffic between Voorburg and Zoetermeer, near The Hague. Motorway construction accelerated in the 1960s and 1970's, but halted in the 1980s. Current motorway expansion mostly occurs outside the Randstad, and very little construction has taken place inside the Randstad since the 1980s. Since 1991, only 100 kilometers of motorway have been constructed in the entire country, of which only 26 km lie within the Randstad metropolitan area. Autosnelwegen.nl The population has grown by 1.5 million since http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nederland#Demografie , creating significant pressure on the motorway network. Status & technology The Netherlands has one of the most advanced motorway networks in the world, with Variable Message Signs and electronic signalization across most of the country. A special feature of the motorways is the use of Porous Asphalt Concrete, which allows water to be drained efficiently, and even in heavy rain, no water will splash up, in contrast with concrete or other pavement types. The Netherlands is the only country which uses PAC this extensive, and the goal is to cover 100% of the motorways with PAC. Porous Asphalt Concrete has some downsides, including the initial construction costs, PAC is two to three times more expensive than regular pavement, and needs constant maintenance, especially with heavy traffic. Sometimes, the pavement has to be repaved within 7 years, especially on routes with heavy truck traffic causing widespread track formation. In 1979, the first traffic control center opened in Delft, where the A13 can be controlled with dynamic road signalization. These electronic signs can show a lower speed limit, as low as 50 km/h, to warn drivers for upcoming traffic jams and accidents. These electronic signs usually contain flashers to attract attention from drivers. The expansion of this system halted in the 1980s, but accelerated in the 1990s. As of 2004, 980 kilometers of motorways are suited with electronic traffic signalization. Besides this system, another system of Variable Message Signs (VMS) have been implemented, informing motorists about the driving times or traffic jam length to a certain point. It can also shows the length of various traffic jams near large interchanges, so drivers can choose an alternative route. As of 2004, there were 102 VMS signs in the Netherlands. Another more common feature of Dutch motorways are peak, rushhour or plus lanes. These constructions allow motorists do use the hard shoulder in case of congestion, to improve the traffic flow. Numerous motorways have peak lanes, and plus lanes are extra lanes in the median, which can be opened to traffic in case of congestion. All these extra lanes are observed by CCTV cameras from a traffic control center. They improved traffic flow, but in case of accidents or breakdowns, there are fewer places to safely park your vehicle, leading to more congestion. It has been suggested that these peak lanes should eventually be replaced by a regular widening. Congestion Traffic jams are very common in the Netherlands. Unlike many other busy roads in other countries, Dutch motorways usually feature only 2x2 lanes. The exit density is also high, exits are usually no more than 3000 meters or 2 miles apart, also in rural area's. The number of traffic using the motorway for local trips is high, due to the fact that the non-motorway roads are largely underdeveloped, especially in the Randstad. Another growing issue is the number of trucks on the motorway, sometimes occupying the entire right lane on some motorways. Another problem is the limited number of rivercrossings, usually only motorways. Nearly all major river crossings are jammed during rushhours. A usual rushhour accumulates between 200 and 300 kilometers of traffic jam, but can be as high as 100 traffic jams totalling 500 kilometers. Some daily traffic jams exceed 20 kilometers in length. Outside of rushhours, the situation is usually free-flowing, but can still be very busy. Morning rushhour usually lasts from 6 am until 10 am, and evening rushhour from 3.30 pm to 7 pm, except for Fridays, where there is little morning rushhour, but the evening rushhour starts already around noon. Waterways 5046 km, of which 47% is usable by craft of 1000 metric ton capacity or larger, see List of waterways and . Pipelines crude oil 418 km; petroleum products 965 km; natural gas 10,230 km Ports and harbors Amsterdam, Delfzijl, Den Helder, Dordrecht, Eemshaven, Groningen, Haarlem, IJmuiden, Maastricht, Rotterdam, Terneuzen, Utrecht, Vlissingen Merchant marine total: 563 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 4,035,899 GRT/ ships by type: bulk 3, cargo 343, chemical tanker 41, combination bulk 2, container 56, liquified gas 20, livestock carrier 1, multi-functional large load carrier 8, passenger 8, petroleum tanker 25, refrigerated cargo 32, roll-on/roll-off 16, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 5 (1999 est.) note: many Dutch-owned ships are also operating under the registry of Netherlands Antilles (1998 est.) Airports Schiphol, the Amsterdam airport, is the main airport in the Netherlands, and the fourth largest in Europe. There are also a number of regional airports, the most popular being Eindhoven Airport, Maastricht Aachen Airport, Rotterdam Airport and Groningen Airport Eelde. See List of airports in the Netherlands Ministry Transport in the Netherlands falls under the Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management. See also Train routes in the Netherlands Railway stations in the Netherlands Trains in the Netherlands Rail transport in the Netherlands :Category:Roads in the Netherlands :Category:Road transport in the Netherlands Transportation in Europe Transportation by country References External links Public transport in the Netherlands: 9292ov journeyplanner in English for all Dutch public transport like train, bus, tram, metro and ferry Planned train departures in the next hour (up to 20 trains) from 83 stations, real-time adjusted for delays National Tariff System (bus, tram, metro) http://homepages.cwi.nl/~dik/english/public_transport/ First Experiences with Tendering at the Tactical Level (Service Design) in Dutch Public Transport train schedules for the whole of Europe (Deutsche Bahn site) Netherlands light-rail projects Light Rail Atlas Public transport to beaches (zip-file) - from Den Helder to Hoek van Holland, with map showing railways and bus lines, and showing km-pole numbers, used for defining beach locations. Railway maps: http://www.treinen.demon.nl/map/ns2.htm (with intercity routes colored) Map with distances http://railweb.techsite.cz/mapy/mnls.jpg (with table numbers used in the paper version of the timetable) http://trainspotting.buekkes.de/maps/benelux-network/benelux-network.gif - (whole Benelux, indicating single or multiple track and electrification) Schematic maps of all tracks, switches and platforms: http://www.sporenplan.nl/html_nl/sporenplan/ns/ns_normaal/start.html http://www.spoorzoeker.nu/spoorkrt/spk1850.htm - maps showing development of the railway network since the first track in 1839; see also . For railway stations and surroundings, see also Railway stations in the Netherlands#Maps. Line maps for other public transport: Amsterdam Arnhem (not up-to-date) Dordrecht and Werkendam (consists of part of the NS map mentioned below with bus lines added) Eindhoven , Nijmegen Renesse Roosendaal Rotterdam The Hague all, Dutch Utrecht (city) Zoetermeer 18 Connexxion maps - the maps of Haarlem, Rotterdam, and Zwolle also show the bus stops. Arriva maps, various parts of the Netherlands Friesland East of Gelderland (Syntus) Limex (southwest of Limburg) Fast Ferry Rotterdam - Dordrecht Border areas (with info in Dutch) Coastal areas: see above. The maps by Carto Studio's, though meant only as examples, may also be of some use. Oddly and unfortunately, for some parts of the Netherlands bus line maps do not seem to be available on the web. However, they are often posted at bus stops and can sometimes also be obtained on paper in bus information offices (sometimes in a less detailed version, e.g. without bus stops being marked). Maps showing all streets and also public transport General map showing railways and stations well (i.e. also in smaller scales), but, oddly, without station names: Website containing a journeyplanner for all Dutch public transport like train, bus, metro, tram and ferry of all Dutch public transport companies: 9292 journeyplanner NS rail travel planner - contains a detailed map of the whole country; to view a location, specify it as destination and choose an arbitrary point of departure, then ask for the route map of the post transport from the station. If you specify "Public transport" as means of pre or post transport, you will be redirected to http://www.9292ov.nl with the corresponding map. General maps showing railways well, but stations only in larger scales, Multimap - with station names Vialys - with station names popping up General map showing railways well, but stations only when highly zoomed in, and no station names: Yellow pages / Telephone directory - A map (plattegrond) is provided after searching for a company or person; if one just wants to use the map, do an arbitrary search like , select Plattegrond and by zooming out and selecting an area to zoom in go to any part of the map. Of these three, only the NS map shows metro lines, without stations, and none show tram or bus lines. www.ovr.nl shows only the single bus stop concerned on the map, not the line or the other stops. For general maps see also Geography of the Netherlands. There are hardly any maps on Internet that show virtually all streets as well as tram or bus lines (the maps of Dordrecht and Werkendam mentioned above seem to be the only ones, with on the latter not all lines). 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6,192 | Krzysztof_Penderecki | Krzysztof Penderecki Krzysztof Penderecki (, born November 23, 1933 in Dębica) is a Polish composer and conductor of classical music. Career Early years After taking private composition lessons with Franciszek Skolyszewski, Penderecki studied music at Krakow University and the Academy of Music in Krakow under Artur Malawski and Stanislaw Wiechowicz. Having graduated in 1958, he took up a teaching post at the Academy. Penderecki's early works show the influence of Anton Webern and Pierre Boulez (he has also been influenced by Igor Stravinsky). Penderecki's international recognition began in 1959 at the Warsaw Autumn Festival with the premieres of the works Strophen, Psalms of David, and Emanations, but the piece that truly brought him to international attention was Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima (see threnody and Hiroshima), written for 52 string instruments. In it, Penderecki makes use of extended instrumental techniques (for example, playing on the "wrong" side of the bridge, bowing on the tailpiece). There are many novel textures in the work, which makes great use of tone clusters (many notes close together played at the same time). The work was originally titled 8' 37",perhaps in a nod to John Cage, but after hearing the piece, Penderecki chose to dedicate it to the victims of Hiroshima. Fluorescences followed a year after, increasing the orchestral density by adding more wind and brass and an enormous percussion section of 32 instruments for six players, which included a Mexican güiro, typewriters, gongs and other exotic non-standard instruments. The piece was composed for the Donaueschingen Contemporary Music Festival of 1962, and its performance was regarded as highly provocative and controversial. Penderecki's intentions at this stage were quite Cagean: 'All I'm interested in is liberating sound beyond all tradition'. This preoccupation with sound culminated in De Natura Sonoris I, a piece which frequently called upon the orchestra to use non-standard playing techniques to produce different sounds and colours, often very different in character. A sequel to the original was composed in 1971, with a more limited orchestra, and it incorporates more elements of post-Romanticism than its predecessor. This foreshadowed Penderecki's renunciation of the avant-garde in the mid-1970's, although both pieces feature dramatic glissandos, dense tone clusters, and a use of harmonics, and unusual instruments (the musical saw features in the second piece). The St. Luke Passion Year Song title Work Instrumentation 1968:"Miserere mei, Deus"Saint Luke Passion Chorus The St. Luke Passion (1963–66) brought Penderecki further popular acclaim, not least because it was a major and devoutly religious work, written in an avant-garde musical language, composed within Communist Eastern Europe. Western audiences saw it as a snub to the Soviet authorities and were keen to give it their support. Various different musical styles can be seen in the piece. The experimental textures, such as were seen in the Threnody, are balanced by the baroque form of the work and the occasional use of more traditional harmonic and melodic writing. Penderecki makes use of serialism in this piece, and one of the tone rows he uses includes the BACH motif, which acts as a bridge between the conventional and more experimental elements. The Stabat Mater section towards the end of the piece concludes on a simple major chord of D major, and this gesture is repeated at the very end of the work, which finishes on a triumphant E major chord. These are the only tonal harmonies in the work, and both come as a surprise to the listener; Penderecki's use of tonal triads such as these remains a controversial aspect of the work. Penderecki continued to write pieces that explored the sacred in music, such as Dies Irae, a version of the Magnificat, and Canticum Canticorum, a song of songs for chorus and orchestra from the early seventies. 1970s-present Around the mid-1970s, while he was a professor at the Yale School of Music Penderecki's style began to change. The Violin Concerto No. 1 largely leaves behind the dense tone clusters with which he had been associated, and instead focuses on two melodic intervals: the semitone and the tritone. Some commentators went so far as to compare this new direction to Anton Bruckner. This direction continued with the Symphony No. 2, Christmas (1980), which is rather straightforward from a harmonic and melodic standpoint for a composer who had been one of the most experimental in Europe. It makes frequent use of the tune of the Christmas carol Silent Night. Penderecki explained his shift by stating that he had come to feel that the experimentation of the avant-garde had gone too far from the expressive, non-formal qualities of Western music: 'The avant-garde gave one an illusion of universalism. The musical world of Stockhausen, Nono, Boulez and Cage was for us, the young - hemmed in by the aesthetics of socialist realism, then the official canon in our country - a liberation...I was quick to realise however, that this novelty, this experimentation and formal speculation, is more destructive than constructive; I realised the Utopian quality of its Promethean tone'. Penderecki concluded that he was 'saved from the avant-garde snare of formalism by a return to tradition'. In 1980, Penderecki was commissioned by Solidarity to compose a piece to accompany the unveiling of a statue at the Gdańsk shipyards to commemorate those killed at anti-government riots there in 1970. Penderecki responded with the Lacrimosa, which he later expanded into one of the best known works of his later period, the Polish Requiem (1980-84, revised 1993). Here again the harmonies are quite lush, although there are moments which evoke his earlier work in the 1960s. The tendency in recent years has been towards more traditionally conceived tonal constructs, as seen in works like the Cello Concerto No. 2 and the Credo. Some of Penderecki's music has been adapted for film soundtracks. The Shining (1980) features six pieces of Penderecki's music: Utrenja, The Awakening of Jacob, De Natura Sonoris No. 1, De Natura Sonoris No. 2, Kanon and Polymorphia. The Exorcist (1973) features Polymorphia as well as his String Quartet and Kanon For Orchestra and Tape; fragments of the Cello Concerto and The Devils of Loudun are also used in the film. Writing about The Exorcist, the film critic for The New Republic wrote "even the music is faultless, most of it by Krzysztof Penderecki, who at last is where he belongs." liner notes for The Exorcist: Original Motion Picture Soundtrack, Warner Bros. 16177-00-CD, 1998 David Lynch has used Penderecki's music in the soundtracks of the movies Wild at Heart (1990) and Inland Empire (2006). Penderecki's piece, Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima, was also used during one of the final sequences in the film Children of Men. In 2001, Penderecki was awarded with the Prince of Asturias Prize in Spain, one of the highest honours given in Spain to individuals, entities, organizations or others from around the world who make notable achievements in the sciences, arts, humanities, or public affairs. Penderecki received an honorary doctorate from the Seoul National University, Korea in 2005, as well as from the University of Münster, Germany in 2006. His notable students include Chester Biscardi and Walter Mays. Andrzej Wajda used some fragments of Penderecki's works in the latest film "Katyń". Work References Sources Penderecki, Krzysztof by Adrian Thomas, in 'The New Grove Dictionary of Opera', ed. Stanley Sadie (London, 1992) ISBN 0-333-73432-7 External links Penderecki page at the Polish Music Center (last updated 1997) Penderecki homepage maintained by Schott Music publishers Krzysztof Penderecki interview by Bruce Duffie (March 2000) Sheet Music - 3 Miniatures For Clarinet with Piano (1956). Krzysztof Penderecki The Onion - Atonal composers gather for atony awards | Krzysztof_Penderecki |@lemmatized krzysztof:6 penderecki:31 bear:1 november:1 dębica:1 polish:3 composer:3 conductor:1 classical:1 music:14 career:1 early:4 year:4 take:2 private:1 composition:1 lesson:1 franciszek:1 skolyszewski:1 study:1 krakow:2 university:3 academy:2 artur:1 malawski:1 stanislaw:1 wiechowicz:1 graduate:1 teaching:1 post:2 work:15 show:1 influence:2 anton:2 webern:1 pierre:1 boulez:2 also:3 igor:1 stravinsky:1 international:2 recognition:1 begin:2 warsaw:1 autumn:1 festival:2 premiere:1 strophen:1 psalm:1 david:2 emanation:1 piece:13 truly:1 bring:2 attention:1 threnody:4 victim:3 hiroshima:4 see:4 write:5 string:2 instrument:4 make:5 use:13 extended:1 instrumental:1 technique:2 example:1 play:3 wrong:1 side:1 bridge:2 bow:1 tailpiece:1 many:2 novel:1 texture:2 great:1 tone:5 cluster:3 note:2 close:1 together:1 time:1 originally:1 title:2 perhaps:1 nod:1 john:1 cage:2 hear:1 chose:1 dedicate:1 fluorescence:1 follow:1 increase:1 orchestral:1 density:1 add:1 wind:1 brass:1 enormous:1 percussion:1 section:2 six:2 player:1 include:3 mexican:1 güiro:1 typewriter:1 gong:1 exotic:1 non:3 standard:2 compose:4 donaueschingen:1 contemporary:1 performance:1 regard:1 highly:1 provocative:1 controversial:2 intention:1 stage:1 quite:2 cagean:1 interested:1 liberate:1 sound:3 beyond:1 tradition:2 preoccupation:1 culminate:1 de:3 natura:3 sonoris:3 frequently:1 call:1 upon:1 orchestra:4 produce:1 different:3 colour:1 often:1 character:1 sequel:1 original:2 limited:1 incorporate:1 element:2 romanticism:1 predecessor:1 foreshadow:1 renunciation:1 avant:5 garde:5 mid:2 although:2 feature:4 dramatic:1 glissando:1 dense:2 harmonic:3 unusual:1 musical:4 saw:2 second:1 st:2 luke:3 passion:3 song:3 instrumentation:1 miserere:1 mei:1 deus:1 saint:1 chorus:2 far:3 popular:1 acclaim:1 least:1 major:4 devoutly:1 religious:1 language:1 within:1 communist:1 eastern:1 europe:2 western:2 audience:1 snub:1 soviet:1 authority:1 keen:1 give:3 support:1 various:1 style:2 experimental:3 balance:1 baroque:1 form:1 occasional:1 traditional:1 melodic:3 writing:1 serialism:1 one:6 row:1 bach:1 motif:1 act:1 conventional:1 stabat:1 mater:1 towards:2 end:2 conclude:2 simple:1 chord:2 gesture:1 repeat:1 finish:1 triumphant:1 e:1 tonal:3 harmony:2 come:2 surprise:1 listener:1 triad:1 remain:1 aspect:1 continue:2 explore:1 sacred:1 dy:1 irae:1 version:1 magnificat:1 canticum:1 canticorum:1 seventy:1 present:1 around:2 professor:1 yale:1 school:1 change:1 violin:1 concerto:3 largely:1 leave:1 behind:1 associate:1 instead:1 focus:1 two:1 interval:1 semitone:1 tritone:1 commentator:1 go:2 compare:1 new:3 direction:2 bruckner:1 symphony:1 christmas:2 rather:1 straightforward:1 standpoint:1 frequent:1 tune:1 carol:1 silent:1 night:1 explain:1 shift:1 state:1 feel:1 experimentation:2 expressive:1 formal:2 quality:2 illusion:1 universalism:1 world:2 stockhausen:1 nono:1 u:1 young:1 hem:1 aesthetic:1 socialist:1 realism:1 official:1 canon:1 country:1 liberation:1 quick:1 realise:2 however:1 novelty:1 speculation:1 destructive:1 constructive:1 utopian:1 promethean:1 save:1 snare:1 formalism:1 return:1 commission:1 solidarity:1 accompany:1 unveiling:1 statue:1 gdańsk:1 shipyard:1 commemorate:1 kill:1 anti:1 government:1 riot:1 respond:1 lacrimosa:1 later:1 expand:1 best:1 known:1 late:2 period:1 requiem:1 revise:1 lush:1 moment:1 evoke:1 tendency:1 recent:1 traditionally:1 conceive:1 construct:1 like:1 cello:2 credo:1 adapt:1 film:5 soundtrack:3 shining:1 utrenja:1 awakening:1 jacob:1 kanon:2 polymorphia:2 exorcist:3 well:2 quartet:1 tape:1 fragment:2 devil:1 loudun:1 critic:1 republic:1 even:1 faultless:1 last:2 belong:1 liner:1 motion:1 picture:1 warner:1 bros:1 cd:1 lynch:1 movie:1 wild:1 heart:1 inland:1 empire:1 final:1 sequence:1 child:1 men:1 award:2 prince:1 asturias:1 prize:1 spain:2 high:1 honour:1 individual:1 entity:1 organization:1 others:1 notable:2 achievement:1 science:1 art:1 humanity:1 public:1 affair:1 receive:1 honorary:1 doctorate:1 seoul:1 national:1 korea:1 münster:1 germany:1 student:1 chester:1 biscardi:1 walter:1 may:1 andrzej:1 wajda:1 katyń:1 reference:1 source:1 adrian:1 thomas:1 grove:1 dictionary:1 opera:1 ed:1 stanley:1 sadie:1 london:1 isbn:1 external:1 link:1 page:1 center:1 updated:1 homepage:1 maintain:1 schott:1 publisher:1 interview:1 bruce:1 duffie:1 march:1 sheet:1 miniature:1 clarinet:1 piano:1 onion:1 atonal:1 gather:1 atony:1 |@bigram krzysztof_penderecki:5 anton_webern:1 pierre_boulez:1 igor_stravinsky:1 de_natura:3 avant_garde:5 harmonic_melodic:2 stabat_mater:1 tonal_harmony:1 chorus_orchestra:1 violin_concerto:1 anton_bruckner:1 christmas_carol:1 unveiling_statue:1 cello_concerto:2 string_quartet:1 liner_note:1 motion_picture:1 warner_bros:1 prince_asturias:1 honorary_doctorate:1 andrzej_wajda:1 stanley_sadie:1 external_link:1 |
6,193 | Alfonso_IV_of_Aragon | Alfonso IV of Aragon Alfonso IV, called the Kind (also the Gentle or the Nice, Catalan: Alfons el Benigne) (1299 – 24 January 1336) was the King of Aragon He held the Crown of Aragon, which included not just Aragon, but also the kingdoms of Valencia, Sardinia, and Corsica. and Count of Barcelona He was also the holder of most of the Catalan counties. (as Alfonso III) from 1327 to his death. He was the second son of James II and Blanche of Anjou. His reign saw the incorporation of the County of Urgell, Duchy of Athens, and Duchy of Neopatria into the Crown of Aragon. During the reign of his father, he was the procurator general of the Crown. He married Teresa d'Entença y Cabrera, heiress of Urgell, in 1314 in the Cathedral of Lerida. In 1323–1324, he undertook the conquest of Sardinia. He became heir after his older brother James renounced his rights to become a monk. In 1329, he began a long war with the Republic of Genoa. The city of Sassari surrenderd in 1323, but rebelled three more times and was contested by Genoa. After being widowed in 1327, Alfonso married in February 1329 Eleanor of Castile (1308-1359), who was betrothed to his brother James, who had refused to consummate the marriage. She was the sister of Alfonso XI of Castile. Ancestors +Alfonso's ancestors in three generations Alfonso IV of Aragon Father:James II of Aragon Paternal Grandfather:Peter III of Aragon Paternal Great-grandfather:James I of Aragon Paternal Great-grandmother:Violant of Hungary Paternal Grandmother:Constantia of Sicily Paternal Great-grandfather:Manfred of Sicily Paternal Great-grandmother:Beatrice of Savoy Mother:Blanche of Anjou Maternal Grandfather:Charles II of Naples Maternal Great-grandfather:Charles I of Naples Maternal Great-grandmother:Beatrice of Provence Maternal Grandmother:Maria Arpad of Hungary Maternal Great-grandfather:Stephen V of Hungary Maternal Great-grandmother:Elizabeth the Cuman Children By Teresa d'Entença: Alfonso (1318-1320) Fadrique (1319-1320) Peter IV, successor James I, Count of Urgell, also inherited Entença and Antillon Constance (1321-1346), married in 1346 to James III of Majorca Elizabeth (1326-1327) Sancho (1327), lived only a few days By Eleanor of Castile: Ferdinand, Marquis of Tortosa (1329-1363) John (1331-1358), married in 1355 to Isabel Núñez de Lara and was killed by order of his cousin Pedro of Castile Notes |- |- | Alfonso_IV_of_Aragon |@lemmatized alfonso:8 iv:4 aragon:9 call:1 kind:1 also:4 gentle:1 nice:1 catalan:2 alfons:1 el:1 benigne:1 january:1 king:1 hold:1 crown:3 include:1 kingdom:1 valencia:1 sardinia:2 corsica:1 count:2 barcelona:1 holder:1 county:2 iii:3 death:1 second:1 son:1 james:6 ii:3 blanche:2 anjou:2 reign:2 saw:1 incorporation:1 urgell:3 duchy:2 athens:1 neopatria:1 father:2 procurator:1 general:1 marry:4 teresa:2 entença:3 cabrera:1 heiress:1 cathedral:1 lerida:1 undertake:1 conquest:1 become:2 heir:1 older:1 brother:2 renounce:1 right:1 monk:1 begin:1 long:1 war:1 republic:1 genoa:2 city:1 sassari:1 surrenderd:1 rebel:1 three:2 time:1 contest:1 widow:1 february:1 eleanor:2 castile:4 betroth:1 refuse:1 consummate:1 marriage:1 sister:1 xi:1 ancestor:2 generation:1 paternal:6 grandfather:6 peter:2 great:8 grandmother:6 violant:1 hungary:3 constantia:1 sicily:2 manfred:1 beatrice:2 savoy:1 mother:1 maternal:6 charles:2 naples:2 provence:1 maria:1 arpad:1 stephen:1 v:1 elizabeth:2 cuman:1 child:1 fadrique:1 successor:1 inherit:1 antillon:1 constance:1 jam:1 majorca:1 sancho:1 live:1 day:1 ferdinand:1 marquis:1 tortosa:1 john:1 isabel:1 núñez:1 de:1 lara:1 kill:1 order:1 cousin:1 pedro:1 note:1 |@bigram crown_aragon:2 sardinia_corsica:1 older_brother:1 consummate_marriage:1 alfonso_xi:1 xi_castile:1 paternal_grandfather:1 paternal_grandmother:1 maternal_grandfather:1 maternal_grandmother:1 castile_ferdinand:1 |
6,194 | Exploit_(computer_security) | An exploit (from the same word in the French language, meaning "achievement", or "accomplishment") is a piece of software, a chunk of data, or sequence of commands that take advantage of a bug, glitch or vulnerability in order to cause unintended or unanticipated behavior to occur on computer software, hardware, or something electronic (usually computerized). This frequently includes such things as violently gaining control of a computer system or allowing privilege escalation or a denial of service attack. Classification There are several methods of classifying exploits. The most common is by how the exploit contacts the vulnerable software. A 'remote exploit' works over a network and exploits the security vulnerability without any prior access to the vulnerable system. A 'local exploit' requires prior access to the vulnerable system and usually increases the privileges of the person running the exploit past those granted by the system administrator. Exploits against client applications also exist, usually consisting of modified servers that send an exploit if accessed with client application. Exploits against client applications may also require some interaction with the user and thus may be used in combination with social engineering method. Another classification is by the action against vulnerable system: unauthorized data access, arbitrary code execution, denial of service. Many exploits are designed to provide superuser-level access to a computer system. However, it is also possible to use several exploits, first to gain low-level access, then to escalate privileges repeatedly until one reaches root. Normally a single exploit can only take advantage of a specific software vulnerability. Often, when an exploit is published, the vulnerability is fixed through a patch and the exploit becomes obsolete for newer versions of the software. This is the reason why some blackhat hackers do not publish their exploits but keep them private to themselves or other crackers. Such exploits are referred to as 'zero day exploits' and to obtain access to such exploits is the primary desire of unskilled attackers, often nicknamed script kiddies. Types Exploits are commonly categorized and named by these criteria: The type of vulnerability they exploit (See the article on vulnerabilities for a list) Whether they need to be run on the same machine as the program that has the vulnerability (local) or can be run on one machine to attack a program running on another machine (remote). The result of running the exploit (EoP, DoS, Spoofing, etc...) See also Computer insecurity Computer security Computer virus Crimeware Metasploit Shellcode External links Milw0rm has an extensive archive of public exploits. Packetstorm Security has over 10 years worth of exploits available. BugReport has a small archive of public web application vulnerabilities. VUPEN Security - Private exploits and proof-of-concepts. Secunia Advisories Vulnerability and Virus Information. SecurityFocus BugSpy Exploits Detector Crawls the web for the latest bugs. Auto-discovers exploitable bugs. Vigil@nce Vulnerability Archive Web-Defence.Ru | Exploit_(computer_security) |@lemmatized exploit:26 word:1 french:1 language:1 mean:1 achievement:1 accomplishment:1 piece:1 software:5 chunk:1 data:2 sequence:1 command:1 take:2 advantage:2 bug:3 glitch:1 vulnerability:10 order:1 cause:1 unintended:1 unanticipated:1 behavior:1 occur:1 computer:6 hardware:1 something:1 electronic:1 usually:3 computerize:1 frequently:1 include:1 thing:1 violently:1 gain:2 control:1 system:6 allow:1 privilege:3 escalation:1 denial:2 service:2 attack:2 classification:2 several:2 method:2 classify:1 common:1 contact:1 vulnerable:4 remote:2 work:1 network:1 security:4 without:1 prior:2 access:7 local:2 require:2 increase:1 person:1 run:5 past:1 grant:1 administrator:1 client:3 application:4 also:4 exist:1 consist:1 modified:1 server:1 send:1 may:2 interaction:1 user:1 thus:1 use:2 combination:1 social:1 engineering:1 another:2 action:1 unauthorized:1 arbitrary:1 code:1 execution:1 many:1 design:1 provide:1 superuser:1 level:2 however:1 possible:1 first:1 low:1 escalate:1 repeatedly:1 one:2 reach:1 root:1 normally:1 single:1 specific:1 often:2 publish:2 fix:1 patch:1 become:1 obsolete:1 new:1 version:1 reason:1 blackhat:1 hacker:1 keep:1 private:2 cracker:1 refer:1 zero:1 day:1 obtain:1 primary:1 desire:1 unskilled:1 attacker:1 nicknamed:1 script:1 kiddy:1 type:2 commonly:1 categorize:1 name:1 criterion:1 see:2 article:1 list:1 whether:1 need:1 machine:3 program:2 result:1 eop:1 dos:1 spoof:1 etc:1 insecurity:1 virus:2 crimeware:1 metasploit:1 shellcode:1 external:1 link:1 extensive:1 archive:3 public:2 packetstorm:1 year:1 worth:1 available:1 bugreport:1 small:1 web:3 vupen:1 proof:1 concept:1 secunia:1 advisory:1 information:1 securityfocus:1 bugspy:1 detector:1 crawl:1 late:1 auto:1 discovers:1 exploitable:1 vigil:1 nce:1 defence:1 ru:1 |@bigram privilege_escalation:1 external_link:1 |
6,195 | Johnny_Weissmuller | Johnny Weissmuller (June 2, 1904 – January 20, 1984) was an American swimmer and actor who was one of the world's best swimmers in the 1920s, winning five Olympic gold medals and one bronze medal. He won fifty-two US National Championships and set sixty-seven world records. After his swimming career, he became the sixth actor to portray Tarzan in films, a role he played in twelve motion pictures. Dozens of other actors have also played Tarzan, but Weissmuller is by far the best known. His character's distinctive, ululating Tarzan yell is still often used in films. Early life Weissmuller was a Banat German, born to Peter Weißmüller and his wife Elisabeth Kersch in the Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary. The ship's roster from his family's arrival at Ellis Island lists his birthplace as Freidorf, now a district of Timişoara, Romania "Johnny Weissmuller." Britannica Online Encyclopedia. "Businessweek report." , but he was born in the village of Pardanj (today Međa, Serbia, near the Romanian border). It has been claimed that he was actually named Peter by his parents, but when he arrived in the US he used his brother's name, Johnny, because it was more American. However, the records of St Rochus Church in Freidorf show that János (the Hungarian equivalent of Johann), son of Peter Weissmuller and Elizabeth Kersch, was baptized there on 6 May 1904. The passenger manifest of the S.S. Rotterdam, which arrived in New York on January 26, 1905, lists Peter Weissmuller, a 29-year-old laborer, his 24-year-old wife Elisabeth, and seven-month-old Johann, The family is listed as Hungarian Germans, last residence: Szabadfalu (Hungarian equivalent of Freidorf). They were going to join their brother-in-law Johann Ott of Windber, Pennsylvania. On November 5, 1905, Johann Peter Weissmuller was baptized at St John Cantius Church in Windber. In the 1910 census, Peter and Elizabeth Weisenmuller as well as John and Eva Ott were living at 1521 Cleveland Ave in the 22nd Ward of Chicago, with sons John, age six, born in "Hun-German" and Peter Jr., age five, born in Illinois. Peter Weissmuller and John Ott were both brewers, Ott immigrating in 1902, Weismuller in 1904. The ethnic group known as Banat Swabians had lived for several centuries in that region and developed a distinctive dialect and cultural traits. R. Brever, B. Skelton, Johnny Weissmuller. c. 1925 When Weissmuller was a small child, the family emigrated to the United States aboard the S.S. Rotterdam as steerage passengers. They left Rotterdam on January 14, 1905, and arrived at Ellis Island in New York harbor twelve days later as Peter, Elisabeth and Johann Weissmuller. The passenger list records them as ethnic Germans and citizens of Hungary. After a brief stay in Chicago, visiting relatives, they moved to the coal mining town of Windber, Pennsylvania. (For most of Weissmuller's career, show business biographies incorrectly listed him as having been born in Pennsylvania. Some sources state that Weissmuller lied about his birthplace in order to ensure his place on the US Olympic swimming team.) Peter Weissmuller worked as a miner, and his youngest son, Peter Weissmuller, Jr., was born in Windber on September 3, 1905. Peter Jr. is listed on one census as born in Illinois. At age nine, Weissmuller contracted polio. At the suggestion of his doctor, he took up swimming to help battle the disease. After the family moved from Western Pennsylvania to Chicago, Weissmuller continued swimming and eventually earned a spot on the YMCA swim team. While living in Chicago, Weissmuller's father owned a bar for a time and his mother became head cook at a famed restaurant. After Peter's business failed, he began drinking heavily and abusing both his wife and children. Elizabeth Weissmuller eventually filed for, and was granted, a divorce (various biographies erroneously state that Weissmuller's father died of tuberculosis leaving her a widow). According to draft registration records for World War I, Peter and Elizabeth were apparently still together as late as 1917. On his paperwork, Peter was listed as a brewer, working for the Elston and Fullerton Brewery. He and his family were living at 226 West North Avenue in Chicago. In his book, Tarzan, My Father, Johnny Weissmuller Jr. stated that although rumors of Peter Weissmuller living to "a ripe old age, remarrying along the way and spawning a large brood of little Weissmullers" were reported, no one in the family was aware of his ultimate fate. Peter signed his consent for 19-year old John "Weissmuller"'s passport application in 1924, preceding Johnny's Olympic competition in France. In the 1930 federal census, Elizabeth Weissmeuller, age 49, has listed with her, her sons John P.and Peter J., and Peter's wife Dorothy. Elizabeth is listed as a widow. Illinois death records indicate a Peter "Weissmuller" died in Chicago, Cook County, Illinois on July 17, 1938. A "Katherin Weissmuller" died there as well on October 15, 1946. These may have been Johnny Weissmuller's parents. Careers Swimming As a teen, Weissmuller attended Lane Techical H.S. before dropping out to work various jobs including a stint as a lifeguard at a Lake Michigan beach. While working as an elevator operator and bellboy at the Illinois Athletic Club, Weissmuller caught the eye of swim coach William Bachrach. Bachrach trained Weissmuller and in August 1921, Weissmuller won the national championships in the 50-yard and 220-yard distances. Though he was foreign-born, Weissmuller gave his birthplace as Tanneryville, Pennsylvania, and his birth date as that of his younger brother, Peter Weissmuller. This was to ensure his eligibility to compete as part of the United States Olympic team, and was a critical issue in being issued an American passport. (This comment seems to be contradicted by data on his actual passport application - On his 1924 passport application, he listed his date of birth as June 2, 1904, and his place of birth as Windbar, Pennsylvania. His father, Peter signed an affidavit to this effect, giving his 19-year olf son permission to travel abroad to participate in the Paris Olympics and for other competitions in England and Belgium. His passport was issued in May, 1924.) On July 9, 1922, Weissmuller broke Duke Kahanamoku's world record on the 100-meters freestyle, swimming it in 58.6 seconds. He won the title in that distance at the 1924 Summer Olympics, beating Kahanamoku for the gold. He also won the 400-meters freestyle and the 4 x 200 meters relay. As a member of the American water polo team, he also won a bronze medal. Four years later, at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam, he won another two Olympic titles. In all, he won five Olympic gold medals, one bronze medal, won fifty-two US National Championships and set sixty-seven world records. Johnny Weissmuller never lost a race and retired from his amateur swimming career undefeated. Motion pictures In 1929, Weissmuller signed a contract with BVD to be a model and representative. He traveled throughout the country doing swim shows, handing out leaflets promoting that brand of swimwear, signing autographs and going on talk shows. In that same year, he made his first motion picture appearance as an Adonis, wearing only a fig leaf, in a movie entitled Glorifying the American Girl. He appeared as himself in the first of several Crystal Champions movie shorts featuring Weissmuller and other Olympic champions at Silver Springs, Florida. He co-starred with Esther Williams in Billy Rose's Aquacade during the San Francisco World's Fair, 1939–41, pursuing her throughout a span of two years. The Million Dollar Mermaid: An Autobiography, By Esther Williams, Digby Diehl, Published by Harcourt Trade, 2000, ISBN 0156011352, 9780156011358 His acting career began when he signed a seven year contract with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer and played the role of Tarzan in Tarzan the Ape Man (1932). The movie was a huge success and Weissmuller became an overnight international sensation. Tarzan author, Edgar Rice Burroughs, was pleased with Weissmuller, although he so hated the studio's depiction of a Tarzan who barely spoke English that he created his own concurrent Tarzan series filmed on location in Central American jungles and starring Herman Brix as a suitably articulate version of the character. Weissmuller starred in six Tarzan movies for MGM with actress Maureen O'Sullivan as Jane (with whom he had a brief affair) and Cheeta the Chimpanzee. The last three also included Johnny Sheffield as Boy. Then, in 1942, Weissmuller went to RKO and starred in six more Tarzan movies with markedly reduced production values. Unlike MGM, RKO allowed Weissmuller to play other roles, though a three picture contract with Pine-Thomas Productions led to only one film, Swamp Fire, being made, co-starring Buster Crabbe. Sheffield appeared as Boy in the first five features for RKO. Another co-star was Brenda Joyce, who played Jane in Weissmuller's last four Tarzan movies. In a total of twelve Tarzan films, Weissmuller earned an estimated $2,000,000 and established himself as what many consider the definitive Tarzan. Although not the first Tarzan in movies, (that honor went to Elmo Lincoln), he was the first to be associated with the now traditional ululating, yodeling Tarzan yell. (During an appearance on television's The Mike Douglas Show in the 1970s, Weissmuller explained how the famous yell was created. Recordings of three vocalists were spliced together to get the effect—a soprano, an alto, and a hog caller). When Weissmuller finally left that role, he immediately traded his loincloth costume for a slouch hat and safari suit for the role of Jungle Jim (1948) for Columbia. He made 13 Jungle Jim films between (1948) and (1954). Within the next year, he appeared in three more jungle movies, playing himself. In 1955, he began production of the Jungle Jim television adventure series for Screen Gems, a film subsidiary of Columbia. The show ran for twenty-six episodes, which subsequently played repeatedly on network and syndicated TV. Aside from a first screen appearance as Adonis and the role of Johnny Duval in the 1946 film Swamp Fire, Weissmuller played only three roles in films during the heyday of his Hollywood career: Tarzan, Jungle Jim, and himself. After movies In the late 1950s, Weissmuller moved back to Chicago and started a swimming pool company. He lent his name to other business ventures, but did not have a great deal of success. He retired in 1965 and moved to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, where he was Founding Chairman of the International Swimming Hall of Fame. Sometime in the 1960s, Weissmuller built a doomed tourist attraction called Tropical Wonderland, aka Tarzan's Jungleland, on US 1 in Titusville, Florida. In September 1966, Weissmuller joined former screen Tarzans James Pierce and Jock Mahoney to appear with Ron Ely as part of the publicity for the upcoming premiere of the Tarzan TV series. The producers also approached Weissmuller to guest star as Tarzan's father, but nothing came of it. In 1970, he attended the British Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh, where he was presented to Queen Elizabeth II. That same year, he made a cameo appearance with former co-star Maureen O'Sullivan in The Phynx (1970). Weissmuller lived in Florida until the end of 1973, then moved to Las Vegas, Nevada, where he worked as a greeter at the MGM Grand Hotel for a time. In 1976, he appeared for the last time in a motion picture, playing a movie crewman who is fired by a movie mogul, played by Art Carney, in Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood, and he also made his final public appearance in that year when he was inducted into the Body Building Guild Hall of Fame. Personal life Weissmuller had five wives: band and club singer Bobbe Arnst (married 1931 – divorced 1933); actress Lupe Vélez (married 1933 – divorced 1939); Beryl Scott (married 1939 – divorced 1948); Allene Gates (married 1948 – divorced 1962); and Maria Bauman (married 1963 – his death 1984). With his third wife, Beryl, he had three children, Johnny Weissmuller, Jr. (September 23, 1940 – July 27, 2006), Wendy Anne Weissmuller (b. June 1, 1942), and Heidi Elizabeth Weissmuller (July 31, 1944 – November 19, 1962). Declining health and death In 1974, Weissmuller broke both his hip and leg, marking the beginning of years of declining health. While hospitalized he learned that, in spite of his strength and lifelong daily regimen of swimming and exercise, he had a serious heart condition. In 1977, Weissmuller suffered a series of strokes. In 1979, he entered the Motion Picture & Television Country House and Hospital in Woodland Hills, California for several weeks before moving with his last wife, Maria, to Acapulco, Mexico, the location of his last Tarzan movie. On January 20, 1984, Weissmuller died from pulmonary edema at the age of 79. At his request, he was buried in Acapulco at Valley of the Light Cemetery where, also at his request, a recording of the Tarzan yell he invented was played. Influence His former co-star and movie son, Johnny Sheffield, wrote of him, "I can only say that working with Big John was one of the highlights of my life. He was a Star (with a capital "S") and he gave off a special light and some of that light got into me. Knowing and being with Johnny Weissmuller during my formative years had a lasting influence on my life." For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Johnny Weissmuller has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6541 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood. Filmography Film Year Film Role Notes 1929 Glorifying the American Girl Adonis Cameo appearance in the segment "Loveland"1931 Swim or Sink Himself Short subject Water Bugs Himself Short subject1932 Tarzan, the Ape Man Tarzan The Human Fish Himself Short subject 1934 Tarzan and His Mate Tarzan 1936 Tarzan Escapes Tarzan 1939 Tarzan Finds a Son! Tarzan 1941 Tarzan's Secret Treasure Tarzan 1942 Tarzan's New York Adventure Tarzan1943 Tarzan Triumphs Tarzan Complete title: Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan Triumphs Tarzan's Desert Mystery Tarzan Complete title: Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan's Desert Mystery Stage Door Canteen Himself 1945 Tarzan and the Amazons Tarzan Complete title: Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan and the Amazons1946 Tarzan and the Leopard Woman Tarzan Complete title: Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan and the Leopard Woman Swamp Fire Johnny Duval 1947 Tarzan and the Huntress Tarzan Complete title: Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan and the Huntress1948 Tarzan and the Mermaids Tarzan Complete title: Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan and the Mermaids Jungle Jim Jungle Jim 1948 The Lost Tribe Jungle Jim1950 Mark of the Gorilla Jungle Jim Captive Girl Jungle Jim Alternative title: Jungle Jim and the Captive Girl Jungle Jim in Pygmy Island Jungle Jim Alternative title: Pygmy Island1951 Fury of the Congo Jungle Jim Jungle Manhunt Jungle Jim1952 Jungle Jim in the Forbidden Land Jungle Jim Voodoo Tiger Jungle Jim1953 Savage Mutiny Jungle Jim Valley of Head Hunters Jungle Jim Killer Ape Jungle Jim1954 Jungle Man-Eaters Jungle Jim Cannibal Attack Johnny Weissmuller 1955 Jungle Moon Men Johnny Weissmuller Devil Goddess Johnny Weissmuller 1970 The Phynx Himself 1976 Won Ton Ton, the Dog Who Saved Hollywood Stagehand #2 Television Year Title Role Notes 1956-1958 Jungle Jim Jungle Jim 26 episodes References Further reading Fury, David A. Fury. Johnny Weissmuller: Twice the Hero (Minneapolis, Minnesota: Artist's Press. 2000) ISBN 0924556021 Weissmuller, Johnny Jr. Tarzan My Father, Toronto: ECW Press 2002 External links Tarzan Fan Site Louis S. Nixdorff, 1928 Olympic games collection, 1926-1978, Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. The passenger list of the ship that brought the Weissmullers to Ellis Island "Serbia: Monument to Tarzan", ''The New York Times, February 17, 2007. 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6,196 | Cambridge_(disambiguation) | Cambridge is the county town of Cambridgeshire. It also commonly refers to: The University of Cambridge Cambridge University Press Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency) Cambridge, Massachusetts, a city in the United States Cambridge, Ontario, a city in Canada In England, Cambridge can also refer to: The Duke of Cambridge Cambridge, Gloucestershire Camberley, Surrey, England, called Cambridge Town until 1877 Cambridge Heath, a place in the former county of Middlesex and now in the London borough of Tower Hamlets. Other places called Cambridge include: In Australia: Cambridge, Tasmania Town of Cambridge, a Western Australian local government area in the inner western suburbs of Perth In Canada: Cambridge, Ontario Cambridge (electoral district), a federal electoral district Cambridge (provincial electoral district), a provincial electoral district Cambridge, Hants County, Nova Scotia Cambridge, Kings County, Nova Scotia Cambridge Bay, Nunavut In New Zealand: Cambridge, New Zealand In the United States: Cambridge, Idaho Cambridge, Illinois Cambridge City, Indiana Cambridge, Iowa Cambridge, Kansas Cambridge, Kentucky Cambridge, Maine Cambridge, Maryland Cambridge, Massachusetts Cambridge, Minnesota Cambridge, Nebraska Cambridge, New Hampshire, a township Cambridge (village), New York Cambridge (town), New York Cambridge, Ohio Cambridge Springs, Pennsylvania Cambridge, Vermont Cambridge, Wisconsin Cambridge Township, Henry County, Illinois Cambridge Township, Michigan Cambridge Township, Minnesota Cambridge Township, Guernsey County, Ohio Cambridge Township, Pennsylvania Other uses: Cambridge Glass, a glass company chartered in 1873 by a group of Cambridge, Ohio, businessmen. Cambridge State University, an unaccredited institution College of Cambridge, an unaccredited institution | Cambridge_(disambiguation) |@lemmatized cambridge:48 county:6 town:4 cambridgeshire:1 also:2 commonly:1 refers:1 university:3 press:1 uk:1 parliament:1 constituency:1 massachusetts:2 city:3 united:2 state:3 ontario:2 canada:2 england:2 refer:1 duke:1 gloucestershire:1 camberley:1 surrey:1 call:2 heath:1 place:2 former:1 middlesex:1 london:1 borough:1 tower:1 hamlet:1 include:1 australia:1 tasmania:1 western:2 australian:1 local:1 government:1 area:1 inner:1 suburb:1 perth:1 electoral:4 district:4 federal:1 provincial:2 hants:1 nova:2 scotia:2 king:1 bay:1 nunavut:1 new:5 zealand:2 idaho:1 illinois:2 indiana:1 iowa:1 kansa:1 kentucky:1 maine:1 maryland:1 minnesota:2 nebraska:1 hampshire:1 township:6 village:1 york:2 ohio:3 spring:1 pennsylvania:2 vermont:1 wisconsin:1 henry:1 michigan:1 guernsey:1 us:1 glass:2 company:1 charter:1 group:1 businessmen:1 unaccredited:2 institution:2 college:1 |@bigram nova_scotia:2 |
6,197 | Nickel | Nickel () is a chemical element, with the chemical symbol Ni and atomic number 28. It is a silvery-white lustrous metal with a slight golden tinge. It is one of the four ferromagnetic elements at about room temperature. Its use has been traced as far back as 3500 BC, but it was first isolated and classified as a chemical element in 1751 by Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who initially mistook its ore for a copper mineral. Its most important ore minerals are laterites, including limonite and garnierite, and pentlandite. Major production sites include Sudbury region in Canada, New Caledonia and Russia. The metal is corrosion-resistant, finding many uses in alloys, as a plating, in the manufacture of coins, magnets and common household utensils, as a catalyst for hydrogenation, and in a variety of other applications. Enzymes of certain life-forms contain nickel as an active center making the metal essential for them. Characteristics Nickel is a silvery-white metal with a slight golden tinge that takes a high polish. It is one of only four elements that are magnetic at or near room temperature. It belongs to the transition metals and is hard and ductile. It occurs most often in combination with sulfur and iron in pentlandite, with sulfur in millerite, with arsenic in the mineral nickeline, and with arsenic and sulfur in nickel galena. Los Alamos National Laboratory – Nickel National Pollutant Inventory - Nickel and compounds Fact Sheet High nickel release from 1- and 2-euro coins (Nature Abstract) Nickel is commonly found in iron meteorites as the alloys kamacite and taenite. Nickel Similar to the elements chromium, aluminium and titanium, nickel is a very reactive element, but is slow to react in air at normal temperatures and pressures due to the formation of a protective oxide surface. Due to its permanence in air and its slow rate of oxidation, it is used in coins, for plating metals such as iron and brass, for chemical apparatus, and in certain alloys such as German silver. Nickel is chiefly valuable for the alloys it forms, especially many superalloys, and particularly stainless steel. Nickel is also a naturally magnetostrictive material, meaning that in the presence of a magnetic field, the material undergoes a small change in length. UCLA - Magnetostrictive Materials Overview In the case of nickel, this change in length is negative (contraction of the material), which is known as negative magnetostriction and is on the order of 50 ppm. The most common oxidation state of nickel is +2 with several Ni complexes known. It is also thought that a +6 oxidation state may exist, however, this has not been demonstrated conclusively. The unit cell of nickel is a face centered cube with a lattice parameter of 0.352 nm giving a radius of the atom of 0.125 nm. History Because the ores of nickel are easily mistaken for ores of silver, understanding of this metal and its use dates to relatively recent times. However, the unintentional use of nickel is ancient, and can be traced back as far as 3500 BC. Bronzes from what is now Syria had contained up to 2% nickel. Further, there are Chinese manuscripts suggesting that "white copper" (cupronickel, known as baitung) was used there between 1700 and 1400 BC. This Paktong white copper was exported to Britain as early as the 17th century, but the nickel content of this alloy was not discovered until 1822. In medieval Germany, a red mineral was found in the Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains) which resembled copper ore. However, when miners were unable to extract any copper from it they blamed a mischievous sprite of German mythology, Nickel (similar to Old Nick) for besetting the copper. They called this ore Kupfernickel from the German Kupfer for copper. Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary, p888, W&R Chambers Ltd, 1977. This ore is now known to be nickeline or niccolite, a nickel arsenide. In 1751, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt was attempting to extract copper from kupfernickel and obtained instead a white metal that he named after the spirit which had given its name to the mineral, nickel. In modern German, Kupfernickel or Kupfer-Nickel designates the alloy cupronickel. In the United States, the term "nickel" or "nick" was originally applied to the copper-nickel Indian cent coin introduced in 1859. Later, the name designated the three-cent coin introduced in 1865, and the following year the five-cent shield nickel appropriated the designation, which has remained ever since. Coins of pure nickel were first used in 1881 in Switzerland. After its discovery the only source for nickel was the rare Kupfernickel, but from 1824 on the nickel was obtained as byproduct of cobalt blue production. The first large scale producer of nickel was Norway, which exploited nickel rich pyrrhotite from 1848 on. The introduction of nickel in steel production in 1889 increased the demand for nickel and the nickel deposits of New Caledonia, which were discovered in 1865, provided most of the world's supply between 1875 and 1915. The discovery of the large deposits in the Sudbury Basin, Canada in 1883, in Norilsk-Talnakh , Russia in 1920 and in the Merensky Reef, South Africa in 1924 made large-scale production of nickel possible. Occurrence See also: Ore genesis, :Category:Nickel minerals The bulk of the nickel mined comes from two types of ore deposits. The first are laterites where the principal ore minerals are nickeliferous limonite: (Fe, Ni)O(OH) and garnierite (a hydrous nickel silicate): (Ni, Mg)3Si2O5(OH). The second are magmatic sulfide deposits where the principal ore mineral is pentlandite: (Ni, Fe)9S8. Widmanstätten pattern showing the two forms of Nickel-Iron, Kamacite and Taenite, in an octahedrite meteorite In terms of supply, the Sudbury region of Ontario, Canada, produces about 30 percent of the world's supply of nickel. The Sudbury Basin deposit is theorized to have been created by a meteorite impact event early in the geologic history of Earth. Russia contains about 40% of the world's known resources at the Norilsk deposit in Siberia. The Russian mining company MMC Norilsk Nickel obtains the nickel and the associated palladium for world distribution. Other major deposits of nickel are found in New Caledonia, France, Australia, Cuba, and Indonesia. Deposits found in tropical areas typically consist of laterites which are produced by the intense weathering of ultramafic igneous rocks and the resulting secondary concentration of nickel bearing oxide and silicate minerals. Recently, a nickel deposit in western Turkey had been exploited, with this location being especially convenient for European smelters, steelmakers and factories. The one locality in the United States where nickel was commercially mined is Riddle, Oregon, where several square miles of nickel-bearing garnierite surface deposits are located. The mine closed in 1987. In 2005, Russia was the largest producer of nickel with about one-fifth world share closely followed by Canada, Australia and Indonesia, as reported by the British Geological Survey. Based on geophysical evidence, most of the nickel on Earth is postulated to be concentrated in the Earth's core. Kamacite and taenite are naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel. For kamacite the alloy is usually in the proportion of 90:10 to 95:5 although impurities such as cobalt or carbon may be present, while for taenite the nickel content is between 20% and 65%. Kamacite and taenite occur in nickel-iron meteorites. Applications Nickel superalloy jet engine (RB199) turbine blade Nickel is used in many industrial and consumer products, including stainless steel, magnets, coinage, rechargeable batteries, electric guitar strings and special alloys. It is also used for plating and as a green tint in glass. Nickel is pre-eminently an alloy metal, and its chief use is in the nickel steels and nickel cast irons, of which there are many varieties. It is also widely used in many other alloys, such as nickel brasses and bronzes, and alloys with copper, chromium, aluminium, lead, cobalt, silver, and gold The amounts of nickel used for various applications are 60% used for making nickel steels, 14% used in nickel-copper alloys and nickel silver, 9% used to make malleable nickel, nickel clad, Inconel and other superalloys, 6% used in plating, 3% use for nickel cast irons, 3% in heat and electric resistance alloys, such as Nichrome, 2% used for nickel brasses and bronzes with the remaining 3% of the nickel consumption in all other applications combined. In the laboratory, nickel is frequently used as a catalyst for hydrogenation, most often using Raney nickel, a finely divided form of the metal alloyed with aluminium which adsorbs hydrogen gas. Nickel is often used in coins, or occasionally as a substitute for decorative silver. The American 'nickel' five-cent coin is 75% copper and 25% nickel. The Canadian nickel minted at various periods between 1922-81 was 99.9% nickel, and was magnetic. Various other nations have historically used and still use nickel in their coinage. Extraction and purification Nickel output in 2005 Nickel is recovered through extractive metallurgy. Most sulfide ores have traditionally been processed using pyrometallurgical techniques to produce a matte for further refining. Recent advances in hydrometallurgy have resulted in recent nickel processing operations being developed using these processes. Most sulfide deposits have traditionally been processed by concentration through a froth flotation process followed by pyrometallurgical extraction. Nickel is extracted from its ores by conventional roasting and reduction processes which yield a metal of >75% purity. Final purification of nickel oxides is performed via the Mond process, which increases the nickel concentrate to >99.99% purity . This process was patented by L. Mond and was used in South Wales in the 20th century. Nickel is reacted with carbon monoxide at around 50 °C to form volatile nickel carbonyl. Any impurities remain solid while the nickel carbonyl gas passes into a large chamber at high temperatures in which tens of thousands of nickel spheres, called pellets, are constantly stirred. The nickel carbonyl decomposes, depositing pure nickel onto the nickel spheres. Alternatively, the nickel carbonyl may be decomposed in a smaller chamber at 230 degrees Celsius to create fine nickel powder. The resultant carbon monoxide is re-circulated through the process. The highly pure nickel produced by this process is known as carbonyl nickel. A second common form of refining involves the leaching of the metal matte followed by the electro-winning of the nickel from solution by plating it onto a cathode. In many stainless steel applications, 75% pure nickel can be used without further purification depending on the composition of the impurities. Nickel sulfide ores undergo flotation (differential flotation if Ni/Fe ratio is too low) and then are smelted. After producing the nickel matte, further processing is done via the Sherritt-Gordon process. First copper is removed by adding hydrogen sulfide, leaving a concentrate of only cobalt and nickel. Solvent extraction then efficiently separates the cobalt and nickel, with the final nickel concentration >99%. Compounds Nickel sulfate crystals Tetracarbonyl nickel Nickel(II) sulfate is produced in large quantities by dissolving nickel metal or oxides in sulfuric acid. This compound is useful for electroplating nickel. Four halides are known to form nickel compounds, these are nickel(II) fluoride, chloride, bromide, and iodide. Nickel(II) chloride is produced analogously by dissolving nickel residues in hydrochloric acid. Tetracarbonylnickel (Ni(CO)4), discovered by Ludwig Mond, is a homoleptic complex of nickel with carbon monoxide. Having no net dipole moment, intermolecular forces are relatively weak, allowing this compound to be liquid at room temperature. Carbon monoxide reacts with nickel metal readily to give this compound; on heating, the complex decomposes back to nickel and carbon monoxide. This behavior is exploited in the Mond process for generating high-purity nickel. Tetracoordinate nickel(II) takes both tetrahedral and square planar geometries. This is in contrast with the other group 10 elements, which tend to exist as square planar complexes. Bis(cyclooctadiene)nickel(0) is a useful intermediate in organometallic chemistry due to the easily displaced cod ligands. Nickel(III) oxide is used as the cathode in many rechargeable batteries, including nickel-cadmium, nickel-iron, nickel hydrogen, and nickel-metal hydride, and used by certain manufacturers in Li-ion batteries. http://www.greencarcongress.com/2008/12/imara-corporati.html Isotopes Naturally occurring nickel is composed of 5 stable isotopes; 58Ni, 60Ni, 61Ni, 62Ni and 64Ni with 58Ni being the most abundant (68.077% natural abundance). 62Ni is the most stable known nuclide of all the existing elements, even exceeding the stability of 56Fe. 18 radioisotopes have been characterised with the most stable being 59Ni with a half-life of 76,000 years, 63Ni with a half-life of 100.1 years, and 56Ni with a half-life of 6.077 days. All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than 60 hours and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 1 meta state. Nickel-56 is produced in large quantities in type Ia supernovae and the shape of the light curve of these supernovae corresponds to the decay via beta radiation of nickel-56 to cobalt-56 and then to iron-56. Nickel-59 is a long-lived cosmogenic radionuclide with a half-life of 76,000 years. 59Ni has found many applications in isotope geology. 59Ni has been used to date the terrestrial age of meteorites and to determine abundances of extraterrestrial dust in ice and sediment. Nickel-60 is the daughter product of the extinct radionuclide 60Fe (half-life = 1.5 Myr). Because the extinct radionuclide 60Fe had such a long half-life, its persistence in materials in the solar system at high enough concentrations may have generated observable variations in the isotopic composition of 60Ni. Therefore, the abundance of 60Ni present in extraterrestrial material may provide insight into the origin of the solar system and its early history. Nickel-62 has the highest binding energy per nucleon of any isotope for any element (8.7946 Mev/nucleon). Isotopes heavier than 62Ni cannot be formed by nuclear fusion without losing energy. Nickel-48, discovered in 1999, is the most proton-rich heavy element isotope known. With 28 protons and 20 neutrons 48Ni is "doubly magic" (like 208Pb) and therefore unusually stable . The isotopes of nickel range in atomic weight from 48 u (48-Ni) to 78 u (78-Ni). Nickel-78's half-life was recently measured to be 110 milliseconds and is believed to be an important isotope involved in supernova nucleosynthesis of elements heavier than iron. Biological role Nickel plays numerous roles in the biology of microorganisms and plants, though they were not recognized until the 1970s. In fact urease (an enzyme which assists in the hydrolysis of urea) contains nickel. The NiFe-hydrogenases contain nickel in addition to iron-sulfur clusters. Such [NiFe]-hydrogenases characteristically oxidise H2. A nickel-tetrapyrrole coenzyme, F430, is present in the methyl coenzyme M reductase which powers methanogenic archaea. One of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase enzymes consists of an Fe-Ni-S cluster. Other nickel-containing enzymes include a class of superoxide dismutase and a glyoxalase. Toxicity Exposure to nickel metal and soluble compounds should not exceed 0.05 mg/cm³ in nickel equivalents per 40-hour work week. Nickel sulfide fume and dust is believed to be carcinogenic, and various other nickel compounds may be as well. KS Kasprzak, FW Sunderman Jr, K Salnikow. Nickel carcinogenesis. Mutation Research. 2003 December 10;533(1-2):67-97. JK Dunnick, MR Elwell, AE Radovsky, JM Benson, FF Hahn, KJ Nikula, EB Barr, CH Hobbs. Comparative Carcinogenic Effects of Nickel Subsulfide, Nickel Oxide, or Nickel Sulfate Hexahydrate Chronic Exposures in the Lung. Cancer Research. 1995 November 15;55(22):5251-6. Nickel carbonyl, [Ni(CO)4], is an extremely toxic gas. The toxicity of metal carbonyls is a function of both the toxicity of a metal as well as the carbonyl's ability to give off highly toxic carbon monoxide gas, and this one is no exception. It is explosive in air. http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/NI/nickel_carbonyl.html Sensitized individuals may show an allergy to nickel affecting their skin, also known as dermatitis. Nickel is an important cause of contact allergy, partly due to its use in jewelry intended for pierced ears. Nickel allergies affecting pierced ears are often marked by itchy, red skin. Many earrings are now made nickel-free due to this problem. The amount of nickel which is allowed in products which come into contact with human skin is regulated by the European Union. In 2002 researchers found amounts of nickel being emitted by 1 and 2 Euro coins far in excess of those standards. This is believed to be due to a galvanic reaction. It was voted Allergen of the Year in 2008 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. Metal value The market price of nickel surged throughout 2006 and the early months of 2007; as of April 5, 2007, the metal was trading at 52,300 $US/mt or 1.47 $US/oz. LME nickel price graphs The price subsequently fell dramatically from these peaks, and as of 19 January 2009 the metal was trading at USD10,880/metric ton. LME nickel price graphs The US nickel coin contains 0.04 oz (1.25 g) of nickel, which at the April 2007 price was worth 6.5 cents, along with 3.75 grams of copper worth about 3 cents, making the metal value over 9 cents. Since the face value of a nickel is 5 cents, this makes it an attractive target for melting by people wanting to sell the metals at a profit. However, the United States Mint, in anticipation of this practice, implemented new interim rules on December 14, 2006, subject to public comment for 30 days, which criminalize the melting and export of cents and nickels. United States Mint Moves to Limit Exportation & Melting of Coins, The United States Mint, press release, December 14, 2006 Violators can be punished with a fine of up to $10,000 and/or imprisoned for a maximum of five years. References External links WebElements.com – Nickel (also used as a reference) | Nickel |@lemmatized nickel:156 chemical:4 element:12 symbol:1 ni:12 atomic:2 number:1 silvery:2 white:5 lustrous:1 metal:23 slight:2 golden:2 tinge:2 one:6 four:3 ferromagnetic:1 room:3 temperature:5 use:31 trace:2 far:4 back:3 bc:3 first:5 isolated:1 classify:1 axel:2 fredrik:2 cronstedt:2 initially:1 mistake:2 ore:15 copper:14 mineral:8 important:3 laterite:2 include:5 limonite:2 garnierite:3 pentlandite:3 major:2 production:4 site:1 sudbury:4 region:2 canada:4 new:4 caledonia:3 russia:4 corrosion:1 resistant:1 find:7 many:9 us:1 alloy:14 plating:2 manufacture:1 coin:11 magnet:2 common:3 household:1 utensil:1 catalyst:2 hydrogenation:2 variety:2 application:6 enzyme:3 certain:3 life:9 form:8 contain:7 active:1 center:2 make:7 essential:1 characteristic:1 take:2 high:6 polish:1 magnetic:3 near:1 belong:1 transition:1 hard:1 ductile:1 occur:4 often:4 combination:1 sulfur:4 iron:12 millerite:1 arsenic:2 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principal:2 nickeliferous:1 fe:4 oh:2 hydrous:1 silicate:2 mg:2 second:3 magmatic:1 sulfide:6 widmanstätten:1 pattern:1 show:2 octahedrite:1 ontario:1 produce:8 percent:1 theorize:1 create:2 impact:1 event:1 geologic:1 earth:3 resource:1 siberia:1 russian:1 mining:1 company:1 mmc:1 associated:1 palladium:1 distribution:1 france:1 australia:2 cuba:1 indonesia:2 tropical:1 area:1 typically:1 consist:1 intense:1 weathering:1 ultramafic:1 igneous:1 rock:1 result:2 secondary:1 concentration:4 bearing:2 recently:2 western:1 turkey:1 location:1 convenient:1 european:2 smelter:1 steelmaker:1 factory:1 locality:1 commercially:1 riddle:1 oregon:1 square:3 mile:1 locate:1 close:1 fifth:1 share:1 closely:1 follow:3 report:1 british:1 geological:1 survey:1 base:1 geophysical:1 evidence:1 postulate:1 concentrate:3 core:1 usually:1 proportion:1 although:1 impurity:3 carbon:8 present:3 superalloy:1 jet:1 engine:1 turbine:1 blade:1 industrial:1 consumer:1 product:3 coinage:2 rechargeable:2 battery:3 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6,198 | Drama_film | A drama film is a film genre that depends mostly on in-depth development of realistic characters dealing with emotional themes. Dramatic themes such as alcoholism, drug addiction, racial prejudice, religious intolerance, poverty, crime and corruption put the characters in conflict with themselves, others, society and even natural phenomena. "Drama Films". Filmsite.org This film genre can be contrasted with an action film, which relies on fast-paced action and physical conflict but superficial character development. "Action Films". Filmsite.org All film genres can include dramatic elements, but typically, films considered drama films focus mainly on the drama of the main issue. Some of well-known drama films include The Godfather (1972), The Shawshank Redemption (1994), and Schindler's List (1993) "Top Drama Movies". Internet Movie Database Sub-genres Dramatic films include a very large spectrum of film genres. Because of the large number of drama films, these movies have been sub-categorized: Crime drama and Legal drama - Character development based on themes involving criminals, law enforcement and the legal system. Historical drama (epic) (including War drama) - Films that focus on dramatic events in history. Docudrama: the difference between a docudrama and a documentary is that in a documentary it uses real people to describe history or current events; in a docudrama it uses professionally trained actors to play the roles in the current event, that is "dramatized" a bit. Not to be confused with docufiction. Comedy-drama: is in which there is an equal, or nearly equal balance of humor and serious content. Melodrama: a sub-type of drama films that uses plots that appeal to the heightened emotions of the audience. Melodramatic plots often deal with "crises of human emotion, failed romance or friendship, strained familial situations, tragedy, illness, neuroses, or emotional and physical hardship." Film critics sometimes use the term "pejoratively to connote an unrealistic, pathos-filled, campy tale of romance or domestic situations with stereotypical characters (often including a central female character) that would directly appeal to feminine audiences." Melodrama Films Also called "women's movies", "weepies", tearjerkers, or "chick flicks". Romance: a sub-type of dramatic film which dwells on the elements of romantic love. Tragedy: a drama in which a character's downfall is caused by a flaw in their character or by a major error in judgment. Early film-1950s From the silent era to the 1950s, Dramas were tools to teach the audience. Films like The Grapes of Wrath (1940) show the effects of the depression. Citizen Kane (1941) was said by Orson Welles to not be a biography of William Randolph Hearst, but a composite of many people from that era. In the 1950s, began a rise in well-known dramatic actors. Glenn Ford, James Dean, Bette Davis, and Marilyn Monroe were notable dramatic actors. Dramatic Films focused on character relationships and development. All About Eve (1950) focused on women, and their relationship with men. Rebel Without a Cause (1955) displayed teenage angst. Films like 12 Angry Men (1957) and Anatomy of a Murder (1959) show the inner workings of a courtroom. Some of the most critically-acclaimed drama films in Asian cinema were produced during the 1950s, including Yasujirō Ozu's Tokyo Story (1953), Kenji Mizoguchi's Ugetsu (1954), Satyajit Ray's The Apu Trilogy (1955-1959), Guru Dutt's Pyaasa (1957), and the Akira Kurosawa films Rashomon (1950), Ikiru (1952) and Seven Samurai (1954). 1960s-1970s The 1960s brought politically driven dramas focusing on war, such as Judgment at Nuremberg (1961), and The Manchurian Candidate (1962). Sports dramas became inspiration such as The Hustler (1961) and Downhill Racer (1969). During the 1970s, modern dramatic directors made some of their first films. Francis Ford Coppola directed The Godfather (1972). Martin Scorsese directed Taxi Driver (1976), Mean Streets (1973), and musical drama New York, New York (1977). Sylvester Stallone created one of the most successful sports drama franchises Rocky (1976) and also directed the sequel Rocky II (1979). In addition, in sports drama were films that focused on the struggle of athletes such as Brian's Song (1970), and The Longest Yard (1974). War films and specifically World War II films were produced, giving the most realistic adaptation of the war seen in films at that time. Tora! Tora! Tora! (1970), Patton (1970), and Apocalypse Now (1979), which all show the trials and hardships of war, are still considered classic war films. 1980s-1990s In the 1980s, dramatic film put emphasis on highly emotional themes. Do the Right Thing (1989), Spike Lee's debut film, and The Color Purple (1985) were full character studies of African American culture and history. War dramas again played a big part as Platoon (1986) showed the horrors of Vietnam. Das Boot (1981) focused on the German viewpoint of World War II. Drama, with a science fiction edge was a theme when Steven Spielberg directed E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial (1982), and Ridley Scott directed Blade Runner (1982) During the 1990s, Goodfellas (1990) took a gritty, hard-edged look at mob crime. The Shawshank Redemption (1994), which was set inside a prison, had strong themes of hope, as did the Holocaust-themed Schindler's List (1993). Dramas also took a turn with existentialist thrillers like, Fight Club (1999) and the tale of suburban angst American Beauty (1999). Race relationships were a theme in American History X (1998), and the AIDs epidemic and discrimination were the focus of Philadelphia (1993). Comedy-drama was featured with films like Jerry Maguire (1996) and Barton Fink (1991). 2000s In the 2000s, biopics such as Pollock (2000), Ali (2001), Frida (2002), Ray (2004) and Walk the Line (2005) have become popular among filmmakers, particularly those seeking critical acclaim such as Academy Awards. Gladiator (2000) is an epic dramatic film, along with Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World (2003). The Gulf War and similar skirmishes were an inspiration for dramatic films in war drama movies like Black Hawk Down (2001) and Jarhead (2005). Despite the drop on popularity of the romantic dramas, some of them have enjoyed big box office and critical success, as the controversial groundbreaking Brokeback Mountain for example, that won several awards and Slumdog Millionaire (2008) is a critically-acclaimed romantic drama film that has been nominated for ten Academy Awards, and went on to win eight of them, including Best Picture. See also List of drama films Romantic drama film References | Drama_film |@lemmatized drama:29 film:38 genre:5 depend:1 mostly:1 depth:1 development:4 realistic:2 character:10 deal:2 emotional:3 theme:8 dramatic:12 alcoholism:1 drug:1 addiction:1 racial:1 prejudice:1 religious:1 intolerance:1 poverty:1 crime:3 corruption:1 put:2 conflict:2 others:1 society:1 even:1 natural:1 phenomenon:1 filmsite:2 org:2 contrast:1 action:3 rely:1 fast:1 pace:1 physical:2 superficial:1 include:7 element:2 typically:1 consider:2 focus:8 mainly:1 main:1 issue:1 well:2 know:2 godfather:2 shawshank:2 redemption:2 schindler:2 list:3 top:1 movie:5 internet:1 database:1 sub:4 large:2 spectrum:1 number:1 categorize:1 legal:2 base:1 involve:1 criminal:1 law:1 enforcement:1 system:1 historical:1 epic:2 war:11 event:3 history:4 docudrama:3 difference:1 documentary:2 use:4 real:1 people:2 describe:1 current:2 professionally:1 trained:1 actor:3 play:2 role:1 dramatize:1 bit:1 confuse:1 docufiction:1 comedy:2 equal:2 nearly:1 balance:1 humor:1 serious:1 content:1 melodrama:2 type:2 plot:2 appeal:2 heighten:1 emotion:2 audience:3 melodramatic:1 often:2 crisis:1 human:1 fail:1 romance:3 friendship:1 strain:1 familial:1 situation:2 tragedy:2 illness:1 neurosis:1 hardship:2 critic:1 sometimes:1 term:1 pejoratively:1 connote:1 unrealistic:1 pathos:1 fill:1 campy:1 tale:2 domestic:1 stereotypical:1 central:1 female:1 would:1 directly:1 feminine:1 also:4 call:1 woman:2 weepies:1 tearjerker:1 chick:1 flick:1 dwell:1 romantic:4 love:1 downfall:1 cause:2 flaw:1 major:1 error:1 judgment:2 early:1 silent:1 era:2 tool:1 teach:1 like:5 grape:1 wrath:1 show:4 effect:1 depression:1 citizen:1 kane:1 say:1 orson:1 welles:1 biography:1 william:1 randolph:1 hearst:1 composite:1 many:1 begin:1 rise:1 glenn:1 ford:2 james:1 dean:1 bette:1 davis:1 marilyn:1 monroe:1 notable:1 relationship:3 eve:1 men:2 rebel:1 without:1 display:1 teenage:1 angst:2 angry:1 anatomy:1 murder:1 inner:1 working:1 courtroom:1 critically:2 acclaimed:1 asian:1 cinema:1 produce:2 yasujirō:1 ozu:1 tokyo:1 story:1 kenji:1 mizoguchi:1 ugetsu:1 satyajit:1 ray:2 apu:1 trilogy:1 guru:1 dutt:1 pyaasa:1 akira:1 kurosawa:1 rashomon:1 ikiru:1 seven:1 samurai:1 bring:1 politically:1 drive:1 dramas:1 nuremberg:1 manchurian:1 candidate:1 sport:3 become:2 inspiration:2 hustler:1 downhill:1 racer:1 modern:1 director:1 make:1 first:1 francis:1 coppola:1 direct:5 martin:1 scorsese:1 taxi:1 driver:1 mean:1 street:1 musical:1 new:2 york:2 sylvester:1 stallone:1 create:1 one:1 successful:1 franchise:1 rocky:2 sequel:1 ii:3 addition:1 struggle:1 athlete:1 brian:1 song:1 long:1 yard:1 specifically:1 world:3 give:1 adaptation:1 see:2 time:1 tora:3 patton:1 apocalypse:1 trial:1 still:1 classic:1 emphasis:1 highly:1 right:1 thing:1 spike:1 lee:1 debut:1 color:1 purple:1 full:1 study:1 african:1 american:3 culture:1 big:2 part:1 platoon:1 horror:1 vietnam:1 das:1 boot:1 german:1 viewpoint:1 science:1 fiction:1 edge:2 steven:1 spielberg:1 e:1 extra:1 terrestrial:1 ridley:1 scott:1 blade:1 runner:1 goodfellas:1 take:2 gritty:1 hard:1 look:1 mob:1 set:1 inside:1 prison:1 strong:1 hope:1 holocaust:1 turn:1 existentialist:1 thriller:1 fight:1 club:1 suburban:1 beauty:1 race:1 x:1 aid:1 epidemic:1 discrimination:1 philadelphia:1 feature:1 jerry:1 maguire:1 barton:1 fink:1 biopics:1 pollock:1 ali:1 frida:1 walk:1 line:1 popular:1 among:1 filmmaker:1 particularly:1 seek:1 critical:2 acclaim:2 academy:2 award:3 gladiator:1 along:1 master:1 commander:1 far:1 side:1 gulf:1 similar:1 skirmish:1 black:1 hawk:1 jarhead:1 despite:1 drop:1 popularity:1 enjoy:1 box:1 office:1 success:1 controversial:1 groundbreaking:1 brokeback:1 mountain:1 example:1 win:2 several:1 slumdog:1 millionaire:1 nominate:1 ten:1 go:1 eight:1 best:1 picture:1 reference:1 |@bigram drug_addiction:1 racial_prejudice:1 filmsite_org:2 grape_wrath:1 citizen_kane:1 orson_welles:1 william_randolph:1 randolph_hearst:1 bette_davis:1 marilyn_monroe:1 teenage_angst:1 critically_acclaimed:1 kenji_mizoguchi:1 satyajit_ray:1 guru_dutt:1 akira_kurosawa:1 ikiru_seven:1 seven_samurai:1 manchurian_candidate:1 ford_coppola:1 martin_scorsese:1 taxi_driver:1 sylvester_stallone:1 tora_tora:2 spike_lee:1 science_fiction:1 steven_spielberg:1 ridley_scott:1 blade_runner:1 barton_fink:1 critical_acclaim:1 brokeback_mountain:1 slumdog_millionaire:1 critically_acclaim:1 |
6,199 | Aries_(constellation) | Aries (, or formally ; genitive Arietis ) is one of constellations of the zodiac, located between Pisces to the west and Taurus to the east. Its name is Latin for ram, and its symbol is (), representing a ram's horns. Notable features Stars See also: List of stars in Aries Deep sky objects The few deep sky objects in Aries are very dim. They include the galaxies NGC 697 (northwest of β Ari), NGC 772 (southeast of β Ari), NGC 972 (in the constellation's northern corner), and NGC 1156 (northwest of δ Ari). Visualizations Aries as depicted in Urania's Mirror, a set of constellation cards published in London c.1825 Ancient Greek astronomers visualized Aries as a ram lying down with its head turned to the right. The stars α, β and γ Arietis mark the ram’s head and horns, according to Ptolemy's Almagest. The stars of the constellation can be connected in an alternative way, which graphically shows the ram running (or jumping). In this alternative view, the ram's head consists of the stars α Ari, λ Ari, and β Ari: α Ari being of the second magnitude and β Ari of the third magnitude. The ram's body consists of the stars α Ari, η Ari, ε Ari, 41 Ari, and 35 Ari: ε Ari and 41 Ari being of the fourth magnitude. The ram's tail consists of the stars 35 Ari, 41 Ari, and 39 Ari. The star γ Ari, of fourth magnitude, represents the ram's front foot, and the star δ Ari, also of fourth magnitude, represents the ram's hind foot. Mythology Aries was the final station along the ecliptic in the list of constellations given in the MUL.APIN. It was known as "The Agrarian Worker". It is unclear how the "Agrarian Worker" became "The Ram" of Greek tradition, possibly via association with Dumuzi the Shepherd. Aries only rose to its prominent position in the Neo-Babylonian revision of the Babylonian zodiac as the first point of Aries came to represent vernal equinox, replacing the Pleiades which had had this function during the Bronze Age. John H. Rogers, "Origins of the ancient contellations: I. The Mesopotamian traditions", Journal of the British Astronomical Association 108 (1998) 9–28 In Greek mythology, the constellation of Aries represents the golden ram that rescued Phrixos, taking him to the land of Colchis. Phrixos sacrificed the ram to the gods and hung its skin in a temple, where it was known as the Golden Fleece. "Astronomica", chapter 20, Hyginus, translation by Mary Grant Astrology , the Sun appears in the constellation Aries from April 19 to May 13. In tropical astrology, the Sun is considered to be in the sign Aries from March 21 to April 20, and in sidereal astrology, from April 15 to May 15. References H. A. Rey, The Stars—A New Way To See Them. Enlarged World-Wide Edition. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 1997. ISBN 0-395-24830-2. Ian Ridpath and Wil Tirion (2007). Stars and Planets Guide, Collins, London. ISBN 978-0007251209. Princeton University Press, Princeton. ISBN 978-0691135564. External links The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aries NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Aries Star Tales – Aries | Aries_(constellation) |@lemmatized aries:14 formally:1 genitive:1 arietis:2 one:1 constellation:9 zodiac:2 locate:1 pisces:1 west:1 taurus:1 east:1 name:1 latin:1 ram:13 symbol:1 represent:5 horn:2 notable:1 feature:1 star:12 see:2 also:2 list:2 deep:3 sky:2 object:2 dim:1 include:1 galaxy:1 ngc:4 northwest:2 β:5 ari:20 southeast:1 northern:1 corner:1 δ:2 visualization:1 depict:1 urania:1 mirror:1 set:1 card:1 publish:1 london:2 c:1 ancient:2 greek:3 astronomer:1 visualized:1 lie:1 head:3 turn:1 right:1 α:4 γ:2 mark:1 accord:1 ptolemy:1 almagest:1 connect:1 alternative:2 way:2 graphically:1 show:1 running:1 jump:1 view:1 consist:3 λ:1 second:1 magnitude:5 third:1 body:1 η:1 ε:2 fourth:3 tail:1 front:1 foot:2 hind:1 mythology:2 final:1 station:1 along:1 ecliptic:1 give:1 mul:1 apin:1 know:2 agrarian:2 worker:2 unclear:1 become:1 tradition:2 possibly:1 via:1 association:2 dumuzi:1 shepherd:1 rise:1 prominent:1 position:1 neo:1 babylonian:2 revision:1 first:1 point:1 come:1 vernal:1 equinox:1 replace:1 pleiades:1 function:1 bronze:1 age:1 john:1 h:2 rogers:1 origins:1 contellations:1 mesopotamian:1 journal:1 british:1 astronomical:1 golden:2 rescue:1 phrixos:2 take:1 land:1 colchis:1 sacrifice:1 god:1 hang:1 skin:1 temple:1 fleece:1 astronomica:1 chapter:1 hyginus:1 translation:1 mary:1 grant:1 astrology:3 sun:2 appear:1 april:3 may:2 tropical:1 consider:1 sign:1 march:1 sidereal:1 reference:1 rey:1 new:1 enlarge:1 world:1 wide:1 edition:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 boston:1 isbn:3 ian:1 ridpath:1 wil:1 tirion:1 planet:1 guide:2 collins:1 princeton:2 university:1 press:1 external:1 link:1 photographic:1 nightskyinfo:1 com:1 tale:1 |@bigram constellation_zodiac:1 galaxy_ngc:1 depict_urania:1 urania_mirror:1 α_β:1 β_γ:1 ptolemy_almagest:1 ari_ari:5 neo_babylonian:1 vernal_equinox:1 golden_fleece:1 sidereal_astrology:1 houghton_mifflin:1 ian_ridpath:1 ridpath_wil:1 wil_tirion:1 tirion_star:1 external_link:1 deep_photographic:1 |
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