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6,300 | Asterix | The Adventures of Asterix () is a series of French comic strips written by René Goscinny and illustrated by Albert Uderzo (Uderzo also took over the job of writing the series after the death of Goscinny in 1977). The series first appeared in French in the magazine Pilote on 29 October 1959. As of 2008, 33 comic books in the series have been released. The series follows the exploits of a village of ancient Gauls as they resist Roman occupation. They do so by means of a magic potion, brewed by their druid, which gives the recipient superhuman strength. The protagonist, the titular character, Asterix, along with his friend Obelix have various adventures. In many cases, this leads them to travel to various countries around the world, though other books are set in and around their village. The Asterix series is one of the most popular Franco-Belgian comics in the world, with the series being translated into over 100 languages, and it is popular in most European countries. Asterix is less well known in the United States and Japan. The success of the series has led to the adaptation of several books into films; eight animated, and three with live actors. There have also been a number of games based on the characters, and a theme park near Paris, Parc Astérix, is themed around the series. History Prior to creating the Asterix series, Goscinny and Uderzo had previously had success with their series Oumpah-pah, which was published in the Tintin magazine. Astérix was originally serialised in the magazine Pilote, in the very first issue published on 29 October 1959. In 1961 the first book was put together entitled Asterix the Gaul. From then on, books were released generally on a yearly basis. The Complete Guide To Asterix, Peter Kessler When Goscinny died, Uderzo continued the series alone, though on a less frequent basis. Although Uderzo declared he didn't want anyone to continue the series after his death, which is similar to the request Herge made regarding his The Adventures of Tintin, his attitude has now changed. This has provoked a family row. In a letter published in the french newspaper Le Monde, Uderzo's daughter, Sylvie, has attacked her father's decision for selling the family publishing firm and the rights to produce new Astérix adventures after his death. She is reported as saying the co-creator of Astérix, "France’s comic strip hero, has betrayed the Gaulish warrior to the modern-day Romans - the men of industry and finance”. List of titles Asterix and the Falling Sky, the most recent book in the series. Here is a list of the main thirty three comics in the series. Numbers 1 - 24 and 32 are by both Goscinny and Uderzo. Numbers 25 - 31 and 33 are solely the work of Uderzo. Years stated are for their initial release. 1. Asterix the Gaul (1959) 2. Asterix and the Golden Sickle (1960) 3. Asterix and the Goths (1961-62) 4. Asterix the Gladiator (1962) 5. Asterix and the Banquet (1963) 6. Asterix and Cleopatra (1963) 7. Asterix and the Big Fight (1964) 8. Asterix in Britain (1965) 9. Asterix and the Normans (1966) 10. Asterix the Legionary (1966) 11. Asterix and the Chieftain's Shield (1967) 12. Asterix at the Olympic Games (1968) 13. Asterix and the Cauldron (1968) 14. Asterix in Spain (1969) 15. Asterix and the Roman Agent (1970) 16. Asterix in Switzerland (1970) 17. The Mansions of the Gods (1971) 18. Asterix and the Laurel Wreath (1971) 19. Asterix and the Soothsayer (1972) 20. Asterix in Corsica (1973) 21. Asterix and Caesar's Gift (1974) 22. Asterix and the Great Crossing (1975) 23. Obelix and Co. (1976) 24. Asterix in Belgium (1979) 25. Asterix and the Great Divide (1980) 26. Asterix and the Black Gold (1981) 27. Asterix and Son (1983) 28. Asterix and the Magic Carpet (1987) 29. Asterix and the Secret Weapon (1991) 30. Asterix and Obelix All at Sea (1996) 31. Asterix and the Actress (2001) 32. Asterix and the Class Act (2003) 33. Asterix and the Falling Sky (2005) <center> Asterix Conquers Rome is a comic book adaptation of the animated film The Twelve Tasks of Asterix. It was released in 1976 making it technically the 23rd Asterix volume to be published. But it has been rarely reprinted and is not considered to be canonical to the series. The only English translation ever to be published was in the Asterix Annual 1980. Synopsis and characters The main setting for the series is an unnamed coastal village in Armorica, a province of Gaul (modern France), in the year 50 BC. Julius Caesar has conquered nearly all of Gaul for the Roman Empire, however the little Armorican village has held out because the villagers can gain temporary superhuman strength by drinking a magic potion brewed by the local village druid, Getafix. The main protagonist, and hero of the village, is Asterix, who is usually entrusted with the most important affairs of the village, because of his cunning. He is aided in his adventures by his rather unintelligent friend Obelix, who has permanent superhuman strength, as he fell into the cauldron of the potion as a baby. Obelix is often accompanied by Dogmatix, his little dog. Asterix and Obelix (and sometimes other members of the village), go on various adventures both within the village, and in far away lands. Places visited in the series include parts of Gaul (Lutetia, Corsica etc), neighbouring nations (Belgium, Spain, Britain, Germany etc), and far away lands (North America, Middle East, India etc). The series employs science-fiction and fantasy elements in the more recent books, for instance the use of extraterrestrials in Asterix and the Falling Sky and the city of Atlantis in Asterix and Obelix All at Sea. Humour Various forms of humour are made use of in the series. Translations The 33 main books or albums (one of which is a compendium of short stories) have been translated into more than 100 languages and dialects. Besides the original French, most albums are available in Estonian, English, Dutch, German, Danish, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Finnish, Spanish, Catalan, Basque, Portuguese (and Brazilian Portuguese), Italian, modern Greek, Hungarian, Polish, Romanian, Turkish, Slovenian, Bulgarian, Serbian and Croatian. Beyond modern Europe, some albums have also been translated into languages as diverse as Esperanto, Indonesian, Mandarin, Korean, Japanese, Bengali, Afrikaans, Arabic, Hindi, Hebrew, Frisian, Latin, Romansch and Ancient Greek. In France, in Finland, Poland and especially in Germany, several volumes were translated into a variety of regional languages and dialects, such as Alsatian, Breton and Chtimi (Picard) in France, Swabian and Low German in Germany, Kashubian and Silesian in Poland and Savo, Karelia, Rauma and Helsinki slang dialects in Finland. Also, in Portugal, a special edition of the first volume, Asterix the Gaul, was translated into local language Mirandese. In the Netherlands several volumes were translated into Frisian, a language related to Dutch spoken in the province of Friesland. Also in the Netherlands two volumes were translated into Limburgish, a regional language spoken not only in Dutch Limburg but also in Belgian Limburg and North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Hungarian-language books have been issued in Yugoslavia for the Hungarian minority living in Serbia. Although not a fully autonomic dialect, it slightly differs from the language of the books issued in Hungary. In Greece, a number of volumes have appeared in the Cretan Greek and Pontic Greek dialects and in Ancient Greek. . In Sri Lanka, the cartoon series was adapted into Sinhala as Sura Pappa. English translation The translation of the books into English has been done by Derek Hockridge and Anthea Bell. Adaptations The series has been adapted into various media. Films Various motion pictures based upon the series have been made. Two Romans in Gaul, 1967, live-action, in which Asterix and Obelix appear in a cameo. Asterix the Gaul, 1967, animated, based on the book Asterix the Gaul. Asterix and the Golden Sickle, 1967, animated, based upon the comic book Asterix and the Golden Sickle, incomplete and never released. Asterix and Cleopatra, 1968, animated, based on the book Asterix and Cleopatra. The Twelve Tasks of Asterix, 1976, animated, a unique story not based on an existing comic. Asterix Versus Caesar, 1985, animated, based on both Asterix the Legionary and Asterix the Gladiator. Asterix in Britain, 1986, animated, based upon the book Asterix in Britain. Asterix and Obelix take on Caesar Asterix and the Big Fight, 1989, animated, based on both Asterix and the Big Fight and Asterix and the Soothsayer. Asterix Conquers America, 1994, animated, loosely based upon the comic Asterix and the Great Crossing. Asterix and Obelix take on Caesar, 1999, live-action, based primarily upon Asterix the Gaul, Asterix and the Soothsayer, Asterix and the Goths, Asterix the Legionary, and Asterix the Gladiator. Asterix and Obelix: Mission Cleopatra, 2002, live-action, based upon the comic book Asterix and Cleopatra. Asterix and the Vikings, 2006, animated, based upon the comic book Asterix and the Normans. Asterix and Obelix at the Olympic Games, 2008, live-action, based upon the comic book Asterix at the Olympic Games. Parc Astérix Parc Asterix, a theme park based upon the series, was opened near Paris in 1989. Influence in popular culture Asterix ham and cheese-flavored potato chips The first French satellite, which was launched in 1965, was named Astérix-1 in honour of Asterix. Asteroid 29401 Asterix was also named in honor of the character. During the campaign for Paris to host the 1992 Summer Olympics Asterix appeared in many posters over the Eiffel Tower. The French company Belin introduced a series of "Asterix" potato chips shaped in the forms of Roman shields, gourds, wild boar, and bones. Asterix and Obelix appeared on the cover of Time Magazine for a special edition about France. The animated series Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears also concerns an oppressed group in possession of a magic potion capable of conferring superhuman strength and agility. The 2006 FIFA World Cup final between France and Italy was depicted as a fight between Roman legions and Gaulish villagers in newspapers. Version 4.0 of the operating system OpenBSD features a parody of an Asterix story. OpenBSD 4.0 homepage Action Comics Number 579, published by DC Comics in 1986, Written by Lofficier and Illustrated by Keith Giffen featured a homage to Asterix where Superman and Jimmy Olsen are drawn back in time to a small village of indomitable Gauls. Lisa Simpson is delighted at the sight of a rack with Tintin and Asterix comics in a comic book store, depicted in The Simpsons episode Husbands and Knives. Obelix made an appearance as one of several imaginary characters in the South Park episode Imaginationland III. (Picture 51 on page: http://www.spscriptorium.com/Season11/ImaginationlandGuests.html) Obelix is referenced in The King Blues' 2008 single My Boulder. The song features the lyrics, "If I'm Obelix, You are my boulder". See also List of Asterix volumes List of Asterix games English translations of Asterix Portal:Bande dessinée Roman Gaul, after Julius Caesar's conquest of 58–51 BC that consisted of five provinces. References Sources Astérix publications in Pilote BDoubliées Astérix albums Bedetheque External links Official site Asterix Wikia Asterix around the World – The many languages Asterix NZ– General Reference site for English speaking Fans Alea Jacta Est (Asterix for grown-ups) Each Asterix book is examined in detail Les allusions culturelles dans Astérix - Cultural allusions The Asterix Annotations – album-by-album explanations of all the historical references and obscure in-jokes | Asterix |@lemmatized adventure:7 asterix:98 series:26 french:6 comic:16 strip:2 write:3 rené:1 goscinny:5 illustrate:2 albert:1 uderzo:8 also:9 take:3 job:1 death:3 first:5 appear:5 magazine:4 pilote:3 october:2 book:21 release:5 follow:1 exploit:1 village:10 ancient:3 gaul:13 resist:1 roman:7 occupation:1 mean:1 magic:4 potion:4 brew:2 druid:2 give:1 recipient:1 superhuman:4 strength:4 protagonist:2 titular:1 character:5 along:1 friend:2 obelix:16 various:6 many:3 case:1 lead:2 travel:1 country:2 around:4 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germany:4 north:2 america:2 middle:1 east:1 india:1 employ:1 science:1 fiction:1 fantasy:1 element:1 instance:1 use:2 extraterrestrial:1 city:1 atlantis:1 humour:2 form:2 album:6 compendium:1 short:1 story:3 dialect:5 besides:1 original:1 available:1 estonian:1 dutch:3 german:2 danish:1 icelandic:1 norwegian:1 swedish:1 finnish:1 spanish:1 catalan:1 basque:1 portuguese:2 brazilian:1 italian:1 greek:5 hungarian:3 polish:1 romanian:1 turkish:1 slovenian:1 bulgarian:1 serbian:1 croatian:1 beyond:1 europe:1 diverse:1 esperanto:1 indonesian:1 mandarin:1 korean:1 japanese:1 bengali:1 afrikaans:1 arabic:1 hindi:1 hebrew:1 frisian:2 latin:1 romansch:1 finland:2 poland:2 especially:1 variety:1 regional:2 alsatian:1 breton:1 chtimi:1 picard:1 swabian:1 low:1 kashubian:1 silesian:1 savo:1 karelia:1 rauma:1 helsinki:1 slang:1 portugal:1 special:2 edition:2 mirandese:1 netherlands:2 relate:1 spoken:1 friesland:1 two:2 limburgish:1 speak:1 limburg:2 rhine:1 westphalia:1 yugoslavia:1 minority:1 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6,301 | Fellatio | Fellatio, also called fellation, Fellation - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. is oral sex performed upon the penis. It may be performed to induce orgasm and ejaculation of semen, or it can be used as foreplay prior to vaginal or anal forms of intercourse. Fellatio is commonly referred to as a blow job. Blow job - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Fellatio is also sometimes referred to as "giving head" or "going down", although these terms can also both be used for cunnilingus Dr Melissa Sayer, writing on the BBC "The Surgery" site. . Etymology The English noun fellatio comes from , which in Latin is the past participle of the verb , meaning to suck. In fellatio the -us is replaced by the -io, an alternate form of the suffix -ion. The -ion or -io ending is used in English to create nouns from Latin adjectives and indicate a state or action wherein the Latin verb is being, or has been, performed. Further English words have been created based on the same Latin root. A person who performs fellatio upon another may be termed a fellator. Because of Latin's gender based declension, this word may be restricted by some English speakers to describing a male. The equivalent female term is fellatrix. Cultural significance Illustration by Édouard-Henri Avril Some receivers regard receiving oral sex as an ego boost, believing that such an act is a form of dominance over their sexual partner because of the overt submissive nature of the act; the giver may often be on their knees before the receiver to perform the act of pleasure. Many people have negative feelings about performing or receiving oral sex, and may refuse to do so. In ancient Greece, fellatio was referred to as "playing the flute"; the Kama Sutra has a chapter on oparishtaka, or “mouth congress.” The Badger Herald - The age-old question: Spit or swallow? Religious significance Galienus called fellatio "lesbiari" since women of the island of Lesbos were supposed to have been the introducer of the practice to use one's lips to give sexual pleasure. Irrumation The Ancient Indian Kama Sutra, dating from the first centuries AD, describes oral sex, The actual kama sutra or kamasutra: Part II: On Sexual Union: Chapter IX. On Holding the Lingam in the Mouth by Kamashastra discussing fellatio in great detail and only briefly mentioning cunnilingus. However, according to the Kama Sutra, fellatio is above all a characteristic of eunuchs (or, according to other translations, of effeminate homosexuals or transwomen similar to the modern Hijra of India), who use their mouths as a substitute for female genitalia. The author states that it is also practiced by "unchaste women" but mentions widespread traditional concerns about this being a degrading or unclean practice, with known practitioners being evaded as love partners in large parts of the country. He seems to agree with these attitudes to some extent, claiming "a wise man" should not engage in that form of intercourse while acknowledging that it can be appropriate in some unspecified cases. The religious historian Mircea Eliade speaks of a desire to transcend old age and death and achieve a state of nirvana in the Hindu practice of Tantric yoga. In Tantric yoga the same emphasis is placed on the retention and absorption of vital liquids and Sanskrit texts describe how semen must not be emitted if the yogi is to avoid falling under law of time and death. Eliade Mircea. [1954] 1973. Yoga, Immortality and Freedom. trans. Willard R. Trask. (Princeton: Princeton University Press). p. 267-268 In Islamic literature the only form of sex that is always explicitly prohibited within marriage is sex during menstrual cycles (see islamic view of anal sex). Regarding 'Oral Sex' But the exact attitude towards oral sex is a subject of disagreements between modern scholars of Islam. Authorities considering it "objectionable" do so because of the contact between the supposedly impure fluids emitted during intercourse and the mouth. ZAWAJ.COM: Articles and Essays Others emphasize there is no decisive evidence to forbid it. Islam's Stance on Oral Sex - IslamonLine.net - Ask The Scholar Moche Ceramic Depicting Fellatio. 300 A.D. Larco Museum Collection The Moche culture of ancient Peru worshipped daily life including sexual acts. They depicted fellatio in their ceramics. Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997. Ingestion of semen Nancy Friday's book, Men in Love - Men's Sexual Fantasies: The Triumph of Love over Rage claims that swallowing ejaculate is high on the intimacy scale. Many passive fellators seem to like the taste, which lingers for some time after ejaculation. As late as 1976, doctors were advising women in the eighth and ninth months of pregnancy not to swallow semen lest it induce premature labor, even though it is now known to be perfectly safe. Fellatio is sometimes practiced during pregnancy as a replacement for vaginal sex by couples looking to engage in a sexually pleasurable activity while avoiding the difficulty of vaginal intercourse during the later stages of pregnancy. Is it safe to swallow semen during pregnancy? - BabyCenter Semen ingestion has also had central importance in some cultures around the world. In Baruya culture, there is a secret ritual in which boys give fellatio to young males and drink their semen, in order to "re-engender themselves prior to marriage". Pregnancy Fellatio alone cannot result in pregnancy; there is no way for sperm from the penis to enter the uterus and fallopian tubes to fertilize an egg. In humans, there is no connection between the gastrointestinal system and the reproductive tract. Ingested sperm will be killed and broken down by acid in the stomach and proteins in the small intestine. The breakdown products will be absorbed as a negligible quantity of nutrients. Link to reducing preeclampsia It has been suggested that fellatio may, through "immune modulation", BBC News: "Sex 'primes woman for sperm'." have a beneficial role in preventing dangerous complications during pregnancy. Specifically, several research groups have reported that preeclampsia, a life threatening complication that sometimes arises in pregnancy, is much less frequent in couples who have practiced oral sex, and even more rare in couples where fellatio regularly ended with a woman's swallowing of her partner's semen. The results were statistically significant and are consistent with the fact that semen contains several agents that have important roles in the prevention of preeclampsia, which may arise out of an immunological condition. Taylor RN (1997) "Review: Immunobiology of preeclampsia" American Journal of Reproductive Immunology Volume 37 pp. 79-86 Chaouat et al., (2005) "Fourth International Workshop on Immunology of Pre-eclampsia, December 2004, Reunion, France" Journal of Reproductive Immunology Volume 67 pp. 103-111 According to that view, preeclampsia is caused by a failure of the mother to accept the fetus and placenta, which both contain "foreign" proteins from the father's genes. Regular exposure to the father's semen helps cause her immune system to gradually "grow accustomed" to their proteins. Other studies also found that, while any exposure to the partner's sperm during sex appears to decrease the chances of various disorders, women in couples who have practiced "sex acts other than intercourse" are less than half as likely to suffer preeclampsia. The studies noted that it would be impossible to assume conclusively the likely protective effect of the "other sex acts" including oral sex, or that the correlation between these sexual practices was due to the presence of collinearity induced by some other protective factor not noted in the studies: for example, greater overall frequency of sex. The standard way to resolve such confounding questions in medical science would be through a randomized trial, but there are unique challenges to research in sexual health. Schroder KEE, Carey MP, Vanable PA (2003) Methodological Challenges in Research on Sexual Risk Behavior: I. Item Content, Scaling, and Data Analytical Options. Annals of Behavioral Medicine Volume 26, Issue 2, Pages 76-103. STD risk Chlamydia, human papillomavirus (HPV), gonorrhea, herpes, hepatitis (multiple strains), and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), as well as viruses such as HIV, can be transmitted through oral sex. University Health Center | Sexual Health | Oral Sex While the risk of transmitting HIV through fellatio is not known, it is suspected to be rare. Any kind of direct contact with body fluids of a person infected with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, poses a risk of infection. The risk from most of these types of infection, however, is generally considered far lower than that associated with vaginal or anal sex. If the receiving partner has wounds on their genitals, or if the giving partner has wounds or open sores on or in their mouth, or bleeding gums, this poses an increased risk of STD transmission. Brushing the teeth, flossing, undergoing dental work, or eating crunchy foods such as potato chips relatively soon before or after giving fellatio can also increase the risk of transmission, because all of these activities can cause small scratches in the lining of the mouth. These wounds, even when they are microscopic, increase the chances of contracting STDs that can be transmitted orally under these conditions. Such contact can also lead to more mundane infections from common bacteria and viruses found in, around and secreted from the genital regions. Because of this, some medical professionals advise the use of condoms when performing or receiving fellatio with a partner whose STD status is unknown. Flavoured condoms may be used for this purpose. HPV and oral cancer link In 2005, a research study at Malmö University's Faculty of Odontology suggested that performing unprotected oral sex on a person infected with HPV might increase the risk of oral cancer. The study found that 36 percent of the cancer patients had HPV compared to only 1 percent of the healthy control group. MedIndia: "Oral Sex Linked To Mouth Cancer Risk". Another recent study suggests a correlation between oral sex and throat cancer. It is believed that this is due to the transmission of human papillomavirus or (HPV) because this virus has been implicated in the majority of cervical cancers. The study concludes that people who had one to five oral-sex partners in their lifetime had approximately a doubled risk of throat cancer compared with those who never engaged in this activity and those with more than five oral-sex partners had a 250 percent increased risk. New Scientist: "Oral sex can cause throat cancer" - 09 May 2007 See also Autofellatio Cunnilingus Deep-throating Facial Irrumatio Pearl necklace Oral sex Teabagging References | Fellatio |@lemmatized fellatio:20 also:9 call:2 fellation:2 definition:2 merriam:2 webster:2 online:2 dictionary:2 oral:20 sex:28 perform:8 upon:2 penis:2 may:9 induce:3 orgasm:1 ejaculation:2 semen:10 use:7 foreplay:1 prior:2 vaginal:4 anal:3 form:5 intercourse:5 commonly:1 refer:3 blow:2 job:2 sometimes:3 give:5 head:1 go:1 although:1 term:3 cunnilingus:3 dr:1 melissa:1 sayer:1 write:1 bbc:2 surgery:1 site:1 etymology:1 english:4 noun:2 come:1 latin:5 past:1 participle:1 verb:2 mean:1 suck:1 u:1 replace:1 io:2 alternate:1 suffix:1 ion:2 end:2 create:2 adjective:1 indicate:1 state:3 action:1 wherein:1 far:2 word:2 base:2 root:1 person:3 another:2 fellator:1 gender:1 declension:1 restrict:1 speaker:1 describe:3 male:2 equivalent:1 female:2 fellatrix:1 cultural:1 significance:2 illustration:1 édouard:1 henri:1 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6,302 | COINTELPRO | COINTELPRO (an acronym for Counter Intelligence Program) was a series of covert and often illegal projects conducted by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the United States. The FBI used covert operations from its inception, however formal COINTELPRO operations took place between 1956 and 1971. Churchill, Ward, and Jim Vander Wall, (1990), The COINTELPRO Papers: Documents from the FBI’s Secret Wars Against Domestic Dissent, Boston: South End Press, pp. xii, 303. The FBI motivation at the time was "protecting national security, preventing violence, and maintaining the existing social and political order." According to FBI records, 85% of COINTELPRO resources were expended on infiltrating, disrupting, marginalizing, and/or subverting groups suspected of being subversive, Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri. THE FBI, Yale University Press, 2008, p. 189 such as communist and socialist organizations; the women's rights movement; people suspected of building a "coalition of militant black nationalist groups" ranging from the Black Panther Party and Republic of New Afrika to "those in the non-violent civil rights movement" such as Martin Luther King, Jr. and others associated with the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the Congress of Racial Equality, and other civil rights groups; a broad range of organizations labelled "New Left", including Students for a Democratic Society, the National Lawyers Guild, the Weathermen, almost all groups protesting the Vietnam War, and even individual student demonstrators with no group affiliation; and nationalist groups such as those "seeking independence for Puerto Rico." The other 15% of COINTELPRO resources were expended to marginalize and subvert "white hate groups," including the Ku Klux Klan and National States' Rights Party. Various Church Committee reports reproduced online at ICDC: Final Report, 2A; Final Report,2Cb; Final Report, 3A; Final Report, 3G. Various COINTELPRO documents reproduced online at ICDC: CPUSA; SWP; Black Nationalist; White Hate; New Left; Puerto Rico. The directives governing COINTELPRO were issued by FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, who ordered FBI agents to "expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize" the activities of these movements and their leaders. COINTELPRO Revisited - Spying & Disruption - IN BLACK AND WHITE: THE F.B.I. PAPERS History COINTELPRO began in 1956 and was designed to "increase factionalism, cause disruption and win defections" inside the Communist Party U.S.A. (CPUSA). However, the program was soon enlarged to include disruption of the Socialist Workers Party (1961), the Ku Klux Klan (1964), the Nation of Islam, the Black Panther Party (1967), and the entire New Left socio-political movement, which included antiwar, community, and religious groups (1968). A later investigation by the Senate's Church Committee (see below) stated that "COINTELPRO began in 1956, in part because of frustration with Supreme Court rulings limiting the Government's power to proceed overtly against dissident groups..." Congress and several court cases See, for example, Hobson v. Wilson, 737 F.2d 1 (1984); Rugiero v. U.S. Dept. of Justice, 257 F.3d 534, 546 (2001). later concluded that the COINTELPRO operations against communist and socialist groups exceeded statutory limits on FBI activity and violated constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech and association. The program was secret until 1971, when an FBI field office in Media, Pennsylvania was burglarized by a group of left-wing radicals calling themselves the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI. Several dossiers of files were taken and the information passed to news agencies, many of which initially refused to publish the information. Within the year, Director Hoover declared that the centralized COINTELPRO was over, and that all future counterintelligence operations would be handled on a case-by-case basis. A Short History of FBI COINTELPRO. Retrieved July 13, 2007. Further documents were revealed in the course of separate lawsuits filed against the FBI by NBC correspondent Carl Stern, the Socialist Workers Party, and a number of other groups. A major investigation was launched in 1976 by the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities of the United States Senate, commonly referred to as the "Church Committee" for its chairman, Senator Frank Church of Idaho. However, millions of pages of documents remain unreleased, and many released documents have been partly, or entirely, redacted. In the Final Report of the Select Committee, COINTELPRO was castigated in no uncertain terms: Many of the techniques used would be intolerable in a democratic society even if all of the targets had been involved in violent activity, but COINTELPRO went far beyond that...the Bureau conducted a sophisticated vigilante operation aimed squarely at preventing the exercise of First Amendment rights of speech and association, on the theory that preventing the growth of dangerous groups and the propagation of dangerous ideas would protect the national security and deter violence. The Church Committee documented a history of FBI directors' using the agency for purposes of political repression as far back as World War I, through the 1920s, when they were charged with rounding up "anarchists and revolutionaries" for deportation, and then building from 1936 through 1976. Range of targets In an interview with the BBC's Andrew Marr, MIT professor of linguistics and political activist Noam Chomsky spoke about the purpose and the targets of COINTELPRO saying, "COINTELPRO was a program of subversion carried out not by a couple of petty crooks but by the national political police, the FBI, under four administrations...by the time it got through, I won't run through the whole story, it was aimed at the entire new left, at the women's movement, at the whole black movement, it was extremely broad. Its actions went as far as political assassination." Video at YouTube According to the Church Committee: While the declared purposes of these programs were to protect the "national security" or prevent violence, Bureau witnesses admit that many of the targets were nonviolent and most had no connections with a foreign power. Indeed, nonviolent organizations and individuals were targeted because the Bureau believed they represented a "potential" for violence -- and nonviolent citizens who were against the war in Vietnam were targeted because they gave "aid and comfort" to violent demonstrators by lending respectability to their cause. The imprecision of the targeting is demonstrated by the inability of the Bureau to define the subjects of the programs. The Black Nationalist program, according to its supervisor, included "a great number of organizations that you might not today characterize as black nationalist but which were in fact primarily black." Thus, the nonviolent Southern Christian Leadership Conference was labeled as a Black Nationalist-"Hate Group." Furthermore, the actual targets were chosen from a far broader group than the titles of the programs would imply. The CPUSA program targeted not only Communist Party members but also sponsors of the National Committee to Abolish the House Un-American Activities Committee and civil rights leaders allegedly under Communist influence or deemed to be not sufficiently "anti-Communist". The Socialist Workers Party program included non-SWP sponsors of anti-war demonstrations which were cosponsored by the SWP or the Young Socialist Alliance, its youth group. The Black Nationalist program targeted a range of organizations from the Panthers to SNCC to the peaceful Southern Christian Leadership Conference, and included every Black Student Union and many other black student groups. New Left targets ranged from the SDS to the InterUniversity Committee for Debate on Foreign Policy, from Antioch College ("vanguard of the New Left") to the New Mexico Free University and other "alternate" schools, and from underground newspapers to students' protesting university censorship of a student publication by carrying signs with four-letter words on them. Examples of surveillance, legal and illegal, contained in the Church Committee report: http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm President Roosevelt asked the FBI to put in its files the names of citizens sending telegrams to the White House opposing his "national defense" policy and supporting Col. Charles Lindbergh. President Truman received inside information on a former Roosevelt aide's efforts to influence his appointments, labor union negotiating plans, and the publishing plans of journalists. The Kennedy Administration had the FBI wiretap a Congressional staff member, three executive officials, a lobbyist, and a Washington law firm. US Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy received the fruits of an FBI "tap" on Martin Luther King, Jr. and a "bug" on a Congressman, both of which yielded information of a political nature. President Johnson asked the FBI to conduct "name checks" of his critics and members of the staff of his 1964 opponent, Senator Barry Goldwater. He also requested purely political intelligence on his critics in the Senate, and received extensive intelligence reports on political activity at the 1964 Democratic Convention from FBI electronic surveillance. The COINTELPRO documents disclose numerous cases of the FBI's intentions to stop the mass protest against the Vietnam War. Many techniques were used to accomplish the assignment. "These included promoting splits among antiwar forces, encouraging red-baiting of socialists, and pushing violent confrontations as an alternative to massive, peaceful demonstrations." One 1966 Cointelpro operation attempted to redirect the Socialist Workers Party from their pledge of support for the antiwar movement. Blackstock, Nelson. COINTELPRO: The FBI's Secret War on Political Freedom, Pathfinder, New York. 1975. p. 111. The FBI claims that it no longer undertakes COINTELPRO or COINTELPRO-like operations. However, critics claim that agency programs in the spirit of COINTELPRO targeted groups like the Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador, Gelbspan, Ross. (1991) Break-Ins, Death Threats, and the FBI: The Covert War Against the Central America Movement, Boston: South End Press. the American Indian Movement, Churchill, Ward; and James Vander Wall. Agents of Repression: The FBI's Secret Wars against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement, 1988, Boston, South End Press. Earth First! Pickett, Karen. "Earth First! Takes the FBI to Court: Judi Bari and Darryl Cherney’s Case Heard after 12 Years," Earth First Journal, no date. , the White Separatist Movement The Railroading of Matt Hale by Edgar J. Steele , and the Anti-Globalization Movement. Methods According to attorney Brian Glick in his book War at Home, the FBI used four main methods during COINTELPRO: Infiltration: Agents and informers did not merely spy on political activists. Their main purpose was to discredit and disrupt. Their very presence served to undermine trust and scare off potential supporters. The FBI and police exploited this fear to smear genuine activists as agents. Psychological Warfare From the Outside: The FBI and police used myriad other "dirty tricks" to undermine progressive movements. They planted false media stories and published bogus leaflets and other publications in the name of targeted groups. They forged correspondence, sent anonymous letters, and made anonymous telephone calls. They spread misinformation about meetings and events, set up pseudo movement groups run by government agents, and manipulated or strong-armed parents, employers, landlords, school officials and others to cause trouble for activists. Harassment Through the Legal System: The FBI and police abused the legal system to harass dissidents and make them appear to be criminals. Officers of the law gave perjured testimony and presented fabricated evidence as a pretext for false arrests and wrongful imprisonment. They discriminatorily enforced tax laws and other government regulations and used conspicuous surveillance, "investigative" interviews, and grand jury subpoenas in an effort to intimidate activists and silence their supporters. Extralegal Force and Violence: The FBI and police threatened, instigated, and themselves conducted break-ins, vandalism, assaults, and beatings. The object was to frighten dissidents and disrupt their movements. In the case of radical Black and Puerto Rican activists (and later Native Americans), these attacks—including political assassinations — were so extensive, vicious, and calculated that they can accurately be termed a form of official "terrorism". The FBI also conducted more than 200 "black bag jobs", FBI document, 19 July 1966, DeLoach to Sullivan re: "Black Bag" Jobs. which were warrantless surreptitious entries, against the targeted groups and their members. http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm, retrieved August 14, 2005. In 1969 the FBI special agent in San Francisco wrote Hoover that his investigation of the Black Panther Party (BPP) revealed that in his city, at least, the Black nationalists were primarily feeding breakfast to children. Hoover fired back a memo implying the career ambitions of the agent were directly related to his supplying evidence to support Hoover's view that the BPP was "a violence-prone organization seeking to overthrow the Government by revolutionary means". FBI document, 27 May 1969, Director FBI to SAC San Francisco. Available at the FBI reading room. Hoover was willing to use false claims to attack his political enemies. In one memo he wrote: "Purpose of counterintelligence action is to disrupt the BPP and it is immaterial whether facts exist to substantiate the charge." FBI document, 16 September 1970, Director FBI to SAC's in Baltimore, Detroit, Los Angeles, New Haven, San Francisco, and Washington Field Office. Available at the FBI reading room. In one particularly controversial 1965 incident, civil rights worker Viola Liuzzo was murdered by Ku Klux Klansmen who gave chase and fired shots into her car after noticing that her passenger was a young black man; one of the Klansmen was acknowledged FBI informant Gary Thomas Rowe. Gary May, The Informant: The FBI, the Ku Klux Klan, and the Murder of Viola Luzzo, Yale University Press, 2005. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/30/AR2005063001422_pf.html Afterward COINTELPRO spread false rumors that Liuzzo was a member of the Communist Party and abandoned her children to have sexual relationships with African Americans involved in the civil rights movement. Mary Stanton, FROM SELMA TO SORROW: The Life and Death of Viola Liuzzo, University of Georgia Press, 2000 http://www.plantingseedsmedia.com/violaliuzzo.html FBI informant Rowe has also been implicated in some of the most violent crimes of the 1960s civil rights era, including attacks on the Freedom Riders and the 1963 Birmingham, Alabama 16th Street Baptist Church bombing. In another instance in San Diego the FBI financed, armed, and controlled an extreme right-wing group of former Minutemen, transforming it into a group called the Secret Army Organization which targeted groups, activists, and leaders involved in the Anti-War Movement for both intimidation and violent acts. http://www.chomsky.info/books/responsibility01.htm http://osdir.com/ml/culture.discuss.cia-drugs/2005-10/msg00404.html http://crca.ucsd.edu/~esisco/friendlyfire/A1972.html http://www.start.umd.edu/data/tops/terrorist_organization_profile.asp?id=4258 Hoover ordered preemptive action "to pinpoint potential troublemakers and neutralize them before they exercise their potential for violence." http://www.opednews.com/articles/J-Edgar-Hoover-personally-by-Michael-Richardson-090123-327.html Illegal surveillance The final report of the Church Committee concluded: Too many people have been spied upon by too many Government agencies and too much information has been collected. The Government has often undertaken the secret surveillance of citizens on the basis of their political beliefs, even when those beliefs posed no threat of violence or illegal acts on behalf of a hostile foreign power. The Government, operating primarily through secret informants, but also using other intrusive techniques such as wiretaps, microphone "bugs", surreptitious mail opening, and break-ins, has swept in vast amounts of information about the personal lives, views, and associations of American citizens. Investigations of groups deemed potentially dangerous -- and even of groups suspected of associating with potentially dangerous organizations -- have continued for decades, despite the fact that those groups did not engage in unlawful activity. Groups and individuals have been harassed and disrupted because of their political views and their lifestyles. Investigations have been based upon vague standards whose breadth made excessive collection inevitable. Unsavory and vicious tactics have been employed -- including anonymous attempts to break up marriages, disrupt meetings, ostracize persons from their professions, and provoke target groups into rivalries that might result in deaths. Intelligence agencies have served the political and personal objectives of presidents and other high officials. While the agencies often committed excesses in response to pressure from high officials in the Executive branch and Congress, they also occasionally initiated improper activities and then concealed them from officials whom they had a duty to inform. Governmental officials -- including those whose principal duty is to enforce the law --have violated or ignored the law over long periods of time and have advocated and defended their right to break the law. The Constitutional system of checks and balances has not adequately controlled intelligence activities. Until recently the Executive branch has neither delineated the scope of permissible activities nor established procedures for supervising intelligence agencies. Congress has failed to exercise sufficient oversight, seldom questioning the use to which its appropriations were being put. Most domestic intelligence issues have not reached the courts, and in those cases when they have reached the courts, the judiciary has been reluctant to grapple with them. Reports that COINTELPRO tactics continue While COINTELPRO was officially terminated in April 1971, suspicions persist that the program's tactics continued informally. David Cunningham. There's Something Happening Here: The New Left, the Klan, and FBI. University of California Press, 2005: "However, strong suspicions lingered that the program's tactics were sustained on a less formal basis—suspicions sometimes furthered by agents themselves, who periodically claimed that counterintelligence activities were continuing, though in a manner undocumented within Bureau files."; Hobson v. Brennan, 646 F.Supp. 884 (D.D.C.,1986) Bud Schultz, Ruth Schultz. The Price of Dissent: Testimonies to Political Repression in America. University of California Press, 2001: "Although the FBI officially discontinued COINTELPRO immediately after the Pennsylvania disclosures "for security reasons," when pressed by the Senate committee, the bureau acknowledged two new instances of "Cointelpro-type" operations. The committee was left to discover a third, apparently illegal operation on its own." Critics have suggested that subsequent FBI actions indicate that post-COINTELPRO reforms in the agency did not succeed in ending the program's tactics. Athan G. Theoharis, et al. The FBI: A Comprehensive Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999: "More recent controversies have focused on the adequacy of recent restrictions on the Bureau's domestic intelligence operations.. Disclosures of the 1970s that FBI agents continued to conduct break-ins, and of the 1980s that the FBI targeted CISPES, again brought forth accusations of FBI abuses of power — and raised questions of whether reforms of the 1970s had successfully exorcised the ghost of FBI Director Hoover." The Associated Press reported in November 2008 that documents released under the FOIA reportedly show that the FBI tracked the late Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist and author David Halberstam for more than two decades. SEE: Associated Press. FBI tracked journalist for over 20 years. Toronto Star. Nov 07, 2008. http://www.thestar.com/News/World/article/533203 Retrieved November 23, 2008. SEE: Associated Press. Report: FBI kept file on writer David Halberstam. November 07, 2008. http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5gHBk0Wtol8FN8SMpFQIYL5CPxXfwD94AF32O0 Retrieved November 23, 2008. QUOTE: "The FBI tracked the late Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist and author David Halberstam for more than two decades, newly released documents show A review by The Washington Post shows that Maryland activists were wrongly labeled as terrorists in state and federal databases by state police's Homeland Security and Intelligence Division from 2005 to at least early 2007. SEE: "Many Groups Spied Upon In Md. Were Nonviolent", by Lisa Rein and Josh White. Washington Post. Nov 19, 2008; Page B01. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/18/AR2008111803487.html Retrieved November 28, 2008. “Counterterrorism” guidelines implemented during the Reagan administration have been described as undercutting these reforms, allowing a return to earlier tactics.Bud Schultz, Ruth Schultz. The Price of Dissent: Testimonies to Political Repression in America. University of California Press, 2001: : "The problem persists after Hoover…."The record before this court," Federal Magistrate Joan Lefkow stated in 1991, "shows that despite regulations, orders and consent decrees prohibiting such activities, the FBI had continued to collect information concerning only the exercise of free speech." Some radical groups accuse factional opponents of being FBI informants or assume the FBI is infiltrating the movement. Mike Mosedale, "Bury My Heart," City Pages, Volume 21 - Issue 1002 - Cover Story - February 16, 2000 Several authors have accused the FBI of continuing to deploy COINTELPRO-like tactics against radical groups after the official COINTELPRO operations were ended. Several authors have suggested the American Indian Movement (AIM) has been a target of such operations. A few authors go further and allege that the federal government intended to acquire uranium deposits on the Lakota tribe's reservation land, and that this motivated a larger government conspiracy against AIM activists on the Pine Ridge reservation. Weyler, Rex. Blood of the Land: The Government and Corporate War Against First Nations. Matthiessen, Peter, In the Spirit of Crazy Horse, 1980, Viking. Woidat, Caroline M. The Truth Is on the Reservation: American Indians and Conspiracy Culture, The Journal of American Culture 29 (4), 2006. Pages 454–467 Others believe COINTELPRO continues and similar actions are being taken against activist groups. McQuinn, Jason. "Conspiracy Theory vs Alternative Journalism", Alternative Press Review, Vol. 2, No. 3, Winter 1996 Horowitz, David. "Johnnie's Other O.J.", FrontPageMagazine.com. September 1, 1997. Caroline Woidat argued that with respect to Native Americans, COINTELPRO should be understood within a historical context in which "Native Americans have been viewed and have viewed the world themselves through the lens of conspiracy theory." Woidat, Caroline M. "The Truth Is on the Reservation: American Indians and Conspiracy Culture", The Journal of American Culture 29 (4), 2006. pp. 454–467. Other authors note that while there are conspiracy theories related to COINTELPRO, the issue of ongoing government surveillance and repression is nonetheless real. Berlet, Chip. “The X-Files Movie: Facilitating Fanciful Fun, or Fueling Fear and Fascism? Conspiracy Theories for Fun, Not for False Prophets”, 1998, Political Research Associates Berlet, Chip; and Matthew N. Lyons. 1998, "One key to litigating against government prosecution of dissidents: Understanding the underlying assumptions", Parts 1 and 2, Police Misconduct and Civil Rights Law Report (West Group), 5 (13), (January–February): 145–153; and 5 (14), (March–April): 157–162. See also Agent provocateur Brown, H. Rap, targeted by COINTELPRO :Category:COINTELPRO targets Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI Franklin, H. Bruce, targeted by COINTELPRO Hampton, Fred, targeted by COINTELPRO Viola Liuzzo, murdered by a shot from a car used by four Ku Klux Klansmen, one of whom was a COINTELPRO informant NSA call database Operation Mockingbird Police brutality Security culture Red squad - Police intelligence/anti-dissident units, later operated under COINTELPRO Starsky, Morris, early target of COINTELPRO Surveillance The COINTELPRO Papers THERMCON Weathermen References Further reading Books Theoharis, Athan, Spying on Americans: Political Surveillance from Hoover to the Huston Plan (Temple University Press, 1978). Articles Drabble, John. "The FBI, COINTELPRO-WHITE HATE and the Decline of Ku Klux Klan Organizations in Mississippi, 1964–1971", Journal of Mississippi History, 66:4, (Winter 2004). Drabble, John. "The FBI, COINTELPRO-WHITE HATE and the Decline Ku Klux Klan Organizations in Alabama, 1964–1971", Alabama Review, 61:1, (January 2008): 3-47. Drabble, John. "To Preserve the Domestic Tranquility:” The FBI, COINTELPRO-WHITE HATE, and Political Discourse, 1964–1971", Journal of American Studies, 38:3, (August 2004): 297-328. Drabble, John. "Fighting Black Power-New Left coalitions: Covert FBI media campaigns and American cultural discourse, 1967-1971," European Journal of American Culture, 27:2, (2008): 65-91. U.S. government reports U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Internal Security. Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Operations for Internal Security Purposes. 93rd Cong., 2d sess, 1974. U.S. Congress. House. Select Committee on Intelligence. Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Programs. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Government Operations. Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. Hearings on Riots, Civil and Criminal Disorders. 90th Cong., 1st sess. - 91st Cong. , 2d sess, 1967–1970. U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. Hearings — The National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights. Vol. 6. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. Hearings — Federal Bureau of Investigation. Vol. 6. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975. U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. Final Report — Book II, Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976. U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. Final Report — Book III, Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976. External links Documentary "Me and My Shadow": A History of the FBI's Covert Operations and COINTELPRO - Part 1". 34:21 minute Real Audio. Produced by Adi Gevins, Pacifica Radio. 1976. Rebroadcast by Democracy Now! Wednesday, June 5, 2002. Retrieved May 12, 2005. "'Me and My Shadow': A History of the FBI's Covert Operations and COINTELPRO - Part 2". 13:43 minute Real Audio. Produced by Adi Gevins, Pacifica Radio. 1976. Rebroadcast by Democracy Now! Thursday, June 6, 2002. Retrieved May 12, 2005. Websites COINTELPRO videos on African American History Channel Paul Wolf's COINTELPRO website, a detailed reference site. Retrieved April 19, 2005. COINTELPRO STILL LIVES by Sista Shiriki Unganisha COINTELPRO: The Untold American Story - presented to U.N. World Conference Against Racism 2001 by the U.S. Congressional Black Caucus Nation of Islam website's section on COINTELPRO, includes an assortment of documents, links and references. The Judi Bari case, COINTELPRO in the 1990s. Retrieved April 19, 2005. COINTELPRO: the Sabotage of Legitimate Dissent, What Really Happened, June 5, 1998. Fake Black Panther Party coloring book distributed by the FBI COINTELPRO-WHITE HATE Operation Against the Ku Klux Klan Articles McKinney, Cynthia. Article regarding COINTELPRO on CounterPunch Jakopovich, Dan. The COINTELPRO programme against the Socialist Workers' Party U.S. government reports Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. United States Senate, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, April 26 (legislative day, April 14), 1976. [AKA "Church Committee Report"]. Archived on COINTELPRO sources website. Transcription and html by Paul Wolf. Retrieved April 19, 2005. Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans, Book II I. Introduction and Summary II. The Growth of Domestic Intelligence: 1936 to 1976 III. Findings (A) Violating and Ignoring the Law (B) Overbreadth of Domestic Intelligence Activity (C) Excessive Use of Intrusive Techniques (D) Using Covert Action to Disrupt and Discredit Domestic Groups (E) Political Abuse of Intelligence Information (F) Inadequate Controls on Dissemination and Retention (G) Deficiencies in Control and Accountability IV. Conclusions and Recommendations Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports, Book III COINTELPRO: The FBI's Covert Action Programs Against American Citizens Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study The FBI's Covert Action Program to Destroy the Black Panther Party The Use of Informants in FBI Intelligence Investigations Warrantless FBI Electronic Surveillance Warrantless Surreptitious Entries: FBI "Black Bag" Break-ins And Microphone Installations The Development of FBI Domestic Intelligence Investigations Domestic CIA and FBI Mail Opening CIA Intelligence Collection About Americans: CHAOS Program And The Office of Security National Security Agency Surveillance Affecting Americans Improper Surveillance of Private Citizens By The Military The Internal Revenue Service: An Intelligence Resource and Collector National Security, Civil Liberties, And The Collection of Intelligence: A Report On The Huston Plan | COINTELPRO |@lemmatized cointelpro:62 acronym:1 counter:1 intelligence:30 program:19 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6,303 | Kariba_Dam | The Kariba Dam is a hydroelectric dam in the Kariba Gorge of the Zambezi river basin between Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is one of the largest dams in the world at 128 m high and 579 m long. Construction The construction of the Kariba Dam in the 1950s. The double curvature concrete arch dam was constructed between 1955 and 1959 by Impresit of Italy Spurwing facts at a cost of $135,000,000 for the first stage with only the Kariba South power cavern. Final construction and the addition of the Kariba North Power cavern by Mitchell Construction Indictment: Power & Politics in the Construction Industry, David Morrell, Faber & Faber, 1987, ISBN 978-0571149858 was not completed until 1977 due to largely political problems for a total cost of $480,000,000. Some 86 men lost their lives during construction. Power generation Image showing the dangers faced by the workers. The Kariba supplies 1320 MW of electricity to parts of both Zambia (the Copperbelt) and Zimbabwe and generates 6400 GW·h (23 PJ) per annum. Lake Kariba, the reservoir created by the dam, extends for 280 km with a storage capacity of 180 km³. Environmental impacts Population displacement and resettlement The creation of the reservoir forced resettlement of about 57,000 Tonga people living along the Zambezi in both Zambia and Zimbabwe. Several thousand large animals threatened by the rising water were rescued by Operation Noah, but the people resettled for the project had no such "rescue" effort, and were forced to leave their homes and fertile lands that had been under cultivation for hundreds of years. The reservoir flooded the communities where for centuries these people had farmed, fished, worshipped, raised their children and buried their dead. They were resettled to poor lands with no development assistance, and left to fend for themselves. According to anthropologist Thayer Scudder, who has studied these communities since the late 1950s, "Today, most are still 'development refugees.' Many live in less-productive, problem-prone areas, some of which have been so seriously degraded within the last generation that they resemble lands on the edge of the Sahara Desert. A 2005 book, "Deep Water" by Jacques Leslie focused on the plight of the people resettled by the dam, and found the situation little changed. Kariba remains the worst dam-resettlement disaster in African history. Basilwizi Trust aBantulanga Lexicography: Progenitorial aBantu Meaning Detail (bmd) basiLizwi, bmd {isiXhosa: Lizwi' translation, 'voice} [end of bmd] In a quest to restore their lives and find justice, the Tonga formed their own advocacy group in 2000, the Basilwizi Trust. Basilwizi sees itself as a culmination of numerous efforts by the affected people to be heard by the government authorities. They are working to define their needs, and to help the whole community gain skills to directly lobby decision-makers. In 2005, Basilwizi conducted extensive research on the socio-economic status of the Tonga people. Their report states: “The Gwembe Tonga on the Zambian side and the Zimbabwean Tonga are one; but due to separation brought about by the dam, they are now considered different people. Their languages have become slightly different over the years. Some, especially on the Zimbabwean side, no longer speak Tonga, the language of their ancestors, due to dominance of other indigenous languages.” Basilwizi is now undertaking new activities to revive the Tonga culture, in order to preserve the language and to build local access to education. They are also focusing on food security and access to electricity, still lacking after 50 years. The group is also calling on the World Bank and other parties involved in building the dam to bring justice to the Tonga. “Calls for reparation, coming many years after the displacement of these people from the land of their ancestors, have not yielded any significant benefits,” observes Basilwizi in its recent report. “Such compensation could be in monetary terms, decommissioning of the dam, official recognition of past and current injustices suffered, or complete restoration of the ecosystems. A new dialog to correct the wrongs committed should commence. The Tonga are … trying to find solutions to their predicament and to rise out of the imposed poverty. The perpetrators should not look at this as a social obligation but a realization that this could have been done better and so what economic, political and cultural program can follow.” River ecology It controls 40% of the total runoff of the Zambezi River, thus changing the downstream ecology quite dramatically. Wildlife rescue From 1960 to 1961, 'Operation Noah' captured and removed around 6,000 large animals and numerous small ones threatened by the lake's rising waters. Recent activity On the 6th of February 2008, the BBC reported that heavy rain might lead to a release of water from the dam, which would force 50,000 people downstream to evacuate. Floodgates to open in Mozambique See also Lake Kariba Nyaminyami Footnotes External links A Better Mousetrap | Kariba_Dam |@lemmatized kariba:9 dam:12 hydroelectric:1 gorge:1 zambezi:3 river:3 basin:1 zambia:3 zimbabwe:3 one:3 large:3 world:2 high:1 long:1 construction:6 double:1 curvature:1 concrete:1 arch:1 construct:1 impresit:1 italy:1 spurwing:1 fact:1 cost:2 first:1 stage:1 south:1 power:4 cavern:2 final:1 addition:1 north:1 mitchell:1 indictment:1 politics:1 industry:1 david:1 morrell:1 faber:2 isbn:1 complete:2 due:3 largely:1 political:2 problem:2 total:2 men:1 lose:1 life:2 generation:2 image:1 show:1 danger:1 face:1 worker:1 supply:1 mw:1 electricity:2 part:1 copperbelt:1 generate:1 gw:1 h:1 pj:1 per:1 annum:1 lake:3 reservoir:3 create:1 extend:1 km:1 storage:1 capacity:1 environmental:1 impact:1 population:1 displacement:2 resettlement:3 creation:1 force:3 tonga:9 people:9 live:2 along:1 several:1 thousand:1 animal:2 threaten:2 rise:3 water:4 rescue:3 operation:2 noah:2 resettle:3 project:1 effort:2 leave:2 home:1 fertile:1 land:4 cultivation:1 hundred:1 year:4 flood:1 community:3 century:1 farm:1 fish:1 worship:1 raise:1 child:1 bury:1 dead:1 poor:1 development:2 assistance:1 fend:1 accord:1 anthropologist:1 thayer:1 scudder:1 study:1 since:1 late:1 today:1 still:2 refugee:1 many:2 less:1 productive:1 prone:1 area:1 seriously:1 degrade:1 within:1 last:1 resemble:1 edge:1 sahara:1 desert:1 book:1 deep:1 jacques:1 leslie:1 focus:2 plight:1 find:3 situation:1 little:1 change:2 remain:1 bad:1 disaster:1 african:1 history:1 basilwizi:6 trust:2 abantulanga:1 lexicography:1 progenitorial:1 abantu:1 meaning:1 detail:1 bmd:3 basilizwi:1 isixhosa:1 lizwi:1 translation:1 voice:1 end:1 quest:1 restore:1 justice:2 form:1 advocacy:1 group:2 see:2 culmination:1 numerous:2 affected:1 hear:1 government:1 authority:1 work:1 define:1 need:1 help:1 whole:1 gain:1 skill:1 directly:1 lobby:1 decision:1 maker:1 conduct:1 extensive:1 research:1 socio:1 economic:2 status:1 report:3 state:1 gwembe:1 zambian:1 side:2 zimbabwean:2 separation:1 bring:2 consider:1 different:2 language:4 become:1 slightly:1 especially:1 longer:1 speak:1 ancestor:2 dominance:1 indigenous:1 undertake:1 new:2 activity:2 revive:1 culture:1 order:1 preserve:1 build:2 local:1 access:2 education:1 also:3 food:1 security:1 lack:1 call:2 bank:1 party:1 involve:1 reparation:1 come:1 yield:1 significant:1 benefit:1 observe:1 recent:2 compensation:1 could:2 monetary:1 term:1 decommissioning:1 official:1 recognition:1 past:1 current:1 injustice:1 suffer:1 restoration:1 ecosystem:1 dialog:1 correct:1 wrong:1 commit:1 commence:1 try:1 solution:1 predicament:1 imposed:1 poverty:1 perpetrator:1 look:1 social:1 obligation:1 realization:1 well:1 cultural:1 program:1 follow:1 ecology:2 control:1 runoff:1 thus:1 downstream:2 quite:1 dramatically:1 wildlife:1 capture:1 remove:1 around:1 small:1 february:1 bbc:1 heavy:1 rain:1 might:1 lead:1 release:1 would:1 evacuate:1 floodgate:1 open:1 mozambique:1 nyaminyami:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 good:1 mousetrap:1 |@bigram hydroelectric_dam:1 zambezi_river:2 zambia_zimbabwe:2 faber_faber:1 per_annum:1 sahara_desert:1 socio_economic:1 external_link:1 |
6,304 | Ivory-billed_woodpecker | The Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) is, or was, a very large member of the family Picidae. It was considered extinct for many years until a series of possible sightings beginning in 1999. It is currently officially listed as a critically endangered species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) after being upgraded from extinct in 2000. Reports of at least one male bird in Arkansas in 2004 and 2005 were suggested in April 2005 by a team led by the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology (Fitzpatrick et al., 2005). If confirmed, this would make the Ivory-billed Woodpecker a lazarus species, a species that is rediscovered alive after being considered extinct for some time. In June 2006, a $10,000 reward was offered for information leading to the discovery of an Ivory-billed Woodpecker nest, roost or feeding site. As of December 2008 the Cornell lab of ornithology announces a reward of $50,000 dollars on their website to the person who can successfully lead a project biologist to a living Ivory-billed Woodpecker. In late September 2006, a team of ornithologists from Auburn University and the University of Windsor published a paper detailing suggestive evidence for the existence of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers along the Choctawhatchee River in northwest Florida (Hill et al., 2006). Despite the initial reports from both Arkansas or Florida, conclusive evidence for the existence of a population of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, in the form of unambiguous photographs/videos, specimens, or DNA from feathers, has not been forthcoming. Nonetheless, land acquisition and restoration efforts are currently underway to protect the possible survival of this woodpecker. Description The contrast in plumage of the male (above) and female (below). The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is the second largest woodpecker in the world, and the largest in the United States. The largest of all woodpeckers is the closely related Imperial Woodpecker (C. imperialis) of western Mexico, another rare species which is very likely to be extinct. The Ivory-billed has a total length of 20 inches (50 centimeters) and weighs 20 ounces (570 grams). It has a 30 inch (75 centimeters) wing span. The bird is shiny blue-black with white markings on its neck and back and extensive white on the trailing edge of both the upper- and underwing. The underwing is also white along its forward edge, resulting in a black line running along the middle of the underwing, expanding to more extensive black at the wingtip. In adults, the bill is ivory in color, chalky white in juveniles. Ivory-bills have a prominent crest, although in juveniles it is ragged. The crest is black in juveniles and females. In males, the crest is black along its forward edge, changing abruptly to red on the side and rear. The chin of an ivory-bill is black. When perched with the wings folded, ivory-bills of both sexes present a large patch of white on the lower back, roughly triangular in shape. These characteristics distinguish it from the smaller and darker-billed Pileated Woodpecker. The Pileated normally is brownish-black, smoky, or slaty black in color. It also has a white neck stripe but the back is normally black. Pileated juveniles and adults have a red crest and a white chin. Pileateds normally have no white on the trailing edges of their wings and when perched normally show only a small patch of white on each side of the body near the edge of the wing. However, Pileated Woodpeckers, apparently aberrant individuals, have been reported with white trailing edges on the wings, forming a white triangular patch on the lower back when perched. Like all woodpeckers, the ivory-bill has a strong and straight bill and a long, mobile, hard-tipped, barbed tongue. Among North American woodpeckers, the ivory-bill is unique in having a bill whose tip is quite flattened laterally, shaped much like a beveled wood chisel. The bird's drum is a single or double rap. Four fairly distinct calls are reported in the literature and 2 were recorded in the 1930s. The most common, a kent or hant, sounds like a toy trumpet often repeated in series. When the bird is disturbed, the pitch of the kent note rises, it is repeated more frequently, and is often doubled. A conversational call, also recorded, is given between individuals at the nest, and has been described as Kent-Kent-Kent. Habitat and diet Ivory-billeds are known to prefer thick hardwood swamps and pine forests, with large amounts of dead and decaying trees. Prior to the American Civil War, much of the Southern United States was covered in vast tracts of primeval hardwood forests that were suitable as habitat for the bird. At that time, the Ivory-billed Woodpecker ranged from east Texas to North Carolina, and from southern Illinois to Florida and Cuba. After the Civil War, the timber industry deforested millions of acres in the South, leaving only sparse isolated tracts of suitable habitat. The Ivory-billed Woodpecker feeds mainly on the larvae of wood-boring beetles, but also eats seeds, fruit, and other insects. The bird uses its enormous white bill to hammer, wedge, and peel the bark off dead trees to find the insects. Surprisingly, these birds need about 25 km² (10 square miles) per pair so they can find enough food to feed their young and themselves. Hence, they occur at low densities even in healthy populations. The more common Pileated Woodpecker may compete for food with this species. Breeding biology The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is thought to pair for life. Pairs are also known to travel together. These paired birds will mate every year between January and May. Before they have their young, they excavate a nest in a dead or partially dead tree about 8–15 m up from the ground. Usually two to five eggs are laid and incubated for 3 to 5 weeks. Both parents sit on the eggs and are involved in taking care of the chicks, with the male taking sole responsibility at night. They feed the chicks for months. About five weeks after the young are born, they learn to fly. Even after the young are able to fly, the parents will continue feeding them for another two months. The family will eventually split up in late fall or early winter. Status Heavy logging activity exacerbated by hunting by collectors devastated the population of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in the late 1800s. It was generally considered extinct in the 1920s, when a pair turned up in Florida, only to be shot for specimens. By 1938, an estimated 20 individuals remained in the wild, some 6-8 of which were located in the old-growth forest called the Singer Tract in Louisiana, where logging rights were held by the Chicago Mill and Lumber Company. The company brushed aside pleas from four Southern governors and the National Audubon Society that the tract be publicly purchased and set aside as a reserve, and clearcut the forest. By 1944 the last known Ivory-billed Woodpecker, a female, was gone from the cut-over tract (Smithsonian p 98). Reported sightings: 1940s to 1990s The Ivory-billed Woodpecker was listed as an endangered species on March 11 1967, though the only evidence of its existence at the time was a possible recording of its call made in East Texas. The last reported sighting of the Cuban subspecies (C. p. bairdii), after a long interval, was in 1987; it has not been seen since. The Cuban Exile journalist and author John O'Donnell-Rosales, who was born in the area of Cuba with the last confirmed sightings, reported sightings near the Alabama Coastal Delta in 1994 but these were never properly investigated by State wildlife officials. Two tantalizing photos were given to LSU museum director George Lowery in 1971 by a source who wished to remain anonymous but who came forward in 2005 as outdoorsman Fielding Lewis. The photos, taken with a cheap Instamatic camera, show what appears to be a male Ivory-billed perched on the trunks of two different trees in the Atchafalaya Basin of Louisiana. The bird's distinctive bill is not visible in either photo and the photos - taken from a distance - are very grainy. Lowery presented the photos at the 1971 annual meeting of the American Ornithologists Union. Skeptics dismissed the photos as frauds, believing that the bird seen is either a misidentifed Pileated, or - seeing that the bird is in roughly the same position in both photos - a mounted specimen. There were numerous unconfirmed reports of the bird, but many ornithologists believed the species had been wiped out completely, and it was assessed as "extinct" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources in 1994. This assessment was later altered to "critically endangered" on the grounds that the species could still be extant. 2002 Pearl River expedition In 1999, there was an unconfirmed sighting of a pair of birds in the Pearl River region of southeast Louisiana by a forestry student, David Kulivan, which some experts considered very compelling. In a 2002 expedition in the forests, swamps, and bayous of the Pearl River Wildlife Management Area by LSU, biologists spent 30 days searching for the bird. In the afternoon of January 27 2002, after ten days, a rapping sound similar to the "double knock" made by the Ivory-billed Woodpecker was heard and recorded. The exact source of the sound was not found because of the swampy terrain, but signs of active woodpeckers were found (i.e., scaled bark and large tree cavities). The expedition was inconclusive, however, as it was determined that the recorded sounds were likely gunshot echoes rather than the distinctive double rap of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Since 2002, most of the attention in the search for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker has turned away from the Pearl River region, although several unconfirmed sightings were reported there in February 2006, see video clips. 2004/2005 Arkansas reports A group of seventeen authors headed by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology reported the discovery of at least one Ivory-billed Woodpecker, a male, in the Big Woods area of Arkansas in 2004 and 2005, publishing the report in the journal Science on April 28 2005 (Fitzpatrick et al., 2005). One of the authors, who was kayaking in the Cache River National Wildlife Refuge, Monroe County, Arkansas, on February 11 2004, reported on a website the sighting of an unusually large red-crested woodpecker. This report led to more intensive searches in the area and in the White River National Wildlife Refuge, undertaken in secrecy for fear of a stampede of bird-watchers, by experienced observers over the next fourteen months. About fifteen sightings occurred during the period (seven of which were considered compelling enough to mention in the scientific article), possibly all of the same bird. One of these more reliable sightings was on February 27, 2004. Bobby Harrison of Huntsville, Alabama and Tim Gallagher of Ithaca, New York, both reported seeing an ivory-billed woodpecker at the same time. The secrecy of the search permitted The Nature Conservancy and Cornell University to quietly buy up Ivory-billed habitat to add to the 120,000 acres (490 km²) of the Big Woods protected by the Conservancy. A large woodpecker was videotaped on April 25 2004; its size, wing pattern at rest and in flight, and white plumage on its back between the wings were cited as evidence that the woodpecker sighted was an Ivory-billed Woodpecker. That same video included an earlier image of what was suggested to be such a bird perching on a Water Tupelo (Nyssa aquatica). The report also notes that drumming consistent with that of Ivory-billed Woodpecker had been heard in the region. It describes the potential for a thinly distributed population in the area, though no birds have been located away from the primary site. A current concern is that many bird enthusiasts will rush to the area in an attempt to catch a glimpse of this rare bird. Ornithologists and veteran birders tell of adult woodpeckers abandoning their nests and young out of alarm at the encroachments of overenthusiastic birdwatchers. In the fall of 2006, researchers developed and installed an "autonomous observatory" using robotic video cameras with image processing software that detects and records high resolution video of birds in flight inside a high probability zone in the Cache River area. As of August 2007, hundreds of birds have been recorded, including pileated woodpeckers, but not the Ivory-billed woodpecker. Debate In June 2005, ornithologists at Yale University, the University of Kansas, and Florida Gulf Coast University submitted a scientific article skeptical of the initial reports of rediscovery. We were very skeptical of the first published reports, and... data were not sufficient to support this startling conclusion. In August 2005, despite the arguments for the existence of at least one Ivory-billed Woodpecker, questions about the evidence remained. For example, there were no findings of dead Ivory-bills nor were any nests found. Cornell could not say with absolute certainty that the sounds recorded in Arkansas were made by Ivory-bills. Some skeptics, including Richard Prum, believe the video could have been of a Pileated Woodpecker. An article by Dina Cappiello in the Houston Chronicle published December 18, 2005 presented Richard Prum's position as follows: Prum, intrigued by some of the recordings taken in Arkansas' Big Woods, said the evidence thus far is refutable. On page 13 of the American Birding Association publication "Winging It" (November/December 2005), it was announced: The ABA Checklist Committee has not changed the status of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker from Code 6 (EXTINCT) to another level that would reflect a small surviving population. The Committee is waiting for unequivocal proof that the species still exists. In a commentary published in The Auk in January 2006, ornithologist Jerome Jackson expressed his skepticism of the Ivory-bill evidence in no uncertain terms: Prum, Robbins, Brett Benz, and I remain steadfast in our belief that the bird in the Luneau video is a normal Pileated Woodpecker. Others have independently come to the same conclusion, and publication of independent analyses may be forthcoming [...] For scientists to label sight reports and questionable photographs as 'proof' of such an extraordinary record is delving into 'faith-based' ornithology and doing a disservice to science." (Jackson, 2006a), sparking off a side debate coming close to personal accusation (Fitzpatrick et al., 2006b,c; Jackson, 2006b). In March 2006, a research team headed by David A. Sibley of Concord, MA published findings in the journal Science, saying that the videotape was most likely of a Pileated Woodpecker, with mistakes having been made in the interpretation of its posture. They conclude that it lacks certain features of an Ivory-billed Woodpecker, and has others consistent with the Pileated (Sibley at al., 2006) The original Cornell research team stood by their original findings in a response article in the same issue of Science, stating: Claims that the bird in the Luneau video is a normal pileated woodpecker are based on misrepresentations of a pileated's underwing pattern, interpretation of video artifacts as plumage pattern, and inaccurate models of takeoff and flight behavior. These claims are contradicted by experimental data and fail to explain evidence in the Luneau video of white dorsal plumage, distinctive flight behavior, and a perched woodpecker with white upper parts." (Fitzpatrick et al., 2006a) Other workers made claims disputing the validity of the Luneau video, including a web site discussing the evidence by Colby College biologist Louis Bevier, who stated: In sum, no evidence confirms the alleged rediscovery of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Indeed, confidence in the claim has eroded with failure to verify its existence despite massive searches. A 2007 paper concluded that the Luneau video was consistent with the Pileated Woodpecker: New video analysis of Pileated Woodpeckers in escape flights comparable to that of the putative Ivory-billed Woodpecker filmed in Arkansas shows that Pileated Woodpeckers can display a wingbeat frequency equivalent to that of the Arkansas bird during escape flight. The critical frames from the Arkansas video that were used to identify the bird as an Ivory-billed Woodpecker are shown to be equally, or more, compatible with the Pileated Woodpecker.…The identification of the bird filmed in Arkansas in April 2004 as an Ivory-billed Woodpecker is best regarded as unsafe. The similarities between the Arkansas bird and known Pileated Woodpeckers suggest that it was most likely a Pileated Woodpecker. Doubt was also cast on some of the auditory evidence (ARU recordings of double-raps) for the presence of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in Arkansas and Florida. One group of researchers stated: All ARU double raps suggesting the presence of an Ivory-billed Woodpecker should be reconsidered in light of the phenomenon of duck wingtip collisions, especially those recorded in the winter months, when duck flocks are common across flooded bottomlands of the southeastern United States. Cornell search efforts 2005-09 Cornell-organized searches in Arkansas and elsewhere from 2005 to 2008 did not produce any definitive evidence of the species. The press release summarizing the 2005-6 search season stated: There were teasing glimpses and tantalizing sounds, but the 2005-2006 search for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker in Arkansas has concluded without the definitive visual documentation being sought. The search, led by the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, with support from Audubon Arkansas, stretched from November through April when ivory-bill activity would be highest and a lack of leaf-cover permitted clear views through the dense forest.… “The search teams were very skilled, not only technically but in the execution of the search,” said Dr. John Fitzpatrick, director of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. “Even though we didn’t get additional definitive evidence of the ivory-bill in Arkansas, we’re not discouraged. The vastness of the forest combined with the highly mobile nature of the bird warrant additional searching.” In May 2006, it was announced that a large search effort led by the Cornell team had been suspended for the season with only a handful of unconfirmed, fleeting sightings to report. At that point, conservation officers allowed the public back into areas of the Cache River National Wildlife Refuge that had been restricted upon the initial reported sightings. "Refuge Opens Bayou DeView to Public Use," Press Release, Cache River Nat'l Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, May 18, 2006, accessed November 25, 2006. The 2006-07 search season had similar results to those of the previous year: The Lab and its partners concluded the 2006–07 field season in Arkansas at the end of April with no additional definitive evidence of ivory-bills to complement the data gathered in 2004 and 2005. But [Ronald] Rohrbaugh and others are convinced the research should continue, not only in Arkansas, but in other states that are part of the bird’s historic range. “We’ll return to Arkansas for at least another field season,” says Rohrbaugh. “Searches there and searches conducted by other agencies throughout the Southeast are still turning up reports of sounds that cannot be explained away. However, there’s no way to know for sure yet if reported double knocks and kent-like sounds were made by an ivory-bill or something else.” Likewise, the 2007-08 search season did not deliver conclusive evidence of the bird: The search teams covered lots of ground and tried new survey techniques…. Searchers documented more possible sightings and possible ivory-bill double knocks heard, but the definitive photograph, like the bird itself, remained elusive. Cornell University did not field a search team in Arkansas during 2008-2009, but focused on mangrove habitats in southwest Florida, with a later visit planned for South Carolina. According to a Cornell University press release from January 2009, the 2008-09 season will be the last Cornell-sponsored search, absent confirmation of the bird: There will be a distinctly different flavor to this season’s search for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Seven members of the Cornell Lab of Ornithology’s mobile search team will plunge into some of the most forbidding wilderness in southwestern Florida. …The work begins in Florida in early January and continues through mid-March. …In mid-March the Cornell Lab of Ornithology team will join the South Carolina search along the Congaree, PeeDee, and Santee Rivers. “The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service-funded Ivory-billed Woodpecker searches will continue through the 2008-09 search season,” says Laurie Fenwood, Ivory-billed Woodpecker Recovery Team Coordinator for the U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service.…If no birds are confirmed, the Cornell Lab of Ornithology will not send an organized team into the field next year. “We remain committed to our original goal of striving to locate breeding pairs,” says Cornell Lab of Ornithology director John Fitzpatrick. “We will continue to accept and investigate credible reports of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, and to promote protection and restoration of the old growth conditions upon which this magnificent species depended across the entire southeastern United States.” The 2008-09 search effort in southwest Florida found no evidence of the bird: We have found no signs of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers. No sightings, double knocks or calls, no replies to our many double-knock imitations. We have seen a few cavities of the appropriate size and shape for ivory-bills, but these can be old, or exceptionally large Pileated Woodpecker cavities, or mammal-enlarged Pileated Woodpecker cavities.… Given the results, it is unlikely a population of any meaningful size of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers exists in south Florida. 2005/2006 Florida reports In September 2006, new claims that the Ivory-billed Woodpecker may not be extinct were released by a research group consisting of members from Auburn University in Alabama and the University of Windsor in Ontario. Dr. Geoff Hill of Auburn University and Dr. Daniel Mennill of the University of Windsor have revealed a collection of evidence that the birds may still exist in the cypress swamps of the Florida panhandle. Their evidence includes 14 sightings of the birds and 300 recordings of sounds that can be attributed to the Ivory-billed Woodpecker, but also includes tell-tale foraging signs and appropriately sized tree nest cavities (Hill et al., 2006). This evidence remains inconclusive as it excludes the photographic or DNA evidence that many experts cite as necessary before the presence of the species can be confirmed. While Dr. Hill and Dr. Mennill are themselves convinced of the bird's existence in Florida, they are quick to acknowledge that they have not yet conclusively proven the species' existence. The research team is currently undertaking a more complete survey of the Choctawhatchee River, in hopes of obtaining photographic evidence of the bird's existence. In April, 2007 the Florida Ornithological Society Records Committee voted unanimously not to accept the 2005-06 reports of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker on the Choctawhatchee River : RC 06-610. Ivory-billed Woodpecker, Campephilus principalis. 21 May 2005- 26 April 2006. Choctawhatchee River, Washington/Bay/Walton cos. A population of unknown size has been reported by a team from Auburn University from the lower Choctawhatchee River. There have been a few sightings but no photographs, some interesting recordings of “kent” calls and of double rap drums, and photographs taken of cavities and bark scaling. These observations were made on the heels of the much-publicized “rediscovery” of the species in Arkansas (Fitzpatrick et al. 2005). The species had not been documented to occur since 1944. The video documentation of the bird(s) from Arkansas, however, has been debated by many, although the record was accepted by the Arkansas Bird Records Committee. Our Committee felt that given the controversy of the Arkansas evidence, the species is best considered still extinct. Therefore only evidence that undoubtedly showed a living bird would be considered sufficient to accept a report. The last specimen taken in Florida was in 1925; there have been numerous sight reports of varying credibility since, and one record of a feather found in a nest cavity in 1968 that was identified as an Ivory-billed Woodpecker inner secondary by Alexander Wetmore. VOTE: NOT ACCEPT (0-7) The Auburn/University of Windsor team continued search efforts through 2009, stating in updates: (12 June 2008) We completed our 2008 effort to get definitive evidence for ivorybills in the Choctawhatchee River Basin in early May…. Team members had no sightings of ivorybills and only two sound detections in 2008.… So where does all this leave us? Pretty much in the same position as in June 2006. We have a large body of evidence that Ivory-billed Woodpeckers persist along the Choctawhatchee River in the Florida panhandle, but we do not have definitive proof that they exist. Either the excitement of the ivorybill hunt causes competent birders to see and hear things that do not exist and leads competent sound analysts to misidentify hundreds of recorded sounds, or the few ivorybills in the Choctawhatchee River Basin are among the most elusive birds on the planet. (9 February 2009) There has been little to report, and my students and I [Geoff Hill] have been enjoying the calm. We continue to work to get definitive documentation of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker in the Choctawhatchee River Basin.… To my knowledge, there have been no sightings of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in the Choctawhatchee region since last spring. There were a few double knock detections in January, but not by my paid crew, Brian [Rolek], or me. </blockquote> Tourism In economically struggling east Arkansas, the speculation of a possible return of the Ivory-bill has served as a great source of economic exploitation, with tourist spending up 30%, primarily in and around the city of Brinkley, Arkansas. A woodpecker "festival", a woodpecker hairstyle (a sort of mohawk with red, white, and black dye), and an "Ivory-bill Burger" have been featured locally. The lack of confirmed proof of the bird's existence, and the extremely small chance of actually seeing the bird even if it does exist (especially since the exact locations of the reported sightings are still guarded), have prevented the explosion in tourism some locals had anticipated. Brinkley hosted "The Call of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker Celebration" in February 2006. The celebration included exhibits, birding tours, educational presentations, a vendor market, and more. Other facts The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is sometimes referred to as the Grail Bird, the Lord God Bird, or the Good God Bird, all based on the exclamations of awed onlookers. Other nicknames for the bird are King of the Woodpeckers and Elvis in Feathers. Interviews with residents of Brinkley, Arkansas, heard on National Public Radio following the reported rediscovery were shared with musician Sufjan Stevens, who used the material to write a song titled "The Lord God Bird" (MP3). Arkansas has made license plates featuring a graphic of an Ivory-billed Woodpecker. The Ivory-billed Woodpecker was featured in an episode of ABC's Grey's Anatomy on November 1, 2007, entitled "Kung-Fu Fighting". The possibility of seeing the rare bird one day inspired a passionate bird watcher to make it through awake open-heart surgery. In Woody Woodpecker's cartoon episode "Dumb Like a Fox", a museum offers 25 dollars for a Campephilus principalis, Woody Woodpecker being a specimen of this species himself. Sources References Audubon, John James LaForest (1835-38): The Ivory-billed Woodpecker. In: Birds of America 4. ISBN 0-8109-2061-1 (H. N. Abrams 1979 edition - the book itself is in the public domain) Bevier, Louis (2007): Ivory-billed debate Farrand, John & Bull, John, The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds, Eastern Region, National Audubon Society (1977) Fitzpatrick, John W.; Lammertink, Martjan; Luneau, M. David Jr.; Gallagher, Tim W.; Harrison, Bobby R.; Sparling, Gene M.; Rosenberg, Kenneth V.; Rohrbaugh, Ronald W.; Swarthout, Elliott C. H.; Wrege, Peter H.; Swarthout, Sara Barker; Dantzker, Marc S.; Charif, Russell A.; Barksdale, Timothy R.; Remsen, J. V. Jr; Simon, Scott D. & Zollner, Douglas (2005): Ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America. Science 308(5727): 1460-1462. PMID 15860589 preprint PDF fulltext Supporting Online Material Fitzpatrick, John W.; Lammertink, Martjan; Luneau, M. David Jr.; Gallagher, Tim W. & Rosenberg, Kenneth V. (2006a): Response to comment on "Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America". Science 311: 1555. PDF fulltext Supporting Online Material Erratum (requires user account) Fitzpatrick, John W.; Lammertink, Martjan; Luneau, M. David Jr.; Gallagher, Tim W.; Harrison, Bobby R.; Sparling, Gene M.; Rosenberg, Kenneth V.; Rohrbaugh, Ronald W.; Swarthout, Elliott C. H.; Wrege, Peter H.; Swarthout, Sara Barker; Dantzker, Marc S.; Charif, Russell A.; Barksdale, Timothy R.; Remsen, J. V. Jr; Simon, Scott D. & Zollner, Douglas (2006b): Clarifications about current research on the status of Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) in Arkansas. Auk 123(2): 587–593. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2006)123[587:CACROT]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext Fitzpatrick, John W.; Lammertink, Martjan; Luneau, M. David Jr.; Rosenberg, Kenneth V.; Gallagher, Tim W. & Rohrbaugh, Ronald W. (2006c): Response to letter by J. A. Jackson. Auk 123(4): 1189. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2006)123[1189:RTLBJA]2.0.CO;2 Gallagher, Tim W. (2005): The Grail Bird: Hot on the Trail of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker Houghton Mifflin, Boston. ISBN 0-618-45693-7 Hill, Geoffrey E.; Mennill, Daniel J.; Rolek, Brian W.; Hicks, Tyler L. & Swiston, Kyle A. (2006): Evidence Suggesting that Ivory-billed Woodpeckers (Campephilus principalis) Exist in Florida. Avian Conservation and Ecology - Écologie et conservation des oiseaux 1(3): 2. HTML fulltext PDF fulltext with links to appendices Erratum Hoose, Phillip M. (2004): The Race to Save the Lord God Bird. Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, New York. ISBN 0-374-36173-8 (children's book) HTML excerpt Jackson, Jerome A. (2004): In Search of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker. Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-58834-132-1 Jackson, Jerome A. (2006a): Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis): hope, and the interfaces of science, conservation, and politics. Auk 123: 1-15. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2006)123[0001:IWCPHA]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext Jackson, Jerome A. (2006b): The public perception of science and reported confirmation of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker in Arkansas. Auk 123(4): 1185–1189. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2006)123[1185:TPPOSA]2.0.CO;2 Mattsson, B. J., R. S. Mordecai, M. J. Conroy, J. T. Peterson, R. J. Cooper, and H. Christensen. Evaluating the small population paradigm for rare large-bodied woodpeckers, with implications for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Avian Conservation and Ecology, 2008; 3 (2): 5 National Audubon Society (2006): Watchlist entry for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker- Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Sibley, David Allen; Bevier, Louis R.; Patten, Michael A. & Elphick, Chris S. (2006): Comment on "Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America". Science 311: 1555. PDF fulltext Supporting Online Material Tanner, James T. (1942). The Ivory-Billed Woodpecker. National Audubon Society, N.Y. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (2005). Once-thought Extinct Ivory-Billed Woodpecker Rediscovered in Arkansas. April 28, 2005 Press Release. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Weidensaul, Scott (2005): Ghost of a chance. Smithsonian Magazine. August 2005: 97-102. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Winkler, H.; Christie, D. A. & Nurney, D. (1995): Woodpeckers: A Guide to the Woodpeckers of the World. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. ISBN 0-395-72043-5 Steinberg, Michael K. (2008). Stalking the Ghost Bird: The Elusive Ivory-Billed Woodpecker in Louisiana. Louisiana State University Press ISBN 978-0-8071-3305-7 Footnotes External links Big Woods Conservation Partnership, formed in response to the bird's rediscovery. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Ghost Bird - A new independent feature documentary about the search for the Ivory-billed woodpecker. The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is Still Flying! from Birding America, website of Arkansas birder Mary Scott. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Ivory-billed Woodpecker audio recording from the Macaulay Library, Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology- Date of recording April 9, 1935. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service draft recovery plan 'Extinct' woodpecker found alive. BBC News, version of 2005-APR-28. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Finding The 'Lord God Bird'. CBS News, October 16, 2005. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. The Search for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology website with video and sound files. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. The Search for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker in the Pearl River area, Louisiana. Louisiana State University website. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Search for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. NPR Radio Expeditions, with streaming RealAudio and other media. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Doubts cast on superstar woodpecker's return. New Scientist, 17 March 2006. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Quicktime movie about the rediscovery of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker - includes footage from the Luneau video. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Ivory-billed woodpecker photos. The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Maps of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker's Habitat. The Nature Conservancy. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. The search for the ivory-billed woodpecker. The Nature Conservancy feature with information on the Ivory-bill, its habitat, and the core search team. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. A Live Chat with Phillip Hoose, author of The Race to Save the Lord God Bird. The Nature Conservancy, Tuesday, May 10, 2005. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Ivory-Billed Woodpecker habitat range in Georgia. University of Georgia Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory, Georgia GAP Project. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Extensive bibliography on Woodpeckers of North America website. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Independent Researchers Confirm the Existence of Ivory-billed Woodpecker Yale University press release, August 2, 2005. Retrieved 2006-OCT-6. Art of the States: Wilson's Ivory-bill Musical work by composer Lee Hyla using Ivory-billed woodpecker recordings Is it Extinct? Video showing differences between Ivory-billed and Pileated Woodpecker specimens ACONE: Autonomous Collaborative Observatory for Natural Environments NSF Project with robotic cameras scanning the skies over the Cache River. | Ivory-billed_woodpecker |@lemmatized ivory:103 bill:101 woodpecker:118 campephilus:9 principalis:9 large:13 member:4 family:2 picidae:1 consider:7 extinct:12 many:6 year:4 series:2 possible:6 sighting:19 begin:2 currently:3 officially:1 list:2 critically:2 endanger:3 specie:15 international:2 union:3 conservation:8 nature:8 iucn:1 upgrade:1 report:33 least:4 one:8 male:6 bird:62 arkansas:33 suggest:5 april:10 team:17 lead:7 cornell:20 laboratory:4 ornithology:12 fitzpatrick:11 et:8 al:8 confirm:5 would:4 make:10 lazarus:1 rediscover:2 alive:2 time:4 june:4 reward:2 offer:2 information:2 discovery:2 nest:7 roost:1 feed:3 site:3 december:3 lab:9 announces:1 dollar:2 website:6 person:1 successfully:1 project:3 biologist:2 living:2 late:4 september:2 ornithologist:6 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6,305 | Common_Desktop_Environment | The Common Desktop Environment (CDE) is a desktop environment for Unix, based on the Motif widget toolkit. HP's OpenVMS uses CDE as its standard desktop environment. History Corporate history SunSoft, HP, IBM and USL announced CDE in June 1993 as a joint development within the Common Open Software Environment (COSE) initiative. The primary environment was based on HP's VUE (Visual User Environment), itself derived from the Motif Window Manager (mwm). IBM contributed its Common User Access model and Workplace Shell. Novell provided desktop manager components and scalable systems technologies from UNIX System V. Sun contributed its ToolTalk application interaction framework and a port of its DeskSet productivity tools, including mail and calendar clients, from its OpenWindows environment. In March 1994 CDE became the responsibility of the "new OSF", a merger of the Open Software Foundation and Unix International; in September 1995, the merger of Motif and CDE into a single project, CDE/Motif, was announced. OSF became part of the newly formed Open Group in 1996. Until about 2000, users of Unix desktops regarded CDE as the de facto standard, but at that time, free software desktop environments such as GNOME and KDE were quickly becoming mature, and became almost universal on the Linux platform, which already had a larger user base than most commercial Unixes in total. Red Hat is the only Linux distribution to which CDE has been ported, although it has since been phased out in favour of GNOME. In 2001, Hewlett-Packard (HP-UX) and Sun (Solaris) announced that they would phase out CDE as the standard desktop on their workstations in favor of GNOME. However, in April 2003, HP reportedly opted to return to CDE, as GNOME had not stabilised sufficiently for their preference. Solaris 10, released in early 2005, includes both CDE and the GNOME-based Java Desktop System. Future releases of Solaris will be based on the OpenSolaris open source project, which states that there is no plan to make the Solaris CDE "consolidation" (OS component) available as open source. A petition exists asking The Open Group to release the source code of CDE and Motif under a free license. The Open Group released Motif in 2000 as OpenMotif under a "revenue sharing" license that does not fully meet either the open source or free software definitions. (The Open Group had wished to make it open source, but did not quite succeed in achieving this. ) The modern-day Xfce takes part of the look-and-feel from the CDE environment. Version history Operating systems using CDE AIX (IBM) Digital UNIX / Tru64 UNIX (originally Digital Equipment Corporation, now Hewlett-Packard) HP-UX (Hewlett-Packard) OpenVMS (originally Digital Equipment Corporation, now Hewlett-Packard) Solaris (Sun Microsystems) UnixWare (Univel) IRIX (For a short time Silicon Graphics offered CDE as an alternative to IID) References External links AIX - HP-UX - CDE Solaris - CDE Tutorial for the CDE Open Group - CDE | Common_Desktop_Environment |@lemmatized common:3 desktop:8 environment:9 cde:20 unix:7 base:5 motif:6 widget:1 toolkit:1 hp:7 openvms:2 use:2 standard:3 history:3 corporate:1 sunsoft:1 ibm:3 usl:1 announce:3 june:1 joint:1 development:1 within:1 open:11 software:4 cose:1 initiative:1 primary:1 vue:1 visual:1 user:4 derive:1 window:1 manager:2 mwm:1 contribute:2 access:1 model:1 workplace:1 shell:1 novell:1 provide:1 component:2 scalable:1 system:4 technology:1 v:1 sun:3 tooltalk:1 application:1 interaction:1 framework:1 port:2 deskset:1 productivity:1 tool:1 include:2 mail:1 calendar:1 client:1 openwindows:1 march:1 become:4 responsibility:1 new:1 osf:2 merger:2 foundation:1 international:1 september:1 single:1 project:2 part:2 newly:1 form:1 group:5 regard:1 de:1 facto:1 time:2 free:3 gnome:5 kde:1 quickly:1 mature:1 almost:1 universal:1 linux:2 platform:1 already:1 large:1 commercial:1 total:1 red:1 hat:1 distribution:1 although:1 since:1 phase:2 favour:1 hewlett:4 packard:4 ux:3 solaris:6 would:1 workstation:1 favor:1 however:1 april:1 reportedly:1 opt:1 return:1 stabilise:1 sufficiently:1 preference:1 release:4 early:1 java:1 future:1 opensolaris:1 source:5 state:1 plan:1 make:2 consolidation:1 os:1 available:1 petition:1 exist:1 ask:1 code:1 license:2 openmotif:1 revenue:1 share:1 fully:1 meet:1 either:1 definition:1 wish:1 quite:1 succeed:1 achieve:1 modern:1 day:1 xfce:1 take:1 look:1 feel:1 version:1 operate:1 aix:2 digital:3 originally:2 equipment:2 corporation:2 microsystems:1 unixware:1 univel:1 irix:1 short:1 silicon:1 graphic:1 offer:1 alternative:1 iid:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 tutorial:1 |@bigram widget_toolkit:1 workplace_shell:1 de_facto:1 gnome_kde:1 hewlett_packard:4 packard_hp:2 hp_ux:3 unix_unix:1 sun_microsystems:1 external_link:1 |
6,306 | Entire_function | In complex analysis, an entire function, also called an integral function, is a complex-valued function that is holomorphic over the whole complex plane. Typical examples of entire functions are the polynomials, the exponential function, and sums, products and compositions of these. Every entire function can be represented as a power series which converges compactly. Neither the natural logarithm nor the square root functions can be continued to an entire function. Liouville's theorem establishes an important property of entire functions—an entire function which is bounded must be constant. As a consequence, a (complex-valued) function which is entire on the whole Riemann sphere (complex plane and the point at infinity) is constant. Thus a (non-constant) entire function must have a singularity at the complex point at infinity, either a pole or an essential singularity (see Liouville's theorem below). In the latter case, it is called a transcendental entire function, otherwise it is a polynomial. Liouville's theorem may also be used to elegantly prove the fundamental theorem of algebra. Picard's little theorem is a considerable strengthening of Liouville's theorem: a non-constant entire function takes on every complex number as value, except possibly one. The latter exception is illustrated by the exponential function, which never takes on the value 0. J. E. Littlewood chose the Weierstrass sigma function as a 'typical' entire function in one of his books. The order of an entire function The order of an entire function is defined using the limit superior as: where is the distance from and is the maximum absolute value of when If one can also define the type: See also Weierstrass factorization theorem Jensen's formula References | Entire_function |@lemmatized complex:7 analysis:1 entire:13 function:19 also:4 call:2 integral:1 value:5 holomorphic:1 whole:2 plane:2 typical:2 example:1 polynomial:2 exponential:2 sum:1 product:1 composition:1 every:2 represent:1 power:1 series:1 converge:1 compactly:1 neither:1 natural:1 logarithm:1 square:1 root:1 continue:1 liouville:4 theorem:7 establish:1 important:1 property:1 bound:1 must:2 constant:4 consequence:1 riemann:1 sphere:1 point:2 infinity:2 thus:1 non:2 singularity:2 either:1 pole:1 essential:1 see:2 latter:2 case:1 transcendental:1 otherwise:1 may:1 use:2 elegantly:1 prove:1 fundamental:1 algebra:1 picard:1 little:1 considerable:1 strengthening:1 take:2 number:1 except:1 possibly:1 one:3 exception:1 illustrate:1 never:1 j:1 e:1 littlewood:1 choose:1 weierstrass:2 sigma:1 book:1 order:2 define:2 limit:1 superior:1 distance:1 maximum:1 absolute:1 type:1 factorization:1 jensen:1 formula:1 reference:1 |@bigram exponential_function:2 liouville_theorem:4 |
6,307 | Maastricht_Treaty | The Provincial Government Buildings on the Meuse where the Maastricht Treaty was signed on 7 February 1992. The Maastricht Treaty (formally, the Treaty on European Union, TEU) was signed on 7 February 1992 in Maastricht, the Netherlands after final negotiations on 9 December 1991 between the members of the European Community and entered into force on 1 November 1993 during the Delors Commission. It created the European Union and led to the creation of the euro. The Maastricht Treaty has been amended to a degree by later treaties. Content The signing of the Treaty The treaty led to the creation of the euro, and created what is commonly referred to as the pillar structure of the European Union. This conception of the Union divides it into the European Community (EC) pillar, the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar, and the Justice and Home Affairs (JHA) pillar. The latter two pillars are intergovernmental policy areas, where the power of member-states is at its greatest extent. Whilst under the European Community pillar the Union's supra-national institutions — the Commission, the European Parliament and the Court of Justice — have the most power. All three pillars were the extensions of pre-existing policy structures. The European Community pillar was the continuation of the European Economic Community with the "Economic" being dropped from the name to represent the wider policy base given to it by the Maastricht Treaty. Coordination in foreign policy had taken place since the beginning of the 1970s under the auspices European Political Cooperation (EPC). EPC had been written into the treaties by the Single European Act but not as a part of the EEC. While the Justice and Home Affairs pillar introduced cooperation in law enforcement, criminal justice, asylum, immigration and judicial cooperation in civil matters, some of these areas had already been subject to intergovernmental cooperation under the Schengen Implementation Convention of 1990. The creation of the pillar system was the result of the desire by many member states to extend the European Economic Community to the areas of foreign policy, military, criminal justice, judicial cooperation to the European Community and the misgiving of other member states, notably the United Kingdom, to add areas which they considered to be too sensitive to be managed by the supra-national mechanisms of the European Economic Community. The compromise was that instead of renaming the European Economic Community, as the European Union, the treaty would establish a legally separate European Union comprising of the renamed European Economic Community, and of the inter-governmental policy areas of foreign policy, military, criminal justice, judicial cooperation. The structure greatly limited the powers of the European Commission, the European Parliament and the European court of Justice to influence the new intergovernmental policy areas which were to be contained with the second and third pillars: foreign policy and military matters (the CFSP pillar) and criminal justice and cooperation in civil matters (the JHA pillar). Ratification The process of ratifying the treaty was fraught with difficulties in three states. Denmark first rejected the treaty on 2 June 1992 by fewer than 50,000 votes in a referendum. The treaty was ratified by Denmark on 18 May 1993 with the addition of the Edinburgh Agreement which lists four Danish exceptions. In September 1992, a referendum in France only narrowly supported the ratification of the treaty, with 51.05% in favour. In the United Kingdom, an opt-out from the treaty's social provisions was opposed in Parliament by the opposition Labour and Liberal Democrat MPs and the treaty itself by the Maastricht Rebels within the governing Conservative Party. The number of rebels exceeded the Conservative majority in the House of Commons, and thus the government of John Major came close to losing the confidence of the House. Major Driven to Confidence Factor - Independent Newspaper Article http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/the-maastricht-debate-major-driven-to-confidence-factor-commons-exchanges-treaty-issue-cannot-fester-any-longer-1486498.html References See also Treaty of Rome (1957) Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) Treaty of Nice (2004) Treaty of Lisbon External links The Treaty on European Union - Online version (original, not the amended version) Download version For other languages look at the EU page on the European Treaties Currently established version in consolidated form Currently established version in consolidated form for iPhone / iPod Touch The History of the European Union - The Treaty of Maastricht Maastricht Treaty European Navigator Proposed 1962 treaty establishing a "European Union" | Maastricht_Treaty |@lemmatized provincial:1 government:2 building:1 meuse:1 maastricht:9 treaty:26 sign:2 february:2 formally:1 european:26 union:10 teu:1 netherlands:1 final:1 negotiation:1 december:1 member:4 community:10 enter:1 force:1 november:1 delors:1 commission:3 create:2 lead:2 creation:3 euro:2 amend:2 degree:1 late:1 content:1 signing:1 commonly:1 refer:1 pillar:13 structure:3 conception:1 divide:1 ec:1 common:3 foreign:5 security:1 policy:10 cfsp:2 justice:8 home:2 affair:2 jha:2 latter:1 two:1 intergovernmental:3 area:6 power:3 state:4 great:1 extent:1 whilst:1 supra:2 national:2 institution:1 parliament:3 court:2 three:2 extension:1 pre:1 existing:1 continuation:1 economic:6 drop:1 name:1 represent:1 wider:1 base:1 give:1 coordination:1 take:1 place:1 since:1 beginning:1 auspex:1 political:1 cooperation:7 epc:2 write:1 single:1 act:1 part:1 eec:1 introduce:1 law:1 enforcement:1 criminal:4 asylum:1 immigration:1 judicial:3 civil:2 matter:3 already:1 subject:1 schengen:1 implementation:1 convention:1 system:1 result:1 desire:1 many:1 extend:1 military:3 misgiving:1 notably:1 united:2 kingdom:2 add:1 consider:1 sensitive:1 manage:1 mechanism:1 compromise:1 instead:1 rename:2 would:1 establish:4 legally:1 separate:1 comprising:1 inter:1 governmental:1 greatly:1 limit:1 influence:1 new:1 contain:1 second:1 third:1 ratification:2 process:1 ratify:2 fraught:1 difficulty:1 denmark:2 first:1 reject:1 june:1 vote:1 referendum:2 may:1 addition:1 edinburgh:1 agreement:1 list:1 four:1 danish:1 exception:1 september:1 france:1 narrowly:1 support:1 favour:1 opt:1 social:1 provision:1 oppose:1 opposition:1 labour:1 liberal:1 democrat:1 mp:1 rebel:2 within:1 govern:1 conservative:2 party:1 number:1 exceed:1 majority:1 house:2 thus:1 john:1 major:3 come:1 close:1 lose:1 confidence:3 driven:1 factor:2 independent:2 newspaper:1 article:1 http:1 www:1 co:1 uk:2 news:1 politics:1 debate:1 drive:1 exchange:1 issue:1 cannot:1 fester:1 long:1 html:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 rome:1 amsterdam:1 nice:1 lisbon:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 version:5 original:1 download:1 language:1 look:1 eu:1 page:1 currently:2 consolidated:2 form:2 iphone:1 ipod:1 touch:1 history:1 navigator:1 propose:1 |@bigram maastricht_treaty:5 policy_cfsp:1 inter_governmental:1 liberal_democrat:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 iphone_ipod:1 ipod_touch:1 maastricht_maastricht:1 |
6,308 | Dilation_and_curettage | Dilation (dilatation) and curettage literally refers to the dilation (opening) of the cervix and surgical removal of the contents of the uterus. It is a therapeutic gynecological procedure as well as a rarely used method of first trimester abortion. It is commonly referred to as a D&C. D&C normally refers to a procedure involving a curette, also called sharp curettage. However, some sources use the term D&C to refer more generally to any procedure that involves the processes of dilation and removal of uterine contents, which includes the more common suction curettage procedures of manual and electric vacuum aspiration. Procedure The first step in a D&C is to dilate the cervix, usually done a few hours before the surgery. The woman is usually put under general anesthesia before the procedure begins. A curette, a metal rod with a handle on one end and a sharp loop on the other, is inserted into the uterus through the dilated cervix. The curette is used to gently scrape the lining of the uterus and remove the tissue in the uterus. This tissue is examined for completeness (in the case of abortion or miscarriage treatment) or pathologically for abnormalities (in the case of treatment for abnormal bleeding). Clinical uses D&Cs are commonly performed to resolve abnormal uterine bleeding (too much, too often or too heavy a menstrual flow); to remove the excess uterine lining in women who have conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome (which cause a prolonged buildup of tissue with no natural period to remove it); to remove tissue in the uterus that may be causing abnormal vaginal bleeding, including postpartum retained placenta; to remove retained tissue (also known as retained POC or retained products of conception) in the case of a missed or incomplete miscarriage; and as a method of abortion that is now uncommon. Because medical and non-invasive methods of abortion now exist, and because D&C requires heavy sedation or general anesthesia and has higher risks of complication, the procedure has been declining as a method of abortion. The World Health Organization recommends D&C as a method of surgical abortion only when manual vacuum aspiration is unavailable. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, D&C only accounted for 2.4% of abortions in the United States in the year 2002, down from 23.4% in 1972. Complications One risk of sharp curettage is uterine perforation. Although normally no treatment is required for uterine perforation, a laparoscopy may be done to verify that bleeding has stopped on its own. Infection of the uterus or fallopian tubes is also a possible complication, especially if the woman has an untreated sexually transmitted infection. Another risk is intrauterine adhesions, or Asherman's syndrome. One study found that in women who had one or two sharp curettage procedures for miscarriage, 14-16% developed some adhesions. Women who underwent three sharp curettage procedures for miscarriage had a 32% risk of developing adhesions. The risk of Asherman's syndrome was found to be 30.9% in women who had D&C following a missed miscarriage , and 25% in those who had a D&C 1-4 weeks postpartum. Untreated Asherman's syndrome, especially if severe, also increases the risk of complications in future pregnancies, such as ectopic pregnancy, miscarriage, and abnormal placentation (eg.placenta previa). According to recent case reports, use of vacuum aspiration can also lead to intrauterine adhesions. See also Dilation and evacuation Menstrual extraction Vacuum aspiration References | Dilation_and_curettage |@lemmatized dilation:4 dilatation:1 curettage:6 literally:1 refers:1 open:1 cervix:3 surgical:2 removal:2 content:2 uterus:6 therapeutic:1 gynecological:1 procedure:9 well:1 rarely:1 used:1 method:5 first:2 trimester:1 abortion:7 commonly:2 refer:3 c:10 normally:2 involve:2 curette:3 also:6 call:1 sharp:5 however:1 source:1 use:3 term:1 generally:1 process:1 uterine:5 include:2 common:1 suction:1 manual:2 electric:1 vacuum:4 aspiration:4 step:1 dilate:1 usually:2 hour:1 surgery:1 woman:6 put:1 general:2 anesthesia:2 begin:1 metal:1 rod:1 handle:1 one:4 end:1 loop:1 insert:1 dilated:1 gently:1 scrape:1 lining:2 remove:5 tissue:5 examine:1 completeness:1 case:4 miscarriage:6 treatment:3 pathologically:1 abnormality:1 abnormal:4 bleeding:4 clinical:1 us:1 perform:1 resolve:1 much:1 often:1 heavy:2 menstrual:2 flow:1 excess:1 condition:1 polycystic:1 ovary:1 syndrome:4 cause:2 prolonged:1 buildup:1 natural:1 period:1 may:2 vaginal:1 postpartum:2 retain:3 placenta:2 know:1 retained:1 poc:1 product:1 conception:1 missed:2 incomplete:1 uncommon:1 medical:1 non:1 invasive:1 exist:1 require:2 sedation:1 high:1 risk:6 complication:4 decline:1 world:1 health:1 organization:1 recommend:1 unavailable:1 accord:2 center:1 disease:1 control:1 prevention:1 account:1 united:1 state:1 year:1 perforation:2 although:1 laparoscopy:1 verify:1 stop:1 infection:2 fallopian:1 tube:1 possible:1 especially:2 untreated:2 sexually:1 transmitted:1 another:1 intrauterine:2 adhesion:4 asherman:3 study:1 find:2 two:1 develop:2 undergo:1 three:1 follow:1 week:1 severe:1 increase:1 future:1 pregnancy:2 ectopic:1 placentation:1 eg:1 previa:1 recent:1 report:1 lead:1 see:1 evacuation:1 extraction:1 reference:1 |@bigram surgical_removal:1 rarely_used:1 sharp_curettage:4 vacuum_aspiration:4 surgical_abortion:1 fallopian_tube:1 sexually_transmitted:1 transmitted_infection:1 ectopic_pregnancy:1 |
6,309 | Mentha | Mentha (mint) is a genus of about 25 species (and many hundreds of varieties ) of flowering plants in the family Lamiaceae (Mint Family). Species within Mentha have a subcosmopolitan distribution across Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America. Several mint hybrids commonly occur. Mints are aromatic, almost exclusively perennial, rarely annual, herbs. They have wide-spreading underground rhizomes and erect, branched stems. The leaves are arranged in opposite pairs, from simple oblong to lanceolate, often downy, and with a serrated margin. Leaf colors range from dark green and gray-green to purple, blue and sometimes pale yellow. The flowers are produced in clusters ('verticils') on an erect spike, white to purple, the corolla two-lipped with four subequal lobes, the upper lobe usually the largest. The fruit is a small dry capsule containing one to four seeds. While the species that make up the Mentha genus are widely distributed and can be found in many environments, most Mentha grow best in wet environments and moist soils. Mints will grow 10–120 cm tall and can spread over an indeterminate sized area. Due to the tendency to spread unchecked, mints are considered invasive. Species This covers a selection of what are considered to be pure species of mints. As with all classifications of plants, this list can go out of date at a moment's notice. Listed here are accepted species names and common names (where available). Synonyms, along with cultivars and varieties (where available), are listed under the species. Mentha aquatica – Water mint, or Marsh mint Mentha arvensis – Corn Mint, Wild Mint, Japanese Peppermint, Field Mint, Pudina (पुदीना in Hindi) Mentha asiatica - Asian Mint Mentha australis - Australian mint Mentha canadensis Mentha cervina - Hart's Pennyroyal Mentha citrata – Bergamot mint Mentha crispata - Wrinkled-leaf mint Mentha cunninghamia Mentha dahurica - Dahurian Thyme Mentha diemenica - Slender mint Mentha gattefossei Mentha grandifloraMentha haplocalyx Mentha japonica Mentha kopetdaghensis Mentha laxiflora - Forest mint Mentha longifolia - Mentha sylvestris, Horse Mint Mentha pulegium – Pennyroyal Mentha requienii – Corsican mint Mentha sachalinensis - Garden mint Mentha satureioides - Native Pennyroyal Mentha spicata – M. cordifolia, Spearmint, Curly mint Mentha suaveolens – Apple mint, Pineapple mint (a variegated cultivar of Apple mint) Mentha vagans - Gray mint Selected hybrids The mint family has a large grouping of recognized hybrids. As with all classifications of plants, this list can go out of date at a moment's notice. Synonyms, along with cultivars and varieties where available, are included within the specific species. Mentha × gracilis - Ginger Mint Mentha × piperita – Peppermint Mentha × rotundifolia (M. longifolia × M. suaveolens) - False Apple-mint Mentha × smithiana (M. aquatica × M. arvensis × M. spicata) - Red Raripila Mint Mentha × villosa (M. spicata × M. suaveolens) - Also called Mentha nemorosa, large apple mint, foxtail mint, hairy mint, woolly mint, Cuban mint, mojito mint, and is known as Yerba Buena in Cuba. Mentha × villosonervata (M. longifolia × M. spicata) - Sharp-toothed Mint Cultivation Mentha x gracilis and M. rotundifolia. The steel ring is to control the spread of the plant. All mints prefer, and thrive, in cool, moist spots in partial shade. In general, mints tolerate a wide range of conditions, and can also be grown in full sun. They are fast growing, extending their reach along surfaces through a network of runners. Due to their speedy growth, one plant of each desired mint, along with a little care, will provide more than enough mint for home use. Some mint species are more invasive than others. Even with the less invasive mints, care should be taken when mixing any mint with any other plants, lest the mint take over. To control mints in an open environment, mints should be planted in deep, bottomless containers sunk in the ground, or planted above ground in tubs and barrels. Some mints can be propagated by seed. Growth from seed can be an unreliable method for raising mint for two reasons: mint seeds are highly variable, one might not end up with what one presupposed was planted; some mint varieties are sterile. It is more effective to take and plant cuttings from the runners of healthy mints. The most common and popular mints for cultivation are peppermint (Mentha × piperita), spearmint (Mentha spicata), and (more recently) apple mint (Mentha suaveolens). Mints are supposed to make good companion plants, repelling pest insects and attracting beneficial ones. Mints are susceptible to whitefly and aphids. Harvesting of mint leaves can be done at anytime. Fresh mint leaves should be used immediately or stored up to a couple of days in plastic bags within a refrigerator. Optionally, mint can be frozen in ice cube trays. Dried mint leaves should be stored in an airtight container placed in a cool, dark, dry area. Uses Culinary A jar of mint jelly. Mint jelly is a traditional condiment served with lamb dishes. Mint tea. The leaf, fresh or dried, is the culinary source of mint. Fresh mint is usually preferred over dried mint when storage of the mint is not a problem. The leaves have a pleasant warm, fresh, aromatic, sweet flavor with a cool aftertaste. Mint leaves are used in teas, beverages, jellies, syrups, candies, and ice creams. In Middle Eastern cuisine mint is used on lamb dishes. In British cuisine, mint sauce is popular with lamb. Mint is a necessary ingredient in Touareg tea, a popular tea in northern African and Arab countries. Alcoholic drinks sometimes feature mint for flavor or garnish, namely the Mint Julep and the Mojito. Crème de menthe is a mint-flavored liqueur used in drinks such as the grasshopper. Mint essential oil and menthol are extensively used as flavorings in breath fresheners, drinks, antiseptic mouth rinses, toothpaste, chewing gum, desserts, and candies; see mint (candy) and mint chocolate. The substances that give the mints their characteristic aromas and flavors are menthol (the main aroma of Peppermint, and Japanese Peppermint) and pulegone (in Pennyroyal and Corsican Mint). The compound primarily responsible for the aroma and flavor of spearmint is R-carvone. Methyl salicylate, commonly called "oil of wintergreen", is often used as a mint flavoring for foods and candies due to its mint-like flavor. Mints are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Buff Ermine. Medicinal and cosmetic Mint was originally used as a medicinal herb to treat stomach ache and chest pains, and it is commonly used in the form of tea as a home remedy to help alleviate stomach pain. During the Middle Ages, powdered mint leaves were used to whiten teeth. Mint tea is a strong diuretic. Mint also aids digestion, in a way that it breaks down the fats. In recent years, it has been often recommended for treating Obesity. Menthol from mint essential oil (40-90%) is an ingredient of many cosmetics and some perfumes. Menthol and mint essential oil are also much used in medicine as a component of many drugs, and are very popular in aromatherapy. Mint is also used in some shampoo products. A common use is as an antipruritic, especially in insect bite treatments (often along with camphor). Menthol is also used in cigarettes as an additive, because it blocks out the bitter taste of tobacco and soothes the throat. The strong, sharp flavor and scent of Mint is sometimes used as a mild decongestant for illnesses such as the common cold. In Rome, Pliny recommended that a wreath of mint was a good thing for students to wear since it was thought to "exhilarate their minds". Insecticides Mint leaves are often used by many campers to repel mosquitoes. It is also said that extracts from mint leaves have a particular mosquito-killing capability. Mint oil is also used as an environmentally-friendly insecticide for its ability to kill some common pests like wasps, hornets, ants and cockroaches. Diseases Origin and usage of the word mint An example of Mint leaves Mint descends from the Latin word mentha, which is rooted in the Greek word minthe, mentioned in Greek mythology as Minthe, a nymph who was transformed into a mint plant. The word itself probably derives from a now extinct pre-Greek language (see Pre-Greek substrate). Mint leaves, without a qualifier like peppermint or apple mint, generally refers to spearmint leaves. In Central and South America, mint is known as hierbabuena (literally, "good herb"). In Lusophone countries, especially in Brazil, mint species are popularly known as Hortelã. In many Indo-Aryan languages it is called Pudīna. The taxonomic family Lamiaceae is known as the mint family. It includes many other aromatic herbs, including most of the more common cooking herbs, including basil, rosemary, sage, oregano and catnip. As an English colloquial term, any small mint-flavored confectionery item can be called a mint. In common usage, several other plants with fragrant leaves may be erroneously called a mint. Vietnamese Mint, commonly used in Southeast Asian cuisine, is not a member of the mint family (taxonomic family Lamiaceae). Notes External links Germplasm Resources Information Network: Mentha Flora Europaea: Mentha Flora of China: Mentha United States Department of Agriculture (Online Reference) Botanical.com entry on Mint Plants For a Future: Mentha genus search page | Mentha |@lemmatized mentha:45 mint:109 genus:3 specie:11 many:7 hundred:1 variety:4 flower:2 plant:15 family:7 lamiaceae:3 within:3 subcosmopolitan:1 distribution:1 across:1 europe:1 africa:1 asia:1 australia:1 north:1 america:2 several:2 hybrid:3 commonly:4 occur:1 aromatic:3 almost:1 exclusively:1 perennial:1 rarely:1 annual:1 herb:5 wide:2 spread:4 underground:1 rhizome:1 erect:2 branch:1 stem:1 leaf:16 arrange:1 opposite:1 pair:1 simple:1 oblong:1 lanceolate:1 often:5 downy:1 serrated:1 margin:1 color:1 range:2 dark:2 green:2 gray:2 purple:2 blue:1 sometimes:3 pale:1 yellow:1 produce:1 cluster:1 verticil:1 spike:1 white:1 corolla:1 two:2 lipped:1 four:2 subequal:1 lobe:2 upper:1 usually:2 large:3 fruit:1 small:2 dry:4 capsule:1 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recognize:1 include:5 specific:1 gracilis:2 ginger:1 piperita:2 rotundifolia:2 false:1 smithiana:1 red:1 raripila:1 villosa:1 also:8 call:5 nemorosa:1 foxtail:1 hairy:1 woolly:1 cuban:1 mojito:2 know:4 yerba:1 buena:1 cuba:1 villosonervata:1 sharp:2 toothed:1 cultivation:2 x:1 steel:1 ring:1 control:2 prefer:2 thrive:1 cool:3 spot:1 partial:1 shade:1 general:1 tolerate:1 condition:1 full:1 sun:1 fast:1 growing:1 extend:1 reach:1 surface:1 network:2 runner:2 speedy:1 growth:2 desire:1 little:1 care:2 provide:1 enough:1 home:2 use:20 others:1 even:1 less:1 take:3 mix:1 lest:1 open:1 deep:1 bottomless:1 container:2 sink:1 ground:2 tub:1 barrel:1 propagate:1 unreliable:1 method:1 raise:1 reason:1 highly:1 variable:1 might:1 end:1 presuppose:1 sterile:1 effective:1 cutting:1 healthy:1 popular:4 recently:1 suppose:1 good:3 companion:1 repel:2 pest:2 insect:2 attract:1 beneficial:1 susceptible:1 whitefly:1 aphid:1 harvesting:1 anytime:1 fresh:4 immediately:1 store:2 couple:1 day:1 plastic:1 bag:1 refrigerator:1 optionally:1 freeze:1 ice:2 cube:1 tray:1 airtight:1 place:1 culinary:2 jar:1 jelly:3 traditional:1 condiment:1 serve:1 lamb:3 dish:2 tea:6 source:1 dried:1 storage:1 problem:1 pleasant:1 warm:1 sweet:1 flavor:6 aftertaste:1 beverage:1 syrup:1 candy:4 cream:1 middle:2 eastern:1 cuisine:3 british:1 sauce:1 necessary:1 ingredient:2 touareg:1 northern:1 african:1 arab:1 country:2 alcoholic:1 drink:3 feature:1 garnish:1 namely:1 julep:1 crème:1 de:1 menthe:1 flavored:2 liqueur:1 grasshopper:1 essential:3 oil:5 menthol:5 extensively:1 flavoring:2 breath:1 freshener:1 antiseptic:1 mouth:1 rinse:1 toothpaste:1 chew:1 gum:1 dessert:1 see:2 chocolate:1 substance:1 give:1 characteristic:1 aroma:3 main:1 pulegone:1 compound:1 primarily:1 responsible:1 r:1 carvone:1 methyl:1 salicylate:1 wintergreen:1 food:2 like:3 larva:1 lepidoptera:1 buff:1 ermine:1 medicinal:2 cosmetic:2 originally:1 treat:2 stomach:2 ache:1 chest:1 pain:2 form:1 remedy:1 help:1 alleviate:1 age:1 powder:1 whiten:1 teeth:1 strong:2 diuretic:1 aid:1 digestion:1 way:1 break:1 fat:1 recent:1 year:1 recommend:2 obesity:1 perfume:1 much:1 medicine:1 component:1 drug:1 aromatherapy:1 shampoo:1 product:1 antipruritic:1 especially:2 bite:1 treatment:1 camphor:1 cigarette:1 additive:1 block:1 bitter:1 taste:1 tobacco:1 soothe:1 throat:1 scent:1 mild:1 decongestant:1 illness:1 cold:1 rome:1 pliny:1 wreath:1 thing:1 student:1 wear:1 since:1 think:1 exhilarate:1 mind:1 insecticide:2 camper:1 mosquito:2 say:1 extract:1 particular:1 killing:1 capability:1 environmentally:1 friendly:1 ability:1 kill:1 wasp:1 hornet:1 ant:1 cockroach:1 disease:1 origin:1 usage:2 word:4 example:1 descends:1 latin:1 root:1 greek:4 minthe:2 mention:1 mythology:1 nymph:1 transform:1 probably:1 derive:1 extinct:1 pre:2 language:1 substrate:1 without:1 qualifier:1 generally:1 refers:1 central:1 south:1 hierbabuena:1 literally:1 lusophone:1 brazil:1 popularly:1 hortelã:1 indo:1 aryan:1 languages:1 pudīna:1 taxonomic:2 cooking:1 basil:1 rosemary:1 sage:1 oregano:1 catnip:1 english:1 colloquial:1 term:1 confectionery:1 item:1 fragrant:1 may:1 erroneously:1 vietnamese:1 southeast:1 member:1 note:1 external:1 link:1 germplasm:1 resource:1 information:1 flora:2 europaea:1 china:1 united:1 state:1 department:1 agriculture:1 online:1 reference:1 botanical:1 com:1 entry:1 future:1 search:1 page:1 |@bigram family_lamiaceae:3 almost_exclusively:1 pale_yellow:1 cm_tall:1 invasive_specie:1 mint_mentha:16 mentha_piperita:2 cool_moist:1 fast_growing:1 plastic_bag:1 ice_cube:1 ice_cream:1 alcoholic_drink:1 mouth_rinse:1 chew_gum:1 aroma_flavor:2 methyl_salicylate:1 medicinal_herb:1 chest_pain:1 insect_bite:1 bitter_taste:1 environmentally_friendly:1 indo_aryan:1 aromatic_herb:1 southeast_asian:1 external_link:1 |
6,310 | Foreign_relations_of_Cuba | Cuba's once-ambitious foreign policy has been scaled back and redirected as a result of economic hardship after the collapse of the Soviet bloc. Without massive Soviet subsidies and its primary trading partner Cuba was comparatively isolated in the 1990s, but has since entered bilateral co-operation with several South American countries, most notably Venezuela and Bolivia. The United States continues an embargo "so long as it continues to refuse to move toward democratization and greater respect for human rights" , while the European Union accuses Cuba of "continuing flagrant violation of human rights and fundamental freedoms". Cuba has developed a growing relationship with the People's Republic of China and Russia. In all, Cuba continues to have formal relations with 160 nations, and provided civilian assistance workers - principally medical - in more than 20 nations. Cuba (09/01) US Department of State report More than two million exiles have escaped to foreign countries. Cuba's present foreign minister is Bruno Rodríguez Parrilla. Cuba is currently a lead country on the United Nations Human Rights Council, and is a founding member of the Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas, a member of the Latin American Integration Association and the United Nations. Cuba is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and hosted its September 2006 summit. In addition as a member of the Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Cuba was re-appointed as the chair- of the special committee on transportation issues for the Caribbean region. Cuba Takes Over Chair of ACS Transport Committee Caribbean Investor Following a meeting in November, 2004, several leaders of South America have attempted to make Cuba either a full or associate member of the South American trade-bloc known as Mercosur. How Cuba Fits into Brazil's Plans Brazzilmag Cuba Asks to Join Mercosur The Trumpet History Spanish colonial period Prior to achieving its independence, Cuba was a colony of Spain. 1898-1959 Prior to the triumph of the Cuban Revolution, Cuba maintained strong economic and political ties to the United States. From 1902 until its abrogation in 1934, the Platt Amendment authorized the US to use military force to preserve Cuba's "independence". In 1917, Cuba entered World War I on the side of the allies. History of Cuba Cuba joined the League of Nations in 1920. In 1941, Cuba declared war on Italy, Germany, and Japan. Cuba joined the United Nations in 1945. Cuba joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1948. During the Presidency of Fulgencio Batista, Cuba did not initially face trade restrictions. In mid-1958, the United States started an embargo on the Batista administration. The Cold War Fidel Castro with Nikita Khrushchev, former Soviet premier. As early as September 1959, Valdim Kotchergin (or Kochergin), a KGB agent, was seen in Cuba. (British Foreign Office. Chancery American Department, Foreign Office, London September 2, 1959 (2181/59) to British Embassy Havana classified as restricted Released 2000 by among British Foreign Office papers FOREIGN OFFICES FILES FOR CUBA Part 1: Revolution in Cuba “in our letter 1011/59 May 6 we mentioned that a Russian workers' delegation had been invited to participate in the May Day celebrations here, but had been delayed. The interpreter with the party, which arrived later and stayed in Cuba a few days, was called Vadim Kotchergin although he was at the time using what he subsequently claimed was his mother's name of Liston (?). He remained in the background, and did not attract any attention..” (English title: The training camp "Point Zero" where the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) trained national and international terrorists) “... Los coroneles soviéticos de la KGB Vadim Kochergin y Victor Simonov (ascendido a general en 1970) fueron entrenadores en "Punto Cero" desde finales de los años 60 del siglo pasado. Uno de los" graduados" por Simonov en este campo de entrenamiento es Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, más conocido como "Carlos El Chacal". Otro "alumno" de esta instalación del terror es el mexicano Rafael Sebastián Guillén, alias "subcomandante Marcos", quien se "graduó" en "Punto Cero" a principio de los años 80.” Jorge Luis Vasquez, a Cuban who was imprisoned in East Germany, states that the Stasi trained the personnel of the Cuban Interior Ministry(MINIT). The relationship between the Soviet Union's KGB and the Cuban Intelligence Directorate was complex and marked by times of extremely close cooperation and times of extreme competition. The Soviet Union saw the new revolutionary government in Cuba as an excellent proxy agent in areas of the world where Soviet involvement was not popular on a local level. Nikolai Leninov, the KGB Chief in Mexico City, was one of the first Soviet officials to recognize Fidel Castro's potential as a revolutionary and urged the Soviet Union to strengthen ties with the new Cuban leader. Moscow saw Cuba as having far more appeal with new revolutionary movements, western intellectuals, and members of the New Left with Cuba's perceived David and Goliath struggle against US imperialism. Shortly after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1963, Moscow invited 1,500 DI agents, including Che Guevara, to the KGB's Moscow Center for intensive training in intelligence operations. After the revolution of 1959, Cuba soon took actions inimical to American trade interests on the island. In response, the U.S. stopped buying Cuban sugar and refused to supply its former trading partner with much needed oil. Relations between the countries deteriorated rapidly. Following the failed invasion of Cuba by CIA trained Cuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs, Fidel Castro declared Cuba to be a socialist republic and moved quickly to develop the growing relations between Cuba and the Soviet Union. In 1962, Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States - Thereafter, many nations throughout Latin America broke ties with Cuba. Following the establishment of diplomatic ties, and after the Cuban Missile Crisis, Cuba became increasingly dependent on Soviet markets and military and economic aid. Cuba was able to build a large military force with the help of Soviet equipment and military advisors. The Soviets also kept in close touch with Havana, sharing varying close relations until the collapse of the bloc in 1990. Relations in Latin America and Africa during the Cold War During the cold war, Cuba's influence in the Americas was inhibited by the Monroe Doctrine and the dominance of the United States. Cuba in Africa Foreign Affairs magazine 1987 Despite this Fidel Castro became an influential figurehead for leftist groups in the region, extending support to Marxist Revolutionary movements throughout Latin America, most notably aiding the Sandinistas in overthrowing Somoza in Nicaragua in 1979. In 1971, Fidel Castro took a month-long visit to Chile. The visit, in which Castro participated actively in the internal politics of the country, holding massive rallies and giving public advice to Salvador Allende, was seen by those on the political right as proof to support their view that "The Chilean Way to Socialism" was an effort to put Chile on the same path as Cuba. Cuba's intervention in Africa, which began in the mid-1970s, was more substantial leading to involvement in 17 African nations and three African insurgencies soon leading Cuban soldiers engaging in frontline military combat. In doing so Castro aligned Cuba with African insurgencies against colonial vestiges and specifically against South Africa. By providing military aid Cuba won trading partners for the Soviet bloc and potential converts to Marxism. On November 4, 1975 Castro ordered the deployment of Cuban troops to Angola in order to aid the Marxist MPLA government against UNITA forces, which were being supported by the People's Republic of China, and later the United States, Israel, and South Africa (see: Cuba in Angola). After two months on their own, Moscow aided the Cuban mission with the USSR engaging in a massive airlift of Cuban forces into Angola. On this, Nelson Mandela is said to have remarked "Cuban internationalists have done so much for African independence, freedom, and justice." Cuban troops were also sent to Marxist Ethiopia to assist Ethiopian forces in the Ogaden War with Somalia in 1977. Cuba sent troops along with the Soviet Union to aid the FRELIMO and MPLA governments in Mozambique and Angola, respectively, while they were fighting U.S. and South African-backed insurgent groups RENAMO (supported by Rhodesia as well) and UNITA. He also aided the government of Mengistu Haile Mariam in Ethiopia during its conflict with Somalia. Overall, an estimated 14,000 Cubans were killed in Cuban military actions abroad. Post-Cold War relations Fidel Castro with Russian President Vladimir Putin, December 2000 In the post-Cold War environment Cuban support for guerrilla warfare in Latin America has largely subsided, though the Cuban government continued to provide political assistance and support for left leaning groups and parties in the developing Western Hemisphere. Cuba today works with a growing bloc of Latin American politicians opposed to the "Washington consensus", the American-led doctrine that free trade, open markets, and privatization will lift poor third world countries out of economic stagnation. The Cuban government have condemned neoliberalism as a destructive force in the developing world, creating an alliance with Presidents Hugo Chávez of Venezuela and Evo Morales of Bolivia in opposing such policies. Reel, Monte. For Bolivian Majority, a New Promise; Nation's First Indian President Vows to Chart Course Independent of U.S. The Washington Post. Washington, D.C.: 23 January 2006. pg. A.01 Bolivia to Widen Control of Industry. The Washington Post. Washington, D.C.: May 3, 2006. pg. A.16 Constable, Pamela. For Bolivian Victor, A Powerful Mandate; Populist Faces Practical Constraints. The Washington Post. Washington, D.C.: 20 December 2005. pg. A.01 McDonnell, Patrick J. Global Capital; Leftist Presidents Take Spotlight at Trade Summit; A South American common market welcomes Venezuela, underscoring the bloc's new politics. Cuba's Castro steals the show. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, Calif.: 22 July 2006. pg. C.4 Currently, Cuba has diplomatically friendly relationships with Presidents Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, Lula da Silva of Brazil, and Cristina Fernández of Argentina, with Chávez as perhaps his staunchest ally in the post-Soviet era. Cuba has sent thousands of teachers and medical personnel to Venezuela to assist Chávez's socialist oriented economic programs. Chávez, in turn provides Cuba with lower priced petroleum. Cuba's debt for oil to Venezuela is believed to be on the order of one billion US dollars. http://havanajournal.com/business_comments/A1221_0_4_0_M/ Cuban foreign relations by region North America and the Caribbean Relations with Canada See also: Canada-Caribbean relations Canada has maintained consistently cordial relations with Cuba, in spite of considerable pressure from the United States, and the island is also one of the most popular travel destinations for Canadian citizens. Canada-Cuba relations can be traced back to the 18th century, when vessels from the Atlantic provinces of Canada traded codfish and beer for rum and sugar. Cuba was the first country in the Caribbean selected by Canada for a diplomatic mission. Official diplomatic relations were established in 1945, when Emile Vaillancourt, a noted writer and historian, was designated Canada's representative in Cuba. Canada and Mexico were the only two countries in the hemisphere to maintain uninterrupted diplomatic relations with Cuba following the Cuban Revolution in 1959. In 1994, a joint venture was formed between the Cuban Nickel Union and the Canadian firm Sherritt International, which operates a mining and processing plant on the island in Moa. A second enterprise, Cobalt Refinery Co. Inc., was created in Alberta for nickel refining. Canada has been critical of the U.S. trade embargo against Cuba, and strongly objected to the Helms-Burton Act. In 1996 Foreign Affairs Minister Lloyd Axworthy stated: "Canada shares the U.S. objectives of improving human rights standards and moving to more representative government in Cuba. But we are concerned that the Helms-Burton Act takes the wrong approach. That is why we have been working with other countries to uphold the principles of international law". In 1996 a Private Member's Bill was introduced, but not made law, in the Canadian parliament; this law called the Godfrey-Milliken Bill was in response to the extraterritoriality of the aforementioned Act. Canada also protests U.S. preclearance customs agents in Canadian airports who try to catch American citizens travelling to Cuba in defiance of U.S. law. Former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau and Fidel Castro were personal friends. Castro was among Pierre Trudeau's pallbearers at his funeral in 2000. Relations with the United States Since the Cuban revolution of 1959 relations deteriorated substantially and have subsequently been marked by tension and confrontations. The United States does not have formal diplomatic relations with Cuba and has maintained an embargo which makes it illegal for U.S. corporations to do business with Cuba. This includes travel restrictions. These measures were further strengthened by the implementation by the U.S. of the Helms-Burton Act of 1996 which attempted to punish any foreign companies operating in Cuba, especially those using expropriated US assets. US diplomatic representation in Cuba is handled by the United States Interests Section in Havana, and a similar "Cuban Interests Section" remains in Washington. Both are officially part of the respective embassies of Switzerland. Relations with Mexico Cuba had held good relations with Mexico since the Revolution. Also, when Cuba was expelled from the Organization of American States, Mexico did not support this resolution and abstained. Relations were stable from 1934 to 1998. The relationship between Cuba and Mexico remains strained. In 1998 Fidel Castro apologized for remarks he made about which led Mexico to recall its ambassador from Havana. Castro had declared that Mexican children would find it easier to name Disney characters than to recount key figures in Mexican history. He later said that his words were meant to underscore the cultural dominance of the US. Mexican president Vicente Fox apologized to Fidel Castro in 2002 over allegations by Castro that Fox forced him to leave a United Nations summit in Mexico so that he would not be in the presence of US President Bush, who also attended. (this information is not recent, someone one that knows more than i do please update) Relations with Caribbean Community (CARICOM) Ties between the nations of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and Cuba have remained cordial over the course of the later half of the 20th century The Nation Newspaper | Arthur points out ties that bind . Formal diplomatic relations between the CARICOM economic giants: Barbados, Jamaica, Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago have existed since 1972 Advocate , All set for Cuba/Caricom Summit - JAMAICAOBSERVER.COM and have over time led to an increase in cooperation between the CARICOM Heads of Government and Cuba. At a summit meeting of sixteen Caribbean countries in 1998, Fidel Castro called for regional unity, saying that only strengthened cooperation between Caribbean countries would prevent their domination by rich nations in a global economy. Cuba, for many years regionally isolated, increased grants and scholarships to the Caribbean countries. To celebrate ties between the Caribbean Community and Cuba in 2002 the Heads of Government of Cuba and CARICOM have designated the day of December 8 to be called 'CARICOM-Cuba Day' Caribbean Net News: CARICOM-Cuba Day: 8 December - A time for Celebration . The day is the exact date of the formal opening of diplomatic relations between the first CARICOM-four and Cuba. In December 2005, during the second CARICOM/CUBA summit held in Barbados, heads of CARICOM and Cuba agreed to deepen their ties in the areas of socio-economic and political cooperation in addition to medical care assistance. Since the meeting, Cuba has opened four additional embassies in the Caribbean Community including: Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Suriname, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines. This development makes Cuba the only nation to have embassies in all independent countries of the Caribbean Community. Caribbean Net News: Cuba opens more Caribbean embassies CARICOM and Canadian politicians New focus on CARICOM/Canada relations have jointly maintained that through the International inclusion of Cuba, a more positive change might indeed be brought about there (politically) as has been witnessed in the People's Republic of China. Cuban cooperation with the Caribbean was extended by a joint health programme between Cuba and Venezuela named Operación Milagro, set up in 2005. The initiative is part of the Sandino commitment, which sees both countries coming together with the aim of offering free ophthalmology operations to an estimated 4.5 million people in Latin America and the Caribbean over a ten-year period. Havana's Operation Miracle helps eye patients see light News. Scotsman According to Denzil Douglas, the prime minister of St. Kitts and Nevis and the current Caricom chairman, more than 1,300 students from member nations are studying in Cuba while more than 1,000 Cuban doctors, nurses and other technicians are working throughout the region. In 1998 Trinidad Prime Minister Patrick Manning had a heart valve replacement surgery in Cuba and returned in 2004 to have a pacemaker implanted. Cuba enjoys ties with Caribbean neighbor ASSOCIATED PRESS Following Fidel Castro's illness and temporary transfer of power Caribbean leaders sent get-well-soon messages to Castro. Leaders included Prime Minister Kenny Anthony of St. Lucia who announced: "We pray for President Castro and we wish him God's blessings". Grenadan Prime Minister Keith Mitchell stated "Cuba has been a long-standing friend to the entire Caribbean", and Trinidad Prime Minister Patrick Manning issued a statement extending Castro his "best wishes for a prompt recovery." Additionally the Cuban-Barbadian Friendship Association (CBFA) and the social movement known as the Clement Payne Movement also extended a press release stating "We will lead the process for all progressive organisations in Barbados to hold a solidarity meeting with the government and people of the Republic of Cuba on August 13 at the Clement Payne Cultural Centre". Both organizations stated they would be planning to send a delegation to Cuba to celebrate with Fidel Castro his 80th birthday, in addition to the annual observance on October 6 of Cubana Flight 455 which was bombed off the coast of Barbados in 1976 via a CIA-linked plot. The Nation Newspaper | Get-well wishes for Castro In December 2008 the CARICOM Heads of Government opened the third Cuba-CARICOM Summit in Cuba. The summit is to look at closer integration of the Caribbean Community and Cuba. TIES THAT BIND: CUBA/CARICOM leaders talk closer cooperation - Caribbean News Agency (CANA) - Monday, 08 December 2008 During the summit the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) bestowed Fidel Castro with the highest honour of CARICOM, The Honorary Order of the Caribbean Community which is presented in exceptional circumstances to those who have offered their services in an outstanding way and have made significant contributions to the region. Caricom's highest honour for Fidel - Trinidad and Tobago Express Newspaper - December 7th, 2008 Central and South America Relations with Brazil With the electoral win of the President of Brazil, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in 2002 ties between Cuba and Brazil have steadily warmed. Brazil continues to play its part in trying to revive and upgrade the offshore oil and gas infrastructure of Cuba BBC NEWS | Business | Cuba's new oil industry . In addition, talks led by Brazil are underway seeking to develop a framework for Cuba to become a normalised affiliate member of the Mercosur bloc of countries. Relations with Costa Rica Costa Rica broke relations with Cuba in 1961 to protest Cuban support of the left in Central America and has not renewed formal diplomatic ties with Fidel Castro's government. In 1995, Costa Rica established a consular office in Havana. Cuba opened a consular office in Costa Rica in 2001, but relations continued to be difficult. In 2006, shortly after the death of Augusto Pinochet, Costa Rican President Óscar Arias compared Fidel Castro's human rights record to that of the former Chilean president. In response, Cuban officials released a statement describing the Washington aligned Arias as a "vulgar mercenary" of U.S. officials, and asserting that Washington "always had on hand another opportunistic clown ready to follow its aggressive plans against Cuba." Cuba slams Costa Rican leader's remarks. Associated Press. Relations with Panama Cuba and Panama have restored diplomatic ties after breaking them off in 2004 when Panama's former president pardoned four Cuban exiles accused of attempting to assassinate Cuban President Fidel Castro. The foreign minister of each country re-established official diplomatic relations in Havana by signing a document describing a spirit of fraternity that has long linked both nations. Cuba, once shunned by many of its Latin American neighbours, now has full diplomatic relations with all but Costa Rica and El Salvador. However, in March 2009, both governments of Costa Rica and El Salvador announced that they plan on re-establishing full diplomatic relations with Cuba. Relations with Venezuela See also: Cuba-Venezuela relations Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez is a close ally of Fidel Castro, and has described the Fidel Castro–Hugo Chávez–Evo Morales relationship as an "Axis of good". Chávez's formulation is a play on the "axis of evil" phrase used by President Bush when describing governments such as those of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea in his 2002 State of the Union Address. The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela has agreed to barter Venezuelan oil, in exchange for Cuban medical assistance. On December 15, 2004 an agreement called the ALBA (Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas) was signed to eliminate tariffs and import duties and promote investment as well as technical and educational cooperation between the two countries. Venezuela and Cuba have been close trading partners since a cooperative agreement was signed between them on October 30, 2000. The new agreement meant that Cuban goods and services were to be paid for with Venezuela products and currency. Venezuela will transfer technology, finance development projects in the agriculture, service, energy and infrastructures sectors. Cuba, in addition to providing over 15,000 medical professionals who participate in Barrio Adentro, a social program which provides Cuban healthcare treatment to Venezuelans and trains doctors and specialists, will grant 2,000 annual scholarships to Venezuelan students. Also, the agreement commits the two countries to work together with other Latin American countries to fight illiteracy. Venezuela and Cuba Sign New Cooperation Agreements In 2005 the two countries also signed cooperation agreements in the area of energy and electricity, an accord between Venezuela's oil company PDVSA and its Cuban counterpart Cupet to buy and sell crude oil and a crude oil storage agreement between the two companies. Cuba and Venezuela sign millionaire bilateral trade agreement Hugo Chávez, who says he is one of the few people in the world who knows Castro's illness from July 31, 2006, has helped Cuba undermine a strict U.S. embargo by sending cheap oil and boosting commercial relations. Agreements between Cuba and Venezuela, the world's No. 5 oil exporter, have brought more than 20,000 Cuban doctors to Venezuela to provide medical services for the poor. The program, one of numerous oil-funded social projects, has helped Chávez build a strong political support base and he was widely expected to win a reelection bid in December 2006. Chávez was able to win that election. A White House point man on plans for a post-Castro transition, Caleb McCarry, recently told The Miami Herald that U.S. estimates of total Venezuelan subsidies to Cuba per year "are up to the $2 billion figure." This is comparable to the $4 billion to $6 billion that the Soviet Union once pumped into Cuba per year. http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/cuba/15395148.htm Relations with the People's Republic of China As the economy of the Soviet Union fell into a decline during the 1990s, the People's Republic of China has emerged as a new a key partner for Cuba's foreign relations. Relations between Cuba and China continue to grow including deals for China to set up a possible military base in Cuba, similar to the Bejucal Base and an agreement was signed between China and Cuba for China open more factories producing local goods such as televisions. Cuba has also purchased from China a wide range of items including bicycles, rice cookers, energy-saving lightbulbs and diesel-electric locomotives with the aim of providing a boost to Cuba's national infrastructure. Cuba gets China's first trains exported to Latin America Caribbean Net News Relations with Russia Relations between the two countries suffered somewhat during the Boris Yeltsin administration, as Cuba was forced to look for new major allies, such as China, after the collapse of the Soviet Union. Relations improved when Vladimir Putin was elected as the new Russian President. Putin, and later Dmitry Medvedev, emphasized re-establishing strong relations with old Soviet allies. In 2008, Medvedev visited Havana and Raúl Castro made a week long trip to Moscow. In that same year the two governments signed multiple economic agreements and Russia sent tons of humanitarian aid to Cuba. Cuba, meanwhile, gave staunch political support for Russia during the 2008 South Ossetia war. Relations between the two nations are currently at a post-Soviet high, and talks about potentially re-establishing a Russian military presence in Cuba are even beginning to surface. Relations with Pakistan Cuban-Pakistani relations are the bilateral relations between the Republic of Cuba and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. The relations between the two countries strengthened after Cuba provided humanitarian assistance to the victims of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. Both nations continue to strengthen the bilateral relations especially in the fields of higher education, agriculture, industry and science and technology and have also held talks for military cooperation. In March 2008, ambassador Gustavo Machin Gomez met General Tariq Majid, the Chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee (CJCSC) at Joint Staff Headquarters and discussed issues related to military cooperation. Both of them expressed positive views over the increasing relations between the two nations and were optimistic that the bilateral cooperation will expand in different fields. Majid stressed that Pakistan has formed strong defence infrastructure both in defence production and in shape of military academies to provide help and cooperation to the Military of Cuba. He also said that both countries should use their capacity for expanding military cooperation. Relations in Africa Fidel Castro with South African president Thabo Mbeki (to Castro's left) On a visit to South Africa, Fidel Castro was warmly received by President Nelson Mandela. President Mandela gave Castro South Africa's highest civilian award for foreigners, the Order of Good Hope. In 2005 Castro fulfilled his promise of sending 100 medical aid workers to Botswana, according to the Botswana presidency. According to Anna Vallejera, Cuba's first-ever Ambassador to Botswana, the health workers are part of her country's ongoing commitment to proactively assist in the global war against HIV/AIDS. Cuba also has historically good ties with a number of other African countries, including Angola, Mozambique, Namibia and Algeria. Relations with the European Union EU relations with Cuba are governed by the Common Position, as approved by the European Council of Ministers in 1996, which is updated every six months following regular evaluations. According to the Common Position "the objective of the European Union in its relations with Cuba is to encourage a process of transition to a pluralist democracy and respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, as well as sustainable recovery and improvement in the living standards of the Cuban people". Cuba rejects the Common Position as interference in its internal affairs. There is an EU Delegation in Havana that works under the responsibility of the EC Delegation in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic. In response to the Cason affair of March 2003, when the government of Cuba arrested dozens of journalists, librarians, and human rights activists, the EU took measures, which were publicly announced on 5 June 2003 to limit high level governmental visits. The Union reduced the profile of member states' participation in cultural events and invited Cuban dissidents to National Day celebrations. The Cuban authorities announced on 26 July 2003 their refusal of all direct aid coming from the European Union. This period of diplomatic friction became known as the Cocktail Wars. On 31 January 2005, the EU decided that all the measures taken on 5 June 2003 would be suspended temporarily. The Council stated once again that the EU remains willing to maintain a constructive dialogue with the Cuban authorities aiming at tangible results in the political, economic, human rights and cooperation sphere. Furthermore, it decided that the EU will develop more intense relations with the peaceful political opposition and broader layers of civil society in Cuba, through enhanced and more regular dialogue. The temporary suspension of these measures was confirmed in June 2005. Cuba benefits from the GPS (Generalized Preference System) preferential treatment for its exports. Furthermore, Cuba does not benefit from the ACP-EU Sugar Protocol but from a sugar quota granted by the EU (some 59,000 tonnes per year; duty paid on this quota is EUR 98/t). http://ec.europa.eu/comm/development/body/country/country_home_en.cfm?cid=cu&status=new On 11 May 2009, Czech Foreign Minister Jan Kohout, who represented the at a meeting with Cuba had stated that they had made no headway in Human Rights, Cuban Foreign Minster Bruno Rodriguez defended Havana's record stating that the position was obsolete, although the lifted economic sanctions against the nation in 2008 it reviews the situation annually http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/8045058.stm Relations in Oceania Cuba has only one embassy in Oceania, located in Wellington (opened in November 2007 Cuban connection runs deeper than the carnival - New Zealand news on Stuff.co.nz ). It also has a Consulate General in Sydney General Consulate of The Republic of Cuba in Australia . However, Cuba has official diplomatic relations with Nauru since 2002 Cuba News and the Solomon Islands since 2003 solomonstarnews.com , and maintains relations with other Pacific countries by providing aid. There are currently sixteen doctors providing specialised medical care in Kiribati, with sixteen more scheduled to join them Pacific Magazine: Six More Cuban Physicians To Serve In Kiribati . Cubans have also offered training to I-Kiribati doctors Kiribati discusses medical training with Cuba . Cuban doctors have reportedly provided a dramatic improvement to the field of medical care in Kiribati, reducing the child mortality rate in that country by 80% Cuban doctors reduce Kiribati infant mortality rate by 80 percent , and winning the proverbial hearts and minds in the Pacific. In response, the Solomon Islands began recruiting Cuban doctors in July 2007, while Papua New Guinea and Fiji considered following suit. In June 2007, Nauru adopted the "Cuban literacy method", reportedly used also in several other countries Cuban Literacy Method to Pacific Isle - Prensa Latina . In October 2007, Nauruan Foreign Minister and Trade Minister David Adeang travelled to Cuba to strengthen relations between the two island nations Cuba, Nauru to Strengthen Links - Prensa Latina . This led to the creation of a Cuba-Nauru Joint Intergovernmental Commission for Economic Cooperation Economy . An unspecified number of Cuban doctors are serving in Nauru. In April 2007, the Solomon Star reported that the Solomon Islands’ High Commissioner to the United Nations was soon to be sworn in as Ambassador to Cuba solomonstarnews.com . In September 2007, it was announced that 40 Cuban doctors would be sent to the Solomon Islands. http://www.radioaustralia.net.au/news/stories/s2030359.htm The Solomons’ Minister of Foreign Affairs Patterson Oti said that Solomon Islander doctors would "learn from their Cuban colleagues in specialized areas" solomonstarnews.com . In addition to providing doctors, Cuba provided scholarships for 50 Solomon Islanders to study medicine in Cuba for free Cuban-trained doctors sorely needed in Solomons . Regarding relations with New Zealand, Cuban ambassador Jose Luis Robaina Garcia said his country had "admiration for New Zealand's independent foreign policy". In 2008, Cuba will reportedly be sending doctors to the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Tuvalu, Nauru and Papua New Guinea, "Cuban Physicians to Aid 81 Nations", Prensa Latina, March 29, 2008 while seventeen medical students from Vanuatu will study in Cuba. "Vanuatu to get six doctors from Cuba", Radio New Zealand International, August 10, 2008 It may also provide training for Fiji doctors. Indeed, Fiji's ambassador to the United Nations, Berenado Vunibobo, has stated that his country may seek closer relations with Cuba, and in particular medical assistance, following a decline in Fiji's relations with New Zealand. "Fiji says Cuban help sought as neighbours turn away", Radio New Zealand International, April 4, 2008 International organizations and groups ACS • AOSIS • CTO • ECLAC • G33 • G77 • IAEA • ICAO • ICRM • IFAD • ILO • IMO • Interpol • IOC • ISO • ITU • LAES • NAM • OPANAL • OPCW • PAHO • Rio Group • UN • UNCTAD • UNESCO • UPU • WCO • WHO • WIPO • WMO Organization of American States Cuba is currently excluded from participation in the Organization of American States under a decision adopted by the Eighth Meeting of Consultation in Punta del Este, Uruguay, on 21 January 1962. The resolution stated that as Cuba had officially identified itself as a Marxist-Leninist government, is was incompatible with "the principles and objectives of the inter-American system." http://www.cidh.oas.org/countryrep/Cuba79eng/intro.htm This stance is occasionally questioned by other individual member states. The reincorporation of Cuba as an active member regularly arises as a topic within the inter-American system (e.g., it was intimated by the outgoing ambassador of Mexico in 1998) OAS: Mexico Calls for Cuba’s Reinstatement into the OAS but most observers do not see it as a serious possibility while the present government remains in power. On 6 May 2005, President Fidel Castro reiterated that the island nation would not "be part of a disgraceful institution that has only humiliated the honor of Latin American nations". Fidel Castro: OAS Is an Instrument of the US - Prensa Latina Cuba was the last of ten nations to join the Latin American Integration Association becoming a full member on 26 August 1999. The organization was set up in 1980 to encourage trade integration association. Its main objective is the establishment of a common market, in pursuit of the economic and social development of the region. On September 15, 2006, Cuba officially took over leadership of the Non-Aligned Movement during the 14th summit of the organization in Havana. ABC News: ABC News Cuban intervention abroad: 1959 - Early 1990s Aided by a massive buildup of Soviet advisors, military personnel, and advanced weaponry during the Cold War, Cuba became a staunch ally of the USSR during Castro's rule, modeling its political structure after that of the CPSU. Due to this huge amount of support, Cuba became a major sponsor of Marxist "wars of national liberation" not only in Latin America, but worldwide. Latin America Cuba has supported a number of leftist groups and parties in Latin America and the Caribbean since the 1959 revolution. In the 1960s Cuba established close ties with the emerging Guatemalan social movement led by Luis Augusto Turcios Lima, and supported the establishment of the URNG, a militant organization that has evolved into one of Guatemala's current political parties. In the 1980s Cuba backed the FMLN in El Salvador, providing military and intelligence training, weapons, guidance, and organizational support. During the Cold War, Cuba gave training, money, medicines, weapons and safe haven to members of Colombian guerrilla movements, especially to the ELN and also to members of the FARC, both of which were founded in the early 1960s. In recent years, Fidel Castro has made gestures of reconciliation with different Colombian government administrations, and has been considered responsible for facilitating talks between them and the opposing guerrilla groups. Cuba developed close relations with the 1979 Sandinista government in Nicaragua (having supported the Sandinista insurgency against Anastasio Somoza's rule). Cuba proved to be the organization's chief international ally in the civil war against the U.S.-backed Contras. Cuba transported weapons to Panama. From Panama, the Cuban weapons would be taken through Costa Rica to Nicaragua. Cuba continues to have close relations with the Sandinista National Liberation Front, since being re-elected in 2006 for the first time since 1984, they are again the governing party of Nicaragua. Black Panthers In the '60s and '70s, Cuba openly supported the black nationalist and Marxist-oriented Black Panther Party of the U.S. Many members found their way into Cuba for political asylum, where Cuba welcomed them after they had been convicted of crimes in the U.S. Palestinians Cuba has also lent support to Palestinian nationalist groups against Israel. Fidel Castro claims Israel practices "Zionist Fascism." Cuba has also lent support to the prominent Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the lesser-known Marxist-Leninist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) both received training from Cuba's General Intelligence Directorate, as well as financial and diplomatic support from the Cuban government. Cuba, along with North Korea, are the only non-Islamic states in the world that do not recognise the state of Israel. Irish Republicans The Irish Republican political party, Sinn Féin is also known to have close political links to the Cuban government. In the past Fidel Castro has expressed support for the Irish Republican cause of a United Ireland. The Cuban government supported and still supports the Republican cause, but opposed the attacks which took place on civilian targets by Sinn Féin's military ally, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and of course attacks on civilians by their loyalist enemies such as the Ulster Volunteer Force and Ulster Defence Association. Humanitarian aid Since the establishment of the Revolutionary Government of Cuba in 1959, the country has sent more than 52,000 medical workers abroad to work in needy countries, including countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2005 Kashmir earthquake. http://www.irna.ir/en/news/view/menu-236/0607178261185837.htm There are currently about 20,000 Cuban doctors working in 68 countries across three continents, including a 135-strong medical team in Java, Indonesia. BBC NEWS | Americas | Cuba doctors popular in quake-stricken Java Read more about Cuba's medical collaboration in Africa at: White Coats by the Gambia River Cuba provides Medical Aid to Children Affected by Chernobyl Nuclear Accident: The children of Chernobyl in My Memory US Accusations of supporting terrorism The U.S. list of state sponsors of international terrorism includes Cuba. According to the US, the Cuban Government has taken no action against al-Qaida or other terrorist groups. The Government of Cuba maintains close relationships with Iran and North Korea, and has provided safe haven to members of ETA, FARC, and the ELN. U.S. fugitives from justice and ETA members are living legally in Cuba. Cuba refuses to extradite U.S. fugitives by stating that approval would be contingent upon the U.S. returning wanted Cuban criminals and that it will no longer provide safe haven to new U.S. fugitives who may enter Cuba. Chapter 6 - State Sponsors of Terror Overview List of Foreign Ministers of Cuba See also Human rights in Cuba Censorship in Cuba Intelligence Directorate Cocktail Wars Diplomatic missions of Cuba List of diplomatic missions in Cuba External links Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs Cuban Mission to the United Nations Text of U.S.- Cuban agreement on military bases Fidel Castro's 'Reflection' on U.S. Travel Restrictions Miami Herald, April 14 2009 Representations of other countries in Cuba British Embassy in Havana Embassy of India in Havana The Canadian Embassy in Cuba U.S. Interests Section in Havana Cuban represntations to other countries Cuban Embassy in Lebanon References | Foreign_relations_of_Cuba |@lemmatized cuba:194 ambitious:1 foreign:20 policy:3 scale:1 back:5 redirect:1 result:2 economic:12 hardship:1 collapse:3 soviet:21 bloc:7 without:1 massive:4 subsidy:2 primary:1 trading:3 partner:5 comparatively:1 isolate:2 since:12 enter:3 bilateral:5 co:4 operation:4 several:3 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6,311 | Demographics_of_Comoros | This article is about the demographic features of the population of Comoros, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographics of Comoros, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The Comorians inhabiting Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli (86% of the population) share African-Arab origins. Islam (See Islam in Comoros) is the dominant religion, and Quranic schools for children reinforce its influence. Although Arab culture is firmly established throughout the archipelago, a substantial minority of the citizens of Mayotte (the Mahorais) are Roman Catholic French native. The most common language is Comorian, a Swahili dialect. French and Arabic also are spoken. About 57% of the population is literate. Population density figures conceal a great disparity between the republic's most crowded island, Nzwani, which had a density of 470 persons per square kilometer in 1991; Njazidja, which had a density of 250 persons per square kilometer in 1991; and Mwali, where the 1991 population density figure was 120 persons per square kilometer. Overall population density increased to about 285 persons per square kilometer by 1994. Mahoré's population density went from 179 persons per square kilometer in 1985 to 251 per square kilometer in 1991. By comparison, estimates of the population density per square kilometer of the Indian Ocean's other island microstates ranged from 241 (Seychelles) to 690 (Maldives) in 1993. Given the rugged terrain of Njazidja and Nzwani, and the dedication of extensive tracts to agriculture on all three islands, population pressures on Comoros are becoming increasingly critical. A similar situation obtains on Mahoré. The age structure of the population of Comoros is similar to that of many developing countries, in that the republic has a very large proportion of young people. In 1989, 46.4 percent of the population was under fifteen years of age, an above-average proportion even for sub-Saharan Africa. The population's rate of growth was a relatively high 3.5 percent per annum in the mid1980s , up substantially from 2.0 percent in the mid-1970s and 2.1 percent in the mid-1960s. In 1983 the Abdallah regime borrowed US$2.85 million from the IDA to devise a national family planning program. However, Islamic reservations about contraception made forthright advocacy and implementation of birth control programs politically hazardous, and consequently little was done in the way of public policy (see Status of Women , this ch.). The Comoran population has become increasingly urbanized in recent years. In 1991 the percentage of Comorans residing in cities and towns of more than 5,000 persons was about 30 percent, up from 25 percent in 1985 and 23 percent in 1980. Comoros' largest cities were the capital, Moroni, with about 30,000 people, and the port city of Mutsamudu, on the island of Nzwani, with about 20,000 people. Mahoré's capital, Dzaoudzi, had a population of 5,865 according to the 1985 census; the island's largest town, Mamoudzou, had 12,026 people. Migration among the various islands is relatively small. Natives of Njazidja often settle in less crowded Mwali, and before independence people from Nzwani commonly moved to Mahoré. In 1977 Mahoré expelled peasants from Njazidja and Nzwani who had recently settled in large numbers on the island. Some were allowed to reenter starting in 1981 but solely as migrant labor. The number of Comorans living abroad has been estimated at between 80,000 and 100,000; most of them lived in Tanzania, Madagascar, and other parts of East Africa. The number of Comorans residing in Madagascar was drastically reduced after anti-Comoran rioting in December 1976 in Mahajanga, in which at least 1,400 Comorans were killed. As many as 17,000 Comorans left Madagascar to seek refuge in their native land in 1977 alone. About 40,000 Comorans live in France; many of them had gone there for a university education and never returned. Small numbers of Indians, Malagasy, South Africans, and Europeans (mostly French) live on the islands and play an important role in the economy. Most French stepped out after independence in 1975. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 690,948 (July 2006 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 42.7% (male 148,009/female 147,038) 15-64 years: 54.3% (male 185,107/female 190,139) 65 years and over: 3% (male 9,672/female 10,983) (2006 est.) Median age Total: 18.6 years Male: 18.4 years Female: 18.9 years (2006 est.) Population growth rate 2.87% (2006 est.) Birth rate 36.93 births/1,000 population (2006 est.) Death rate 8.2 deaths/1,000 population (2006 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2006 est.) Sex ratio At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.88 male(s)/female Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2006 est.) Infant mortality rate Total: 72.85 deaths/1,000 live births Male: 81.27 deaths/1,000 live births Female: 64.19 deaths/1,000 live births (2006 est.) Life expectancy at birth Total population: 62.33 years Male: 60 years Female: 64.72 years (2006 est.) Total fertility rate 5.03 children born/woman (2006 est.) HIV/AIDS Adult prevalence rate: 0.12% (2001 est.) People living with HIV/AIDS: NA Deaths: NA Nationality Noun: Comorian(s) Adjective: Comorian Ethnic groups Religions 98% of the population of the Comoros is Muslim Sunni, 2% are Catholic, and evangelical believers represent only 0.1% of the population (Patrick Johnstone and Jason Mandryk, Operation World. Milton Keynes, United Kingdom, 2005, pg. 193). Languages Arabic (official), French (official), Comorian (a blend of Swahili and Arabic) Literacy Definition: age 15 and over can read and write Total population: 56.5% Male: 63.6% Female: 49.3% (2003 est.) References | Demographics_of_Comoros |@lemmatized article:1 demographic:4 feature:1 population:26 comoros:7 include:1 density:8 ethnicity:1 education:2 level:1 health:1 populace:1 economic:1 status:2 religious:1 affiliation:1 aspect:1 data:1 fao:1 year:15 number:5 inhabitant:1 thousand:1 comorians:1 inhabit:1 grande:1 comore:1 anjouan:1 mohéli:1 share:1 african:2 arab:2 origin:1 islam:2 see:2 dominant:1 religion:2 quranic:1 school:1 child:2 reinforce:1 influence:1 although:1 culture:1 firmly:1 establish:1 throughout:1 archipelago:1 substantial:1 minority:1 citizen:1 mayotte:1 mahorais:1 roman:1 catholic:2 french:5 native:3 common:1 language:2 comorian:4 swahili:2 dialect:1 arabic:3 also:1 speak:1 literate:1 figure:2 conceal:1 great:1 disparity:1 republic:2 crowded:2 island:8 nzwani:5 person:6 per:8 square:7 kilometer:7 njazidja:4 mwali:2 overall:1 increase:1 mahoré:5 go:2 comparison:1 estimate:2 indian:2 ocean:1 microstates:1 range:1 seychelles:1 maldives:1 give:1 rugged:1 terrain:1 dedication:1 extensive:1 tract:1 agriculture:1 three:1 pressure:1 become:2 increasingly:2 critical:1 similar:2 situation:1 obtains:1 age:5 structure:2 many:3 develop:1 country:1 large:4 proportion:2 young:1 people:6 percent:7 fifteen:1 average:1 even:1 sub:1 saharan:1 africa:2 rate:8 growth:2 relatively:2 high:1 annum:1 substantially:1 mid:2 abdallah:1 regime:1 borrow:1 u:1 million:1 ida:1 devise:1 national:1 family:1 plan:1 program:2 however:1 islamic:1 reservation:1 contraception:1 make:1 forthright:1 advocacy:1 implementation:1 birth:8 control:1 politically:1 hazardous:1 consequently:1 little:1 way:1 public:1 policy:1 woman:2 ch:1 comoran:2 urbanized:1 recent:1 percentage:1 comorans:6 reside:2 city:3 town:2 capital:2 moroni:1 port:1 mutsamudu:1 dzaoudzi:1 accord:1 census:1 mamoudzou:1 migration:2 among:1 various:1 small:2 often:1 settle:2 less:1 independence:2 commonly:1 move:1 expel:1 peasant:1 recently:1 allow:1 reenter:1 start:1 solely:1 migrant:2 labor:1 live:8 abroad:1 tanzania:1 madagascar:3 part:1 east:1 drastically:1 reduce:1 anti:1 rioting:1 december:1 mahajanga:1 least:1 kill:1 leave:1 seek:1 refuge:1 land:1 alone:1 france:1 university:1 never:1 return:1 malagasy:1 south:1 european:1 mostly:1 play:1 important:1 role:1 economy:1 step:1 cia:2 world:3 factbook:2 statistic:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:1 indicate:1 july:1 est:13 male:12 female:12 median:1 total:6 death:6 net:1 sex:1 ratio:1 infant:1 mortality:1 life:1 expectancy:1 fertility:1 bear:1 hiv:2 aid:2 adult:1 prevalence:1 na:2 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 ethnic:1 group:1 muslim:1 sunni:1 evangelical:1 believer:1 represent:1 patrick:1 johnstone:1 jason:1 mandryk:1 operation:1 milton:1 keynes:1 united:1 kingdom:1 pg:1 official:2 blend:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 write:1 reference:1 |@bigram density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 religious_affiliation:1 affiliation_aspect:1 grande_comore:1 anjouan_mohéli:1 square_kilometer:7 rugged_terrain:1 njazidja_nzwani:2 sub_saharan:1 saharan_africa:1 per_annum:1 tanzania_madagascar:1 seek_refuge:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 male_female:9 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 infant_mortality:1 mortality_rate:1 life_expectancy:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 fertility_rate:1 hiv_aid:2 adult_prevalence:1 nationality_noun:1 milton_keynes:1 literacy_definition:1 |
6,312 | Elias_Canetti | Elias Canetti (25 July 1905, Rousse, Bulgaria - 14 August 1994, Zurich, Switzerland) was a Bulgarian-born novelist and non-fiction writer of Sephardi Jewish ancestry who wrote in German and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1981. Life Elias Canetti was the eldest son in a Jewish merchant family in Rustchuk (present-day Rousse). His ancestors were Sephardi Jews who had been expelled from Spain in 1492. The original family name was Cañete, named after a village in Spain. Elias spent his childhood years, from 1905 to 1911, in Rustchuk until the family moved to England. In 1912 his father died suddenly, and his mother moved with their children to Vienna in the same year. They lived in Vienna from the time Canetti was aged seven onwards. His mother insisted that he speak German, and taught it to him. By this time Canetti already spoke Ladino (his mother tongue), Bulgarian, English and some French (he studied the latter two in the one year in England). Subsequently the family moved first (from 1916 to 1921) to Zurich and then (until 1924) to Frankfurt, where Canetti graduated from high school. Canetti's tomb-stone in Zürich, Switzerland Canetti went back to Vienna in 1924 in order to study chemistry. However, his primary interests during his years in Vienna became philosophy and literature. Introduced into the literary circles of first-republic-Vienna, he started writing. Politically leaning towards the left, he participated in the July Revolt of 1927. He gained a degree in chemistry from the University of Vienna in 1929, but never worked as a chemist. In 1938, after the Anschluss of Austria to greater Germany, Canetti moved to London where he became closely involved with the painter Marie-Louise von Motesiczky, who was to remain a close companion for many years to come. His name has also been linked with that of the author Iris Murdoch (see John Bayley's Iris, A Memoir of Iris Murdoch, where there are several references to an author, referred to as "the Dichter", who was a Nobel Laureate and whose works included Die Blendung). Despite being a German writer, Canetti settled and stayed in England until the 1970s, receiving British citizenship in 1952. For his last 20 years, Canetti mostly lived in Zurich. In 1981, Canetti won the Nobel Prize in Literature "for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power". He is known chiefly for his novel Auto-da-Fé, and for Crowds and Power, a study of crowd behavior as it manifests itself in human activities ranging from mob violence to religious congregations. One of the best studies on Canetti's life and work was done by the French psychoanalyst Dr. Roger Gentis , "La folie Canetti", published by Maurice Nadeau (Paris, 1993). Works Komödie der Eitelkeit 1934 (The Comedy of Vanity) Die Blendung 1935 (Auto-da-Fé, novel, tr.1946) Die Befristeten 1956 (1956 premiere of the play in Oxford) (Their Days are Numbered) Masse und Macht 1960 (Crowds and Power, study, tr. 1962, published in Hamburg) Aufzeichnungen 1942-48 1965 (Sketches) Die Stimmen von Marrakesch 1968 published by Hanser in Munich (The Voices of Marrakesh, travelogue, tr. 1978) Der andere Prozess 1969 Kafkas Briefe an Felice (Kafka's Other Trial, tr. 1974). Hitler nach Speer (Essay) Die Provinz des Menschen Aufzeichnungen 1942-1972 (The Human Province, tr. 1978) Der Ohrenzeuge. Fünfzig Charaktere 1974 ("Ear Witness: Fifty Characters", tr. 1979). Das Gewissen der Worte 1975. Essays (The Conscience of Words) Die Gerettete Zunge 1977 (The Tongue Set Free, memoir, tr. 1979) Die Fackel im Ohr 1980 Lebensgeschichte 1921-1931 (The Torch in My Ear, memoir, tr. 1982) Das Augenspiel 1985 Lebensgeschichte 1931-1937 (The Play of the Eyes, memoir, tr. 1990) Das Geheimherz der Uhr: Aufzeichnungen 1987 (The Secret Heart of the Clock, tr. 1989) Die Fliegenpein (The Agony of Flies, 1992) Nachträge aus Hampstead (Notes from Hampstead, 1994) The Voices of Marrakesh (published posthumously, Arion Press 2001, with photographs by Karl Bissinger and etchings by William T. Wiley ) Party im Blitz; Die englischen Jahre 2003 (Party in the Blitz, memoir, published posthumously, tr. 2005) Aufzeichnungen für Marie-Louise (written 1942, compiled and published posthumously, 2005) Honour Canetti Peak on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named for Elias Canetti. See also Crowd psychology Bibliography Lesley Brill, "Terrorism, Crowds and Power, and the Dogs of War," Anthropological Quarterly 76(1), Winter 2003: 87-94. William Collins Donahue, The End of Modernism: Elias Canetti’s Auto-da-Fé (University of North Carolina Press, 2001). William Collins Donahue and Julian Preece (eds), The Worlds of Elias Canetti: Centenary Essays'' (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2007). External links Nobel Prize mini-site Preface to Donahue, The End of Modernism | Elias_Canetti |@lemmatized elias:6 canetti:17 july:2 rousse:2 bulgaria:1 august:1 zurich:3 switzerland:2 bulgarian:2 born:1 novelist:1 non:1 fiction:1 writer:2 sephardi:2 jewish:2 ancestry:1 write:3 german:3 win:2 nobel:4 prize:3 literature:3 life:2 eldest:1 son:1 merchant:1 family:4 rustchuk:2 present:1 day:2 ancestor:1 jew:1 expel:1 spain:2 original:1 name:4 cañete:1 village:1 spend:1 childhood:1 year:6 move:4 england:3 father:1 die:10 suddenly:1 mother:3 child:1 vienna:6 live:2 time:2 age:1 seven:1 onwards:1 insist:1 speak:1 teach:1 already:1 spoke:1 ladino:1 tongue:2 english:1 french:2 study:5 latter:1 two:1 one:2 subsequently:1 first:2 frankfurt:1 graduate:1 high:1 school:1 tomb:1 stone:1 zürich:1 go:1 back:1 order:1 chemistry:2 however:1 primary:1 interest:1 become:2 philosophy:1 introduce:1 literary:1 circle:1 republic:1 start:1 politically:1 leaning:1 towards:1 left:1 participate:1 revolt:1 gain:1 degree:1 university:2 never:1 work:4 chemist:1 anschluss:1 austria:1 great:1 germany:1 london:1 closely:1 involve:1 painter:1 marie:2 louise:2 von:2 motesiczky:1 remain:1 close:1 companion:1 many:1 come:1 also:2 link:2 author:2 iris:3 murdoch:2 see:2 john:1 bayley:1 memoir:5 several:1 reference:1 refer:1 dichter:1 laureate:1 whose:1 include:1 blendung:2 despite:1 settle:1 stay:1 receive:1 british:1 citizenship:1 last:1 mostly:1 writing:1 mark:1 broad:1 outlook:1 wealth:1 idea:1 artistic:1 power:4 know:1 chiefly:1 novel:2 auto:3 da:6 fé:3 crowd:5 behavior:1 manifest:1 human:2 activity:1 range:1 mob:1 violence:1 religious:1 congregation:1 best:1 psychoanalyst:1 dr:1 roger:1 gentis:1 la:1 folie:1 publish:6 maurice:1 nadeau:1 paris:1 komödie:1 der:5 eitelkeit:1 comedy:1 vanity:1 tr:11 befristeten:1 premiere:1 play:2 oxford:1 number:1 masse:1 und:1 macht:1 hamburg:1 aufzeichnungen:4 sketch:1 stimmen:1 marrakesch:1 hanser:1 munich:1 voice:2 marrakesh:2 travelogue:1 andere:1 prozess:1 kafka:2 briefe:1 felice:1 trial:1 hitler:1 nach:1 speer:1 essay:3 provinz:1 de:1 menschen:1 province:1 ohrenzeuge:1 fünfzig:1 charaktere:1 ear:2 witness:1 fifty:1 character:1 gewissen:1 worte:1 conscience:1 word:1 gerettete:1 zunge:1 set:1 free:1 fackel:1 im:2 ohr:1 lebensgeschichte:2 torch:1 augenspiel:1 eye:1 geheimherz:1 uhr:1 secret:1 heart:1 clock:1 fliegenpein:1 agony:1 fly:1 nachträge:1 aus:1 hampstead:2 note:1 posthumously:3 arion:1 press:2 photograph:1 karl:1 bissinger:1 etching:1 william:3 wiley:1 party:2 blitz:2 englischen:1 jahre:1 für:1 compile:1 honour:1 peak:1 livingston:1 island:2 south:1 shetland:1 antarctica:1 psychology:1 bibliography:1 lesley:1 brill:1 terrorism:1 dog:1 war:1 anthropological:1 quarterly:1 winter:1 collins:2 donahue:3 end:2 modernism:2 north:1 carolina:1 julian:1 preece:1 eds:1 world:1 centenary:1 cambridge:1 scholar:1 publishing:1 external:1 mini:1 site:1 preface:1 |@bigram elias_canetti:5 zurich_switzerland:1 nobel_prize:3 eldest_son:1 sephardi_jew:1 zürich_switzerland:1 anschluss_austria:1 marie_louise:2 iris_murdoch:2 nobel_laureate:1 da_fé:3 publish_posthumously:3 north_carolina:1 external_link:1 |
6,313 | Louis_XIV_of_France | Louis XIV (5 September 1638 1 September 1715) ruled as King of France and of Navarre See List of Navarrese monarchs and their family tree. . He ascended the throne a few months before his fifth birthday, but did not assume actual personal control of the government until the death of his prime minister (Premier ministre), the Italian Cardinal Jules Mazarin, in 1661. Louis remained on the throne until his death in September 1715, four days before his seventy-seventh birthday. His reign lasted seventy-two years, three months, and eighteen days, the longest documented for any European monarch to date. Louis XIV is popularly known as the Sun King (French: le Roi Soleil). Louis believed in the Divine Right of Kings, a theory which received one of its most classic expressions in "On the Duties of Kings", a sermon preached by Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet in Louis' presence in 1662. (Louis was so impressed with Bossuet that in 1670, he appointed Bossuet as tutor to Louis' son and heir.) For much of Louis's reign, France stood as the leading power in Europe, engaging in three major s—the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession—and two minor conflicts—the War of Devolution, and the War of the Reunions. Men who featured prominently in the political and military life of France during this period include Mazarin, Nicolas Fouquet, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Michel Le Tellier, Le Tellier's son Louvois, le Grand Condé, Turenne, Vauban, Villars and Tourville. French culture likewise flourished during this era, producing a number of figures of great renown, including Molière, Racine, Boileau, La Fontaine, Lully, Le Brun, Rigaud, Louis Le Vau, Jules Hardouin Mansart, Claude Perrault and Le Nôtre. Louis XIV continued the work of his predecessors to create a centralized state governed from the capital in order to sweep away the remnants of feudalism which had persisted in parts of France. He succeeded in breaking the power of the provincial nobility, much of which had risen in revolt during his minority, and forced many leading nobles to live with him in his lavish Palace of Versailles. Consequently, he has long been considered the archetypal absolute monarch of early modern Europe. Louis is reported to have said on his death bed: "Je m'en vais, mais l'État demeurera toujours." ("I depart, but the State shall always remain"). Birth and ancestry Louis XIV as a young child The future Louis XIV was born in the château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye on 5 September 1638 and bore the heir apparent's traditional title of Dauphin. His birth came after the almost twenty-three years of childlessness of his estranged parents, Louis XIII and Anne of Austria. As a result, contemporaries regarded him as a divine gift and some saw his birth as a miracle Other historians, such as Henry Lincoln in his book Holy Blood, Holy Grail, postulate that Louis XIV was an illegitimate heir, that Louis XIII was impotent, and that this was a primary cause of the Fronde civil war. Bremond, Henri. La Provence mystique au XVIIe siècle. Paris: Plon-Nourrit, 1908. pp. 381, 382. Laurentin, René. Le Vœu de Louis XIII. Paris: FX de Guibert, 1988. pp. 62, 63. 5 September 1638 - The birth of the future "Sun King" and This happened on ... 15 August - The feast of Assumption, the website Herodote.net. Retrieved on 2008-02-19; . Louis' ancestors came from some of Europe's most noteworthy ruling houses. Genealogist C. Carretier calculated Louis XIV's ancestry to the eighth generation, finding his ancestry to be approximately 36% Spanish, 28% French, 11% German and 8% Italian, the rest being Slavic, English, Savoyard and Lorrainian. Genealogist C. Carretier calculated Louis XIV's ancestry to the eighth generation, finding his ancestry to be approximately 36% Spanish, 28% French, 11% German and 8% Italian, the rest being Slavic, English, Savoyard and Lorrainian.( ) His paternal grandparents were Henri IV of France and Marie de' Medici, who were French and Italian respectively; while both his maternal grandparents were Habsburgs, Philip III of Spain and Margaret of Austria. In this manner, he counted as his ancestors various historical figures, including Charles V and Frederick Barbarossa, both Holy Roman Emperors. He was also the great grandson of Phillip II of Spain and thus a descendent of Queen Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Catholic Monarchs. He also descended from the founder of Russia's first dynasty, Rurik the Viking, as well as Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, the poet Charles, Duke of Orléans, and Giovanni de' Medici, last of the great condottieri. Most importantly, he traced his paternal lineage, and hence his and his descendants' right to the throne, in unbroken legitimate male succession from Saint Louis, King of France, and through him, from Hugh Capet. Louis XIII and Anne had a second child, Philippe I, duc d'Orléans in 1640. Unsure of Anne as regent, Louis XIII decreed that a regency council, of which she was named head, should rule in Louis's name in the event he succeeded to the throne before the age of majority. Minority and the Fronde On 14 May 1643, after Louis XIII died and his young son became Louis XIV, Anne had her husband's will annulled by the Parlement, did away with the regency council and became the sole regent. She entrusted power to Cardinal Mazarin. Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 The Thirty Years' War, which had commenced during the previous reign of Louis XIII, ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia, made up of the Treaties of Münster and Osnabrück, the work of Mazarin. This Peace ensured Dutch independence from Spain, awarded a degree of autonomy to the various German princes and granted Sweden territories which gave her control of the mouths of the Oder, Elbe, and Weser, as well as seats on the Reichstag. It marked the apogee of Swedish power and influence in German and European affairs. However, it was France which had the most to gain from the terms of the Peace. Austria ceded to France all Habsburg lands and claims in Alsace; and the petty German states eager to dislodge themselves from Habsburg domination placed themselves under French protection, paving the way for the formation of the League of the Rhine in 1658 and leading to the further diminution of Imperial power. In the closing years of the Thirty Years' War, a civil war known as the Fronde, which effectively curbed France's ability to make good the advantages gained in the Peace of Westphalia, broke out. The Frondeurs originally sought to protect traditional feudal rights from an increasingly centralized and centralizing royal government, as Cardinal Mazarin had continued to largely follow the policies of his predecessor, Cardinal Richelieu, seeking to augment the power of the Crown at the expense of the nobility and the Parlements. In 1648, he sought to levy a tax on the members of the Parlement de Paris, a judicial body composed mostly of nobles and high clergymen. The members of the Parlement not only refused to comply, but also ordered all of Cardinal Mazarin's earlier financial edicts burned. When Mazarin, strengthened by the news of the victory of Louis II de Bourbon, prince de Condé (le Grand Condé) at the Battle of Lens, arrested certain members of the Parlement in a show of force, Paris erupted in rioting and insurrection. A mob of angry Parisians broke into the royal palace and demanded to see their king. Led into the royal bedchamber, they gazed upon Louis XIV, who was feigning sleep, and quietly departed. Prompted by the possible danger to the royal family and the monarchy, Anne fled Paris with the king and his courtiers. Shortly thereafter, the signing of the Peace of Westphalia allowed the French army under Condé to return to the aid of Louis XIV and his royal court. Portrait of Louis, the Victor of the Fronde, portrayed as Jupiter. This painting, from 1655, is currently on display at the Palace of Versailles. After the first Fronde (Fronde parlementaire, 1648-1649) ended, the second Fronde, that of the nobles (Fronde des princes, 1650-1653) began. This second phase of upper-class insurrection, unlike that which preceded it, was characterized by tales of sordid intrigue and half-hearted warfare. It was conducted by aristocrats for whom it represented a protest against and an attempt to reverse the centralisation of France and their consequent demotion from vassals to courtiers. This Fronde was led by France's highest-ranking nobles, from Louis' uncle Gaston, duc d'Orléans, and first cousin, Anne d'Orléans, duchesse de Montpensier (known as la Grande Mademoiselle); to more distantly-related princes du sang such as Condé, his brother Armand de Bourbon, prince de Conti, and their sister Anne-Geneviève, duchesse de Longueville; to dukes of legitimated royal descent, like Henri II d'Orléans, duc de Longueville, and François de Bourbon-Vendôme, duc de Beaufort; and to princelings descended from foreign dynasties (known as princes étrangers), such as Frédéric Maurice de La Tour d'Auvergne, duc de Bouillon, and his brother, the famous Marshal of France, Henri, vicomte de Turenne, as well as Marie de Rohan-Montbazon, duchesse de Chevreuse; and scions of France's oldest families, like François VI, duc de La Rochefoucauld. With the coming of age of Louis XIV and his subsequent coronation, the Frondeurs, who could hitherto have claimed to have been acting on his behalf and in his real interests against his mother and her first minister, had lost their pretext for revolt. The Fronde thus gradually lost steam until it ended in 1653, when Mazarin returned triumphant from abroad after having fled into exile on several occasions. Personal reign and reforms Louis XIV, King of France, in 1661. Within France, upon the death of Cardinal Mazarin, his first minister, in 1661, Louis XIV assumed personal control of the reins of government. He was able to exploit the widespread public yearning for peace and order, which had resulted from the long foreign wars and domestic civil strife, caused by events such as the Fronde and abuses of the people perpetrated by some nobles, to consolidate central authority at the feudal aristocracy's expense. At the same time, the French treasury stood close to bankruptcy. Louis XIV eliminated Nicolas Fouquet, the Surintendant des Finances, commuting the sentence of banishment, passed by the Parlement, to imprisonment for life, and abolished Fouquet's office. Jean-Baptiste Colbert was appointed as Contrôleur général des Finances in 1665. To be sure, Fouquet had committed no financial indiscretions which Mazarin had not committed before him and which Colbert would not commit afterward. The commencement of Louis' personal reign was marked by a series of administrative and fiscal reforms. Colbert reduced the national debt through more efficient taxation. His principal taxes included the aides, the douanes, the gabelle, and the taille. The aides and douanes were customs duties, the gabelle a tax on salt, and the taille a tax on land. Colbert also had wide-ranging plans to strengthen France through commerce and trade. His administration ordained new industries and encouraged manufacturers and inventors, such as the Lyon silk manufacturers and the Manufacture des Gobelins, which produced and still produces tapestries. He also brought professional manufacturers and artisans from all over Europe, such as glassmakers from Murano, ironworkers from Sweden, and shipbuilders from the United Provinces. In this manner, he sought to decrease French dependence on foreign imported goods while increasing French exports, and hence to decrease the flow of gold and silver out of France. Louis and his family portrayed as Roman gods in a 1670 painting by Jean Nocret. L to R: Henrietta Maria of France, Philippe I, Duke of Orléans ("Monsieur"), the Duke's daughter Marie Louise of Orléans, and the duke's wife Henrietta Anne Stuart, Louis XIV's mother Anne of Austria, King Louis XIV, his son Louis, the queen Maria Theresa of Spain, and Anne Marie of Orléans ("la Grande Mademoiselle"). Le Tellier and Louvois had an important role to play in government, curbing the independent spirit of much of the nobility at court and in the army. Gone were the days when army generals, without regard to the bigger political and diplomatic picture, protracted war at the frontiers and disobeyed orders coming from the capital, while quarrelling and bickering with each other over precedence. Gone too were the days when positions of seniority and rank in the army were the sole possession of the old military aristocracy (the noblesse d'épée). Louvois, in particular, pledged himself to modernizing the army, organizing it into a new professional, disciplined and well-trained force out of the old. He sought to contrive and direct campaigns and devoted himself to providing for the soldiers' material well-being and morale, and he did so successfully. Louis also instituted various legal reforms. This is reflected in the sheer number of Great Ordinances (Grandes Ordonnances) enacted during his reign. The Grande Ordonnance de Procédure Civile of 1667, also known as Code Louis, was a comprehensive legal code regulating civil procedure in all of France in a uniform manner. It made it compulsory to record baptisms, marriages and burials in the registers of the State (as opposed to the registers of the Church). The Code Louis played an important part in France's legal history as it was the basis for Napoleon I's Code Napoléon, which is itself the basis for many of Western Europe's modern legal codes. It sought to provide France with a single system of law where there were two: customary law in the north, and Roman law in the south. One of Louis's more infamous decrees was the Grande Ordonnance sur les Colonies of 1685, also known as Code Noir. It granted sanction to slavery, although it did extend a measure of humanity to the practice by prohibiting the separation of families. However, no person could own a slave in the French colonies unless he were a member of the Roman Catholic Church, and a Catholic priest had to baptise each slave. Patronage of the arts Painting from 1667 depicting Louis as patron of the fine arts. The Sun King proved a generous spender, dispensing large sums of money to finance the royal court, and supported those who worked under him. He brought the Académie Française under his patronage, and became its "Protector". It was under his reign and indeed his patronage that Classical French literature flourished with such writers as Molière, Jean Racine and Jean de La Fontaine whose works still hold great influence to this day. The visual arts also found in Louis XIV their patron for he funded and commissioned various artists, such as Charles Le Brun, Pierre Mignard, Antoine Coysevox and Hyacinthe Rigaud whose works became famed throughout Europe. In music, composers and musicians like Jean-Baptiste Lully, Jacques Champion de Chambonnières and François Couperin thrived and influenced many others. Louis ordered the construction of the military complex known as the "Hôtel des Invalides" to provide a home for the officers and soldiers who had served him loyally in the army, but who had been rendered infirm by either injury or age. While the practice of pharmacy was still quite elementary, les Invalides pioneered new treatments and set new standards for hospice treatment. The colonnade of the Louvre. He also improved the Louvre, as well as many other royal residences. Originally, when planning additions to the Louvre, Louis XIV had hired Gian Lorenzo Bernini as architect. However, his plans for the Louvre would have called for the destruction of much of the existing structure, replacing it with an Italian summer villa in the centre of Paris. In June 1686, on the instruction of his secret wife, Madame de Maintenon, he signed the letters patent creating the Institut de Saint-Louis at Saint-Cyr for filles pauvres de la noblesse (poor noble girls) between the ages of seven and twenty. Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008 Construction had begun two years previously. "Saint-Cyr" was at the time the only educational institution for girls in France that was not a convent. The 250 demoiselles admitted were required to provide documentary evidence of at least four generations of nobility on their father's side. Mme de Maintenon took great pleasure in this school and was finally to die there. Early wars in the Low Countries After Louis XIV's father-in-law and uncle, Philip IV of Spain, died in 1665, Philip IV's son (by his second wife) became Charles II of Spain. Louis XIV claimed that Brabant, a territory in the Low Countries ruled by the King of Spain, had "devolved" to his wife, Marie-Thérèse, Charles II's elder half-sister by their father's first marriage. Problems internal to the Republic of the Seven United Provinces (the Netherlands) aided Louis XIV's designs on the Low Countries. The most prominent political figure in the United Provinces at the time, Johan de Witt, Grand Pensionary, feared the ambition of the young William III, Prince of Orange, who in seeking to seize control might thus deprive De Witt of supreme power in the Republic and restore the House of Orange to the influence it had hitherto enjoyed until the death of William II, Prince of Orange. Shocked by the rapidity of French successes and fearful of the future, the United Provinces turned on their former friends and put aside their differences with England and, when joined by Sweden, formed a Triple Alliance in 1668. Faced with the threat of escalation and having signed a secret treaty partitioning the Spanish succession with the Emperor, the other major claimant, Louis XIV agreed to make peace. Louis XIV in 1673 The Triple Alliance did not last very long. In 1670, Charles II of England, lured by French bribes and pensions, signed the secret Treaty of Dover, entering into an alliance with France; the two kingdoms, along with certain Rhineland German princes, declared war on the United Provinces in 1672, sparking off the Franco-Dutch War. The rapid invasion and occupation of most of the Netherlands precipitated a coup, which toppled De Witt and allowed William III to seize power. William III entered into an alliance with Spain, the Emperor and the rest of the Empire; and a treaty of peace with England was signed in 1674, the result of which was England's withdrawal from the war and the marriage between William III and Lady Mary, niece of the English King Charles II. Despite these diplomatic and military reverses, the war continued with brilliant French victories against the overwhelming forces of the opposing coalition. In a matter of weeks in 1674, the Spanish territory of Franche-Comté fell to the French armies under the eyes of the king; while Condé defeated a much larger combined army, with Austrian, Spanish and Dutch contingents, under the Prince of Orange, at the Battle of Seneffe, preventing them from descending on Paris. In the winter of 1674–1675, the outnumbered Turenne, through a most daring and brilliant campaign, inflicted defeat upon the Imperial armies under Raimondo Montecuccoli, drove them out of Alsace and back across the Rhine, and recovered the province for Louis XIV. Through a series of feints, marches and counter-marches towards the end of the war, Louis XIV led his army to besiege and capture Ghent, an action which dissuaded Charles II and his English Parliament from declaring war on France and which allowed Louis, in a very superior position, to force the allies to the negotiating table. After six years, Europe was exhausted by war, and peace negotiations commenced, being accomplished in 1678 with the Treaty of Nijmegen. While Louis XIV returned all captured Dutch territory, he gained more towns and associated lands in the Spanish Netherlands and retained Franche-Comté, which had been captured by Louis and his army in a matter of weeks. The Treaty of Nijmegen further increased France's influence in Europe, but did not satisfy Louis XIV. The King dismissed his foreign minister Simon Arnauld, marquis de Pomponne in 1679, viewed as timorous and as having compromised too much with the allies. Louis XIV also kept up his army but, instead of pursuing his claims through purely military action, utilised judicial processes to accomplish further territorial aggrandizement. Thanks to the ambiguous nature of treaties of the time, Louis was able to claim that the territories ceded to him in previous treaties ought to be ceded along with all their dependencies and lands which had formerly belonged to them, as had in fact been stipulated in the peace treaties, but had separated over the years. Louis sought to gain cities and territories such as Luxembourg, for its strategic offensive and defensive position on the frontier, as well as Casale, which would give him access to the Po river valley in the heart of Northern Italy. Louis also desired to gain Strasbourg, an important strategic outpost through which various Imperial armies had in the previous wars crossed over the Rhine to invade France. Strasbourg was a part of Alsace, but had not been ceded with the rest of Habsburg-ruled Alsace in the Peace of Westphalia. Height of power By the early 1680s, Louis XIV had greatly augmented his and France's influence and power in Europe and the world. Foreign affairs Siamese embassy of King Narai to Louis XIV in 1686, led by Kosa Pan. Painting by Nicolas Larmessin. In the sphere of foreign affairs outside Europe, French colonies were multiplying in the Americas, Asia and Africa, while diplomatic relations had been initiated with countries as far afield as Siam (through the embassy of Chaumont), India and Persia. An Ottoman Empire embassy arrived in 1669 led by Suleiman Aga, reviving an ancient Franco-Ottoman alliance. Faroqhi, p.73 The Ottoman Empire and the World Around it The explorer René Robert Cavelier, sieur de La Salle claimed and named, in 1682, the basin of the Mississippi River in North America, "Louisiane", in honour of Louis XIV, while French Jesuits and missionaries could be seen at the court of the Manchu Emperor Kangxi in China. In France, Louis XIV received the visit of a Chinese Jesuit named Michael Shen Fu-Tsung as early as 1684, The Meeting of Eastern and Western Art Page 98 by Michael Sullivan (1989) ISBN 0520212363 and a few years later he had a Chinese librarian and translator at his court, named Arcadio Huang. Barnes, Linda L. (2005) Needles, Herbs, Gods, and Ghosts: China, Healing, and the West to 1848 Harvard University Press ISBN 0674018729, p.85 Mungello, David E. (2005) The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800 Rowman & Littlefield ISBN 074253815X, p.125 A Persian embassy to Louis XIV occurred in 1715, the year of the king's death. Domestic affairs Louis XIV in 1684 Domestically, Louis succeeded in establishing and increasing the influence and central authority of the crown at the expense of the church and aristocracy. He sought to reinforce traditional Gallicanism, a doctrine limiting the authority of the Pope in France, and convened an assembly of clergymen (the Assemblée du Clergé) in November 1681. Before it was dissolved in June 1682, it had agreed to the Declaration of the Clergy of France. The power of the King of France was increased in contrast to the power of the Pope, which was reduced. Bishops were not to leave France without royal approval; no government officials could be excommunicated for acts committed in pursuance of their duties; and no appeal could be made to the Pope without the approval of the king. The king was allowed to enact ecclesiastical laws, and all regulations made by the Pope were deemed invalid in France without the assent of the monarch. The Declaration was not accepted by the Pope, which is not surprising given the infringements of the document upon papal authority. Louis also achieved immense control over the nobility in France by attaching much of the higher nobility to his orbit at his palace at Versailles. He expected them to spend the majority of the year under his close watch instead of on their own estates and in their regional power-bases, where historically nobles waged local wars with neighbors or plotted resistance to royal authority. Only by being in constant attendance upon him were they able to gain the pensions and privileges necessary to lead lives considered appropriate to their rank. Louis entertained his permanent visitors with extravagant luxury and other distractions which helped him awe and domesticate his hitherto unruly nobility. As a result of the Fronde, Louis believed that his power would prevail only if he filled high executive offices with commoners, or at least members of the relatively newer bureaucratic aristocracy (the noblesse de robe), because, he believed, while he could reduce a commoner to a nonentity by simply dismissing him, he could not destroy the entrenched influence of a great nobleman of ancient lineage as easily. Thus Louis half-forced, half-seduced the noblesse d'épée into serving him ceremonially as courtiers, whilst he appointed commoners or newer nobles as ministers and regional intendants. As courtiers, the power of the great nobles grew ever weaker. In fact, the victory of the Crown over the nobles, finally achieved under Louis XIV, ensured that the Fronde was the last major civil war to plague France until the Revolution and the Napoleonic Age. Indeed, John A. Lynn has calculated that after Louis XIV there was a significant drop in years with internal civil war. The number of years dropped from a high of around 50 years out of 101 between 1560 and 1660 (50%), to six years out of 55 during Louis' personal reign from 1661 to 1715 (11%), to no civil wars till the Revolution in 1789. Lynn, John A. (1999). The Wars of Louis XIV (1667-1714). Longman New York. p.364. Not until the Revolution, about a hundred years later, did civil war once again trouble France. The Cour royale and the Cour de marbre of the château de Versailles Louis XIV had the Palace of Versailles, originally a hunting lodge built by his father, converted into a spectacular royal palace in a series of four major and distinct building campaigns. By the end of the third building campaign, the château had taken on most of the appearance that it retains to this day, except for the current chapel built in the last decade of the reign. He officially moved there, along with the royal court, on 6 May 1682. Louis had several reasons for creating such a symbol of extravagant opulence and stately grandeur, and for shifting the seat of the monarchy. The assertion that he did so because he hated Paris, however, is flawed as he did not cease to embellish his capital with glorious monuments while improving and developing it. On the other hand, contemporary writers such as Saint-Simon speculated that Louis viewed Versailles as an isolated power center where treasonous cabals could be more readily recognized. Versailles served as a dazzling and awe-inspiring setting for state affairs and for the reception of foreign dignitaries, where the attention was not shared with the capital and the people, but was assumed solely by the person of the king. Thus, many noblemen had perforce either to give up the cachet and opportunites associated with sharing in the king's company, or to depend entirely on the king for the grants and subsidies necessary to do so in proper style. Instead of exercising power and potentially creating trouble, the nobles vied for the honour of dining at the king's table or the privilege of carrying a candlestick as the king retired to his bedroom. The Doge of Genoa at Versailles on the 15 May 1685Reparation faite à Louis XIV par le Doge de Gênes.15 mai 1685 by Claude Guy Halle, Château de Versailles By 1685, Louis stood at the apogee of his power. One of France's chief rivals, the Holy Roman Empire, was occupied in fighting the Ottoman Empire in the Great Turkish War, which had begun in 1683 would last sixteen years. Louis XIV communicated to the Turks that he would never fight on the side of the Austrian Emperor Leopold I, and he instead massed troops at the eastern frontier of France. The Siege of Vienna by John Stoye, p.53 These reassurances encouraged the Turks not to renew the 20-year 1664 Vasvar truce with Austria and to move to the offensive. The Balkans since 1453 by Leften Stavros Stavrianos, p.171 The Ottoman Grand Vizier had almost captured Vienna, but at the last moment John III Sobieski, King of Poland led an army of Polish and Imperial forces to victory at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. In the meantime, by the Truce of Ratisbon signed on 15 August 1684, Louis XIV had acquired control of several territories which covered the frontier and protected France from foreign invasion. After repelling the Ottoman attack on Vienna, the Emperor was no longer in imminent danger from the Turks, nevertheless he did not attempt to regain the territories annexed by Louis. Louis's queen, Marie-Thérèse (Maria Theresa of Spain), died in 1683. He remarked on her demise that on no other occasion had she ever caused him unease. Although he was said to have performed his marital duties nightly, he had not remained faithful to her for long after their union in 1660: his mistresses included Louise de la Vallière, duchesse de Vaujours; Françoise-Athénaïs de Rochechouart-Mortemart, marquise de Montespan; and Marie-Angélique de Scoraille, duchesse de Fontanges. As a result, he produced many illegitimate children, most of whom were joined in marriage with members of cadet branches of the royal family itself. He proved, however, more faithful to his second wife, Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon. The secret marriage between Louis XIV and Madame de Maintenon - the nuptial mass probably occurred at midnight on 10 October 1683 in a chapel at Versailles - was an "open secret" as it was generally known but was never discussed or announced publicly, and would last to his death. The marriage is sometimes described as an morganatic marriage but this is incorrect as morganatic marriages are not defined under French Law. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes Louis XIV in 1685, the year he revoked the Edict of Nantes. Madame de Maintenon, once a Protestant, had herself converted to Roman Catholicism in her youth under some duress. It was once believed that she vigorously promoted the persecution of the Protestants, and that she urged Louis XIV to revoke the Edict of Nantes (1598), which granted a degree of religious freedom to the Huguenots. However, this view of her participation is now being questioned. For example, see Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008 It has been suggested that Marie-Thérèse, on her deathbed, had urged Louis on the subject, which, given her Spanish Catholic upbringing, is not surprising. Whatever the truth of such a proposition, Louis XIV himself clearly supported such a plan; he believed, along with the rest of Europe, Catholic or Protestant, that, in order to achieve national unity, he had to first achieve a religiously unified nation—specifically a Catholic one in his case. This was enshrined in the principle of "cuius regio, eius religio" ("whose realm, his religion"), which defined religious policy throughout Europe since its establishment, by the Peace of Augsburg, in 1555. He had already begun the persecution of the Huguenots by quartering soldiers in their homes, though it must be said that it was theoretically within his feudal rights, and hence legal, to do so with any of his subjects. Louis continued his attempt to achieve a religiously united France by issuing an edict, in March 1685, which affected the French colonies, and expelled all Jews from them. The public practice of any religion except Roman Catholicism became prohibited. In October 1685, Louis XIV issued the Edict of Fontainebleau, revoking that of Nantes, on the pretext that the near-extinction of Protestantism and Protestants in France made any edict granting them privileges redundant. The Edict decreed that "liberty is granted to the said persons of the Pretended Reformed Religion Protestantism ... on condition of not engaging in the exercise of the said religion, or of meeting under pretext of prayers or religious services." Thus, it precluded individuals from publicly practising or exercising the religion, but not from merely believing in it. It banished from the realm any Protestant minister who refused to convert to Roman Catholicism. Protestant schools and institutions were banned. Children born into Protestant families were to be forcibly baptised by Roman Catholic priests, and Protestant places of worship were demolished. Although the Edict formally denied Huguenots permission to leave France, about 200,000 of them left in any case, taking with them their skills in commerce and trade. The Edict proved economically damaging to France, though not ruinous; and while Vauban, one of Louis XIV's most influential generals, publicly condemned the measure, its proclamation was celebrated by many Catholics throughout the realm. The League of Augsburg Causes and conduct of the war Louis in 1690. The wider political and diplomatic result of the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, however, was to provoke increased anti-French sentiment in Protestant countries. In 1686, both Catholic and Protestant rulers joined in the League of Augsburg, ostensibly a defensive pact to protect the Rhine, but really designed as an offensive alliance against France. The coalition included the Holy Roman Emperor and several of the German states that formed part of the Empire most notably the Palatinate, Bavaria, and Brandenburg. The United Provinces, Spain and Sweden also adhered to the League. In 1685, Charles II, Elector Palatine, the brother of Louis XIV's sister-in-law, Elizabeth Charlotte, "Liselotte", duchesse d'Orléans, had died. The palatine crown had gone, not to her, but to the junior Neuburg branch of the family. Louis had sought, through an ultimatum to the German princes, to have his sister-in-law's claims recognised. However, the expiry of this ultimatum and another to the German princes to ratify the Truce of Ratisbon and confirm Louis' possession of annexed territories, along with disputes over the succession to the Electorate of Cologne, led to his sending troops into the Palatinate in 1688. Ostensibly, the army had the task of supporting the claims of Liselotte to the Palatinate. The real aim, however, of the invasion was to apply pressure and force the Palatinate to leave, and thus weaken, the League of Augsburg. The troops under the command of Melac eventually executed Louis' order "Brûlez le Palatinat!" ("Burn the Palatinate!") and devastated large areas of South Western Germany. This scorched earth policy aimed at preventing the larger gathering Imperial army from reaching the frontiers of France and invading Lorraine and Alsace. Louis XIV's actions united the German princes behind the Holy Roman Emperor. Louis had expected that England, under the Catholic James II, would remain neutral. In 1688, however, the "Glorious Revolution" resulted in the deposition of James II and his replacement by his daughter, Mary II, who ruled jointly with her husband, William III, now King of England. As William III had developed an enmity against Louis XIV during the Franco-Dutch War, he pushed England into the League of Augsburg, which then became known as the Grand Alliance. Louis XIV at the Siege of Namur (1692). The campaigns of the War of the Grand Alliance (1688–1697) generally proceeded favorably for France. The forces of the Holy Roman Emperor proved ineffective, as many Imperial troops were still occupied in the Balkans with the Great Turkish War, and because the Imperials generally took to the field much later than the French. Thus, France could accumulate a string of victories from Flanders in the north, to the Rhine valley in the east, to Italy and Spain in the south, as well as on the high seas and in the colonies. Louis XIV aided James II in his attempt to regain the British crown, but the Stuart king was unsuccessful and was defeated at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. A year later, the last Jacobite stronghold, Limerick, fell to Williamite forces after the Battle of Aughrim, and James' dreams of returning to the throne dissipated. Williamite England could then devote more of her funds and troops to the war on the Continent. Nonetheless, despite the size of the opposing coalition, which encompassed most of Europe, French forces in Flanders under the famous pupil of Condé, François Henri de Montmorency-Bouteville, duc de Luxembourg, nicknamed "le tapissier de Notre-Dame" for the number of captured enemy standards which he sent to decorate the Cathedral, crushed the allied armies at the Battle of Fleurus in the same year as the Battle of the Boyne, as well as at the Battle of Steenkerque two years later and the Battle of Landen a year after that. Under the personal supervision of Louis XIV, the French army captured Mons in 1691 and the hitherto impregnable fortress of Namur in 1692; and with the capture of Charleroi by Luxembourg in 1693 after his victory at Landen, France gained the forward defensive line of the Sambre. At the Battles of Marsaglia and of Staffarde, France was victorious over the allied forces under Victor Amadeus, Duke of Savoy, overrunning his dominion and reducing the territory under his effective command to merely the area around Turin. In the southeast, along the Pyrenees, the Battle of Torroella opened Catalonia to French invasion. The French naval victory at the Battle of Beachy Head in 1690, however, was offset by the Anglo-Dutch naval victory at the Battles of Barfleur and La Hougue in 1692; but neither side was able to entirely defeat the opposing navy. The war continued for four more years, until the Duke of Savoy signed a separate peace and subsequent alliance with France in 1696, the Treaty of Turin, undertaking to join with French arms in a capture of the Milanese and allowing French armies in Italy to reinforce others; one of these reinforced armies, that of Spain, captured Barcelona and hastened the arrival of peace. Treaty of Ryswick Marshal de Luxembourg The War of the Grand Alliance eventually ended with the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697. Louis XIV surrendered Luxembourg and most of the other Réunion territories he had seized since the end of the Dutch War in 1679, but retained Strasbourg, assuring the Rhine as the border between France and the Empire. He also gained de jure recognition of his hitherto de facto possession of Saint-Domingue, as well as the return of Pondicherry and Acadia. Louis undertook to recognise William III and Mary II as joint sovereigns of Great Britain and Ireland, and assured them that he would no longer assist James II; at the same time he renounced intervention in the Electorate of Cologne and claims to the Palatinate, in return for financial compensation. Louis XIV returned Lorraine to her duke, but on terms which allowed French passage at any time and which severely restricted his political maneuverability. The Dutch were allowed to garrison forts in the Spanish Netherlands, the "Barrier", to protect themselves against possible French aggression. Spain recovered Catalonia and the many territories lost, both in this war and the previous one (War of the Reunions), in the Low Countries. Of similar note, Louis secured the dissolution of they Grand Alliance by manipulating the rivalries and suspicions of its member states; in so doing, he divided his enemies and broke their power since no single state on its own was capable of taking on France. The generous terms of the treaty were seen as concessions to Spain designed to foster pro-French sentiment, which would eventually lead Charles II, King of Spain to declare as his heir, Louis' grandson Philippe, duc d'Anjou. Moreover, despite such seemingly disadvantageous terms in the Treaty of Ryswick, French influence was still at such a height in all of Europe that Louis XIV could offer his cousin, François Louis de Bourbon, prince de Conti, the Polish crown, duly have him elected by the Sejm and proclaimed as King of Poland by the Polish primate. However, Conti's own tardiness in proceeding to Poland to claim the throne allowed a rival, Augustus II the Strong, Elector of Saxony to have himself crowned king instead. War of the Spanish Succession Europe on the eve of the War of the Spanish Succession (1700) Causes and build-up to the war The great matter of the succession to the Spanish throne dominated European foreign affairs following the Peace of Ryswick. The Spanish King Charles II, severely incapacitated, could not father an heir. The Spanish inheritance offered a much sought-after prize, for Charles II ruled not only Spain, but also Naples, Sicily, the Milanese, the Spanish Netherlands and a vast colonial empire—in all, twenty-two different realms and dominions, many of which were on the periphery of France. France and Austria were the main claimants to the throne, both of which had close family ties to the Spanish royal family. Anjou (later Philip V of Spain), the French claimant, was the great-grandson of the eldest daughter of Philip III of Spain, Anne of Austria, and the grandson of the eldest daughter of Philip IV of Spain, Marie-Thérèse. The only bar to inheritance lay in their renunciations of claims to the throne, which in the case of Marie-Thérèse, however, was considered legally null and void as other terms of the marriage treaty had not been fulfilled by Spain. Philip V, King of Spain Charles, Archduke of Austria (later Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor) and younger son of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor by his third marriage (with Eleonore-Magdalena of Neuburg), claimed the throne through his paternal grandmother, Maria Anna of Spain, who was the youngest daughter of Philip III; this claim was not, however, tainted by any renunciation. Purely on the basis of the laws of primogeniture, however, France had the best claims since they were derived from the eldest daughters in each generation. Many European powers feared that if either France or the Emperor came to control Spain, the balance of power in Europe would be threatened. Thus, both the Dutch and the English preferred another candidate, the Bavarian prince Joseph Ferdinand, who was the grandson of Leopold I, through his first wife Margaret Theresa of Spain, younger daughter of Philip IV. Under the terms of the First Partition Treaty, it was agreed that the Bavarian prince would inherit Spain, with the territories in Italy and the Low Countries being divided between the Houses of France and Austria. Spain, however, had not been consulted, and vehemently resisted the dismemberment of its empire. The Spanish court insisted that their empire was indivisible. When the Treaty became known to Charles II in 1698, he settled on Joseph Ferdinand as his sole heir, assigning to him the entire Spanish inheritance. The issue opened up again when smallpox claimed the Bavarian prince six months later. The Spanish court, seeking to keep the inheritance undivided, acknowledged that they could only succeed in doing so by granting the crown to a member from either the House of France, or of Austria. Charles II, under pressure from his German wife Maria Anna of Neuburg, chose the House of Austria and her nephew, settling on the Emperor's younger son, the Archduke Charles. Ignoring this, Louis and William III signed a second treaty, that of London, allowing the Archduke Charles to take Spain, the Low Countries and the Spanish colonies, whilst Louis XIV's eldest son and heir, le Grand Dauphin, would inherit the territories in Italy, with a mind to exchange them for Savoy or Lorraine. Acceptance of the will and consequences Louis in 1701. In 1700, as he lay upon his deathbed, Charles II unexpectedly interfered in the affair. He sought to prevent Spain from uniting with either France or the Empire, but, based on his past experience of French superiority in arms, considered France as more capable of preserving his empire in its entirety. The whole of the Spanish inheritance was thus offered to Anjou, the Dauphin's second son, on condition he kept it undivided. In the event of his refusal or inability to accept the inheritance, it would be offered to the Dauphin's youngest son, Charles, duc de Berry, and thereafter to the Archduke Charles. Kamen, Henry. (2001) Philip V of Spain: The King who Reigned Twice Published by Yale University Press. ISBN 0300087187. p. 6 If all these princes refused the Crown, it would be offered to the House of Savoy, distantly related to the Spanish Royal Family. Louis XIV thus faced a difficult choice: he could have agreed to a partition and to possible peace in Europe, or he could have accepted the whole Spanish inheritance but alienated the other European nations. Louis originally assured William III that he would fulfill the terms of their previous treaty and partition the Spanish dominions. However, Jean-Baptiste Colbert, marquis de Torcy, the nephew of Colbert, advised Louis that even if France accepted a portion of the Spanish inheritance, a war with the Empire would almost certainly ensue; and William III had made it very clear that he had signed the Partition Treaties to avoid war, not make it, and hence would not assist France in a war to obtain the territories granted her by those treaties. Louis agreed that if a war had to occur, it would be more profitable to accept the whole of the Spanish inheritance and to fight a defensive war. Consequently, when Charles II died on 1 November 1700, Philippe, duc d'Anjou became Philip V, King of Spain. Most of the rest of Europe accepted Philip V as King of Spain, albeit reluctantly. Louis, however, acted too precipitously. In 1701, he transferred the Asiento, a permit to sell slaves to the Spanish colonies, to France, with potentially damaging consequences for British trade. Moreover, Louis ceased to acknowledge William III as King of Great Britain and Ireland upon the death of James II, instead acclaiming as King James II's son, James Francis Edward Stuart (the "Old Pretender"). Furthermore, Louis sent forces into the Spanish Netherlands to secure its loyalty to Philip V and to garrison the Spanish forts, which had been garrisoned by Dutch troops as part of the "Barrier" protecting the United Provinces from potential French aggression. The result was the further alienation of both Britain and the United Provinces, both then ruled by William III. Consequently, another Grand Alliance was formed between Great Britain, the United Provinces, the Emperor and many of the petty states within the Holy Roman Empire. French diplomacy, however, secured Bavaria, Portugal and Savoy as allies for Louis and Philip. Commencement of fighting The subsequent War of the Spanish Succession continued for most of the remainder of the reign and proved costly for Louis. It began with Imperial aggression in Italy even before war was officially declared. France had some initial success, nearly capturing Vienna, but the victories of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy showed that the myth of French invincibility was broken. End of French invincibility Following Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy's victory at the Battle of Blenheim, Bavaria was flung out of the war, being partitioned between the Palatinate and Austria, and her elector, Maximilian II Emanuel, forced to flee to the Spanish Netherlands. Another consequence of Blenheim was the subsequent defection of Portugal and Savoy to the opposing side. With the Battle of Ramillies and that of Oudenarde, Franco-Spanish forces were driven ignominiously out of the Spanish Netherlands; while the Battle of Turin forced Louis to evacuate what few forces remained to him in Italy. Such military defeats, coupled with famine and mounting debt, forced France into a defensive posture. By 1709, Louis' position was grievously weakened, and he was willing to sue for peace at nearly any cost, even to return all lands and territories ceded to him during his reign and to return to the frontiers of the Peace of Westphalia, signed more than sixty years prior. Nonetheless, the terms dictated by the allies were so harsh, including demands that he attack his own grandson alone to force the latter to accept the humiliating peace terms, that war continued. Turning point Whilst it became clear that France could not retain the entire Spanish inheritance, it also seemed evident that its opponents could not overthrow Philip V in Spain after the definitive Franco-Spanish victory of the Battle of Almansa, and those of Villaviciosa and Brihuega, which drove the allies out of the central Spanish provinces. Furthermore, the Battle of Malplaquet in 1709 showed that it was neither easy nor cheap to defeat and invade France, for while the allies gained the field, they did so at an abominable cost, losing 25 000 men, twice that of the French, led by their capable general, the duc de Villars. The Battle of Denain in 1712 turned the war in favour of Louis XIV, when Villars led French forces to a decisive victory over the allies under Eugene of Savoy, recovering much lost territory and pride. Map of France after the death of Louis XIV The death of Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, who had succeeded his father Leopold I in 1705, made the prospect of an empire as large as that of Charles V being ruled by the Archduke Charles, now the Emperor, dangerously possible. This was, to Great Britain, as undesirable as a union of France and Spain. Road to and conclusion of peace Thus, preliminaries were signed between Great Britain and France in the pursuit of peace. Louis XIV and Philip V eventually made peace with Great Britain and the United Provinces in 1713 with the Treaty of Utrecht. Peace with the Emperor and the Holy Roman Empire came with the Treaty of Rastatt and that of Baden in 1714 respectively. The crucial interval between Utrecht and Rastatt-Baden allowed Louis XIV to capture Landau and Freiburg, permitting him to negotiate from a comparatively better position, if not from one of strength, with the Emperor and the Empire. The general settlement recognised Philip V as King of Spain and ruler of the Spanish colonies. Spain's territory in the Low Countries and Italy were partitioned between Austria and Savoy, while Gibraltar and Minorca were retained by Great Britain. Louis XIV, furthermore, agreed to end his support for the Old Pretender's claims to the throne of Great Britain. France was also obliged to cede the colonies and possessions of Newfoundland, Rupert's Land and Acadia in the Americas to Great Britain, while retaining Île-Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island) and Île Royale (now Cape Breton Island); however, most of those Continental territories lost in the devastating defeats in the Low Countries were returned to her, despite allied persistence and pressure to the contrary, and she also received further territories to which she had a claim such as the Principality of Orange, as well as the Ubaye Valley, which covered the passes through the Alps from Italy. The efforts of the allies to curb and diminish French power in Europe came to naught. Moreover, France was shown to be able to protect her allies with the rehabilitation and restoration of the Elector of Bavaria, Maximilian II Emanuel, to his lands, titles and dignities. Death Drugstore of Louis XIV, with details. Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, Paris. Louis XIV died on 1 September 1715, of gangrene, a few days before his seventy-seventh birthday, at The Palace of Versailles. Almost all of Louis XIV's legitimate children had died during childhood. The only one to survive to adulthood, his eldest son, Louis de France, known as "Le Grand Dauphin", had predeceased Louis XIV in 1711, leaving three children. The eldest of these children, Louis, duc de Bourgogne, had died in 1712, soon to be followed by Bourgogne's elder son, Louis, duc de Bretagne. Thus, at Louis XIV's death, his five-year-old great-grandson Louis, duc d'Anjou, the youngest son of Bourgogne, and the Dauphin upon the death of his grandfather, father and elder brother, succeeded to the throne as Louis XV. It was to this young child that Louis XIV was alleged, according to Philippe de Courcillon, marquis de Dangeau in his Memoirs, to have said, in the manner of baroque piety: "Do not follow the bad example which I have set you; I have often undertaken war too lightly and have sustained it for vanity. Do not imitate me, but be a peaceful prince, and may you apply yourself principally to the alleviation of the burdens of your subjects". This same Dangeau noted of his death that "he yielded up his soul without any effort, like a candle extinguishing". Louis died while saying the words of the psalm Domine, ad adjuvandum me festina (O Lord, make haste to help me). Louis XIV (seated) with his son Louis le Grand Dauphin (standing to the king's right), his grandon Louis, duc de Bourgogne (standing to the king's left), and his great-grandson Louis, duc de Bretagne (the woman is Madame de Ventadour, the young duke's governess, who commissioned this painting). Busts of Henry IV and Louis XIII can be seen in the background. Louis XIV, noting his own old age and the youth of his heir, had anticipated a regency and had sought to restrict the power of his nephew, Philippe II, duc d'Orléans, who as closest surviving legitimate relative in France would become Regent for the prospective Louis XV. Thus, he transferred some power to his illegitimate son by Madame de Montespan, Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine and created a regency council like that established by Louis XIII in anticipation of Louis XIV's own minority. Louis XIV's will provided that Maine would act as the guardian of Louis XV, superintendent of the young king's education and Commander of the Royal Guards. Orléans, however, obtained the annulment of Louis XIV's will in the Parlement de Paris after the latter's death. Maine was stripped of the rank of "prince du sang", which had been given him and his brother, Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon, comte de Toulouse, by Louis, and of the command of the Royal Guards, but retained his position as superintendent, while Orléans was to rule as sole Regent. Toulouse, by remaining aloof from these court intrigues, managed to retain his privileges (save that of "prince du sang"), unlike his brother. Louis XIV's body lies in the Saint Denis Basilica in Saint Denis, a suburb of Paris. He reigned for 72 years, making his the longest reign in the recorded history of Europe. Legacy A member of the House of France was placed on the throne of Spain by Louis XIV, effectively ending the centuries-old threat and menace that had arisen from that quarter of Europe since the days of Charles V. The House of Bourbon retained the crown of Spain for the remainder of the eighteenth century, but experienced overthrow and restoration several times after 1808. Nonetheless, to this day, the Spanish monarch is descended from Louis XIV. Louis' numerous wars and excessive domestic spending (mainly the construction of the Chateau de Versailles) effectively bankrupted the State. This bankruptcy set into motion many of the domestic problems with the "tiers etat" that would eventually lead to the French Revolution in 1789. These debts forced Louis XIV to incur large State debts from various financiers and to levy higher taxes on the peasants as the nobility and clergy had exemption from paying these taxes and contributing to public funds. Yet, it must be emphasized that it was the State, and not the country, which was impoverished. The wealth and prosperity of France, as a whole, could be noted in the writings of the social and political thinker and commentator Montesquieu in his satirical epistolary novel, Lettres Persanes. While the work mocks and ridicules French political, cultural and social life, it also portrays and describes the wealth, elegance and opulence of France between the end of the War of the Spanish Succession and Louis XIV's death. Growth of France under Louis XIV (1643–1715) On the whole, nevertheless, Louis XIV strengthened the power of the Crown relative to the traditional feudal elites, marking the beginning of the era of the modern State, and placed France in the predominant and preeminent position in Europe, giving her ten new provinces and an overseas empire, as well as cultural and linguistic influence all over Europe. Even with several great European alliances opposing him, he continued to triumph and to increase French territory, power and influence. As a result of these military victories as well as cultural accomplishments, Europe would admire France, her power, culture, exports, values and way-of-life. The French language would become the lingua franca for the entire European elite as faraway as Romanov Russia; various German princelings would seek to copy his mode of life to their great expense. Europe of the Enlightenment would look to Louis XIV's reign as an example, studying his strategic use of power, emulating his elegance, and admiring his successes. Saint-Simon, who felt slighted by Louis XIV, offered the following assessment: "There was nothing he liked so much as flattery, or, to put it more plainly, adulation; the coarser and clumsier it was, the more he relished it ... His vanity, which was perpetually nourished–for even preachers used to praise him to his face from the pulpit–was the cause of the aggrandisement of his Ministers". However, even the German philosopher Leibniz, who was a Protestant and had no cause for flattery, could call him "one of the greatest kings that ever was"; and Napoleon, hardly a friend of the Bourbons, would describe Louis XIV as "the only King of France worthy of the name" and "a great king." Napoleon Bonaparte, Napoleon’s Notes on English History made on the Eve of the French Revolution, illustrated from Contemporary Historians and referenced from the findings of Later Research by Henry Foljambe Hall. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1905, 258. Voltaire, the apostle of the Enlightenment, compared him to Augustus and called his reign an "eternally memorable age", dubbing the Age of Louis XIV "le Grand Siècle" (the "Great Century"). He is also regarded as one of the greatest rulers in the 17th century alongside with Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Empire and Peter I of Tzarist Russia. Style and arms Louis XIV had the formal style: "Louis XIV, par la grâce de Dieu, roi de France et de Navarre", or "Louis XIV, by the Grace of God, King of France and of Navarre". He bore the arms Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) impaling Gules on a chain in cross saltire and orle Or an emerald Proper (for Navarre). Order of Saint Louis The Royal and Military Order of Saint Louis () was a military Order of Chivalry founded on 5 April 1693 by Louis XIV Hamilton, Walter. "Dated Book-plates (Ex Libris) with a Treatise on Their Origin", P37. Published 1895. A.C. Black Edmunds, Martha. "Piety and Politics", P274. 2002. University of Delaware Press. ISBN 0874136938 and named after Louis IX. It was intended as a reward for outstanding officers, and is notable as the first decoration that could be granted to non-nobles. It is roughly the forerunner of the Légion d'honneur, with which it shares the red ribbon (though the Légion d'honneur is awarded to military personnel and civilians alike). Ancestors Ancestors of Louis XIV of France Issue Legitimate Children of Louis XIV of France NameBirthDeathNotesBy Marie-Thérèse d'Autriche, Infanta of Spain, Queen of France and of Navarre (20 September 1638 - 30 July 1683) Louis de France, le Grand Dauphin 1 November 1661 14 April 1711Fils de France. Dauphin of France (1661-1711). Had issue. Father of Louis, duc de Bourgogne (later Dauphin of France), Philippe, duc d'Anjou (later King of Spain) and Charles, duc de Berry. Grandfather of Louis, duc d'Anjou (later Dauphin, and then King of France) Anne-Élisabeth de France18 November 166230 December, 1662Fille de France. Died in infancy. Marie-Anne de France16 November 166426 December 1664 (?)Fille de France. Died in infancy or became Louise Marie-Therese (The Black Nun of Moret). Marie-Thérèse de France2 January 16671 March, 1672Fille de France. Known as Madame Royale and la Petite Madame Philippe-Charles de France, duc d'Anjou5 August 166810 July, 1671Fils de France.Louis-François de France, duc d'Anjou14 June 16724 November, 1672Fils de France. Died in infancy. Illegitimate Children of Louis XIV of France Note: This is an incomplete list of the illegitimate children of Louis XIV - he is known to have had more - due to the difficulty in fully documenting all such births. As such, the list only notes those who are better known or were legitimated. NameBirthDeathNotesBy NN, a gardenerdaughter1660?She married N de la Queue, a sentry. By Louise-Françoise de La Baume Le Blanc, duchesse de La Vallière et de Vaujours (6 August 1644 - 6 June 1710)Charles19 December 166315 July, 1665Not legitimated.Philippe7 January 16651666Not legitimated.Marie-Anne de Bourbon, Mlle de Blois, duchesse de La Vallière, princesse de Conti 2 October 1666 3 May, 1739Legitimated on 14 May 1667. Married Louis-Armand I de Bourbon-Conti, prince de Conti. Louis de Bourbon, comte de Vermandois3 October 166718 November, 1683Legitimated on 20 February 1669. Held the office of Admiral of France.By Françoise-Athénaïs de Rochechouart de Mortemart, marquise de Montespan (5 October 1641 - 27 May 1707) Louise Françoise de Bourbon at the end of March, 1669 23 February 1672 Louis-Auguste de Bourbon, duc du Maine 31 March 167014 May, 1736 Legitimated on 20 December 1673. Held numerous offices, of which: Colonel-Général des Suisses et des Grisons, Governor of Languedoc, Général des Galères, and Grand-Maître de l'Artillerie. Was also duc d'Aumale, comte d'Eu and prince de Dombes. Had issue. Founder of the House of Bourbon du Maine. Louis-César de Bourbon, comte de Vexin, abbé de Saint-Denis et de Saint-Germain-des-Prés 20 June 1672 10 January 1683 Legitimated on 20 December 1673. Louise-Françoise de Bourbon, Mlle de Nantes, duchesse de Bourbon, princesse de Condé1 June 167316 June, 1743Legitimated on 20 December 1673. Married Louis III de Bourbon-Condé, duc d'Enghien, (later duc de Bourbon, and then prince de Condé). Had issue. Louise-Marie-Anne de Bourbon, Mlle de Tours 12 November 167415 September, 1681 Legitimated in January 1676. Françoise-Marie de Bourbon, Mlle de Blois, duchesse d'Orléans9 February 16771 February, 1749Legitimated in November 1681. Married Philippe II d'Orléans, duc de Chartres, (later duc d'Orléans), the Regent of France under Louis XV. Had issue. Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon, comte de Toulouse 6 June 16781 December, 1737Legitimated on 22 November 1681. Held numerous offices, of which: Admiral of France, Governor of Guyenne, Governor of Brittany, and Grand-Veneur de France. Was also duc de Damville, de Rambouillet et de Penthièvre. Had issue. Founder of the House of Bourbon-Toulouse.by Claude de Vin, Mademoiselle des Oeillets (c. 1637 - 18 May 1687)Louise de Maisonblanche167612 September 1718In 1696 she married Bernard de Prez, Baron de La Queue. by Marie Angelique de Scorailles, Duchess de Fontanges (1661 - 28 June 1681)son16811681 In fiction Louis XIV is depicted in two of Alexandre Dumas' novels, first as a child in Twenty Years After, then as a young man in The Vicomte de Bragelonne, in which he is a central character. French academic Jean-Yves Tadié has argued that the beginning of Louis XIV's personal rule is the latter novel's real subject. J-Y Tadié's annotations to The Vicomte de Bragelonne, Gallimard, 1997 Most film versions of the Man in the Iron Mask's story are based on the legend that the mysterious prisoner was actually Louis XIV's twin brother. This legend is also depicted in Dumas' novel, on which most film versions are loosely based. In 1910 the American historical novelist Charles Major wrote "The Little King: A Story of the Childhood of King Louis XIV". King Louis XIV is a major character in the 1959 historical novel "Angélique et le Roy" ("Angélique and the King"), part of the Angelique Series. The book's main character, a strong-willed lady at the court in Versailles, rejects the King's advances and refuses to become his mistress. The dire consqences of her defying this powerful monarch are depicted in a later book, the 1961 "Angélique se révolte" ("Angélique in Revolt"). A character based on Louis XIV plays an important role in The Age of Unreason, a series of four alternate history novels written by American science fiction and fantasy author Gregory Keyes. The Taking of Power by Louis XIV directed by Roberto Rossellini in 1966 shows Louis rise to power after the death of Cardinal Mazarin. Released on DVD January 2009. Julian Sands portrayed Louis XIV in Roland Jaffe's Vatel (2000), starring Gerard Depardieu; written by Jeanne Labrune, with English adaptation by Tom Stoppard. IMDB: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0190861/ The film The King Is Dancing (Le Roi Danse) directed by Gérard Corbiau in 2000 shows Louis XIV as seen by Jean-Baptiste Lully, his court musician. See also French Baroque and Classicism Gallican Church Autocracy Notes Further reading Acton, J. E. E., 1st Baron. (1906). Lectures on Modern History. London: Macmillan and Co. Beik, William. "The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration: Review Article", Past and Present, no. 188 (August 2005), pp. 195–224. Bluche, François, Louis XIV, Paris: Hachette Littératures, 1986. (English translation by Mark Greengrass; published in 1990 by Franklin Watts.) Buckley, Veronica. Madame de Maintenon: The Secret Wife of Louis XIV. London: Bloomsbury, 2008 Burke, Peter En kung blir till (Swedish translation of The fabrication of a king, 1992) Cambridge Modern History vol 5 The Age of Louis XIV (1908)] Carretier, Christian, "Les cinq cent douze quartiers de Louis XIV", Angers-Paris, 1980 Chaline, Olivier, Le règne de Louis XIV (Paris: Flammarion, 2005) Church, William F. (ed.). The Greatness of Louis XIV. London: D.C. Heath and Company, 1972. Cronin, Vincent. Louis XIV. London: HarperCollins, 1996 (ISBN 0002720728) Dunlop, Ian. Louis XIV. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000 (hardcover, ISBN 0312261969) Erlanger, Philippe, Louis XIV, Librairie Arthème Fayard, Paris 1965, reprinted by Librairie Académique Perrin, Paris, 1978, (French). Erlanger, Philippe, Louis XIV, translated from the French by Stephen Cox, Praeger Publishers, New York, 1970, (English). Fraser, Antonia. Love and Louis XIV: The Women in the Life of the Sun King. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-297-82997-1); New York: Nan A. Talese, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0385509847) Goyau, G. (1910). "Louis XIV". The Catholic Encyclopedia. (Volume IX). New York: Robert Appleton Company. Holt, Mack P., "Louis XIV." The New Book of Knowledge. Scholastic Library Publishing, 2005. Jordan, David. The King's Trial: Louis XVI vs. the French Revolution. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004 (paperback, ISBN 0520236971) Lynn, John A., "The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714", New York: Longman, 1999 Rubin, David Lee, ed. Sun King: The Ascendancy of French Culture during the Reign of Louis XIV. Washington: Folger Books and Cranbury: Associated University Presses, 1992. Steingrad, E. (2004). "Louis XIV." Thompson, Ian. The Sun King's Garden: Louis XIV, André Le Nôtre And the Creation of the Gardens of Versailles. London: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1582346313). Wolf, J. B. (1968). Louis XIV. New York: Norton. External links Chronology Louis XIV Memoirs of Louis XIV and His Court and of the Regency Full text of marriage contract (PDF), France National Archives transcription "Le siècle de Louis XIV" by Voltaire, 1751 List of films dedicated to Louis XIV and period Of particular interest: Documentary on Versailles—The Visit. |- |- References | Louis_XIV_of_France |@lemmatized louis:231 xiv:128 september:9 rule:10 king:59 france:105 navarre:5 see:8 list:4 navarrese:1 monarch:7 family:11 tree:1 ascend:1 throne:13 month:3 fifth:1 birthday:3 assume:3 actual:1 personal:7 control:7 government:5 death:17 prime:1 minister:7 premier:1 ministre:1 italian:5 cardinal:7 jules:2 mazarin:11 remain:6 four:5 day:9 seventy:3 seventh:2 reign:17 last:9 two:8 year:28 three:5 eighteen:1 long:6 document:3 european:7 date:1 popularly:1 know:14 sun:6 french:52 le:26 roi:3 soleil:1 believe:6 divine:2 right:5 theory:1 receive:3 one:11 classic:1 expression:1 duty:4 sermon:1 preach:1 jacques:2 bénigne:1 bossuet:3 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6,314 | Firearm | A Smith & Wesson revolver designed for military and police use. A firearm is a device, often designed to be used as a weapon, which projects either single or multiple projectiles at high velocity through a controlled explosion. The firing is achieved by the gases produced through rapid, confined burning of a propellant. This process of rapid burning is technically known as deflagration. In older firearms, this propellant was typically black powder, but modern firearms use smokeless powder, cordite, or other propellants. Most modern firearms (with the notable exception of smoothbore shotguns) have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight stability. There exist a wide variety of firearms with different intended uses. Many firearms are employed as weapons, but many types of firearms exist that are not used as weapons, but as tools. Background In the Middle Ages the term "firearm" was used in English to denote the arm in which the match was held that was used to light the touch hole on the hand cannon. The term was a variation on the contemporary terms of bow arm and drawing arm still used in archery. Due to the effects of firing the ordnance (barrel) at the time, the gunner had to be located somewhat behind the weapon, steadying brace with the other hand, hence the name "hand gun" became synonymous with the "fire arm". Although the modern term 'gun' is often used as a synonym for firearm, in specialist or military use it has a restricted sense referring only to an artillery piece with a relatively high muzzle velocity, such as a field gun, a tank gun, or a gun used in the delivery of naval gunfire. Artillery guns are much larger than these firearms, mounted on a movable carriage, having bores of up to 18 inches (46 cm) and possibly weighing many tons. Strictly speaking, such weapons are not firearms. Hand-held firearms, like rifles, carbines, pistols and other small firearms are rarely called "guns" in the restricted sense among specialists. Machine guns fire small caliber ammunition (generally 14.5 mm or smaller), and many machine guns are crew served infantry support weapons, requiring the services of more than one crewman, just like artillery guns. Generally, an automatic firearm designed for a single user is referred to as an automatic rifle. Other terms, including "firearm" itself, have been defined in specialized ad hoc ways by various legislation. In recent centuries, firearms have become the predominant weapons used by mankind. Modern warfare since the late Renaissance has relied upon firearms, with wide-ranging effects on military history and history in general. This created a whole new kind of battle, which molded modern-era armies. For handguns and long guns, the projectile is a bullet, or in historical hand cannons, a shot. The shot was initially made from lead already used as ammunition for the slings, and ironically begun with ballistic shape of a modern bullet, but was rapidly replaced by the cast iron ball. The projectile is fired by the burning of the propellant, but in small arms rarely contains explosives itself as such ammunition is banned by the Hague Convention. The use of expanding (e.g. hollow-point) small-arms ammunition in warfare is also banned by the Convention for similar reason (it aggravates the severity of wounds from small-arms fire). For modern artillery the projectile is a shell, which almost always contains explosives, and explosives were also common in older artillery pieces as well. Until the mid-1800s, projectiles and propellant (black powder) were generally separate components used in a muzzle-loading firearm such as a rifle, pistol, or cannon. Sometimes for convenience a suitable amount of powder and a bullet were wrapped in a paper package, known as a cartridge. This evolved into the form of a tubular metal casing enclosing a primary igniter (primer) and the powder charge, with the projectile press-fit into the end of the casing opposite the primer. Cartridge ammunition was widely adopted, and as of World War I it had become the primary form of ammunition for small arms, tanks, and artillery. Mortars use a similar concept of encapsulation; however the projectile and casing are generally a single piece that is launched from the firearm. Some short-range naval guns use cased ammunition, but many battleship and cruiser main guns use a shell and separate bagged powder measures, which are selected according to the desired ballistic path. A distinction is sometimes made between the projectile itself as the weapon and the firearm as a weapons platform. In some cases, the firearm can be used directly as a weapon without firing a projectile, although this is virtually always a secondary method of attack used in close combat. For example, arms such as rifles, muskets, and occasionally submachine guns can have bayonets affixed to them, becoming in effect a spear or pike. With some notable exceptions, the stock of a long gun can be used as a club. It is also possible to strike someone with the barrel of a firearm or grasp it by the barrel or grip and strike someone with the butt, which is informally called "pistol-whipping". A problem for firearms is the accumulation of waste products from the partial combustion of propellants, metallic residue from the bullet itself, and small flecks of the cartridge case, known as fouling or gunshot residue. These waste products can interfere with the internal functions of the firearm. As a result, regularly used firearms must be periodically partially disassembled, cleaned and lubricated to ensure the firearm’s reliability. Firearms may sometimes be referred to as small arms. Small arms are firearms which can be carried by a single individual. According to international conventions governing the Laws of War, small arms are defined (with some exceptions) as firearms which fire a projectile not in excess of 15 mm (0.60 inches) in diameter. Small arms are aimed visually at their targets by hand using either iron sights or optical sights . The range of pistols is generally limited to about 50 meters, while most rifles accurate to about 150 meters using iron sights, or up to 600 meters using optical sights. Some purpose-built sniper rifles are accurate to ranges of over 2000 m. The current record for a successful sniper attack is slightly more than 1.5 miles (2.4 km). History The earliest depiction of a firearm is a sculpture from a cave in Sichuan, China. The sculpture dates to the 1100s and is of a figure carrying a vase-shaped bombard with flames and a cannonball coming out of it. The oldest surviving gun, made of bronze, has been dated to 1288 because it was discovered at a site in modern-day Acheng District, Heilongjiang, China, where the Yuan Shi records that battles were fought at that time. The Europeans, Arabs, and Koreans all obtained firearms in the 1300s. "The Europeans certainly had firearms by the first half of the 1300s. The Arabs obtained firearms in the 1300s too, and the Turks, Iranians, and Indians all got them no later than the 1400s, in each case directly or indirectly from the Europeans. The Koreans adopted firearms from the Chinese in the 1300s, but the Japanese did not acquire them until the 1500s, and then from the Portuguese rather than the Chinese." The Turks, Iranians, and Indians all got firearms no later than the 1400s, in each case directly or indirectly from the Europeans. The Japanese did not acquire firearms until the 1500s, and then from the Portuguese rather than the Chinese. Small arms Handgun The Colt M1911A1 is a semiautomatic pistol chambered in .45ACP. The smallest of all small arms is the handgun (or pistol). There are three common types of handguns: single-shot pistols (more common historically), revolvers, and semi-automatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of firing chambers or "charge holes" in a revolving cylinder; each chamber in the cylinder is loaded with a single cartridge. Semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a removable magazine so they can be used to fire more than one round. The Italian-made Mateba revolver is a rare "hybrid," a semi-automatic revolver. Each press of the trigger fires a cartridge and rotates the cylinder so that the next cartridge may be fired immediately. The British firearms firm Webley also made an "automatic revolver" around the turn of the 20th century. Handguns differ from rifles and shotguns in that they are smaller, lack a shoulder stock (though some pistols like the Luger and Browning Hi-Power accept a removable stock allowing its use as a carbine), are usually chambered for less-powerful cartridges, and are designed to be fired with one or two hands. While the term "pistol" can be properly used to describe any handgun, it is common to refer to a single-shot or auto-loading handgun as a "pistol" and a revolver as a "revolver". The term "automatic pistol" is sometimes used and is somewhat misleading in that the term 'automatic' does not refer to the firing mechanism, but rather the reloading mechanism. When fired, an automatic pistol uses recoil and/or propellant gases to automatically extract the spent cartridge and insert a fresh one from a magazine. Usually (but not always) the firing mechanism is automatically cocked as well. An automatic pistol fires one shot per trigger pull, unlike an automatic firearm such as a machine gun, which fires as long as the trigger is held down and there are unspent cartridges in the chamber or magazine. There are, however, some fully automatic handguns (often referred to as machine pistols) so, to avoid such ambiguity and confusion, either "semi-automatic" or "autoloader" is preferred when referring to a firearm that fires only one shot per trigger pull. Prior to the 19th century, all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders. With the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted revolvers in military applications by the end of World War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns carried regularly by military, police and civilians were semi-automatic, although revolvers were still widely used. Generally speaking, military and police forces use semi-automatic pistols due to their high magazine capacities (10 to 17 or, in some cases, over 25 rounds of ammunition) and ability to rapidly reload by simply removing the empty magazine and inserting a loaded one. Revolvers are very common among handgun hunters because revolver cartridges are usually more powerful than similar caliber semi-automatic pistol cartridges (which are designed for self-defense) and the strength, simplicity and durability of the revolver design is well-suited to outdoor use. Both designs are common among civilian gun owners, depending on the owner's intention (self-defense, hunting, target shooting, competitions, collecting, etc). A Colt Single Action Army single-action revolver. Handguns come in many shapes and sizes. For example, the "derringer" (a generic term based on the mid-19th century "Deringer" brand name) is a very small, short-barreled handgun, usually with one or two barrels but sometimes more (some 19th century derringers had four barrels) that have to be manually reloaded after being fired. Carefully matched single-shot duelling pistols were used primarily in the 18th and 19th centuries to settle serious differences among "gentlemen": Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr are probably the most prominent Americans who used duelling pistols to settle their differences. Revolvers and auto-loading pistols are produced in a wide variety of sizes, with autoloaders generally categorized as one of four sizes: full-size, compact, sub-compact and ultra-compact. Each size has merits and shortcomings; a smaller handgun usually sacrifices ammunition capacity, recoil damping and/or long-range accuracy for increased concealability and ease of use by smaller-framed shooters. Fully automatic, relatively easily concealed machine pistols, such as the MAC-10, Glock 18, and the Beretta 93R, were a late 20th century development. Handguns are small and usually made to be carried in a holster, thus leaving both hands free. Small handguns can be easily concealed, thus making them a very common choice for personal protection. In the military, handguns are usually issued to those who are not expected to need more potent firearms, such as general and staff officers, and to those for whom there is no room for a full-sized rifle, such as vehicle crews. In this last role, they often compete with the carbine, a short, light rifle, which is also usually issued to airborne infantry because of its small size. Handguns were historically issued to riflemen as a secondary weapon, however the reliability and firepower of the modern assault rifle (and the increasing amount and cost of equipment carried by a soldier) has made this practice less common as of the end of the 20th century. Outside the military, handguns are the usual armament for police and, where legal, for private citizens. Private citizens in most jurisdictions usually carry only concealed handguns in public except when hunting, since an unconcealed firearm could attract undue attention, and could therefore be less secure, although 43 states in the US permit open carry of handguns, sometimes subject to licensing or restrictions. In the United States, the number of states which permit concealed carry has recently grown to over 35, and several states have well over 200,000 permit holders. Despite Second Amendment constitutional roots in the United States, the concept of citizens carrying a concealed firearm for self-defense is often a contentious political issue; see gun politics for more information. Handguns are also used for many sporting purposes and hunting, although hunting usage is usually viewed as somewhat atypical due to the limited range and accuracy of handguns. Some hunters, however, do their hunting in areas of dense cover where long guns would be awkward, or they relish the increased challenge involved in handgun hunting due to the necessity of approaching the game animal more closely. Handgun ammunition is also generally less expensive than rifle cartridges, and is usually sufficient for many larger pest animals such as feral hogs, coyotes and wolves. Small-bore (e.g. .22 caliber rimfire) handguns have long been very popular for competitive target shooting, partially due to the low cost of both the firearms and the ammunition, and there is also a rapidly growing number of sporting competitions for larger calibers, including "practical shooting", the guidelines of which usually require a handgun of caliber 9x19mm or greater. Long guns Springfield Armory M1903 rifle. Most modern long guns are either rifles or shotguns. Historically, a long smoothbore firearm was known as a musket. A rifle has a rifled barrel that fires single bullets, while a shotgun fires packets of shot, a single slug, a sabot, or a specialty round (such as tear gas, bolo shell, or a breaching round). Rifles have a very small impact area but a long range and high accuracy. Shotguns have a large impact area with considerably less range and accuracy. However, the larger impact area can compensate for reduced accuracy, since shot spreads during flight; consequently, in hunting, shotguns are used for flying game. Rifles and shotguns are commonly used for hunting and often to defend a home or place of business. Usually, large game are hunted with rifles (although shotguns can be used), while birds are hunted with shotguns. Shotguns are sometimes preferred for defending a home or business due to their wide impact area, multiple wound tracks (when using buckshot), shorter range, and reduced penetration of walls, which significantly reduces the likelihood of unintended harm, although the handgun is also common. There are a variety of types of rifles and shotguns based on the method they are reloaded. Bolt-action and lever-action rifles are manually operated. Manipulation of the bolt or the lever causes the spent cartridge to be removed, the firing mechanism recocked, and a fresh cartridge inserted. These two types of action are almost exclusively used by rifles. Slide-action (commonly called 'pump-action') rifles and shotguns are manually cycled by shuttling the foregrip of the firearm back and forth. This type of action is typically used by shotguns, but several major manufacturers make rifles that use this action. Both rifles and shotguns also come in break-action varieties that do not have any kind of reloading mechanism at all but must be hand-loaded after each shot. Both rifles and shotguns come in single- and double-barreled varieties; however due to the expense and difficulty of manufacturing, double-barreled rifles are rare. Double-barreled rifles are typically intended for African big-game hunts where the animals are dangerous, ranges are short, and speed is of the essence. Very large and powerful calibers are normal for these firearms. Rifles have been in nationally featured marksmanship events in Europe and the United States since at least the 18th century, when rifles were first becoming widely available. One of the earliest purely "American" rifle-shooting competitions took place in 1775, when Daniel Morgan was recruiting sharpshooters in Virginia for the impending American War of Independence. In some countries, rifle marksmanship is still a matter of national pride. Some specialized rifles in the larger calibers are claimed to have an accurate range of up to about one mile (1600 m), although most have considerably less. In the second half of the 20th century, competitive shotgun sports became perhaps even more popular than riflery, largely due to the motion and immediate feedback in activities such as skeet, trap and sporting clays. In military use, bolt-action rifles with high-power scopes are common as sniper rifles, however by the Korean War the traditional bolt-action and semi-automatic rifles used by infantrymen had been supplanted by select-fire designs known as "automatic rifles" (see "Automatic Rifle" in the next section) Automatic weapons An automatic weapon is a firearm capable of firing multiple rounds with one pull of the trigger. The Gatling gun was an early crank-operated weapon that may have been the first automatic weapon, though the modern trigger-actuated machine gun was not widely introduced until the First World War with the German "Spandau" and British Lewis gun. Automatic weapons are largely restricted to military and paramilitary organizations, though many automatic designs are infamous for their use by organized crime. Automatic firearms have long been available to US civilians, under increasingly restrictive conditions. Importation of machine guns for civilian sale in the US was banned by the Gun Control Act of 1968. The Hughes Amendment to the Firearm Owners Protection Act now prohibits US civilian ownership or transfer of automatic weapons unless they were registered before 1986-05-19. Non-prohibited automatic weapons can be legally transferred to civilians who pay a substantial tax to the BATFE and pass a background investigation, although permission must be received from BATFE to move a machine gun between states. An extremely limited number of US citizens have special permits from the BATFE to buy, and even import, automatic weapons produced and registered after 1986. The use of such weapons is tightly restricted to the film industry under direct supervision of the master of arms holding the permit, and the weapons are often altered so they will not fire "factory" ammunition, but rather only special "light-primer" blank cartridges produced specifically for the film industry. This arrangement allows weapons first produced after 1986 to be used by actors in films and TV series filmed inside the US. Machine gun A machine gun is a fully automatic emplaceable weapon, generally separated from other classes of automatic weapon by the use of belt-fed ammunition (though some designs employ drum, pan or hopper magazines), generally in a rifle-inspired caliber ranging between 5.56mm NATO for a light machine gun to as large as .50 BMG or larger for crewed or aircraft weapons. Although not widely fielded until World War I, early machine guns were being used by the military in the second half of the 19th century. They were primarily defensive firearms crewed by two men, mainly because of the difficulties involved in moving and placing them, and their inherent lack of accuracy. In contrast, modern light machine guns such as the FN Minimi are often wielded by a single infantryman. They provide a large ammunition capacity and a high rate of fire and are typically used to give suppressing fire during infantry movement. Machine guns are also often mounted on vehicles or helicopters, and have often been used since World War I as offensive firearms in fighter aircraft and tanks (e.g., for air combat or suppressing fire for ground troop support). The definition of machine gun is different in US law. The National Firearms Act and Firearm Owners Protection Act define a "machine gun" in the United States code Title 26, Subtitle E, Chapter 53, Subchapter B, Part 1, § 5845 as: "... any firearm which shoots ... automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger". "Machine gun" is therefore largely synonymous with "automatic weapon" in the US civilian parlance, covering all automatic firearms. Submachine gun A submachine gun is a magazine-fed firearm, usually smaller than other automatic firearms, that fires pistol-caliber ammunition; for this reason submachine guns are also commonly called machine pistols especially when referring to handgun-sized designs such as the Škorpion vz. 61 and Glock 18. Well-known examples are the Israeli Uzi and Heckler & Koch MP5 which use the 9x19mm Parabellum cartridge, the American Thompson submachine gun which fires .45 ACP, and the Belgian FN P90 which uses a new 5.7x28mm cartridge. Because of their small size and limited projectile penetration compared to high-power rifle rounds, submachine guns are commonly favored by military, paramilitary and police forces for close-quarters engagements such as inside buildings, in urban areas or in trench complexes. A related class of firearm is the "Personal Defense Weapon" or PDW, which is in simplest terms a submachine gun designed to fire rounds similar to rifle cartridges. A submachine gun is desireable for its compact size and ammunition capacity, however a pistol round lacks the penetrating capability of a rifle round. Conversely, rifle bullets can pierce light armor and are easier to shoot accurately, but even a carbine is larger or longer than a submachine gun, making it harder to maneuver in close quarters. The solution many firearms manufacturers have presented is a weapon resembling a submachine gun in size and general configuration, but which fires a higher-powered armor-penetrating round, thus combining the advantages of a carbine and submachine gun. The FN P90 and H&K MP7 are examples. Automatic rifle An automatic rifle is a magazine-fed long gun, wielded by a single infantryman, that is chambered for rifle cartridges and capable of automatic fire. The Browning Automatic Rifle was the first US infantry weapon of this type, and was generally used for suppressive or support fire in the role now usually filled by the light machine gun. Other early automatic rifles include the Federov Avtomat and the Huot automatic rifle. Later, the German forces fielded the Sturmgewehr 44 during World War II, a light automatic rifle firing a reduced power "intermediate cartridge". This design was to become the model for the "assault rifle" subclass of automatic weapons. After World War II, the M14 (a gas-actuated select-fire design that replaced the M1 Garand) was introduced in the US, followed by the M16A1 assault rifle which was widely used in the Vietnam War. Also soon after World War II, the Automat Kalashnikov AK-47 assault rifle was fielded by the Soviet Union and other Communist allies including the Eastern Bloc, China, North Korea, and North Vietnam. Variants of both of the M16 and AK-47 are still in wide international use today, though other automatic rifle designs have since been introduced. A smaller version of the M16A2, the M4 carbine, is widely used by tank and vehicle crews, airbornes, support staff, and in other scenarios where space is limited. The IMI Galil, an Israeli-designed weapon similar to the AK-47, is in use by Israel, Italy, Myanmar, the Philippines, Peru, and Colombia. Swiss Arms AG of Switzerland produces the Sig 550 assault rifle used by France, Chile, and Spain among others, and Steyr Mannlicher produces the AUG, a bullpup rifle in use in Austria, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and Saudi Arabia among other nations. Loading and firing mechanisms Muzzle-loaded hand cannon Hand cannon being fired from a stand, "Belli Fortis", manuscript, by Konrad Kyeser, 1400 The original predecessor of all firearms, the hand cannon was loaded with gunpowder and the shot (initially lead shot, later replaced by cast iron) through the muzzle, while a fuse was placed at the rear. This fuse was lighted, causing the gunpowder to ignite and propel the cannonball. In military use, the standard hand cannon was tremendously powerful, while also being somewhat useless due to relative inability of the gunner to aim the weapon, or control the ballistic properties of the projectile. Recoil, a principle new to human experience at the time, could only be absorbed by bracing the barrel against the ground using a wooden support, the forerunner of the stock. Neither the amount of gunpowder, nor the consistency in projectile dimensions were controlled, with resulting inaccuracy in firing due to windage, the difference in diameter between the bore and the shot. The hand cannons were replaced by lighter carriage-mounted artillery pieces, and ultimately the arquebus. Muzzleloader Muzzle-loading muskets (smooth-bored long guns) were among the first small arms developed. The firearm was loaded through the muzzle with gunpowder, optionally some wadding and then a bullet (usually a solid lead ball, but musketeers could shoot stones when they ran out of bullets). Greatly improved muzzleloaders (usually rifled instead of smooth-bored) are manufactured today and have many enthusiasts, many of whom hunt large and small game with their guns. Muzzleloaders have to be manually reloaded after each shot; a skilled archer could fire multiple arrows faster than most early muskets could be reloaded and fired, although by the mid-18th century, when muzzleloaders became the standard small armament of the military, a well-drilled soldier could fire six rounds in a minute using prepared cartridges in his musket. Before then, effectiveness of muzzleloaders was hindered by both the low reloading speed and, before the firing mechanism was perfected, the very high risk posed by the firearm to the person attempting to fire it. One interesting solution to the reloading problem was the "Roman Candle Gun". This was a muzzleloader in which multiple charges and balls were loaded one on top of the other, with a small hole in each ball to allow the subsequent charge to be ignited after the one ahead of it was ignited. It was neither a very reliable nor popular firearm, but it enabled a form of "automatic" fire long before the advent of the machine gun. Roman Candle Gun at Scotwars.com Matchlock Matchlocks were the first and simplest small arms firing mechanisms developed. Using the matchlock mechanism, the powder in the gun barrel was ignited by a piece of burning cord called a "match". The match was wedged into one end of an S-shaped piece of steel. As the trigger (often actually a lever) was pulled, the match was brought into the open end of a "touch hole" at the base of the gun barrel, which contained a very small quantity of gunpowder, igniting the main charge of gunpowder in the gun barrel. The match usually had to be relit after each firing. Wheellock The wheellock action, a successor to the matchlock, predated the flintlock. Despite its many faults, the wheellock was a significant improvement over the matchlock in terms of both convenience and safety, since it eliminated the need to keep a smoldering match in proximity to loose gunpowder. It operated using a small wheel much like that on cigarette lighters which was wound up with a key before use and which, when the trigger was pulled, spun against a flint, creating the shower of sparks that ignited the powder in the touch hole. Supposedly invented by Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian Renaissance man, the wheel lock action was an innovation that was not widely adopted. Flintlock The flintlock action was a major innovation in small arms design. The spark used to ignite the gunpowder in the touch hole was supplied by a sharpened piece of flint clamped in the jaws of a "cock" which, when released by the trigger, struck a piece of steel called the "frizzen" to create the necessary sparks. (The spring loaded arm that holds a piece of flint or pyrite is referred to as a cock because of its resemblance to a rooster.) The cock had to be manually reset after each firing, and the flint had to be replaced periodically due to wear from striking the frizzen. (See also flintlock mechanism, snaphance, miquelet) The flintlock was widely used during the 18th and 19th centuries in both muskets and rifles. Percussion cap Percussion caps (caplock mechanisms), coming into wide service in the 19th century, were a dramatic improvement over flintlocks. With the percussion cap mechanism, the small primer charge of gunpowder used in all preceding small arms was replaced by a completely self-contained explosive charge contained in a small brass "cap". The cap was fastened to the touch hole of the gun (extended to form a "nipple") and ignited by the impact of the gun's "hammer". (The hammer is roughly the same as the cock found on flintlocks except that it doesn't clamp onto anything.) In the case of percussion caps the hammer was hollow on the end to fit around the cap in order to keep the cap from fragmenting and injuring the shooter. Once struck, the flame from the cap in turn ignited the main charge of gunpowder, as with the flintlock, but there was no longer any need to charge the touch hole with gunpowder, and even better, the touch hole was no longer exposed to the elements. As a result, the percussion cap mechanism was considerably safer, far more weatherproof, and vastly more reliable (cloth-bound cartridges containing a premeasured charge of gunpowder and a ball had been in regular military service for many years, but the exposed gunpowder in the entry to the touch hole had long been a source of misfires). All muzzleloaders manufactured since the second half of the 19th century use percussion caps except those built as replicas of the flintlock or earlier small arms. Cartridges A major innovation in small arms and light artillery came in the second half of the 19th century when ammunition, previously delivered as separate bullets and powder, was combined in a single metallic (usually brass) cartridge containing a percussion cap, powder, and a bullet in one weatherproof package. The main technical advantage of the brass cartridge case was the effective and reliable sealing of high pressure gasses at the breech, as the gas pressure forces the cartridge case to expand outward, pressing it firmly against the inside of the gun barrel chamber. This prevents the leakage of hot gas which could injure the shooter. The brass cartridge also opened the way for modern repeating arms, by uniting the bullet, gunpowder and primer into one assembly. Before this, a "cartridge" was simply a premeasured quantity of gunpowder together with a ball in a small cloth bag (or rolled paper cylinder), which also acted as wadding for the charge and ball. This early form of cartridge had to be rammed into the muzzleloader's barrel, and either a small charge of gunpowder in the touch hole or an external percussion cap mounted on the touch hole ignited the gunpowder in the cartridge. Cartridges with built-in percussion caps (called "primers") continue to this day to be the standard in firearms. In cartridge-firing firearms, a hammer (or a firing pin struck by the hammer) strikes the cartridge primer, which then ignites the gunpowder within. The primer charge is at the base of the cartridge, either within the rim (a "rimfire" cartridge) or in a small percussion cap embedded in the center of the base (a "centerfire" cartridge). As a rule, centerfire cartridges are more powerful than rimfire cartridges, operating at considerably higher pressures than rimfire cartridges. Centerfire cartridges are also safer, as a dropped rimfire cartridge has the potential to discharge if its rim strikes the ground with sufficient force to ignite the primer. This is practically impossible with most centerfire cartridges. Nearly all contemporary firearms load cartridges directly into their breech. Some additionally or exclusively load from a magazine that holds multiple cartridges. A magazine is usually a box or cylinder that is designed to be reusable and is detachable from the gun. Some magazines, such as that of the M1 Garand rifle and most centerfire hunting rifles, are internal to the firearm, and are loaded by using a clip, which is a device that holds the ammunition by the rim of the case. In most cases, a magazine and a clip are different in that the former's function is to feed ammunition into the firearm's breech, while the latter's is to refill a magazine with ammunition. Repeating, semi-automatic, and automatic firearms The French FAMAS, example of a bullpup rifle. Many small arms are "single shot" firearms: i.e., each time a cartridge is fired, the operator must manually re-cock the firearm and load another cartridge. The classic single-barreled shotgun is a good example. A firearm that can load multiple cartridges as the firearm is re-cocked is considered a "repeating firearm" or simply a "repeater". A lever-action rifle, a pump-action shotgun, and most bolt-action rifles are good examples of repeating firearms. A firearm that automatically re-cocks and reloads the next round with each trigger pull is considered a semi-automatic or autoloading firearm. An automatic (or "fully automatic") firearm is one that automatically re-cocks, reloads, and fires as long as the trigger is depressed. Many modern military firearms have a selective-fire option, which is a mechanical switch that allows the firearm be fired either in the semi-automatic or fully automatic mode. In the current M16A2, M16A4 and M4 carbine variants of the US-made M16, continuous fully automatic fire is not possible, having been replaced by an automatic burst of three cartridges (this conserves ammunition and increases controllability). The first "rapid firing" firearms were usually similar to the 19th century Gatling gun, which would fire cartridges from a magazine as fast as and as long as the operator turned a crank. Eventually, the "rapid" firing mechanism was perfected and miniaturized to the extent that either the recoil of the firearm or the gas pressure from firing could be used to operate it, thus the operator needed only to pull a trigger (which made the firing mechanisms truly "automatic"). Automatic rifles such as the Browning Automatic Rifle were in common use by the military during the early part of the 20th century, and automatic rifles that fired handgun rounds, known as submachine guns, also appeared in this time. Submachine guns were originally about the size of carbines. Because they fire pistol ammunition, they have limited long-range use, but in close combat can be used in fully automatic in a controllable manner due to the lighter recoil of the pistol ammunition. They are also extremely inexpensive and simple to build in time of war, enabling a nation to quickly arm its military. In the latter half of the 20th century, submachine guns were being miniaturized to the point of being only slightly larger than some large handguns. The most widely used submachine gun at the end of the 20th century was the Heckler & Koch MP5. The MP5 is actually designated as a "machine pistol" by Heckler & Koch (MP5 stands for Maschinenpistole 5, or Machine Pistol 5), although some reserve this designation for even smaller submachine guns such as the MAC-10, which are about the size and shape of pistols. Nazi Germany brought the world's attention to what eventually became the class of firearm most widely adopted by the military: the assault rifle (see Sturmgewehr 44). An assault rifle is usually slightly smaller than a battle rifle such as the K98k, but the chief differences defining an assault rifle are select-fire capability and the use of a rifle round of lesser power, known as an intermediate cartridge. This reduces recoil allowing for controllable bursts at short range like a submachine gun, while retaining rifle-like accuracy at medium ranges. Generally, assault rifles have mechanisms that allow the user to select between single shots, fully automatic bursts, or fully automatic fire. Universally, civilian versions of military assault rifles are strictly semiautomatic. Soviet engineer Mikhail Kalashnikov quickly adapted the German concept, using a less-powerful 7.62x39mm cartridge derived from the standard 7.62x54mm Russian battle rifle round, to produce the AK-47, which has become the world's most widely used assault rifle. In United States, the assault rifle design was later in coming; The replacement for the M1 Garand of WWII was another John Garand design chambered for the new 7.62x51mm NATO cartridge; the select-fire M14, which was used by the US military until the 1960s. The significant recoil of the M14 when fired in full automatic mode was seen as a problem as it reduced accuracy, and in the 1960s it was replaced by Eugene Stoner's AR-15, which also marked a switch from powerful .30 caliber cartridges used by the US military up until early in the Vietnam War to the much smaller but far lighter and light recoiling .223-caliber (5.56 mm) intermediate cartridge. The military later designated the AR-15 as the "M16". The civilian version of the M16 continues to be known as the AR-15 and looks exactly like the military version, although to conform to BATFE regulations in the U.S. it lacks the mechanism that permits fully automatic fire. Modern designs call for compact weapons retaining firepower. The bullpup design, by mounting the magazine behind the trigger, unifies the accuracy and firepower of the traditional assault rifle with the compact size of the submachine gun (though submachine guns are still used); examples are the French FAMAS or the British SA80. Recently, smaller but exceedingly penetrative ammunition types have been introduced, as to allow personal defence weapons to penetrate ballistic armour. Such designs are the basis for the FN P90 and Heckler & Koch MP7. Caseless ammunition is another trend, (an example is the German Heckler & Koch G11). The flechette is yet another improvement over traditional ammunition, allowing for extreme penetration abilities and a very flat trajectory. However, it is gained at the cost of stopping power. See also Antique guns Celebratory gunfire Firearm (tool) Militaria Military technology and equipment Gun technology and science Ballistics (terminal) Cartridge Electrothermal-chemical technology Firearm action Gunsmith Telescopic sight Physics Rheological fluid-based mechanism Suppressor Guns and society Open carry Culture Law Politics Safety Concealed carry in the United States List of United States firearms topics Small arms proliferation Gun-related terminology Saturday-night special Small arms Gauge (bore diameter) Types of firearms Pistols Submachine guns Assault rifles Shotguns Sniper rifles Aircraft weapons World War II Weapons of German military aircraft Firearms Infantry weapons Secondary and special-issue infantry weapons United States Armed Forces Individual weapons Crew-served weapons Marine Corps weapons Manufacturers References Sources External links Modern Firearms LearnAboutGuns.com Online encyclopedia of firearms and ammunition of the XX and XXI centuries. 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6,315 | Alcoholics_Anonymous | AA meeting sign Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is a worldwide fellowship of men and women who share a desire to stop drinking alcohol. AA suggests members completely abstain from alcohol, regularly attend meetings with other members, and follow its program to help each other with their common purpose; to help members "stay sober and help other alcoholics achieve sobriety." AA created the twelve-step program used by similar recovery groups like Al-Anon, an auxiliary group for friends and family members of alcoholics; and Narcotics Anonymous, a group for substance abusers who do not identify as alcoholics. Although AA's attrition rates are high, it can be effective as a treatment for alcoholism. History By 1934, American alcoholic Bill Wilson had ruined a promising career in finance because of his constant drunkenness. He was introduced to the idea of a spiritual cure by an old drinking buddy, Ebby Thacher, who had become a member of a Christian movement called the Oxford Group. Wilson was treated at Charles B. Towns hospital in New York by Dr. William Silkworth, who promoted a disease concept of alcoholism. While in the hospital, Wilson underwent what he believed to be a spiritual experience and, convinced of the existence of God, he was able to stop drinking. On a 1935 business trip to Akron, Ohio, Wilson felt the urge to drink again and in an effort to stay sober, he sought another alcoholic to help. Wilson was introduced to Dr. Bob Smith, also a member of the Oxford Group. After some work together, Wilson and Smith co-founded AA (though not yet named as such) with a word of mouth program to help other alcoholics. Smith's last drink on June 10, 1935 is considered by members to be the founding date of AA. By 1937, Wilson and Smith determined that they had helped 40 alcoholics get sober, and two years later, with the about 100 members, Wilson expanded the program by writing a book entitled Alcoholics Anonymous which the fellowship then adopted as its name. The book, informally referred to by members as "The Big Book," described a twelve-step program involving admission of powerlessness over alcohol, acceptance of a benevolent higher power, moral inventory, complete and direct restitution to those harmed, and asking for direction, guidance, and power from God. Essential to this process was the idea that the higher power be "of one's own understanding". In 1941, book sales and membership increased after interviews on American radio and favorable articles in US magazines, particularly by Jack Alexander in The Saturday Evening Post. By 1946, as membership grew, confusion and disputes within groups over practices, finances, and publicity led Wilson to write the guidelines for noncoercive group management , Twelve Points to Assure our Future, that eventually became known as the Twelve Traditions. AA came of age at the 1955 St. Louis convention, in Missouri, when Wilson turned over the stewardship of AA to the General Service Conference. In this era, AA also began its international expansion, and by 2001 the number of members worldwide was estimated at two million. Organization A regional service center for Alcoholics Anonymous. In 2006, 1,867,212 members in 106,202 AA groups were reported worldwide. The Twelve Traditions informally guide how AA groups function, and the Twelve Concepts for World Service guide how AA is structured globally. A member who accepts a service position or an organizing role is a "trusted servant" with terms rotating and limited, typically lasting three months to two years and determined by group vote and/or the nature of the position. Each group is a self-governing entity with AA World Services acting only in an advisory capacity. AA is served entirely by alcoholics, except for seven "nonalcoholic friends of the fellowship" out of twenty-one members of the AA Board of Trustees. AA groups are self-supporting and not charities, and they have no dues or membership fees. Groups rely on voluntary member donations, typically US$1 collected per meeting in America, to pay for expenses like room rental, refreshments, and literature. No one is turned away for lack of funds. AA GSO discourages individuals from making large donations by limiting contributions to US$3,000 per annum. AA GSO Guidelines pdf Beyond the group level, AA may hire outside professionals for services that either require specialized expertise and/or are full time responsibilities. As of 2007 GSO in New York employees 40 or so such workers. AA receives proceeds from books and literature which constitute more than 50% of the income for the General Service Office (GSO), which, unlike individual groups is not self-supporting and maintains a small salaried staff. It also maintains service centers which coordinate activities like printing literature, responding to public inquiries, and organizing conferences. They are funded by local members and responsible to the AA groups they represent. Other International General Service Offices (i.e., Australia, Costa Rica, Russia, etc.) are independent of AA World Services in New York. Program The scope of AA's program is much broader than just changing drinking behavior. AA process encourages the transformation of the alcoholic' character, producing a "personality change sufficient to recover from alcoholism" (Alcoholics Anonymous, Appendix II) while abstaining from alcohol, one day at a time. The personality change is believed to be brought about by means of a spiritual awakening achieved from following the Twelve Steps, This is AA pamphlet helping with duties and service work in AA, Sponsorship-A Vital Stepping Stone to Service & Sobriety and regular AA meeting attendance or contact with AA members. Members are encouraged to find an experienced fellow alcoholic called a sponsor to help them understand and follow the AA program. Some members suggest the sponsor is preferably one that has maintained sobriety for at least a year and is of the same sex as the sponsored person, and who does not impose personal views on the sponsored person. Questions and Answers on Sponsorship pamphlet Following the helper therapy principle, sponsors in AA benefit as much, if not more, from their relationship than do those they sponsor. Helping behaviors correlate with increased abstinence and lower probabilities of binge drinking. AA's program is an inheritor of Counter-Enlightenment philosophy. AA shares the view that acceptance of one's inherent limitations is critical to finding one's proper place among other humans and God. Such ideas are described as "Counter-Enlightenment" because they are at variance with the Enlightenment's ideal that humans have the capacity to make their lives and societies a heaven on earth using their own power and reason. Meetings Anyone, including non-alcoholics, are allowed to attend "open" AA meetings, while "closed" meetings are reserved to those who have a desire to stop drinking. There are also specialized meetings, for example; groups for men or women; groups angled at gay people; and groups for speakers of minority languages, in general, however, no one is excluded from these specific meetings. Most AA meetings begin with socializing. Formats vary between meetings, for example, a beginners' meeting might include a talk by a long-time sober member about his or her personal experience of drinking, coming to AA and what was learned there about sobriety. A group discussion on topics related to alcoholism and the AA program might follow. Suggestions for Leading Beginners Meetings pamphlet In a typical meeting, the chairperson starts by calling the meeting to order and offering a short prayer, meditation, and/or period of silence (practice varies by meeting). Then, a section from the book Alcoholics Anonymous may be read aloud, usually the beginning of Chapter Five, entitled "How It Works". Announcements from the chairperson and group members follow. Many groups celebrate newcomers, visitors, and sobriety anniversaries with rounds of applause. At half time, donations are collected, usually by passing a basket around the room. There is no requirement to make a donation. Depending on the type of meeting, a talk by a speaker relating their personal experience with alcoholism and AA or a discussion session with topics chosen by the chairperson, the speaker, or the attendees follows. Kirkpatrick, Kayla EJ. "Interpreting AA (and other 12-step) Meetings." American Sign Language Interpreting Resources, 10 December 1999. <http://asl_interpreting.tripod.com/situational_studies/kejk1.htm>. 12 March 2008. Sharing at meetings is not required. A hallmark of AA meetings is the "no crosstalk" suggestions, which says that responding to another member's comments is discouraged. During sharing, members may share about their alcoholic drinking and recovery, following the guidelines of "what we were like, what happened and what we are like now", or they may share with something they need to "get off their chest". When an individual chooses to speak, he or she is expected to begin with the statement, “ My name is __________ and I am an alcoholic (or visitor, or friend)””. Kirkpatrick, Kayla EJ. "Interpreting AA (and other 12-step) Meetings." American Sign Language Interpreting Resources, 10 December 1999. <http://asl_interpreting.tripod.com/situational_studies/kejk1.htm>. 12 March 2008. . The meeting is typically ended with a prayer, usually the Serenity Prayer and the Lord's Prayer. The whole group usually forms a circle holding hands and recites these prayers together. Socializing typically follows the close of the meeting, and it is common for members to gather at a nearby café. Other meeting formats also exist where specific AA related topics are discussed in more detail, a common example is a Step Study meeting where one or more of the 12 steps are discussed at length. During AA meetings, some 'in-group' language is used, for example, members will freely use idiomatic and metaphorical phrases such as “Keep it simple”, “Let go and let God”, and “If you turn it over, but don’t let go, you end up upside-down Disease of alcoholism AA regards alcoholism as an illness, [http://www.aa.org/en_is_aa_for_you.cfm?PageID=14 A Newcomer Asks] (AA pamphlet)</ref> The Alcoholic Can Recover (AA pamphlet) and uses the concept to challenge the belief of chronic, compulsive drinkers that they can stay sober by willpower alone. Dr William Silkworth introduced to Wilson and AA the idea that alcoholism is an illness consisting of an obsession to drink alcohol, and an allergy, which triggers a compulsion to continue drinking once the first drink has been taken. Dale Mitchel, Silkworth: The Little Doctor Who Loved Drunks. Hazelden, 2002. (Silkworth's understanding of an allergy in the 1930s differs from that used in modern medicine today.) Alcoholics, he argued, can never safely use alcohol in any form at all, since once forming the habit, they cannot break it. Alcoholics Anonymous The Doctor's Opinion page xxviii. Demographics AA's New York General Service Office regularly surveys AA members in North America. Its 2004 survey of over 7,500 members in Canada and the United States concluded that, in North America, AA members who responded to the survey have these attributes: 89.1% white, 65% male/35% female. Average member sobriety is eight years with 36% sober more than ten years, 14% sober from five to ten years, 24% sober from one to five years, and 26% sober less than one year. Before coming to AA, 64% of members received some type of treatment or counseling, such as medical, psychological, or spiritual. After coming to AA, 65% received outside treatment or counseling, and 84% of those members said that that outside help played an important part in their recovery. The same survey showed that AA received 11% of its membership from court ordered attendance. http://www.alcoholics-anonymous.org/en_pdfs/p-48_04survey.pdf AA 2004 Membership Survey issued by AA World Services' General Service Office - www.aa.org Effectiveness Limitations on research The study of AA tends to polarize observers into believers and non-believers, and discussion of AA often creates controversy rather than objective reflection. A randomized trial of AA is very difficult because members are self-selected, not randomly selected from the population of chronic alcoholics, with the possible exception of those who participate in AA to comply with a court mandate. Two opposing types of self-selection bias are that drinkers may be motivated to stop drinking before they participate in AA, and AA may attract the more severe and difficult cases. Control groups with AA versus non-AA subjects are also difficult because AA is so easily accessible. Studies Many studies have demonstrated an association between AA attendance and increased abstinence or other positive outcomes. J. Morgenstern et al. "Affiliation with Alcoholics Anonymous after treatment: a study of its therapeutic effects and mechanisms of action." (Department of Psychiatry, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, 1997 Oct;65(5):768-7) J. Scott Tonigan PhD. "Benefits of Alcoholics Anonymous Attendance" (University of New Mexico, 2001) pp 67 - 77 (August 1967). "A Controlled Experiment on the Use of Court Probation for Drunk Arrests". American Journal of Psychiatry 124 (2): Abstract. Atkins, R. G. & Hawdon, J. E. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment "Religiosity and participation in mutual-aid support groups for addiction", Vol. 33, Issue 3, Oct. 2007, pp. 321-331 available online at www.sciencedirect.com Other studies have concluded that AA attendance can lead to poorer outcomes than other therapies.<ref>Brandsma, Jeffrey, Phd. , Maultsby , Maxie, Welsh, M.D. Richard, M.S.W. The OutPatient Treatment of Alcoholism Two-Year Outcome of Alcohol Interventions in Swedish University Halls of Residence: A Cluster Randomized Trial of a Brief Skills Training Program, Twelve-Step-Influenced Intervention, and Controls Authors: Ståhlbrandt, Henriettæ1; Johnsson, Kent O.1; Berglund, Mats1 Source: Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research, Volume 31, Number 3, March 2007, pp. 458-466(9) Publisher: Blackwell Publishing http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/acer/2007/00000031/00000003/art00014 A Cochrane Review of eight studies, published between 1967 and 2005, measuring the effectiveness of AA found no significant difference between the results of AA and twelve-step facilitation approaches compared to other treatments. To further determine the effectiveness of AA, the authors suggested more studies comparing treatment outcomes with control groups were necessary. Attrition In a 1989 internal AA report based on an average of five surveys, it was estimated that of those who attended AA meetings for the first time, nearly one third (31.5%) leave the program after one month. By the end of the third month, just over half (52.6%) have left. Of those who remain after three months, about half (55.6%) will remain until the twelfth month. The nature of the survey questions asked do not allow a direct comparison between the twelfth month of the first year and the first month of the second year. Only those in the first year are recorded by month. After the first year, the rate of attrition slows. About 40% of the members sober for less than a year will remain another year, About 80% of those sober less than five years will remain sober and active in the fellowship another year. About 90% of the members sober five years or more will remain sober and active in the fellowship another year, however the survey states that this information does not predict the number that will remain sober, and those who remain sober but not in the fellowship cannot be calculated. These figures have been repeated within a few percentage points using the same calculations since 1974. "Comments On A.A. Triennial Surveys" (PDF, 2 MB), Dec. 1990, Alcoholics Anonymous World Services. Relationship with institutions Prisons In the United Kingdom, Alcoholics Anonymous holds meetings in prisons. AA prison and probation liaisons cooperate with staff and AA volunteers give talks to staff in the legal profession. In the United States AA meetings are held in hundreds of correctional facilities. Corrections Workbook, Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. Grand Central Station, Box 459, New York, NY 10163 The AA General Service Office has published a workbook with detailed recommendations for methods to approach correctional facility officials with the intent of developing an in-prison AA program. In addition, a variety of pamphlets are published by AA specifically for the incarcerated alcoholic Carrying the Message into Correctional Facilities, Where Do I Go From Here?, A.A. in Prison: Inmate to Inmate, A.A. in Correctional Facilities, It Sure Beats Sitting in a Cell Memo to an Inmate Who May be an Alcoholic, A Message to Corrections Administrators. Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. Grand Central Station, Box 459, New York, NY 10163 The AA General Service Office also provides a pamphlet with guidelines for members involved in doing the twelfth step work, that is "carrying the message to those who still suffer." The pamphlet instructs members how to work within correctional facilties. AA Guidelines from GSO, "Cooperating with Court, DWI and Similar Programs. http://alcoholics-anonymous.org/en_pdfs/mg-o5_coopwithcourt.pdf Court rulings Since 1996, courts across the United States, in a number of different cases, have ruled that inmates, parolees, and probationers cannot be ordered to attend AA. Though AA itself was not deemed to be a religion, it was found to contain enough religious components to make such coercion a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment of the constitution. Columbia Law Review March 1997, Vol. 97 No.2 , Honeymar Jr., Michael G. "Alcoholics Anonymous As a Condition of Drunk Driving Probation: When Does It Amount to Establishment of Religion" In September 2007, United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that a parole office can be sued for ordering a parolee to attend Alcoholics Anonymous. American treatment industry Although Alcoholics Anonymous does not endorse and is not allied with any outside facility, since 1949 when Hazelden treatment center was founded by some AA members, alcoholic rehabilitation clinics have frequently incorporated precepts of the AA program into their own treatment programs. N. Roberson, Getting Better:Inside Alcoholics Anonymous (London: Macmillan, 1988), p 220 A reverse influence has also occurred with AA receiving 31% of its membership from treatment center referrals. United Kingdom treatment industry A cross-sectional survey of substance misuse treatment providers in the West Midlands found fewer than ten percent integrated twelve-step methods in their practice and only a third felt their consumers were suited for Alcoholics Anonymous or Narcotics Anonymous membership. Less than half have were likely to recommend self-help groups to their clients. Providers with nursing qualification were more likely to make such referrals than those without. A statistically significant correlation was found between providers self-reported level of spirituality and their likelihood of recommending AA or NA. Criticism Moderation or abstinence AA acknowledges that not all drinkers are alcoholics, but advocates total abstinence for those who are. Dr. William D. Silkworth in the Doctor's Opinion in the Big Book of Alcoholics Anonymous states that for the alcoholic, "the only relief we have to suggest is entire abstinence". However, some critics argue that some AA groups apply the disease model to all problem drinkers, whether or not they are full-blown alcoholics, Stanton Peele The Diseasing of America. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989, http://www.peele.net/lib/diseasing.html and believe that more options should be available to problem drinkers who can manage their drinking with the right treatment. A 2002 U.S. study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) showed that 17.7% of individuals diagnosed as alcohol dependent more than one year prior returned to low-risk drinking. However, this group showed fewer initial symptoms of dependency. Dawson DA, Grant BF, Stinson FS, Chou PS, Huang B, Ruan WJ. 2005. Recovery from DSM-IV alcohol dependence: United States, 2001-2002. : Addiction. Mar;100(3):281-92 A follow-up study, using the same NESARC subjects that were judged to be in remission in 2001-2002, examined the rates of return to problem drinking in 2004-2005. The major conclusion made by the authors of this NIAAA study was "Abstinence represents the most stable form of remission for most recovering alcoholics". Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Grant BF. 2007. Rates and correlates of relapse among individuals in remission from DSM-IV alcohol dependence: a 3-year follow-up. Alcohol Clin Exp Res. 2007 Dec;31(12):2036-45. A long-term (60 year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men concluded that "return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence." Vaillant GE. A 60-year follow-up of alcoholic men. Addiction. 2003 98, 1043-51. PMID: 12873238 Cultural identity One review of AA warned of detrimental iatrogenic effects of twelve-step philosophy, and concluded that AA uses many methods that are also used by cults. However, a further study concluded that AA's program bore little semblance to a religious cult's because the techniques used appeared beneficial. Wright, K (1997) "Shared Ideology in Alcoholics Anonymous: A Grounded Theory Approach". Journal of Health Communication, Volume 2, pp. 83–99 Another study found that an AA program's focus on self-admission of having a problem increases deviant stigma and strips members of their previous cultural identity replacing it with the deviant identity. A survey of group members, however, found they had a bicultural identity and saw AA's program as a compliment to their other national, ethnic, and religious cultures. Other notable criticism AA undertakes no external restriction, screening, or vetting of its members. The A.A. Tradition "Thirteenth-stepping" is a disparaging euphemism used by some AA members to refer to the romantic or sexual involvement of an existing male or female member with a newcomer. To avoid this type of behavior, AA typically suggests that men be sponsored by men, and women be sponsored by women (though in some cases, particularly with members who are homosexual, men may be sponsored by women and vice versa). Questions and Answers on Sponsorship, Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc., page 10. Critics have argued that some AA members rely too heavily on dogmatic slogans and become overly dependent on the group. Arthur H. Cain, "Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure?." Harper's Magazine, February 1963 Although a statement is read during meetings that what is said there should remain confidential, AA members, unlike lawyers or clergy, are not legally bound to maintain confidentiality. Literature Alcoholics Anonymous publishes several books, reports, pamphlets and other media including a periodical known as the AA Grapevine. A Worldcat search for materials authored by Alcoholics Anonymous and more specific divisions of the organization (AA Grapevine, World Services, General Service Conference, World Service Meeting) yields well over 500 results. Two books are used primarily, Alcoholics Anonymous (the "Big Book") and the Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions which explains AA's fundamental principles in depth. See also Addiction recovery groups Alcoholism List of twelve-step groups Recovery model Self-help groups for mental health Substance abuse References External links AA official website | Alcoholics_Anonymous |@lemmatized aa:103 meeting:30 sign:3 alcoholic:51 anonymous:28 worldwide:3 fellowship:6 men:7 woman:5 share:7 desire:2 stop:4 drinking:12 alcohol:12 suggest:5 member:44 completely:1 abstain:2 regularly:2 attend:5 follow:13 program:19 help:12 common:3 purpose:1 stay:3 sober:16 achieve:2 sobriety:6 create:2 twelve:14 step:16 use:14 similar:2 recovery:6 group:36 like:5 al:2 anon:1 auxiliary:1 friend:3 family:1 narcotic:2 substance:4 abuser:1 identify:1 although:3 attrition:3 rate:4 high:3 effective:1 treatment:15 alcoholism:12 history:1 american:6 bill:1 wilson:11 ruin:1 promising:1 career:1 finance:2 constant:1 drunkenness:1 introduce:3 idea:4 spiritual:4 cure:2 old:1 buddy:1 ebby:1 thacher:1 become:3 christian:1 movement:1 call:3 oxford:2 treat:1 charles:1 b:2 town:1 hospital:2 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6,316 | United_Kingdom_general_election,_2001 | 1992 election • MPs1997 election • MPs2001 election • MPs2005 election • MPs The UK general election, 2001 was held on 7 June 2001 and was dubbed "the quiet landslide" by the media. There was little change at all - outside Northern Ireland - with 620 out of 641 seats remaining unchanged. Labour enjoyed its second so-called 'landslide victory' in a row, maintaining its position from the previous election. Tony Blair became the first Labour prime minister to win enough seats to have a full second consecutive term in office. Labour won a majority of 167 overall (previously 179) and 247 over the Conservatives (previously 254). The Conservatives netted a gain of only 1 seat after their crushing defeat of 1997 (gaining a few seats from Labour, but losing to the Liberal Democrats). Conservative leader William Hague resigned immediately, becoming the first Conservative leader since Austen Chamberlain to leave office without becoming Prime Minister. The Liberal Democrats, under Charles Kennedy, made a gain of 6 more seats from their already historical high of 1997. The elections were also marked by voter apathy, with turnout falling to 59%, the lowest since the Coupon Election of 1918. Throughout the election the Labour Party had maintained a significant lead in the opinion polls and the result was deemed to be so certain that some bookmakers paid out for a Labour majority before the election day. The election had been expected in May, to coincide with local elections, but both were postponed because of rural movement restrictions imposed in response to a foot and mouth outbreak. One of the more noted events of a quiet campaign was when a countryside protester Craig Evans threw an egg at Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott in Rhyl; Prescott then punched him and a struggle ensued, in front of television cameras. The 2001 Election also saw the rare election of an independent. Dr. Richard Taylor of Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern (usually now known simply as "Health Concern") unseated a government minister. There was also a high vote for British National Party leader Nick Griffin in Oldham, in the wake of recent race riots in the town. In Northern Ireland, the election was far more dramatic and marked a move by unionists away from support for the Good Friday Agreement, with the moderate unionist Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) losing to the more hardline Democratic Unionist Party (DUP). This polarisation was also seen in the nationalist community, with the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) vote losing out to the hardline republican Sinn Féin. It also saw a tightening of the parties as the small UK Unionist Party lost its only seat. During the election, Sharron Storer, a resident of Birmingham, England, criticised Prime Minister Tony Blair in front of television cameras about conditions in the National Health Service. The widely-televised incident happened on 16 May during a campaign visit by Blair to the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Birmingham. Sharron Storer's partner, Keith Sedgewick, a cancer patient with non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and therefore highly susceptible to infection, was being treated at the time in the bone marrow unit, but no bed could be found for him and he was transferred to the casualty unit for his first 24 hours. BBC story from 16 May 2001 BBC story from 17 May 2001 Results |} Total votes cast: 26,368,204. All parties with more than 500 votes shown. The seat gains reflect changes on the 1997 general election result. Two seats had changed hands in by-elections in the intervening period. These were as follows: Romsey from Conservative to Liberal Democrats. This seat stayed Liberal Democrat in 2001. South Antrim from Ulster Unionists to Democratic Unionists. This seat reverted to the Ulster Unionists in 2001. The results of the election give a Gallagher index of dis-proportionality of 17.74. Votes summary Seats summary See also MPs elected in the United Kingdom general election, 2001 2001 UK foot and mouth crisis Manifestos Labour (Ambitions for Britain) Conservative (Time for Common Sense) Liberal Democrat (Freedom, Justice, Honesty) UK Independence Party References General Election results, 7 June 2001 (Research Party 01/54), House of Commons Library External links BBC News: Vote 2001 - in depth coverage. Catalogue of 2001 general election ephemera at the Archives Division of the London School of Economics. | United_Kingdom_general_election,_2001 |@lemmatized election:22 mps:2 uk:4 general:5 hold:1 june:2 dub:1 quiet:2 landslide:2 medium:1 little:1 change:3 outside:1 northern:2 ireland:2 seat:11 remain:1 unchanged:1 labour:8 enjoy:1 second:2 call:1 victory:1 row:1 maintain:2 position:1 previous:1 tony:2 blair:3 become:3 first:3 prime:4 minister:5 win:2 enough:1 full:1 consecutive:1 term:1 office:2 majority:2 overall:1 previously:2 conservative:6 net:1 gain:4 crushing:1 defeat:1 lose:4 liberal:5 democrat:5 leader:3 william:1 hague:1 resign:1 immediately:1 since:2 austen:1 chamberlain:1 leave:1 without:1 charles:1 kennedy:1 make:1 already:1 historical:1 high:2 also:6 mark:2 voter:1 apathy:1 turnout:1 fall:1 low:1 coupon:1 throughout:1 party:10 significant:1 lead:1 opinion:1 poll:1 result:5 deem:1 certain:1 bookmaker:1 pay:1 day:1 expect:1 may:4 coincide:1 local:1 postpone:1 rural:1 movement:1 restriction:1 impose:1 response:1 foot:2 mouth:2 outbreak:1 one:1 noted:1 event:1 campaign:2 countryside:1 protester:1 craig:1 evans:1 throw:1 egg:1 deputy:1 john:1 prescott:2 rhyl:1 punch:1 struggle:1 ensue:1 front:2 television:2 camera:2 saw:2 rare:1 independent:2 dr:1 richard:1 taylor:1 kidderminster:1 hospital:2 health:3 concern:2 usually:1 know:1 simply:1 unseat:1 government:1 vote:6 british:1 national:2 nick:1 griffin:1 oldham:1 wake:1 recent:1 race:1 riot:1 town:1 far:1 dramatic:1 move:1 unionist:8 away:1 support:1 good:1 friday:1 agreement:1 moderate:1 ulster:3 uup:1 hardline:2 democratic:3 dup:1 polarisation:1 see:2 nationalist:1 community:1 social:1 sdlp:1 republican:1 sinn:1 féin:1 tightening:1 small:1 sharron:2 storer:2 resident:1 birmingham:2 england:1 criticise:1 condition:1 service:1 widely:1 televise:1 incident:1 happen:1 visit:1 queen:1 elizabeth:1 partner:1 keith:1 sedgewick:1 cancer:1 patient:1 non:1 hodgkin:1 lymphoma:1 therefore:1 highly:1 susceptible:1 infection:1 treat:1 time:2 bone:1 marrow:1 unit:2 bed:1 could:1 find:1 transfer:1 casualty:1 hour:1 bbc:3 story:2 total:1 cast:1 show:1 reflect:1 two:1 hand:1 intervening:1 period:1 follow:1 romsey:1 stay:1 south:1 antrim:1 revert:1 give:1 gallagher:1 index:1 dis:1 proportionality:1 summary:2 elect:1 united:1 kingdom:1 crisis:1 manifesto:1 ambition:1 britain:1 common:2 sense:1 freedom:1 justice:1 honesty:1 independence:1 reference:1 research:1 house:1 library:1 external:1 link:1 news:1 depth:1 coverage:1 catalogue:1 ephemera:1 archive:1 division:1 london:1 school:1 economics:1 |@bigram landslide_victory:1 tony_blair:2 prime_minister:4 crushing_defeat:1 liberal_democrat:5 opinion_poll:1 nick_griffin:1 ulster_unionist:3 sinn_féin:1 queen_elizabeth:1 hodgkin_lymphoma:1 bone_marrow:1 external_link:1 bbc_news:1 |
6,317 | Adenosine_triphosphate | Adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide, and plays an important role in cell biology as a coenzyme that is the "molecular unit of currency" of intracellular energy transfer. In this role, ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism. It is produced as an energy source during the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration and consumed by many enzymes and a multitude of cellular processes including biosynthetic reactions, motility and cell division. ATP is made from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) or adenosine monophosphate (AMP), and its use in metabolism converts it back into these precursors. ATP is therefore continuously recycled in organisms, with the human body turning over its own weight in ATP each day. In signal transduction pathways, ATP is used as a substrate by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids, as well as by adenylate cyclase, which uses ATP to produce the second messenger molecule cyclic AMP. The ratio between ATP and AMP is used as a way for a cell to sense how much energy is available and control the metabolic pathways that produce and consume ATP. Apart from its roles in energy metabolism and signaling, ATP is also incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the processes of DNA replication and transcription. The structure of this molecule consists of a purine base (adenine) attached to the 1' carbon atom of a pentose sugar (ribose). Three phosphate groups are attached at the 5' carbon atom of the pentose sugar. It is the addition and removal of these phosphate groups that inter-convert ATP, ADP and AMP. When ATP is used in DNA synthesis, the ribose sugar is first converted to deoxyribose by ribonucleotide reductase. ATP was discovered in 1929 by Karl Lohmann, and was proposed to be the main energy-transfer molecule in the cell by Fritz Albert Lipmann in 1941. Physical and chemical properties ATP consists of adenosine — composed of an adenine ring and a ribose sugar — and three phosphate groups (triphosphate). The phosphoryl groups, starting with the group closest to the ribose, are referred to as the alpha (α), beta (β), and gamma (γ) phosphates. ATP is highly soluble in water and is quite stable in solutions between pH 6.8–7.4, but is rapidly hydrolysed at extreme pH. Consequently, ATP is best stored as an anhydrous salt. ATP is an unstable molecule in unbuffered water, which hydrolyses to ADP and phosphate. This is because the strength of the bonds between the phosphate residues in ATP are less than the strength of the "hydration" bonds between its products (ADP + phosphate), and water. Thus, if ATP and ADP are in chemical equilibrium in water, almost all of the ATP will eventually be converted to ADP. A system that is far from equilibrium contains Gibbs free energy, and is capable of doing work. Living cells maintain the ratio of ATP to ADP at a point ten orders of magnitude from equilibrium, with ATP concentrations a thousandfold higher than the concentration of ADP. This displacement from equilibrium means that the hydrolysis of ATP in the cell releases a great amount of energy. ATP is commonly referred to as a "high energy molecule". Such characterization, however, is misleading. As with any chemical reaction that has reached equilibration, a mixture of ATP and ADP that has reached stable equilibrium in water will result in no further net hydrolysis of ATP. A better analogy is that ATP and water is a mixture of potential reactants like fuel and oxidizer; both are required for energy release to take place. Similarly, ATP does not contain "high-energy bonds". There is nothing special about the chemical bonds, including the phosphate bonds, in ATP. As with all chemical bonds, energy is required to break the bonds in ATP and energy is not released from breakage of these bonds. The bond-breaking in ATP requires initial energy input as does bond-breaking in all chemical reactions, but in the hydrolysis of ATP this input is more than re-paid with the energy of formation of "hydration" bonds between the products (ADP + phosphate) and water. In other words, the hydration process for the phosphate products results in a release of energy that exceeds the amount of energy for breaking the phosphate bonds in ATP, hence resulting in a gain in a net energy release from these two reaction steps. Any unstable system of potentially reactive molecules could potentially serve as a way of storing free energy, if the cell maintained their concentration far from the equilibrium point of the reaction.. However, as is the case with most polymeric biomolecules, the breakdown of RNA, DNA, and ATP into simpler monomers is driven by both energy-release and entropy-increase considerations, in both standard concentrations, and also those concentrations encountered within the cell. The standard amount of energy released from hydrolysis of ATP can be calculated from the changes in energy under non-natural (standard) conditions, then correcting to biological concentrations. The net change in heat energy (enthalpy) at standard temperature and pressure of the decomposition of ATP into hydrated ADP and hydrated inorganic phosphate is −20.5 kJ/mol, with a change in free energy of 3.4 kJ/mol. The energy released by cleaving either a phosphate (Pi) or pyrophosphate (PPi) unit from ATP at standard state of 1 M are: ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi ΔG˚ = −30.5 kJ/mol (−7.3 kcal/mol) ATP + H2O → AMP + PPi ΔG˚ = −45.6 kJ/mol (−10.9 kcal/mol) These values can be used to calculate the change in energy under physiological conditions and the cellular ATP/ADP ratio. The values given for the Gibbs free energy for this reaction are dependent on a number of factors, including overall ionic strength and the presence of alkaline earth metal ions such as Mg2+ and Ca2+. Under typical cellular conditions, ΔG is approximately −57 kJ/mol (−14 kcal/mol). Ionization in biological systems ATP has multiple ionizable groups with different acid dissociation constants. In neutral solution, ATP is ionized and exists mostly as ATP4−, with a small proportion of ATP3−. As ATP has several negatively-charged groups in neutral solution, it can chelate metals with very high affinity. The binding constant for various metal ions are (given as per mole) as Mg2+ (9 554), Na+ (13), Ca2+ (3 722), K+ (8), Sr2+ (1 381) and Li+ (25). Due to the strength of these interactions, ATP exists in the cell mostly in a complex with Mg2+. Biosynthesis The ATP concentration inside the cell is typically 1–10 mM. ATP can be produced by redox reactions using simple and complex sugars (carbohydrates) or lipids as an energy source. For ATP to be synthesized from complex fuels, they first need to be broken down into their basic components. Carbohydrates are hydrolysed into simple sugars, such as glucose and fructose. Fats (triglycerides) are metabolised to give fatty acids and glycerol. The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide is known as cellular respiration and can produce about 30 molecules of ATP from a single molecule of glucose. ATP can be produced by a number of distinct cellular processes; the three main pathways used to generate energy in eukaryotic organisms are glycolysis and the citric acid cycle/oxidative phosphorylation, both components of cellular respiration; and beta-oxidation. The majority of this ATP production by a non-photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote takes place in the mitochondria, which can make up nearly 25% of the total volume of a typical cell. Glycolysis In glycolysis, glucose and glycerol are metabolized to pyruvate via the glycolytic pathway. In most organisms, this process occurs in the cytosol, but in some protozoa such as the kinetoplastids, this is carried out in a specialized organelle called the glycosome. Glycolysis generates a net two molecules of ATP through substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by two enzymes: PGK and pyruvate kinase. Two molecules of NADH are also produced, which can be oxidized via the electron transport chain and result in the generation of additional ATP by ATP synthase. The pyruvate generated as an end-product of glycolysis is a substrate for the Krebs Cycle. Glucose In the mitochondrion, pyruvate is oxidized by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex to acetyl CoA, which is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide by the citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs Cycle). Every "turn" of the citric acid cycle produces two molecules of carbon dioxide, one molecule of the ATP equivalent guanosine triphosphate (GTP) through substrate-level phosphorylation catalyzed by succinyl CoA synthetase, three molecules of the reduced coenzyme NADH, and one molecule of the reduced coenzyme FADH2. Both of these latter molecules are recycled to their oxidized states (NAD+ and FAD, respectively) via the electron transport chain, which generates additional ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. The oxidation of an NADH molecule results in the synthesis of between 2-3 ATP molecules, and the oxidation of one FADH2 yields between 1-2 ATP molecules. The majority of cellular ATP is generated by this process. Although the citric acid cycle itself does not involve molecular oxygen, it is an obligately aerobic process because O2 is needed to recycle the reduced NADH and FADH2 to their oxidized states. In the absence of oxygen the citric acid cycle will cease to function due to the lack of available NAD+ and FAD. The generation of ATP by the mitochondrion from cytosolic NADH relies on the malate-aspartate shuttle (and to a lesser extent, the glycerol-phosphate shuttle) because the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH and NAD+. Instead of transferring the generated NADH, a malate dehydrogenase enzyme converts oxaloacetate to malate, which is translocated to the mitochondrial matrix. Another malate dehydrogenase-catalyzed reaction occurs in the opposite direction, producing oxaloacetate and NADH from the newly transported malate and the mitochondrion's interior store of NAD+. A transaminase converts the oxaloacetate to aspartate for transport back across the membrane and into the intermembrane space. In oxidative phosphorylation, the passage of electrons from NADH and FADH2 through the electron transport chain powers the pumping of protons out of the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space. This creates a proton motive force that is the net effect of a pH gradient and an electric potential gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Flow of protons down this potential gradient — that is, from the intermembrane space to the matrix — provides the driving force for ATP synthesis by ATP synthase. This enzyme contains a rotor subunit that physically rotates relative to the static portions of the protein during ATP synthesis. Most of the ATP synthesized in the mitochondria will be used for cellular processes in the cytosol; thus it must be exported from its site of synthesis in the mitochondrial matrix. The inner membrane contains an antiporter, the ADP/ATP translocase, which is an integral membrane protein used to exchange newly-synthesized ATP in the matrix for ADP in the intermembrane space. This translocase is driven by the membrane potential, as it results in the movement of about 4 negative charges out of the mitochondrial membrane in exchange for 3 negative charges moved inside. However, it is also necessary to transport phosphate into the mitochondrion; the phosphate carrier moves a proton in with each phosphate, partially dissipating the proton gradient. Beta oxidation Fatty acids can also be broken down to acetyl-CoA by beta-oxidation. Each round of this cycle reduces the length of the acyl chain by two carbon atoms and produces one NADH and one FADH2 molecule, which are used to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. Because NADH and FADH2 are energy-rich molecules, dozens of ATP molecules can be generated by the beta-oxidation of a single long acyl chain. The high energy yield of this process and the compact storage of fat explain why it is the most dense source of dietary calories. Anaerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration or fermentation entails the generation of energy via the process of oxidation in the absence of O2 as an electron acceptor. In most eukaryotes, glucose is used as both an energy store and an electron donor. The equation for the oxidation of glucose to lactic acid is: C6H12O6 2CH3CH(OH)COOH + 2 ATP In prokaryotes, multiple electron acceptors can be used in anaerobic respiration. These include nitrate, sulfate or carbon dioxide. These processes lead to the ecologically-important processes of denitrification, sulfate reduction and acetogenesis, respectively. ATP replenishment by nucleoside diphosphate kinases ATP can also be synthesized through several so-called "replenishment" reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of nucleoside diphosphate kinases (NDKs), which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high-energy phosphate donor, and the ATP:guanido-phosphotransferase family, ATP production during photosynthesis In plants, ATP is synthesized in thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in a process called photophosphorylation. Here, light energy is used to pump protons across the chloroplast membrane. This produces a proton-motive force and this drives the ATP synthase, exactly as in oxidative phosphorylation. Some of the ATP produced in the chloroplasts is consumed in the Calvin cycle, which produces triose sugars. ATP recycling The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1 mole. The majority of ATP is not usually synthesised de novo, but is generated from ADP by the aforementioned processes. Thus, at any given time, the total amount of ATP + ADP remains fairly constant. The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 100 to 150 moles of ATP daily which is around 50 to 75 kg. Typically, a human will use up their body weight of ATP over the course of the day. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 1000 to 1500 times during a single day (100 / 0.1 = 1000). ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption closely follows its synthesis. Regulation of biosynthesis ATP production in an aerobic eukaryotic cell is tightly regulated by allosteric mechanisms, by feedback effects, and by the substrate concentration dependence of individual enzymes within the glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation pathways. Key control points occur in enzymatic reactions that are so energetically favorable that they are effectively irreversible under physiological conditions. In glycolysis, hexokinase is directly inhibited by its product, glucose-6-phosphate, and pyruvate kinase is inhibited by ATP itself. The main control point for the glycolytic pathway is phosphofructokinase (PFK), which is allosterically inhibited by high concentrations of ATP and activated by high concentrations of AMP. The inhibition of PFK by ATP is unusual, since ATP is also a substrate in the reaction catalyzed by PFK; the biologically active form of the enzyme is a tetramer that exists in two possible conformations, only one of which binds the second substrate fructose-6-phosphate (F6P). The protein has two binding sites for ATP - the active site is accessible in either protein conformation, but ATP binding to the inhibitor site stabilizes the conformation that binds F6P poorly. A number of other small molecules can compensate for the ATP-induced shift in equilibrium conformation and reactivate PFK, including cyclic AMP, ammonium ions, inorganic phosphate, and fructose 1,6 and 2,6 biphosphate. The citric acid cycle is regulated mainly by the availability of key substrates, particularly the ratio of NAD+ to NADH and the concentrations of calcium, inorganic phosphate, ATP, ADP, and AMP. Citrate - the molecule that gives its name to the cycle - is a feedback inhibitor of citrate synthase and also inhibits PFK, providing a direct link between the regulation of the citric acid cycle and glycolysis. In oxidative phosphorylation, the key control point is the reaction catalyzed by cytochrome c oxidase, which is regulated by the availability of its substrate—the reduced form of cytochrome c. The amount of reduced cytochrome c available is directly related to the amounts of other substrates: which directly implies this equation: Thus, a high ratio of [NADH] to [NAD+] or a low ratio of [ADP] [Pi] to [ATP] imply a high amount of reduced cytochrome c and a high level of cytochrome c oxidase activity. An additional level of regulation is introduced by the transport rates of ATP and NADH between the mitochondrial matrix and the cytoplasm. Functions in cells ATP is generated in the cell by energy-consuming processes and is broken down by energy-releasing processes. In this way ATP transfers energy between spatially-separate metabolic reactions. ATP is the main energy source for the majority of cellular functions. This includes the synthesis of macromolecules, including DNA, RNA, and proteins. ATP also plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules across cell membranes, e.g. exocytosis and endocytosis. In the synthesis of the nucleic acid RNA, ATP is one of the four nucleotides incorporated directly into RNA molecules by RNA polymerases. The energy driving this polymerization comes from cleaving off a pyrophosphate (two phosphate groups). The process is similar in DNA biosynthesis, except that ATP is reduced to the deoxyribonucleotide dATP, before incorporation into DNA. ATP is critically involved in maintaining cell structure by facilitating assembly and disassembly of elements of the cytoskeleton. In a related process, ATP is required for the shortening of actin and myosin filament crossbridges required for muscle contraction. This latter process is one of the main energy requirements of animals and is essential for locomotion and respiration. Cell signalling Extracellular signalling ATP is also a signalling molecule. ATP, ADP, or adenosine are recognised by purinergic receptors. In humans, this signalling role is important in both the central and peripheral nervous system. Activity-dependent release of ATP from synapses, axons and glia activates purinergic membrane receptors known as P2. The P2Y receptors are metabotropic, i.e. G protein-coupled and modulate mainly intracellular calcium and sometimes cyclic AMP levels. Though named between P2Y1 and P2Y15, only nine members of the P2Y family have been cloned, and some are only related through weak homology and several (P2Y5, P2Y7, P2Y9, P2Y10) do not function as receptors that raise cytosolic calcium. The P2X ionotropic receptor subgroup comprises seven members (P2X1–P2X7) which are ligand-gated Ca2+-permeable ion channels that open when bound to an extracellular purine nucleotide. In contrast to P2 receptors (agonist order ATP > ADP > AMP > ADO), purinergic nucleotides like ATP are not strong agonists of P1 receptors which are strongly activated by adenosine and other nucleosides (ADO > AMP > ADP > ATP). P1 receptors have A1, A2a, A2b, and A3 subtypes ("A" as a remnant of old nomenclature of adenosine receptor), all of which are G protein-coupled receptors, A1 and A3 being coupled to Gi, and A2a and A2b being coupled to Gs. Intracellular signalling ATP is critical in signal transduction processes. It is used by kinases as the source of phosphate groups in their phosphate transfer reactions. Kinase activity on substrates such as proteins or membrane lipids are a common form of signal transduction. Phosphorylation of a protein by a kinase can activate this cascade such as the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade. ATP is also used by adenylate cyclase and is transformed to the second messenger molecule cyclic AMP, which is involved in triggering calcium signals by the release of calcium from intracellular stores. This form of signal transduction is particularly important in brain function, although it is involved in the regulation of a multitude of other cellular processes. Deoxyribonucleotide synthesis In all known organisms, the deoxyribonucleotides that make up DNA are synthesized by the action of ribonucleotide reductase (RNR) enzymes on their corresponding ribonucleotides. This enzyme reduces the 2' hydroxyl group on the ribose sugar to deoxyribose, forming a deoxyribonucleotide (denoted dATP). All ribonucleotide reductase enzymes use a common sulfhydryl radical mechanism reliant on reactive cysteine residues that oxidize to form disulfide bonds in the course of the reaction. RNR enzymes are recycled by reaction with thioredoxin or glutaredoxin. The regulation of RNR and related enzymes maintains a balance of dNTPs relative to each other and relative to NTPs in the cell. Very low dNTP concentration inhibits DNA synthesis and DNA repair and is lethal to the cell, while an abnormal ratio of dNTPs is mutagenic due to the increased likelihood of the DNA polymerase incorporating the wrong dNTP during DNA synthesis. Regulation of or differential specificity of RNR has been proposed as a mechanism for alterations in the relative sizes of intracellular dNTP pools under cellular stress such as hypoxia. Binding to proteins An example of the Rossmann fold, a structural domain of a decarboxylase enzyme from the bacterium Staphylococcus epidermidis (PDB ID 1G5Q) with a bound flavin mononucleotide cofactor. Some proteins that bind ATP do so in a characteristic protein fold known as the Rossmann fold, which is a general nucleotide-binding structural domain that can also bind the cofactor NAD. The most common ATP-binding proteins, known as kinases, share a small number of common folds; the protein kinases, the largest kinase superfamily, all share common structural features specialized for ATP binding and phosphate transfer. ATP in complexes with proteins generally requires the presence of a divalent cation, almost always magnesium, which binds to the ATP phosphate groups. The presence of magnesium greatly decreases the dissociation constant of ATP from its protein binding partner without affecting the ability of the enzyme to catalyze its reaction once the ATP has bound. The presence of magnesium ions can serve as a mechanism for kinase regulation. ATP analogues Biochemistry laboratories often use in vitro studies to explore ATP-dependent molecular processes. Enzyme inhibitors of ATP-dependent enzymes such as kinases are needed to examine the binding sites and transition states involved in ATP-dependent reactions. ATP analogs are also used in X-ray crystallography to determine a protein structure in complex with ATP, often together with other substrates. Most useful ATP analogs cannot be hydrolyzed as ATP would be; instead they trap the enzyme in a structure closely related to the ATP-bound state. Adenosine 5'-(gamma-thiotriphosphate) is an extremely common ATP analog in which one of the gamma-phosphate oxygens is replaced by a sulfur atom; this molecule is hydrolyzed at a dramatically slower rate than ATP itself and functions as an inhibitor of ATP-dependent processes. In crystallographic studies, hydrolysis transition states are modeled by the bound vanadate ion. However, caution is warranted in interpreting the results of experiments using ATP analogs, since some enzymes can hydrolyze them at appreciable rates at high concentration. See also Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) Adenosine monophosphate (AMP) Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) ATPases ATP hydrolysis Citric acid cycle (also called the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle) Phosphagen Nucleotide exchange factor Mitochondria Photophosphorylation References External links CliffNotes - Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) PubChem entry for Adenosine Triphosphate KEGG entry for Adenosine Triphosphate | Adenosine_triphosphate |@lemmatized adenosine:14 triphosphate:6 atp:132 multifunctional:1 nucleotide:6 play:2 important:4 role:5 cell:21 biology:1 coenzyme:3 molecular:3 unit:2 currency:1 intracellular:5 energy:42 transfer:6 transport:9 chemical:7 within:3 metabolism:3 produce:13 source:5 process:25 photosynthesis:3 cellular:12 respiration:7 consume:3 many:1 enzyme:17 multitude:2 include:7 biosynthetic:1 reaction:19 motility:1 division:1 make:3 diphosphate:4 adp:23 monophosphate:3 amp:13 use:23 convert:6 back:2 precursor:1 therefore:1 continuously:1 recycle:5 organism:4 human:5 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6,318 | European_Convention_on_Human_Rights | The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (also called the "European Convention on Human Rights" and "ECHR"), was adopted under the auspices of the Council of Europe The Council of Europe should not be confused with the Council of the European Union or the European Council. The European Union is not a party to the Convention and has no role in the administration of the European Court of Human Rights. in 1950 to protect human rights and fundamental freedoms in Europe. All Council of Europe member states are party to the Convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity. Resolution 1031 (1994) on the honouring of commitments entered into by member states when joining the Council of Europe The Convention established the European Court of Human Rights. Any person who feels his or her rights have been violated under the Convention by a state party can take a case to the Court. The decisions of the Court are not automatically legally binding, but the Court does have the power to award damages. The establishment of a Court to protect individuals from human rights violations is an innovative feature for an international convention on human rights, as it gives the individual an active role on the international arena (traditionally, only states are considered actors in international law). The European Convention is still the only international human rights agreement providing such a high degree of individual protection. State parties can also take cases against other state parties to the Court, although this power is rarely used. The Convention has several protocols. For example, Protocol 6 prohibits the death penalty except in time of war. The protocols accepted vary from State Party to State Party, though it is understood that state parties should be party to as many protocols as possible. History The Convention was drafted by the Council of Europe after World War II. Sir David Maxwell-Fyfe was the Chair of the Council's legal and administrative division from 1949 to 1952, and oversaw the drafting of Convention. It was designed to incorporate a traditional civil liberties approach to securing "effective political democracy", from the strongest traditions in the United Kingdom, France and other member states of Europe. The Convention was opened for signature on 4 November 1950 in Rome. It was ratified and entered into force on 3 September 1953. It is overseen by the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, and the Council of Europe. Until recently, the Convention was also overseen by a European Commission on Human Rights. Drafting The Convention is drafted in broad terms, in a similar (albeit more modern) manner to the English Bill of Rights, the American Bill of Rights, the French Declaration of the Rights of Man or the first part of the German Basic law. Statements of principle are, from a legal point of view, not determinative and require extensive "interpretation" by courts to bring out meaning in particular factual situations. Convention articles As amended by Protocol 11, the Convention consists of three parts. The main rights and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18. Section II (Articles 19 to 51) sets up the Court and its rules of operation. Section III contains various concluding provisions. Before the entry into force of Protocol 11, Section II (Article 19) set up the Commission and the Court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Articles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the Commission and the Court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions. Many of the Articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs: the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) - the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) - which excepts certain uses of force leading to death). Article 1 - respecting rights Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other Articles of the Convention "within their jurisdiction". In exceptional cases, "jurisdiction" may not be confined to a Contracting State's own national territory; the obligation to secure Convention rights then also extends to foreign territory, such as occupied land in which the State exercises effective control. Article 2 - life Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life. The first paragraph of the article contains an exception for the lawful executions, while the second paragraph provides that death resulting from defending one self or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, or suppressing riots or insurrections, will not contravene the Article when the use of force involved is "no more than absolutely necessary". This right does also not derogate under article 15 of the convention during peacetime. The exemption for the case of lawful executions is further restricted by Protocols 6 and 13 (see below), for those parties who are also parties to those protocols. The European Court of Human Rights did not rule upon the right to life until 1995, when in McCann v. United Kingdom (1995) 21 EHRR 97 it ruled that the exception contained in the second paragraph do not constitute situations when it is permitted to kill, but situations where it is permitted to use force which might result in the deprivation of life. (1995) 21 EHRR 97 at para. 148 The Court has ruled that states have three main duties under Article 2: a duty to refrain from unlawful killing, a duty to investigate suspicious deaths and, in certain circumstances, a positive duty to prevent foreseeable loss of life. Jacobs & White, p. 56 Article 3 - torture Article 3 prohibits torture, and "inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment". There are no exceptions or limitations on this right. This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention. The Court have emphasised the fundamental nature of Article 3 in holding that the prohibition is made in "absolute terms ... irrespective of a victim's conduct." Chahal v. United Kingdom (1997) 23 EHRR 413. The Court has also held that states cannot deport or extradite individuals who might be subjected to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the recipient state. Chahal v. United Kingdom (1997) 23 EHRR 413; Soering v. United Kingdom (1989) 11 EHRR 439. Initially the Court took a restrictive view on what consisted of torture, preferring to find that states had inflicted inhuman and degrading treatment. Thus the court held that practices such as sleep deprivation, subjecting individual to intense noise and requiring them to stand against a wall with their limbs outstretched for extended periods of time, did not constitute torture. Ireland v. United Kingdom (1979-80) 2 EHRR 25. In fact the Court only found a state guilty of torture in 1996 in the case of a detainee who was suspended by his arms whilst his hands were tied behind his back. Aksoy v. Turkey (1997) 23 EHRR 553. The process was referred to by the Court as "Palestinian hanging" but more commonly known as Strappado. Since then the Court has appeared to be more open to finding states guilty of torture and has even ruled that since the Convention is a "living instrument", treatment which it had previously characterised as inhuman or degrading treatment might in future be regarded as torture. Selmouni v. France (2000) 29 EHRR 403 at para. 101. Article 4 - servitude Article 4 prohibits slavery, servitude and forced labour but exempts labour: done as a normal part of imprisonment, in the form of compulsory military service or work done as an alternative by conscientious objectors, required to be done during a state of emergency, and considered to be a part of a person's normal "civic obligations." Article 5 - liberty and security Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. Liberty and security of the person are taken as a "compound" concept - security of the person has not been subject to separate interpretation by the Court. Article 5 provides the right to liberty, subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence. The article also provides the right to be informed in a language one understands of the reasons for the arrest and any charge against them, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of one's arrest or detention and to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article. Steel v. United Kingdom (1998) 28 EHRR 603 Article 6 - fair trial Article 6 provides a detailed right to a fair trial, including the right to a public hearing before an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time, the presumption of innocence, and other minimum rights for those charged with a criminal offence (adequate time and facilities to prepare their defence, access to legal representation, right to examine witnesses against them or have them examined, right to the free assistance of an interpreter). The majority of Convention violations that the Court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the "reasonable time" requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly in Italy and France. Under the "independent tribunal" requirement, the Court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6. Another significant set of violations concerns the "confrontation clause" of Article 6 (i.e. the right to examine witnesses or have them examined). In this respect, problems of compliance with Article 6 may arise when national laws allow the use in evidence of the testimonies of absent, anonymous and vulnerable witnesses. Article 7 - retrospectivity Prohibits the retrospective criminalisation of acts and omissions. No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its commission. The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under their domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited by international law. The Article also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed. Article 7 incorporates the legal principle nullum crimen, nulla poena sine lege into the convention. Article 8 - privacy Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's "private and family life, his home and his correspondence", subject to certain restrictions that are "in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society". This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the Court has given the protection for "private and family life" that this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of the right to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprises positive obligations: whereas classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a State from interfering with rights, and thus not to do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the State to become active, and to do something (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced father to his child). Article 9 - conscience and religion Article 9 provides a right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This includes the freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are "in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society" Article 10 - expression Article 10 provides the right to freedom of expression, subject to certain restrictions that are "in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society". This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart information and ideas. Lingens v Austria (1986) 8 EHRR 407 The Observer and The Guardian v United Kingdom (1991) 14 EHRR 153, the "Spycatcher" case. Bowman v United Kingdom (1998) 26 EHRR 1 Communist Party v Turkey (1998) 26 EHRR 1211 Appleby v United Kingdom (2003) 37 EHRR 38 Article 11 - association Article 11 protects the right to freedom of assembly and association, including the right to form trade unions, subject to certain restrictions that are "in accordance with law" and "necessary in a democratic society". Vogt v Germany Yazar, Karatas, Aksoy and Hep v Turkey (2003) 36 EHRR 59 Article 12 - marriage Article 12 provides a right for men and women of marriageable age to marry and establish a family. Despite a number of invitations, the Court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article to same-sex marriage. The Court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to different-sex marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area. Prohibiting a transsexual person from marrying somebody whose sex is different from that person's affirmed gender is a breach of Article 12. (Goodwin v. United Kingdom; I. v. United Kingdom.) This 2002 holding represented a reversal of the Court's previous opinion (Rees v. United Kingdom). It did not, however, alter the understanding that Article 12 protects only different-sex couples. The United Kingdom Gender Recognition Act now requires married couples, one of whom is a transsexual person, to annul their marriage before the trans partner can be granted a Gender Recognition Certificate Image of a Gender Recognition Certificate . Although this provision is apparently in breach of the article the Court has thus far found the UK Government to be within its margin of appreciation Parry v UK (2006) The implication of the GRA on marriage and the current UK Government view. . Article 13 - effective remedy Article 13 provides for the right for an effective remedy before national authorities for violations of rights under the Convention. The inability to obtain a remedy before a national court for an infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the Convention. Article 14 - discrimination Article 14 contains a prohibition of discrimination. This prohibition is broad in some ways, and narrow in others. On the one hand, the article protects against discrimination based on any of a wide range of grounds. The article provides a list of such grounds, including sex, race, colour, language, religion and several other criteria, and most significantly providing that this list is non-exhaustive. On the other hand, the article's scope is limited only to discrimination with respect to rights under the Convention. Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the Convention (e.g. discrimination based on sex - Article 14 - in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression - Article 10). Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the Convention, so long as it is provided for in national law. Article 15 - derogations Article 15 allows contracting states to derogate from the rights guaranteed by the Convention in time of "war or other public emergency threatening the life of the nation". Derogation from the rights in the Convention, however, is subject to a number of qualifying criteria, these are that: the state of affairs relied on is temporary and exceptional; "exceptional" taken from the Lawless case 1961 at para 28 the circumstances are grave enough to threaten the organised life of the entire community; the emergency is actual or imminent in that the emergency is about to occur; the threat is to the life of the nation which seeks to derogate; and the measures for which the derogation is required are "strictly required by the exigencies of the situation". In November 2001 the United Kingdom government held that there was such a dire state of emergency in the country that it was necessary to implement Part 4 of the Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001 and detain a number of terrorist suspects indefinitely without charge in Belmarsh Prison pending deportation. This lasted until April 2005, after the Law Lords ruled on 16 December 2004 that the claim was not consistent with the Convention. Lord Hoffmann went further to say: Other instances where this derogation has been used have been in Ireland between July and December 1957, Greece in 1969, Ireland in 1978, Northern Ireland from 1988, and Turkey in 1996. See: House of Lords, A v SSHD [2004] UKHL 56 Article 16 - aliens Article 16 allows states to restrict the political activity of foreigners.The Court has ruled that European Union member states cannot consider the nationals of other member states to be aliens. In Piermont v. France 27 April 1995, 314 ECHR (series A). Article 17 - abuse of rights Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the Convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the Convention. This addresses instances where states seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (for example where an individual issues a death threat). Article 18 - permitted restrictions Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the Convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided. For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge. To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is therefore a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18. Convention protocols , fourteen protocols to the Convention have been opened for signature. These can be divided into two main groups: those changing the machinery of the convention, and those adding additional rights to those protected by the convention. The former require unanimous ratification before coming into force, while the latter are optional protocols which only come into force between ratifying member states (normally after a small threshold of states has been reached). For the first Protocol, Monaco and Switzerland have signed but never ratified. Andorra has neither signed nor ratified. Protocol 1, Article 1 - property Article 1 provides for the rights to the peaceful enjoyment of one's possessions. Protocol 1, Article 2 - education Article 2 provides for the right not to be denied an education and the right for parents to have their children educated in accordance with their religious and other views. It does not however guarantee any particular level of education of any particular quality (Belgian linguistic case). Protocol 1, Article 3 - elections Article 3 provides for the right to regular, free and fair elections. Matthews v. United Kingdom (1999) 28 EHRR 361 Protocol 4 - civil imprisonment, free movement, expulsion Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people for breach of a contract. Article 2 provides for a right to freely move within a country once lawfully there and for a right to leave any country. Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals and provides for the right of an individual to enter a country of his or her nationality. Article 4 prohibits the collective expulsion of foreigners. Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom have signed but never ratified Protocol 4. Andorra, Greece and Switzerland have neither signed nor ratified this protocol. Protocol 6 - restriction of death penalty Requires parties to restrict the application of the death penalty to times of war or "imminent threat of war". Every Council of Europe member state has signed and ratified Protocol 6, except Russia who has signed but not ratified. Protocol 7 - crime and family Article 1 provides for a right to fair procedures for lawfully resident foreigners facing expulsion. Article 2 provides for the right to appeal in criminal matters. Article 3 provides for compensation for the victims of miscarriages of justice. Article 4 prohibits the re-trial of anyone who has already been finally acquitted or convicted of a particular offence (Double jeopardy). Article 5 provides for equality between spouses. Despite having signed the protocol more than twenty years ago, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Turkey have never ratified it. Andorra and the United Kingdom have neither signed nor ratified the protocol. Protocol 12 - discrimination Applies the current expansive and indefinite grounds of prohibited discrimination in Article 14 to the exercise of any legal right and to the actions (including the obligations) of public authorities. The Protocol entered into force on 1 April 2005 and has () been ratified by 15 member states. Several member states — namely Andorra, Bulgaria, Denmark, France, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom — have not signed the protocol. Information on the current state of the protocol. The United Kingdom Government has declined to sign Protocol 12 on the basis that they believe the wording of protocol is too wide and would result in a flood of new cases testing the extent of the new provision. They believe that the phrase "rights set forth by law" might include international conventions to which the UK is not a party, and would result in incorporation of these instruments by stealth. It has been suggested that the protocol is therefore in a kind of catch-22, since the UK will decline to either sign or ratify the protocol until the European Court of Human Rights has addressed the meaning of the provision, while the court is hindered in doing so by the lack of applications to the court concerning the protocol caused by the decisions of Europe's most populous states — including the UK — not to ratify the protocol. The UK Government, nevertheless, "agrees in principle that the ECHR should contain a provision against discrimination that is free-standing and not parasitic on the other Convention rights". 2004 UK Government's position Protocol 13 - complete abolition of death penalty Provides for the total abolition of the death penalty. Procedural and institutional protocols The Convention's provisions affecting institutional and procedural matters has been altered several times by mean of protocols. These amendments have, with of the exception of Protocol 2, amended the text of the convention. Protocol 2 did not amend the text of the convention as such, but stipulated that it was to be treated as an integral part of the text. All of these protocols have required the unanimous ratification of all the member states of the Council of Europe to enter into force. Protocol 11 Protocols 2, 3, 5, 8, 9 and 10 have now been superseded by Protocol 11 which entered into force on 1 November 1998. It established a fundamental change in the machinery of the convention. It abolished the Commission, allowing individuals to apply directly to the Court, which was given compulsory jurisdiction and altered the latter's structure. Previously states could ratify the Convention without accepting the jurisdiction of the Court of Human Rights. The protocol also abolished the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocol 14 Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in further improving the efficiency of operation of the Court. It seeks to "filter" out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state. Furthermore a case will not be considered admissible where an applicant has not suffered a "significant disadvantage". This latter ground can only be used when an examination of the application on the merits is not considered necessary and where the subject-matter of the application had already been considered by a national court. A new mechanism is introduced with Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers. The Committee can ask the Court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the Court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state. Protocol 14 also allows the European Union to accede to the Convention, an issue which is also dependent on the ratification of the Lisbon Treaty Article 1(8) of the Lisbon Treaty , in light of the fact that the European Community currently lacks the competence to accede to human rights treaties. See paragraph 6 of Opinion (2/92) of the European Court of Justice on "Accession by the Community to the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" 1996 E.C.R. I-1759 (in French). The protocol has been signed by every Council of Europe member state. Currently only Russia has not yet ratified the protocol. It will only come into force only when it has been ratified by all Council of Europe member states. In 2009, a provisional protocol No. 14bis was opened for signature. Protocol No. 14bis to the ECHR It allows single judges to reject manifestly inadmissible applications against protocol's member states and extends the competence of three-judge committees to declare applications against protocol's member states admissible and decide on their merits where there already is a well-established case law of the Court. Citation The ECHR may be cited in academic works in a number of ways. The European Treaty Series citation is "Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, ETS 5, Article 1, para 2" for the second paragraph of the first article. Citation of the treaty is never by page number. See also Territorial scope of European Convention on Human Rights Human rights in Europe Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union Human Rights Act 1998 for how the Convention has been incorporated into the law of the United Kingdom. European Court of Human Rights Capital punishment in Europe Notes Further reading External links Full text of the European Convention on Human Rights Database of European Human Rights Court (Strasbourg) judgements List of all European treaties and protocols Terror detention law 'must go'; BBC; 4 August 2004 Current Status of Protocol 12 Current Status of Protocol 14 UK Government's position on Protocol 12 Index on Censorship | European_Convention_on_Human_Rights |@lemmatized convention:52 protection:7 human:27 right:94 fundamental:7 freedom:14 also:15 call:1 european:23 echr:5 adopt:2 auspex:1 council:13 europe:15 confuse:1 union:6 party:17 role:2 administration:1 court:47 protect:8 member:17 state:47 new:4 expect:1 ratify:17 early:1 opportunity:1 resolution:1 honouring:1 commitment:1 enter:6 join:1 establish:4 person:11 feel:1 violate:2 take:6 case:15 decision:2 automatically:1 legally:1 bind:2 power:2 award:1 damage:1 establishment:1 individual:9 violation:6 innovative:1 feature:1 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6,319 | Gatling_gun | An 1876 Gatling gun preserved at Fort Laramie National Historic Site The Gatling gun (1861) was one of the most well known rapid-fire weapons to be used in the 1860s by the Union forces of the Civil War, following the 1851 invention of the mitrailleuse by the Belgian Army. Although the first Gatling gun was capable of firing continuously, it required human power to crank it; as such it was not a true automatic weapon. Each barrel fired a single shot as it reached a certain point in the cycle after which it ejected the spent cartridge, loaded a new round, and in the process, cooled down somewhat. This configuration allowed higher rates of fire without the problem of an overheating single barrel. Some time later, Gatling-type weapons were invented that diverted a fraction of gas from the chamber to turn the barrels. Later still, electric motors supplied external power. The original Gatling gun was designed by the American inventor Dr. Richard J. Gatling in 1861 and patented in 1862. He wrote that he made it to reduce the size of armies and so reduce the number of deaths by combat and disease. Paul Wahl and Don Toppel, The Gatling Gun, Arco Publishing, 1971. The Maxim gun, invented in 1884, was the first true automatic weapon, making use of the fired projectile's recoil force to reload the weapon. History Patent drawing for R.J. Gatling's Battery Gun, 9 May 1865. The original Gatling gun was a field weapon, which used multiple rotating barrels turned by a hand crank, and firing loose (no links or belt) metal cartridge ammunition using a gravity feed system from a hopper. The Gatling gun's innovation lay neither in the rotating mechanism (featured by many revolvers of the day) nor the use of multiple barrels to limit overheating (used by the mitrailleuse gun); rather, the innovation was the gravity feed reloading mechanism, which allowed unskilled operators to achieve a relatively high rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute. The Gatling gun was first used in warfare during the Civil War. The gun was not accepted by the Union Army until 1866, but a "sales engineer" of the manufacturing company demonstrated it in combat. Emmott, N.W. "The Devil's Watering Pot" United States Naval Institute Proceedings September 1972 p. 70. Lieutenant A.L. Howard of the Connecticut National Guard had an interest in the company manufacturing Gatling guns, and took a personally-owned Gatling gun to Saskatchewan in Canada in 1885 for use with the Canadian military against the Métis during Louis Riel's North-West Rebellion. Early multi-barrel guns were approximately the size and weight of artillery pieces, and were often perceived as a replacement for cannon firing grapeshot or cannister shot. Unlike earlier weapons such as the Mitrailleuse which required manual reloading, the Gatling gun was more reliable, easier to operate, and had a higher firing rate. The large wheels required to move these guns around required a high firing position which increased the vulnerability of their crews. Sustained firing of gunpowder cartridges generated a cloud of smoke making concealment impossible until Smokeless powder became available in the late 19th century. Emmott, N.W. "The Devil's Watering Pot" United States Naval Institute Proceedings September 1972 p. 72. When fighting troops of industrialized nations, Gatling guns could be targeted by artillery they could not reach and their crews could be targeted by snipers they could not see. The Gatling gun was used most successfully to expand European colonial empires by killing warriors of non-industrialized societies including the Matabele, the Zulu, the Bedouins, and the Mahdists. Imperial Russia purchased 400 Gatling guns and used them against Turcoman cavalry and other nomads of central Asia. Emmott, N.W. "The Devil's Watering Pot" United States Naval Institute Proceedings September 1972 p. 71. The Royal Navy used Gatling guns against the Egyptians at Alexandria in 1882. Gatling guns were used by the US side during the Spanish-American War, most notably during the battle of San Juan Hill. Gatling. Basic design of the original gun A British 1865 Gatling gun at Firepower - The Royal Artillery Museum The Gatling gun was hand-crank operated with six barrels revolving around a central shaft, similar to the Puckle Gun. Early models had a fibrous matting stuffed in among the barrels which could be soaked with water to cool the barrels down. Later models eliminated the matting-filled barrels as being counterproductive. The ammunition was initially a steel cylinder charged with black powder and primed with a percussion cap, because self-contained brass cartridges had not yet been invented. The shells were gravity-fed into the breech through a hopper or stick magazine on top of the gun. Each barrel had its own firing mechanism. After 1861, new brass cartridges similar to modern cartridges replaced the paper cartridge, but Gatling did not switch to them immediately. The model of 1881 was designed to use the 'Bruce'-style feed system (U.S. Patents 247,158 and 343,532) that accepted two rows of .45/70 cartridges. While one row was being fed into the gun, the other could be reloaded, thus allowing sustained fire. The final gun required four operators. By 1876 the Gatling gun had a theoretical rate of fire of 1,200 rounds per minute, although 400 rounds per minute was more readily achievable in combat. Each barrel fires once per revolution at about the same position. The barrels, a carrier, and a lock cylinder were separate and all mounted on a solid plate revolving around a central shaft, mounted on an oblong fixed frame. The carrier was grooved and the lock cylinder was drilled with holes corresponding to the barrels. Each barrel had a single lock, working in the lock cylinder on a line with the barrel. The lock cylinder was encased and joined to the frame. The casing was partitioned, and through this opening the barrel shaft was journaled. In front of the casing was a cam with spiral surfaces. The cam imparted a reciprocating motion to the locks when the gun rotated. Also in the casing was a cocking ring with projections to cock and fire the gun. Turning the crank rotated the shaft. Cartridges, held in a hopper, dropped individually into the grooves of the carrier. The lock was simultaneously forced by the cam to move forward and load the cartridge, and when the cam was at its highest point, the cocking ring freed the lock and fired the cartridge. After the cartridge was fired the continuing action of the cam drew back the lock bringing with it the spent cartridge which then dropped to the ground. The grouped barrel concept had been explored by inventors since the 18th century, but poor engineering and the lack of a unitary cartridge made previous designs unsuccessful. The initial Gatling gun design used self-contained, reloadable steel cylinders with a chamber holding a ball and black-powder charge, and a percussion cap nipple on one end. As the barrels rotated, these steel cylinders dropped into place, were fired, and were then ejected from the gun. The innovative features of the Gatling gun were its independent firing mechanism for each barrel and the simultaneous action of the locks, barrels, carrier and breech. The smallest calibre gun also had a Broadwell drum feed in place of the curved magazine of the other guns. The drum, named after L. W. Broadwell, an agent for Gatling's company, comprised twenty stick magazines arranged around a central axis, like the spokes of a wheel, each holding twenty cartridges with the bullet noses oriented toward the central axis. This significant invention does not appear to have been patented separately, and may have been included in the April 9, 1872 patent, U.S. 125,563; a post and base, apparently for mounting a Broadwell drum, is visible in Figure 13 of U.S. 125,563. As each magazine emptied, the drum was manually rotated to bring a new magazine into use until all 400 rounds had been fired. Modern Gatling-style guns The GAU-8 Gatling gun of an A-10 Thunderbolt II at Osan Air Base, Korea. After Gatling guns were replaced by lighter, cheaper blowback style weapons, the approach of using multiple rotating barrels fell into disuse for many decades. However, Gatling gun-style weapons made a return in the 1940–50s, when weapons with very high rates of fire were needed in military aircraft. For these modern weapons, electric motors are used to rotate the barrel, although systems that derive power from their ammunition do exist such as the GShG-7.62 machine gun and GSh-6-23, which uses a gas-operated drive system. One of the main reasons for the resurgence of the Gatling gun-style design is the weapon's tolerance for continuous high rates of fire. For example, if 500 rounds were fired at a high rate from a conventional single-barrel weapon, this would likely result in the barrel overheating (distorting in extreme cases) or a weapon jam. In contrast, a five-barreled Gatling gun-style weapon firing 500 rounds, only fires 100 rounds per barrel, an acceptable rate of fire. Ultimately the limiting factor is the rate at which loading and extraction can occur. In a single barrel design these tasks must alternate, a multiple barrel design on the other hand lets them occur simultaneously, with different barrels at different points in the cycle. Their high rate of fire also makes them useful in systems that have little time to engage their targets, such as CIWS which defend against fast-moving anti-ship missiles. The M61 Vulcan 20 mm cannon is the most prolific member of a family of weapons designed by General Electric and currently manufactured by General Dynamics. It is a six-barreled rotary cannon capable of more than 6,000 rounds per minute. Similar systems are available ranging from 5.56 mm to 30 mm (there was even a 37 mm Gatling on the prototype T249 Vigilante AA platform); the rate-of-fire being somewhat inversely-proportional to the size and mass of the ammunition (which also determines the size and mass of the barrels). Another Gatling design well-known among aviation enthusiasts is the GAU-8 Avenger 30 mm cannon, carried on the A-10 Thunderbolt II (Warthog) attack aircraft. It is a seven-barreled cannon designed for tank-killing and is currently the largest bore Gatling weapon active in the U.S. arsenal. During the Vietnam War, the 7.62 mm caliber M134 Minigun was created as a helicopter weapon. Able to fire 6,000 rounds per minute from a 4,000-round linked belt, the Minigun proved to be one of the most effective non-explosive projectile weapons ever built and is still used in helicopters today. They are also used on USAF AC-47, AC-119 and Lockheed AC-130 gunships, their original high-capacity cargo airframes able to house the items needed for sustained operation. With sophisticated navigation and target identification tools, Miniguns can be used effectively even against concealed targets. The crew's ability to concentrate the Gatling's fire very tightly produces the appearance of the 'Red Tornado' AC-119K Stinger Gunship Photo 1. from the light of the tracers, as the gun platform circles a target at night. See also Bira gun Volley gun Mitrailleuse Ripley Machine Gun Revolver cannon Chain gun Citations and notes References Mischa & Kitsune, The Netbook of modern firearms External links List of Military Gatling & Revolver cannons -- Gatling gun -- improved Gatling gun -- revolving battery gun -- improvement in revolving battery guns "Colt 30 Cal Gatling Gun Model 1900 Army" drawings Description of operating principle (with animation) from HowStuffWorks CGI animated GAU-17/A | Gatling_gun |@lemmatized gatling:41 gun:54 preserve:1 fort:1 laramie:1 national:2 historic:1 site:1 one:5 well:2 know:2 rapid:1 fire:26 weapon:19 use:21 union:2 force:3 civil:2 war:4 follow:1 invention:2 mitrailleuse:4 belgian:1 army:4 although:3 first:3 capable:2 continuously:1 require:5 human:1 power:3 crank:4 true:2 automatic:2 barrel:33 single:5 shot:2 reach:2 certain:1 point:3 cycle:2 eject:2 spent:2 cartridge:15 load:3 new:3 round:11 process:1 cool:2 somewhat:2 configuration:1 allow:3 high:10 rate:11 without:1 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6,320 | Coleco | Coleco was an American company founded in 1932 by Maurice Greenberg as "Connecticut Leather Company". It became a highly successful toy company in the 1980s, known for its mass-produced version of Cabbage Patch Kids dolls and its video game consoles, the Coleco Telstar and ColecoVision. History Coleco originally manufactured shoe leather, which later led to a business in leather craft kits in the 1950s. They began manufacturing plastic moulding and moved into plastic wading pools in the 1960s. The leather part of the business was then sold off. Under CEO Arnold Greenberg, the company entered the video game console business with the Telstar in 1976. Dozens of companies were introducing game systems that year after Atari's successful Pong console. Nearly all of these new games were based on General Instrument's "Pong-on-a-chip". However, General Instrument had underestimated demand, and there were severe shortages. Coleco had been one of the first to place an order, and was one of the few companies to receive an order in full. Though dedicated game consoles did not last long on the market, their early order enabled Coleco to break even. Coleco continued to do well in electronics. They transitioned next into handheld electronic games, a market popularized by Mattel. Coleco produced two very popular lines of games, the "head to head" series of two player sports games, (Football, Baseball, Basketball, Soccer, Hockey) and the mini-arcade series of licensed video arcade titles such as Donkey Kong and Ms. Pacman. A third line of educational handhelds was also produced and included the Electronic Learning Machine, Lil Genius, Digits, and a trivia game called QuizWhiz. http://www.handheldmuseum.com/Coleco The ColecoVision video game console Coleco returned to the video game console market in 1982 with the launch of the ColecoVision. While the system was quite popular, Coleco hedged their bet on video games by introducing a line of cartridges for the Atari 2600 and Intellivision. They also introduced the Coleco Gemini, a clone of the popular Atari 2600. When the video game business began to implode in 1983, it seemed clear that video game consoles were being supplanted by home computers. Coleco's strategy was to introduce the Coleco Adam home computer, both as a stand-alone system and as an expansion module to the ColecoVision. This effort failed, in large part because Adams were often unreliable. The Adam flopped; Coleco withdrew from electronics early in 1985. Also in 1983, Coleco released the Cabbage Patch Kids series of dolls which were wildly successful. In 1986, they introduced an ALF plush based on the furry alien character who had his own television series at the time, as well as a talking version and a cassette-playing "Storytelling ALF" doll. The staggering success of the dolls could not stem the tide of red ink that had begun with the launch of the Adam computer. In 1988, the company filed for bankruptcy. The reorganized Coleco sold off all of its North American assets and outsourced thousands of jobs to foreign countries, closing plants in Amsterdam, New York and other cities. In 1989, Hasbro purchased Coleco's assets. In 2005, River West Brands, a Chicago-based brand revitalization company, re-introduced Coleco to the marketplace. In late 2006, they introduced the Coleco Sonic, a handheld system containing twenty Sega Master System and Sega Game Gear games. See also Electronic Quarterback Sectaurs Starcom: The U.S. Space Force Telstar Combat! References External links www.coleco.com River West Brands' Coleco product page Article at The Dot Eaters, a history of Coleco and the ColecoVision products | Coleco |@lemmatized coleco:22 american:2 company:8 found:1 maurice:1 greenberg:2 connecticut:1 leather:4 become:1 highly:1 successful:3 toy:1 know:1 mass:1 produce:3 version:2 cabbage:2 patch:2 kid:2 doll:4 video:8 game:16 console:7 telstar:3 colecovision:5 history:2 originally:1 manufacture:2 shoe:1 later:1 lead:1 business:4 craft:1 kit:1 begin:3 plastic:2 moulding:1 move:1 wading:1 pool:1 part:2 sell:2 ceo:1 arnold:1 enter:1 dozen:1 introducing:1 system:5 year:1 atari:3 pong:2 nearly:1 new:2 base:3 general:2 instrument:2 chip:1 however:1 underestimate:1 demand:1 severe:1 shortage:1 one:2 first:1 place:1 order:3 receive:1 full:1 though:1 dedicated:1 last:1 long:1 market:3 early:2 enable:1 break:1 even:1 continue:1 well:2 electronics:2 transition:1 next:1 handheld:2 electronic:3 popularize:1 mattel:1 two:2 popular:3 line:3 head:2 series:4 player:1 sport:1 football:1 baseball:1 basketball:1 soccer:1 hockey:1 mini:1 arcade:2 licensed:1 title:1 donkey:1 kong:1 pacman:1 third:1 educational:1 handhelds:1 also:4 include:1 learning:1 machine:1 lil:1 genius:1 digit:1 trivia:1 call:1 quizwhiz:1 http:1 www:2 handheldmuseum:1 com:2 return:1 launch:2 quite:1 hedge:1 bet:1 introduce:6 cartridge:1 intellivision:1 gemini:1 clone:1 implode:1 seem:1 clear:1 supplant:1 home:2 computer:3 strategy:1 adam:4 stand:1 alone:1 expansion:1 module:1 effort:1 fail:1 large:1 often:1 unreliable:1 flop:1 withdrew:1 release:1 wildly:1 alf:2 plush:1 furry:1 alien:1 character:1 television:1 time:1 talk:1 cassette:1 playing:1 storytelling:1 staggering:1 success:1 could:1 stem:1 tide:1 red:1 ink:1 file:1 bankruptcy:1 reorganized:1 north:1 asset:2 outsourced:1 thousand:1 job:1 foreign:1 country:1 close:1 plant:1 amsterdam:1 york:1 city:1 hasbro:1 purchase:1 river:2 west:2 brand:3 chicago:1 revitalization:1 marketplace:1 late:1 sonic:1 contain:1 twenty:1 sega:2 master:1 gear:1 see:1 quarterback:1 sectaurs:1 starcom:1 u:1 space:1 force:1 combat:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 product:2 page:1 article:1 dot:1 eater:1 |@bigram donkey_kong:1 http_www:1 hedge_bet:1 atari_intellivision:1 external_link:1 dot_eater:1 |
6,321 | Basque_people | {{Infobox Ethnic group |group = BasquesEuskaldunak |flag = |flag_caption = |image = 1st row: Arista - Sancho III - Elcano - Loyola - Urdaneta - Oñate - Francis Xavier 2nd row:Bolívar - Zumalakarregi - Gardoqui- Garat - Iraola - Arana - Errázuriz 3rd row:Garrastazu - Ravel - Perón - Atano VII - Basterretxea - Guevara -Mariano 4th row:Etxenike - Garamendi - Ibarretxe - Eyharts - Chao - Fernandez - Arteta |pop = approx. 18,000,000 worldwide |region1 = This assumes that all residents in the Basque Country are of Basque ethnicity, currently it is recognised that a large percentage is not. |region2 = Araba |pop2 = 279,000 |ref2 = |region3 = Bizkaia |pop3 = 1,160,000 |ref3 = |region4 = Gipuzkoa |pop4 = 684,000 |ref4 = |region5 = Total (Basque Country) |pop5 = 2,123,000 |ref5 = |region6 = This assumes that all residents in Navarre are of Basque ethnicity, it is nationally accepted that more than half aren't |pop6 = 560,000 |ref6 = |region7 = Total (Spain) |pop7 = 2,304,000 |ref7 = |region8 = This assumes that all residents in those French provinces are of Basque ethnicity, it is nationally accepted that a large percentage is not. |region9 = Labourd |pop9 = 225,000 |ref9 = |region10 = Lower Navarre |pop10 = 40,000 |ref10 = |region11 = Soule |pop11 = 20,000 |ref11 = |region12 = Total (France) |pop12 = 285,000 |ref12 = |region13 = TOTAL |pop13 = 2,589,000 |ref13 = |ref13 = |region14 = Basque Patronyms in other French and Spanish regions |region15 = Spain |pop15 = 4,000,000 |region16 = France |pop16 = 1,000,000 |ref16 = |region17 = Diaspora |region18 = |pop18 = 1.6 million (10%) - 4.5 million (27%) |ref18 = Diariovasco. entrevista al Presidente de la Cámara vasca. vascos Ainara Madariaga: Autora del estudio "Imaginarios vascos desde Chile La construcción de imaginarios vascos en Chile durante el siglo XX". Basques au Chili. <ref>Contacto Interlingüístico e intercultural en el mundo hispano.instituto valenciano de lenguas y culturas.Universitat de València Cita: " Un 20% de la población chilena tiene su origen en el País Vasco".</ref> |region19 = |pop19 = 3.1 million |ref19 = |region20 = |pop20 = 1.5 million |ref20 = |region21 = |pop21 = 800.000 - 1.500.000 |ref21 = |region22 = |pop22 = 1.000.000 |ref22 = |region23 = |pop23 = 60.000 |ref23 = "Vascos en Colombia" |region24 = |pop24 = 57,000|ref22 = |ref24 = |region25 = |pop25 = 35,000 |ref25 = |region26 = |pop26 = 8,800 |ref26 = Ethnic groups - Costa Rica |region27 = |pop27 = 5,500 |ref27 = Ethnic groups - Venezuela |region28 = |pop28 = 5,000 |ref28 = Ethnic groups - Philippines |languages = <div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> Basque - few monoglots Spanish - 1,525,000 monoglots French - 150,000 monoglots Basque-Spanish - 600,000 speakers Basque-French - 76,000 speakers other native languages |religions = Roman Catholic, Atheism, Agnosticism |footnotes = This table assumes that all residents in the Basque Country, Navarre and the Northern Basque Country are of Basque ethnicity, currently it is recognised that a large percentage is not. }} The Basques () are the native people of the Basque Country (). The name Basque derives from the ancient tribe of the Vascones, Definition of Basque (Merriam-Webster Online) described by Ancient Greek historian Strabo as living south of the western Pyrenees and north of the Ebro River, in modern day Navarre and northern Aragon. This tribal name, of unknown etymology, was extended in late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages to cover all Basque-speaking people on either side of the Pyrenees. The Basques as an ethnic group primarily inhabit an area traditionally known as the Basque Country, a region that is located around the western end of the Pyrenees on the coast of the Bay of Biscay and straddles parts of north-eastern Spain and south-western France. The Basques are known in local languages as: Euskaldunak ("Basque speakers", also used loosely to describe all ethnic Basques) or euskotarrak ("Natives of the Basque Country", an often mentioned but rarely used neologism) in Basque Vascos in Spanish Basques in French Bascos in Gascon Genetics Since the Basques speak a non-Indo-European language and have the highest proportion of the Rh negative blood type of all the peoples of the world, they were widely considered to be a genetically isolated population, preserving the genes of European Palaeolithic hunter-gatherers, until recent genetic studies found that modern Basques have a common ancestry with other Western Europeans. Santos Alonso et al., The place of the Basques in the European Y-chromosome diversity landscape, European Journal of Human Genetics (2005) 13, 1293–1302; Jun Z. Li et al., Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation, Science, vol. 319 (February 2008), pp. 1100-1104. The similarity includes the predominance in their male populations of Y-chromosome (Haplogroup R1b), now considered to have been spread through Europe by new arrivals in the Neolithic period or later. B. Arredi, E.S. Poloni and C. Tyler-Smith, The Peopling of Europe, in M. Crawford (ed.) Anthropological Genetics: Theory, Methods and Applications (Cambridge University Press 2007) mtDNA (Haplogroup V) was initially thought to have spread through Europe after the last Ice Age from a refuge in what is now the Basque Country. Stephen Oppenheimer However studies have found no V in ancient remains from three prehistoric sites in the Basque Country dating to 4000-5000 years ago. In addition, haplogroup K (mtDNA), found at frequencies of 16%-23% in the prehistoric sites, is nearly absent from modern Basques, while haplogroup J (mtDNA) (thought to have arrived in Europe with Neolithic farmers), found in two prehistoric sites at a frequency of 16% and the early medieval necropolis at Aldaieta at 14.7%, has suffered a major reduction to 2.4% in modern Basques. Etymology of the word Basque The English word Basque comes from French Basque (pronounced ), which itself comes from Gascon Basco (pronounced ) and Spanish Vasco (pronounced ). These, in turn, come from Latin Vasco (pronounced ), plural Vascones (see History section below). The Latin labial-velar approximant /w/ generally evolved into the bilabials /b/ and /β̞/ in Gascon and Spanish, probably under the influence of Basque and Aquitanian, a language related to old Basque and spoken in Gascony in Antiquity (similarly the Latin /w/ evolved into /v/ in French, Italian and other languages). This explains the Roman pun at the expense of the Aquitanians (ancestors of the Gascons): Beati Hispani quibus vivere bibere est, which translates as "Blessed (are the) Spaniards, for whom living is drinking." The Romans considered the Aquitanians akin to the Spaniards. Barscunes coin. Roman period Several coins from the 1st and 2nd centuries BC found in the north of Spain bear the inscription barscunes written in the Iberian alphabet. The place where they were minted is not certain but is thought to be somewhere near Pamplona in the heartland of the area that historians believe was inhabited by the Vascones. Some scholars have suggested a Celtic etymology based on bhar-s-, meaning "summit", "point" or "leaves", according to which barscunes may have meant "the mountain people", "the tall ones" or "the proud ones", while others have posited a relationship to a pre-Indo-European root *bar- meaning "border", "frontier", "march". Vascones - el nombre (Auñamendi Encyclopedia) Others suggest that Latin Vasco comes from a Basque and Aquitanian root used by these people to refer to themselves, eusk-, pronounced , which is rather similar to Latin . The name of an Aquitanian people which the Romans recorded as Ausci (pronounced in Latin) appears to represent from the same root. The basque word for hand/grasp is similar to the root "eusk" in Basque as well, with the sense that other ethnic groups have also for self referral as "those who grasp (thought, word), those who understand (us)". In modern Basque, Basques call themselves euskaldunak, singular euskaldun, formed from euskal- (i.e. "Basque (language)") and -dun (i.e. "one who has"); euskaldun literally means a Basque speaker. Not all Basques are Basque-speakers, and not all Basque speakers are Basques; foreigners who have learned Basque can also be called euskaldunak. Therefore the neologism euskotar, plural euskotarrak, was coined in the nineteenth century to mean an ethnically Basque person whether Basque-speaking or not. These Basque words are all derived from euskara, the Basque name for the Basque language. Alfonso Irigoyen claimed that the word euskara comes from an ancient Basque verb enautsi "to say" (cf. modern Basque esan) and the suffix -(k)ara ("way (of doing something)"). Thus euskara would literally mean "way of saying", "way of speaking". One item of evidence in favour of this hypothesis is found in the Spanish book Compendio Historial, written in 1571 by the Basque writer Esteban de Garibay, who records the name of the Basque language as "enusquera". It may be however a writing mistake. In the nineteenth century, the Basque nationalist activist Sabino Arana posited an original root euzko which, he thought, came from eguzkiko "of the sun" on the assumption of an original solar religion). On the basis of this putative root Arana proposed the name Euzkadi for an independent Basque nation, composed by seven basque historical territories. Arana's etymology is discredited today, but his neologism Euzkadi, in the regularized spelling Euskadi, is still widely used in both Basque and Spanish, since it is now the official name of the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country. In fact the root eusk- might come from the name of the aquitanian tribe Ausci that gave its name to the French city of Auch that was called before Elimberrum 'new town' (from basco-aquitanian ili-berri). History Basque and other pre-Indo-European tribes at the time of Roman arrival (in red) It is thought that Basques are a remnant of the early inhabitants of Western Europe, specifically those of the Franco-Cantabrian region. Basque tribes were already mentioned in Roman times by Strabo and Pliny, including the Vascones, the Aquitani and others. There is enough evidence that they already spoke Basque in that time (see: Aquitanian language, Iruña-Veleia). In the Early Middle Ages the territory between the Ebro and Garonne rivers was known as Vasconia, being united under the Castilian noblesse. After Muslim invasions and Frankish expansion under Charlemagne, the territory was fragmented and eventually the Kingdom of Castile and the Kingdom of Pamplona arose as the main states with Basque population in the ninth century. This state, later known as Navarre, experienced feudalization and was subjected to the influences of its vaster Aragonese, Castilian and French neighbours, with Castile annexing parts of it in the eleventh and twelfth century and from 1512 to 1521. The remainder of Navarre would end up being united to France. Nevertheless the Basque provinces enjoyed a great deal of self-government until the French Revolution in the North and the mainly religious wars named Carlist Wars in the South trying to establish a Catholic theocratic monarchy. Since then, despite the current self-governing status of the Basque Country, as settled by the Spanish Constitution, elements of Basque society are still attempting to establish a completely separate State (see Basque nationalism), sometimes by violent means. Geography Political and administrative divisions The autonomous community (a concept established in the Spanish constitution of 1978) that is known as Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoa or EAE in Basque, and as (la) Comunidad Autónoma Vasca or CAV in Spanish (in English: Basque Autonomous Community or BAC), See EUSKALTERM, the Basque Public Term Bank, maintained by the Basque Government for these and other terms and their common translations is composed of the three Spanish provinces of Alava, Biscay and Guipuscoa. The corresponding Basque names of these territories are Araba, Bizkaia and Gipuzkoa and their Spanish name is Álava, Vizcaya and Guipúzcoa. Although the BAC only includes three of the seven provinces of the currently called "historical territories", it is sometimes referred to simply as "the Basque Country" (or Euskadi), at times by writers only considering those three provinces, but also on occasions merely as a convenient abbreviation when this does not lead to confusion in the context; others reject this usage as inaccurate and are careful to specify the BAC (or an equivalent expression such as "the three provinces") when referring to this entity or region. Likewise, terms such as "the Basque Government" for "the government of the BAC" are commonly though not universally employed. In particular it should be noted that in common usage the French term Pays Basque ("Basque Country"), in the absence of further qualification, refers either to the whole of Euskal Herria or, not infrequently, to the northern (or "French") Basque Country specifically. Under Spain's present constitution, Navarre (Nafarroa in actual Basque, Navarra historically in Spanish) constitutes a voluntarily separate entity, called in actual Basque Nafarroako Foru Erkidegoa, in Spanish Comunidad Foral de Navarra (the autonomous community of Navarre). The government of this autonomous community is the Government of Navarre. Note that in historical contexts Navarre may refer to a wider area, and that the present-day northern Basque province of Low Navarre may also be referred to as (part of) Nafarroa, to distinguish it from which the term "High Navarre" (Nafarroa Garaia in Basque, Alta Navarra in Spanish) is also encountered as a way of referring to the territory of the present-day autonomous community. There are other three provinces claimed by the nationalist basque parties as parts of an expanded Basque Country: Labourd, Lower Navarre and Soule (Lapurdi, Nafarroa Beherea and Zuberoa in Basque; Labourd, Basse-Navarre and Soule in French), have no official status within France's present-day political and administrative territorial organization and there is only a marginal political support to the Spanish Basque nationalists. Population, main cities and languages There are 2,123,000 people living in the Basque Autonomous Community (279,000 in Alava, 1,160,000 in Biscay and 684,000 in Gipuscoa). The most important cities in this region, which serve as the provinces' administrative centers, are Bilbao (Bilbo/Bilbao) (in Biscay), San Sebastian (Donostia/San Sebastián) (in Gipuscoa) and Vitoria (Gasteiz/Vitoria) (in Alava). The official languages are Basque and Spanish. Knowledge of Spanish and Basque are equally compulsory according to the Spanish constitution, and virtually universal. Knowledge of Basque, after declining for many years during Franco's dictatorship owing to official persecution, is again on the rise due to favourable official language policies and popular support. Currently about 33 percent of the BAC's population speaks Basque. Navarre has a population of 601,000; its administrative capital and main city, also regarded by many nationalist Basques as the Basques' historical capital, is Pamplona (Iruñea in modern Basque). Although Spanish and Basque are official languages in this autonomous community, Basque language rights are only recognised by current legislation and language policy in the province's northern region, where most Basque-speaking Navarrese are concentrated. Approximately a quarter of a million people live in the part of claimed French Basque Country. Nationalists politicians in Basque Country generally refer to this as the "north" (Iparralde), and therefore to the Spanish provinces as the "south" (Hegoalde). Much of this population lives in or near the Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz (BAB) urban belt on the coast (in Basque these are Baiona, Angelu and Miarritze). The Basque language, which was traditionally spoken by most of the region's population outside the BAB urban zone, is today losing ground to French at a fast rate. Associated with the northern Basque Country's lack of self-government within the French state is the absence of official status for the Basque language throughout this region. The Basque diaspora Large numbers of Basques have left the Basque Country for other parts of the world in different historical periods, often for economic or political reasons. Basques are often employed in sheepherding and ranching, maritime fisheries and merchants around the world. Millions of Basque descendants (see Basque American) live in North America (the United States; Canada mainly in the provinces of New Brunswick and Quebec; and Mexico), South America, Southern Africa and Australia. Allegedly, it is said that Miguel de Unamuno stated that two things could be clearly attributed to the Basques: The Jesuits of 17th century Paraguay and the interior of Brazil, and the Republic of Chile. Over 1 million Basque descendants live in Chile, who were a major influence in the country's cultural and economic development. A large wave of Basques emigrated to Latin America and substantial numbers settled elsewhere in North (the U.S.) and South America, particularly in Peru, Venezuela, Argentina, Uruguay, Mexico, Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador and Cuba, where Basque place names are to be found, such as New Biscay, now Durango (Mexico), Biscayne Bay, Jalapa (Guatemala), Aguerreberry or Aguereberry Point in the United States, and the Nuevo Santander region of Mexico. Basque Culture Day In Mexico most Basques are concentrated in the cities of Monterrey, Saltillo, Camargo, and the states of Jalisco, Durango, Nuevo León, Tamaulipas, and Coahuila. The Basques were important in the mining industry, many were ranchers and vaqueros (cowboys), and the rest opened small shops in major cities like Mexico City, Guadalajara and Puebla. In Guatemala most Basques have been concentrated in Jalapa for six generations now, while some have immigrated to the city of Guatemala. The largest of several important Basque communities in the United States is in the area around Boise, Idaho, home to the Basque Museum and Cultural Center, host to a Basque festival every year, as well as a festival for the entire Basque diaspora every five years. Reno, Nevada, where the Center for Basque Studies and the Basque Studies Library are located in the University of Nevada, is another significant nucleus of Basque population. In Winnemucca, Nevada there is an annual Basque festival that celebrates the dance, cuisine and cultures of the Basque peoples of Spanish, French and Mexican nationalities arrived to Nevada since the late 19th century. California is a major concentration of Basques in the United States, most notably in the San Joaquin Valley between Stockton, Fresno and Bakersfield. The city of Bakersfield itself has a large Basque community and the city boasts several Basque restaurants. There also exists a history of Basque culture in Chino, California. In Chino, there are two annual Basque festivals that celebrate the dance, cuisine, and culture of the peoples, and the surrounding area of San Bernardino County has many Basque descendants. These Basques in California are grouped in the ethnic group known as Californios. In South Texas along the Mexican-Texan border of the Rio Grande Valley, many people are of Basque heritage or have Basque surnames. Along this area are many ranches given to colonial Spanish settlers from Basque Country to New Spain which still exist today. These Basques in south Texas are grouped in the ethnic group known as Tejanos. Basques of European Spanish-French and Latin American (Latino) nationalities also settled throughout the western U.S. in states like New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Oregon and Washington state. There are also many Basques and people of Basque ancestry living outside their homeland in Spain, France and other European countries. A total of over 100,000 ethnic Basques may live in Germany, the Netherlands and United Kingdom as a result of emigration to industries in those countries between 1945 and 1970. Classification of population according to cultural identity Culture Language The identifying language of the Basques is called Basque or Euskara, spoken today by 25%-30% Sociolinguistics (Eke.org) of the region's population. An idea of the central place of the ethnic terms in Basque nationalist politicians is given by the fact that, in Basque, Basques identify themselves by the term euskaldun and their country as Euskal Herria, literally "Basque speaker" and "Country of the Basque Language" respectively. The language has been made a political issue by official Spanish and French policies restricting its use either historically or currently; however, this has not stopped the teaching, speaking, writing and cultivating of this increasingly vibrant minority language. It is important to remember that the sense of Basque identity tied to the local language does not exist in isolation. It is juxtaposed with an equally strong sense of national identity tied with the use of the Spanish and French languages among other Basques. As with many European states, a regional identity, be it linguistically derived or otherwise, is not mutually exclusive with the broader national one. As a result of state language promotion, school policies, the impact of mass media, and the effects of migration, today virtually all Basques (except for some children below school age) speak the official language of their state (Spanish or French). Therefore, there are extremely few Basque monoglots: essentially all Basque speakers are bilingual on both sides of the border. This reality, coupled with the fact that Spanish or French is also typically the first language of citizens from other regions (that often feel no need to learn Basque), maintains the dominance of the state tongues of both France and Spain. Recent Basque Government policies aim to change this pattern, as they are viewed as potential threats against mainstream usage of the minority tongue. X. Aierdi Urraza, Routes to linguistic and cultural integration for immigrants in the Basque Autonomous Community The Basque language is thought to be a genetic language isolate. Thus Basque contrasts with other European languages, almost all of which belong to the large Indo-European language family. Another peculiarity of Basque is that it has been spoken continuously in situ, in and around its present territorial location, for longer than other modern European languages, which have all been introduced in historical or prehistorical times through population migrations or other processes of cultural transmission. TRASK, R. Larry: History of Basque. New York/London: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-13116-2 However, popular stereotypes characterizing Basque as "the oldest language in Europe" and "unique among the world's languages" may be misunderstood and lead to erroneous assumptions. J.C. Moreno Cabrera, Misconceptions about Basque Over the centuries, Basque has remained in constant contact with neighboring languages in its western European surroundings, with which it has come to share numerous lexical items and typological features; it is therefore misleading to exaggerate the "outlandish" character of Basque. Basque is also a modern language, and nowadays firmly established as a written and printed medium, also used in present-day forms of publication and communication, as well as a language spoken and used in a very wide range of social and cultural contexts, styles, and registers. Land and inheritance Basques have a close attachment to their home (etxe(a)or 'eche' 'house, home'), especially when this consists of the traditional self-sufficient, family-run farm or baserri(a). Home in this context is synonymous with family roots. Old baserri names, themselves typically expressing short-range geographical orientations or other locally meaningful identifying features, have transmuted into modern Basque surnames, thereby providing even Basques whose families may have left the land generations ago with an important link to their rural family origins: Bengoetxea "the house of further down", Goikoetxea "the house above", Landaburu "top of the field", Errekondo "next to the stream", Elizalde "by the church", Mendizabal "wide hill", Usetxe "house of birds" Ibarretxe "house in the valley", Etxeberria "the new house", etc. Luis Michelena, Apellidos vascos (fifth edition), San Sebastián: Txertoa, 1997 A widespread belief that Basque society was originally matriarchal seems to conflict with the clearly patrilinear character of known family inheritance structures. There have been attempts to reconcile these points by assuming that the latter represents an innovation. In any case, the social position of women in both traditional and modern Basque society is somewhat better than in neighbouring cultures, and women have a substantial influence in decisions about the domestic economy. In the past, some women participated in collective magical ceremonies, and were key participants in a rich folklore, today largely forgotten. In contrast to surrounding regions, ancient Basque inheritance patterns, recognised in the fueros, favour survival of the unity of inherited land holdings which generally fall to a single male heir, usually the oldest son. This system forced the other siblings to find other sources of sustenance, and before the advent of industrialisation resulted in the emigration of many rural Basques to Spain, France or the Americas. This system, harsh by modern standards, was no doubt responsible for sending out into the world a great many enterprising personalities of Basque origin, from Spanish conquistadors such as Lope de Aguirre to world-renowned saints of the Catholic Church such as Francis Xavier. Cuisine Basque cuisine is at the heart of Basque culture, influenced by the neighboring communities and the excellent produce from the sea and the land. A twentieth-century feature of Basque culture is the phenomenon of gastronomical societies (called txoko in Basque), food clubs where men gather to cook and enjoy their own food. Until recently, women were only allowed one day in the year. Cider houses (Sagardotegiak) are popular restaurants in Gipuzkoa open for a few months while the cider is in season. Cultural production Despite ETA and the crisis of heavy industries, the Basque economic condition has recovered remarkably in recent years, emerging from the Franco regime with a revitalized language and culture. The Basque language is expanding geographically led by large increases in the major urban centers of Pamplona, Bilbao, and Bayonne, where only a few decades ago the Basque language had all but disappeared. Music Religion Traditionally Basques have been mostly Roman Catholics. In the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth, Basques as a group remained notably devout and churchgoing. In recent years church attendance has fallen off, as in most of Western Europe. The region has been a source of missionaries like Francis Xavier and Michel Garicoïts. Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus, was a Basque. A sprout of Protestantism in the continental Basque Country produced the first translation of the new Testament into Basque by Joanes Leizarraga. After the king of Navarre converted to Catholicism to be king of France, Protestantism almost disappeared. Bayonne held a Jewish community composed mainly of Sephardi Jews fleeing from the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions. There were also important Jewish and Muslim communities in Navarre before the Castilian invasion of 1512-21. Nowadays only slightly more than 50% of Basques profess some kind of belief in God, while the rest are either agnostic or atheist. The number of religious skeptics increases noticeably for the younger generations, while the older ones are more religious. Opinion poll on religion by GIZAKER, published by EITB Pre-Christian religion and mythology Anboto mountain is one of sites where Mari was believed to dwell. Christianisation of the Basque Country has been the topic of some discussion. There are broadly speaking two views. According to one, Christianity arrived in the Basque Country during the 4th and 5th century but according to the other, it did not take place until the 12th and 13th century. The main issue lies in the different interpretations of what is considered Christianisation. Early traces of Christianity can be found in the major urban areas from the 4th century onwards, a bishopric from 589 in Pamplona and three hermit cave concentrations (two in Álava, one in Navarre) were in use from the 6th century onwards. In this sense, Christianity arrived "early". Pre-Christian belief seems to have centered around a female goddess called Mari. A number of place-names contain her name and would suggest these places were related to worship of her such as Anbotoko Mari who appears to have been related to the weather. According to one tradition, she traveled every seven years between a cave on Mount Anboto and one on another mountain (the stories vary); the weather would be wet when she was in Anboto, dry when she was in Aloña, or Supelegor, or Gorbea. One of her names, Mari Urraca possibly ties here to a historical Navarrese princess of the 11th and 12th century, with other legends giving her a brother or cousin who was a Roman Catholic priest. So far the discussions about whether the name Mari is original and just happened to coincide closely with the Christian name María or if Mari is an early Basque attempt to give a Christian veneer to pagan worship have remained speculative. Mari's consort is Sugaar. This chthonic couple seem to bear the superior ethical power and also the power of creation and destruction. It's said that when they gathered in the high caves of the sacred peaks, they engendered the storms. These meetings typically happened on Friday nights, the day of historical akelarre or coven. Mari was said to reside in Mount Anboto; periodically she crossed the skies as a bright light to reach her other home at mount Txindoki. Legends also speak of many and abundant genies, like jentilak (equivalent to giants), lamiak (equivalent to nymphs), mairuak (builders of the cromlechs or stone circles, literally Moors), iratxoak (imps), sorginak (witches, priestess of Mari), etc. Basajaun is a Basque version of the Woodwose. There is a trickster named San Martin Txiki ("St Martin the Lesser"). It has been shown that some of these stories have entered Basque culture in recent centuries or as part of Roman superstitio. It is unclear whether neolithic stone structures called dolmens have a religious significance or were built to house animals or resting shepherds. Some of the dolmens and cromlechs are burial sites serving as well as border markers. The jentilak ('Giants'), on the other hand, are a legendary people which explains the disappearance of a people of Stone Age culture that used to live in the high lands and with no knowledge of the iron. Many legends about them tell that they were bigger and taller, with a great force, but were displaced by the ferrons, or workers of ironworks foundries, until their total fade-out. They were pagans, but one of them, Olentzero, accepted Christianity and became a sort of Basque Santa Claus. They gave name to several toponyms, as Jentilbaratza. Society Historically, Basque society can be described as being somewhat at odds with Roman and later Western European societal norms. Strabo's account of the north of Spain in his Geographica makes a mention of 'a sort of woman-rule - not at all a mark of civilization' (Hadington 1992), a first mention of the - for the period - unusual position of women. “Women could inherit and control property as well as officiate in churches. Combined with the issue of lingering pagan beliefs, this enraged the leaders of the Spanish Inquisition, perhaps leading to one of its most savage witch-burnings in the Basque town of Logroño in 1610”. Hadingham 1992. Note that Logroño is not a Basque town, but it was the see of the diocesis covering Zugarramurdi in 1610. The Spanish Inquisition rarely acted against witches, devoting most of its attention to Judaizants, Moriscos and Protestants. This equality existed well into the twentieth century: “...matrilineal inheritance laws, and agricultural work performed by women continued in Basque country until the early twentieth century. For more than a century, scholars have widely discussed the high status of Basque women in law codes, as well as their positions as judges, inheritors, and arbitrators through pre-Roman, medieval, and modern times. The system of laws governing succession in the French Basque region reflected total equality between the sexes. Up until the eve of the French Revolution, the Basque woman was truly ‘the mistress of the house,’ hereditary guardian, and head of the lineage”. Gimbutas, M. The Living Goddesses University of California Press: 2001 Although the kingdom of Navarre did adopt feudalism, most Basques also possessed unusual social institutions different from those of feudal Europe. Some aspects of this include the elizate tradition where local house-owners met in front of the church to elect a representative to send to the juntas and juntas generales (such as the Juntas Generales de Vizcaya or Guipúzcoa) which administered much larger areas. Another example was the fact that in the medieval period most land was owned by the farmers, not the Church or a king. Collins, R. The Basques Blackwell: 1986 Traditional Basque sports Pilota The great family of ball games has its unique offspring among Basque ball games, known generically as pilota (Spanish: pelota). Some variants have been exported to the United States and Macau under the name of Jai Alai. Rural sports Trainera in the Bilbao estuary. Barrenatzaileak in Barakaldo. There are several sports derived by Basques from everyday chores. Heavy workers were challenged and bets placed upon them. Examples are:estropadak rowing regattas: from fishermen activities.sokatira: tug-of-war.harri jasoketa: stone-lifting, from quarry works.aizkolaritza and trontzalaritza: wood-chopping and log sawing.segalaritza: cutting grass with a scythe.porizaijlaza: stick whittling.Giza-abere probak: stone block pulling, from construction works:idi probak with teams of oxen.asto probak with donkeys.zaldi probak with horses.gizon probak with human teams.txinga erute: carrying of weights, one in each hand, representing milk canisters.aharai topaketa: ram fights. harri zulaketa competitions: drilling stone blocks with a metal bar, only in the former mining areas of West Biscay. Basque sheepdog trials competitions. Bull runs and bullock games The world-famous encierro (bull run) in Pamplona's fiestas Sanfermines started as a transport of bulls to the ring. These encierros, as well as other bull and bullock related activities are not exclusive to Pamplona but are traditional in many towns and villages of the Basque country. Football The largest symbol of Basque identity in football is Athletic Bilbao. While there are other clubs within the Spanish Basque country, such as Real Sociedad, Bilbao's cantera policy has meant the club refuses to sign any non-Basque players. Politics While there is no independent Basque state, Spain's autonomous community of the Basque Country, made up of the provinces of Alava (Araba), Vizcaya (Bizkaia) and Guipúzcoa (Gipuzkoa), is primarily a historical consequence and an answer to the wide autonomy claim of the residents. Navarre has a separate autonomy based in the historical fuero (charter) and on the fact that, unlike the Basque region, it was an independent kingdom before the unification of Spain in the Middle Ages. Of the territory belonging to the modern autonomous region of Navarre, only the northern half can be considered Euskal Herria (literally, "where Basque is spoken"). Basque ultra-nationalists would like to see the whole of Navarre integrated with the Basque Country. The Northern Basque Country today does not exist as a formal political entity and is officially simply part of the French department of Pyrénées Atlantiques, centered in Bearn. In recent years the number of mayors of the region supporting the creation of a separate Basque department has grown to 63,87%. So far, their attempts have been unsuccessful. Political conflicts Language Both Spanish and French governments have, at times, tried to suppress Basque linguistic and cultural identity. The French Republics, the epitome of the nation-state, have a long history of attempting the complete cultural absorption of ethnic minority groups. Spain has, at most points in its history, granted some degree of linguistic, cultural, and even political autonomy to its Basques, but under the regime of Francisco Franco, the Spanish government reversed the advances of Basque nationalism, as it had fought in the opposite side of the Spanish Civil War: cultural activity in Basque was limited to folkloric issues and the Roman Catholic Church. Today, the Basque Country within Spain enjoys an extensive cultural and political autonomy. The majority of schools under the jurisdiction of the Basque education system use Basque as the primary medium of teaching. However, in Navarre, Basque has been declared an endangered language, since the conservative government of Unión del Pueblo Navarro opposes Basque nationalism and symbols of Basqueness, highlighting Navarre's own autonomy. Resolution of the General Assembly of the European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages, 13 September 2003 (Helsinki), on the situation of the Basque language in the Autonomous Community of Navarre. Reported in MERCATOR Butlleti 55: "Speakers of a regional or minority language should have the right to use their language in private and public life. Contrary to these principles, local authorities from Iruña/Pamplona (capital city of the Autonomous Community of Navarre in Spain) have been implementing a series of reforms to the Autonomous Community legislation limiting the use of the Basque language. Basque is the only endangered language in the Autonomous Community of Navarre…" The situation of Basque is also delicate in the North, where lack of autonomy and monolingual public schooling in French exert great pressure on the basque language. Political status and violence Since its articulation by Sabino Arana in the late nineteenth century, the more radical currents of Basque nationalism have demanded the right of self-determination and even independence. It should be noted that within the Basque country, that this element of Basque politics is often in balance with the conception of the Basque Country as just another part of the Spanish state, a view more commonly espoused on the right of the political spectrum. In contrast, the desire for greater autonomy and/or independence is particularly common among leftist Basque nationalists. The right of self-determination was asserted by the Basque Parliament in 2002 and 2006. EITB: Basque parliament adopts resolution on self-determination Since self-determination is not recognized in the Spanish Constitution of 1978, a wide majority of Basques abstained and some even voted against it in the referendum of December 6 of that year. However, it was approved by clear majority at the Spanish level, and simple majority at Navarrese and Basque levels. The derived autonomous regimes for the (Western) Basque Country was approved in later referendum but the autonomy of Navarre (amejoramiento del fuero: "improvement of the charter") was never subject to referendum but just approved by the Navarrese Cortes (parliament). Political violence Classification As with their language, the Basques are clearly a distinct ethnic group in their region. They notably regard themselves as culturally and especially linguistically distinct from their surrounding neighbours. Some Basques, especially in Spain, are strongly nationalist, identifying far more firmly as Basques than as citizens of any existing state. Others are not, feeling as much Basque as Spanish Euskobarómetro series, Evolución de la identidad nacional subjetiva de los vascos, 1981-2006. "As Basque as Spanish" shows 33% of the citizens of the Basque Autonomous Community in late 2006. . Many Basques regard designation as an "ethnic minority" as incomplete, favouring instead the definition as a nation. In modern times, as a European people living in a highly industrialized area, cultural differences from the rest of Europe are inevitably blurred, although a conscious cultural identity as a people or nation remains very strong, as does an identification with their homeland, even among many Basques who have emigrated to other parts of Spain or France, or to other parts of the world. The strongest distinction between the Basques and their traditional neighbours is linguistic. Surrounded by Romance-language speakers, the Basques traditionally spoke (and many still speak) a language that was not only non-Romance but non-Indo-European. Although the evidence is open to question, the prevailing belief among Basques, and forming part of their national identity, is that their language has continuity to the people who were in this region not merely in pre-Roman times, but in pre-Celtic times, quite possibly before the great invasions of Europe by Asian tribes. Genetics Although they are genetically distinctive in some ways, the Basques are still very typically west European in terms of their Mt-DNA and Y-DNA sequences, and in terms of some other genetic loci. These same sequences are widespread throughout the western half of Europe, especially along the western fringe of the continent. The Sami people of northern Scandinavia show an especially high abundance of a Mt-DNA type found at 11% among Basques. Somewhat higher among neighbouring Cantabrians, the isolated Pasiegos have a Mt-DNA V haplogroup of wider microsatellite variation than Sami. Atlas of the Human Journey - The Genographic Project I. Dupanloup et al., Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans M. Pericic et al., High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of South-eastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations Autosomal genetic studies confirm that Basques have a very close relationship with other Europeans, especially with Spaniards - who have a common genetic identity of over 70% with Basques. "Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans" Isabelle Dupanloup*,1, Giorgio Bertorelle*, Lounès Chikhi and Guido Barbujani* Dipartimento di Biologia, Università di Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy UMR Evolution et Diversité Biologique, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France. Molecular Biology and Evolution. Volume 21, Number 7, 2004. Pp. 1361-1372. It is thought that the Basque Country and neighbouring regions served as a refuge for palaeolithic humans during the last major glaciation when environments further north were too cold and dry for continuous habitation. When climate warmed into the present interglacial, populations would have rapidly spread north along the west European coast. Genetically, in terms of Y-chromosomes and Mt-DNA, inhabitants of Britain and Ireland are closely related to the Basques, McDonald, World Haplogroups Maps A United Kingdom? Maybe reflecting their common origin in this refugial area. Basques, along with Irish, show the highest frequency of the Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup R1b in Western Europe; some 90% to 95% of males residing in the Basque country and Navarre have this haplogroup. The rest is mainly I and a minimal presence of E3b.The Y-chromosome and MtDNA relationship between Basques and people of Ireland and Wales is of equal ratios as to neighbouring areas of Spain, where similar "ethnically Spanish" people now live in close proximity to the Basques, although this genetic relationship is also very strong among Basques and other Spaniards. In fact, as Stephen Oppenheimer has stated in "The Origins of the British" (2006), although Basques have been more isolated than other Iberians, they are a population representative of south western Europe. As to the genetic relationship among Basques, Iberians and Britons, he also states (pages 375 and 378): By far the majority of male gene types in the British Isles derive from Iberia (modern Spain and Portugal), ranging from a low of 59% in Fakenham, Norfolk to highs of 96% in Llangefni, north Wales and 93% Castlerea, Ireland. On average only 30% of gene types in England derive from north-west Europe. Even without dating the earlier waves of north-west European immigration, this invalidates the Anglo-Saxon wipeout theory... ...75-95% of British and Irish (genetic) matches derive from Iberia...Ireland, coastal Wales, and central and west-coast Scotland are almost entirely made up from Iberian founders, while the rest of the non-English parts of the Britain and Ireland have similarly high rates. England has rather lower rates of Iberian types with marked heterogeneity, but no English sample has less than 58% of Iberian samples... Oppenheimer's denial of what he calls "Anglo-Saxon wipeout theory" could be interpreted as ultra-nationalistic and out of context: a massive exodus of Brythonic tribes from southern Great Britain towards Brittany in northwestern France due to the Anglo-Saxon and Norse invasions is not only widely accepted but linguistically proven, since the closest language to Cornish is Breton -- the language spoken in Brittany. In fact, according to a European-wide study, the main components in the European genomes appear to derive from ancestors whose features were similar to those of modern Basques and Near Easterners, with average values greater than 35% for both these parental populations, regardless of whether or not molecular information is taken into account. The lowest degree of both Basque and Near Eastern admixture is found in Finland, whereas the highest values are, respectively, 70% ("Basque") in Spain and more than 60% ("Near Eastern") in the Balkans. Table 3 Weighted Average Across Loci, and Standard Deviations (SD), of the Estimated Contributions of 4 Parental Populations to European Populations Oxford Journals Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans Before the development of modern genetics based on DNA sequencing, Basques were noted as having the highest global apportion of the Rh- blood type (35% phenotypically, 60% genetically). Additionally, the Basque population has virtually no B blood type, nor the related AB type. These differences are thought to reflect their long history of isolation, as well as times during which the Basque population contracted, allowing genetic drift to dramatically influence genetic makeup. The history of isolation reflected in gene frequencies has presumably also been key to the retention of the distinctive Basque language. In fact, in accordance with other genetic studies, a recent genetic piece of research from 2007 claims: "The Spanish and Basque groups are the furthest away from other continental groups (with more diversity within the same genetic groups) which is consistent with the suggestions that the Iberian peninsula holds the most ancient West European genetic ancestry." Notables Among the most notable Basque people are Juan Sebastián de Elcano (led the first successful expedition to circumnavigate the globe after Magellan died mid-journey); Sancho III of Navarre; and Ignatius of Loyola and Francis Xavier, founders of the Society of Jesus. See also Origin of the Basques Genetic history of Europe Basque Country (historical territory) Basque language Basque Country (autonomous community) List of Basques Navarre Northern Basque Country Duchy of Vasconia Kingdom of Navarre Spanish people French people Red Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador Jai-Alai Celtiberians Milesius Nationalities in Spain Basque diaspora Late basquenization Footnotes References The Basques, the Catalans and Spain, Daniele Conversi, 2000, ISBN 1850652686. The Basque History of the World, Mark Kurlansky, 1999, ISBN 0802713491. The Oldest Europeans, J.F. del Giorgio, A.J.Place, 2006, ISBN 9806898001. Ethnologue report for France for population statistics in France. Euskal Herria en la Prehistoria, Xabier Peñalver Iribarren, 1996, ISBN 84-89077-58-4. Gimbutas, Marija, The Living Goddesses (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). Hadingham, Evan, “Europe’s Mystery People,” World Monitor, September 1992, vol. 5, Issue 9 Hamilton, Carrie, “Remembering the Basque nationalist family: daughters, fathers and the reproduction of the radical nationalist community,” Journal of Spanish Cultural Studies, Vol. 1, No. 2, 2000, Morvan, Michel,Les Origines Linguistiques du Basque, Bordeaux, 1996. External links Euskal Identity Kultur Elkartea Euskal Diaspora Euskara Kultur Elkargoa- Basque Cultural Foundation History since the last Ice Age: National and International DNA Projects mentions genetic studies over the Basques' origin. NABO (North American Basque Organizations, Inc.) official web site Basque heritage in North America and Basque diaspora today. Basque heritage in Argentina. Basque Studies Society-Eusko Ikaskuntza. A Basque Encyclopedia and other cultural and historical funds. Euskonews, Magazine edited by the Basque Studies Society. Network for the Global Basque Community - from Basque Studies Society-Eusko Ikaskuntza. Basque Autonomous Government. Brief history of Basque whaling Euskal Herria Info (in Basque) Center for Basque Studies, University of Nevada, Reno Buber's Basque page March 6, 2007 New York Times article Georgians, Basques Linked Culturally. Exhibit Pays 'Homage'. 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6,322 | Global_Climate_Coalition | The Global Climate Coalition was a group of mainly United States businesses opposing immediate action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The group formed in 1989 as a response to several reports from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. A major scientific report on the severity of global warming by the IPCC in 2001 led to large-scale membership loss. Shulman, Seth. Smoke, Mirrors & Hot Air: How ExxonMobil Uses Big Tobacco's Tactics to Manufacture Uncertainty on Climate Science, Union of Concerned Scientists, p9. 2007. Since 2002 the GCC has been defunct, or in its own words, "deactivated". globalclimate.org, Internet Archive. It said of itself: The Global Climate Coalition has been deactivated. The industry voice on climate change has served its purpose by contributing to a new national approach to global warming. Benjamin D. Santer, a climate change researcher, wrote: "The Global Climate Coalition - a less than disinterested party - has made serious allegations regarding the scientific integrity of the Lead Authors of Chapter 8, and of the IPCC process itself." (Source: E-mail correspondence between S. Fred Singer and Ben Santer) In April 2009, the New York Times reported on a document revealed in court as part of a lawsuit. The document demonstrated that "even as the coalition worked to sway opinion, its own scientific and technical experts were advising that the science backing the role of greenhouse gases in global warming could not be refuted." Revkin, Andrew C. Industry Ignored Its Scientists on Climate, New York Times. April 23, 2009. Prominent members (to 1997) Exxon / Esso Ford Royal Dutch/Shell Texaco British Petroleum General Motors DaimlerChrysler The Aluminum Association Between 1997 and the Coalition's deactivation in 2001, a number of its members left, as part of their move to acknowledge global warming and attempt to reduce their carbon emissions (see Business action on climate change). Dupont and British Petroleum left in 1997, Royal Dutch/Shell in 1998, Ford in 1999, and DaimlerChrysler, General Motors, and Texaco in 2000. External links GCC homepage - No longer active as of March 2006; internet archive version References and notes Bob May, The Guardian, 27 January 2005, Under-informed | Global_Climate_Coalition |@lemmatized global:7 climate:9 coalition:5 group:2 mainly:1 united:1 state:1 business:2 oppose:1 immediate:1 action:2 reduce:2 greenhouse:2 gas:2 emission:2 form:1 response:1 several:1 report:3 intergovernmental:1 panel:1 change:4 major:1 scientific:3 severity:1 warming:4 ipcc:2 lead:2 large:1 scale:1 membership:1 loss:1 shulman:1 seth:1 smoke:1 mirror:1 hot:1 air:1 exxonmobil:1 use:1 big:1 tobacco:1 tactic:1 manufacture:1 uncertainty:1 science:2 union:1 concerned:1 scientist:2 since:1 gcc:2 defunct:1 word:1 deactivate:2 globalclimate:1 org:1 internet:2 archive:2 say:1 industry:2 voice:1 serve:1 purpose:1 contribute:1 new:3 national:1 approach:1 benjamin:1 santer:2 researcher:1 write:1 less:1 disinterested:1 party:1 make:1 serious:1 allegation:1 regard:1 integrity:1 author:1 chapter:1 process:1 source:1 e:1 mail:1 correspondence:1 fred:1 singer:1 ben:1 april:2 york:2 time:2 document:2 reveal:1 court:1 part:2 lawsuit:1 demonstrate:1 even:1 work:1 sway:1 opinion:1 technical:1 expert:1 advise:1 back:1 role:1 could:1 refute:1 revkin:1 andrew:1 c:1 ignore:1 prominent:1 member:2 exxon:1 esso:1 ford:2 royal:2 dutch:2 shell:2 texaco:2 british:2 petroleum:2 general:2 motor:2 daimlerchrysler:2 aluminum:1 association:1 deactivation:1 number:1 leave:2 move:1 acknowledge:1 attempt:1 carbon:1 see:1 dupont:1 external:1 link:1 homepage:1 longer:1 active:1 march:1 version:1 reference:1 note:1 bob:1 may:1 guardian:1 january:1 informed:1 |@bigram greenhouse_gas:2 intergovernmental_panel:1 global_warming:4 concerned_scientist:1 external_link:1 |
6,323 | Mobile,_Alabama | Mobile () is the third most populous city in the Southern U.S. state of Alabama and is the county seat of Mobile County. It is located on the Mobile River and the central Gulf Coast of the United States. The population within the city limits was 198,915 during the 2000 census. Mobile is the principal municipality of the Mobile Metropolitan Statistical Area, a region of 399,843 residents which is composed solely of Mobile County and is the second largest MSA in the state. Mobile is included in the Mobile-Daphne-Fairhope Combined Statistical Area with a total population of 540,258, the second largest combined statistical area in the state. Mobile began as the first capital of colonial French Louisiana in 1702. The city gained its name from the Native American Mobilian tribe that the French colonists found in the area of Mobile Bay. During its first 100 years, Mobile was a colony for France, then Britain, and lastly Spain. Mobile first became a part of the United States of America in 1813, left the United States with Alabama in 1861 to become a part of the Confederate States of America, and then returned to the United States in 1865. U.S. History, Retrieved May 5, 2007 Located at the junction of the Mobile River and Mobile Bay on the northern Gulf of Mexico, the city is the only seaport in Alabama. The Port of Mobile has always played a key role in the economic health of the city beginning with the city as a key trading center between the French and Native Americans Drechsel, Emanuel. Mobilian Jargon: Linguistic and Sociohistorical Aspects of a Native American Pidgin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0198240333 down to its current role as the 10th largest port in the United States. As one of the Gulf Coast's cultural centers, Mobile houses several art museums, a symphony orchestra, a professional opera, a professional ballet company, and a large concentration of historic architecture. Mobile is known for having the oldest organized Carnival celebrations in the United States, dating to the 1700s of its early colonial period. It was also host to the first formally organized Carnival mystic society or "krewe" in the United States, dating to 1830. People from Mobile are known as Mobilians. History Colonial European settlement of Mobile, then known as Fort Louis de la Louisiane, started in 1702, at Twenty-seven Mile Bluff on the Mobile River, as the first capital of the French colony of Louisiana. It was founded by French Canadian brothers Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville and Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, establish control over France's Louisiana claims. Bienville was made governor of French Louisiana in 1701. Mobile’s Roman Catholic parish was established on 20 July 1703, by Jean-Baptiste de la Croix de Chevrières de Saint-Vallier, Bishop of Quebec. Higginbotham, Jay. Old Mobile: Fort Louis de la Louisiane, 1702-1711, pages 106-107. Museum of the City of Mobile, 1977. ISBN 0914334034. The parish was the first established on the Gulf Coast of the United States. In 1704 the ship Pélican delivered 23 French women to the colony, along with yellow fever which passengers had contracted at a stop in Havana. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city,pages 20-21. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 Though most of the "Pélican girls" recovered, numerous colonists and neighboring Native Americans died from the illness. This early period was also the occasion of the arrival of the first African slaves, transported aboard a French supply ship from Saint-Domingue. The population of the colony fluctuated over the next few years, growing to 279 persons by 1708, yet descending to 178 persons two years later due to disease. Mobile and Fort Condé in 1725. These additional outbreaks of disease and a series of floods caused Bienville to order the town relocated several miles downriver to its present location at the confluence of the Mobile River and Mobile Bay in 1711. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city,pages 17-27. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 A new earth and palisade Fort Louis was constructed at the new site during this time. "Other Locations: Historic Fort Conde" (history), Museum of Mobile, Mobile, Alabama, 2006, webpage:MoM-Other By 1712, when Antoine Crozat took over administration of the colony by royal appointment, the colony boasted a population of 400 persons. The capital of Louisiana was moved to Biloxi in 1720, leaving Mobile in the role of military and trading center. In 1723 the construction of a new brick fort with a stone foundation began and it was renamed Fort Condé in honor of Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon and prince of Condé. In 1763, the Treaty of Paris was signed, ending the French and Indian War. The treaty ceded Mobile and the surrounding territory to the Kingdom of Great Britain, and it was made a part of the expanded British West Florida colony. The British changed the name of Fort Condé to Fort Charlotte, after Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, King George III's queen. The British were eager not to lose any useful inhabitants and promised religious tolerance to the French colonists, ultimately 112 French Mobilians remained in the colony. Thomason, Michael. Mobile: the new history of Alabama's first city,pages 44-45. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 In 1766 the population was estimated to be 860, though the town's borders were smaller than they had been during the French colonial efforts. During the American Revolutionary War, West Florida and Mobile became a refuge for loyalists fleeing the other colonies. Delaney, Caldwell. The Story of Mobile, page 45. Mobile, Alabama: Gill Press, 1953. ISBN 0940882140 The Spanish captured Mobile during the Battle of Fort Charlotte in 1780. They wished to eliminate any British threat to their Louisiana colony, which they had received from France in 1763s Treaty of Paris. Their actions were also condoned by the revolting American colonies due to the fact that West Florida, for the most part, remained loyal to the British Crown. The fort was renamed Fortaleza Carlota, with the Spanish holding Mobile as a part of Spanish West Florida until 1813, when it was seized by the U.S. General James Wilkinson during the War of 1812. 19th century HABS photo of the Southern Hotel (built c.1837) on Water Street. By the time Mobile was included in the Mississippi Territory in 1813, the population had dwindled to roughly 300 people. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, page 65. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 The city was included in the Alabama Territory in 1817, after Mississippi gained statehood. Alabama was granted statehood in 1819; Mobile's population had increased to 809 by that time. As the river frontage areas of Alabama and Mississippi were settled by farmers and the plantation economy became established, Mobile's population exploded. It came to be settled by merchants, attorneys, mechanics, doctors and others seeking to capitalize on trade with these upriver areas. Mobile was well situated for trade, as its location tied it to a river system that served as the principal navigational access for most of Alabama and a large part of Mississippi. By 1822 the city's population was 2800. From the 1830s onward, Mobile expanded into a city of commerce with a primary focus on the cotton trade. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, page 69-71. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 The waterfront was developed with wharves, terminal facilities, and fireproof brick warehouses. The exports of cotton grew in proportion to the amounts being produced in the Black Belt; by 1840 Mobile was second only to New Orleans in cotton exports in the nation. With the economy so focused on one crop, Mobile's fortunes were always tied to those of cotton, and the city weathered many financial crises. Though Mobile had a relatively small slave-owning population compared to the inland plantation areas, it was the slave-trading center of the state until surpassed by Montgomery in the 1850s. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, pages 79-80. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 By 1860 Mobile's population within the city limits had reached 29,258 people; it was the 27th largest city in the United States and 4th largest in what would soon be the Confederate States of America. The free population in the whole of Mobile County, including the city, consisted of 29,754 citizens, of which only 1195 were black. Additionally, 1785 slave owners held 11,376 slaves, for a total county population of 41,130 people. The Tacon-Barfield Mansion (built c. 1896) on Government Street. During the American Civil War, Mobile was a Confederate city. The first submarine to successfully sink an enemy ship, the H. L. Hunley, was built in Mobile. One of the most famous naval engagements of the war was the Battle of Mobile Bay, resulting in the Union taking possession of Mobile Bay on 5 August 1864. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, page 113. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 On 12 April 1865, 3 days after the surrender of Robert E. Lee at Appomattox Courthouse, the city of Mobile surrendered to the Union army to avoid destruction following the Union victories at the Battle of Spanish Fort and the Battle of Fort Blakely. Ironically, on 25 May 1865, the city suffered loss when some three hundred people died as a result of an explosion at a federal ammunition depot on Beauregard Street. The explosion left a deep hole at the depot's location, sunk ships docked on the Mobile River, and the resulting fires destroyed the northern portion of the city. Delaney, Caldwell. The Story of Mobile, pages 144-146. Mobile, Alabama: Gill Press, 1953. ISBN 0940882140 Federal Reconstruction in Mobile began after the Civil War and effectively ended in 1874 when the local Democrats gained control of the city government. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, page 153. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 The last quarter of the 19th century was a time of economic depression and municipal insolvency for Mobile. One example can be provided by the value of Mobile's exports during this period of depression. The value of exports leaving the city fell from $9 million in 1878 to $3 million in 1882. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, page 145. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 20th century The turn of the century brought the Progressive Era to Mobile and saw Mobile's economic structure evolve along with a significant increase in population. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, pages 154-169. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 The population increased from around 40,000 in 1900 to 60,000 by 1920. During this time the city received $3 million in federal grants for harbor improvements to deepen the shipping channels in the harbor. During and after World War I, manufacturing became increasingly vital to Mobile's economic health, with shipbuilding and steel production being two of the most important. During this time, social justice and race relations in Mobile worsened, however. In 1902 the city government passed Mobile's first segregation ordinance, one that segregated the city streetcars. It legislated what had been informal practice, enforced by convention. Mobile's African-American population responded to this with a two-month boycott, but it did not change the law. After this, Mobile's de facto segregation was increasingly replaced with legislated segregation as whites imposed Jim Crow to maintain dominance. Dauphin Street looking east toward the RSA Battle House Tower and AmSouth Bank Building. World War II led to a massive military effort causing a considerable increase in Mobile's population, largely due to the massive influx of workers coming to Mobile to work in the shipyards and at the Brookley Army Air Field. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, pages 213-217. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 Between 1940 and 1943, more than 89,000 people moved into Mobile to work for war effort industries. Mobile was one of eighteen U.S. cities producing Liberty ships. Its Alabama Drydock and Shipbuilding Company supported the war effort by producing ships faster than the Axis powers could sink them. Gulf Shipbuilding Corporation, a subsidiary of Waterman Steamship Corporation, focused on building freighters, Fletcher class destroyers, and minesweepers. The years after World War II brought about changes in Mobile's social structure and economy. Instead of shipbuilding being a primary economic force, the paper and chemical industries began to expand, and most of the old military bases were converted to civilian uses. After World War II and their sacrifices in service, African Americans stepped up their efforts to achieve equal rights and social justice. Some residents of Mobile had considered the city to be tolerant and racially accommodating compared to other cities in the South, especially as the police force and one local college became integrated in the 1950s. Buses and lunch counters were voluntarily desegregated by the early 1960s. Mobile's African-American citizens were not as content with the status quo as such residents believed. In 1963 three African-American students brought a case against the Mobile County School Board for being denied admission to Murphy High School. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, pages 260-261. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 The court ordered that the three students be admitted to Murphy for the 1964 school year, leading to the desegregation of Mobile County's school system. The Civil Rights Movement led to the end of legal racial segregation with passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In the late 1960s, Mobile's economy was dealt a blow with the closing of Brookley Air Force Base. This and other factors ushered in a period of economic depression that lasted through the 1970s. Beginning in the late 1980s, the new mayor, Mike Dow, and the city council began an effort termed the "String of Pearls Initiative" to make Mobile into a competitive city. The city initiated construction of numerous new facilities and projects, and the restoration of hundreds of historic downtown buildings and homes. Violent crime was reduced, and city and county leaders attracted new business ventures to the area. The effort continues into the present under the current mayor, Sam Jones, and city council. Shipbuilding began to make a major comeback in Mobile in 1999 with the founding of Austal USA. Geography and climate Geography Mobile is located at 30°40'46" North, 88°6'12" West (30.679523, -88.103280), in the southwestern corner of the U.S. state of Alabama. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 412.9 km² (159.4 mi²). 305.4 km² (117.9 mi²) of it is land and 107.6 km² (41.5 mi²) of it is water. The elevation in Mobile ranges from on Water Street in downtown to at the Mobile Regional Airport. Climate Mobile's geographical location on the Gulf of Mexico provides a mild subtropical climate, with an average annual temperature of . Normal average January through December temperatures range from minimum and maximum. Mobile has hot, humid summers and mild, rainy winters. A 2007 study by WeatherBill, Inc. determined that Mobile is the wettest city in the contiguous 48 states, with of average annual rainfall. Thompsen, Andrea (May 22, 2007) "Study Reveals Top 10 Wettest U.S. Cities." Mobile averages 59 rainy days per year. Snow is rare in Mobile, with the last snowfall being on 18 December 1996.<ref name="nws">{{cite web|title=Evolution of a Central Gulf Coast Heavy Snowband|work=NOAA.gov|url=http://www.srh.noaa.gov/mob/121896Snow/18Dec96main.html|accessdate=2007-11-09}}</ref> Mobile is occasionally affected by major tropical storms and hurricanes. Mobile suffered a major natural disaster on the night of 12 September 1979 when Category 3 Hurricane Frederic passed over the heart of the city. The storm caused tremendous damage to Mobile and the surrounding area. Mobile had moderate damage from Hurricane Opal on 4 October 1995 and Hurricane Ivan on 16 September 2004. Mobile also suffered moderate damage from Hurricane Katrina on 29 August 2005. A storm surge of damaged eastern sections of Mobile and caused extensive flooding in downtown. Culture Mobile is home to an array of cultural influences with its mixed French, Spanish, Creole and Catholic heritage, in addition to British and African, distinguishing it from all other cities in the state of Alabama. The annual Carnival celebration is perhaps the best illustration of this. Mobile has the oldest Mardi Gras celebration, dating to the early 1700s of French colonial times. Carnival in Mobile has evolved over the course of 300 years from a sedate French Catholic tradition into a mainstream multi-week celebration across the spectrum of cultures. Carnival and Mardi Gras A Carnival parade on Royal Street in Mobile. Mobile's Carnival celebrations start as early as November with several balls, with the parades usually beginning after January 5. Carnival celebrations end promptly at the stroke of midnight on Mardi Gras, signaling the beginning of Ash Wednesday and the first day of Lent. In Mobile, locals use the term Mardi Gras as a shorthand to refer to the entire Carnival season, although it literally means Fat Tuesday, the day before Ash Wednesday and the beginning of Lent. During this time Mobile's mystic societies build colorful Carnival floats and parade throughout downtown with masked society members tossing small gifts, known as throws, to parade spectators. Mobile's mystic societies, essentially private clubs, also give formal masquerade balls, which are almost always invitation only and are oriented to adults. Mobile first celebrated Carnival in 1703 when French settlers began the festivities at the Old Mobile Site. Mobile's first Carnival society began in 1711 with the Boeuf Gras Society (Fatted Ox Society). In 1830 Mobile's Cowbellion de Rakin Society was the first formally organized and masked mystic society in the United States to celebrate with a parade. The Cowbellions got their start when Michael Krafft, a cotton factor from Pennsylvania, began a parade with rakes, hoes, and cowbells. The Cowbellians introduced horse-drawn floats to the parades in 1840 with a parade entitled, “Heathen Gods and Goddesses". The Striker's Independent Society was formed in 1843 and is the oldest surviving mystic society in the United States. Carnival celebrations in Mobile were cancelled during the American Civil War. In 1866 Joe Cain revived Mardi Gras parades when he paraded through the city streets on Fat Tuesday while costumed as a fictional Chickasaw chief named Slacabamorinico. He celebrated the day in front of the occupying Union Army troops. "Joe Cain Articles" (newspaper story), Joe Danborn & Cammie East, Mobile Register, 2001, webpage: CMW-history. The year 2002 saw Mobile's Tricentennial celebrated with parades that represented all of Mobile's mystic societies, both black and white. In 2009, for the first time in the city's history, Mardi Gras reached the 1,000,000-attendee milestone during the 5-day citywide celebration . Archives and libraries The Ben May Main Library on Government Street. The National African American Archives and Museum features the history of "Colored Carnival", African-American participation in Mobile's Mardi Gras; authentic artifacts from the era of slavery, and portraits and biographies of famous African Americans. The University of South Alabama Archives houses primary source material relating to the history of Mobile and southern Alabama, as well as the university's history. The archives are located on the ground floor of the USA Spring Hill Campus and are open to the general public. The Mobile Municipal Archives contains the extant records of the City of Mobile, dating from the city's creation as a municipality by the Mississippi Territory in 1814. The majority of the original records of Mobile's colonial history (1702-1813) are housed in Paris, London, Seville, and Madrid. The Mobile Genealogical Society Library and Media Center is located at the Holy Family Catholic Church and School complex. It features handwritten manuscripts and published materials for use in genealogical research. The Mobile Public Library system serves Mobile and consists of eight branches across Mobile County, featuring its own large local history and genealogy division housed in a facility next to the newly restored and enlarged Ben May Main Library on Government Street. The Saint Ignatius Archives, Museum and Theological Research Library contains primary sources, artifacts, documents, photographs and publications that pertain to the history of Saint Ignatius Church and School, the Catholic history of the city, and the history of the Roman Catholic Church. Entertainment and arts The Mobile Museum of Art features European, Non-Western, American, and Decorative Arts collections. The Saenger Theatre of Mobile was opened in 1927 and is a modern dynamic performing arts center. It is home to the Mobile Symphony, conducted by Maestro Scott Speck, and Space 301, a contemporary art gallery. It also serves as a small concert venue for the city. Mobile Saenger Theater History, Retrieved May 5, 2007 The Mobile Civic Center contains three facilities under one roof. The building has an arena, a theater and an exposition hall. It is the primary concert venue for the city and hosts a wide variety of events. It is home to the Mobile Opera and the Mobile Ballet. The 60-year old Mobile Opera averages about 1,200 attendees per performance. A wide variety of events are held at Mobile's Arthur C. Outlaw Convention Center. It contains a exhibit hall, a grand ballroom, and sixteen meeting rooms. Additionally, the city sponsors BayFest, an annual three-day music festival with over 125 live musical acts on nine stages. Tourism Museums Mobile is home to a variety of museums. Battleship Memorial Park is a military park on the shore of Mobile Bay and features the World War II era battleship USS Alabama (BB-60), the World War II era submarine USS Drum (SS-228), Korean War and Vietnam War Memorials, and a variety of historical military equipment. The Museum of Mobile chronicles 300 years of Mobile history and material culture and is housed in the historic Old City Hall (1857). The Oakleigh Historic Complex features three house museums that interpret the lives of people from three levels of Mobile society in the mid-19th century. The Mobile Carnival Museum, which houses the city's Mardi Gras history and memorabilia, documents the variety of floats, costumes, and displays seen during the history of the festival season. Andrews, Casandra, "Master of make-Believe", Press Register, Mobile, Alabama: 28 January 2007. The Bragg-Mitchell Mansion (1855), Richards DAR House (1860), and the Conde-Charlotte House (1822) are historic antebellum house museums. Fort Morgan, Fort Gaines, and Historic Blakeley State Park figure into local American Civil War history. The Mobile Medical Museum is housed in the historic Vincent-Doan House (1827) and features artifacts and resources that chronicle the history of medicine in Mobile. The Phoenix Fire Museum is located in the restored Phoenix Volunteer Fire Company Number 6 building and features the history of fire companies in Mobile from their organization in 1838. The Mobile Police Department Museum features exhibits that chronicle the history of law enforcement in Mobile. The Gulf Coast Exploreum is a non-profit science center located in downtown. It features permanent and traveling exhibits, an IMAX dome theater, a digital 3D virtual theater, and a hands-on chemistry laboratory. The Dauphin Island Sea Lab is located south of the city near the mouth of Mobile Bay. It houses the Estuarium, an aquarium which illustrates the four habitats of the Mobile Bay ecosystem: the river delta, bay, barrier islands and Gulf of Mexico. Parks and other attractions Bienville Square from Saint Joseph Street. The Mobile Botanical Gardens feature a variety of flora spread over . It contains the Millie McConnell Rhododendron Garden with 1,000 evergreen and native azaleas and the Longleaf Pine Habitat. The Bellingrath Gardens and Home are located on Fowl River and contain of landscaped gardens and a mansion dating to the 1930s. The 5 Rivers Delta Resource Center is a new facility for exploring the Mobile, Spanish, Tensaw, Appalachee, and Blakeley River delta. Mobile has more than 45 public parks with some that are of special interest. Bienville Square is a historic park dating to 1850 in the Lower Dauphin Street Historic District and is named for Mobile’s founder, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville. Delaney, Caldwell. The Story of Mobile,page 79. Mobile, Alabama: Gill Press, 1953. This park was once a principal gathering place for the citizens of the city and remains popular today. Cathedral Square is a performing arts park in the Lower Dauphin Street Historic District overlooked by the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception. Fort Condé is a reconstruction of the original Fort Condé, built on the old fort's footprint. It is the city’s official welcome center and living history museum. Spanish Plaza is a downtown park that honors the Spanish occupation of the city between 1780 and 1813. It features the "Arches of Friendship", a fountain presented to Mobile by the city of Málaga, Spain. Langan Park is a municipal park that features lakes and natural spaces. It is home to the Mobile Museum of Art, Azalea City Golf Course, Mobile Botanical Gardens and Playhouse in the Park. Historic architecture A house within the De Tonti Square Historic District. Mobile has antebellum architectural examples of Greek Revival, Gothic Revival, Italianate, and Creole cottage. Later architectural styles found in the city include the various Victorian types, shotgun types, Colonial Revival, Tudor Revival, Spanish Colonial Revival, Beaux-Arts and many others. The city currently has nine major historic districts consisting of Old Dauphin Way, Oakleigh Garden, Lower Dauphin Street, Leinkauf, De Tonti Square, Church Street East, Ashland Place, Campground, and Midtown. The old United States Marine Hospital, restored and adapted for reuse by the Mobile County Health Department. Mobile has a number of historic structures spread throughout the city. Some of Mobile's historic churches include Christ Church Cathedral, the Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, Emanuel AME Church, Government Street Presbyterian Church, St. Louis Street Missionary Baptist Church, State Street AME Zion Church, Stone Street Baptist Church, and Trinity Episcopal Church. Two historic Roman Catholic convents survive, the Convent and Academy of the Visitation and the Convent of Mercy. Barton Academy is a historic Greek Revival school building and local landmark on Government Street. The Bishop Portier House and the Carlen House are two of the many surviving examples of Creole cottages in the city. The Mobile City Hospital and the United States Marine Hospital are both restored Greek Revival hospital buildings that predate the Civil War. The Washington Firehouse No. 5 is a Greek Revival fire station, built in 1851. The Hunter House is an example of the Italianate style and was built by a successful 19th century African American businesswoman. The Shepard House is a good example of the Queen Anne style. The Scottish Rite Temple is the only surviving example of Egyptian Revival architecture in the city. The Gulf, Mobile, and Ohio Passenger Terminal is an example of the Mission Revival style. The city has several historic cemeteries that were established after the colonial era. They replaced Mobile's colonial Campo Santo, of which no traces remain. The Church Street Graveyard contains above-ground tombs and monuments spread over and was founded in 1819, during the height of the yellow fever epidemics. The nearby Magnolia Cemetery was established in 1836 and was Mobile's primary burial site during the 19th century with approximately 80,000 burials. It features tombs and many intricately carved monuments and statues. Sledge, John Sturdivant. Cities of Silence: A Guide to Mobile's Historic Cemeteries, pages 24-26. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2002. The Catholic Cemetery was established in 1848 by the Archdiocese of Mobile and covers more than . It contains plots for the Brothers of the Sacred Heart, Little Sisters of the Poor, Sisters of Charity, and Sisters of Mercy, in addition to many other historically significant burials. Sledge, John Sturdivant. Cities of Silence: A Guide to Mobile's Historic Cemeteries, pages 66-79. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2002. Mobile's Jewish community dates back to the 1820s and the city has two historic Jewish cemeteries, Ahavas Chesed Cemetery and Sha'arai Shomayim Cemetery. Sledge, John Sturdivant. Cities of Silence: A Guide to Mobile's Historic Cemeteries, pages 80-89. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 2002. Demographics Map showing the city's average number of inhabitants per square mile of land in 2000. The 2000 census determined that there were 198,915 people residing within the city limits. Mobile is the center of Alabama's second-largest metropolitan area, which consists of all of Mobile County. Metropolitan Mobile (MSA) had a population of 399,843 as of 2000 census. There were 73,057 households out of which 22,225 had children under the age of 18 living with them, 29,963 were married couples living together, 15,360 had a female householder with no husband present, 3,488 had a male householder with no wife present, and 24,246 were non-families. 20,957 of all households were made up of individuals and 7,994 had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The racial makeup of the city was 48.2% White, 47.9% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American, 1.8% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 0.5% from other races, 0.9% from two or more races, and 1.2% of the population were Latino. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.23. The population was spread out with 7.1% under the age of 5, 73.6% over 18, and 13.4% over 65. The median age was 35.6 years. The male population was 47.6% and the female population was 52.4%. The median income for a household in the city was $37,439, and the median income for a family was $45,217. The per capita income for the city was $21,612. 21.3% of the population and 17.6% of families were below the poverty line. Government Government Plaza in Mobile, seat of government for the city and the county. Since 1985 the government of Mobile has consisted of a mayor and a seven member city council. The mayor is elected at-large and the council members are elected from each of the seven city council districts. A supermajority of five votes is required to conduct council business. This form of city government was chosen by the voters after the previous form of government, which used three city commissioners who were elected at-large, was ruled to substantially dilute the African American vote in the 1975 case Bolden v. City of Mobile. Thomason, Michael. Mobile : the new history of Alabama's first city, pages 272-273. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2001. ISBN 0817310657 Municipal elections are held every four years. The current mayor, Sam Jones, was elected in September 2005 and is the first African American mayor of Mobile. As of January 2006, the city council is composed of Fredrick Richardson, Jr. from District 1, William Carroll from District 2, Clinton Johnson from District 3, John C. Williams from District 4, Reggie Copeland, Sr. from District 5, Connie Hudson from District 6, and Gina Gregory from District 7. Reggie Copeland, Sr. is currently serving as Council President with Fredrick Richardson, Jr. serving as Council Vice President. In January 2008, the city hired EDSA, an urban design firm, to create a new comprehensive master plan for the downtown area and surrounding neighborhoods. The planning area is bordered on the east by the Mobile River, to the south by Interstate 10 and Duval Street, to the west by Houston Street and to the north by Three Mile Creek and the neighborhoods north of Martin Luther King Avenue. Education Primary and secondary Public facilities Public schools in Mobile are operated by the Mobile County Public School System. The Mobile County Public School System has an enrollment of over 65,000 students, employs approximately 8,500 public school employees, and had a budget in 2005-2006 of $617,162,616. The new plant is currently under construction in northern Mobile County. Company officials state that 2,700 permanent jobs will be added to the local economy. Brookley Complex The Brookley Complex, also known as the Mobile Downtown Airport, is an industrial complex and airport located south of the central business district of the city. It is currently the largest industrial and transportation complex in the region with over 100 companies, many of which are aerospace, and 4000 employees on . Brookley includes the largest private employer in Mobile County, Mobile Aerospace Engineering, a subsidiary of Singapore Technologies Engineering. Transportation Air Local airline passengers are served by the Mobile Regional Airport, with direct connections to five major hub airports: Charlotte, Dallas, Atlanta, Houston, and Memphis. It is served by American Eagle Airlines, Continental Express, Delta Air Lines, Northwest Airlink and US Airways Express. The Mobile Downtown Airport serves corporate, cargo and private cargo aircraft. Rail Mobile is served by four Class I railroads, including the Canadian National Railway (CNR), CSX Transportation (CSX), the Kansas City Southern Railway (KCS), and the Norfolk Southern Railway (NS). The Alabama and Gulf Coast Railway, a Class III railroad, links Mobile to the Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway at Amory, Mississippi. These converge at the Port of Mobile, which provides intermodal freight transport service to companies engaged in importing and exporting. Other railroads include the Terminal Railway of Alabama State Docks (TASD), a switching railroad, and the Central Gulf Railroad, a rail ship service to Coatzacoalcos, Veracruz. The city was served by Amtrak's Sunset Limited passenger train service until 2005, when the service was suspended due to the effects of Hurricane Katrina. Road Eastbound Interstate 10 in Mobile as it approaches the Wallace Tunnel. Two major interstate highways and a spur converge in Mobile. Interstate 10 runs northeast to southwest across the city while Interstate 65 starts in Mobile at Interstate 10 and runs north. Interstate 165 connects to Interstate 65 north of the city in Prichard and joins Interstate 10 in downtown Mobile. Mobile is well served by many major highway systems. United States Highways US 31, US 43, US 45, US 90 and US 98 radiate from Mobile traveling east, west, and north. Mobile has three routes east across the Mobile River and Mobile Bay into neighboring Baldwin County, Alabama. Interstate 10 leaves downtown through the George Wallace Tunnel under the river and then over the bay across the Jubilee Parkway to Spanish Fort/Daphne. US 98 leaves downtown through the Bankhead Tunnel under the river onto Blakeley Island and then over the bay across the Battleship Parkway into Spanish Fort, Alabama. US 90 travels over the Cochrane-Africatown USA Bridge to the north of downtown onto Blakeley Island where it becomes co-routed with US 98. Mobile's public transportation is the Wave Transit System which features buses with 18 fixed routes and neighborhood service. The Wave Transit System also operates the Moda! electric trolley service in downtown Mobile with 22 stops Monday through Saturday. Baylinc is a public transportation bus service provided by the Baldwin Rural Transit System in cooperation with the Wave Transit System that provides service between eastern Baldwin County and downtown Mobile. Baylinc operates Monday through Friday. Greyhound Lines provides intercity bus service between Mobile and many locations throughout the United States. Mobile is served by several taxi and limousine services. Water The Alabama Cruise Terminal on Water Street. The Port of Mobile has public, deepwater terminals with direct access to of inland and intracoastal waterways serving the Great Lakes, the Ohio and Tennessee river valleys (via the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway), and the Gulf of Mexico. The Alabama State Port Authority owns and operates the public terminals at the Port of Mobile. The public terminals handle containerized, bulk, breakbulk, roll-on/roll-off, and heavy lift cargoes. The port is also home to private bulk terminal operators, as well as a number of highly specialized shipbuilding and repair companies with two of the largest floating dry docks on the Gulf Coast. The city is home port for Carnival Cruise Lines' MS Holiday cruise ship which sails on four and five day itineraries through the Western Caribbean from the Alabama Cruise Terminal on Water Street. The Holiday will be discontinued in late 2009, with the Carnival Fantasy replacing it. Media Print Mobile's Press-Register is Alabama's oldest active newspaper, dating back to 1813. "Newhouse News Service - The Press-Register" (description), Newhouse News Service, 2007, webpage:NH-Register. The paper focuses on Mobile and Baldwin counties and the city of Mobile, but also serves southwestern Alabama and southeastern Mississippi. Mobile's alternative newspaper is the Lagniappe. The Mobile area's local magazine is Mobile Bay Monthly. The Mobile Beacon is an alternative focusing on the African-American communities of Mobile. The Mobilian'' is a web-based, interactive portal with a focus on cultured-living in Mobile. Television Mobile is served locally by four television stations: WPMI 15 (NBC), WKRG 5 (CBS), WALA 10 (FOX), and WBPG 55 (CW). The regional area is also served by WEAR 3 (ABC) and WJTC 44, an independent station. They are both based in Pensacola, Florida. Mobile is included in the Mobile-Pensacola-Fort Walton Beach designated market area, as defined by Nielsen Media Research, and is ranked 61st in the United States for the 2007-08 television season. Radio Thirteen FM radio stations transmit from Mobile: WABB-FM, WAVH, WBHY, WBLX, WDLT, WHIL, WKSJ, WKSJ-HD2, WMXC, WMXC-HD2, WQUA, WRKH, and WRKH-HD2. Nine AM radio stations transmit from Mobile: WABB, WBHY, WGOK, WIJD, WLPR, WLVV, WMOB, WNTM, and WXQW. The content ranges from Christian Contemporary to Hip hop to Top 40. Arbitron ranks Mobile's radio market as 93rd in the United States as of autumn 2007. Sports Mobile is the home of Ladd-Peebles Stadium. The football stadium opened in 1948. With a current capacity of 40,646, Ladd-Peebles Stadium is the 4th largest stadium in the state. Ladd-Peebles Stadium has been home to the Senior Bowl since 1951, featuring the best college seniors in NCAA football. The GMAC Bowl has been played since 1999 featuring opponents from the Mid-American Conference and Conference USA. Since 1988, Ladd-Peebles Stadium has hosted the Alabama-Mississippi All-Star Classic. The top graduating high school seniors from their respective states compete each June. The public Mobile Tennis Center includes over 50 courts, all lighted and hard-court. For golfers, Magnolia Grove, part of the Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail, has 36 holes. The Falls course was recently named the best par 3 course in America. Since 1999, the LPGA Tournament of Champions has been played annually at Magnolia Grove. The Crossings course is home of this tournament. Beginning in 2008, the Bell Micro LPGA Classic will also be held in Mobile. Mobile is also home to the Azalea Trail Run, which races through historic midtown and downtown Mobile. This 10k run has been an annual event since 1978. The Azalea Trail Run is one of the premier 10k road races in the U.S., attracting runners from all over the world. Mobile's Hank Aaron Stadium is the home of the Mobile BayBears minor league baseball team. As of December 2007, Mobile's University of South Alabama approved a NCAA Football program to be played at Ladd-Peebles Stadium. Sister cities Mobile has sister city arrangements with the following cities: Cockburn, Australia Havana, Cuba Pau, France Worms, Germany Ariel, Israel Gaeta, Italy Ichihara, Japan Veracruz, Mexico Tianjin, People's Republic of China Bolinao, Philippines Katowice, Poland Constanţa, Romania Košice, Slovakia King Shaka District Municipality, South Africa Pyeongtaek, South Korea Málaga, Spain See also Mobile in popular culture People from Mobile National Register of Historic Places listings in Mobile County, Alabama References External links City of Mobile Mobile Area Chamber of Commerce Mobile Bay Convention & Visitors Bureau | Mobile,_Alabama |@lemmatized mobile:238 third:1 populous:1 city:100 southern:5 u:17 state:33 alabama:63 county:20 seat:2 locate:10 river:16 central:4 gulf:14 coast:7 united:17 population:23 within:4 limit:4 census:4 principal:3 municipality:3 metropolitan:3 statistical:3 area:17 region:2 resident:3 compose:2 solely:1 second:4 large:15 msa:2 include:11 daphne:2 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6,324 | NASDAQ | The National Association of Securities Dealers Automated Quotations known as NASDAQ, is an American stock exchange. It is the largest electronic screen-based equity securities trading market in the United States. With approximately 3,800 companies and corporations, it has more trading volume per hour than any other stock exchange in the world. It was founded in 1971 by the National Association of Securities Dealers (NASD), who divested themselves of it in a series of sales in 2000 and 2001. It is owned and operated by the NASDAQ OMX Group, the stock of which was listed on its own stock exchange in 2002, and is monitored by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). With the completed purchase of the Nordic-based operated exchange OMX, following its agreement with Borse Dubai, NASDAQ is poised to capture 67% of the controlling stake in the aforementioned exchange, thereby inching ever closer to taking over the company and creating a trans-atlantic powerhouse. The group, now known as Nasdaq-OMX, controls and operates the NASDAQ stock exchange in New York City -- the second largest exchange in the United States. It also operates eight stock exchanges in Europe and holds one-third of the Dubai Stock Exchange. It has a double-listing agreement with OMX, and will compete with NYSE Euronext group in attracting new listings. Quote availability NASDAQ quotes are available at three levels: Level 1 shows the highest bid and lowest offer — the inside quote. Level 2 shows all public quotes of market makers together with information of market makers wishing to sell or buy stock and recently executed orders. Level 3 is used by the market makers and allows them to enter their quotes and execute orders. Trading schedule NASDAQ has a pre-market session from 07:00am to 09:30am, a normal trading session from 09:30am to 04:00pm and a post-market session from 04:00pm to 08:00pm (all times in EST). Market Hours, NASDAQ via Wikinvest Indexes NASDAQ Composite NASDAQ-100 NASDAQ Biotechnology Index 6:00-9:45 Markets NASDAQ Global Select Market NASDAQ Global Market NASDAQ Capital Market NASDAQ PORTAL Market See also NASDAQ futures NASDAQ MarketSite ACT (NASDAQ) NASDAQ-100 References External links The NASDAQ Stock Market A history of major Indexes - Dow Jones, NASDAQ,SP500 NASDAQ OMX Group to Complete Acquisition of The Philadelphia Stock Exchange NASDAQ OMX Group Completes Acquisition of Boston Stock Exchange | NASDAQ |@lemmatized national:2 association:2 security:4 dealer:2 automate:1 quotation:1 know:2 nasdaq:23 american:1 stock:11 exchange:12 large:2 electronic:1 screen:1 base:2 equity:1 trade:1 market:13 united:2 state:2 approximately:1 company:2 corporation:1 trading:3 volume:1 per:1 hour:2 world:1 found:1 nasd:1 divest:1 series:1 sale:1 operate:3 omx:6 group:5 list:1 monitor:1 commission:1 sec:1 complete:3 purchase:1 nordic:1 operated:1 follow:1 agreement:2 borse:1 dubai:2 poise:1 capture:1 control:2 stake:1 aforementioned:1 thereby:1 inch:1 ever:1 close:1 take:1 create:1 trans:1 atlantic:1 powerhouse:1 new:2 york:1 city:1 second:1 also:2 eight:1 europe:1 hold:1 one:1 third:1 double:1 listing:2 compete:1 nyse:1 euronext:1 attract:1 quote:5 availability:1 available:1 three:1 level:4 show:2 high:1 bid:1 low:1 offer:1 inside:1 public:1 maker:3 together:1 information:1 wish:1 sell:1 buy:1 recently:1 execute:2 order:2 use:1 allow:1 enter:1 schedule:1 pre:1 session:3 normal:1 post:1 time:1 est:1 via:1 wikinvest:1 index:3 composite:1 biotechnology:1 global:2 select:1 capital:1 portal:1 see:1 future:1 marketsite:1 act:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 history:1 major:1 dow:1 jones:1 acquisition:2 philadelphia:1 boston:1 |@bigram stock_exchange:8 nyse_euronext:1 external_link:1 dow_jones:1 |
6,325 | Lydia_Kavina | Lydia Kavina (born September 8, 1967) is a Russian theremin virtuosa, and is currently the leading performing musician on the instrument. The grand-niece of Léon Theremin, Kavina was born in Moscow and began studying the instrument under the direction of Theremin when she was nine years old. Five years later, she gave her first theremin concert, which marked the beginning of a musical career that has so far led to more than 1000 theatre, radio, and television performances around the world. Kavina has appeared as a solo performer at such prestigious venues as the Bolshoi Saal of the Moscow Conservatory, Moscow International Art Centre with National Philarmonic of Russia under Vladimir Spivakov and Palace Bellevue in Berlin, the residence of the German President. She has also performed at leading festivals, including Caramoor with the Orchestra St. Luke's, New York's Lincoln Center Festival, Holland Music Festival, Martinu Festival, Electronic Music Festival in Burge and Moscow “Avantgarde”. Lydia performs most of the classical theremin repertoire, including popular works for theremin by B. Martinu, J. Schillinger, and Spellbound by M. Rosza, as well as the lesser-known Equatorial by Edgard Varèse and Testament by Nicolas Obouchov. In addition to giving concerts, Kavina is a composer of music for theremin and teaches the instrument in Western Europe, Russia and the United States. Together with the London Philharmonic Orchestra, she played theremin for Howard Shore's soundtrack of the Oscar-winning film Ed Wood, as well as for eXistenZ (also by Shore) and The Machinist. Additionally, Kavina has recorded several compact discs and is the subject of an instructional video from the theremin manufacturer Moog Music. She was also featured in stage productions such as Alice and The Black Rider (both conceived and directed by Robert Wilson, with music by Tom Waits) at the Thalia Theater in Hamburg, and in collaboration with the Russian experimental surf band Messer Chups. Lydia Kavina is an active promoter of new experimental music for the theremin. In collaboration with Barbara Buchholz and Kamerensemble Neue Musik Berlin, Kavina performed a number of concerts of contemporary works for theremin in Germany in 2005-2007 as part of the Touch! Don't Touch! - Music for Theremin project. The most notable project of her recent career is her theremin solo in The Little Mermaid, a ballet by Lera Auerbach, choreographed by John Neumeier in Copenhagen New Opera Haus and Hamburg State Opera (2007). Lydia has completed a number of her own compositions for theremin including a Concerto for Theremin and Symphony Orchestra, first performed by the Boston Modern Orchestra under the direction of Gil Rose. Kavina holds a degree in composition from The Moscow Conservatory, where she also completed a postgraduate assistantship program. CDs Music from the Ether, Mode records, 1999 Concerto per Theremin. Live in Italy, Teleura, 2000 Touch! Don't Touch! - Music for Theremin with Barbara Buchholz, Wergo, 2006 Spellbound!, Mode records, 2008 Collaborations Music for Films III Music by Brian Eno, Opal Records, 1988 Ed Wood: Original Soundtrack Recording Music by Howard Shore, Hollywood Records, 1994 eXistenZ, Soundtrack Music by Howard Shore, RCA Victor, 1999 Black Black Magic Music by Messer Chups, Solzne Records, 2002 Crazy Price Music by Messer Chups, Solzne Records, 2003 Baehlamms Fest Music by Olga Neuwirth, Kairos, 2003 The Machinist, Soundtrack Music by Roque Baños, Melodramma Records, 2005 Videos Mastering the Theremin, Big Briar, 1995 Concerto per Theremin. Live in Italy, Teleura, 2001 External links Official website An interview with Lydia Kavina Lydia Kavina at Mode Records Concerto per Theremin: the Live CD from Lydia Kavina Lydia Kavina performing Debussy's "Claire de Lune" on YouTube | Lydia_Kavina |@lemmatized lydia:8 kavina:12 born:1 september:1 russian:2 theremin:20 virtuosa:1 currently:1 lead:3 perform:6 musician:1 instrument:3 grand:1 niece:1 léon:1 bear:1 moscow:5 begin:1 study:1 direction:2 nine:1 year:2 old:1 five:1 later:1 give:2 first:2 concert:3 mark:1 beginning:1 musical:1 career:2 far:1 theatre:1 radio:1 television:1 performance:1 around:1 world:1 appear:1 solo:2 performer:1 prestigious:1 venue:1 bolshoi:1 saal:1 conservatory:2 international:1 art:1 centre:1 national:1 philarmonic:1 russia:2 vladimir:1 spivakov:1 palace:1 bellevue:1 berlin:2 residence:1 german:1 president:1 also:4 festival:5 include:3 caramoor:1 orchestra:4 st:1 luke:1 new:3 york:1 lincoln:1 center:1 holland:1 music:17 martinu:2 electronic:1 burge:1 avantgarde:1 classical:1 repertoire:1 popular:1 work:2 b:1 j:1 schillinger:1 spellbound:2 rosza:1 well:2 less:1 know:1 equatorial:1 edgard:1 varèse:1 testament:1 nicolas:1 obouchov:1 addition:1 composer:1 teach:1 western:1 europe:1 united:1 state:2 together:1 london:1 philharmonic:1 play:1 howard:3 shore:4 soundtrack:4 oscar:1 winning:1 film:2 ed:2 wood:2 existenz:2 machinist:2 additionally:1 record:10 several:1 compact:1 disc:1 subject:1 instructional:1 video:2 manufacturer:1 moog:1 feature:1 stage:1 production:1 alice:1 black:3 rider:1 conceive:1 direct:1 robert:1 wilson:1 tom:1 wait:1 thalia:1 theater:1 hamburg:2 collaboration:3 experimental:2 surf:1 band:1 messer:3 chups:3 active:1 promoter:1 barbara:2 buchholz:2 kamerensemble:1 neue:1 musik:1 number:2 contemporary:1 germany:1 part:1 touch:4 project:2 notable:1 recent:1 little:1 mermaid:1 ballet:1 lera:1 auerbach:1 choreograph:1 john:1 neumeier:1 copenhagen:1 opera:2 haus:1 complete:2 composition:2 concerto:4 symphony:1 boston:1 modern:1 gil:1 rise:1 hold:1 degree:1 postgraduate:1 assistantship:1 program:1 cd:2 ether:1 mode:3 per:3 live:3 italy:2 teleura:2 wergo:1 iii:1 brian:1 eno:1 opal:1 original:1 hollywood:1 rca:1 victor:1 magic:1 solzne:2 crazy:1 price:1 baehlamms:1 fest:1 olga:1 neuwirth:1 kairos:1 roque:1 baños:1 melodramma:1 master:1 big:1 briar:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 interview:1 debussy:1 claire:1 de:1 lune:1 youtube:1 |@bigram lydia_kavina:6 léon_theremin:1 edgard_varèse:1 philharmonic_orchestra:1 oscar_winning:1 compact_disc:1 neue_musik:1 little_mermaid:1 symphony_orchestra:1 brian_eno:1 rca_victor:1 external_link:1 |
6,326 | Nevis | + Nevis Flag of Nevis Flag of Nevis The Nevis flag incorporates the flag of the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis in the top left corner. The golden field stands for sunshine. The central triangle represents the conical shape of Nevis, with the blue being the ocean, the green being the verdant slopes of the island, and the white being the clouds that usually wreathe Nevis Peak. Location of NevisOfficial languageEnglishPolitical status State in the Federation of Saint Kitts and NevisPremier Joseph Parry Deputy Governor-General The Deputy Governor-General of Nevis is appointed by the Governor-General of Saint Kitts and Nevis, to assent or withhold assent to any bill passed by the Nevis Island Assembly and to perform other functions of the office of Governor-General on Her Majesty's behalf relating to Nevis, as the Governor-General may specify. See Chapter III, Sections 23 of the Constitution. Eustace John President, Nevis Island Assembly Marjorie MortonCapitalCharlestownDemonymNevisian Area - Total (Not ranked) 35.9 sq. mi. (93 km²) Population - Density 12,106 Population number from the Ministry of Finance, Nevis Financial Services Development & Marketing Department, Quickfacts, retrieved 8 August 2006. For an older breakdown by parish, see the Statistics Department Nevis August 2002 table, used by IFLA/UNESCO in Country report on the public and school library sectors of Nevis, subsection 5ii. Retrieved 8 August 2006. (2006)130/km² Airport - Code - Runway Vance W. Amory International IATA: NEV, ICAO: TKPN 4,002 ft. (1,220 m) The east coast of Nevis, partially protected by coral reefs. Long Haul Bay in the foreground. Main Street, Charlestown, Nevis. |Part of the west coast of Nevis including the location of Nelson's Spring. Nevis (pronounced KNEE-viss) is an island in the Caribbean Sea, located near the northern end of the Lesser Antilles archipelago, about 220 miles (350 km) southeast of Puerto Rico and fifty miles (eighty km) west of Antigua. The 36-square-mile (93 km²) island is part of the inner arc of the Leeward Islands chain of the West Indies. The capital of Nevis is Charlestown. Nevis, along with Saint Kitts, forms the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis. The two islands are separated by a shallow two-mile (3.22 km) channel, known as "The Narrows". Nevis is conical in shape, with a volcanic peak, Nevis Peak, at its centre. The island is fringed on its western and northern quadrants by sandy beaches that are composed of a mixture of white coral sand with brown and black sand, eroded and washed down from the volcanic rocks that make up the island. There are visible wave-breaking reefs along the northern and eastern shorelines. To the south and west, the reefs are located in deeper water and are suitable for scuba diving. The most sheltered swimming beach is at Oualie Bay. Another popular beach is the four-mile (6.44 km) long Pinney's Beach, on the western or Caribbean coast. There is one swimming beach on the southern coast known locally as "windward beach", where the on-shore waves are suitable for body surfing. However, some care is required because there are occasional rip tides that have caused loss of life. The gently-sloping coastal plain (0.6 miles/1 km wide) has natural fresh-water springs, as well as non-potable volcanic hot springs, especially along the western coast. The island was named Oualie ("Land of Beautiful Waters") by the Caribs and Dulcina ("Sweet Island") by the early British settlers. The name, Nevis, is derived from the Spanish, Nuestra Señora de las Nieves (which means Our Lady of the Snows); the name first appears on maps in the sixteenth century. Hubbard, Vincent K. (2002). Swords, Ships & Sugar: History of Nevis. Corvallis, OR: Premiere, ISBN 1-891519-05-0, pp. 20-23 (Captain Gilbert, Captain Smith), 25 (pearl diving), 41-44 (name Dulcina, treaty with Spain, first settlement), 69-70 (privateers, Captain Francis), 79-85 (slave trade, Royal African Company, Queen of the Caribees), 86-102 (Caribs), 113-120 (d'Iberville, buccaneers), 138-139 (Great Britain's wealth derived from West Indian sugar and slave trade, 1776 starvation), 194-195 (Alexandra Hospital), 211-223 (electricity, Anguilla in 1967, OECD blacklist). The majority of the approximately 12,000 citizens of Nevis are of primarily African descent. English is the official language, and the literacy rate, 98 percent, is one of the highest in the Western Hemisphere. Nevis is of particular historical significance to Americans because it was the birthplace and early childhood home of Alexander Hamilton. Of import to the British, Nevis is the place where Horatio Nelson was stationed as a young sea captain; Nevis is where he met and married a Nevisian, Frances Nisbet, the young widow of a plantation-owner. History Amerindians When Nevis was sighted by Columbus in 1493, the island had already been settled for more than two thousand years by Amerindian people. Since the 1990s, artifacts from three major prehistoric periods have been discovered at excavation sites in Nevis. See for example Nevis Heritage excavation reports, 2000-2002, Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton. Retrieved 8 August 2006. The indigenous people of Nevis during these periods belonged to the Leeward Island Amerindian groups popularly referred to as Arawaks and Caribs, a complex mosaic of ethnic groups with similar culture and language. Wilson, Samuel (1990). "The Prehistoric Settlement Pattern of Nevis, West Indies". Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Winter 1989), p. 427-450. Lennox Honychurch (D. Phil. in Anthropology) from Dominica, a leading scholar in the history and culture of Caribs, traces the European use of the term "Carib" to refer to the Leeward Island aborigines to Columbus, who picked it up from the Tainos on Hispaniola. It was not a name the Caribs called themselves. Honychurch, Lennox (1997). "Crossroads in the Caribbean: A Site of Encounter and Exchange on Dominica". World Archaeology Vol. 28(3): 291-304. The Spanish used the term to clarify which native groups were officially available for enslavement. "Carib Indians" was the generic name used for all groups allegedly involved in cannibalistic war rituals, more particularly, the consumption of parts of a killed enemy's body. The Spanish law permitted and encouraged the enslavement of all such "cannibals", so "Caribs", "slaves", and "cannibals" became interchangable terms. The Amerindian name for Nevis was Oualie, land of beautiful waters. The structure of the Island Carib language has been linguistically identified as Arawakan. This is used as an argument to support the Arawakan Continuity Model for the Leeward Islands. According to the continuity model, the many ethnic groups of the Leeward Islands lived side by side through the centuries before the Europeans arrived, becoming multilingual because of intense inter-island trade. The suggestion that a natural merging of languages and cultures occurred over the centuries is in sharp contrast with the invasion and displacement model which has previously been the dominant model in Caribbean scholarship. The displacement model suggests that the Cariban speaking groups killed off the Arawakan groups, but that the Arawakan language survived because the Carib warriors spared the Arawak women and the women then passed Arawakan on to their children. Many scholars now subscribe to moderated continuity models, considering the Caribbean to have been a site of encounter and exchange throughout history. Columbus, the Spanish, and the name of the island In 1498, Christopher Columbus gave the island the name San Martin (Saint Martin). However, the confusion of numerous poorly-charted small islands in the Leeward Island chain meant that this name ended up being accidentally transferred to another island, which is still known as Saint-Martin/Sint Maarten. The current name Nevis was derived from a Spanish name Nuestra Señora de las Nieves by a process of abbreviation and anglicization. The Spanish name means Our Lady of the Snows. It is not known who chose this name for the island, but it is a reference to the story of a 4th century Catholic miracle: a snowfall on the Esquiline Hill in Rome . Presumably the white clouds that usually cover the top of Nevis Peak reminded someone of this story of a miraculous snowfall in a hot climate. Nevis was part of the Spanish claim to the Caribbean islands, a claim pursued until 1671, even though there were no Spanish settlements on the island. According to Vincent Hubbard, author of Swords, Ships & Sugar: History of Nevis, the Spanish ruling caused many of the Arawak groups who were not ethnically Caribs to "be redefined as Caribs overnight". Records indicate that the Spanish enslaved large numbers of the native inhabitants on the more accessible of the Leeward Islands and sent them to Cubagua, Venezuela to dive for pearls. Hubbard suggests that the reason the first European settlers found so few "Caribs" on Nevis is that they had already been rounded up by the Spanish and shipped off to be used as slaves. Colonial era In spite of the Spanish claim, Nevis continued to be a popular stop-over point for English and Dutch ships on their way to the North American continent. Captain Bartholomew Gilbert of Plymouth visited the island in 1603, spending two weeks to cut twenty tons of lignum vitae wood. Gilbert sailed on to Virginia to seek out survivors of the Roanoke settlement in what is now North Carolina. Captain John Smith visited Nevis also on his way to Virginia in 1607. This was the voyage which founded the Jamestown Settlement, the first permanent English settlement in the New World. On August 30, 1620, James I of England asserted sovereignty over Nevis by giving a Royal Patent for colonisation to the Earl of Carlisle. However, actual European settlement did not happen until 1628 when Anthony Hilton moved from nearby Saint Kitts following a murder plot against him. He was accompanied by 80 other settlers, soon to be boosted by a further 100 settlers from London who had originally hoped to settle Barbuda. Hilton became the first Governor of Nevis. After the 1671 peace treaty between Spain and England, Nevis became the seat of the British colony and the Admiralty Court also sat in Nevis. Between 1675 and 1730, the island was the headquarter for the slave trade for the Leeward Islands, with approximately 6,000-7,000 enslaved West Africans passing through on route to other islands each year. The Royal African Company brought all its ships through Nevis. Illustration of French slave trade in the 1876 book The 18th Century: Its Institutions, Customs, and Costumes: France, 1700-1789. Due to the profitable Triangular trade and the high quality of Nevisian sugar cane, the island soon became a dominant source of wealth for Great Britain and the slave-owning British plantocracy. When the Leeward Islands were separated from Barbados in 1671, Nevis became the seat of the Leeward Islands colony and was given the nickname "Queen of the Caribees". It remained colonial capital for the Leeward Islands until the seat was transferred to Antigua for military reasons in 1698. During this period, Nevis was the richest of the British Leeward Islands. The island outranked even larger islands like Jamaica in sugar production in the late 17th century. The wealth of the planters on the island is evident in the tax records preserved at the Calendar State Papers in the British Colonial Office Public Records, where the amount of tax collected on the Leeward Islands was recorded. The sums recorded for 1676 as "head tax on slaves", a tax payable in sugar, amounted to 384,600 pounds in Nevis, as opposed to 67,000 each in Antigua and Saint Kitts, 62,500 in Montserrat, and 5,500 total in the other five islands. Calendar State Papers (1676). Number 1152, 1676. The British Colonial Office Public Records. Qtd. in Hubbard, p. 85. The profits on sugar cultivation in Nevis was enhanced by the fact that the cane juice from Nevis yielded an unusually high amount of sugar. A gallon (3.79 litres) of cane juice from Nevis yielded 24 ounces (0.71 litres) of sugar, whereas a gallon from Saint Kitts yielded 16 ounces (0.47 litres). Twenty percent of the British Empire’s total sugar production in 1700 was derived from Nevisian plantations. Watts, David (1987). The West Indies: Patterns of Development, Culture and Environmental Change Since 1492. Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 285. Exports from West Indian colonies like Nevis were worth more than all the exports from all the mainland Thirteen colonies of North America combined at the time of the American Revolution. The enslaved families formed the large labour force and were forced to perform the monotonous and dangerous work of the sugar plantations. After the 1650s the supply of white indentured servants began to dry up due to increased wages in England and less incentive to migrate to the colonies. Additionally, the plantation owners considered lifelong enslavement a better long-term investment for their owners than indentured servants who could leave after four to seven years. They also considered it easier to control persons in a workforce that had been removed from their homelands and separated from their kin by brute force and who were easily discerned by their skin colour should they try to escape. By the end of the 17th century, the population of Nevis consisted of a small, rich planter elite in control, a marginal population of poor whites, a great majority of enslaved families of African descent, and an unknown number of maroons, people who had freed themselves from the exploitation at the plantations and escaped into the mountains. In 1780, 90 percent of the 10,000 people living on Nevis were black. Some of the maroons joined with the few remaining Caribs in Nevis to form an ever present resistance force in the mountainous regions of the island. Memories of the Nevisian maroons' struggle against the injustices suffered by the Afro-Caribbean population under the plantation system are preserved in place names such as Maroon Hill, an early centre of resistance. The great wealth generated by the colonies of the West Indies led to wars between Spain, Britain, and France. The formation of the United States can be said to be a partial by-product of these wars and the strategic trade aims that often ignored North America. Three privateers were employed by the British Crown to help protect ships in Nevis' waters. One of them, Captain Frances, was of African descent. He commanded 100 men and a 20-gun ship. During the 17th century the French, based on Saint Kitts, launched many attacks on Nevis, sometimes assisted by the Island Caribs, who in 1667 sent a large fleet of canoes along in support. Letters and other records from the era indicate that the English on Nevis hated and feared the Amerindians. In 1674 and 1683 they participated in attacks on Carib villages in Dominica and St. Vincent, in spite of a lack of official approval from The Crown for the attack. On Nevis, the English built Fort Charles and a series of smaller fortifications to aid in defending the island against Carib attacks. Emancipation Charlestown Methodist Chapel, 1802. Pro-slavery mobs set the chapel ablaze in 1797, but the building was saved. In 1706, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, the French Canadian founder of Louisiana in North America, decided to drive the English out of Nevis and thus also stop pirate attacks on French ships; he considered Nevis the region's headquarter for piracy in the Caribbean against French trade. During d'Iberville's invasion of Nevis, French Buccaneers were used in the front line, infamous for being ruthless killers after the pillaging during the wars with Spain where they gained a reputation for torturing and murdering non-combatants. In the face of the invading force, the English militiamen of Nevis fled. Some planters burned the plantations, rather than letting the French have them, and hid in the mountains. It was the enslaved Africans who held the French at bay by taking up arms to defend their families and the island. The slave quarters had been looted and burned as well, as the main reward promised the men fighting on the French side in the attack was the right to capture as many slaves as possible and resell them in Martinique. During the fighting, 3,400 enslaved Nevisians were captured and sent off to Martinique, but about 1,000 more, poorly armed and militarily untrained, held the French troops at bay, by "murderous fire" according to an eyewitness account by an English militiaman. He wrote that "the slaves' brave behaviour and defence there shamed what some of their masters did, and they do not shrink to tell us so." After 18 days of fighting, the French were driven off the island. Among the Nevisian men, women and children carried away on d'Iberville's ships, six ended up in Louisiana, the first persons of African descent to arrive there. Slave owner/trader John Pinney (1740-1818) of Montravers Plantation. One consequence of the French attack was a collapsed sugar industry and during the ensuing hardship on Nevis, small plots of land on the plantations were made available to the enslaved families in order to control the loss of life due to starvation. With less profitability for the absentee plantation owners, the import of food supplies for the plantation workers dwindled. Between 1776 and 1783, when the food supplies failed to arrive altogether due to the rebellion in North America, 300-400 enslaved Nevisians starved to death. On August 1, 1834, slavery was abolished in the British Empire. In Nevis, 8,815 slaves were freed. The first Monday in August is celebrated as Emancipation Day and is part of the annual Nevis Culturama festival. A four-year apprenticeship program followed the abolishment of slavery on the plantations. In spite of the continued use of the labour force, the Nevisian slave owners were paid over £150,000 in compensation from the British Government for the loss of property, whereas the enslaved families received nothing for 200 years of labour. Goveia, Elsa H. (1965). Slave Society in the British Leeward Islands. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965. ISBN 0-88258-048-5. One of the wealthiest planter families in Nevis, the Pinneys of Montravers Plantation, claimed £36,396 pounds (worth close to £1,800,000 today) in compensation for the slaves on the family-owned plantations around the Caribbean. Personal stories: Traders and Merchants - John Pinney. In Bristol and Transatlantic Slavery, a project by City Museum and the University of the West of England's Faculty of Humanities. Retrieved 8 May 2007. Because of the early distribution of plots and because many of the planters departed from the island when sugar cultivation became unprofitable, a relatively large percentage of Nevisians already owned or controlled land at emancipation. Baker Motley, Constance (1998). Equal Justice Under Law. An Autobiography. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 0-374-14865-1. An excerpt from the autobiography, describing her search in Nevis church records for her family's history during the era of slavery, is available online at The New York Times Book Review. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Others settled on crown land. This early development of a society with a majority of small, landowning farmers and entrepreneurs created a stronger middleclass in Nevis than in Saint Kitts where the sugar industry continued until 2006. Even though the 15 families in the wealthy planter elite no longer control the arable land, Saint Kitts still has a large, landless working class population. Simmonds, Keith C. (1987). "Political and Economic Factors Influencing the St. Kitts-Nevis Polity: An Historical Perspective". Phylon, 48:4. 4th Qtr., 1987, pp. 277-286. 1800 to the present day Nevis school in 1899. Nevis was united with Saint Kitts and Anguilla in 1882, and they became an associated state with full internal autonomy in 1967, though Anguilla seceded in 1971. Together, Saint Kitts and Nevis became independent on September 19, 1983. On August 10, 1998, a referendum on Nevis to separate from Saint Kitts had 2,427 votes in favour and 1,498 against, falling short of the two-thirds majority needed. Before 1967, the local government of Saint Kitts was also the government of Nevis and Anguilla. Nevis had two seats and Anguilla one seat in the government. The economic and infrastructural development of the two smaller islands was not a priority to the colonial federal government. When the hospital in Charlestown was destroyed in a hurricane in 1899, planting of trees in the squares of Saint Kitts and refurbishing of government buildings, also in Saint Kitts, took precedence over the rebuilding of the only hospital in Nevis. After five years without any proper medical facilities, the leaders in Nevis initiated a campaign, threatening to seek independence from Saint Kitts. The British Administrator in Saint Kitts, Charles Cox, was unmoved. He stated that Nevis did not need a hospital since there had been no significant rise in the number of deaths during the time Nevisians had been without a hospital. Therefore, no action was needed on behalf of the government, and besides, Cox continued, the Legislative Council regarded "Nevis and Anguilla as a drag on St. Kitts and would willingly see a separation". Qtd. in Hubbard, p. 195. Finally, a letter of complaint to the metropolitan British Foreign Office gave result and the federal government in Saint Kitts was ordered by their superiors in London to take speedy action. The Legislative Council took another five years to consider their options. The final decision by the federal government was to not rebuild the old hospital after all, but to instead convert the old Government House in Nevis into a hospital, named Alexandra Hospital after Queen Alexandra, wife of King Edward VII. A majority of the funds assigned for the hospital could thus spent on the construction of a new official residence in Nevis. Electricity was introduced in Nevis in 1954, when two generators were shipped in to provide electricity to the area around Charlestown. In this regard, Nevis fared better than Anguilla, where there were no paved roads, no electricity and no telephones up until 1967. However, electricity did not become available island-wide on Nevis until 1971. An ambitious infrastructure development programme has been introduced during the last 10 years, including a transformation of the Charlestown port, construction of a new deep-water harbour, resurfacing and widening the Island Main Road, a new airport terminal and control tower, and a major airport expansion, which required the relocation of an entire village in order to make room for the runway extension. Modernized classrooms and better equipped schools, as well as improvements in the educational system, have contributed to a leap in academic performance on the island. The pass rate among the Nevisian students sitting for the Caribbean Examination Council (CXC) exams, the Cambridge General Certificate of Education Examination (GCE) and the Caribbean Advance Proficiency Examinations is now consistently among the highest in the English-speaking Caribbean. Brown, Janet (2000). "Early Childhood Investment in St. Kitts and Nevis: A Model for the Caribbean?". Caribbean Child Development Centre, School of Continuing Studies, UWI, Mona: "St. Kitts-Nevis has one of the highest levels of CXC passes in the region." "Education official calls on students to push beyond their comfort zones". Nevis Government Information Service, 10 January, 2007: "In 2002, Nevis captured the award for Most Outstanding School for the year in the Region. [...] In the May/June examinations of 2006, Nevis again recorded its name in the annals of CXC's when it captured two of the eight awards in Business Studies and Technical/vocational Studies. Nevis returned the best performance in Business Studies in the Region in two of the three years that the award had been offered". For results at individual schools, see Caines, Jaedee. "Proud Moment For Lyn Jeffers School". The Observer, October 13, 2005; "Minister of Education to GSS 2005 graduands: The future of Nevis depends on you". SKN Vibes, 24 Nov. 24, 2005; and Washington Archibald High School obtains highest CXC pass rate among 7 others. SKN Vibes, 4 September, 2006. Retrieved 7 May 2007. Since 2005, Nevis has its first Resident Judge, Her Ladyship Justice Ianthea Leigertwood-Octave. Economy African Baobab tree by a ruin at Montravers Estate, a former plantation where between 170 and 210 enslaved workers produced on average 110 "hogsheads" (30,000 kg) of sugar and around 7,250 gallons (33,000 litres) of rum each year.Nevis Heritage Trail sign at Montravers Estate. After d’Iberville’s invasion in 1704, records show Nevis’ sugar industry in ruins and a decimated population begging the English Parliament and relatives for loans and monetary assistance to stave off island-wide starvation. The sugar industry on the island never fully recovered and during the general depression that followed the loss of the West Indian sugar monopoly, Nevis fell on hard times and the island became one of the poorest in the region. The island remained poorer than Saint Kitts until 1991, when the fiscal performance of Nevis edged ahead of the fiscal performance of Saint Kitts for the first time since the French invasion. The European Commission's Delegation in Barbados and the Eastern Caribbean estimates the annual per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) on Nevis to be about 10 percent higher than on St. Kitts. "EU & the Eastern Caribbean: St Kitts and Nevis Overview". The European Commission's Delegation in Barbados and the Eastern Caribbean. Retrieved 8 August 2006. The major source of revenue for Nevis today is tourism. During the 2003-2004 season, approximately 40,000 tourists visited Nevis. CIA Factbook (2006). Retrieved 8 August 2006. A five star hotel (The Four Seasons Resort Nevis, West Indies), four exclusive restored plantation inns, and several smaller hotels, are currently in operation. Larger developments along the west coast have recently been approved and are in the process of being developed. "Developers pay US$10m installment for Nevis land". Caribbean Net News, 9 May 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2006. The introduction of new legislation has made offshore financial services a rapidly growing economic sector in Nevis. Incorporation of companies, international insurance and reinsurance, as well as several international banks, trust companies, asset management firms, have created a boost in the economy. During 2005, the Nevis Island Treasury collected $94.6 million in annual revenue, compared to $59.8 million during 2001. "Employment on Nevis increases" (2006). Nevis Island Government Press Release, May 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2006. In 1998, 17,500 international banking companies were registered in Nevis. Registration and annual filing fees paid in 1999 by these entities amounted to over 10 percent of Nevis’ revenues. The offshore financial industry gained importance during the financial disaster of 1999 when Hurricane Lenny damaged the major resort on the island, causing the hotel to be closed down for a year and 400 of the 700 employees to be laid off. In 2000 the Financial Action Task Force, part of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) issued a blacklist of 35 nations which were said to be non-cooperative in the campaign against tax evasion and money laundering. The list included the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis, as well as Liechtenstein, Monaco, Luxembourg, the British Channel Islands, Israel, and Russia. See articles in the BBC,Island Sun, and The Royal Gazette. Retrieved 8 August 2006. No alleged misconduct had taken place on Nevis, but the island was included in the blanket action against all offshore financial business centres, as such centres cause a considerable loss of tax revenue for the G7 countries. With new regulations in place, Saint Kitts and Nevis were removed from the list in 2002. CUOPM (2006). "Steady progress reported in financial services sector". Press release 101/2006, Office of the Prime Minister, Saint Kitts and Nevis Government. Retrieved 8 August 2006. The official currency is the Eastern Caribbean dollar (EC$), which is shared by eight other territories in the region. Politics The new (2005) seawall in Charlestown, Nevis, with Saint Kitts in the background, across the channel. The political structure for the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis is based on the Westminster Parliamentary system, but it is a unique structure Phillips, Fred (2002). Commonwealth Caribbean Constitutional Law. Cavendish Publishing, 2002, ISBN 1843144298, p. 136: "St Kitts and Nevis has broken new ground in creating a federal structure that is sui generis: a Federation not between St Kitts and Nevis, but between Nevis on the one hand and St Kitts and Nevis on the other." in that Nevis has its own unicameral legislature, consisting of Her Majesty's representative (the Deputy Governor General) and members of the Nevis Island Assembly. Nevis has considerable autonomy in its legislative branch. The constitution actually empowers the Nevis Island Legislature to make laws that cannot be abrogated by the National Assembly. In addition, Nevis has a constitutionally protected right to secede from the federation, should a two-third majority of the island’s population vote for independence in a local referendum. Section 113.(1) of the constitution states: "The Nevis Island Legislature may provide that the island of Nevis shall cease to be federated with the island of Saint Christopher and accordingly that this Constitution shall no longer have effect in the island of Nevis." See section 3 and 4 about Nevis Island Legislature and Administration in The Saint Christopher and Nevis Constitution Order 1983. Published online by Georgetown University and also by University of the West Indies. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Nevis has its own premier and its own government, the Nevis Island Administration. It collects its own taxes and has a separate budget, with a current account surplus. According to a statement released by the Nevis Ministry of Finance in 2005, Nevis had one of the highest growth rates in gross national product and per capita income in the Caribbean at that point. Nevis Island Administration - Ministry of Finance (2005). Quick Facts. About Nevis. Tax and Economic System. Retrieved 8 August 2006. The federal prime minister, Denzil Douglas, is the leader of the majority party of the federal House of Representatives in Saint Kitts, and his cabinet conducts the affairs of state. The Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis has a 14 or 15-member unicameral legislature or parliament (the Senate and House of Representatives sit and vote together): A Senate, with three or four members appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and the leader of the opposition; and a popularly elected House of Representatives with 11 members, eight Saint Kitts seats and three Nevis seats. The prime minister and the cabinet are responsible to the Parliament. Elections Nevis elections are scheduled every five years. The Nevis elections of 2006, called on 10 July 2006 three months ahead of the constitutional deadline, was won by the party in opposition, the Nevis Reformation Party (NRP), led by Joseph Parry. The NRP won three of the five seats in the Nevis Island Assembly, while the incumbent party, the Concerned Citizens Movement (CCM), won two. "Nevis' new administration sworn in". Press release, Nevis Island Administration. SKN Vibes, 12 Jul. 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Before the NRP victory, CCM's leader Vance Amory had served three terms in office. In the federal elections of 2004, the CCM won two of the three Nevis assigned Federal seats, while the NRP won one. A representative from the CCM, Mark Brantley, Seabrookes, Shawn. "Hon. Mark Brantley wins Nevis by-election". SKNVibes.com, 28 August 2007. Retrieved 8 January 2008. is therefore representing Nevis on the Opposition Bench in the Federal Parliament. Of the eight Saint Kitts assigned federal seats, the St Kitts-Nevis Labour Party won seven and the People's Action Movement (PAM) one. "Opposition senator accuses PAM Leader Lindsay Grant of insulting and disrespecting Nevisians" (2005). Press release, Government of St Christopher and Nevis, 6 Feb. 2005. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Movement for constitutional reform Joseph Parry, Premier of Nevis since 2006, has indicated that he favours constitutional reform over secession for Nevis. His party, the NRP, has historically been the strongest and most ardent proponent for Nevis independence; the party came to power with secession as the main campaign issue. In 1975, the NRP manifesto declared that: "The Nevis Reformation Party will strive at all costs to gain secession for Nevis from St. Kitts – a privilege enjoyed by the island of Nevis prior to 1882." Herbert, Roy (2005). "A short historical look at the Relationship between St. Kitts & Nevis". Historical Review. Nevis Independence, 4 Feb. 2005. Retrieved 8 August 2006. A cursory proposal for constitutional reform was presented by the NRP in 1999, but the issue was not prominent in the 2006 election campaign and it appears a detailed proposal has yet to be worked out and agreed upon within the ruling party. "Nevis: 'Reform before independence'". BBC Caribbean, online edition, 26 Jan. 2004. Retrieved 8 August 2006. In Handbook of Federal Countries published by Forum of Federations, the authors consider the constitution problematic because it does not "specifically outline" the federal financial arrangements or the means by which the central government and Nevis Island Administration can raise revenue: "In terms of the NIA, the constitution only states (in s. 108(1)) that 'all revenues...raised or received by the Administration...shall be paid into and form a fund styled the Nevis Island Consolidated Fund.' [...] Section 110(1) states that the proceeds of all 'takes' collected in St. Kitts and Nevis under any law are to be shared between the federal government and the Nevis Island Administration based on population. The share going to the NIA, however, is subject to deductions (s. 110(2)), such as the cost of common services and debt charges, as determined by the Governor-General (s.110(3)) on the advice of the Prime Minister who can also take advice from the Premier of Nevis (s.110(4))." Griffiths, Ann Lynn and Karl Nerenberg (2002). Handbook of Federal Countries. Ed. Karl Nerenberg. Published McGill-Queen's Press - MQUP, 2002. ISBN 0773525114, p. 274. According to a 1995 report by the Commonwealth Observer Group of the Commonwealth Secretariat, "the federal government is also the local government of St Kitts and this has resulted in a perception among the political parties in Nevis that the interests of the people of Nevis are being neglected by the federal government which is more concerned with the administration of St Kitts than with the federal administration." General Election in St Kitts and Nevis 3 July 1995: The Report of the Commonwealth Observer Group. Commonwealth Observer Group, Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995. ISBN 0850924669, p.3. Secession movement Simeon Daniel, Nevis' first Premier and former leader of the Nevis Reformation Party (NRP) and Vance Amory, former Premier and leader of the Concerned Citizens Movement (CCM), made sovereign independence for Nevis from the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis part of their parties' agenda. "Independence for Nevis still on the agenda, says premier." Caribbean Net News, 16 Jun. 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Since independence from the United Kingdom in 1983, the Nevis Island Administration and the Federal Government have been involved in several conflicts over the interpretation of the new constitution which came into effect at independence. During an interview on Voice of America in March 1998, repeated in a government issued press release headlined "PM Douglas Maintains 1983 Constitution is Flawed", Prime Minister Denzil Douglas called the constitution a "recipe for disaster and disharmony among the people of both islands". Office of the Prime Minister (1998). "PM Douglas Maintains 1983 Constitution is Flawed." Media Release, 11 Mar. 1998. Retrieved 8 August 2006. A crisis developed in 1984 when the People's Action Movement (PAM) won a majority in the Federal elections and temporarily ceased honouring the Federal Government's financial obligations to Nevis. Consequently, cheques issued by the Nevis Administration were not honoured by the Bank, public servants in Nevis were not paid on time and the Nevis Island Administration experienced difficulties in meeting its financial obligations. The Concerned Citizens Movement (1996). "The Way Forward For The Island Of Nevis." Nevis, Queen of the Caribees. Nevis Island Administration, September 1996. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Legislative motivation for secession Nevis Today , a magazine published by the Nevis Island Administration, is part of the new drive to keep the population updated about investments and plans for the island. In 1996, four new bills were introduced in the National Assembly in Saint Kitts, one of which made provisions to have revenue derived from activities in Nevis paid directly to the treasury in Saint Kitts instead of to the treasury in Nevis. Another bill, The Financial Services Committee Act, contained provisions that all investments in Saint Kitts and Nevis would require approval by an investment committee in Saint Kitts. This was controversial, because ever since 1983 the Nevis Island Administration had approved all investments for Nevis, on the basis that the constitution vests legislative authority for industries, trades and businesses and economic development in Nevis to the Nevis Island Administration. Phillips, Fred (2002). Commonwealth Caribbean Constitutional Law. Cavendish Publishing, 2002, ISBN 1843144298. All three representatives from Nevis, including the leader of the opposition in the Nevis Island Assembly, objected to the introduction of these bills into the National Assembly in Saint Kitts, arguing that the bills would affect the ability of Nevis to develop its offshore financial services sector and that the bills would be detrimental to the Nevis economy. All the representatives in opposition in the National Assembly shared the conviction that the bills, if passed into law, would be unconstitutional and undermine the constitutional and legislative authority of the Nevis Island Administration, as well as result in the destruction of the economy of Nevis. The constitutional crisis initially developed when the newly appointed Attorney General refused to grant permission for the Nevis Island Administration to assert its legal right in the Courts. After a decision of the High Court in favour of the Nevis Island Administration, the Prime Minister gave newspaper interviews stating that he "refused to accept the decision of the High Court". St. Kitts and Nevis Observer July 16-22, 1995. Qtd. in The Concerned Citizens Movement. "The Way Forward For The Island Of Nevis." Nevis, Queen of the Caribees. Nevis Island Administration, September 1996.] Due to the deteriorating relationship between the Nevis Island Administration and the Federal Government, a Constitutional Committee was appointed in April 1996 to advise on whether or not the present constitutional arrangement between the islands should continue. The committee recommended constitutional reform and the establishment of an island administration for Saint Kitts, separate from the Federal Government. The Federal Government in Saint Kitts fills both functions today and Saint Kitts does not have an equivalent to the Nevis Island Administration. Disagreements between the political parties in Nevis and between the Nevis Island Administration and the Federal Government have prevented the recommendations by the electoral committee from being implemented. The problematic political arrangement between the two islands therefore continues to date. Nevis has continued developing its own legislation, such as The Nevis International Insurance Ordinance and the Nevis International Mutual Funds Ordinance of 2004, As reported by the Premier at the official Web site for Nevis Financial Services Departments and the Ministry of Finance, Nevis. Retrieved 8 August 2006. but calls for secession are often based on concerns that the legislative authority of the Nevis Island Administration might be challenged again in the future. Fiscal motivation for secession The issues of political dissension between Saint Kitts and Nevis are often centered around perceptions of imbalance in the economic structure. Anckar, Dag (2001). "Party systems and voter alignments in small island states". In Party Systems and Voter Alignments Revisited. Eds. Lauri Karvonen and Stein Kuhnle. Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0415237203. p. 270: "To a historical rivalry between the islands must be added a structural economic inbalance". As noted by many scholars, See for example: Duval, David Timothy (2004). Tourism in the Caribbean: Trends, Development, Prospects. Routledge, 2004. ISBN 0415303613, p. 102: "Nevis has claimed domination and exploitation by St Kitts and has come to view St Kitts as the 'larger omnipresent looming partner' (Premdas 2000). Such mistreatment (whether real or perceived), combined with the subordinate island's distinctive cultural and historical identity, has fostered an ambivalent relationship between internal core and periphery. These accusations and counter-attacks have been entrenched in the countries' collective memory and have, to some degree, permeated many aspects of society." See also: Phillips, Fred (2002). Commonwealth Caribbean Constitutional Law Cavendish Publishing, 2002. ISBN 1843144298: "In Freedom in the Caribbean, reference was made to the long history of grievance nurtured by Nevis against St Kitts [ever since] imperial legislation brought Nevis into the unitary state of St Kitts/Nevis/Anguilla in 1882." Nevisians have often referred to a structural imbalance in Saint Kitts' favour in how funds are distributed between the two islands and this issue has made the movement for Nevis secession a constant presence in the island's political arena, with many articles appearing in the local press expressing concerns such as those compiled by Everton Powell in "What Motivates Our Call for Independence": Powell, Everton (Ed.) (2006). "What Motivates Our Call for Independence". Nevis Independence. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Many of the businesses that operate in Nevis are headquartered in Saint Kitts and pay the corporate taxes to Saint Kitts, despite the fact that profits for those businesses are derived from Nevis. The vast majority of Nevisians and residents of Nevis depart the Federation from Saint Kitts. This meant that departure taxes are paid in Saint Kitts. The bulk of cargo destined for Nevis enters the Federation through Saint Kitts. Custom duties are therefore paid in Saint Kitts. The largest expenditure for Nevis, approximately 29 percent of the Nevis Island Administration’s recurrent budget, is education and health services, but the Nevis Island Legislature has no power to legislate over these two areas. Police, defence and coast guard are a federal responsibility. Charlestown Police Station, which served as the Headquarters for police officers in Nevis, was destroyed by fire in December 1991. Police officers initially had to operate out of the ruin, until the Nevis Island Administration managed to raise the resources to re-house the police. Nevis experiences an economic disadvantage because of preferential treatment by the federal government for development of Saint Kitts. The division of foreign aid and various forms of international assistance toward development and infrastructure are especially contentious issues. Lists showing the disparities in sharing have been compiled by Dr. Everson Hull, a former Economics professor of Howard University, and are available online. Hull, E. "Part I: Grabbing the Forgiven-debt Money." and "On the Money Trail – PART II". Nevis Independence. See also Powell, Everton (2006). "Disparities in sharing". Nevis Independence. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Parishes The island of Nevis is divided into five administrative subdivisions called parishes, each of which has an elected representative in the Nevis Island Assembly. The division of this almost round island into parishes was done in a circular sector pattern, so each parish is shaped like a pie slice, reaching from the highest point of Nevis Peak down to the coastline. The parishes have double names, for example Saint George Gingerland. The first part of the name is the name of the patron saint of the parish church, and the second part of the name is the traditional common name of the parish. Often the parishes are referred to simply by their common names. The religious part of a parish name is sometimes written or pronounced in the possessive: Saint George's Gingerland. The five parishes of Nevis are: Saint George Gingerland Saint James Windward Saint John Figtree Saint Paul Charlestown Saint Thomas Lowland Geography Nevis and neighbouring Leeward Islands during the 2002 volcanic eruption in Montserrat (centre). Top to bottom, (left): St. Eustatius, Saint Kitts, Nevis, (right): Barbuda, Antigua, Guadeloupe. The formation of the island began in mid-Pliocene times, approximately 3.45 million years ago. Nine distinct eruptive centres from different geological ages, ranging from mid-Pliocene to Pleistocene, have contributed to the formation. No single model of the island's geological evolution can therefore be ascertained. United Nations (2000). "Saint Kitts and Nevis: Executive Summary". Country Reports. Committee on Science and Technology, United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, pdf file, retrieved 7 December 2006. Nevis Peak (985 m /3,232 ft) is the dormant remnant of one of these ancient stratovolcanoes. The last activity took place in 1692, but active fumaroles and hot springs are still found on the island, the most recent formed in 1953. "Nevis Peak" (2006). Global Worldwide Holocene Volcano and Eruption Information. Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2006. The composite cone of Nevis volcano has two overlapping summit craters that are partially filled by a lava dome, created in recent, pre-Columbian time. Pyroclastic flows and mudflows were deposited on the lower slopes of the cone simultaneously. Nevis Peak is located on the outer crater rim. Four other lava domes were constructed on the flanks of the volcano, one on the northeast flank (Madden's Mount), one on the eastern flank (Butlers Mountain), one on the northwest coast (Mount Lily) and one on the south coast (Saddle Hill). During the last Ice age when the sea level was 200 feet lower, the three islands of Saint Kitts, Nevis and Saint Eustatius (also known as Statia) were connected as one island. Saba however is separated from these three by a deeper channel. The most popular and most developed beach on Nevis is the 4-mile (6.44 km) long Pinney's Beach, on the western or Caribbean coast. The eastern coast of the island faces into the Atlantic Ocean, and can have strong surf in parts of the shore which are unprotected by fringing coral reefs. The colour of the sand on the beaches of Nevis is variable: on a lot of the bigger beaches the sand is a yellowish grey, but some beaches on the southern coast have darker, reddish, or even black sand. Under a microscope it becomes clear that Nevis sand is a mixture of tiny fragments of coral, many foraminifera, and small crystals of the various mineral constituents of the volcanic rock of which the island is made. Colonial deforestation On the western plain, looking south south west towards Charlestown. During the 17th and 18th centuries, massive deforestation was undertaken by the planters as the land was initially cleared for sugar cultivation. This intense land exploitation by the sugar and cotton industry lasted almost 300 years, and led to irreparable damage to the island’s original ecosystem. In some places along the windswept southeast or "Windward" coast of the island, the landscape is radically altered compared with how it used to be in pre-colonial times. Due to extreme land erosion, the top soil was swept away, and in some places at the coast, sheer cliffs as high as 25 metres (82 feet) have developed. Wilson, Samuel (1990). "The Prehistoric Settlement Pattern of Nevis, West Indies". Journal of Field Archaeology, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Winter 1989), p. 428: "The breakup of the fringing reef has itself contributed to extensive and accelerating coastal erosion on the windward coast of the island, where sea cliffs of unconsolidated volcanic gravels as high as 25 m have developed." The lush primeval forest, which once covered the eastern coastal plain, where the Amerindians built their first settlements during the Aceramic period, is gone forever, and so is a large portion of the ecosystem surrounding the coral reef just offshore. It was the easy access to fresh water on the island and the rich food source represented by the ocean life sheltered by the reef that made it feasible for the Amerindians to settle this area around 600 BCE. With the loss of the natural vegetation, the balance in runoff nutrients to the reef was disturbed, eventually causing as much as 80 percent of the large eastern fringing reef to become inactive. As the reef broke apart, it in turn provided less protection for the coastline. During times of maximum cultivation, sugar cane fields stretched from the coastline of Nevis up to an altitude at which the mountain slopes were too steep and rocky to farm. Nonetheless, once the sugar industry was finally abandoned, vegetation on the leeward side of the island regrew reasonably well, as scrub and secondary forest. Water resources Nevis has several natural fresh water springs (including Nelson's Spring), as well as many non-potable volcanic hot springs. After heavy rains, powerful rivers of rain water pour down the numerous ravines (known as Ghauts). When the water reaches the coastline, the corresponding coastal ponds, both freshwater and brackish, fill to capacity and beyond, spilling over into the sea. With modern development, the springs are no longer enough to supply freshwater to the whole island. The water supply now comes mostly from Government wells. The major source of potable water for the island is groundwater, obtained from 14 active wells. Water is pumped from the wells, stored and allowed to flow by gravity to the various locations. The Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC). “Chapter 9: St. Kitts and Nevis. In Programme of Action for the sustainable development of small island developing States (SIDS POA). United Nations, 2003-09-29. Retrieved 28 August 2007. Climate The climate is tropical with little variation, tempered all year round (but particularly from December through February) by the steady north-easterly winds called the alizés or trade winds. There is a slightly hotter and somewhat rainier season from May to November. Nevis lies within the track area of tropical storms and occasional hurricanes. These storms can develop between August and October, and this time of year has the heaviest rainfalls. In 1999, Nevis was hit by hurricane Lenny, which caused some heavy damage to the island's infrastructure on the western coast. In October 2008, Nevis was hit by hurricane Omar. Among other establishments, The Four Seasons resort was forced to close for several months to undergo repairs. Culture Culturama, the annual cultural festival of Nevis, is celebrated during the Emancipation Day weekend, the first week of August. The festivities include many traditional folk dances, such as the masquerade, the Moko jumbies on stilts, Cowboys and Indians, and Plait the Ribbon, a May pole dance. The celebration was given a more organized form in 1974, including a Miss Culture Show and a Calypso Competition, as well as drama performances, old fashion Troupes (including Johnny Walkers, Giant and Spear, Bulls, Red Cross and Blue Ribbon), arts and crafts exhibitions and recipe competitions. According to the Nevis Department of Culture, the aim is to protect and encourage indigenous folklore, in order to make sure that the uniquely Caribbean culture can "reassert itself and flourish". Nevis Department of Culture (2006). Nevis Culturama. 8 May 2006. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Music, theater and dance Nevisian culture has since the 1600s incorporated African, European and East Indian cultural elements, creating a distinct Afro-Caribbean culture. Several historical anthropologists have done field research Nevis and in Nevisian migrant communities in order to trace the creation and constitution of a Nevisian cultural community. Karen Fog Olwig published her research about Nevis in 1993, writing that the areas where the Afro-Caribbean traditions were especially strong and flourishing relate to kinship and subsistence farming. However, she adds, Afro-Caribbean cultural impulses were not recognized or valued in the colonial society and were therefore often expressed through Euro-Caribbean cultural forms. Olwig, Karen Fog (1993). Global Culture, Island Identity: continuity and change in the Afro-Caribbean community of Nevis. Chur, Switzerland: Harwood Academic Publishers, 1993. Examples of European forms appropriated to express Afro-Caribbean culture are the Nevisian and Kittitian Tea Meetings and Christmas Sports. According to anthropologist Roger D. Abrahams, these traditional performance art forms are "Nevisian approximation of British performance codes, techniques, and patterns". He writes that the Tea Meetings were staged as theatrical "battles between decorum and chaos", decorum represented by the ceremony chairmen and chaos the hecklers in the audience, with a diplomatic King or a Queen presiding over the battle to ensure fairness. Abrahams, Roger D. (1983). Man of Words in the West Indies: Performance and the Emergence of Creole Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U P, 1983. The Christmas Sports included a form of comedy and satire based on local events and gossip. They were historically an important part of the Christmas celebrations in Nevis, performed on Christmas Eve by small troupes consisting of five or six men accompanied by string bands from different parts of the island. One of the men in the troupe was dressed as a woman, playing all the female parts in the dramatizations. The troupes moved from yard to yard to perform their skits, using props, face paint and costumes to play the roles of well-known personalities in the community. Examples of gossip about undesired behaviour that could surface in the skits for comic effect were querulous neighbours, adulterous affairs, planters mistreating workers, domestic disputes or abuse, crooked politicians and any form of stealing or cheating experienced in the society. Even though no names were mentioned in these skits, the audience would usually be able to guess who the heckling message in the troupe’s dramatized portrayals was aimed at, as it was played out right on the concerned person’s own front yard. The acts thus functioned as social and moral commentaries on current events and behaviours in the Nevisian society. Abrahams theorises that Christmas Sports are rooted in the pre-emancipation Christmas and New Year holiday celebrations when the enslaved population had several days off. Abrahams, Roger D. (1973). "Christmas Mummings on Nevis." North Carolina Folklore Journal (1973): pp. 120-31. American folklorist and musicologist Alan Lomax visited Nevis in 1962 in order to conduct long-term research into the black folk culture of the island. His field trip to Nevis and surrounding islands resulted in the anthology Lomax Caribbean Voyage series. Cowley, John. "Caribbean Voyage: Nevis & St Kitts Tea Meetings, Christmas Sports, & the Moonlight Night". Musical Traditions, 1 Nov. 2002. Retrieved 8 May 2007. Among the Nevisians recorded were chantey-singing fishermen in a session organised in a rum shop in Newcastle; Santoy, the Calypsonian, performing calypsos by Nevisian ballader and local legend Charles Walters Abrahams, Roger D. "Charles Walters - West Indian Autolycus'". Western Folklore, Vol. 27, No. 2 (Apr. 1968), pp. 77-95. to guitar and cuatro; and string bands, fife players and drummers from Gingerland, performing quadrilles. Architecture The Museum of Nevis History, Charlestown, housed in the restored Georgian building where Alexander Hamilton was born. Also see Nevis Historical and Conservation Society A series of earthquakes during the 18th century laid most of the colonial era stone buildings of Charlestown in ruins. The Georgian stone buildings of today had to be partially rebuilt after the earthquakes, and this led to the development of a new architectural style, consisting of wooden upper floors over a ground floor built of stone; the new style resisted earthquake damage more effectively. Two famous Nevisian buildings from the 18th century are Hermitage Plantation, built of lignum vitae wood in 1740, the oldest surviving wooden house still in use in the Caribbean today, and the Bath Hotel, the first hotel in the Caribbean, a luxury hotel and spa built by John Huggins in 1778. The soothing waters of the hotel's hot spring and the lively social life on Nevis attracted many famous Europeans, including Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Antigua-based Admiral Nelson, and Prince William Henry, Duke of Clarence, (future William IV of the United Kingdom), who attended balls and private parties at the Bath Hotel. Today, the building serves as government offices, and there are two outdoor hot-spring bathing spots which were specially constructed in recent years for public use. An often repeated legend appears to suggest that a massive 1690 earthquake and tsunami destroyed the buildings of the original capital Jamestown on the west coast. Folk tales say that the town sank beneath the ocean. However, archaeologists from the University of Southampton who have done excavations in the area, have found no evidence to indicate that the story is true. They state that this story may originate with an over-excited Victorian letter writer sharing somewhat exaggerated accounts of his exotic life in the tropical colony with a British audience back home. Machling, Tessa (2002). "Jamestown, Morton's Bay and James Fort: Myth, Port and Fort". Interim Report for the 2002 Season, Theme Two. University of Southampton. Available online in pdf format. . Retrieved 8 August 2006. One such letter recounts that so much damage was done to the town that it was completely evacuated, and was engulfed by the sea. Early maps do not, however, actually show a settlement called "Jamestown", only "Morton's Bay", and later maps show that all that was left of Jamestown/Morton's Bay in 1818 was a building labelled "Pleasure House". Very old bricks that wash up on Pinney's Beach after storms may have contributed to this legend of a sunken town; however these bricks are thought to be dumped ballast from 17th and 18th century sailing ships. Famous Nevisians Alexander Hamilton Alexander Hamilton, the statesman and one of the founding fathers of the United States, was born on Nevis around 1755, and spent a significant part of his childhood there. His father was a trader from Scotland, his mother was from Nevis. The place of his birth currently holds the Nevis Island Assembly Chambers and the Museum of Nevis History. The Duchess of Bronte Frances "Fanny" Nisbet (1761−1831), is best known as the wife of British hero 1st Viscount Admiral Lord Horatio Nelson, of Battle of Trafalgar fame. She was a planter's daughter from Nevis, whose rich and influential uncle, John Herbert, was the President of the Council of Nevis. White, Colin (2003). "The Wife's Tale: Frances, Lady Nelson and the break-up of her marriage". Journal for Maritime Research, Oct. 2003 issue. ISSN 1469-1957. Online at JMR, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London. Retrieved 8 August 2006. When she met Captain Horatio Nelson on Nevis, Fanny Nisbet was a young widow with a five-year old son. Nelson and she were married in Nevis in 1787. A copy of the marriage certificate is on display at the Saint John Figtree Parish Anglican Church in Nevis. Eulalie Spence (1894-1981), pioneer playwright of the Harlem Renaissance, was born on Nevis on June 11, 1894. She and her family moved to New York in 1902. She wrote fourteen plays, including "Fools Errand" which ran on Broadway in 1927. Her three act play, "The Whipping" was optioned by Paramount Studios, but never made into a film. Spence is famous for having introduced an affirming image of black women into early American drama, using her unique mix of folk art and political race drama. Several of her plays won awards. Parascandola, Louis J. (2005). Look for Me All Around You: Anglophone Caribbean Immigrants in the Harlem Renaissance. Wayne State University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8143-2987-X. Elquemedo Willett, born 1 May 1953, famous Nevisian cricket player and former Leeward Islands and West Indies left-arm spinner, was the first Leeward Islander to play Test cricket for the West Indies in 1973, when he was 19 years old. He was inducted into the Nevis Sports Museum Hall of Fame in 2005. CMC (2005). "Willett for Nevis Sports Hall of Fame" West Indies Cricket Board, 27 Feb. 2005. Retrieved 8 August 2006. Cicely Tyson, born on 19 December 1933, Oscar-nominated in 1972, former wife of Miles Davis and winner of multiple Emmy Awards, is of Nevisian descent. Both her parents emigrated from Nevis to Harlem, New York. Constance Baker Motley (1921-2005), who as a young lawyer represented Martin Luther King, Jr., has Nevisian heritage and owned a home in Brown Hill, Nevis, near her ancestral home. Both her mother and father emigrated from Nevis. She attained fame as the first African-American woman appointed as a United States Federal judge, the first African-American woman elected to the New York State Senate and the first woman to serve as Manhattan borough president. She was also the first African-American woman to serve on the federal judiciary (1966), as well as the first African-American and the first woman to become Chief Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York (1982). Melanie Brown, the former "Scary Spice" of the Spice Girls, born on 29 May 1975 in Leeds, has a Nevisian father. References and notes <div class="references-small"> Further reading Hubbard, Vincent K. 2002. Swords, Ships & Sugar. Premiere Editions International, Inc. ISBN 1-891519-05-0. A complete history of Nevis. Michener, James, A. 1989. Caribbean. Secker & Warburg. London. ISBN 0-436-27971-1 (Especially Chap. VIII. "A Wedding on Nevis", pp. 289-318). The book is a fictionalised account of Caribbean history, but according to the publisher, "...everything said about Nelson and his frantic search for a wealthy life is based on fact." Ordnance Survey, Government of the United Kingdom, 1984. Nevis, with part of St. Christopher (Saint Kitts). Series E803 (D.O.S. 343), Sheet NEVIS, Edition 5 O.S.D. 1984. Reprinted in 1995, published by the Government of the United Kingdom (Ordnance Survey) for the Government of Saint Christopher (St. Kitts) and Nevis. Robinson, DAVID & Jennifer Lowery (Editors), 2000. The natural history of the island of Nevis. Nevis Historical and Conservation Society Press, Ithaca, New York. External links Official Government sites Nevis Island Administration. Nevis Island Department of Culture. Nevis Ministry of Finance/Nevis Financial Services. NHCS - Nevis Heritage and Conservation Society. Organisations Parliaments and Legislatures: CPA Branch Nevis. Nevis Island Assembly representation at the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association. Nevis Independence. Nevis Synagogue Archaeology Project Media St. Kitts-Nevis Observer. Weekly newspaper. VON Radio. Radio broadcast from Nevis. Tourism Geographia: Exploring Nevis. Official site created by the Saint Kitts and Nevis Department of Tourism. Nevis Island, Nevis Tourism Authority Saint Kitts and Nevis WikiTravel Weddings in Nevis Education Medical University of the Americas. 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6,327 | George_R._R._Martin | {{Infobox Writer | name = George R. R. Martin | image = Georgerr.PNG | imagesize = 250px | caption = George R. R. Martin (2007) | birthdate = | birthplace = Bayonne, New Jersey | deathdate = | deathplace = | occupation = Author | genre = Fantasy, Science-Fiction, Horror | movement = | notableworks = A Song of Ice and Fire | influences = L. Frank Baum, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Dickens, Robert A. Heinlein, Robert E. Howard, Jack Vance, William Faulkner, Roger Zelazny | influenced = | website = http://www.georgerrmartin.com/ }} George Raymond Richard Martin (September 20, 1948), sometimes referred to as GRRM, is an American author and screenwriter of fantasy, horror, and science fiction. He is best known for his epic A Song of Ice and Fire series. Biography George R. R. Martin was born on September 20, 1948 in Bayonne, New Jersey. As a youth, Martin became an avid reader and collector of comic books. Fantastic Four #20 (Nov 1963) features a letter to the editor he wrote while in high school. He credits the attention he received from this letter, as well as his following interest in fanzines, with his interest in becoming a writer. Official site: Speech at Electracon, 23 June 1984. URL accessed 21 November 2006. Martin wrote short fiction in the early 1970s and while his start into the professional writer career was not easy (one of his stories was rejected by different magazines forty-two times) he was not discouraged and later on won several Hugo Awards and Nebula Awards. His first story to be nominated for Hugo and Nebula Award was With Morning Comes Mistfall published by Analog magazine in 1973. The story lost both Awards, but Martin didn't mind too much, noting that joining "Hugo-and-Nebula Losers" Club was a big enough accomplishment for him From fanboy to filthy pro . Although much of his work is fantasy or horror, a number of his earlier works are science fiction occurring in a loosely-defined future history, known informally as 'The Thousand Worlds' or 'The manrealm'. He has also written at least one piece of political-military fiction, "Night of the Vampyres", collected in Harry Turtledove's anthology The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century. Turtledove, Harry, ed, with Martin H. Greenberg. The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century. New York: Ballantine, May 2001, p. 279-306. In the 1980s he turned to work in television and as a book editor. On television, he worked on the new Twilight Zone and Beauty and the Beast series. As an editor, he oversaw the lengthy Wild Cards cycle, which took place in a shared universe in which an alien virus bestowed strange powers or disfigurements on a slice of humanity during World War II, affecting the history of the world thereafter (the premise was inspired by comic book superheroes and a Superworld superhero role-playing game of which Martin was gamemaster). Contributors to the Wild Cards series included Stephen Leigh, Lewis Shiner, Howard Waldrop, Walter Jon Williams and Roger Zelazny. His own contributions to the series often featured Thomas Tudbury, "The Great and Powerful Turtle", a powerful psychokinetic whose flying "shell" consisted of an armored VW Beetle. Martin's short story, Nightflyers, was adapted into a 1987 feature film. In 1991 Martin briefly returned to writing novel-length stories, and began what would eventually turn into his epic fantasy series, A Song of Ice and Fire (ostensibly inspired by the Wars of the Roses and Ivanhoe), which is projected to run to seven volumes. The first volume A Game of Thrones was published in 1996. In November 2005, A Feast for Crows, the fourth book in this series, became The New York Times #1 Bestseller and also achieved #1 ranking on The Wall Street Journal bestseller list. In addition, in September 2006 A Feast for Crows was nominated for both a Quill award, and the British Fantasy Award. A Feast for Crows award nominations The series has received praise from authors, publishers, readers and critics alike. Martin is currently engaged in writing A Dance With Dragons, which is the fifth book in the series. It was announced January, 2007 that HBO Productions has purchased the broadcast rights for the entire A Song of Ice and Fire series, with the author also serving as co-executive producer on the project. The plan calls for each book from the series to be filmed over an entire season's worth of episodes. Production will take place in the UK and Martin is reported to have agreed to script one episode per season. Further details are expected to be announced soon. Michael Fleming. (2007-01-16), HBO turns 'Fire' into fantasy series: Cabler acquires rights to Martin's 'Ice'. Variety.com. Retrieved on 2007-11-03. Martin has also been an instructor in journalism (in which he holds a master's degree) and a chess tournament director. In his spare time he collects medieval-themed miniatures George R. R. Martin: Official website Retrieved on 2007-11-03. and continues to treasure his comic collection, which includes the first issues of Spider-Man and Fantastic Four. Although he is fairly active on the internet, he notes: "I do my writing on a completely different computer than the one I use for email and the internet, in part to guard against viruses, worms, and nightmares like this. (...) I write with WordStar 4.0 on a pure DOS-based machine." LiveJournal post by grrm, putatively George R. R. Martin. Retrieved on 2007-11-03. Themes George R. R. Martin, circa 1986 Critics have described Martin's work as dark and cynical. "The American Tolkien" by Lev Grossman, a Times article on Martin. Retrieved on 2007-11-03. His first novel, Dying of the Light, set the tone for most of his future work; it is set on a mostly abandoned planet that is slowly becoming uninhabitable as it moves away from its sun. This story, and many of Martin's others, have a strong sense of melancholy. His characters are often unhappy, or at least unsatisfied, and many have elements of tragic heroes. Reviewer T. M. Wagner writes, "Let it never be said Martin doesn't share Shakespeare's fondness for the senselessly tragic." T. M. Wagner. (2003),Review of A Storm of Swords. Retrieved on 2007-11-03. This gloominess can be an obstacle for some readers. The Inchoatus Group writes, "If this absence of joy is going to trouble you, or you’re looking for something more affirming, then you should probably seek elsewhere." The Inchoatus Group. (2004-08-21), Review of A Game of Thrones. Retrieved on 2007-11-03. His characters are often considered multi-faceted, each with surprisingly intricate pasts, inspirations, and ambitions. Publisher's Weekly writes of his on-going epic fantasy A Song of Ice and Fire "The complexity of characters such as Daenarys [sic], Arya and the Kingslayer will keep readers turning even the vast number of pages contained in this volume, for the author, like Tolkien or Jordan, makes us care about their fates." Review of A Storm of Swords by Publisher's Weekly No one is given an unrealistic string of luck, however, so misfortune, injury, and death (and even false death) can befall any character, major or minor, no matter how attached the reader has become. Martin has described his penchant for killing off characters as being necessary for the story's depth: "...when my characters are in danger, I want you to be afraid to turn the page, (so) you need to show right from the beginning that you're playing for keeps." Geekson interview with George RR Martin, 08/04/06 Fan relationship Teaching at Clarion West, 1998. In addition to writing, Martin is known for his regular attendance at science fiction conventions and his accessibility to fans. In the early 70s, critic and writer Thomas Disch identified Martin as a member of the "Labor Day Group", "Literature, Bowling, and the Labor Day Group" Essay by GRRM discussing his status as a member of the "Labour Day Group." Retrieved on 2007-11-03. writers who congregated at the annual Worldcon, usually held around Labor Day. Martin has a good relationship with his official fan club, the Brotherhood without Banners, and has praised them in the past for their parties "A Welcome From George". Bwfanclub.com. Retrieved on 2007-11-03. and philanthropic efforts. www.childsplaycharity.org As of December 2006, the organization has over 1,000 official members listed on its website. BwBfanclub.com. "Members". Retrieved on 2007-11-03. Martin is strongly opposed to fan fiction, believing it to be copyright infringement and bad exercise for aspiring writers. "George R. R. Martin: Zines, copyright and Creative Commons" He does not give permission for any of his intellectual property to be used in fan fiction. (1999-05-09), The Citadel. Westeros.org. Retrieved on 2007-11-03. Bibliography Author NovelsDying of the Light (1977) -- Hugo Award nominee, 1978 ; British Fantasy Award nominee, 1979 Windhaven (1981, with Lisa Tuttle) -- Locus SF Award nominee, 1982 Fevre Dream (1982) -- Locus SF and World Fantasy Award nominee, 1983 The Armageddon Rag (1983) -- Locus SF and World Fantasy Award nominee, 1984 A Song of Ice and Fire series:A Game of Thrones (1996) -- Locus Fantasy Award Winner, Nebula and World Fantasy Award nominee, 1997 A Clash of Kings (1998) -- Nebula Award winner, 1999 ; Locus Fantasy Award winner, 2000 A Storm of Swords (2000) -- Locus Fantasy Award winner, Hugo and Nebula Awards nominee, 2001 A Feast for Crows (2005) -- Hugo, Locus Fantasy, and British Fantasy Awards nominee, 2006 A Dance with Dragons (forthcoming)The Winds of Winter (forthcoming)A Dream of Spring (forthcoming) Hunter's Run (2007, expanded version of the novella "Shadow Twin," with Gardner Dozois and Daniel Abraham) Selected novellas A Song for Lya Night of the Vampyres, originally in Amazing, 1975, re-published in The Best Military Science Fiction of the 20th Century"The Skin Trade" (1989) from the three-author collection Dark Visions. "Tales of Dunk and Egg" series - set in the world of A Song of Ice and Fire"The Hedge Knight" (1998) "The Sworn Sword" (2003) "The Mystery Knight" (forthcoming) "Shadow Twin" (2004, with Gardner Dozois and Daniel Abraham) Selected novelettesSandkings, Martins most anthologized story to date and the only one of his to win both the Hugo and the Nebula awards.Meathouse Man, first published in 1976, in Orbit 18. (Originally intended for Harlan Ellison's notorious "The Last Dangerous Visions" anthology, GRRM has admitted that this is probably the darkest, most depressing story he has ever done and that he still finds it painful to reread thirty years later.) Children's booksThe Ice Dragon (Originally printed in 1980 as a short story Review of The Ice Dragon with a footnote on the original printing , illustrated and re-printed as a children's book in October, 2006) CollectionsA Song for Lya (1976)Songs of Stars and Shadows (1977)Sandkings (1981)Songs the Dead Men Sing (1983)Nightflyers (1985)Tuf Voyaging (1987, collection of linked stories)Portraits of His Children (1987)Quartet (2001)GRRM: A RRetrospective (2003; reissued 2006 and 2007 as Dreamsongs) Television The New Twilight Zone The Last Defender of Camelot (1986) - writer (teleplay) The Once and Future King (1986) - writer (teleplay), story editor A Saucer of Loneliness (1986) - story editor Lost and Found (1986) - writer (teleplay) The World Next Door (1986) - story editor The Toys of Caliban (1986) - writer (teleplay) The Road Less Travelled (1986) - writer (story and teleplay), story editor Beauty and the Beast Terrible Saviour (1987) - writer Masques (1987) - writer Shades of Grey (1988) - writer Promises of Someday (1988) - writer Fever (1988) - writer Ozymandias (1988) - writer Dead of Winter (1988) - writer Brothers (1989) - writer When the Blue Bird Sings' (1989) - writer (teleplay) A Kingdom by the Sea (1989) - writer What Rough Beast (1989) - writer (story) Ceremony of Innocence (1989) - writer Snow (1989) - writer Beggar's Comet (1990) - writer Invictus (1990) - writer Doorways (1993, unreleased pilot) - writer, producer, creator A Game of Thrones Pilot (in pre-production) - writer (story), producer, creator Editor Wild Cards (also contributor to many volumes)Wild Cards I (1987)Wild Cards II: Aces High (1987)Wild Cards III: Jokers Wild (1987)Wild Cards IV: Aces Abroad (1988)Wild Cards V: Down & Dirty (1988)Wild Cards VI: Ace in the Hole (1990)Wild Cards VII: Dead Man's Hand (1990)Wild Cards VIII: One-Eyed Jacks (1991)Wild Cards IX: Jokertown Shuffle (1991)Wild Cards X: Double Solitaire (1992) Wild Cards XI: Dealer's Choice (1992)Wild Cards XII: Turn of the Cards (1993)Wild Cards: Card Sharks (1993) (Book I of a New Cycle trilogy)Wild Cards: Marked Cards (1994) (Book II of a New Cycle trilogy)Wild Cards: Black Trump (1995) (Book III of a New Cycle trilogy)Wild Cards: Deuces Down (2002)Wild Cards: Death Draws Five (2006)Wild Cards: Inside Straight (2008)Wild Cards: Busted Flush (2008)Wild Cards: Suicide Kings (forthcoming in December 2009) http://grrm.livejournal.com/80431.html Wild Cards: Fort Freak http://grrm.livejournal.com/87685.html Others (with Gardner Dozois)Warriors a massive, cross-genre anthology featuring stories about war and warriors (delivered, forthcoming in 2010 or early 2011) http://grrm.livejournal.com/80313.html Songs of the Dying Earth a tribute anthology to Jack Vance´s seminal Dying Earth series, to be published by Subterranean Press (delivered) http://grrm.livejournal.com/61805.html Star Crossed Lovers a cross-genre anthology featuring stories of romance in fantasy and science-fiction settings (forthcoming) Awards "A Song for Lya" 1975 Hugo Award for Best Novella "Sandkings" 1980 Hugo Award for Best Novelette and Nebula Award for Best Novelette (the only one among George's stories to achieve that double) "The Way of Cross and Dragon" 1980 Hugo Award for Best Short Story "Portraits of His Children" 1986 Nebula Award for Best Novelette "The Pear-Shaped Man" 1988 Bram Stoker Award for Long Fiction "The Skin Trade" 1989 World Fantasy Award for Best Novella "Blood of the Dragon" 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella "A Feast for Crows" 2006 Quill award and British Fantasy Award (nominated) A more complete list of Martin's awards and nominations can be found at The Locus'' Index to Science Fiction Awards. References External links George R. R. Martin official site Not A Blog: George R. R. Martin's Livejournal George R. R. Martin's Podcast George R. R. Martin Complete Bibliography Interviews Interview with George R.R. Martin at Neth Space Interview with George R.R. Martin at SFFWorld.com Interview with George R. R. 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6,328 | Mount_Logan | Mount Logan is the highest mountain in Canada and the second-highest peak in North America, after Mount McKinley (Denali). The mountain was named after Sir William Edmond Logan, a Canadian geologist and founder of the Geological Survey of Canada (GSC). Mount Logan is located within Kluane National Park and Reserve in southwestern Yukon and is the source of the Hubbard and Logan Glaciers. Logan is believed to have the largest base circumference of any mountain on Earth, with the massif containing eleven peaks over . Due to active tectonic uplifting, Mount Logan is actually still rising in elevation. Before 1992, the exact height of Mount Logan was unknown and measurements ranged from to . In May 1992, a GSC expedition climbed Mount Logan and fixed the current height of using GPS. Temperatures are extremely cold on and near Mount Logan. On the high 5,000 m plateau, air temperature hovers around in the winter and reaches near freezing in summer with the average median temperature for the year around . Snow melt is rare leading to a significant ice cap, reaching almost in certain spots. Peaks of the massif The Mount Logan massif is considered to contain all the surrounding peaks with less than of prominence, as listed below: Peak Height Prominence coordinatesMain above Mentasta Pass Philippe Peak (West) Logan East Peak (Stuart Peak) Houston's Peak Prospector Peak AINA Peak Russell Peak Tudor Peak (Logan North Peak) Saxon Peak (Northeast) Queen Peak Capet Peak (Northwest) Catenary Peak Teddy Peak First ascent In 1922, a geologist approached the Alpine Club of Canada with the suggestion that the club send a team to the mountain to reach the summit for the first time. An international team of Canadian, British and American climbers was assembled and initially they had planned their attempt in 1924 but funding and preparation delays postponed the trip until 1925. The international team of climbers began their journey in early May, crossing the mainland from the Pacific coast by train. They then walked the remaining to within of the Logan Glacier where they established base camp. In the early evening of June 23, 1925, Albert H. MacCarthy (leader), H.F. Lambart, A. Carpe, W.W. Foster, N. Read and Andy Taylor stood on top for the first time. Proposed renaming Following the death of former Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien, a close friend of Trudeau's, considered renaming the mountain Mount Trudeau; however, opposition from Yukoners, mountaineers, geologists, Trudeau's political critics, and many other Canadians forced the plan to be dropped. A mountain in British Columbia's Premier Range was named Mount Pierre Elliott Trudeau instead. May 2005 rescue On the last few days of May 2005, three climbers from the North Shore Search and Rescue team of North Vancouver became stranded on the mountain. A joint operation by Canadian and American forces rescued the three climbers and took them to Anchorage, Alaska for treatment of frostbite. There were also climbers on the mountain that were part of the same team who had to abandon their summit bid to help rescue their teammates. The main rescue team in the area was ironically the team that needed rescuing. See also 4000 metre peaks of Canada 4000 metre peaks of North America List of highest points of Canadian provinces and territories Mountain peaks of Canada Mountain peaks of North America Bibliography Irving, R. L. G., Ten Great Mountains (London, J. M. Dent & Sons, 1940) The climbing history up to 1939 of Mount Logan, Snowdon, Ben Nevis, Ushba, Everest, Nanga Parbat, Kanchenjunga, the Matterhorn, Mount Cook and Mont Blanc. References External links Mount Logan on Peakware - photos Map showing location of Mount Logan in the Saint Elias Range | Mount_Logan |@lemmatized mount:14 logan:16 high:4 mountain:11 canada:5 second:1 peak:23 north:6 america:3 mckinley:1 denali:1 name:2 sir:1 william:1 edmond:1 canadian:5 geologist:3 founder:1 geological:1 survey:1 gsc:2 locate:1 within:2 kluane:1 national:1 park:1 reserve:1 southwestern:1 yukon:1 source:1 hubbard:1 glacier:2 believe:1 large:1 base:2 circumference:1 earth:1 massif:3 contain:2 eleven:1 due:1 active:1 tectonic:1 uplifting:1 actually:1 still:1 rise:1 elevation:1 exact:1 height:3 unknown:1 measurement:1 range:3 may:4 expedition:1 climb:2 fix:1 current:1 use:1 gps:1 temperature:3 extremely:1 cold:1 near:2 plateau:1 air:1 hovers:1 around:2 winter:1 reach:3 freezing:1 summer:1 average:1 median:1 year:1 snow:1 melt:1 rare:1 lead:1 significant:1 ice:1 cap:1 almost:1 certain:1 spot:1 consider:2 surround:1 less:1 prominence:2 list:2 coordinatesmain:1 mentasta:1 pas:1 philippe:1 west:1 east:1 stuart:1 houston:1 prospector:1 aina:1 russell:1 tudor:1 saxon:1 northeast:1 queen:1 capet:1 northwest:1 catenary:1 teddy:1 first:3 ascent:1 approach:1 alpine:1 club:2 suggestion:1 send:1 team:7 summit:2 time:2 international:2 british:2 american:2 climber:5 assemble:1 initially:1 plan:2 attempt:1 fund:1 preparation:1 delay:1 postpone:1 trip:1 begin:1 journey:1 early:2 cross:1 mainland:1 pacific:1 coast:1 train:1 walk:1 remain:1 establish:1 camp:1 evening:1 june:1 albert:1 h:2 maccarthy:1 leader:1 f:1 lambart:1 carpe:1 w:2 foster:1 n:1 read:1 andy:1 taylor:1 stood:1 top:1 propose:1 rename:2 follow:1 death:1 former:1 prime:2 minister:2 pierre:2 trudeau:5 jean:1 chrétien:1 close:1 friend:1 however:1 opposition:1 yukoners:1 mountaineer:1 political:1 critic:1 many:1 force:2 drop:1 columbia:1 premier:1 elliott:1 instead:1 rescue:5 last:1 day:1 three:2 shore:1 search:1 vancouver:1 become:1 strand:1 joint:1 operation:1 take:1 anchorage:1 alaska:1 treatment:1 frostbite:1 also:2 part:1 abandon:1 bid:1 help:1 teammate:1 main:1 area:1 ironically:1 need:1 rescuing:1 see:1 metre:2 point:1 province:1 territory:1 bibliography:1 irving:1 r:1 l:1 g:1 ten:1 great:1 london:1 j:1 dent:1 son:1 history:1 snowdon:1 ben:1 nevis:1 ushba:1 everest:1 nanga:1 parbat:1 kanchenjunga:1 matterhorn:1 cook:1 mont:1 blanc:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 peakware:1 photo:1 map:1 show:1 location:1 saint:1 elia:1 |@bigram mount_logan:10 geological_survey:1 prime_minister:2 pierre_trudeau:1 jean_chrétien:1 elliott_trudeau:1 anchorage_alaska:1 nanga_parbat:1 mont_blanc:1 external_link:1 |
6,329 | Amblypoda | Amblypoda is a taxonomic hypothesis uniting a group of extinct, herbivorous mammals. They were considered a suborder of the primitive ungulate mammals and have since been shown to represent a polyphyletic group. Characteristics The Amblypoda take their name from their short and stumpy feet, which were furnished with five toes each and supported massive pillar-like limbs. The brain cavity was extremely small and insignificant in comparison to the bodily mass, which was equal to that of the largest rhinoceroses. These animals were, in fact, descendants of the small ancestral ungulates that retained all the primitive characteristics of the latter, accompanied by a huge increase in body size. The Amblypoda were confined to the Paleocene and Eocene periods and occurred in North America, Asia (especially Mongolia) and Europe. The cheek teeth were short-crowned (brachyodont), with the tubercles more-or-less completely fused into transverse ridges, or cross-crests (lophodont type), and the total number of teeth was in one case the typical 44, but in another was fewer. The vertebra of the neck unite on nearly flat surfaces, the humerus had lost the foramen, or perforation, at the lower end, and the third trochanter to the femur may have also been wanting. In the forelimb, the upper and lower series of carpal (finger) bones scarcely alternated, but in the hind foot, the astragalus overlapped the cuboid, while the fibula, which was quite distinct from the tibia (as was the radius from the ulna in the forelimb), articulated with both astragalus and calcaneum. Types of amblypods The most generalized type was Coryphodon, representing the family Coryphodontidae, from the lower Eocene of Europe and North America, in which there were 44 teeth and no horn-like excrescences on the long skull, while the femur had a third trochanter. The canines were somewhat elongated and were followed by a short gap in each jaw, and the cheek-teeth were adapted for succulent food. The length of the body reached about six feet in some cases. In the middle Eocene formations of North America occurred the more specialized Uintatherium (or Dinoceras), typifying the family Uintatheriidae. Uintatheres were huge creatures with long narrow skulls, of which the elongated facial portion carried three pairs of bony horn-cores, probably covered with short horns in life, the hind-pair having been much the largest. The dental formula was i. 0/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3·4, m. 3/3, the upper canines having been long sabre-like weapons, protected by a descending flange on each side of the lower front jaw. In the basal Eocene of North America, the Amblypoda were represented by extremely primitive, five-toed, small ungulates such as Periptychus and Pantolambda, each of these typifying a family. The full typical series of 44 teeth was developed in each, but whereas in the Periptychidae, the upper molars were bunodont and tritubercular, in the Pantolambdidae, they had assumed a selenodont structure. Creodont characters were displayed in the skeleton. Current taxonomy of animals once classified in Amblypoda Few authorities recognize Amblypoda in modern classifications. The following mammals were once considered part of this group: Order Pholidota (pangolins) Order Pantodonta Family Wangliidae Family Harpyodidae Family Bemalambdidae Family Pastoralodontidae Family Titanoideidae Family Pantolambdidae (including Pantolambda) Family Barylambdidae Family Cyriacotheriidae Family Pantolambdodontidae Family Coryphodontidae (including Coryphodon) Order Dinocerata Family Uintatheriidae (includes Uintatherium, Eobasileus, Tetheopsis, etc. Gobiatherium is sometimes placed in its own family.) Order Condylarthra Family Hyopsodontidae Family Mioclaenidae Family Phenacodontidae Family Periptychidae (including Periptychus) Family Peligrotheriidae Family Didolodontidae References | Amblypoda |@lemmatized amblypoda:6 taxonomic:1 hypothesis:1 unite:2 group:3 extinct:1 herbivorous:1 mammal:3 consider:2 suborder:1 primitive:3 ungulate:3 since:1 show:1 represent:3 polyphyletic:1 characteristic:2 take:1 name:1 short:4 stumpy:1 foot:3 furnish:1 five:2 toe:1 support:1 massive:1 pillar:1 like:3 limb:1 brain:1 cavity:1 extremely:2 small:3 insignificant:1 comparison:1 bodily:1 mass:1 equal:1 large:2 rhinoceros:1 animal:2 fact:1 descendant:1 ancestral:1 retain:1 latter:1 accompany:1 huge:2 increase:1 body:2 size:1 confine:1 paleocene:1 eocene:4 period:1 occur:2 north:4 america:4 asia:1 especially:1 mongolia:1 europe:2 cheek:2 teeth:5 crown:1 brachyodont:1 tubercle:1 less:1 completely:1 fuse:1 transverse:1 ridge:1 cross:1 crest:1 lophodont:1 type:3 total:1 number:1 one:1 case:2 typical:2 another:1 vertebra:1 neck:1 nearly:1 flat:1 surface:1 humerus:1 lose:1 foramen:1 perforation:1 low:4 end:1 third:2 trochanter:2 femur:2 may:1 also:1 want:1 forelimb:2 upper:3 series:2 carpal:1 finger:1 bone:1 scarcely:1 alternate:1 hind:2 astragalus:2 overlap:1 cuboid:1 fibula:1 quite:1 distinct:1 tibia:1 radius:1 ulna:1 articulate:1 calcaneum:1 amblypods:1 generalized:1 coryphodon:2 family:21 coryphodontidae:2 horn:3 excrescence:1 long:3 skull:2 canine:2 somewhat:1 elongated:1 follow:1 gap:1 jaw:2 adapt:1 succulent:1 food:1 length:1 reach:1 six:1 middle:1 formation:1 specialized:1 uintatherium:2 dinoceras:1 typify:2 uintatheriidae:2 uintathere:1 creature:1 narrow:1 elongate:1 facial:1 portion:1 carry:1 three:1 pair:2 bony:1 core:1 probably:1 cover:1 life:1 much:1 dental:1 formula:1 c:1 p:1 sabre:1 weapon:1 protect:1 descend:1 flange:1 side:1 front:1 basal:1 toed:1 periptychus:2 pantolambda:2 full:1 develop:1 whereas:1 periptychidae:2 molar:1 bunodont:1 tritubercular:1 pantolambdidae:2 assume:1 selenodont:1 structure:1 creodont:1 character:1 display:1 skeleton:1 current:1 taxonomy:1 classify:1 authority:1 recognize:1 modern:1 classification:1 following:1 part:1 order:4 pholidota:1 pangolin:1 pantodonta:1 wangliidae:1 harpyodidae:1 bemalambdidae:1 pastoralodontidae:1 titanoideidae:1 include:4 barylambdidae:1 cyriacotheriidae:1 pantolambdodontidae:1 dinocerata:1 eobasileus:1 tetheopsis:1 etc:1 gobiatherium:1 sometimes:1 place:1 condylarthra:1 hyopsodontidae:1 mioclaenidae:1 phenacodontidae:1 peligrotheriidae:1 didolodontidae:1 reference:1 |@bigram paleocene_eocene:1 cheek_teeth:2 |
6,330 | Combination | In combinatorial mathematics, a combination is an un-ordered collection of distinct elements, usually of a prescribed size and taken from a given set. (An ordered collection of distinct elements would sometimes be called a permutation, but that term is ambiguous.) Given such a set S, a combination of elements of S is just a subset of S, where, as always for (sub)sets the order of the elements is not taken into account (two lists with the same elements in different orders are considered to be the same combination). Also, as always for (sub)sets, no elements can be repeated more than once in a combination; this is often referred to as a "collection without repetition". For instance, {1,1,2} is not a combination of three digits; as a set this is the same as {1,2,1} or as {2,1,1}. On the contrary, a poker hand can be described as a combination of 5 cards from a 52-card deck: the order of the cards doesn't matter, and there can be no identical cards among the 5. A k-combination (or k-subset) is a subset with k elements. Number of k-combinations from a set The number of k-combinations (each of size k) from a set S with n elements (size n) is the binomial coefficient (also known as the "choose function"): where n is the number of objects from which you can choose and k is the number to be chosen, and n! denotes the factorial. The definition can be understood by considering a list of n elements; the list can be ordered n! ways, and for each possible ordering can be partitioned into the first k elements followed by the remaining n − k elements. The first partition is then a selection of k elements from the original list and all those partitions from every ordering cover all such selections. The complete permutation of the original list produces duplicate selections, however; some permutations result in a permuted but identical set for the first partition, and so we divide by k! to remove these, and other permutations result in permuted second partitions, and so we divide by (n − k)! to remove these. The use of the definition in calculation is not always straightforward. For example, the number of five-card hands possible from a standard fifty-two card deck is: Since it is impractical to calculate n! if the value of n is very large, a more efficient algorithm is which gives This method of calculation can be seen immediately from the recursive definition of the choose function: with a base case of . It can be argued that is a more natural base case but the former follows easily from the latter anyway. This second definition can be understood as stating that when adding an element to the selection, there are n − k elements to choose from, and so this increases the number of possible selections by that much, but doing this to all selections produces duplicates (e.g. { a, b } ∪ { c } = {a, c} ∪ { b }) and so we divide by the size of the selection since that is the number of possibilities for the last element added. Since as explained above a combination is a special case of a partition of a set; specifically, a partition into two sets of size k and n − k, you get the same number of combinations if you substitute k with n − k. Therefore, when k is more than half of n, it may be easier to compute the binomial coefficient using n − k in place of k. Number of combinations with repetition The number of combinations with repetition can be calculated as: For example, if you have ten types of donuts (n) on a menu to choose from and you want three donuts (k) the number of ways to choose can be calculated as (see also multiset): There is an easy way to understand the above result. Imagine we have n + k identical boxes arranged on a line. From these boxes (except the first one), we arbitrarily choose k of them and mark the chosen boxes as empty. The rest of the boxes can be filled by the n elements in the set S. For each non-empty box, if it is followed by M successive empty boxes, we choose the corresponding element in the non-empty box M times. As a result, each arrangement of choosing empty boxes corresponds to a way of choosing k out of the n elements with repetition. The total number is therefore the number of combinations with repetition, which equals Example 2 Another explanation, which might help. Imagine you have slots (or boxes) for 4 types of fruits (apple, orange, pear, banana), all next to one another at the grocery store. That means n=4. If you choose a type of fruit, you want to mark that box so you put a '1' into that slot. You want to choose 12 fruits, and you can choose one type of fruit more than once. Therefore, altogether you'll put 12 '1's into the fruit slots. That means k=12. Now imagine that each separator of a slot is marked by a '0'. For the 4 boxes you will have 4-1=3 separators. If you want to choose 2 apples from the first slot, 3 oranges from the second, 5 pears from the third, and 2 bananas from the fourth, that would be denoted by 11 0 111 0 11111 0 11 . The number of ways we can choose 12 fruits from the 4 boxes (or slots) is simply the number of ways we can put 12 '1's and 3 '0's into order. Thus the total number of ways is the permutation of 12 '1's and 3 '0's. Expressed with k and n: k = 12; n = 4; See also Factorial Combinadic (how to enumerate combinations and generate the ith combination in a reasonable way) Combinatorics Multiset Binomial coefficient Permutation List of permutation topics Subset Probability References External links Many Common types of permutation and combination math problems, with detailed solutions The Unknown Formula For combinations when choices can be repeated and order does NOT matter Web-based calculator of permutations and combinations | Combination |@lemmatized combinatorial:1 mathematics:1 combination:19 un:1 ordered:1 collection:3 distinct:2 element:18 usually:1 prescribed:1 size:5 take:2 give:3 set:11 order:8 would:2 sometimes:1 call:1 permutation:9 term:1 ambiguous:1 subset:4 always:3 sub:2 account:1 two:3 list:6 different:1 consider:2 also:4 repeat:2 often:1 refer:1 without:1 repetition:5 instance:1 three:2 digit:1 contrary:1 poker:1 hand:2 describe:1 card:6 deck:2 matter:2 identical:3 among:1 k:27 number:16 n:22 binomial:3 coefficient:3 know:1 choose:16 function:2 object:1 denote:2 factorial:2 definition:4 understand:3 way:8 possible:3 ordering:1 partition:7 first:5 follow:3 remain:1 selection:7 original:2 every:1 cover:1 complete:1 produce:2 duplicate:2 however:1 result:4 permuted:2 divide:3 remove:2 second:3 use:2 calculation:2 straightforward:1 example:3 five:1 standard:1 fifty:1 since:3 impractical:1 calculate:3 value:1 large:1 efficient:1 algorithm:1 method:1 see:3 immediately:1 recursive:1 base:3 case:3 argue:1 natural:1 former:1 easily:1 latter:1 anyway:1 state:1 add:2 increase:1 much:1 e:1 g:1 b:2 c:2 possibility:1 last:1 explain:1 special:1 specifically:1 get:1 substitute:1 therefore:3 half:1 may:1 easy:2 compute:1 place:1 ten:1 type:5 donut:2 menu:1 want:4 multiset:2 imagine:3 box:12 arrange:1 line:1 except:1 one:3 arbitrarily:1 mark:3 chosen:1 empty:5 rest:1 fill:1 non:2 successive:1 corresponding:1 time:1 arrangement:1 correspond:1 total:2 equal:1 another:2 explanation:1 might:1 help:1 slot:6 fruit:6 apple:2 orange:2 pear:2 banana:2 next:1 grocery:1 store:1 mean:2 put:3 altogether:1 separator:2 third:1 fourth:1 simply:1 thus:1 express:1 combinadic:1 enumerate:1 generate:1 ith:1 reasonable:1 combinatorics:1 topic:1 probability:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 many:1 common:1 math:1 problem:1 detailed:1 solution:1 unknown:1 formula:1 choice:1 web:1 calculator:1 |@bigram binomial_coefficient:3 grocery_store:1 external_link:1 |
6,331 | Politics_of_Botswana | Politics of Botswana takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic republic, whereby the President of Botswana is both head of state and head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the Parliament of Botswana. Since independence the party system is dominated by the Botswana Democratic Party (BDP). The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Botswana is formally a multiparty constitutional democracy. Each of the elections since independence in September 1966 has been freely and fairly contested and has been held on schedule. The country's small white minority and other minorities participate freely in the political process. There are two main rival parties and a number of smaller parties. However, Botswana is also a dominant-party state in that the BDP has never lost power since independence. Some argue that the openness of the country's political system has been a significant factor in Botswana's stability and economic growth. General elections are held at least every 5 years. Legislative branch The National Assembly has 57 elected and 4 appointed members; it is expanded following each census (every 10 years). The advisory House of Chiefs represents the eight principal subgroups of the Batswana people, and four other members are elected by the subchiefs of four of the districts. A draft of any National Assembly bill of tribal concern must be referred to the House of Chiefs for advisory opinion. Chiefs and other leaders preside over customary, traditional courts, though all persons have the right to request that their case be considered under the formal British-based legal system. A possible cultural explanation for Botswana's democracy lies in Setswana traditions, exemplified by the Kgotla, or village council, in which the powers of traditional leaders are limited by custom and law. Local government Local government is administered by nine district councils and five town councils. District commissioners have executive authority and are appointed by the central government and assisted by elected and nominated district councilors and district development committees. There has been ongoing debate about the political, social, and economic marginalization of the San (indigenous tribal population). The government's policies for remote area dwellers continue to spark controversy and to be revised in response to domestic and donor concerns. Political parties and elections Judicial branch Botswana's High Court has general civil and criminal jurisdiction. Judges are appointed by the president and may be removed only for cause and after a hearing. The constitution has a code of fundamental human rights enforced by the courts, and Botswana has a good human rights record. Judgments of the Botswana Court of Appeal Judgments of the Botswana High Court International organization participation ACP, AfDB, C, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO, WT | Politics_of_Botswana |@lemmatized politics:1 botswana:12 take:1 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:1 democratic:2 republic:1 whereby:1 president:2 head:2 state:2 government:7 multi:1 party:7 system:4 executive:3 power:4 exercise:1 legislative:2 vest:1 parliament:1 since:3 independence:3 dominate:1 bdp:2 judiciary:1 independent:1 legislature:1 formally:1 multiparty:1 constitutional:1 democracy:2 election:3 september:1 freely:2 fairly:1 contest:1 hold:2 schedule:1 country:2 small:2 white:1 minority:2 participate:1 political:4 process:1 two:1 main:1 rival:1 number:1 however:1 also:1 dominant:1 never:1 lose:1 argue:1 openness:1 significant:1 factor:1 stability:1 economic:2 growth:1 general:2 least:1 every:2 year:2 branch:2 national:2 assembly:2 elect:2 appoint:3 member:2 expand:1 follow:1 census:1 advisory:2 house:2 chiefs:1 represent:1 eight:1 principal:1 subgroup:1 batswana:1 people:1 four:2 subchiefs:1 district:5 draft:1 bill:1 tribal:2 concern:2 must:1 refer:1 chief:2 opinion:1 leader:2 preside:1 customary:1 traditional:2 court:5 though:1 person:1 right:3 request:1 case:1 consider:1 formal:1 british:1 base:1 legal:1 possible:1 cultural:1 explanation:1 lie:1 setswana:1 tradition:1 exemplify:1 kgotla:1 village:1 council:3 limit:1 custom:1 law:1 local:2 administer:1 nine:1 five:1 town:1 commissioner:1 authority:1 central:1 assist:1 elected:1 nominated:1 councilors:1 development:1 committee:1 ongoing:1 debate:1 social:1 marginalization:1 san:1 indigenous:1 population:1 policy:1 remote:1 area:1 dweller:1 continue:1 spark:1 controversy:1 revise:1 response:1 domestic:1 donor:1 judicial:1 high:2 civil:1 criminal:1 jurisdiction:1 judge:1 may:1 remove:1 cause:1 hearing:1 constitution:1 code:1 fundamental:1 human:2 enforce:1 good:1 record:1 judgment:2 appeal:1 international:1 organization:1 participation:1 acp:1 afdb:1 c:1 eca:1 fao:1 g:1 iaea:1 ibrd:1 icao:1 icct:1 icftu:1 icrm:1 ida:1 ifad:1 ifc:1 ifrcs:1 ilo:1 imf:1 interpol:1 ioc:1 iso:1 itu:1 nam:1 oau:1 opcw:1 sacu:1 sadc:1 un:1 unctad:1 unesco:1 unido:1 upu:1 wco:1 wftu:1 wipo:1 wmo:1 wto:1 wt:1 |@bigram judiciary_independent:1 legislative_branch:1 advisory_opinion:1 judicial_branch:1 participation_acp:1 acp_afdb:1 eca_fao:1 iaea_ibrd:1 ibrd_icao:1 icao_icct:1 icct_icftu:1 icftu_icrm:1 icrm_ida:1 ida_ifad:1 ifad_ifc:1 ifc_ifrcs:1 ifrcs_ilo:1 ilo_imf:1 interpol_ioc:1 ioc_iso:1 iso_itu:1 itu_nam:1 nam_oau:1 oau_opcw:1 sadc_un:1 un_unctad:1 unctad_unesco:1 unesco_unido:1 unido_upu:1 upu_wco:1 wco_wftu:1 wftu_wipo:1 wipo_wmo:1 wmo_wto:1 |
6,332 | Magnesium | Magnesium () is a chemical element with the symbol Mg, atomic number 12, atomic weight 24.3050 and common oxidation number +2. Magnesium, an alkaline earth metal, is the ninth most abundant element in the universe by mass. . The commonness of magnesium is related to the fact that it is easily built up in supernova stars from a sequential addition of three helium nuclei to carbon (which in turn is made from a single reaction between three helium nuclei at once). Magnesium constitutes about 2% of the Earth's crust by mass, which makes it the eighth most abundant element in the crust. Magnesium ion's high solubility in water helps ensure that it is the third most abundant element dissolved in seawater. http://www.seafriends.org.nz/oceano/seawater.htm#composition. Retrieved Jan. 20, 2009 Magnesium is the 11th most abundant element by mass in the human body; its ions are essential to all living cells, where they play a major role in manipulating important biological polyphosphate compounds like ATP, DNA, and RNA. Hundreds of enzymes thus require magnesium ion in order to function. Magnesium is also the metallic ion at the center of chlorophyll, and is thus a common additive to fertilizers. Magnesium compounds are used medicinally as common laxatives, antacids (i.e., milk of magnesia), and in a number of situations where stabilization of abnormal nerve excitation and blood vessel spasm is required (i.e., to treat eclampsia). Magnesium ions are sour to the taste, and in low concentrations help to impart a natural tartness to fresh mineral waters. The free element (metal) is not found naturally on Earth, since it is highly reactive (though once produced, is coated in a thin layer of oxide which partly masks this reactivity). The free metal burns with a characteristic brilliant white light, making it a useful ingredient in flares. The metal is now mainly obtained by electrolysis of magnesium salts obtained from brine. Commercially, the chief use for the metal is as an alloying agent to make aluminium-magnesium alloys, sometimes called "magnalium" or "magnelium". Since magnesium is less dense than aluminum, these alloys are prized for their relative lightness and strength. Notable characteristics Elemental magnesium is a fairly strong, silvery-white, light-weight metal (two thirds the density of aluminium). It tarnishes slightly when exposed to air, although unlike the alkaline metals, storage in an oxygen-free environment is unnecessary because magnesium is protected by a thin layer of oxide which is fairly impermeable and hard to remove. Like its lower periodic table group neighbor calcium, magnesium reacts with water at room temperature, though it reacts much more slowly than calcium. When it is submerged in water, hydrogen bubbles will almost unnoticeably begin to form on the surface of the metal, though if powdered it will react much more rapidly. The reaction will occur faster with higher temperatures (see precautions). Magnesium also reacts exothermically with most acids, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl). As with aluminum, zinc and many other metals, the reaction with hydrochloric acid produces the chloride of the metal and releases hydrogen gas. Magnesium is a highly flammable metal, but while it is easy to ignite when powdered or shaved into thin strips, it is difficult to ignite in mass or bulk. Once ignited, it is difficult to extinguish, being able to burn in both nitrogen (forming magnesium nitride), and carbon dioxide (forming magnesium oxide and carbon). On burning in air, magnesium produces a brilliant white light. Thus magnesium powder (flash powder) was used as a source of illumination in the early days of photography. Later, magnesium ribbon was used in electrically ignited flash bulbs. Magnesium powder is used in the manufacture of fireworks and marine flares where a brilliant white light is required. Flame temperatures of magnesium and magnesium alloys can reach , although flame height above the burning metal is usually less than . Magnesium compounds are typically white crystals. Most are soluble in water, providing the sour-tasting magnesium ion Mg2+. Small amounts of dissolved magnesium ion contributes to the tartness and taste of natural waters. Magnesium ion in large amounts is an ionic laxative, and magnesium sulfate (Epsom salts) is sometimes used for this purpose. So-called "milk of magnesia" is a water suspension of one of the few insoluble magnesium compounds, magnesium hydroxide. The undissolved particles give rise to its appearance and name. Milk of magnesia is a mild base commonly used as an antacid. Applications As the metal An unusual application of magnesium as an illumination source while wakeskating in 1931 Magnesium is the third most commonly used structural metal, following steel and aluminium. Magnesium compounds, primarily magnesium oxide (MgO), are used mainly as refractory material in furnace linings for producing iron, steel, nonferrous metals, glass and cement. Magnesium oxide and other compounds also are used in agricultural, chemical and construction industries. As a metal, this element's principal use is as an alloying additive to aluminium with these aluminium-magnesium alloys being used mainly for beverage cans. Magnesium, in its purest form, can be compared with aluminium, and is strong and light, so it is used in several high volume part manufacturing applications, including automotive and truck components. Specialty, high-grade car wheels of magnesium alloy are called "mag wheels". In 1957 a Corvette SS, designed for racing, was constructed with magnesium body panels. Porsche's all-out quest to decrease the weight of their race cars led to the use of magnesium frames in the famous 917/053 which won Le Mans in 1971, and still holds the absolute distance record. The 917/30 Can-Am car also featured a magnesium spaceframe, helping it to make the most of its prodigious 1100-1500hp. Volkswagen has used magnesium in its engine components for many years. For a long time, Porsche used magnesium alloy for its engine blocks due to the weight advantage. There is renewed interest in magnesium engine blocks, as featured in the 2006 BMW 325i and 330i models. The BMW engine uses an aluminium alloy insert for the cylinder walls and cooling jackets surrounded by a high temperature magnesium alloy AJ62A. The application of magnesium AE44 alloy in the 2006 Corvette Z06 engine cradle has advanced the technology of designing robust automotive parts in magnesium. Both of these alloys are recent developments in high temperature low creep magnesium alloys. The general strategy for such alloys is to form intermetallic precipitates at the grain boundaries, for example by adding mischmetal or calcium. New alloy development and lower costs, which are becoming competitive to aluminium, will further the number of automotive applications. Products made of magnesium: firestarter and shavings, sharpener, magnesium ribbon The second application field of magnesium is electronic devices. Due to low weight, good mechanical and electrical properties, magnesium is widely used for manufacturing of mobile phones, laptop computers, cameras, and other electronic components. Historically, magnesium was one of the main aerospace construction metals and was used for German military aircraft as early as World War I and extensively for German aircraft in World War II. The Germans coined the name 'Elektron' for magnesium alloy which is still used today. Due to perceived hazards with magnesium parts in the event of fire, the application of magnesium in the commercial aerospace industry was generally restricted to engine related components. Currently the use of magnesium alloys in aerospace is increasing, mostly driven by the increasing importance of fuel economy and the need to reduce weight. The development and testing of new magnesium alloys continues, notably Elektron 21 which has successfully undergone extensive aerospace testing for suitability in engine, internal and airframe components. The European Community runs three R&D magnesium projects in the Aerospace priority of Six Framework Program. Magnesium firestarter (in left hand), used with a pocket knife and flint to create sparks which ignite the shavings Incendiary use: Magnesium is flammable, burning at a temperature of approximately 2500 K (2200 °C, 4000 °F), and the autoignition temperature of magnesium is approximately 744 K (473 °C, 883 °F) in air. The extremely high temperature at which magnesium burns makes it a handy tool for starting emergency fires during outdoor recreation. Other related uses include flashlight photography, flares, pyrotechnics, fireworks sparklers, and incendiary bombs. Magnesium is also used: To remove sulfur from iron and steel. To refine titanium in the Kroll process. To photoengrave plates in the printing industry. To combine in alloys, where this metal is essential for airplane and missile construction. In the form of turnings or ribbons, to prepare Grignard reagents, which are useful in organic synthesis. As an alloying agent, improving the mechanical, fabrication and welding characteristics of aluminium. As an additive agent in conventional propellants and the production of nodular graphite in cast iron. As a reducing agent for the production of uranium and other metals from their salts. As a desiccant, since it easily reacts with water. As a sacrificial (galvanic) anode to protect underground tanks, pipelines, buried structures, and water heaters. In magnesium compounds The magnesium ion is necessary for all life (see magnesium in biology), so magnesium salts are an additive for foods, fertilizers (Mg is a component of chlorophyll), and culture media. Magnesium hydroxide is used in milk of magnesia, its chloride, oxide, gluconate, malate, orotate and citrate used as oral magnesium supplements, and its sulfate (Epsom salts) for various purposes in medicine, and elsewhere (see the article for more). Oral magnesium supplements have been claimed to be therapeutic for some individuals who suffer from Restless Leg Syndrome (RLS). Magnesium borate, magnesium salicylate and magnesium sulfate are used as antiseptics. Magnesium bromide is used as a mild sedative (this action is due to the bromide, not the magnesium). Dead-burned magnesite is used for refractory purposes such as brick and liners in furnaces and converters. Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) powder is also used by athletes, such as gymnasts and weightlifters, to improve the grip on objects – the apparatus or lifting bar. Magnesium stearate is a slightly flammable white powder with lubricative properties. In pharmaceutical technology it is used in the manufacturing of tablets, to prevent the tablets from sticking to the equipment during the tablet compression process (i.e., when the tablet's substance is pressed into tablet form). Magnesium sulfite is used in the manufacture of paper (sulfite process). Magnesium phosphate is used to fireproof wood for construction. Magnesium hexafluorosilicate is used in mothproofing of textiles. History The name originates from the Greek word for a district in Thessaly called Magnesia. It is related to magnetite and manganese, which also originated from this area, and required differentiation as separate substances. See manganese for this history. Magnesium is the seventh most abundant element in the Earth's crust by mass and eighth by molarity. It is found in large deposits of magnesite, dolomite, and other minerals, and in mineral waters, where magnesium ion is soluble. In 1618 a farmer at Epsom in England attempted to give his cows water from a well. They refused to drink because of the water's bitter taste. However the farmer noticed that the water seemed to heal scratches and rashes. The fame of Epsom salts spread. Eventually they were recognized to be hydrated magnesium sulfate, MgSO4. The metal itself was first produced in England by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808 using electrolysis of a mixture of magnesia and HgO. A. A. B. Bussy prepared it in coherent form in 1831. Davy's first suggestion for a name was magnium, but the name magnesium is now used. Sources Although magnesium is found in over 60 minerals, only dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc, and olivine are of commercial importance. In the United States this metal is principally obtained by electrolysis of fused magnesium chloride from brines, wells, and sea water: cathode: Mg2+ + 2 e- → Mg anode: 2 Cl- → Cl2 (gas) + 2 e- Vapor-deposited magnesium crystals from the Pidgeon process The United States has traditionally been the major world supplier of this metal, supplying 45% of world production even as recently as 1995. Today, the US market share is at 7%, with a single domestic producer left, US Magnesium, a company born from now-defunct Magcorp. As of 2005 China has taken over as the dominant supplier, pegged at 60% world market share, which increased from 4% in 1995. Unlike the above described electrolytic process, China is almost completely reliant on a different method of obtaining the metal from its ores, the silicothermic Pidgeon process (the reduction of the oxide at high temperatures with silicon). Magnesium from sea water The Mg2+ cation is the second most abundant cation in seawater (occurring at about 12% of the mass of sodium there), which makes seawater and sea-salt an attractive commercial source of Mg. To extract the magnesium, calcium hydroxide is added to sea water to form magnesium hydroxide precipitate. MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2 Magnesium hydroxide is insoluble in water so it can be filtered out, and reacted with hydrochloric acid to obtain concentrated magnesium chloride. Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O From magnesium chloride, electrolysis produces magnesium. Biological role Due to the important interaction between phosphate and magnesium ions, magnesium ions are essential to the basic nucleic acid chemistry of life, and thus are essential to all cells of all known living organisms. Over 300 enzymes require the presence of magnesium ions for their catalytic action, including all enzymes utilizing or synthesizing ATP, or those which use other nucleotides to synthesize DNA and RNA. ATP exists in cells normally as a chelate of ATP and a magnesium ion. Plants have an additional use for magnesium in that chlorophylls are magnesium-centered porphyrins.Magnesium deficiency in plants causes late-season yellowing between leaf veins, especially in older leaves, and can be corrected by applying Epsom salts (which is rapidly leached), or else crushed dolomitic limestone to the soil. Food sources of magnesium Magnesium is a vital component of a healthy human diet. Human magnesium deficiency (including conditions which show few overt symptoms) is relatively common, with only 32% of the United States meeting the RDA-DRI, Last paragraph and has been implicated in the development of a number of human illnesses such as asthma, osteoporosis, and ADHD. Adult human bodies contain about 24 grams of magnesium, with 60% in the skeleton, 39% intracellular (20% in skeletal muscle), and 1% extracellular. Serum levels are typically 0.7 – 1.0 mmol/L. Serum magnesium levels may appear normal even in cases of underlying intracellular deficiency, although no known mechanism maintains a homeostatic level in the blood other than renal excretion of high blood levels. Intracellular magnesium is correlated with intracellular potassium. Magnesium is absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract, with more absorbed when status is lower. In humans, magnesium appears to facilitate calcium absorption. Low and high protein intake inhibit magnesium absorption, and other factors such as phosphate, phytate, and fat affect absorption. Absorbed dietary magnesium is largely excreted through the urine, although most magnesium "administered orally" is excreted through the feces. Magnesium status may be assessed roughly through serum and erythrocyte Mg concentrations and urinary and fecal excretion, but intravenous magnesium loading tests are likely the most accurate and practical in most people. In these tests, magnesium is injected intravenously; a retention of 20% or more indicates deficiency. Other nutrient deficiencies are identified through biomarkers, but none are established for magnesium. Spices, nuts, cereals, coffee, cocoa, tea, and vegetables (especially green leafy ones) are rich sources of magnesium. Observations of reduced dietary magnesium intake in modern Western countries as compared to earlier generations may be related to food refining and modern fertilizers which contain no magnesium. There are a number of magnesium dietary supplements available. Magnesium oxide, one of the most common because it has a high magnesium content per weight, has been reported to be the least bioavailable. Magnesium citrate has been reported as more bioavailable than oxide or amino-acid chelate (glycinate) forms. Excess magnesium in the blood is freely filtered at the kidneys, and for this reason it is difficult to overdose on magnesium from dietary sources alone. University of Maryland Medical Center. Magnesium With supplements, overdose is possible, however, particularly in people with poor renal function; occasionally, with use of high cathartic doses of magnesium salts, severe hypermagnesemia has been reported to occur even without renal dysfunction. Alcoholism can produce a magnesium deficiency which is easily reversed by oral or parenteral administration, depending on the degree of deficiency. AJ Giannini. Drugs of Abuse--Second Edition. Los Angeles, Physicians Management Information Co., 1997. Isotopes Magnesium has three stable isotopes: 24Mg, 25Mg, 26Mg. All are present in significant amounts (see table of isotopes above). About 79% of Mg is 24Mg. The isotope 28Mg is radioactive and in the 1950s to 1970s was made commercially by several nuclear power plants for use in scientific experiments. This isotope has a relatively short half-life (21 hours) and so its use was limited by shipping times. 26Mg has found application in isotopic geology, similar to that of aluminium. 26Mg is a radiogenic daughter product of 26Al, which has a half-life of 717,000 years. Large enrichments of stable 26Mg have been observed in the Ca-Al-rich inclusions of some carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. The anomalous abundance of 26Mg is attributed to the decay of its parent 26Al in the inclusions. Therefore, the meteorite must have formed in the solar nebula before the 26Al had decayed. Hence, these fragments are among the oldest objects in the solar system and have preserved information about its early history. It is conventional to plot 26Mg/24Mg against an Al/Mg ratio. In an isochron dating plot, the Al/Mg ratio plotted is27Al/24Mg. The slope of the isochron has no age significance, but indicates the initial 26Al/27Al ratio in the sample at the time when the systems were separated from a common reservoir. Precautions The magnesium-bodied Honda RA302 of Jo Schlesser crashes and burns during the 1968 French Grand Prix. Schlesser was killed. Magnesium metal and alloys are highly flammable in their pure form when molten, as a powder, or in ribbon form. Burning or molten magnesium metal reacts violently with water. Magnesium powder is an explosive hazard. Wear safety glasses when working with powdered magnesium. Use safety glasses that include a heavy U.V. filter, similar to welding eye protection, when burning magnesium. The bright white light (including ultraviolet) produced by burning magnesium can permanently damage the retinas of the eyes, similar to welding arc burns. Do not use water to extinguish magnesium fires because it can produce hydrogen which will feed the fire. The reaction is: Mg (s) + 2 H2O (g) → Mg(OH)2 (s) + H2 (g) or in words: Magnesium (solid) + steam → Magnesium hydroxide (solid) + Hydrogen (gas) Carbon dioxide fire extinguishers also are not recommended, because magnesium can burn in carbon dioxide (forming magnesium oxide, and carbon). Burning magnesium can be extinguished using a Class D dry chemical fire extinguisher, or the fire can be covered with sand or magnesium foundry flux. Small magnesium metal fires may be conveniently extinguished by placing a polyethylene bag filled with dry sand atop the fire. The heat of the fire melts the bag, releasing the sand onto the fire. See also Magnesium minerals Magnesium compounds References External links WebElements.com – Magnesium Online Resource for industry professionals - Magnesium.com The Magnesium Website – Includes full text papers and textbook chapters by leading magnesium authorities Mildred Seelig, Jean Durlach, Burton M. Altura and Bella T. Altura. Links to over 300 articles discussing magnesium and magnesium deficiency. 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6,333 | Politics_of_Guam | Politics of Guam takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic system, whereby the Governor is head of government, and of a multi-party system. Guam is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States with policy relations between Guam and the US under the jurisdiction of the Office of Insular Affairs. Background The population of Guam is largely proud to be Americans, and the economy is greatly dependent on the U.S. military bases there. The U.S. connection also contributes to Guam's status as a Japanese tourist destination. The Guamanian population is generally culturally sympathetic toward the United States, based especially in common tribulations during World War II, and on good relations with the U.S. military since. However, maintenance of the status quo vis-à-vis the current political relationship between the territory and the United States is not without controversy. There is a significant movement in favor of the Territory becoming a commonwealth, which would give it a political status similar to Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands. Competing movements with less significant influence exist, which advocate political independence from the United States, statehood, or a combination with the Northern Mariana Islands as a single territory (not necessarily commonwealth). These proposals however, are not seen as favorable or realistic within the U.S. federal government, which argues Guam does not have the financial stability or self sufficiency to warrant such status. The same sources quickly provide evidence of Guam’s increasing reliance on Federal spending, and question how commonwealth status or statehood would benefit the United States as a greater whole. In whatever form it takes, most people on Guam favor a modified version of the current Territorial status, involving greater autonomy from the federal government (similar to the autonomy of individual States). Perceived indifference by the U.S. Congress regarding a change-of-status petition submitted by Guam has led many to feel that the territory is being unjustly deprived of the benefits of a more equitable union with the United States. Executive branch |Governor |Felix P. Camacho |Republican |January 2007 |- |Lieutenant Governor |Michael Cruz, M.D. |Republican |January 2007 |} The governor and lieutenant governor are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms. Legislative branch The unicameral Legislature has 15 members, elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms. Additionally Guam elects one non-voting delegate to the US House of Representatives. Judicial branch On August 1, 1950, President Truman signed into law the Organic Act of Guam which gave Guamanians certain rights and protections under the U.S. Constitution. The people of Guam were afforded the opportunity to set and administer policy and laws for the island of Guam. Included in this was the Judicial Branch of the Government of Guam. In 1950 as part of the Judiciary Act, a judiciary reorganization bill was prepared to strengthen the island court system. Judge Albert B. Maria, then Chairman of the United States Judicial Conference, Judge of the Third Circuit Court of Appeals, and Chief Judge of the Emergency Court of Appeals, came to Guam to assist in the review of the court system and the preparation of the judiciary bill. He was assisted by Attorney John Bohn in the development of an act that vested in the District Court of Guam territorial jurisdiction in civil cases having a value of more than $2,000 and, in criminal cases, jurisdiction over all felonies. Known as Public Law 17, the "Judiciary Act" abolished the Justice Court, the Traffic Branch of the Police Court, and the Court of Appeals. The duties of the latter were assumed by the District Court. Before the Act, the court system consisted of the Court of Appeals, the Island Court and the Police Court. The reorganization reduced the number of courts to the District Court of Guam, the Island Court, the Police Court and the Commissioners Court. The Judiciary Act gave the Island Court of Guam jurisdiction over misdemeanors and civil cases having a value of less than $2,000 and created a Police Court with jurisdiction over misdemeanor cases in which the maximum penalty did not exceed a fine of $100 or imprisonment of six months, or both. The Act also created a Commissioner’s Court to be presided over by the commissioner of each municipality to deal with petty offenses for which the maximum punishment did not exceed $5. The law also defined the powers, qualifications, and disqualifications of judges and referees and specified the duties of court clerks, reporters, marshals, the attorney general, and the island attorney or prosecuting attorney. It provided requisites for admission to the practice of law and for a probation system. After 1950, the District Court of Guam, which had the same jurisdiction as a District Court in the US over federal questions, was established. For the first time, the judiciary in Guam, exercised its powers independent of the executive branch. However, a dual judicial structure began -- the District Court with responsibility both for federal and local cases, and the Island Court established by the Guam Legislature with responsibility strictly for local cases. In 1974, Public Law 12-85, the Court Reorganization Act would substantially alter the judicial jurisdiction of the local island court and rename it the Superior Court of Guam. The Superior Court was given jurisdiction over all cases arising out of Guam laws. The District Court retained its appellate function. Under the act establishing the Superior Court of Guam, the title of senior judge was changed to Presiding Judge of the Superior Court. Chief Judge of the Island Court Joaquin Perez became Guam’s first Presiding Judge. In 1973, Guam's leaders made their first attempt at creating a Guam Supreme Court but the Court's existence was short lived. A 1977 ruling by the U.S. Supreme Court--Territory of Guam v. Olsen, 431 U.S. 195--found Guam's Supreme Court to be inorganic. In Olsen, the Court held that Guam's Organic Act did not authorize the transfer of appellate jurisdiction from the appellate division of the District Court of Guam to a locally established appellate court. In response to Guam v. Olsen, Congress passed the 1984 Omnibus Territories Act. The Act amended Guam's Organic Act allowing the Guam Legislature to create an appellate court to hear all cases in Guam over which any court established by the Constitution and laws of the United States does not have exclusive jurisdiction, with the provision that for the first 15 years after establishment that of that court, the 9th Circuit Court would still maintain judicial overview in the appeals process. In all other aspects, the appeals process would be the same as each state. The Act, however, did not provide a structure for a newly created judicial system once the appellate court was established. Nor did the Act mention that the responsibility should be left to the Guam Legislature. In 1992, the 21st Guam Legislature unanimously passed Public Law 21-147, the Frank G. Lujan Memorial Court Reorganization Act. The Act reestablished the Supreme Court of Guam to serve as the highest appellate court on the island. The author of the Frank G. Lujan Memorial Court Reorganization Act stated, in testimony submitted to the Committee in 1997, that it was the intent of the Guam Legislature to make the Supreme Court of Guam the highest local court and be vested with those powers traditionally held and exercised by the highest court of a jurisdiction. In authorizing the creation of a Guam Supreme Court however, the U.S. Congress had unintentionally left the newly created court subordinate to Guam's other two branches of government. Guam's executive and legislative branches were established in the Organic Act, which in lieu of an adopted constitution serves to provide the framework and powers for the island's executive and legislative branches. Because the judiciary was established in Guam law, some theorized that the judiciary was therefore subject to changes based upon shifts in the majority control of Guam's legislature. In March 1996, hours after the first Justices of the Supreme Court of Guam were confirmed, the 23rd Guam Legislature passed Bill 404, which removed certain inherent powers from the Supreme Court. A second bill, Bill 494, aimed to strip the supervisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court over all lower courts. That bill was debated, but tabled by the Legislative Committee on the Judiciary. Eight months later, the Legislature attached the contents of the shelved Bill 494 as a "midnight" rider to Bill 776. The legislation passed, but was vetoed by the Governor. An override attempt failed by only a slim margin. After years of lobbying to confirm the status of the Supreme Court of Guam as the ultimate court of appeals for the island, on October 30, 2004, H.R. 2400 (Public Law No. 108-378) became federal law. It amended the Organic Act of Guam to revise the local judicial structure of Guam to vest judicial authority, not only in the District Court of Guam, but also in "a unified judicial system composed of: (1) an appellate court designated as the "Supreme Court of Guam"; (2) a trial court designated as the "Superior Court of Guam"; and (3) such other lower local courts as may have been or may hereafter be established by the laws of Guam." Further, Public Law No. 108-378 authorized the Supreme Court of Guam to create divisions of the Superior Court and other local courts of Guam, and stated that the Supreme Court of Guam "shall be the highest court of the judicial branch of Guam (excluding the District Court of Guam) and shall: (1) have original jurisdiction over proceedings necessary to protect its appellate jurisdiction and supervisory authority and such other original jurisdiction as the laws of Guam may provide; (2) have jurisdiction to hear appeals over any cause in Guam decided by the Superior Court of Guam or other courts established under the laws of Guam; (3) have jurisdiction to issue all orders and writs in aid of its appellate, supervisory, and original jurisdiction, including those orders necessary for the supervision of the judicial branch of Guam; (4) have supervisory jurisdiction over the Superior Court of Guam and all other courts of the judicial branch of Guam; (5) hear and determine appeals by a panel of three of the justices of the Supreme Court of Guam and a concurrence of two such justices shall be necessary to a decision of the Supreme Court of Guam on the merits of an appeal; (6) make and promulgate rules governing the administration of the judiciary and court practice and procedure, including appeal en banc procedures; and (7) govern attorney and judicial ethics and the practice of law in Guam." In January 2002, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed a Supreme Court of Guam decision to invalidate a Guam law, based upon a claim the Governor of Guam pocket-vetoed the enacting legislation. This decision allowed the Supreme Court to reestablish itself, administratively, as the highest court within the Judiciary. A Unified Judiciary Committee, composed of the Chief Justice of Guam, two Supreme Court Associate Justices, the Presiding Judge of the Superior Court, one Judge of the Superior Court, the Administrator of the Supreme Court, and the Administrator of the Superior Court, has since been established by the Supreme Court of Guam. On March 15, 2006, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals dismissed a case brought by Attorney General Douglas Moylan against Governor Felix Camacho on the basis of its lack of jurisdiction, confirming for the first time that the Ninth Circuit no longer would review the Supreme Court of Guam's decisions. This was the final transition of the Supreme Court of Guam from its probationary status under the original permissive federal legislation, to the equal of other states' highest courts, since it meant appeals from decisions of the Supreme Court of Guam would be subject to review only if accepted for such by the United States Supreme Court. Federal Courts (U.S. Government) The U.S. District Court for the District of Guam is one of three territorial courts within the federal court system. The others are the district courts for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, also located within the Ninth Circuit, and the U.S. Territory of the Virgin Islands, located within the Third Circuit. Territorial courts exercise the same jurisdiction as U.S. district courts, as well as local jurisdiction. Guam's Federal District Court is housed on the 4th floor of the U.S. Courthouse, 520 West Soledad Avenue, in Hagåtña, Guam. Its lone federal District Court <b>Chief Judge<b> is one of the few Article IV territorial judgeships, appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate to a ten-year term. The current Chief Judge of the U.S. District Court of Guam is The Hon. Frances Marie Tydingco-Gatewood, the first female Chamorro federal judge for the United States. Other former district judges include: The Hon. Paul D. Shriver (1946-1956, first Chief Judge of the District Court of Guam; 1961-1970) The Hon. Eugene Gilmartin (1956-1961, died in office and was replaced by Judge Shriver, who rejoined the bench) The Hon. Cristobal C. Duenas (1970-1990, first Guamanian to serve on the federal bench) The Hon. John S. Unpingco (1992-2002) The district also seats one federal Magistrate, currently the Hon. Joaquin V.E. Manibusan, Jr. Judiciary of Guam (Territorial Courts) The Judiciary of Guam is housed in the Guam Judicial Center at 120 West O'Brien Drive in Hagåtña. The Supreme Court is located on the 3rd floor, and convenes for appeals and hearing in the Monessa G. Lujan Memorial Courtroom, while the Superior Court is located on the 1st and 2nd floors and convenes in various trial courtrooms. The main court clerks' office for each body is located on the same floor. The Supreme Court of Guam The Supreme Court of Guam's justices are appointed for lifetime terms by the governor, and subject to retention elections every 10 years after their initial appointment. The Supreme Court is an appellate court, subject to original jurisdiction only in the instance of certified questions being submitted to it by the federal courts or Guam's Governor or Legislature. Its three justices preside over arguments before them, and are ultimately in charge of the administration of the Judiciary of Guam. The current Justices of the Supreme Court of Guam are The Hon. F. Philip Carbullido, Chief Justice sworn in as Associate Justice on October 27, 2000 appointed by Governor Carl T.C. Gutierrez elected Chief Justice January 22, 2003 to serve the unexpired term of former Chief Justice Peter C. Siguenza reelected Chief Justice January 23, 2004 to serve a three year term The Hon. Robert J. Torres, Jr., Associate Justice sworn in as Associate Justice on January 16, 2004 appointed by Governor Felix P. Camacho Seat vacant due to the appointment of the Hon. Frances Marie Tydingco-Gatewood as the Chief Judge of the U.S. District Court of Guam Retired Justices include: The Hon. Frances Marie Tydingco-Gatewood The Hon. Peter Charles Siguenza, Jr. The Hon. Benjamin J.F. Cruz The Hon. Janet Healy Weeks The Hon. Richard H. Benson The Hon. Monessa G. Lujan (deceased) The Clerk of the Supreme Court, who receives all appeals and filings to that body, is Hanah Gutierrez. The Superior Court of Guam Judges of the Superior Court are appointed by the governor with the advice and consent of the Legislature for a term of eight years. If they wish to continue in office, their names are placed on the ballot at a general election. They must garner at least 50 percent plus one favorable vote of the number of cast ballots to remain in office. Judge Richard Benson and Judge Joaquin E. Manibusan were the first to be placed on a ballot. They both received the overwhelming approval of the voters. The Superior Court is a court of general jurisdiction, and its seven judges preside over criminal, civil, juvenile, probate, small claims, traffic and child support cases brought before them. The hearing officer generally does not preside over all of these subjects, but is utilized predominantly in small claims, family, and traffic matters. In December 2005, the Adult and Juvenile Drug Courts were recognized as courts of record of the Judiciary of Guam. These programs are examples of "therapeutic justice" which focuses on rehabilitation of offenders and their reintegration into society. Judges are assigned to cases on a rotating basis, though one is rotated into assignment as designated Drug Court judge exclusively for a specified period (currently yearly). The Presiding Judge's additional responsibility is primarily procedural and administrative concerns, though formerly the "PJ," as the position is commonly referred to, assigned cases to the various judges. The current Judges of the Superior Court of Guam are: The Hon. Alberto C. Lamorena III (Presiding Judge) The Hon. Katherine A. Maraman The Hon. Steven S. Unpingco The Hon. Michael J. Bordallo The Hon. Elizabeth Barrett-Anderson The Hon. Anita A. Sukola The Hon. Arthur R. Barcinas Former Judges include: The Hon. Joaquin C. Perez (Guam’s first Presiding Judge) The Hon. Vicente C. Reyes (Guam's first island attorney) The Hon. Joaquin V.E. Manibusan The Hon. Paul J. Abbate, Jr. (Presiding Judge) The Hon. Janet Healy-Weeks (Elevated to Guam Supreme Court) The Hon. John Raker The Hon. Richard Benson The Hon. Judge Ramon Diaz The Hon. Peter C. Siguenza, Jr. (Elevated to Guam Supreme Court) The Hon. Benjamin J. Cruz. (Elevated to Guam Supreme Court) The Hon. Frances Marie Tydingco-Gatewood (Elevated to Guam Supreme Court. Appointed Chief Judge for Guam/CNMI Federal District Court) The Hon. Joaquin V.E. Manibusan Jr. (Appointed Magistrate for Guam/CNMI Federal District Court) The current Administrative Hearing Officer of the Superior Court is Linda L. Ingles. The Courts and Ministerial Division of the Superior Court, is the first point of contact for people seeking the services of the courts of justice, as this division accepts the filing of all legal pleadings, and is responsible for processing and distributing these documents appropriately. This division is also responsible for providing court clearances. The current Clerk of the Superior Court is Richard B. Martinez. Unified Courts of Guam Retrieved June 12, 2006. District Court of Guam Retrieved June 12, 2006. United States Courts for the Ninth Circuit Public Information Office (April 26, 2006). "Guam Supreme Court Justice Nominated for Federal Judgeship." Press release. Guam Organic Act Amendment, per THOMAS (Library of Congress reports) Political parties and elections International organization participation Guam is affiliated to the ESCAP (associate), Interpol (sub-bureau), IOC, and SPC. See also Political party strength in Guam | Politics_of_Guam |@lemmatized politics:1 guam:108 take:2 place:3 framework:2 presidential:1 representative:2 democratic:1 system:9 whereby:1 governor:13 head:1 government:6 multi:1 party:3 organize:1 unincorporated:1 territory:8 united:13 state:18 policy:2 relation:2 u:19 jurisdiction:24 office:6 insular:1 affair:1 background:1 population:2 largely:1 proud:1 american:1 economy:1 greatly:1 dependent:1 military:2 base:4 connection:1 also:8 contribute:1 status:9 japanese:1 tourist:1 destination:1 guamanian:2 generally:2 culturally:1 sympathetic:1 toward:1 especially:1 common:1 tribulation:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 good:1 since:3 however:5 maintenance:1 quo:1 vi:2 à:1 current:7 political:5 relationship:1 without:1 controversy:1 significant:2 movement:2 favor:2 become:3 commonwealth:4 would:7 give:4 similar:2 puerto:1 rico:1 northern:3 mariana:3 island:16 compete:1 less:2 influence:1 exist:1 advocate:1 independence:1 statehood:2 combination:1 islands:1 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6,334 | Abu'l-Fida | This article is about the geographer and historian, who should not be confused with the 14th Century Shafi scholar Ibn Kathir. Abu al-Fida () or Abul Fida Ismail Hamvi (fully Abu Al-fida' Isma'il Ibn 'ali ibn Mahmud Al-malik Al-mu'ayyad 'imad Ad-din, (also transliterated Abulfeda, Abu Alfida, and other ways)) (November 1273 – October 27, 1331) was a Kurdish historian, geographer, and local sultan. The crater Abulfeda on the Moon, is named after him. Life Abulfeda was born in Damascus Chambers Biographical Dictionary, ISBN 0-550-18022-2, page 5 , where his father Malik ul-Afdal, brother of the prince of Hamah, had fled from the Mongols. He was a descendant of Ayyub, the father of Saladin. In his boyhood he devoted himself to the study of the Qur'an and the sciences, but from his twelfth year onward, he was almost constantly engaged in military expeditions, chiefly against the crusaders. In 1285 he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the Knights of St. John, and took part in the sieges of Tripoli, Acre and Qal'at ar-Rum. In 1298 he entered the service of the Mamluk Sultan Malik al-Nasir and after twelve years was invested by him with the governorship of Hama. In 1312 he became prince with the title Malik us-Salhn, and in 1320 received the hereditary rank of sultan with the title Malik ul-Mu'ayyad. For more than twenty years all together he reigned in tranquillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of government and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron of men of letters, who came in large numbers to his court. He died in 1331. Works The Concise History of Humanity or Chronicles (Arabic: Tarikhu 'l-mukhtasar fi Akhbari 'l-bashar) - Tarikh Abu al-Fida (History of Abu al-Fida, his chief historical work is An Abridgment of the History at the Human Race, in the form of annals extending from the creation of the world to the year 1329 (Constantinople, 2 vols. 1869). His Geography is, like much of the history, founded on the works of his predecessors, including the works of Ptolemy and Muhammad al-Idrisi. A long introduction on various geographical matters is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing in tabular form with the chief towns of the world. After each name are given the longitude, latitude, climate, spelling, and then observations generally taken from earlier authors. Parts of the work were published and translated as early as 1650 in Europe. A Sketch of the Countries (Arabic: Taqwim al-Buldan) A book about medicine named Kunash External links http://www.salaam.co.uk/knowledge/biography/viewentry.php?id=153 http://www.renaissance.com.pk/myletfor95.html http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?TaxonomyTypeID=25&TaxonomySubTypeID=-1&TaxonomyThirdLevelID=-1&ArticleID=505 References | Abu'l-Fida |@lemmatized article:1 geographer:2 historian:2 confuse:1 century:1 shafi:1 scholar:1 ibn:3 kathir:1 abu:5 al:9 fida:5 abul:1 ismail:1 hamvi:1 fully:1 isma:1 il:1 ali:1 mahmud:1 malik:5 mu:2 ayyad:2 imad:1 ad:1 din:1 also:1 transliterate:1 abulfeda:3 alfida:1 way:1 november:1 october:1 kurdish:1 local:1 sultan:3 crater:1 moon:1 name:3 life:1 bear:1 damascus:1 chamber:1 biographical:1 dictionary:1 isbn:1 page:1 father:2 ul:2 afdal:1 brother:1 prince:2 hamah:1 flee:1 mongol:1 descendant:1 ayyub:1 saladin:1 boyhood:1 devote:2 study:1 qur:1 science:1 twelfth:1 year:4 onward:1 almost:1 constantly:1 engage:1 military:1 expedition:1 chiefly:2 crusader:1 present:1 assault:1 stronghold:1 knight:1 st:1 john:1 take:2 part:2 siege:1 tripoli:1 acre:1 qal:1 ar:1 rum:1 enter:1 service:1 mamluk:1 nasir:1 twelve:1 invest:1 governorship:1 hama:1 become:1 title:2 u:1 salhn:1 receive:1 hereditary:1 rank:1 twenty:2 together:1 reign:1 tranquillity:1 splendour:1 duty:1 government:1 composition:1 work:6 indebted:1 fame:1 munificent:1 patron:1 men:1 letter:1 come:1 large:1 number:1 court:1 die:1 concise:1 history:4 humanity:1 chronicle:1 arabic:2 tarikhu:1 l:2 mukhtasar:1 fi:1 akhbari:1 bashar:1 tarikh:1 chief:2 historical:1 abridgment:1 human:1 race:1 form:2 annals:1 extend:1 creation:1 world:2 constantinople:1 vols:1 geography:1 like:1 much:1 found:1 predecessor:1 include:1 ptolemy:1 muhammad:1 idrisi:1 long:1 introduction:1 various:1 geographical:1 matter:1 follow:1 eight:1 section:1 deal:1 tabular:1 town:1 give:1 longitude:1 latitude:1 climate:1 spelling:1 observation:1 generally:1 early:2 author:1 publish:1 translate:1 europe:1 sketch:1 country:1 taqwim:1 buldan:1 book:1 medicine:1 kunash:1 external:1 link:1 http:3 www:2 salaam:1 co:1 uk:1 knowledge:1 biography:1 viewentry:1 php:1 id:1 renaissance:1 com:2 pk:1 html:1 muslimheritage:1 topic:1 default:1 cfm:1 taxonomytypeid:1 taxonomysubtypeid:1 taxonomythirdlevelid:1 articleid:1 reference:1 |@bigram ibn_kathir:1 al_fida:4 isma_il:1 ali_ibn:1 ad_din:1 chamber_biographical:1 biographical_dictionary:1 al_idrisi:1 longitude_latitude:1 external_link:1 http_www:2 php_id:1 |
6,335 | Group_representation | In the mathematical field of representation theory, group representations describe abstract groups in terms of linear transformations of vector spaces; in particular, they can be used to represent group elements as matrices so that the group operation can be represented by matrix multiplication. Representations of groups are important because they allow many group-theoretic problems to be reduced to problems in linear algebra, which is well-understood. They are also important in physics because, for example, they describe how the symmetry group of a physical system affects the solutions of equations describing that system. The term representation of a group is also used in a more general sense to mean any "description" of a group as a group of transformations of some mathematical object. More formally, a "representation" means a homomorphism from the group to the automorphism group of an object. If the object is a vector space we have a linear representation. Some people use realization for the general notion and reserve the term representation for the special case of linear representations. The bulk of this article describes linear representation theory; see the last section for generalizations. Branches of group representation theory The representation theory of groups divides into subtheories depending on the kind of group being represented. The various theories are quite different in detail, though some basic definitions and concepts are similar. The most important divisions are: Finite groups — Group representations are a very important tool in the study of finite groups. They also arise in the applications of finite group theory to crystallography and to geometry. If the field of scalars of the vector space has characteristic p, and if p divides the order of the group, then this is called modular representation theory; this special case has very different properties. See Representation theory of finite groups. Compact groups or locally compact groups — Many of the results of finite group representation theory are proved by averaging over the group. These proofs can be carried over to infinite groups by replacement of the average with an integral, provided that an acceptable notion of integral can be defined. This can be done for locally compact groups, using Haar measure. The resulting theory is a central part of harmonic analysis. The Pontryagin duality describes the theory for commutative groups, as a generalised Fourier transform. See also: Peter-Weyl theorem. Lie groups — Many important Lie groups are compact, so the results of compact representation theory apply to them. Other techniques specific to Lie groups are used as well. Most of the groups important in physics and chemistry are Lie groups, and their representation theory is crucial to the application of group theory in those fields. See Representations of Lie groups and Representations of Lie algebras. Linear algebraic groups (or more generally affine group schemes) — These are the analogues of Lie groups, but over more general fields than just R or C. Although linear algebraic groups have a classification that is very similar to that of Lie groups, and give rise to the same families of Lie algebras, their representations are rather different (and much less well understood). The analytic techniques used for studying Lie groups must be replaced by techniques from algebraic geometry, where the relatively weak Zariski topology causes many technical complications. Non-compact topological groups — The class of non-compact groups is too broad to construct any general representation theory, but specific special cases have been studied, sometimes using ad hoc techniques. The semisimple Lie groups have a deep theory, building on the compact case. The complementary solvable Lie groups cannot in the same way be classified. The general theory for Lie groups deals with semidirect products of the two types, by means of general results called Mackey theory, which is a generalization of Wigner's classification methods. Representation theory also depends heavily on the type of vector space on which the group acts. One distinguishes between finite-dimensional representations and infinite-dimensional ones. In the infinite-dimensional case, additional structures are important (e.g. whether or not the space is a Hilbert space, Banach space, etc.). One must also consider the type of field over which the vector space is defined. The most important case is the field of complex numbers. The other important cases are the field of real numbers, finite fields, and fields of p-adic numbers. In general, algebraically closed fields are easier to handle than non-algebraically closed ones. The characteristic of the field is also significant; many theorems for finite groups depend on the characteristic of the field not dividing the order of the group. Definitions A representation of a group G on a vector space V over a field K is a group homomorphism from G to GL(V), the general linear group on V. That is, a representation is a map such that Here V is called the representation space and the dimension of V is called the dimension of the representation. It is common practice to refer to V itself as the representation when the homomorphism is clear from the context. In the case where V is of finite dimension n it is common to choose a basis for V and identify GL(V) with GL (n, K) the group of n-by-n invertible matrices on the field K. If G is a topological group and V is a topological vector space, a continuous representation of G on V is a representation such that the application defined by is continuous. The kernel of a representation of a group G is defined as the normal subgroup of G whose image under is the identity transformation: A faithful representation is one in which the homomorphism G → GL(V) is injective; in other words, one whose kernel is the trivial subgroup {e} consisting of just the group's identity element. Given two K vector spaces V and W, two representations and are said to be equivalent or isomorphic if there exists a vector space isomorphism so that for all g in G Examples Consider the complex number u = e2πi / 3 which has the property u3 = 1. The cyclic group C3 = {1, u, u2} has a representation ρ on C2 given by: This representation is faithful because ρ is a one-to-one map. An isomorphic representation for C3 is The group C3 may also be faithfully represented on R2 by where and . Reducibility A subspace W of V that is fixed under the group action is called a subrepresentation. If V has exactly two subrepresentations, namely the zero-dimensional subspace and V itself, then the representation is said to be irreducible; if it has a proper subrepresentation of nonzero dimension, the representation is said to be reducible. The representation of dimension zero is considered to be neither reducible nor irreducible, just like the number 1 is considered to be neither composite nor prime. Under the assumption that the characteristic of the field K does not divide the size of the group, representations of finite groups can be decomposed into a direct sum of irreducible subrepresentations (see Maschke's theorem). This holds in particular for any representation of a finite group over the complex numbers, since the characteristic of the complex numbers is zero, which never divides the size of a group. In the example above, the first two representations given are both decomposable into two 1-dimensional subrepresentations (given by span{(1,0)} and span{(0,1)}), while the third representation is irreducible. Generalizations Set-theoretical representations A set-theoretic representation (also known as a group action or permutation representation) of a group G on a set X is given by a function ρ from G to XX, the set of functions from X to X, such that for all g1, g2 in G and all x in X: This condition and the axioms for a group imply that ρ(g) is a bijection (or permutation) for all g in G. Thus we may equivalently define a permutation representation to be a group homomorphism from G to the symmetric group SX of X. For more information on this topic see the article on group action. Representations in other categories Every group G can be viewed as a category with a single object; morphisms in this category are just the elements of G. Given an arbitrary category C, a representation of G in C is a functor from G to C. Such a functor selects an object X in C and a group homomorphism from G to Aut(X), the automorphism group of X. In the case where C is VectK, the category of vector spaces over a field K, this definition is equivalent to a linear representation. Likewise, a set-theoretic representation is just a representation of G in the category of sets. For another example consider the category of topological spaces, Top. Representations in Top are homomorphisms from G to the homeomorphism group of a topological space X. Two types of representations closely related to linear representations are: projective representations: in the category of projective spaces. These can be described as "linear representations up to scalar transformations". affine representations: in the category of affine spaces. For example, the Euclidean group acts affinely upon Euclidean space. See also Character theory List of harmonic analysis topics List of representation theory topics Representation theory of finite groups References . 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6,336 | Foreign_relations_of_the_Central_African_Republic | President François Bozizé says that one of his priorities is to get the support of the international community” – François Bozizé se confie au Messager, June 21, 2007 . This has indeed been visible in his relations to donor countries and international organisations. At the same time it is difficult to have an open policy towards neighbouring countries when they are used as safe haven by rebels regularly attacking Central African Republic (C.A.R.), or when one allied country is in war with another (as is Chad-Sudan). The Military of the Central African Republic cannot–even with the support of France and the Multinational Force of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (FOMUC)–exert control over its own borders. Hence, armed groups are regularly entering the country from Chad and Sudan. The President says in an interview that he has a good relation with neighbours and fellow CEMAC countries, “put aside the incident with Sudan when the border had to be closed since militia entered C.A.R. territory”. Participation in International Organisations The Central African Republic is an active member in several Central African organizations, including the Economic and Monetary Union (CEMAC), the Economic Community of Central African States (CEEAC), the Central African Peace and Security Council (COPAX--still under formation), and the Central Bank of Central African States (BEAC). Standardization of tax, customs, and security arrangements between the Central African states is a major foreign policy objective of the C.A.R. Government. The C.A.R. is a participant in the Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD), and the African Union (AU). Other multilateral organizations--including the World Bank, International Monetary Fund, UN agencies, European Union, and the African Development Bank--and bilateral donors--including Germany, Japan, the European Union, and the United States--are significant development partners for the C.A.R. Bilateral Relations Nineteen countries have resident diplomatic representatives in Bangui, and the C.A.R. maintains approximately the same number of missions abroad. Since early 1989 the government recognizes both Israel and the Palestinian state. The C.A.R. also maintains diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China. The C.A.R. generally joins other African and developing country states in consensus positions on major policy issues. The most important countries the C.A.R. maintains bilateral relations include the following. Canada France Although drops in its external assistance budget have reduced French military and social development aid to the country, France remains the most important bilateral donor and the country from which C.A.R. receives most imports. Its historic ties, its long military presence as well as its economic influence have also given it a political influence. The country closed its military bases in Bangui and Bouar in 1997 as a part of its new Africa policy and relations with C.A.R. decreased during the rule of former president Ange-Félix Patassé. France was however the first country to recognise Bozizé’s government and during his time in power France has given logistic and intelligence support to the peace missions in the country. Cameroon Cameroon is probably the foreign country that most Central Africans identify with, since most people live in the western part of the country, close to the Cameroon border. It is also the most important regional trade partner of C.A.R.; most of the country’s imports pass through the port of Douala, before being transported by truck to C.A.R.. Most of the 1,450 km road to the coast is now paved, only a short distance remains. Following the increase of violence in north-western C.A.R. in late-2005, there were at the end of 2006 about 48,000 refugees from C.A.R. in Cameroon – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees . Chad Chad is one of President Bozizé’s closest allies. Before seizing power in 2003, Bozizé’s rebel group was equipped and trained in Chad. The group that finally overthrew President Patassé consisted of–in addition to Bozizé’s own rebels–100 soldiers from Chad’s Military. In addition to the 121 Chadian soldiers in the Multinational Force in the Central African Republic (FOMUC), there are still 150 soldiers from Chad in the C.A.R. The majority is found within the president’s lifeguard, while others patrol Bangui and the north-west parts of the country – Small Arms Survey, A widening war around Sudan: The proliferation of armed groups in the Central African Republic . Chad’s president Idriss Déby has an interest in tranquility in north-western C.A.R., due to the proximity to the location of the Chad-Cameroon Petroleum Development and Pipeline Project. In April 2006, the Chadian rebel group United Front for Democratic Change, which is based in Darfur used C.A.R. as a transit route to Chad, when attacking N'Djamena. Bozizé, who has received much support from President Déby, immediately decided to close the C.A.R.-Sudan border (a decision which he has no capacity at all to enforce). The border was officially closed between April and December. Already a couple of weeks later, an Antonov cargo plane crossed the border from Sudan and landed at Tiringoulou airport in C.A.R., where it unloaded weapons and about 50 armed men who spread out in the area. In the end of June, Central African military and FOMUC peacekeepers clashed with these men near Gordil, resulting in at least 30 casualties. Chad had also maintained good relations with the previous president, Patassé. They were one of the countries that sent troops to defend Patassé during the mutinies in 1996-1997 and assisted in negotiating the subsequent Bangui accords. Following the increase of violence in north-western C.A.R. in late-2005, there were at the end of 2006 about 50,000 refugees from C.A.R. in Chad. Democratic Republic of the Congo Bozizé has surprisingly good relations both with the DRC President Joseph Kabila and the former rebel leader Jean-Pierre Bemba. When the old president Kolingba tried to overthrow Patassé in May 2001, the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC) came to his rescue. MLC controlled the northern part of DRC and its rebels were stationed on the other side of the Ubangi river from Bangui. The MLC executed between 60 and 120 persons, mainly from the Yakoma tribe and committed atrocities–including killing, looting and rape–against the population. This terror and the crimes carried out during MLC’s war against Bozizé’s rebels between October 2002 and March 2003 is now being investigated by the International Criminal Court, which says it has identified 600 rape victims and the real numbers are expected to be higher – International Criminal Court: Background – Situation in the Central African Republic, 22 May 2007 . Most of the crimes were committed by Congolese MLC soldiers, but Bozizé’s rebels, including elements from Chad, were also responsible – UNHCR: Fiche Pays République Centrafricaine, January 2005 . During Bozizé’s time in power, new clashes have taken place between his soldiers and the MLC. Bozizé has strengthened military presence along the border and deployed an amphibious force patrolling the Ubangi river. There were refugees from DRC in C.A.R. from July 1999 (when Kabila advanced in the region bordering C.A.R.). The refugees were repatriated following an agreement between UNHCR and the governments of the two countries in 2004. Refugees from C.A.R. in DRC were beginning to be repatriated in July 2004. Gabon Relations with Gabon are good, although it is not a neighbouring country. Gabon hosted a meeting in 2005, to solve the crisis following Bozizé barring of some candidates in the election. Libya Libya still plays an important role in the domestic politics of C.A.R.. Libya assisted C.A.R. in negotiating a peace agreement was signed in Tripoli in February 2007, between President Bozizé and the head of the Front démocratique du people centrafricain (FDPC) rebel movement (who is also said to have close ties to Union of Democratic Forces for Unity (UFDR), the rebel group that seized several cities in northern C.A.R. in November 2006) – Jeune Afrique: Accord de paix en Libye entre le gouvernement centrafricain et des rebelles, 3 February, 2007 . Libya was previously one of the former president Patassé’s closest allies, providing him with strong military support when he no longer trusted his own military or France. Patassé granted Libyan enterprises outstanding economic advantages, such as a 99 year concession on diamonds, gold, oil and uranium all over the country – Afrique Education n° 119 – du 1er au 15 Novembre 2002 . It is not known whether these agreements are still valid, but Bozizé has anyway a continuously good relation with Libya. Republic of the Congo During the election in 2005, President Denis Sassou-Nguesso openly supported Bozizé. The current FOMUC mission in C.A.R. includes soldiers from Congo-Brazzaville. Sudan Given that Bozizé accuses Sudan of supporting the UFDR rebels who are actively fighting the Central African Government, the relation between the two countries has remained good. Bozizé even planned to visit Khartoum in December 2006, but had to cancel his trip when Chad (which has strained relations with the Sudanese Government) threatened to withdraw its military support to C.A.R.. Bozizé says that he is afraid of getting involved in the Darfur crisis and claims that the solution is in the hands of the Sudanese president. During the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005), there was a massive uncontrolled crossing of the Sudan-C.A.R. border by soldiers from the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), looking for safety during periods of attacks or drought. At the same time, C.A.R. was used by Sudan Armed Forces when launching attacks on the SPLA. Moreover, thousands of Sudanese refugees lived in C.A.R.; at the peak of the influx, by the early 1990s there were 36,000 Sudanese refugees in Mboki in south-east C.A.R. About half of the refugees were SPLA soldiers with more than 5000 weapons, who allegedly occupied towns as far as 200 km into the C.A.R. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees was forced to close its refugee camp at Mboki in October 2002, due to the high prevalence of weapons. After the ending of the war, all refugees were repatriated to Sudan; the last of the 9,700 remaining in Central African Republic were evacuated in April 2007 – http://www.unhcr.org – United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees . Sudan was one of the contributors to the peacekeeping force of the he Community of Sahel-Saharan States (CEN-SAD) in Central African Republic in 2001-2002. United States Pakistan See also Diplomatic missions of the Central African Republic References | Foreign_relations_of_the_Central_African_Republic |@lemmatized president:15 françois:2 bozizé:19 say:5 one:6 priority:1 get:2 support:8 international:6 community:5 se:1 confie:1 au:3 messager:1 june:2 indeed:1 visible:1 relation:12 donor:3 country:22 organisation:2 time:4 difficult:1 open:1 policy:4 towards:1 neighbour:2 use:3 safe:1 rebel:11 regularly:2 attack:4 central:19 african:20 republic:12 c:35 r:35 allied:1 war:5 another:1 chad:14 sudan:13 military:10 cannot:1 even:2 france:6 multinational:2 force:7 economic:5 monetary:3 africa:2 fomuc:4 exert:1 control:2 border:9 hence:1 arm:3 group:6 enter:2 interview:1 good:6 fellow:1 cemac:2 put:1 aside:1 incident:1 close:7 since:3 militia:1 territory:1 participation:1 active:1 member:1 several:2 organization:2 include:7 union:5 state:9 ceeac:1 peace:3 security:2 council:1 copax:1 still:4 formation:1 bank:3 beac:1 standardization:1 tax:1 custom:1 arrangement:1 major:2 foreign:2 objective:1 government:6 participant:1 sahel:2 saharan:2 cen:2 sad:2 multilateral:1 world:1 fund:1 un:1 agency:1 european:2 development:4 bilateral:4 germany:1 japan:1 united:5 significant:1 partner:2 nineteen:1 resident:1 diplomatic:3 representative:1 bangui:5 maintain:4 approximately:1 number:2 mission:4 abroad:1 early:2 recognize:1 israel:1 palestinian:1 also:7 people:4 china:1 generally:1 join:1 develop:1 consensus:1 position:1 issue:1 important:4 following:1 canada:1 although:2 drop:1 external:1 assistance:1 budget:1 reduce:1 french:1 social:1 aid:1 remain:4 receive:2 import:2 historic:1 tie:2 long:1 presence:2 well:1 influence:2 give:3 political:1 base:2 bouar:1 part:4 new:2 decrease:1 rule:1 former:3 ange:1 félix:1 patassé:7 however:1 first:1 recognise:1 power:3 logistic:1 intelligence:1 cameroon:5 probably:1 identify:2 live:2 western:4 regional:1 trade:1 pass:1 port:1 douala:1 transport:1 truck:1 km:2 road:1 coast:1 pave:1 short:1 distance:1 follow:4 increase:2 violence:2 north:4 late:2 end:4 refugee:13 nation:3 high:5 commissioner:3 closest:2 ally:2 seize:2 equip:1 train:1 finally:1 overthrow:2 consist:1 addition:2 soldier:8 chadian:2 majority:1 find:1 within:1 lifeguard:1 others:1 patrol:2 west:1 small:1 survey:1 widen:1 around:1 proliferation:1 armed:2 idriss:1 déby:2 interest:1 tranquility:1 due:2 proximity:1 location:1 petroleum:1 pipeline:1 project:1 april:3 unite:1 front:2 democratic:3 change:1 darfur:2 transit:1 route:1 n:2 djamena:1 much:1 immediately:1 decide:1 decision:1 capacity:1 enforce:1 officially:1 december:2 already:1 couple:1 week:1 later:1 antonov:1 cargo:1 plane:1 cross:1 land:1 tiringoulou:1 airport:1 unload:1 weapon:3 men:2 spread:1 area:1 peacekeeper:1 clash:2 near:1 gordil:1 result:1 least:1 casualty:1 previous:1 send:1 troop:1 defend:1 mutiny:1 assist:2 negotiate:2 subsequent:1 accord:2 congo:4 surprisingly:1 drc:4 joseph:1 kabila:2 leader:1 jean:1 pierre:1 bemba:1 old:1 kolingba:1 try:1 may:2 movement:2 liberation:2 mlc:6 come:1 rescue:1 northern:2 station:1 side:1 ubangi:2 river:2 execute:1 person:1 mainly:1 yakoma:1 tribe:1 committed:1 atrocity:1 killing:1 loot:1 rape:2 population:1 terror:1 crime:2 carry:1 october:2 march:1 investigate:1 criminal:2 court:2 victim:1 real:1 expect:1 background:1 situation:1 commit:1 congolese:1 element:1 responsible:1 unhcr:3 fiche:1 pay:1 république:1 centrafricaine:1 january:1 take:1 place:1 strengthen:1 along:1 deploy:1 amphibious:1 july:2 advance:1 region:1 repatriate:3 agreement:3 two:2 begin:1 gabon:3 neighbouring:1 host:1 meeting:1 solve:1 crisis:2 barring:1 candidate:1 election:2 libya:5 play:1 role:1 domestic:1 politics:1 sign:1 tripoli:1 february:2 head:1 démocratique:1 du:2 centrafricain:2 fdpc:1 unity:1 ufdr:2 city:1 november:1 jeune:1 afrique:2 de:2 paix:1 en:1 libye:1 entre:1 le:1 gouvernement:1 et:1 rebelles:1 previously:1 provide:1 strong:1 longer:1 trust:1 grant:1 libyan:1 enterprise:1 outstanding:1 advantage:1 year:1 concession:1 diamond:1 gold:1 oil:1 uranium:1 education:1 novembre:1 know:1 whether:1 valid:1 anyway:1 continuously:1 denis:1 sassou:1 nguesso:1 openly:1 current:1 brazzaville:1 accuse:1 actively:1 fight:1 plan:1 visit:1 khartoum:1 cancel:1 trip:1 strain:1 sudanese:5 threaten:1 withdraw:1 afraid:1 involve:1 claim:1 solution:1 hand:1 second:1 civil:1 massive:1 uncontrolled:1 crossing:1 army:1 spla:3 look:1 safety:1 period:1 drought:1 launch:1 moreover:1 thousand:1 peak:1 influx:1 mboki:2 south:1 east:1 half:1 allegedly:1 occupy:1 town:1 far:1 camp:1 prevalence:1 last:1 evacuate:1 http:1 www:1 org:1 contributor:1 peacekeeping:1 pakistan:1 see:1 reference:1 |@bigram françois_bozizé:2 monetary_fund:1 bilateral_donor:2 diplomatic_relation:1 ange_félix:1 félix_patassé:1 commissioner_refugee:3 bozizé_rebel:4 president_idriss:1 idriss_déby:1 chad_cameroon:1 n_djamena:1 republic_congo:2 joseph_kabila:1 jean_pierre:1 pierre_bemba:1 ubangi_river:2 république_centrafricaine:1 le_gouvernement:1 congo_brazzaville:1 sudanese_refugee:2 http_www:1 diplomatic_mission:1 |
6,337 | Telecommunications_in_Egypt | Egypt has long been the cultural and informational centre of the Arab world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting centre. History Communication Fields in Egypt Press Egypt has long been the cultural and informational center of the Arab world, and Cairo is the region's largest publishing and broadcasting center. There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals. The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan, debate on public issues. Mail Egypt Post is the government-owned body that provide postal services. Radio Radio in Egypt almost all government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four FM stations. There are seven regional radio stations covering the country. Egyptian Radio transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt. In 2000, Radio Cairo introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station. So far, they include news, music, and sports. Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, talk shows and analysis. Starting 2003, Nile Radio Production a private company was given license to operate two radio stations, Nile FM and Nogoom FM. Nile FM broadcasts in English and Nogoom FM broadcasts in Arabic. Both stations mostly broadcast mainly to the Greater Cairo region. Television Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ERTU) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue. ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the entire Arab world. ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels. Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic. Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the Middle East, Europe, and the U.S. East Coast. In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as NileSat 101. Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama. A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000. Many of its channels are rented to other stations. Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy. Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Arab and international actors, as well as soap operas; another private station focuses on business and general news. Both private channels transmit on NileSat. In addition to Egyptian programming, the Middle East Broadcast Company, a Saudi television station transmitting from London (MBC), Arab Radio and Television (ART), Al-Jazeera television, and other Gulf stations as well as Western networks such as CNN and BBC, provide access to more international programs to Egyptians who own satellite receivers. Landline Telephony Currently, there is a single company in charge of Landline Telephony, Telecom Egypt which is also government-controlled. The government is planning to start the process for licensing a second national operator for voice and transport services by 2008, with a view to this company starting operations in 2009. Cellular Communications Currently, there are three companies which offer cellular communication service: Mobinil, Vodafone Egypt and Etisalat Egypt. These companies are providing services surpacing voice communication such as 3G and 3.75G services. Internet The Internet companies market is dealt to two: infrastructure providers and service providers. There are 4 infrastructure companies: NileOnline, TEData, EGYNet and LinkDotNET. There are 8 major Service Provider companies which sll their services to smaller ISPs. The highest avialble speed through ADSL technologies was upgraded to 8MB in download in February 2008 and then to 24MB later that year. The Egyptian ISP market is fully liberalized and highly competitive, at least in Cairo and Alexandria, with over 220 ISPs offering a range of services, including dedicated, dial-up, pre-paid and premium services. With the introduction of ADSL for homes and businesses, more subscribers are introduced into the market. It is expected that by the end of 2010 high-speed Internet access will be available across the entire country. Orascom, one of the shareholders in the leading cellular operator MobiNil, is also the biggest player in the Internet service provision market and owns 75 per cent of Egypt’s largest ISP, LINKdotNET. The tie-up with the mobile operator is significant in that WAP services were introduced in May for a trial period, making Egypt one of the first countries in Africa to have introduced WAP. Wireless Internet Egypt is following closely the efforts to standardize WiMax technologies as they permit simpler and faster access to Internet services, especially as WiMax receivers are integrated into PC processors. The government is still also holding discussions with relevant stakeholders to determine the best policy framework for introducing WiMax into the market through existing or new operators. Communication Companies in Egypt Telecom Egypt Mobinil Vodafone Egypt Etisalat Egypt Data Telephones - main lines in use: 10.808 million (2006) Telephones - mobile cellular: 30.047 million (2007) Telephone system: large system; underwent extensive upgrading during 1990s and is reasonably modern; Telecom Egypt, the landline monopoly, has been increasing service availability and in 2006 fixed-line density stood at 14 per 100 persons; as of 2007 there were three mobile-cellular networks and service is expanding rapidly domestic: principal centers at Alexandria, Cairo, Al Mansurah, Ismailia, Suez, and Tanta are connected by coaxial cable and microwave radio relay international: landing point for both the SEA-ME-WE-3 AND SEA-ME-WE-4 submarine cable networks; linked to the international submarine cable FLAG (Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe); satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean and Indian Ocean), 1 Arabsat, and 1 Inmarsat; tropospheric scatter to Sudan; microwave radio relay to Israel; a participant in Medarabtel Radio broadcast stations: AM 42 (plus 15 repeaters), FM 14, shortwave 3 (1999) Radios: 3.07 million (1997) Television Broadcast Stations: 98 (1995) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 220 (2008) Internet Hosts: 5,363 (2007) People connected to the internet: 8.1 million (2008) Country codes: EG (Top-level domain) Telephone Prefixes See also Media of Egypt References Public domain text from State.gov List of Egyptian Newspapers and Magazines | Telecommunications_in_Egypt |@lemmatized egypt:19 long:2 cultural:3 informational:2 centre:2 arab:5 world:3 cairo:6 region:3 large:4 publishing:2 broadcasting:2 history:1 communication:5 field:1 press:1 center:3 eight:1 daily:3 newspaper:4 total:1 circulation:1 million:5 number:1 monthly:1 magazine:2 journal:1 majority:1 political:1 party:1 paper:1 conduct:1 lively:1 often:1 highly:2 partisan:1 debate:1 public:2 issue:1 mail:1 post:1 government:7 body:1 provide:3 postal:1 service:16 radio:13 almost:1 control:3 use:3 short:1 wave:2 frequency:1 medium:2 station:14 four:1 fm:7 seven:2 regional:2 cover:2 country:4 egyptian:8 transmit:3 hour:2 overseas:1 language:1 three:5 hundred:1 within:1 introduce:5 new:3 specialize:1 thematic:1 channel:11 far:1 include:2 news:5 music:1 sport:2 enjoy:1 freedom:1 tv:3 program:3 talk:1 show:1 analysis:1 start:3 nile:3 production:1 private:4 company:10 give:1 license:2 operate:1 two:4 nogoom:2 broadcast:10 english:2 arabic:3 mostly:1 mainly:2 great:2 television:6 ground:1 ertu:1 depend:1 heavily:1 commercial:1 revenue:1 etv:2 sell:1 specially:1 produce:2 soap:2 opera:2 entire:2 main:3 six:1 satellite:7 ii:1 dedicate:2 foreigner:1 cultured:1 viewer:1 french:1 well:3 middle:2 east:3 europe:1 u:1 coast:1 april:1 launch:3 know:1 nilesat:3 specialized:1 culture:1 education:1 entertainment:1 health:1 drama:1 second:2 digital:1 august:1 many:1 rent:1 base:1 november:1 mark:1 change:1 policy:2 dream:1 programming:2 contemporary:1 video:1 clip:1 film:1 feature:1 international:4 actor:1 another:1 focus:1 business:2 general:1 addition:1 saudi:1 london:1 mbc:1 art:1 al:2 jazeera:1 gulf:1 western:1 network:3 cnn:1 bbc:1 access:3 receiver:2 landline:3 telephony:2 currently:2 single:1 charge:1 telecom:3 also:4 plan:1 process:1 national:1 operator:4 voice:2 transport:1 view:1 operation:1 cellular:5 offer:2 mobinil:3 vodafone:2 etisalat:2 surpacing:1 internet:9 market:5 deal:1 infrastructure:2 provider:4 nileonline:1 tedata:1 egynet:1 linkdotnet:2 major:1 sll:1 small:1 isps:3 high:2 avialble:1 speed:2 adsl:2 technology:2 upgrade:1 download:1 february:1 later:1 year:1 isp:2 fully:1 liberalize:1 competitive:1 least:1 alexandria:2 range:1 dial:1 pre:1 pay:1 premium:1 introduction:1 home:1 subscriber:1 expect:1 end:1 available:1 across:1 orascom:1 one:2 shareholder:1 lead:1 big:1 player:1 provision:1 per:2 cent:1 tie:1 mobile:3 significant:1 wap:2 may:1 trial:1 period:1 make:1 first:1 africa:1 wireless:1 follow:1 closely:1 effort:1 standardize:1 wimax:3 permit:1 simple:1 faster:1 especially:1 integrate:1 pc:1 processor:1 still:1 hold:1 discussion:1 relevant:1 stakeholder:1 determine:1 best:1 framework:1 exist:1 data:1 telephone:4 line:2 system:2 underwent:1 extensive:1 upgrading:1 reasonably:1 modern:1 monopoly:1 increase:1 availability:1 fixed:1 density:1 stand:1 person:1 expand:1 rapidly:1 domestic:1 principal:1 mansurah:1 ismailia:1 suez:1 tanta:1 connect:2 coaxial:1 cable:3 microwave:2 relay:2 landing:1 point:1 sea:2 submarine:2 link:2 flag:1 fiber:1 optic:1 around:1 globe:1 earth:1 intelsat:1 atlantic:1 ocean:2 indian:1 arabsat:1 inmarsat:1 tropospheric:1 scatter:1 sudan:1 israel:1 participant:1 medarabtel:1 plus:1 repeater:1 shortwave:1 host:1 people:1 code:1 eg:1 top:1 level:1 domain:2 prefix:1 see:1 reference:1 text:1 state:1 gov:1 list:1 |@bigram soap_opera:2 video_clip:1 al_jazeera:1 per_cent:1 mobile_cellular:2 coaxial_cable:1 fiber_optic:1 station_intelsat:1 intelsat_atlantic:1 atlantic_ocean:1 tropospheric_scatter:1 plus_repeater:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 |
6,338 | ISO_216 | + ISO 269 sizes(mm × mm) C Series C0 917 × 1297 C1 648 × 917 C2 458 × 648 C3 324 × 458 C4 229 × 324 C5 162 × 229 C6 114 × 162 C7/6 81 × 162 C7 81 × 114 C8 57 × 81 C9 40 × 57 C10 28 × 40 DL 110 × 220 + ISO 216 sizes(mm × mm) B Series B0 1000 × 1414 B1 707 × 1000 B2 500 × 707 B3 353 × 500 B4 250 × 353 B5 176 × 250 B6 125 × 176 B7 88 × 125 B8 62 × 88 B9 44 × 62 B10 31 × 44 + ISO 216 sizes(mm × mm) A Series A0 841 × 1189 A1 594 × 841 A2 420 × 594 A3 297 × 420 A4 210 × 297 A5 148 × 210 A6 105 × 148 A7 74 × 105 A8 52 × 74 A9 37 × 52 A10 26 × 37 ISO 216 specifies international standard (ISO) paper sizes used in most countries in the world today. It is the standard which defines the commonly available A4 paper size. The underlying principle is that when rectangles with width/length ratio are bisected or folded in half, the cut or crease being parallel to the shorter sides, the rectangles thus formed retain the original width/length ratio. History The international ISO standard is based on the German DIN standard 476 (DIN 476) from 1922. Some of the formats contained therein were developed ~130 years earlier in France, published in 1798 during the French Revolution, but were subsequently forgotten. The aspect ratio used by this standard was mentioned in a letter by the German Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, written on 25 October 1786. ISO 216:1975, defines two series of paper sizes: A and B ISO 269:1985, defines a C series for envelopes ISO 217:1995, defines two untrimmed series of raw paper sizes: RA and SRA A series A size chart illustrating the ISO A series. Paper in the A series format has a aspect ratio, although this is rounded to the nearest millimetre. A0 is defined so that it has an area of 1 m², prior to the above mentioned rounding. Successive paper sizes in the series (A1, A2, A3, etc.) are defined by halving the preceding paper size, cutting parallel to its shorter side (so that the long side of A(n+1) is the same length as the short side of An, again prior to rounding). The most frequently used of this series is the size A4 (210 × 297 mm). A4 paper is 6 mm narrower and 18 mm longer than the "Letter" paper size, 8½ × 11 inches (216 × 279 mm), commonly used in North America. The geometric rationale behind the square root of 2 is to maintain the aspect ratio of each subsequent rectangle after cutting the sheet in half, perpendicular to the larger side. Given a rectangle with a longer side, x, and a shorter side, y, the following equation shows how the aspect ratio of a rectangle compares to that of a half rectangle: which reduces to or an aspect ratio of The formula that gives the larger border of the paper size A in metres and without rounding off is the geometric sequence: . The paper size A thus has the dimension × . The exact millimetre measurement of the long side of A is given by . B series A size chart illustrating the ISO B series. The B series formats are geometric means between the A series format with a particular number and the A series format with one lower number. For example, B1 is the geometric mean between A1 and A0. The sides of B0 are 1 m to m. There is also an incompatible Japanese B series defined by the JIS. The lengths of JIS B series paper are approximately 1.22 times those of A-series paper. The exact millimetre measurement of the long side of B is given by . C series A size chart illustrating the ISO C series. The C series formats are geometric means between the B series format with a particular number and the A series format with the same number, (e.g., C2 is the geometric mean between B2 and A2). The C series formats are used mainly for envelopes. An A4 page will fit into a C4 envelope. C series envelopes follow the same ratio principle as the A series pages. For example, if an A4 page is folded in half so that it is A5 in size, it will fit into a C5 envelope (which will be the same size as a C4 envelope folded in half). A, B, and C paper fit together as part of a geometric progression, with ratio of successive side lengths of 21/8, though there is no size half-way between An and Bn+1: B4, C4, A4, D4, B5, ...; there is such a D-series in the Swedish extensions to the system. The exact millimetre measurement of the long side of C is given by . Tolerances The tolerances specified in the standard are: ±1.5 mm for dimensions up to 150 mm, ±2.0 mm for lengths in the range 150 to 600 mm, and ±3.0 mm for any dimension above 600 mm. A, B, C comparison + ISO/DIN paper sizes in millimetres and in inches A Series Formats B Series Formats C Series Formats size mm inches mm inches mm inches 0 841 × 1189 33.1 × 46.8 1000 × 1414 39.4 × 55.7 917 × 1297 36.1 × 51.1 0+ 914 × 1292 35.9 × 50.8 1118 × 1580 44 × 62.2 - × - - × - 1 594 × 841 23.4 × 33.1 707 × 1000 27.8 × 39.4 648 × 917 25.5 × 36.1 1+ 609 × 914 24 × 36 - × - - × - - × - - × - 2 420 × 594 16.5 × 23.4 500 × 707 19.7 × 27.8 458 × 648 18.0 × 25.5 3 297 × 420 11.7 × 16.5 353 × 500 13.9 × 19.7 324 × 458 12.8 × 18.0 3+ 329 × 483 12.9 × 19.0 - × - - × - - × - - × - 4 210 × 297 8.3 × 11.7 250 × 353 9.8 × 13.9 229 × 324 9.0 × 12.8 5 148 × 210 5.8 × 8.3 176 × 250 6.9 × 9.8 162 × 229 6.4 × 9.0 6 105 × 148 4.1 × 5.8 125 × 176 4.9 × 6.9 114 × 162 4.5 × 6.4 7 74 × 105 2.9 × 4.1 88 × 125 3.5 × 4.9 81 × 114 3.2 × 4.5 8 52 × 74 2.0 × 2.9 62 × 88 2.4 × 3.5 57 × 81 2.2 × 3.2 9 37 × 52 1.5 × 2.0 44 × 62 1.7 × 2.4 40 × 57 1.6 × 2.2 10 26 × 37 1.0 × 1.5 31 × 44 1.2 × 1.7 28 × 40 1.1 × 1.6 Application Before the adoption of ISO 216, many different paper formats were used internationally. These formats did not fit into a coherent system and were defined in terms of non-metric units. The ISO 216 formats are organized around the ratio ; two sheets next to each other together have the same ratio, sideways. In scaled photocopying, for example, two A4 sheets in reduced size fit exactly onto one A4 sheet, an A4 sheet in magnified size onto an A3 sheet, and an A5 sheet scaled up onto a A4 sheet, in each case there is neither waste nor want. The principal countries not generally using the ISO paper sizes are the United States and Canada, which use the Letter, Legal and Executive system. (Canada uses a P-series of sizes, which are the US paper sizes rounded to metric dimensions.) Rectangular sheets of paper with the ratio are popular in paper folding, where they are sometimes called "A4 rectangles" or "silver rectangles". However, in other contexts, the term "silver rectangle" can also refer to a rectangle in the proportion , known as the silver ratio. See also ISO 128 Letter (paper size) Paper size References External links International standard paper sizes: ISO 216 details and rationale ISO 216 at iso.org be-x-old:ISO 216 | ISO_216 |@lemmatized iso:21 size:29 mm:19 c:11 series:32 dl:1 b:12 specifies:1 international:3 standard:7 paper:23 use:9 country:2 world:1 today:1 define:8 commonly:2 available:1 underlying:1 principle:2 rectangle:9 width:2 length:6 ratio:13 bisect:1 fold:3 half:6 cut:3 crease:1 parallel:2 short:4 side:12 thus:2 form:1 retain:1 original:1 history:1 base:1 german:2 din:3 format:15 contain:1 therein:1 develop:1 year:1 earlier:1 france:1 publish:1 french:1 revolution:1 subsequently:1 forget:1 aspect:5 mention:2 letter:4 georg:1 christoph:1 lichtenberg:1 write:1 october:1 two:4 envelope:6 untrimmed:1 raw:1 ra:1 sra:1 chart:3 illustrate:3 although:1 round:5 near:1 millimetre:5 area:1 prior:2 successive:2 etc:1 halve:1 precede:1 long:5 n:1 frequently:1 narrow:1 inch:5 north:1 america:1 geometric:7 rationale:2 behind:1 square:1 root:1 maintain:1 subsequent:1 sheet:9 perpendicular:1 large:2 give:5 longer:1 x:2 following:1 equation:1 show:1 compare:1 reduce:1 formula:1 border:1 metre:1 without:1 sequence:1 dimension:4 exact:3 measurement:3 mean:4 particular:2 number:4 one:2 low:1 example:3 also:3 incompatible:1 japanese:1 ji:2 approximately:1 time:1 e:1 g:1 mainly:1 page:3 fit:5 follow:1 together:2 part:1 progression:1 though:1 way:1 bn:1 swedish:1 extension:1 system:3 tolerance:2 specify:1 range:1 comparison:1 application:1 adoption:1 many:1 different:1 internationally:1 coherent:1 term:2 non:1 metric:2 unit:1 organize:1 around:1 next:1 sideways:1 scaled:1 photocopying:1 reduced:1 exactly:1 onto:3 magnified:1 scale:1 case:1 neither:1 waste:1 want:1 principal:1 generally:1 united:1 state:1 canada:2 legal:1 executive:1 p:1 u:1 rectangular:1 popular:1 folding:1 sometimes:1 call:1 rectangles:1 silver:3 however:1 context:1 refer:1 proportion:1 know:1 see:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 detail:1 org:1 old:1 |@bigram mm_mm:5 inch_mm:3 geometric_progression:1 external_link:1 iso_iso:1 |
6,339 | Blood_alcohol_content | Blood alcohol content or blood alcohol concentration (abbreviated BAC) is the concentration of alcohol in a person's blood. BAC is most commonly used as a metric of intoxication for legal or medical purposes. It is usually measured in terms of mass per volume, but can also be measured in terms of mass per mass. Blood alcohol concentration is given in many different units and notations, but they are all relatively synonymous with each other numerically. The number of drinks consumed is a poor measure of BAC, largely because of variations in weight, sex, and body fat. However, it is generally accepted that the consumption from sober of one standard drink of alcohol (e.g. 14 grams (17.74 ml) ethanol content by U.S. standard) will increase the average person's BAC roughly 0.02% to 0.05% and would return to 0% about 1.5 to 3 hours later (at a dissipation rate of around 0.015% per hour). Effects at different levels Unless a person has developed a high tolerance for alcohol, a BAC rating of 0.20% represents very serious intoxication (most first-time drinkers would be unconscious by about 0.15%), and 0.35%–0.40% represents potentially fatal alcohol poisoning. The Chaves County, NM, page on Alcohol Intoxication reports that "0.10-0.125 BAC [indicates] Significant impairment of motor coordination and loss of good judgment. Speech may be slurred; balance, vision, reaction time and hearing will be impaired. Euphoria. [...] 0.13-0.15 BAC: Gross motor impairment and lack of physical control. [...] 0.25 BAC: Needs assistance in walking; total mental confusion." 0.40% is the accepted LD50, the dose that is lethal for 50% of adult humans. The Chaves County, NM, page on Alcohol Intoxication reports that "0.40 BAC and up [leads to] Onset of coma, possible death due to respiratory arrest." There have been cases of people remaining conscious at BACs above 0.40%. This was reported by CBC News in 2005 and referenced in a Novinite article about another Bulgarian who almost beat that so-called "record". Progressive Effects of Alcohol A hybridizing of effects as described at Alcohol's Effects from Virginia Tech and Federal Aviation Regulation (CFR) 91.17: Alcohol and Flying (hosted on FlightPhysical.com) BAC (%) Behavior Impairment0.01–0.029 Average individual appearsnormal Subtle effects that can bedetected with special tests 0.03–0.059 Mild euphoria Sense of well-being Relaxation Talkativeness Decreased inhibition Alertness Judgment Coordination Concentration 0.06–0.10 Blunted Feelings Disinhibition Extroversion Impaired Sexual Pleasures Reflexes Reasoning Depth Perception Distance Acuity Peripheral Vision Glare Recovery 0.11–0.20 Over-Expression Emotional Swings Anger or Sadness Boisterous Reaction Time Gross Motor Control Staggering Slurred Speech 0.21–0.29 Stupor Loss of Understanding Impaired Sensations Severe Motor Impairment Loss of Consciousness Memory Blackout 0.30–0.39 Severe Depression Unconsciousness Death Possible Bladder Function Breathing Heart Rate>0.40 Unconsciousness Death Breathing Heart Rate Standard Drink Chart (US) Based on the CDC standard of 0.6 fl. oz. alcohol per drink. CDC alcohol FAQ Alcohol Amount in ml Amount in fl. oz. Colloquial amount Alcohol % by vol. Alcohol in fl. oz. 80 proof liquor 44 ml 1.5 fl. oz. one shot 40 0.6 fl. oz. beer 355 ml 12 fl. oz. one can 5 0.6 fl. oz. table wine 148 ml 5 fl. oz. one glass 12 0.6 fl. oz. MaleFemale Approximate Blood Alcohol Percentage (US) BAC Charts from Virginia Tech One drink has 0.5 fl. oz. alcohol by volume Drinks Body Weight 40 kg 45 kg 55 kg 64 kg 73 kg 82 kg 91 kg 100 kg 109 kg 90 lb 100 lb 120 lb 140 lb 160 lb 180 lb 200 lb 220 lb 240 lb 6 st 6 lb 7 st 2 lb 8 st 8 lb 10 st 11 st 6 lb 12 st 12 lb 14 st 4 lb 15 st 10 lb 17 st 2 lb 1 –.05 .04.05 .03.04 .03.03 .02.03 .02.03 .02.02 .02.02 .02.02 2 –.10 .08.09 .06.08 .05.07 .05.06 .04.05 .04.05 .03.04 .03.04 3 –.15 .11.14 .09.11 .08.10 .07.09 .06.08 .06.07 .05.06 .05.06 4 –.20 .15.18 .12.15 .11.13 .09.11 .08.10 .08.09 .07.08 .06.08 5 –.25 .19.23 .16.19 .13.16 .12.14 .11.13 .09.11 .09.10 .08.09 6 –.30 .23.27 .19.23 .16.19 .14.17 .13.15 .11.14 .10.12 .09.11 7 –.35 .26.32 .22.27 .19.23 .16.20 .15.18 .13.16 .12.14 .11.13 8 –.40 .30.36 .25.30 .21.26 .19.23 .17.20 .15.18 .14.17 .13.15 9 –.45 .34.41 .28.34 .24.29 .21.26 .19.23 .17.20 .15.19 .14.17 10 –.51 .38.45 .31.38 .27.32 .23.28 .21.25 .19.23 .17.21 .16.19 Subtract approximately .01% every 40 minutes after drinking. Units of measurement There are several different units in use around the world for defining blood alcohol concentration. Each is defined as either a mass of alcohol per volume of blood or a mass of alcohol per mass of blood (never a volume per volume). 1 milliliter of blood is approximately equivalent to 1 gram of blood, 1.06 grams to be exact. Because of this, units by volume are similar but not identical to units by mass. UnitDimensionsEquivalent toUsed in1 percent BAC by volume 1/100 (%) g/mL = 1 cg/mL 9.43 mg/g, 217.4 mmol/L United States1 permille BAC by volume 1/1000 (‰) g/mL = 1 mg/mL 0.943 mg/g, 21.7 mmol/L Netherlands, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Germany1 basis point BAC by volume 1/10,000 () g/mL = 100 g/mL 94.3 ppm, 2.17 mmol/L Britain1 permille BAC by mass 1/1000 (‰) g/g = 1 mg/g 1.06 mg/mL, 23 mmol/L Finland, Norway, Sweden1 part per million 1/1,000,000 (ppm) g/g = 1 g/g 1.06 g/mL, 23 mol/L1 thousandth Molarity 1 mmol/L 0.0046 cg/mL, Information obtained from Alcotest 7410 GLC Calibrator's Manual. Last Amended October 2000 page 3A-6. 4.34 cg/g Medical personnel Legal limits For purposes of law enforcement, BAC is used to define intoxication and provides a rough measure of impairment. Although degree of impairment may vary among individuals with the same BAC, BAC can be measured objectively and is therefore legally useful and difficult to contest in court. Most countries disallow operation of motor vehicles and heavy machinery above prescribed levels of BAC. Operation of boats and aircraft are also regulated. Limits by country (BAC: Blood Alcohol Content) The alcohol level at which a person is considered to be legally impaired varies by country. The list below gives limits by country. These are typically BAC (blood alcohol content) limits for the operation of a vehicle. 0.00% Czech Republic Hungary Romania Saudi Arabia Slovakia United Arab Emirates 0.02% Brazil Estonia Poland Sweden Norway 0.03% India (note: In the State of Kerala, since of late, it is illegal to even have a sip and drive) This is according to Section 185 of Motor Vehicles Act 1988. On first offence, the punishment is imprisonment of 6 months and/or fine of 2000 Indian Rupees (INR). If the second offence is committed within three years, the punishment is 2 years and/or fine of 3000 Indian Rupees (INR). The clause of 30 mg/dL was added by an amendment in 1994. It came into effect beginning 14 November 1994. Japan http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=17729137 In June of 2002, a revision to part of the Road Traffic Act drastically increased the penalties for drinking and driving offences in Japan. Most notably, the legal blood alcohol concentration (BAC) limit for driving was lowered from 0.05 mg/ml to 0.03 mg/ml. Russia 0.04% Lithuania 0.05% <ul> Argentina (0.02% for motorbikes, 0.00% for truck/taxi/bus drivers) Australia (0.02% for Australian Capital Territory learner, probationary & convicted DUI drivers, 0.00% for learner drivers, provisional/probationary drivers (regardless of age) and DUI drivers) Austria Belgium British Columbia Manitoba (0.05% is a 24-hour suspension and a fine, 0.08% is a D.U.I. charge) untitled (0.00% for drivers with class G1 or G2 licenses in Ontario, or class 7 or 5P in the Northwest Territories, or drivers with a under the Graduated License System in Manitoba, and Alberta, or class 7 or 7L in British Columbia) Bulgaria Costa Rica Carros de ebrios ‘saturan’ los planteles del MOPT (in Spanish). La Nacion Croatia Denmark Finland France Between 0.05% and 0.08%, drivers can be fined 135€ and have six points removed from their licence. Above 0.08% the punishment is more severe with possible imprisonment of up to two years, heavy fines and licence suspension. http://www2.securiteroutiere.gouv.fr/ressources/conseils/l-alcool-au-volant.html (in French) Germany (0.00% for learner drivers, all drivers 18-21 and newly licensed drivers of any age for first two years of licence) Greece Iceland Israel Italy Latvia (0.02% for drivers in their first two years after gaining a driving license)</li> Luxembourg Netherlands (0.02% for drivers in their first five years after gaining a driving license) Portugal Republic of Macedonia Serbia Slovenia (0.00% for drivers in their first two years after gaining a drivers licence) South Africa Spain (0.015% for drivers in their first two years after gaining a driving licence) Switzerland Thailand Turkey </ul> 0.08% Canada Criminal Code of Canada. . Please note that within this subsection of the criminal code of Canada, one can be charged for impaired driving without necessarily having a blood alcohol content of greater than 0.08. Malaysia Malta Mexico New Zealand (0.03% for drivers under 20) Ireland Drink driving offences in Ireland-Information from CitizensInformation.ie Singapore Driving In Singapore - Home United Kingdom Think! (0.02% for operators of aeroplanes) United States Drivers under 21 (the American drinking age), however, are held to stricter standards under zero tolerance laws. Adopted in varying forms in all states, these laws hold the driver to much lower BAC levels for criminal and/or license suspension purposes, commonly 0.01% to 0.05%. Many states have statutory regulations regarding driving while "under the influence" of an intoxicant and a different law for driving beyond the legal blood alcohol concentration. For further information on U.S. laws, see Alcohol laws of the United States by state. (0.01% for operators of common carriers, such as buses, 0.04% for pilots, Federal Aviation Regulations FindLaw for Legal Professionals - Case Law, Federal and State Resources, Forms, and Code within eight hours of consumption) Limits by country (BrAC: Breath Alcohol Content) In certain countries, alcohol limits are determined by the Breath Alcohol Content (BrAC), not to be confused with BAC. In Greece, the BrAC limit is 25 micrograms of alcohol per 1000 millilitres of breath. The limit in blood is 0.50 g/l. BrAC 0.25–0.40 = €200 fine BrAC 0.40–0.60 = €700 fine, plus suspension of driving license for 90 days BrAC >0.60 = 2 months imprisonment, plus suspension of driving license for 180 days, plus €1,200 fine In The Netherlands and Finland, the BrAC limit is 220 micrograms of alcohol per litre of breath (μg/l, colloquially known as "Ugl"). In Singapore, the BrAC limit is 35 microgrammes of alcohol per 100 millilitres of breath. In the United Kingdom the BrAC limit is 35 microgrammes of alcohol per 100 millilitres of breath (as well as the above defined BAC). Other limitation schemes For South Korea, the penalties for different BAC levels include 0.01–0.049 = No Penalty 0.05–0.09 = 100 days license suspension >0.10 = Cancellation of car license. >0.36 = Arrest Getting caught driving while drunk three times in five years; or twice in three years results in arrest. Test assumptions Blood alcohol tests assume the individual being tested is average in various ways. For example, on average the ratio of BAC to breath alcohol content (the partition ratio) is 2100 to 1. In other words, there are 2100 parts of alcohol in the blood for every part in the breath. However, the actual ratio in any given individual can vary from 1300:1 to 3100:1, or even more widely. This ratio varies not only from person to person, but within one person from moment to moment. Thus a person with a true blood alcohol level of .08 but a partition ratio of 1700:1 at the time of testing would have a .10 reading on a Breathalyzer calibrated for the average 2100:1 ratio. A similar assumption is made in urinalysis. When urine is analyzed for alcohol, the assumption is that there are 1.3 parts of alcohol in the urine for every 1 part in the blood, even though the actual ratio can vary greatly. Breath alcohol testing further assumes that the test is post-absorptive—that is, that the absorption of alcohol in the subject's body is complete. If the subject is still actively absorbing alcohol, his body has not reached a state of equilibrium where the concentration of alcohol is uniform throughout the body. Most forensic alcohol experts reject test results during this period as the amounts of alcohol in the breath will not accurately reflect a true concentration in the blood. Metabolism and excretion Alcohol is removed from the bloodstream by a combination of metabolism, excretion, and evaporation. The relative proportion disposed of in each way varies from person to person, but typically about 92 to 98% is metabolised, 1 to 3% is excreted in urine, and 1 to 5% evaporates through the breath. A very small proportion (less than 0.5%) is also excreted in the sweat, tears, etc. Excretion into urine typically begins after about 40 minutes, whereas metabolisation commences as soon as the alcohol is absorbed, and even before alcohol levels have risen in the brain. (In fact, in some males, alcohol dehydrogenase levels in the stomach are high enough that some metabolization occurs even before the alcohol is absorbed.) Alcohol is metabolised mainly by the group of six enzymes collectively called alcohol dehydrogenase. These convert the ethanol into acetaldehyde (an intermediate that is actually more toxic than ethanol). The enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase then converts the acetaldehyde into non-toxic Acetyl-CoA. Many physiologically active materials are removed from the bloodstream (whether by metabolism or excretion) at a rate proportional to the current concentration, so that they exhibit exponential decay with a characteristic halflife (see pharmacokinetics). This is not true for alcohol, however. Typical doses of alcohol actually saturate the enzymes' capacity, so that alcohol is removed from the bloodstream at an approximately constant rate. This rate varies considerably between individuals; experienced male drinkers with a high body mass may process up to 30 grams (38 mL) per hour, but a more typical figure is 10 grams (12.7 mL) per hour. Persons below the age of 25, women, persons of certain ethnicities, and persons with liver disease may process alcohol more slowly. Many East Asians (e.g. about half of Japanese) have impaired acetaldehyde dehydrogenase; this causes acetaldehyde levels to peak higher, producing more severe hangovers and other effects such as flushing and tachycardia. Conversely, members of certain ethnicities that traditionally did not brew alcoholic beverages have lower levels of alcohol dehydrogenases and thus "sober up" very slowly, but reach lower aldehyde concentrations and have milder hangovers. Rate of detoxification of alcohol can also be slowed by certain drugs which interfere with the action of alcohol dehydrogenases, notably aspirin, furfural (which may be found in fusel oil), fumes of certain solvents, many heavy metals, and some pyrazole compounds. Also suspected of having this effect are cimetidine (Tagamet), ranitidine (Zantac), and acetaminophen (Tylenol) (paracetamol). Currently, the only known substance that can increase the rate of metabolism of alcohol is fructose. The effect can vary significantly from person to person, but a 100g dose of fructose has been shown to increase alcohol metabolism by an average of 80%. http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/26/1/53 Alcohol ingestion can be slowed by ingesting alcohol on a full stomach. Spreading the total absorption of alcohol over a greater period of time decreases the maximum alcohol level, decreasing the hangover effect. Thus, drinking on a full stomach or drinking while ingesting drugs which slow the release of acetaldehyde, will reduce the maximum blood levels of this substance, and decrease the hangover. Alcohol in non-carbonated beverages is absorbed more slowly than alcohol in carbonated drinks. Retrograde extrapolation Retrograde extrapolation is the mathematical process by which someone's blood alcohol concentration at the time of driving is estimated by projecting backwards from a later chemical test. This involves estimating the absorption and elimination of alcohol in the interim between driving and testing. The rate of elimination in the average person is commonly estimated at .015 to .020 percent per hour, although again this can vary from person to person and in a given person from one moment to another. Metabolism can be affected by numerous factors, including such things as body temperature, the type of alcoholic beverage consumed, and the amount and type of food consumed. In an increasing number of states, laws have been enacted to facilitate this speculative task: the BAC at the time of driving is legally presumed to be the same as when later tested. There are usually time limits put on this presumption, commonly two or three hours, and the defendant is permitted to offer evidence to rebut this presumption. Forward extrapolation can also be attempted. If the amount of alcohol consumed is known, along with such variables as the weight and sex of the subject and period and rate of consumption, the blood alcohol level can be estimated by extrapolating forward. Although subject to the same infirmities as retrograde extrapolation—guessing based upon averages and unknown variables—this can be relevant in estimating BAC when driving and/or corroborating or contradicting the results of a later chemical test. Blood alcohol content calculation BAC can be roughly estimated using a mathematical approach. While a mathematical BAC estimation is not as accurate as a breathalyzer, it can be useful for calculating a BAC level that is not currently testable, or a level that may be present in the future. While there are several ways to calculate a BAC, one of the most effective ways is to simply measure the total amount of alcohol consumed divided by the total amount of water in the body—effectively giving the percent alcohol per volume water in the blood. The total water weight of an individual can be calculated by multiplying his or her body weight by their percent water. For example, a 150 pound woman would have a total amount of water of 73.5 pounds (150 x .49). For easiest calculations, this weight should be in kilograms, which can be easily converted by dividing the total pounds by 2.205. 73.5 pounds of water is equivalent to 33.3 kilograms of water. 33.3 kilograms of water is equivalent to 33,300 mL of water (1 L of water has a mass of 1 kg, and 1 L = 1000 mL). Gender plays an important role in the total amount of water that a person has. In general, men have a higher percent of water per pound (58%) than women (49%). This fact alone strongly contributes to the generalization that men require more alcohol than women to achieve the same BAC level. Additionally, men are, on average, heavier than women. The more water a person has, the more alcohol is required to achieve the same alcohol:blood ratio, or BAC level. Further, studies have shown that women's alcohol metabolism varies from that of men due to such biochemical factors as different levels of alcohol dehydrogenase (the enzyme which breaks down alcohol) and the effects of oral contraceptives. Biological Effects of Alcohol Use, Michaele Dunlap, Psy.D It is not strictly accurate to say that the water content of a person alone is responsible for the dissolution of alcohol within the body, because alcohol does dissolve in fatty tissue as well. When it does, a certain amount of alcohol is temporarily taken out of the blood and briefly stored in the fat. For this reason, most calculations of alcohol to body mass simply use the weight of the individual, and not specifically his water content. Notable cases of high blood alcohol levels In November 2007, a driver was found passed out in her car in Oregon. A blood test showed her blood alcohol level was 0.550. She was charged with several offenses, including two counts of driving under the influence of an intoxicant, reckless endangerment of a person, criminal mischief and driving with a suspended license. Her bail was later set at $50,000 since she had several previous convictions for similar offenses. DUI Suspect's 'Lethal Dose' Earns $50K Bail by David Schoetz, ABC News, December 28, 2007. Deputies: Woman Had 0.55% Blood Alcohol Level, KPTV News, December 27, 2007. In December 2007, a driver was arrested in Klamath County, Oregon after she was found unconscious in her car which was stuck in a snow bank with its engine running. Police were forced to break a car window to remove her. After realizing she was in alcohol induced-coma, she was rushed to the hospital where a blood test showed her blood alcohol level was 0.720. She reportedly was released from the hospital the next day. Drunkest Driver Ever?, The Smoking Gun, January 10, 2008. She was subsequently charged with drunk driving. Oregon Woman's Blood Alcohol Level Nine Times Legal Limit, Associated Press (reprinted by Fox News), January 10, 2008. In July 2008, a driver was arrested after he ran into a highway message board on Interstate 95 in Providence, Rhode Island. A breath test showed his blood alcohol level was at 0.491 and he was raced to the hospital where he was sedated and placed in a detoxification unit. He was subsequently charged with driving while intoxicated and resisting arrest. R.I. Police Arrest Man With Record .491 Blood Alcohol Level, Associated Press (reprinted by Fox News), July 23, 2008. DUI suspect had highest alcohol level recorded By Richard C. Dujardin, The Providence Journal, July 23, 2008. He was later sentenced to one year probation, a $500 fine, 40 hours of community service and a one-year loss of his driver's license. The police later stated that his blood alcohol level was the highest they had ever seen for someone who hadn't died of alcohol poisoning. Police: Driver's Blood Alcohol Level Highest Registered for Someone Not Dead, Fox News, October 07, 2008. It was later estimated that the driver had consumed 10-14 drinks over the course of 1–2 hours. Extreme Drunk Driving by Russell Goldman, ABC News, July 24, 2008. Highest recorded blood alcohol level/content In December 2004, a man was admitted to the hospital in Plovdiv, Bulgaria after being struck by a car. After detecting a strong alcohol odour, doctors at a hospital conducted a breath test which displayed the man's blood alcohol content at 0.914. Concerned that their equipment was malfunctioning, doctors also performed five separate lab tests, all of which confirmed the man's incredible BAC. Bulgarian's blood-alcohol level astounds doctors, CBC News, January 4, 2005 (retrieved on March 16, 2009). The man was treated for serious injuries sustained in the crash but survived. Bulgarian Sets World Record for Highest Blood Alcohol Level, Sofia News Agency (Novinte.com), January 4, 2005 (retrieved on March 31, 2009). There have been cases reported in which individuals have supposedly survived BACs of over 1% but only limited information is available. "The Drunkest Drinking Driver in Sweden: Blood Alcohol Concentration 0.545% W/v", an article by A. W. Jones published in the Journal of Studies on Alcohol, volume 60, in the year of 1999 (link). Jones cites O'Neill et al., 1984, as the source of the information about the 30-year-old. Notes References Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh. Science and Technology Department. The Handy Science Answer Book. Pittsburgh: The Carnegie Library, 1997. ISBN 9780787610135. Perham, N. R., Moore, S. C., Shepherd, J. P. & Cusens, B. (2007). "Identifying drunkenness in the night time economy". Addiction, 102(3), 377–380. Taylor, L., and S. Oberman. Drunk Driving Defense, 6th edition. New York: Aspen Law and Business, 2006. ISBN 978-0735554290. External links Court Approved Blood Alcohol Calculator & modeling alcohol absorption, metabolism, and elimination Wisconsin DOT BAC calculator International Blood Alcohol Limits Blood Alcohol levels with practical exercises b4udrink.org developed by The Century Council in conjunction with University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Comprehensive International BAC (Blood Alcohol Content) Limits Prescribed legal driving limits for over 250 jurisdictions. | Blood_alcohol_content |@lemmatized blood:48 alcohol:112 content:15 concentration:13 abbreviated:1 bac:38 person:23 commonly:4 use:6 metric:1 intoxication:5 legal:7 medical:2 purpose:3 usually:2 measure:6 term:2 mass:11 per:17 volume:11 also:7 give:5 many:5 different:6 unit:6 notation:1 relatively:1 synonymous:1 numerically:1 number:2 drink:11 consume:6 poor:1 largely:1 variation:1 weight:7 sex:2 body:11 fat:2 however:4 generally:1 accept:1 consumption:3 sober:2 one:11 standard:5 e:2 g:18 gram:5 ml:20 ethanol:3 u:5 increase:5 average:9 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6,340 | Alexander_III_of_Scotland | Coronation of King Alexander on Moot Hill, Scone. He is being greeted by the ollamh rígh, the royal poet, who is addressing him with the proclamation "Benach De Re Albanne" (= Beannachd Dé Rígh Alban, "God Bless the King of Scotland"); the poet goes on to recite Alexander's genealogy. Alexander III (Medieval Gaelic: Alaxandair mac Alaxandair; Modern Gaelic: Alasdair mac Alasdair) (4 September 1241 – 19 March 1286), King of Scots, was born at Roxburgh, the only son of Alexander II by his second wife Marie de Coucy. Alexander's father died on 6 July 1249 and he became king at the age of eight, inaugurated at Scone on 13 July 1249. The years of his minority featured an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two rival parties, the one led by Walter Comyn, Earl of Menteith, the other by Alan Durward, Justiciar of Scotia. The former dominated the early years of Alexander's reign. At the marriage of Alexander to Margaret of England in 1251, Henry III seized the opportunity to demand from his son-in-law homage for the Scottish kingdom, but Alexander did not comply. In 1255 an interview between the English and Scottish kings at Kelso led to Menteith and his party losing to Durward's party. But though disgraced, they still retained great influence, and two years later, seizing the person of the king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of a regency representative of both parties. On attaining his majority at the age of 21 in 1262, Alexander declared his intention of resuming the projects on the Western Isles which the death of his father thirteen years before had cut short. He laid a formal claim before the Norwegian king Haakon. Haakon rejected the claim, and in the following year responded with a formidable invasion. Sailing around the west coast of Scotland he halted off the Isle of Arran, and negotiations commenced. Alexander artfully prolonged the talks until the autumn storms should begin. At length Haakon, weary of delay, attacked, only to encounter a terrific storm which greatly damaged his ships. The Battle of Largs (October 1263) proved indecisive, but even so, Haakon's position was hopeless. Baffled, he turned homewards, but died in Orkney on 15 December 1263. The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in 1266 Haakon's successor concluded the Treaty of Perth by which he ceded the Isle of Man and the Western Isles to Scotland in return for a monetary payment. Norway retained only Orkney and Shetland in the area. In 1284, Alexander invested the title of Lord of the Isles in the head of the Macdonald family, Angus Macdonald, and over the next two centuries the Macdonald lords operated as if they were kings in their own right, frequently opposing the Scottish monarch. Alexander had married Princess Margaret of England, a daughter of King Henry III of England and Eleanor of Provence, on 26 December 1251. She died in 1274, after they had three children: Margaret (28 February 1260 – 9 April 1283), who married King Eirik II of Norway Alexander, Prince of Scotland (21 January 1264 Jedburgh – 28 January 1284 Lindores Abbey); buried in Dunfermline Abbey David (20 March 1272 – June 1281 Stirling Castle); buried in Dunfermline Abbey According to the Lanercost Chronicle, Alexander did not spend his decade as a widower alone: "he used never to forbear on account of season nor storm, nor for perils of flood or rocky cliffs, but would visit none too creditably nuns or matrons, virgins or widows as the fancy seized him, sometimes in disguise." Towards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all three of his children within a few years made the question of the succession one of pressing importance. In 1284 he induced the Estates to recognize as his heir-presumptive his granddaughter Margaret, the "Maid of Norway". The need for a male heir led him to contract a second marriage to Yolande de Dreux on 1 November 1285. But the sudden death of the king dashed all such hopes. Alexander died in a fall from his horse in the dark while riding to visit the queen at Kinghorn in Fife on 19 March 1286, having spent the evening at Edinburgh Castle overseeing a meeting with royal advisors. He was advised by them not to make the journey over to Fife because of weather conditions, but travelled anyway. Alexander became separated from his guides and it is assumed that in the dark his horse lost its footing. The 44-year old king was found dead on the shore the following morning with a broken neck. Some texts have said that he fell off a cliff. Although there is no cliff at the site where his body was found there is a very steep rocky embankment - which would have been fatal in the dark. After Alexander's death, his strong realm was plunged into a period of darkness that would eventually lead to war with England. Had Alexander, who was a strong monarch, lived, things might have worked out differently . He was buried in Dunfermline Abbey. As Alexander left no surviving children the heir to the throne was his unborn child by Queen Yolande. When Yolande's pregnancy ended in a still-birth in November of 1286, Alexander's granddaughter Margaret became the heir. Margaret died, still uncrowned, on her way to Scotland in 1290. The inauguration of John Balliol as king on 30 November 1292 ended the six years of interregnum when the Guardians of Scotland governed the land. Ancestry </center> See also History of Scotland Sources Scott, Robert McNair. Robert the Bruce: King of Scots, 1996 . by secret | Alexander_III_of_Scotland |@lemmatized coronation:1 king:14 alexander:22 moot:1 hill:1 scone:2 greet:1 ollamh:1 rígh:2 royal:2 poet:2 address:1 proclamation:1 benach:1 de:3 albanne:1 beannachd:1 dé:1 alban:1 god:1 bless:1 scotland:7 go:1 recite:1 genealogy:1 iii:3 medieval:1 gaelic:2 alaxandair:2 mac:2 modern:1 alasdair:2 september:1 march:3 scot:2 bear:1 roxburgh:1 son:2 ii:2 second:2 wife:1 marie:1 coucy:1 father:2 die:5 july:2 become:3 age:2 eight:1 inaugurate:1 year:8 minority:1 feature:1 embittered:1 struggle:1 control:1 affair:1 two:3 rival:2 party:4 one:2 lead:4 walter:1 comyn:1 earl:1 menteith:2 alan:1 durward:2 justiciar:1 scotia:1 former:1 dominate:1 early:1 reign:2 marriage:2 margaret:6 england:4 henry:2 seize:3 opportunity:1 demand:1 law:1 homage:1 scottish:3 kingdom:1 comply:1 interview:1 english:1 kelso:1 losing:1 though:1 disgrace:1 still:3 retain:2 great:1 influence:1 later:1 person:1 compel:1 consent:1 erection:1 regency:1 representative:1 attain:1 majority:1 declare:1 intention:1 resume:1 project:1 western:2 isle:6 death:4 thirteen:1 cut:1 short:1 lay:2 formal:1 claim:2 norwegian:1 haakon:5 reject:1 following:2 respond:1 formidable:1 invasion:1 sail:1 around:1 west:1 coast:1 halt:1 arran:1 negotiation:1 commence:1 artfully:1 prolong:1 talk:1 autumn:1 storm:3 begin:1 length:1 weary:1 delay:1 attack:1 encounter:1 terrific:1 greatly:1 damage:1 ship:1 battle:1 largs:1 october:1 prove:1 indecisive:1 even:1 position:1 hopeless:1 baffle:1 turn:1 homewards:1 orkney:2 december:2 foot:1 successor:1 conclude:1 treaty:1 perth:1 cede:1 man:1 return:1 monetary:1 payment:1 norway:3 shetland:1 area:1 invest:1 title:1 lord:2 head:1 macdonald:3 family:1 angus:1 next:1 centuries:1 operate:1 right:1 frequently:1 oppose:1 monarch:2 marry:2 princess:1 daughter:1 eleanor:1 provence:1 three:2 child:4 february:1 april:1 eirik:1 prince:1 january:2 jedburgh:1 lindores:1 abbey:4 bury:3 dunfermline:3 david:1 june:1 stirling:1 castle:2 accord:1 lanercost:1 chronicle:1 spend:2 decade:1 widower:1 alone:1 use:1 never:1 forbear:1 account:1 season:1 peril:1 flood:1 rocky:2 cliff:3 would:3 visit:2 none:1 creditably:1 nuns:1 matron:1 virgin:1 widow:1 fancy:1 sometimes:1 disguise:1 towards:1 end:3 within:1 make:2 question:1 succession:1 press:1 importance:1 induce:1 estate:1 recognize:1 heir:4 presumptive:1 granddaughter:2 maid:1 need:1 male:1 contract:1 yolande:3 dreux:1 november:3 sudden:1 dash:1 hope:1 fall:1 horse:2 dark:3 rid:1 queen:2 kinghorn:1 fife:2 evening:1 edinburgh:1 oversee:1 meeting:1 advisor:1 advise:1 journey:1 weather:1 condition:1 travel:1 anyway:1 separate:1 guide:1 assume:1 lose:1 footing:1 old:1 find:2 dead:1 shore:1 morning:1 broken:1 neck:1 text:1 say:1 fell:1 although:1 site:1 body:1 steep:1 embankment:1 fatal:1 strong:2 realm:1 plunge:1 period:1 darkness:1 eventually:1 war:1 live:1 thing:1 might:1 work:1 differently:1 leave:1 survive:1 throne:1 unborn:1 pregnancy:1 birth:1 uncrowned:1 way:1 inauguration:1 john:1 balliol:1 six:1 interregnum:1 guardian:1 govern:1 land:1 ancestry:1 center:1 see:1 also:1 history:1 source:1 scott:1 robert:2 mcnair:1 bruce:1 secret:1 |@bigram orkney_shetland:1 dunfermline_abbey:3 stirling_castle:1 heir_presumptive:1 granddaughter_margaret:2 steep_rocky:1 heir_throne:1 unborn_child:1 |
6,341 | Original_Sin_(disambiguation) | Original Sin refers to several things: Original sin - According to Christian tradition, the general and non-personal condition of sinfulness (lack of holiness) into which human beings are born. Original Sin (album) - a concept album by Pandora's Box, produced and mostly written by Jim Steinman Original Sin (band) - a band featuring Josh Silver from 1983-1988 Original Sin (band) - an all girl band from New York. Late 80s Original Sin (Doctor Who), a Doctor Who novel. Original Sin (1992 film) - a 1992 movie directed by Takashi Ishii. Original Sin (film) - a 2001 movie starring Angelina Jolie and Antonio Banderas. Original Sin (INXS song) - a song by INXS. Original Sin (Elton John song) - a song by Elton John. Original Sin (novel) - a 1994 novel by P D James. The Original Sin (film), a 1948 German film | Original_Sin_(disambiguation) |@lemmatized original:12 sin:12 refers:1 several:1 thing:1 accord:1 christian:1 tradition:1 general:1 non:1 personal:1 condition:1 sinfulness:1 lack:1 holiness:1 human:1 bear:1 album:2 concept:1 pandora:1 box:1 produce:1 mostly:1 write:1 jim:1 steinman:1 band:4 feature:1 josh:1 silver:1 girl:1 new:1 york:1 late:1 doctor:2 novel:3 film:4 movie:2 direct:1 takashi:1 ishii:1 star:1 angelina:1 jolie:1 antonio:1 banderas:1 inxs:2 song:4 elton:2 john:2 p:1 james:1 german:1 |@bigram pandora_box:1 jim_steinman:1 angelina_jolie:1 |
6,342 | Meconium | Meconium from 12-hour-old newborn — the baby's third bowel movement. Scale: 5 cm left to right. Meconium from 13-hour-old newborn — the baby's first bowel movement. Meconium is the earliest stools of an infant. Unlike later feces, meconium is composed of materials ingested during the time the infant spends in the uterus: intestinal epithelial cells, lanugo, mucus, amniotic fluid, bile, and water. Meconium is almost sterile, JIMÉNEZ, Esther, et al. Is meconium from healthy newborns actually sterile? Research in Microbiology. Vol. 159, Issue 3, pp. 187-193. unlike later feces, is viscous and sticky like tar, and has no odor. It should be completely passed by the end of the first few days of postpartum life, with the stools progressing toward yellow (digested milk). The term Meconium derives from meconium-arion, meaning "opium-like", in reference either to its tarry appearance or to Aristotle's belief that it induces sleep in the fetus. Health on the Net Foundation Mother and Child Glossary Hirschsprung's disease presents as failure to pass meconium. Meconium is normally stored in the infant's intestines until after birth, but sometimes it is expelled into the amniotic fluid prior to birth or during labor and delivery. Meconium can be tested for various drugs, to check for in utero exposure. Using meconium, a Canadian research group at the Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, showed that by measuring a by-product of alcohol (FAEE) they could detect objectively babies exposed to excessive maternal drinking in pregnancy. Chan D, Knie B, Boskovic R, Koren G. Placental handling of fatty acid ethyl esters: perfusion and subcellular studies. J Pharmacol ExpTher 2004; 310: 75-82. In the USA, the results of meconium-testing run on a newborn can be turned in to child protective services and other law enforcement agencies. G.B. v. Dearborn County Div. of Family and Children, 754 N.E.2d 1027 (Ind.Ct.App., 2001). Meconium ileus The meconium sometimes becomes thickened and congested in the ileum, a condition known as meconium ileus. Meconium ileus is often the first symptom of cystic fibrosis. James H Hutchinson Practical Paediatric Problems 4th ed. London: Lloyd-Luke 1975 p. 314 ISBN 0-85324-114-7 In cystic fibrosis, the meconium can form a bituminous black-green mechanical obstruction in a segment of the ileum. Beyond this there may be a few separate grey-white globular pellets. Below this level, the bowel is a narrow and empty micro-colon. Above the level of the obstruction, there are several loops of hypertrophied bowel distended with fluid. No meconium is passed, and abdominal distension and vomiting appear soon after birth. About 20% of cases of cystic fibrosis present with meconium ileus, while approximately 20% of one series of cases of meconium ileus did not have cystic fibrosis. Ali Hekmatnia Meconium Ileus The presence of meconium ileus is not related to the severity of the cystic fibrosis. Peter G Jones Clinical Paediatric Surgery 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell 1976 pp 74-5 ISBN 0-632-00089-9 The obstruction can be relieved in a number of different ways. Michael S Irish Surgical Aspects of Cystic Fibrosis and Meconium Ileus Meconium ileus should be distinguished from meconium plug syndrome, in which a tenacious mass of mucus prevents the meconium from passing. Other uses In biology, meconium describes the metabolic waste product from the pupal stage of an insect that is expelled through the anal opening of the adult upon eclosion from the pupa. See also Meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS), a condition in which infants take meconium into their lungs before or during delivery References | Meconium |@lemmatized meconium:30 hour:2 old:2 newborn:4 baby:3 third:1 bowel:4 movement:2 scale:1 cm:1 leave:1 right:1 first:3 early:1 stool:2 infant:4 unlike:2 later:2 feces:2 compose:1 material:1 ingest:1 time:1 spends:1 uterus:1 intestinal:1 epithelial:1 cell:1 lanugo:1 mucus:2 amniotic:2 fluid:3 bile:1 water:1 almost:1 sterile:2 jiménez:1 esther:1 et:1 al:1 healthy:1 actually:1 research:2 microbiology:1 vol:1 issue:1 pp:2 viscous:1 sticky:1 like:2 tar:1 odor:1 completely:1 pass:4 end:1 day:1 postpartum:1 life:1 progress:1 toward:1 yellow:1 digest:1 milk:1 term:1 derive:1 arion:1 mean:1 opium:1 reference:2 either:1 tarry:1 appearance:1 aristotle:1 belief:1 induce:1 sleep:1 fetus:1 health:1 net:1 foundation:1 mother:1 child:4 glossary:1 hirschsprung:1 disease:1 present:2 failure:1 normally:1 store:1 intestine:1 birth:3 sometimes:2 expel:2 prior:1 labor:1 delivery:2 test:2 various:1 drug:1 check:1 utero:1 exposure:1 use:1 canadian:1 group:1 hospital:1 sick:1 university:1 toronto:1 show:1 measure:1 product:2 alcohol:1 faee:1 could:1 detect:1 objectively:1 expose:1 excessive:1 maternal:1 drinking:1 pregnancy:1 chan:1 knie:1 b:2 boskovic:1 r:1 koren:1 g:3 placental:1 handling:1 fatty:1 acid:1 ethyl:1 ester:1 perfusion:1 subcellular:1 study:1 j:1 pharmacol:1 expther:1 usa:1 result:1 run:1 turn:1 protective:1 service:1 law:1 enforcement:1 agency:1 v:1 dearborn:1 county:1 div:1 family:1 n:1 e:1 ind:1 ct:1 app:1 ileus:9 becomes:1 thickened:1 congest:1 ileum:2 condition:2 know:1 often:1 symptom:1 cystic:6 fibrosis:6 james:1 h:1 hutchinson:1 practical:1 paediatric:2 problem:1 ed:2 london:1 lloyd:1 luke:1 p:1 isbn:2 form:1 bituminous:1 black:1 green:1 mechanical:1 obstruction:3 segment:1 beyond:1 may:1 separate:1 grey:1 white:1 globular:1 pellet:1 level:2 narrow:1 empty:1 micro:1 colon:1 several:1 loop:1 hypertrophied:1 distend:1 abdominal:1 distension:1 vomit:1 appear:1 soon:1 case:2 approximately:1 one:1 series:1 ali:1 hekmatnia:1 presence:1 relate:1 severity:1 peter:1 jones:1 clinical:1 surgery:1 oxford:1 blackwell:1 relieve:1 number:1 different:1 way:1 michael:1 irish:1 surgical:1 aspect:1 distinguish:1 plug:1 syndrome:2 tenacious:1 mass:1 prevents:1 us:1 biology:1 describe:1 metabolic:1 waste:1 pupal:1 stage:1 insect:1 anal:1 opening:1 adult:1 upon:1 eclosion:1 pupa:1 see:1 also:1 aspiration:1 mas:1 take:1 lung:1 |@bigram newborn_baby:2 epithelial_cell:1 amniotic_fluid:2 et_al:1 fatty_acid:1 enforcement_agency:1 meconium_ileus:9 cystic_fibrosis:6 oxford_blackwell:1 pupal_stage:1 meconium_aspiration:1 |
6,343 | Exile | Dante in Exile by an anonymous artist. Exile means to be away from one's home (i.e. city, state or country) while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened by prison or death upon return. It can be a form of punishment. It is common to distinguish between internal exile, i.e., forced resettlement within the country of residence, and external exile, deportation outside the country of residence. Exile can also be a self-imposed departure from one's homeland. Self-exile is often practiced as form of protest or to avoid persecution. Personal exile Exile was used particularly for political opponents of those in power. The use of exile for political purposes can sometimes be useful for the government because it prevents the exilee from organizing in their native land or from becoming a martyr. People feared exile and banishment so much because it effectively meant that they were going to die. In European history, at a time prior to Roman invasion, people lived completely co-dependently in farm towns where everyone had a function. Internal Exile Prince Menshikov in Beryozovo, Siberia Where the state controls a vast territory, it is possible to put great distance between offenders and their families or associates and still fix the location of the exile. Normally this will be in a culturally or economically backward region. Ovid was made to live on the Black Sea, the very periphery of the Roman Empire. In imperial China the island of Hainan, viewed as the "end of the world", received many exiles. Other victims of imperial displeasure (Galeote Pereira, Vasco Calvo) were made to live in places well within the bounds of "civilisation". Mikhail Bakunin and Prince Menshikov were made to live in Siberia, Russia's "Wild East". Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn spent years in Communist Russia's vast interior, in what he was to term The Gulag Archipelago, before finally being properly deported to "a life in exile" beyond Moscow's purview. See sybiraks for more information on people exiled to Siberia. Of course in this system and in modern China's analogous Laogai Archipelago there is not much difference between "internal exile" and simple Incarceration. Personal Exile in Literature Dante describes the pain of exile in The Divine Comedy: «. . . Tu lascerai ogne cosa diletta più caramente; e questo è quello strale che l'arco de lo essilio pria saetta. Tu proverai sì come sa di sale lo pane altrui, e come è duro calle lo scendere e 'l salir per l'altrui scale . . .» ". . . You will leave everything you love most: this is the arrow that the bow of exile shoots first. You will know how salty another's bread tastes and how hard it is to ascend and descend another's stairs . . ." Paradiso XVII: 55-60 Exile has been softened, to some extent, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as exiles have received welcome in other countries and have either created new communities within those countries or, less frequently, returned to their homelands following the demise of the regime that exiled them. Government in exile During a foreign occupation or after a coup d'etat, a government in exile of a such afflicted country may be established abroad. One of the most well-known instances of this is the Central Tibetan Administration, a government in exile led by the Dalai Lama in India, who is the legitimate ruler of the historical Tibet. Another example was the Free French government of Charles De Gaulle during World War II. Nation in exile When large groups, or occasionally a whole people or nation is exiled, it can be said that this nation is in exile, or Diaspora. Nations that have been in exile for substantial periods include the Jews, who were deported by Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar II in 597 BC and again in the years following the destruction of the second Temple in Jerusalem in the year AD 70. After the partitions of Poland in the late 18th century, and following the uprisings (like Kościuszko Uprising, November Uprising and January Uprising) against the partitioning powers (Russian Empire, Prussia and Austro-Hungary), many Poles have chosen - or been forced - to go into exile, forming large diasporas (known as Polonia), especially in France and the United States.The entire population of Crimean Tatars (200,000) that remained in their homeland Crimea was exiled on 18 May 1944 to Central Asia as a form of ethnic cleansing and collective punishment on false accusations. At Diego Garcia, between 1967 and 1973 the British Government forcibly removed some 2,000 Chagossian resident islanders to make way for a military base today jointly operated by the US and UK. Tax exile A wealthy citizen who departs from a former abode for a lower tax jurisdiction (a "tax haven") in order to reduce his/her tax burden is termed a tax exile. Exile in Greek tragedy To wander away from the city-state (the home) is to be exposed without the protection of government (laws), friends and family. In the ancient Greek world, this was seen as a fate worse than death. Euripedes’ Medea–because of her actions (both in Iolcus and Corinth)-made herself and her family (including Jason) exiles in Corinth. She talks of her exiled state in Corinth: 'I, a desolate woman without a city... no relative at all'. Jason justifies his marriage, to a Corinth royal family member, as an attempt to better this situation: 'When I moved here from the land of Iolkos... what happier godsend could I have found than to marry the king's daughter, poor exile that I was... that I should bring up our children in a manner worthy of my house, and producing brothers to my children by you, I should place them all on level footing'. The tutor in Medea further reminds us of how selfish men are. Euripides likens all women's position to exile; in their having to leave home to serve their husbands. So Medea was doubly in exile, both in the ordinary sense, as a non-Greek foreigner, and as a woman. In the same speech, Medea talks of her status as 'a foreigner [falling] in the city['s ways]' and, on being married, 'we come to new behaviour, new customs'. The theme of exile also appears in Euripedes The Bacchae when Dionysus sends Agave and her sisters into exile. Dionysus: 'With your sisters you shall live in exile' and later Agave laments: 'Farewell my city…show us the way Asian women, show us the way to bitter exile'. From the Bacchae: Dionysus: All foreign lands now dance to his [Dionysus's] drum. Pentheus: That is why they are foreign and we're not. Notable people who have been in exile Assata Shakur is a Black Panther activist who escaped from prison in the US in 1979 and has been in self-exile in Cuba since 1984. Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus and exiled by him from Rome until her death (2 to 14 or 15). Seneca the Younger, exiled from Rome 41-49 by Caligula Charlie Chaplin, in self-exile from the [United States] 1952-1972 to Switzerland The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso self-exiled to India from Tibet in 1959. Pablo Neruda, 1948-1952 in Spain Bahadur Shah Zafar, last Mughal King exiled to Rangoon after 1857. Wajid Ali Shah, last King of Awadh exiled to Calcutta. Abd el-Krim, the Riffian guerilla leader, exiled from Morocco to the island of Réunion (a French territory). Manuel Altolaguirre, exiled from Spain, to Cuba and Mexico. Michel Aoun, exiled from Lebanon, to France, returned in May 2005 Reinaldo Arenas exiled from Cuba, to United States Nawaz Sharif exiled from Pakistan, to Saudi Arabia and then moved to England and some other countries. Muhammad(SAAS) exiled from Mecca in 622 to Medina. Returned to Mecca 8 years later. Mirza Tahir Ahmad 4th Caliph of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, exiled from Pakistan in 1984, died in London in 2003 Shahbaz Sharif exiled from Pakistan, to Saudi Arabia. Aloysius Ambrozic Regent of Hungary, Miklós Horthy exiled Cascais, Portugal Umberto II, King of Italy exiled to Portugal Jean-Bertrand Aristide, exiled from Haiti, to Venezuela and United States (1990-1994), and then to Central African Republic and South Africa (2004-present) Miguel Ángel Asturias exiled from Guatemala to France Francisco Ayala, exiled from Spain to Argentina Michel Bakunin, fled from Russia Emperor Bao Dai of Vietnam Paul Robeson, American singer, lived the latter part of his life in exile in the Soviet Union. Crown Prince Bao Long of Vietnam Saint Thomas à Becket, fled to France Gioconda Belli, exiled from Nicaragua, to Mexico Napoleon I exiled from France to Elba and, later, St Helena Napoleon III went into exile in England. King Kigeli V of Rwanda exiled from Rwanda to Uganda and, later, received political asylum to live in the United States Andrej Bajuk Willy Brandt exiled to Norway and Sweden, during the Nazi era Bertolt Brecht Breyten Breytenbach Joseph Brodsky, exiled from Soviet Union to United States Lord Byron, self-exiled from United Kingdom, to Italy and Ottoman Empire Pau Casals, self-exiled during the Spanish Civil War, vowing not to return before democracy was restored in Spain. He died in exile, in 1973. Francisco Franco died in 1975, restoring the monarchy, which became constitutional by degrees. Alejo Carpentier, exiled from Cuba to Haiti and Venezuela Frédéric Chopin, exiled from Poland to France Marcus Tullius Cicero, exiled in 58 BC in a political controversy that involved his execution of six members of a conspiracy to overthrow the Roman Republic. He was recalled a year later to cheering crowds. El Cid, banned from Castile, served other Iberian kings ending with the conquest of Valencia Dante Alighieri, Medieval Itialian poet and author of the Divine Comedy, Sentenced to two years of Exile and forced to pay a fine when the Black Guelfs took control of Florence. However Dante could not pay his fine because he was staying at Rome at the request of Pope Boniface VIII and was considered to be an absconder and sentenced to permanent exile. Nadia Comăneci, famous Romanian gymnast, self-exiled to United States Lluís Companys, exiled from Catalonia, Spain to France in 1939 after the Spanish Civil War Gustave Courbet, French painter, died in political exile from France Celia Cruz, exiled from Cuba to United States Humberto Delgado, exiled from Portugal to Brazil and Algeria Porfirio Díaz, exiled from Mexico to France Ariel Dorfman, exiled from Chile, to United States Du Fu Jean-Claude Duvalier, exiled form Haiti to France Albert Einstein self-exiled from Germany to the United States Farinelli self exiled from Italy to Spain Lion Feuchtwanger, Sigmund Freud self exiled from Austria to United Kingdom Alberto Fujimori, exiled from Peru to Japan Eduardo Galeano, exiled from Uruguay to Argentina and Spain Garibaldi exiled to South America Francisco de Goya exiled to Bordeaux as afrancesado Jorge Guillén Heinrich Heine Victor Hugo exiled from France to the Channel Islands Juan Ramón Jiménez, fled to United States, Cuba, and finally to Puerto Rico Arthur Koestler Kim Dae-jung Idi Amin, exiled to Libya, and Saudi Arabia until his death. Konstantinos Karamanlis Ruhollah Khomeini, exiled from Iran to Turkey, then exiled from Turkey to Iraq. Later exiled from Iraq to France. Pavel Kohout Milan Komar Jan Amos Komenský Tadeusz Kościuszko Lajos Kossuth Prince Norodom Sihanouk, exiled from Cambodia to China and North Korea twice. Peter Kropotkin Lenin self-exiled to Switzerland Lotte Lehmann Félix Lope de Vega y Carpio (Spain's equivalent to Shakespeare) exiled 8 years from Castille for slander. Fernão Lopez self-exile to Saint Helena La Lupe, to Puerto Rico and United States Heinrich Mann self-exile to Switzerland and to the United States Thomas Mann self-exile to Switzerland and to the United States, moved back to Switzerland Ferdinand Marcos self-exiled from the Philippines to Hawaii Karl Marx self-exiled from Germany to Great Britain José Martí Giuseppe Mazzini Rigoberta Menchú, exiled from Guatemala, to Mexico Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov Ezekiel Mphahlele, exiled from South Africa to Kenya, Zambia and United States Adam Mickiewicz Mobutu Sese Seko Mireya Moscoso, fled to Spain Kwame Nkrumah exiled from Ghana to Guinea Juan Carlos Onetti exiled from Uruguay to Spain until his death Ovid Shahrnush Parsipur, exiled from Iran to the United States of America Víctor Paz Estenssoro, exiled from Bolivia to Argentina, Perú Carlos Andrés Pérez, exiled from Venezuela, to Colombia, Costa Rica, and United States Marcos Pérez Jiménez, exiled from Venezuela to United States and Spain Juan Perón exiled from Argentina to Paraguay and Spain Saint-John Perse exiled from Vichy France to United States Bob Powell Ferenc Puskás from Hungary to Spain Victor Raúl Haya de la Torre, fled to Mexico Franc Rode Romain Rolland, fled to Switzerland Wilhelm Röpke fled Germany during Nazi rule Prince Sauryavong Savang, lives in exile in Paris, France Crown Prince Soulivong Savang, lives in exile in Paris, France Jorge Semprún, exiled from Spain, to France Costas Simitis, exiled from Greece, to Germany Prince Mangkra Souvannaphouma, lives in exile in Paris, France Prince Nguyen Phuc Buu Chanh of Vietnam, lives in exile in the United States Prince Hso Khan Pha lives in exile in Canada Fernando Savater Benjamin Seheneexiled from Rwanda to Uganda and, later,to Canada Emperor Amha Selassie I, lived in exile in Switzerland and Great Britain and United States. Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia Crown Prince Zera Yacob Amha Selassie lived in exile in Djibouti, Israel, Great Britain, and United States Juliusz Slowacki Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn exiled from the Soviet Union, returned after the fall of Communism Mário Soares Wole Soyinka Alfredo Stroessner exile from Paraguay to Brazil Sun Yat-sen Oliver Tambo Leon Trotsky, exiled to Siberia, and later to Turkey, France, Norway and Mexico Xiao Qiang, exiled from China, to United States Miguel de Unamuno confined to Fuerteventura, fled to France. Clement Vallandigham, exiled to the Confederate States of America, to Bermuda, then Canada Caetano Veloso, exiled from Brazil to United Kingdom Bruno Walter Wilhelm II of Prussia and Germany, exiled from Prussia and Germany to The Netherlands Mohammad Zaher Shah exile from Afghanistan to Italy Nicholas I of Montenegro Carlos Salinas de Gortari self-exiled to Ireland The Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor, by virtue of his marriage to Wallis Simpson and his falling-out with the Royal Family and his brother King George VI, to France John Calvin, exiled from Switzerland to France, but later let back into Switzerland, due to change in government Hector Gramajo, fled the United States to avoid facing charges filed under the Torture Victim Protection Act Cesar Vallejo, fled from Peru to France in fear of further incarceration by the government. He would spend the rest of his life in France, mainly, Paris. Benazir Bhutto, exiled from Pakistan to Dubai Taslima Nasrin, exiled from Bangladesh to India, then Sweden Andres Eloy Blanco, exiled from Venezuela to Mexico until his death in 1955. Fictional characters in exile Omnius, an artificial intelligence, is banished forever to an alternate universe in the final novel in the Dune series of science fiction works. Yoda went into self exile after the Great Jedi Purge in Episode III of Star Wars. In Dragon Quest VIII: Journey of the Cursed King, after defeating Sir Leopold, the player's party are blamed by Captain Marcello for an attempted assassination of the Lord High Priest, causing High Priest Rolo and the player's party to be subsequently banished to Purgatory Island. In Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, Romeo is exiled to Mantua after killing Tybalt. Lord Voldemort goes to self exile in Albania after losing his physical form in Godric's Hollow in 1981. Ender Wiggin is exiled from Earth after winning the Bugger War in the Orson Scott Card book Ender's Game. In the book The Lord of the Rings by J. R. R. Tolkien, Aragorn is the heir in exile to the throne of Gondor. In the television series Avatar: The Last Airbender, Prince Zuko is exiled from the Fire Nation by his father, and tasked with finding the Avatar. Chancellor Sutler is in self-exile in the film V for Vendetta. In the British sci-fi TV series Doctor Who, The Doctor was exiled to Earth by his own people, the Time Lords for interfering in the affairs of other planets. He was also forced to regenerate in order to help conceal his identity. All this happened in the 1969 story The War Games. This was the last Doctor Who story to feature Patrick Troughton as the Doctor. He was eventually forgiven by his own people and allowed to roam the Universe again in the 1972-73 adventure The Three Doctors, by this time starring Jon Pertwee as the Doctor. In the TV series 24, Jack Bauer went into self-exile, after being threatened with being extradited for torture in a Chinese prison camp following the events of Season 4. Oedipus went into self exile after finding out that he had killed his father and slept with his mother (Sophocles) Medea sent herself into exile to follow Jason into Corinth (Euripedes). Agave went into self exile after killing her son Pentheus (Euripedes) Thyestes was sent into exile after raping his brother's wife (Aeschylus) Orestes was sent into exile by his mother Clytaemnestra but returned to kill her in the garb of a stranger (Aeschylus) Simba, shortly after his father's death went into exile from the Pridelands for much of his childhood and teenage life in The Lion King. He later returns to avenge his father's death and take his rightful place as king of the Pridelands. Jim Halpert of NBC's The Office went into self exile from Dunder Mifflin Scranton and relocated to Stamford when Pam was going to marry Roy. A Dwarven Clan Chief in Brisingr was exiled from the Dwarven Land when he attempted to assassinate Eragon. Leiji Matsumoto's Captain Harlock is depicted in several stories as being branded a pirate and exiled from Earth by the government; most notably in Arcadia of My Youth. See also Ban Ostracism Deportation Penal transportation Refugee Right of asylum (political asylum) Scouts-in-Exile Marriage Petalism References | Exile |@lemmatized dante:4 exile:158 anonymous:1 artist:1 mean:2 away:2 one:3 home:3 e:5 city:5 state:29 country:7 either:2 explicitly:1 refuse:1 permission:1 return:9 threaten:2 prison:3 death:8 upon:1 form:6 punishment:2 common:1 distinguish:1 internal:3 force:4 resettlement:1 within:3 residence:2 external:1 deportation:2 outside:1 also:4 self:25 imposed:1 departure:1 homeland:3 often:1 practice:1 protest:1 avoid:2 persecution:1 personal:2 use:2 particularly:1 political:6 opponent:1 power:2 purpose:1 sometimes:1 useful:1 government:10 prevent:1 exilee:1 organize:1 native:1 land:4 become:2 martyr:1 people:7 fear:2 banishment:1 much:3 effectively:1 go:11 die:5 european:1 history:1 time:3 prior:1 roman:3 invasion:1 live:14 completely:1 co:1 dependently:1 farm:1 town:1 everyone:1 function:1 prince:12 menshikov:3 beryozovo:1 siberia:4 control:2 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6,344 | Antoninus_Pius | Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus (19 September, 86–7 March 161), generally known in English as Antoninus Pius was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. He was the fourth of the Five Good Emperors and a member of the Aurelii. He did not possess the sobriquet "Pius" until after his accession to the throne. Almost certainly, he earned the name "Pius" because he compelled the Senate to deify his adoptive father Hadrian; the Historia Augusta, however, suggests that he may have earned the name by saving senators sentenced to death by Hadrian in his later years. Historia Augusta - Hadrian 24.4 Early life Childhood and family He was the son and only child of Titus Aurelius Fulvus, consul in 89 whose family came from Nemausus (modern Nîmes) and was born near Lanuvium and his mother was Arria Fadilla. Antoninus’ father and paternal grandfather died when he was young and he was raised by Gnaeus Arrius Antoninus, his maternal grandfather, a man of integrity and culture and a friend of Pliny the Younger. His mother married to Publius Julius Lupus (a man of consular rank), Suffect Consul in 98, and bore him a daughter called Julia Fadilla. Marriage and children As a private citizen between 110–115, he married Annia Galeria Faustina the Elder. They had a very happy marriage. She was the daughter of consul Marcus Annius Verus and Rupilia Faustina (a half-sister to Roman Empress Vibia Sabina). Faustina was a beautiful woman, renowned for her wisdom. She spent her whole life caring for the poor and assisting the most disadvantaged Romans. Faustina bore Antoninus four children, two sons and two daughters. They were: Marcus Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. Marcus Galerius Aurelius Antoninus (died before 138); his sepulchral inscription has been found at the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. His name appears on a Greek Imperial coin. Aurelia Fadilla (died in 135); she married Lucius Lamia Silvanus, consul 145. She appeared to have no children with her husband and her sepulchral inscription has been found in Italy. Annia Galeria Faustina Minor or Faustina the Younger (between 125-130-175), a future Roman Empress, married her maternal cousin, future Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius. When Faustina died in 141, he was in complete mourning and did the following in memory of his wife: Deified her as a goddess. Had a temple built in the Roman Forum in her name, with priestesses in the temple. Had various coins with her portrait struck in her honor. These coins were scripted ‘DIVAE FAUSTINA’ and were elaborately decorated. He created a charity which he founded and called it Puellae Faustinianae or Girls of Faustina, which assisted orphaned girls. Created a new alimenta (see Grain supply to the city of Rome). Favour with Hadrian Having filled with more than usual success the offices of quaestor and praetor, he obtained the consulship in 120; he was next appointed by the Emperor Hadrian as one of the four proconsuls to administer Italia, then greatly increased his reputation by his conduct as proconsul of Asia. He acquired much favor with the Emperor Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and successor on 25 February, 138, after the death of his first adopted son Lucius Aelius, on the condition that Antoninus would in turn adopt Marcus Annius Verus, the son of his wife's brother, and Lucius, son of Aelius Verus, who afterwards became the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus (colleague of Marcus Aurelius). Emperor Sestertius of Antoninus Pius, with the personification of Italia on reverse. Antoninus had been entrusted with the government of this province as proconsul. On his accession, Antoninus' name became "Imperator Caesar Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Augustus Pontifex Maximus". One of his first acts as Emperor was to persuade the Senate to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused; his efforts to persuade the Senate to grant these honours is the most likely reason given for his title of Pius (dutiful in affection; compare pietas). Two other reasons for this title are that he would support his aged father-in-law with his hand at Senate meetings, and that he had saved those men that Hadrian, during his period of ill-health, had condemned to death. He built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and financial rewards upon the teachers of rhetoric and philosophy. In marked contrast to his predecessors Trajan and Hadrian, Antoninus was not a military man. One modern scholar has written "It is almost certain not only that at no time in his life did he ever see, let alone command, a Roman army, but that, throughout the twenty-three years of his reign, he never went within five hundred miles of a legion". J. J. Wilkes, The Journal of Roman Studies, Volume LXXV 1985, ISSN 0075-4358, p. 242. His reign was the most peaceful in the entire history of the Principate; while there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in Mauretania, Iudaea, and amongst the Brigantes in Britannia, none of them are considered serious. The unrest in Britannia is believed to have led to the construction of the Antonine Wall from the Firth of Forth to the Firth of Clyde, although it was soon abandoned. He was virtually unique among emperors in that he dealt with these crises without leaving Italy once during his reign, but instead dealt with provincial matters of war and peace through their governors or through imperial letters to the cities such as Ephesus (of which some were publicly displayed). This style of government was highly praised by his contemporaries and by later generations. Another version of the standardised imperial portrait; from the house of Jason Magnus at Cyrene, North Africa (British Museum) Of the public transactions of this period we have scant information, but, to judge by what we possess, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful in comparison to those before and after his; the surviving evidence is not complete enough to determine whether we should interpret, with older scholars, that he wisely curtailed the activities of the Roman Empire to a careful minimum, or perhaps that he was uninterested in events away from Rome and Italy and his inaction contributed to the pressing troubles that faced not only Marcus Aurelius but also the emperors of the third century. German historian Ernst Kornemann has had it in his Römische Geschichte [2 vols., ed. by H. Bengtson, Stuttgart 1954] that the reign of Antoninus comprised "a succession of grossly wasted opportunities," given the upheavals that were to come. There is more to this argument, given that the Parthians in the East were themselves soon to make no small amount of mischief after Antoninus' passing. Kornemann's brief is that Antoninus might have waged preventive wars to head off these outsiders. Scholars place Antoninus Pius as the leading candidate for fulfilling the role as a friend of Rabbi Judah the Prince. According to the Talmud (Avodah Zarah 10a-b), Rabbi Judah was very wealthy and greatly revered in Rome. He had a close friendship with "Antoninus", possibly Antoninus Pius, A. Mischcon, Abodah Zara, p.10a Soncino, 1988. Mischcon cites various sources, "SJ Rappaport... is of opinion that our Antoninus is Antoninus Pius." Other opinions cited suggest "Antoninus" was Caracalla, Lucius Verus or Alexander Severus. who would consult Rabbi Judah on various worldly and spiritual matters. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina in the Roman forum (now the church of San Lorenzo in Miranda). The emperor and his Augusta were deified after their death by Marcus Aurelius. After the longest reign since Augustus (surpassing Tiberius by a couple of months), Antoninus died of fever at Lorium in Etruria, about twelve miles (19 km) from Rome, on 7 March 161, giving the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password—"aequanimitas" (equanimity). His body was placed in Hadrian's mausoleum, a column was dedicated to him on the Campus Martius, and the temple he had built in the Forum in 141 to his deified wife Faustina was rededicated to the deified Faustina and the deified Antoninus. Historiography The only account of his life handed down to us is that of the Augustan History, an unreliable and mostly fabricated work. Antoninus is unique among Roman emperors in that he has no other biographies. Historians have therefore turned to public records for what details we know. In later scholarship Antoninus in many ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as Edward Gibbon or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the ninth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica: References Bossart-Mueller, Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A. (1868) Lacour-Gayet, A. le Pieux et son Temps (1888) Bryant, The Reign of Antonine (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895) P. B. Watson, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (London, 1884), chap. ii. W. Hüttl, Antoninus Pius vol. I & II, Prag 1933 & 1936. Notes External links Historia Augusta, The Life of Antoninus Pius, Latin text with English translation Cassius Dio, Roman History Book LXX, English translation | Antoninus_Pius |@lemmatized titus:3 aurelius:10 fulvus:3 boionius:1 arrius:2 antoninus:31 september:1 march:2 generally:1 know:2 english:3 pius:11 roman:13 emperor:12 fourth:1 five:2 good:1 member:1 aurelii:1 possess:2 sobriquet:1 accession:2 throne:1 almost:2 certainly:1 earn:2 name:5 compel:1 senate:4 deify:4 adoptive:1 father:3 hadrian:12 historia:3 augusta:4 however:1 suggest:2 may:1 save:2 senator:1 sentence:1 death:4 late:4 year:3 early:1 life:6 childhood:1 family:2 son:7 child:4 consul:4 whose:1 come:3 nemausus:1 modern:2 nîmes:1 bear:1 near:1 lanuvium:1 mother:2 arria:1 fadilla:3 paternal:1 grandfather:2 die:6 young:3 raise:1 gnaeus:1 maternal:2 man:3 integrity:1 culture:1 friend:2 pliny:1 marry:4 publius:1 julius:1 lupus:1 consular:1 rank:1 suffect:1 bore:2 daughter:3 call:2 julia:1 marriage:2 private:1 citizen:1 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6,345 | Charles_I_of_England | Charles I, (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649), second son of James I, was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution on 30 January 1649. Charles famously engaged in a struggle for power with the Parliament of England. He was an advocate of the Divine Right of Kings, which was the belief that kings received their power from God. This Divine Right of Kings could not be taken away (unlike the similar Mandate of Heaven), even if he was stripped of his power. Many subjects of England feared that he was attempting to gain absolute power. Many of his actions, particularly the levying of taxes without Parliament's consent, caused widespread opposition. Religious conflicts permeated Charles' reign. He married a Catholic princess, Henrietta Maria of France, over the objections of Parliament and public opinion. He further allied himself with controversial religious figures, including the ecclesiastic Richard Montagu and William Laud, whom Charles appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. Many of Charles's subjects felt this brought the Church of England too close to Roman Catholicism. Charles's later attempts to force religious reforms upon Scotland led to the Bishops' Wars that weakened England's government and helped precipitate his downfall. His last years were marked by the English Civil War, in which he was opposed by the forces of the English and Scottish Parliaments, which challenged his attempts to augment his own power, and by Puritans, who were hostile to his religious policies and supposed Catholic sympathies. Charles was defeated in the First Civil War (1642–45), after which Parliament expected him to accept demands for a constitutional monarchy. He instead remained defiant by attempting to forge an alliance with Scotland and escaping to the Isle of Wight. This provoked a Second Civil War (1648–49) and a second defeat for Charles, who was subsequently captured, tried, convicted, and executed for high treason. The monarchy was then abolished and a republic called the Commonwealth of England, also referred to as the Cromwellian Interregnum, was declared. Charles's son, Charles II, became King after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660. In that same year, Charles I was canonized by the Church of England. Early life The second son of James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Charles was born in Dunfermline, Fife, on 19 November 1600, and, until the age of three, was unable to walk or talk. His paternal grandmother was Mary, Queen of Scots, who had been beheaded by order of Elizabeth I of England on 8 February 1587. When Elizabeth died in March 1603 and James VI of Scotland became King of England as James I, Charles was originally left in Scotland in the care of nurses and servants because it was feared that the journey would damage his fragile health. He did make the journey in July 1604 and was subsequently placed under the charge of Alletta (Hogenhove) Carey, the Dutch-born wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who taught him how to walk and talk and insisted that he wear boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles. When Charles was an adult he was 5 feet 3 inches (162 cm) tall. Charles as Duke of York and Albany, c. 1611 Charles was not as valued as his elder brother, Henry, Prince of Wales; Charles himself adored Henry and tried to emulate him. In 1603, Charles was created Duke of Albany, with the subsidiary titles Marquess of Ormond, Earl of Ross and Lord Ardmannoch the sixth, in Scotland. Two years later, Charles was created Duke of York, as was then, and remains, customary in the case of the Sovereign's second son. When his elder brother died of typhoid at the age of 18 in 1612, two weeks before Charles's 12th birthday, Charles became heir apparent (and the eldest living son of the Sovereign, thus automatically gaining several titles including Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay) and was subsequently created the Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester in November 1616. His sister Elizabeth married Frederick V, Elector Palatine in 1613 and moved to Heidelberg. The new Prince of Wales was greatly influenced by his father's favourite, George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham. The two of them travelled incognito to Spain in 1623 to reach agreement on the long-pending Spanish Match between Charles and Infanta Maria Anna of Spain, the daughter of King Philip III of Spain. The trip ended badly, however, as the Spanish demanded that Charles convert to Roman Catholicism and remain in Spain for a year after the wedding as a sort of hostage to ensure England's compliance with all the terms of the treaty. Charles was outraged, and upon their return in October, he and Buckingham demanded that King James declare war on Spain. With the encouragement of his Protestant advisers, James summoned Parliament so that he could request subsidies for a war effort. James also requested that Parliament sanction the marriage between the Prince of Wales and Princess Henrietta Maria of France, whom Charles met in Paris whilst en route to Spain. It was a good match since she was a sister of Louis XIII (their father, Henry IV, had died during her childhood). Parliament agreed to the marriage, but was extremely critical of the prior attempt to arrange a marital alliance with Spain. James was growing senile and as a result was finding it extremely difficult to control Parliament—the same problem would later haunt Charles during his reign. During the last year of James's reign, actual power was held not by him but by Charles and the Duke of Buckingham. Both Charles and James were advocates of the Divine Right of Kings, but James listened to the views of his subjects and favoured compromise and consensus. Charles I was shy and diffident, but also self-righteous, stubborn, opinionated, determined and confrontational. Charles believed he had no need to compromise or even explain his rules and that he was only answerable to God. He famously said: "Kings are not bound to give an account of their actions but to God alone," "I mean to show what I should speak in actions." Those actions were open to misinterpretation, and there were fears as early as 1626 that he was a potential tyrant. Early reign On 11 May 1625 Charles was married by proxy to Henrietta Maria of France, nine years his junior. In his first Parliament, which he opened in May, many members were opposed to his marriage to Henrietta Maria, a Roman Catholic, fearing that Charles would lift restrictions on Roman Catholics and undermine the official establishment of Protestantism. Although he stated to Parliament that he would not relax restrictions relating to recusants, he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with Louis XIII. The couple were married in person on 13 June 1625, in Canterbury. Charles was crowned on 2 February 1626 at Westminster Abbey, but without his wife at his side due to the controversy. Charles and Henrietta had seven children, with three sons and three daughters surviving infancy. Sir Anthony Van Dyck: Charles I painted in April 1634 Distrust of Charles's religious policies increased with his support of a controversial ecclesiastic, Richard Montagu. In a pamphlet, Montagu had argued against the teachings of John Calvin, thereby bringing himself into disrepute amongst the Puritans. After a Puritan member of the House of Commons, John Pym, attacked Montagu's pamphlet during debate, Montagu requested the king's aid in another pamphlet entitled "Appello Caesarem" (Latin "I appeal to Caesar", a reference to an appeal against Jewish persecution made by Saint Paul the Apostle). See Acts 25:10-12 (NRSV translation): "Paul said, 'I am appealing to the emperor's tribunal; this is where I should be tried. I have done no wrong to the Jews, as you very well know. 11Now if I am in the wrong and have committed something for which I deserve to die, I am not trying to escape death; but if there is nothing to their charges against me, no one can turn me over to them. I appeal to the emperor.' 12Then Festus, after he had conferred with his council, replied, 'You have appealed to the emperor; to the emperor you will go.'" Charles made the cleric one of his royal chaplains, increasing many Puritans' suspicions as to where Charles would lead the Church. Charles's primary concern during his early reign was foreign policy. The Thirty Years' War, originally confined to Bohemia, was spiralling out of control into a wider war between Protestants and Catholics in Europe. In 1620, Frederick V, Elector Palatine, the husband of Charles's sister Elizabeth, had lost his hereditary lands in the Palatinate to the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II. Having agreed to help his brother-in-law regain the Palatinate, Charles declared war on Spain, hoping to force the Catholic Spanish King Philip IV to intercede with the Emperor on Frederick's behalf. Parliament preferred an inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping that the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets could finance the war. Charles, however, preferred more aggressive (and more expensive) action on the Continent. Parliament only voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000; an insufficient sum for Charles. Moreover, the House of Commons limited its authorization for royal collection of tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties) to a period of one year, although previous sovereigns since 1414 had been granted the right for life. In this manner, Parliament could keep a check on expenditures by forcing Charles to seek the renewal of the grant each year. Charles's allies in the House of Lords, led by the Duke of Buckingham, refused to pass the bill. Although no Parliamentary authority for the levy of tonnage and poundage was obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties anyway. The war with Spain went badly, largely due to Buckingham's incompetent leadership. Despite Parliament's protests, however, Charles refused to dismiss him, dismissing Parliament instead. He then provoked further unrest by trying to raise money for the war through a "forced loan" -- a tax levied without Parliamentary consent. Although partially successful in collecting the tax, Charles let the money dribble away in yet another military fiasco led by Buckingham. Summoned again in 1628, Parliament adopted a Petition of Right on 26 May, calling upon the King to acknowledge that he could not levy taxes without Parliament's consent, impose martial law on civilians, imprison them without due process, or quarter troops in their homes. Charles assented to the petition, though he continued to claim the right to collect customs duties without authorization from Parliament. Then, on 23 August 1628, Buckingham was assassinated. Although the death of Buckingham effectively ended the war and eliminated his leadership as an issue, it did not end the conflicts between Charles and Parliament over taxation and religious matters. J.P. Kenyon, Stuart England, pp. 96-97, 101-05 (Harmondsworth, England, Penguin Books, 1978); Simon Schama, A History of England, Vol. II, pp. 69-74 (New York, Simon and Schuster, 2001). Personal rule "Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles", the "Triple Portrait". In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the Parliament, which had been prorogued in June 1628, with a moderate speech on the tonnage and poundage issue. Members of the House of Commons began to voice their opposition in light of the Rolle case. Rolle was an MP whose goods were confiscated when he failed to pay tonnage and poundage. Many MPs viewed the confiscation as a breach of the Petition of Right, arguing that the petition's freedom-from-arrest privilege extended to goods. When Charles ordered a parliamentary adjournment in March, members held the Speaker, Sir John Finch, down in his chair whilst three resolutions against Charles were read aloud. The last of these resolutions declared that anyone who paid tonnage or poundage not authorised by Parliament would "be reputed a betrayer of the liberties of England, and an enemy to the same". Though the resolution was not formally passed, many members declared their approval. That a number of MPs had to be detained in Parliament is relevant in understanding that there was no universal opposition towards the King. Nevertheless, the provocation was too much for Charles, who dissolved parliament the same day. Immediately, he made peace with France and Spain. The following eleven years, during which Charles ruled without a Parliament, are referred to as the Personal Rule or the Eleven Years' Tyranny. (Ruling without Parliament, though an exceptional exercise of the royal prerogative, was supported by precedent. By the middle of the 17th century, opinion shifted, and many held the Personal Rule to be an illegitimate exercise of arbitrary, absolute power.) Economic problems After making peace, Charles still had to acquire funds in order to maintain his treasury. To raise revenue without reconvening Parliament, Charles first resurrected an all-but-forgotten law called the "Distraint of Knighthood," promulgated in 1279, which required anyone who earned £40 or more each year to present himself at the King's coronation to join the royal army as a knight. Relying on this old statute, Charles fined all individuals who had failed to attend his coronation in 1626. Later, Charles reintroduced an obsolete feudal tax known as ship money, which proved even more unpopular. Under statutes of Edward I and Edward III, collection of ship money had been authorized only during wars. Charles, however, sought to collect the tax during peacetime. Although the first writ levying ship money, issued in 1634, did not provoke much immediate opposition, the second and third writs, issued in 1635 and 1636, aroused strong opposition, as it was clear that Charles' intention was to revoke the ancient prohibition on collecting ship money during peacetime. Many attempted to resist payment, but the royal courts declared that the tax was within the King's prerogative. The collection was a major concern to the ruling class. Personal Rule ended after the attempted enforcement of the Anglican and increasingly Arminian styled prayer book under Laud that precipitated a rebellion in Scotland in 1640. Murphy, p.211-235 Religious conflicts Charles wished to move the Church of England away from Calvinism in a more traditional and sacramental direction. This goal was shared by his main political adviser, Archbishop William Laud. Laud was appointed by Charles as the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1633, and started a series of unpopular reforms in an attempt to impose order and authority on the church. Laud attempted to ensure religious uniformity by dismissing non-conformist clergymen and closing Puritan organizations. This was actively hostile to the Reformed tendencies of many of his king's English and Scottish subjects. His policy was obnoxious to Calvinist theology, and insisted that the Church of England's liturgy be celebrated using the form prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer. Laud was also an advocate of Arminian theology, a view whose emphasis on the ability to reject salvation was viewed as heretical and virtually "Catholic" by strict Calvinists. William Laud shared Charles's views on Calvinism To punish those who refused to accept his reforms, Laud used the two most feared and most arbitrary courts in the land, the Court of High Commission and the Court of Star Chamber. The former could compel individuals to provide self-incriminating testimony, whilst the latter could inflict any punishment whatsoever (including torture), with the sole exception of death. The lawlessness of the Court of Star Chamber under Charles far exceeded that under any of his predecessors. Under Charles's reign, defendants were regularly hauled before the Court without indictment, due process of the law, or right to confront witnesses, and their testimonies were routinely extracted by the Court through torture. The first years of the Personal Rule were marked by peace in England, to some extent due to tighter central control. Several individuals opposed Charles's taxes and Laud's policies. For example, in 1634, the ship Griffin left for America carrying religious dissidents, such as the Puritan minister Anne Hutchinson. However, the overall trend of the early Personal Rule period is one of peace. When, however, Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. The King ordered the use of a new Prayer Book modelled on the English Book of Common Prayer, which, although supported by the Scottish Bishops, was resisted by many Presbyterian Scots, who saw the new Prayer Book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland. When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland abolished Episcopalian government (that is, governance of the Church by bishops) in 1638, replacing it with Presbyterian government (that is, governance by elders and deacons), Charles sought to put down what he saw as a rebellion against his authority. In 1639, when the First Bishops' War broke out, Charles sought to collect taxes from his subjects, who refused to yield any further. Charles's war ended in a humiliating truce in June of the same year. In the Pacification of Berwick, Charles agreed to grant his Scottish subjects civil and ecclesiastical freedoms. Charles's military failure in the First Bishops' War in turn caused a financial and military crisis for Charles, which caused the end of Personal Rule. Due to his financial weakness, Charles was forced to call Parliament into session by 1640 in an attempt to raise funds. While the ruling class's grievances with the changes to government and finance during the Personal Rule period were a contributing factor in the Scottish Rebellion, the key issue of religion was the main reason that forced Charles to confront the ruling class in Parliament for the first time in eleven years. In essence, it was Charles's and Laud's confrontational religious modifications that ended what the Whig historians refer to as "The Eleven Years of Tyranny". "Short" and "Long" Parliaments Disputes regarding the interpretation of the peace treaty between Charles and the Church of Scotland led to further conflict. To subdue the Scots, Charles needed more money; therefore, he took the fateful step of recalling Parliament in April 1640. Although Charles offered to repeal ship money, and the House of Commons agreed to allow Charles to raise the funds for war, an impasse was reached when Parliament demanded the discussion of various abuses of power during the Personal Rule. As both sides refused to give ground on this matter, Parliament was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled; thus, the Parliament became known as the "Short Parliament." Portrait of Charles I with Seignior de St Antoine In the meantime, Charles attempted to defeat the Scots, but failed miserably. The humiliating Treaty of Ripon, signed after the end of the Second Bishops' War in October 1640, required the King to pay the expenses of the Scottish army he had just fought. Charles took the unusual step of summoning the magnum concilium, the ancient council of all the Peers of the Realm, who were considered the King's hereditary counsellors. The magnum concilium had not been summoned for centuries. On the advice of the peers, Charles summoned another Parliament, which, in contrast with its predecessor, became known as the Long Parliament. The Long Parliament assembled in November 1640 under the leadership of John Pym, and proved just as difficult for Charles as the Short Parliament. Although the members of the House of Commons thought of themselves as conservatives defending the King, Church and Parliamentary government against innovations in religion and the tyranny of Charles's advisors, Charles viewed many of them as dangerous rebels trying to undermine his rule. To prevent the King from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the Triennial Act, to which the Royal Assent was granted in February 1641. The Act required that Parliament was to be summoned at least once every three years, and that when the King failed to issue proper summons, the members could assemble on their own. In May, he assented to an even more far-reaching Act, which provided that Parliament could not be dissolved without its own consent. Charles was forced into one concession after another. He agreed to bills of attainder authorising the executions of Thomas Wentworth and William Laud. Ship money, fines in destraint of knighthood and forced loans were declared unlawful, and the hated Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission were abolished. Although he made several important concessions, Charles improved his own military position by securing the favour of the Scots. He finally agreed to the official establishment of Presbyterianism; in return, he was able to enlist considerable anti-parliamentary support. Henrietta Maria (c. 1633) by Sir Anthony van Dyck In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the Grand Remonstrance, a long list of grievances against actions by Charles's ministers that were asserted to be abuses of royal power Charles had committed since the beginning of his reign. The tension was heightened when the Irish rebelled against Protestant English rule and rumours of Charles's complicity reached Parliament. An army was required to put down the rebellion but many members of the House of Commons feared that Charles might later use it against Parliament itself. The Militia Bill was intended to wrest control of the army from the King, but Charles refused to agree to it. However, Parliament decreed The Protestation as an attempt to lessen the conflict. When rumours reached Charles that Parliament intended to impeach his Catholic Queen, Henrietta Maria, he took drastic action. It was possibly Henrietta who persuaded him to arrest the five members of the House of Commons who were perceived to be the most troublesome on charges of high treason. Charles intended to carry out the arrests personally but news of the warrant reached Parliament ahead of him and the wanted men; Pym, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, William Strode and Sir Arthur Haselrig had already slipped away by the time he arrived. Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed force on 4 January 1642, but found that his opponents had already escaped. Having displaced the Speaker, William Lenthall from his chair, the King asked him where the MPs had fled. Lenthall famously replied, "May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here." No monarch has entered the Commons chamber since. The botched arrest attempt was politically disastrous for Charles. It caused acute embarrassment for the monarch and essentially triggered the total breakdown of government in England. Afterwards, Charles could no longer feel safe in London and he began travelling north to raise an army against Parliament; the Queen, at the same time, went abroad to raise money to pay for it. English Civil War The English Civil War had not yet started, but both sides began to arm. Following futile negotiations, Charles raised the royal standard (an anachronistic medieval gesture) in Nottingham on 22 August 1642. He then set up his court at Oxford, when his government controlled roughly the Midlands, Wales, the West Country and north of England. Parliament remained in control of London and the south-east as well as East Anglia. Charles raised an army using the archaic method of the Commission of Array. The Civil War started on 26 October 1642 with the inconclusive Battle of Edgehill and continued indecisively through 1643 and 1644, until the Battle of Naseby tipped the military balance decisively in favour of Parliament. There followed a great number of defeats for the Royalists, and then the Siege of Oxford, from which Charles escaped in April 1646. He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army at Newark, and was taken to nearby Southwell while his "hosts" decided what to do with him. The Presbyterians finally arrived at an agreement with Parliament and delivered Charles to them in 1647. He was imprisoned at Holdenby House in Northamptonshire, until cornet George Joyce took him by force to Newmarket in the name of the New Model Army. At this time mutual suspicion had developed between the New Model Army and Parliament, and Charles was eager to exploit it. He was then transferred first to Oatlands and then to Hampton Court, where more involved but fruitless negotiations took place. He was persuaded that it would be in his best interests to escape — perhaps abroad, perhaps to France, or perhaps to the custody of Colonel Robert Hammond, Parliamentary Governor of the Isle of Wight. He decided on the last course, believing Hammond to be sympathetic, and fled on 11 November. Hammond, however, was opposed to Charles, whom he confined in Carisbrooke Castle. From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties, eventually coming to terms with the Scottish Presbyterians that he would allow the establishment of Presbyterianism in England as well as Scotland for a trial period. The Royalists rose in July 1648 igniting the Second Civil War, and as agreed with Charles the Scots invaded England. Most of the uprisings in England were put down by forces loyal to Parliament after little more than skirmishes, but uprisings in Kent, Essex and Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales and the Scottish invasion involved the fighting of pitched battles and prolonged sieges. But with the defeat of the Scots at the Battle of Preston, the Royalists lost any chance of winning the war. Trial A plate depicting the Trial of Charles I on January 4, 1649. Charles was moved to Hurst Castle at the end of 1648, and thereafter to Windsor Castle. In January 1649, in response to Charles's defiance of Parliament even after defeat, and his encouraging the second Civil War while in captivity, the House of Commons passed an Act of Parliament creating a court for Charles's trial. After the first Civil War, the parliamentarians accepted the premise that the King, although wrong, had been able to justify his fight, and that he would still be entitled to limited powers as King under a new constitutional settlement. It was now felt that by provoking the second Civil War even while defeated and in captivity, Charles showed himself incorrigible, dishonourable, and responsible for unjustifiable bloodshed. The idea of trying a king was a novel one; previous monarchs had been deposed, but had never been brought to trial as monarchs. The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 Commissioners but only about half of that number ever sat in judgement (all firm Parliamentarians); the prosecution was led by Solicitor General John Cooke. His trial on charges of high treason and "other high crimes" began on 20 January 1649, but Charles refused to enter a plea, claiming that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch. He believed that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God and by the traditions and laws of England when he was crowned and anointed, and that the power wielded by those trying him was simply that which grew out of a barrel of gunpowder. In fact, when urged to enter a plea, he stated his objection with the words: "I would know by what power I am called hither, by what lawful authority...?" The court, by contrast, proposed an interpretation of the law that legitimized the trial, which was founded on "...the fundamental proposition that the King of England was not a person, but an office whose every occupant was entrusted with a limited power to govern ‘by and according to the laws of the land and not otherwise’. Geoffrey Robertson, The Tyrannicide Brief (Chatto & Windus, 2005) The trial began with a moment of high drama. After the proceedings were declared open, Solicitor General John Cooke rose to announce the indictment; standing immediately to the right of the King, he began to speak, but he had only uttered a few words when Charles attempted to stop him by tapping him sharply on the shoulder with his cane and ordering him to "Hold". Cooke ignored this and continued, so Charles poked him a second time and rose to speak; despite this, Cooke continued his speech. At this point Charles, incensed at being thus ignored, struck Cooke across the shoulder so forcefully that the ornate silver tip of the cane broke off, rolled down Cooke's gown and clattered onto the floor between them. Charles then ordered Cooke to pick it up, but Cooke again ignored him, and after a long pause, Charles stooped to retrieve it. Geoffrey Robertson, The Tyrannicide Brief (Chatto & Windus, 2005) Over a period of a week, when Charles was asked to plead three times, he refused. It was then normal practice to take a refusal to plead as pro confesso: an admission of guilt, which meant that the prosecution could not call witnesses to its case. However, the trial did hear witnesses. Fifty-nine of the Commissioners signed Charles's death warrant, possibly at the Red Lion Inn in Stathern, Leicestershire on 29 January 1649. After the ruling, he was led from St. James's Palace, where he was confined, to the Palace of Whitehall, where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the Banqueting House. Execution This contemporary German print depicts Charles I's decapitation. Charles was beheaded on Tuesday 30 January 1649. At the execution it is reputed that he wore two cotton shirts as to prevent the cold weather causing any noticeable shivers that the crowd could have mistaken for fear or weakness. He put his head on the block after saying a prayer and signalled the executioner when he was ready; he was then beheaded with one clean stroke. His last words were, "I shall go from a corruptible to an incorruptible Crown, where no disturbance can be." Philip Henry records that moments after the execution, a moan was heard from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in his blood, thus starting the cult of the Martyr King. However, no other eyewitness source, including Samuel Pepys, records this. Henry's account was written during the Restoration, some 12 years after the event though Henry was 19 when the King was executed and he and his family were Royalist propaganda writers. The executioner was masked, and there is some debate over his identity. It is known that the Commissioners approached Richard Brandon, the common Hangman of London, but that he refused, and contemporary sources do not generally identify him as the King's headsman. Ellis's Historical Inquiries, however, names him as the executioner, contending that he stated so before dying. It is possible he relented and agreed to undertake the commission, but there are others who have been identified. An Irishman named Gunning is widely believed to have beheaded Charles, and a plaque naming him as the executioner is on show in the Kings Head pub in Galway, Ireland. William Hewlett was convicted of regicide after the Restoration. In 1661, two people identified as "Dayborne and Bickerstaffe" were arrested but then discharged. Henry Walker, a revolutionary journalist, or his brother William, were suspected but never charged. Various local legends around England name local worthies. An examination performed in 1813 at Windsor suggests that the execution was done by an experienced headsman. It was common practice for the head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words "Behold the head of a traitor!" Although Charles's head was exhibited, the words were not used. In an unprecedented gesture, one of the revolutionary leaders, Oliver Cromwell, allowed the King's head to be sewn back onto his body so the family could pay its respects. Charles was buried in private on the night of 7 February 1649, inside the Henry VIII vault in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. The royal retainers Sir Thomas Herbert, Capt. Anthony Mildmay, Sir Henry Firebrace, William Levett Esq. and Abraham Dowcett (sometimes spelled Dowsett) conveyed the King's body to Windsor. The King's son, King Charles II, later planned an elaborate royal mausoleum, but it was never built. Ten days after Charles's execution, a memoir purporting to be from Charles's hand appeared for sale. This book, the Eikon Basilike (Greek: the "Royal Portrait"), contained an apologia for royal policies, and it proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. William Levett, Charles's groom of the bedchamber, who accompanied Charles on the day of his execution, swore that he had personally witnessed the King writing the Eikon Basilike. John Cooke published the speech he would have delivered if Charles had entered a plea, while Parliament commissioned John Milton to write a rejoinder, the Eikonoklastes ("The Iconoclast"), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book. Various prodigies were recorded in the contemporary popular press in relation to the execution - a beached whale at Dover died within an hour of the King; a falling star appeared that night over Whitehall; a man who had said that the King deserved to die had his eyes pecked out by crows. Legacy With the monarchy overthrown, power was assumed by a Council of State, which included Lord Fairfax, then Lord General of the Parliamentary Army, and Oliver Cromwell. The Long Parliament (known by then as the Rump Parliament) which had been called by Charles I in 1640 continued to exist (with varying influence) until Cromwell forcibly disbanded it completely in 1653. Cromwell then became Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland; a monarch in all but name: he was even "invested" on the royal coronation chair. Upon his death in 1658, Cromwell was briefly succeeded by his son, Richard Cromwell. Richard Cromwell was an ineffective ruler, and the Long Parliament was reinstated in 1659. The Long Parliament dissolved itself in 1660, and the first elections in twenty years led to the election of a Convention Parliament which restored Charles I's eldest son to the monarchy as Charles II. The Colony of Carolina in North America was named for Charles I, as was the major city of Charleston. Carolina later separated into North Carolina and South Carolina, which eventually declared independence from Great Britain during the formation of the United States. To the north in the Virginia Colony, Cape Charles, the Charles River, Charles River Shire, and Charles City Shire were named for him. Charles personally named the Charles River after himself. Charles City Shire survives almost 400 years later as Charles City County, Virginia. The Virginia Colony is now the Commonwealth of Virginia (one of the four U.S. states that are called commonwealths), and retains its official nickname of "The Old Dominion" bestowed by Charles II because it had remained loyal to Charles I during the English Civil War. English furniture produced during the reign of Charles I is distinctive and is commonly characterised as Charles I period. Sainthood During the reign of his son Charles II Charles was venerated a Saint by the Anglican Church. He is considered a martyr who died for the preservation of Apostolic Succession in the Anglican Church. There are many societies dedicated to his devotion. He is the only person ever venerated by the Anglican Church http://philorthodox.blogspot.com/2009/01/saint-charles-of-england-king-and.html Assessments Archbishop William Laud described Charles as "A mild and gracious prince who knew not how to be, or how to be made, great." Archbishop Laud, quoted by his chaplain Peter Heylin in Cyprianus Angelicus, 1688 Ralph Dutton says - "In spite of his intelligence and cultivation, Charles was curiously inept in his contacts with human beings. Socially, he was tactless and diffident, and his manner was not helped by his stutter and thick Scottish accent, while in public he was seldom able to make a happy impression." Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles 19 November 1600 – 27 March 1625: Prince (or Lord) Charles 23 December 1603 – 27 March 1625: The Duke of Albany 6 January 1605 – 27 March 1625: The Duke of York 6 November 1612 – 27 March 1625: The Duke of Cornwall 4 November 1616 – 27 March 1625: The Prince of Wales 27 March 1625 – 30 January 1649: His Majesty The King During his time as heir-apparent, Charles held the titles of Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester, Duke of Cornwall, Duke of Rothesay, Duke of York, Duke of Albany, Marquess of Ormond, Earl of Carrick, Earl of Ross, Baron Renfrew, Lord Ardmannoch, Lord of the Isles, Prince and Great Steward of Scotland. The official style of Charles I was "Charles, by the Grace of God, King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, etc." (The claim to France was only nominal, and was asserted by every English King from Edward III to George III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.) The authors of his death warrant, however, did not wish to use the religious portions of his title. It only referred to him as "Charles Stuart, King of England". Honours Memorial to Charles I at Carisbrooke Castle, Isle of Wight KG: Knight of the Garter, 24 April 1611 – 27 March 1625 Arms As Duke of York, Charles bore the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of three points, each bearing three torteaux gules. As Prince of Wales he bore the arms of the kingdom, differenced by a label argent of three points. Whilst he was King, Charles I's arms were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). Ancestry Of Charles's 14 great-great-grandparents, 5 were German, 4 Scottish, 1 English, 2 French, 1 Danish and 1 Polish, giving him a thoroughly cosmopolitan background. </center> Marriage and issue Painting of Charles I's children. The future Charles II is depicted at centre, stroking the dog Charles was father to a total of seven legitimate children, two of whom would eventually succeed him as king. His wife also had two stillbirths. Charles is also believed to have had a daughter, prior to his marriage with Henrietta Maria. Her name was Joanna Brydges, born 1619-20, the daughter of a Miss Brydges ("a member of a younger branch of the ancient Kentish family of that name"), possibly from the line of Brydges of Chandos and Sudeley. Joanna Brydges who was provided for by the estate of Mandinam, Carmarthenshire, was brought up in secrecy at Glamorgan, Wales. She went on to become second wife to Bishop Jeremy Taylor, author of Holy Living and Holy Dying and chaplain to both Archbishop Laud and Charles I. The Bishop and his wife Joanna Brydges left for Ireland, where Jeremy Taylor became Bishop of Down, Connor and Dromore in 1660. Joanna Brydges and Jeremy Taylor had several children, including two daughters, Joanna Taylor (Harrison) and Mary Taylor (Marsh). NameBirthDeathNotesCharles II, King of England, Scotland and Ireland29 May 16306 February 1685Married Catherine of Braganza (1638 - 1705) in 1663. No legitimate issue. Charles II is believed to have fathered such illegitimate children as James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, who later rose against James VII and II.Mary, Princess Royal4 November 163124 December 1660Married William II, Prince of Orange (1626 - 1650) in 1641. She had one child: William III of EnglandJames VII and II, King of England, Scotland and Ireland14 October 163316 September 1701Married (1) Anne Hyde (1637 - 1671) in 1659. Had issue including Mary II of England and Anne of England;Married (2) Mary of Modena (1658 - 1718) in 1673. Had issue.Elizabeth, Princess of England29 December 16358 September 1650No issue.Anne, Princess of England17 March 16378 December 1640Died young.Henry, Duke of Gloucester8 July 164018 September 1660 No issue.Henrietta Anne, Princess of England16 June 164430 June 1670Married Philip I, Duke of Orléans (1640 - 1701) in 1661. Had legitimate issue. Among her descendants were the kings of Sardinia and Italy. See also List of regicides of Charles I Society of King Charles the Martyr Cultural depictions of Charles I of England Whigg References Further reading pp. 211-235 External links Chronology Charles I World History Database The Royal Household. (2004). "Charles I." Official Web Site of the British Monarchy The Parliamentary Archives holds the original of Charles I's death warrant The Society of King Charles the Martyr The Society of King Charles the Martyr (United States) Biography of King Charles I, 1600-1649 Books about Charles I available online History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England: Begun in the Year 1641 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon (1717): Volume I, Part 1, Volume I, Part 2, Volume II, Part 1, Volume II, Part 2, Volume III, Part 1, Volume III, Part 2 The History of Great Britain Under the House of Stuart by David Hume (1759): Volume I, Volume II An Historical and Critical Account of the Lives and Writings of James I and Charles I, and the Lives of Oliver Cromwell and Charles II by William Harris (1814): Volume I, Volume II, Volume III, Volume IV, Volume V The Trials of Charles the First, and of Some Regicides (published by John Murray, 1820) The High Court of Justice; Comprising Memoirs of the Principal Persons Who Sat in Judgment on King Charles the First, by James Caulfield (1820) A History of the British Empire, From the Accession of Charles I to the Restoration by George Brodie (1822): Volume I, Volume II, Volume III, Volume IV Memoirs of the Court of King Charles the First by Lucy Aikin (1833): Volume I, Volume II The Great Civil War of Charles I and the Parliament by Richard Cattermole, with illustrations by George Cattermole (1845) History of Charles the First and the English Revolution, from the Accession of Charles the First to His Execution by François Guizot, trans. Sir Andrew Scoble (1854): Volume I, Volume II Charles I in 1646: Letters to Queen Henrietta Maria, ed. John Bruce (1856) Arrest of the Five Members by Charles the First: A Chapter of English History Rewritten by John Forster (1860) The Spanish Match; or, Charles Stuart at Madrid by William Harrison Ainsworth (1865): Volume I, Volume II, Volume III Notes of the Treaty Carried on at Ripon between Charles I and the Covenanters of Scotland by John Borough, ed. John Bruce (1869) Charles I by Jacob Abbott (1876, 1904) Eikon Basilike, ed. Catherine Mary Phillimore (1879) The Fall of the Monarchy of Charles I, 1637-1649 by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1882): Volume I (1637-1640), Volume II (1640-1642) A Secret Negotiation with Charles the First, 1643-1644, ed. Bertha Meriton Gardiner (1883) History of England from the Accession of James I to the Outbreak of the Civil War, 1603-1642 by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1883-1891): Volume I (1603-1607), Volume II (1607-1616), Volume III (1616-1621), Volume IV (1621-1623), Volume V (1623-1625), Volume VI (1625-1629), Volume VII (1629-1635), Volume VIII (1635-1639), Volume IX (1639-1641), Volume X (1641-1642) History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649 by Samuel Rawson Gardiner (1886-1901): Volume I (1642-1644), Volume II (1644-1647), Volume III (1645-1647), Volume IV (1647-1649) The Picture Gallery of Charles I by Sir Claude Phillips (1896) Historical Sketches of Notable Persons and Events in the Reigns of James I and Charles I by Thomas Carlyle (1898) A History of the George Worn on the Scaffold by Charles I by Sir Ralph Payne-Gallwey ''King Charles I: A Study by Walter Phelps Dodge (1912) Commons Debates for 1629, ed. 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6,346 | Oslo | (formerly Christiania) is the capital and largest city in Norway. Oslo is the cultural, scientific, economic and governmental centre of Norway. Oslo is an important centre of maritime knowledge in Europe and is home to approximately 980 companies and 8,500 employees within the maritime sector, among which are some of the world's largest shipping companies, shipbrokers, and insurance brokers. The city of Oslo has a population of around 575,000 (2009) while the metropolitan area of Oslo is home to around 1.4 million. It is the fastest-growing Scandinavian capital. Urban region A map of the urban areas of Oslo in 2005. The large grey area in the middle indicates Oslo's city centre. The population of the municipality of Oslo is 575,475 (as of 1 January 2009). The urban area extends beyond the boundaries of the municipality into the surrounding county of Akershus, (muncipallities of Bærum, Asker, Røyken, Lørenskog, Skedsmo, Gjerdrum, Sørum, Oppegård) its agglomeration total 856,915 inhabitants. The metropolitan area of Oslo, also referred to as the Greater Oslo Region (), has a land area of with a population of 1,283,533 as of 2004. The Inner Oslo Fjord Region, or the Capital Region made up by the 5 counties of Oslo, Akershus, Buskerud, Vestfold (west bank of the Oslo fjord) and Østfold (east bank) has a population of 1.85 million people. Furthermore about 50% of the population of Norway lives within a radius of of downtown Oslo. Oslo proper has a current annual growth exceeding 15,000; the urban zone more than 30.000, which makes it one of the fastest growing cities in Europe. The city centre is situated at the end of the Oslofjord from where the city sprawls out in three distinct "corridors" from its centre; inland north-eastwards and southwards lining both sides of the fjord giving the city area more or less the shape of a large "Y" when seen from the north. To the north and east wide forested hills (Marka) rise above the city giving the location the shape of a giant amphitheatre. The urban municipality (bykommune) of Oslo and county (fylke) is the same entity, making Oslo the only city in Norway where two administrative levels are integrated. Of Oslo's total area, is built-up and is agricultural. The open areas within the built-up zone amount to . The city of Oslo was established as a municipality on 3 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). It was separated from the county of Akershus to become a county of its own in 1842. The rural municipality of Aker was merged with Oslo on 1 January 1948 (and simultaneously transferred from Akershus county to Oslo county). Furthermore, Oslo shares several important functions with Akershus county. Oslo's share of the national GDP is 17%; the metropolitan area's share is 25%. Oslo is one of the most expensive cities in the world. General information Name The definition of the name Oslo has been the subject of much debate. It is certainly derived from Old Norse and was in all probability the name of a large farm at the site of the first settlements in Bjørvika. During the Middle Ages the name was initially spelled "Áslo" and later "Óslo". The earlier spelling suggests that the first component ás refers either to the Ekeberg ridge southeast of the town ("ås" in modern Norwegian), or to the Norse homonym meaning "god" or "divinity". The most likely interpretations would therefore be "the meadow beneath the ridge" or "the meadow of the gods". Both are equally plausible. The early settlements took place where the river Lo — today known as Alnaelva — formerly ran out into Bjørvika. With the word "Os" being an Old Norse term for "river mouth", this is also a plausible origin of the name. A fire in 1624 destroyed much of the medieval city, and when the city was rebuilt it was moved westwards in order to be nearer the Akershus Fortress. King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway renamed the reborn city Christiania. According to an official spelling reform (that changed ch to k) the form was changed to Kristiania in 1877. (The same year were the city names Christiansand and Christiansund changed to Kristiansand and Kristiansund.) The new form was used by the Norwegian State, but not by the municipality itself. The city continued to use the old form until 1897, then they also changed to Kristiania (without any formal or official decision). The area where the city centre had been prior to the fire was still known as Oslo, however. This original name was restored by a law of 11 July, 1924, effective 1 January, 1925, a decision which caused much debate in its time. "When I was young, the capital of Norway was not called Oslo. It was called Christiania. But somewhere along the line, the Norwegians decided to do away with that pretty name and call it Oslo instead." Roald Dahl, Boy When the city in general now took up the name of Oslo again, the eastern district of the city that had preserved the old name became known simply as Gamlebyen (Old Town). > The city was once referred to as Tigerstaden (the City of Tigers) by the author Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson around 1870, due to his perception of the city as a cold and dangerous place. This name has over the years achieved an almost official status, to the extent that the 1000-year anniversary was celebrated by a row of tiger sculptures around city hall. The prevalence of homeless and other beggars in more recent times led to the slight rewording of the nickname into Tiggerstaden (the City of Beggars), and a harsh picture of the city was drawn by Knut Hamsun in his novel Sult (Hunger) from 1890 (cinematised in 1966 by Henning Carlsen). On the contrary, Oslo also often is called "Byen med det store hjertet" (The open-hearted city) - because of its including attitude to immigrants, both national and international. City seal The Royal Palace. Oslo is the only city in Norway, besides Bergen, that does not use a formal coat-of-arms, but uses a city seal instead. The seal of Oslo shows the city's patron saint, St. Hallvard. The seal shows St. Hallvard with his attributes, the millstone and arrows, with a dead woman on his feet. He is seated on a throne with lion decorations, which at the time was also commonly used by the Norwegian Kings. Seating him on such a throne made him equal to the kings. The oldest known seal of Oslo showed the same composition as today's seal. The seal was probably made around 1300 and has been in use for nearly three centuries. After the Protestant Reformation, the city continued the use of St. Hallvard on its seal. The second seal of Oslo dates from around 1590. It shows the same basic design, but the saint holds his attributes in the opposite hands. Also the stars and some other smaller details were lost. This seal was used until around 1660. At the time the church of St. Hallvard had become a ruin and the legend was no longer well known. The third seal of Oslo, made in 1659, therefore still showed the basic design, but the saint was transformed into a woman figure. She still held the arrows and had a dead knight (with harness and helmet) near her feet. The millstone had become thinner and looked more like a ring. This image can still be seen on an iron plate dating from 1770. These plates became very popular in Denmark in the 18th century and the figure was presented as Queen Margaret I, who unified the three Kingdoms of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, which are represented by the ring (union) and the three arrows. The dead knight was to symbolise her opponent, Albrecht of Mecklenburg. During the 18th and early 19th century, the image kept changing. The ring has been shown as a snake, the throne was replaced by a lion, the knight was not always present and there were similar variations. In 1854, A. T. Kaltenborn wrote about the Norwegian municipal arms and also was shown a medieval seal of Oslo. He recognised the St. Hallvard and the legend. He managed to persuade the city to have a new seal made, based on the old medieval composition. Finally a new design was made by the German E. Doepler in 1892. He changed only one item on the old seal: in his design the woman was clothed instead of naked as on the seal. His composition was also used on a proper shield. It was made in 1899 by Reidar Haavin. In 1924, the present design was made, again with the naked woman. History Christiania in July of 1814, as seen from Ekeberg. According to the Norse sagas, Oslo was founded around 1049 by King Harald Hardråde. Recent archaeological research has uncovered Christian burials from before 1000, evidence of a preceding urban settlement. This called for the celebration of Oslo's millennium in 2000. It has been regarded as the capital city since the reign of Håkon V (1299-1319), the first king to reside permanently in the city. He also started the construction of the Akershus Fortress. A century later Norway was the weaker part in a personal union with Denmark, and Oslo's role was reduced to that of provincial administrative centre, with the monarchs residing in Copenhagen. The fact that the University of Oslo was founded as late as 1811 had an adverse effect on the development of the nation. The Akershus Fortress is a historic castle in Oslo. Oslo was destroyed several times by fire, and after the fourteenth calamity, in 1624, King Christian IV of Denmark (and Norway) ordered it rebuilt at a new site across the bay, near Akershus Fortress and given the name Christiania. But long before this, Christiania had started to establish its stature as a centre of commerce and culture in Norway. The part of the city built from 1624 is now often called Kvadraturen because of its octagonal layout. The last plague outbreak ravaged Oslo in 1654. In 1814 Christiania once more became a real capital when the union with Denmark was dissolved. Many landmarks were built in the 19th century, including the Royal Palace (1825-1848); Stortinget (the Parliament) (1861-1866), the University, Nationaltheatret and the Stock Exchange. Among the world-famous artists who lived here during this period were Henrik Ibsen and Knut Hamsun (the latter was awarded the Nobel Prize for literature). In 1850, Christiania also overtook Bergen and became the most populous city in the country. In 1878 the city was renamed to Kristiania. The original name of Oslo was restored in 1925. Christiania Torv is a square, which contains some of Oslo's most historic buildings. Oslo's centrality in the political, cultural and economical life of Norway continues to be a source of considerable controversy and friction. Numerous attempts at decentralization have not appreciably changed this during the last century. While continuing to be the main cause of the depopulation of the Norwegian countryside, any form of development is almost always opposed by neighbours, and — as a consequence — the growth of a modern urban landscape has all but stopped. Specifically, the construction of highrises in the city centre has been met with skepticism. It is projected, however, that the city will need some 20,000 additional apartments before 2020, forcing the difficult decision of whether to build tall or the equally unpopular option of sprawling out. A marked reluctance to encourage the growth of the city for fear of causing further depletion of the traditional farming and fishing communities has led to several successive bursts of construction in both infrastructure and building mass, as the authorities kept waiting in vain for the stream of people to diminish. Neoclassical city apartments built in the 1850s to 1900s dotted with remnants of Christian IV's renaissance grid dominate the architecture around the city centre, except where slums were demolished in the 1960s to construct modernist concrete and glass low-rises, now generally regarded as embarrassing eyesores. The variety in Oslo's architectural cityscape does however provide for some striking and often hauntingly beautiful sights. While most of the forests and lakes surrounding Oslo are in private hands, there is great public support for not developing those areas. Parts of Oslo suffer from congestion, yet it is one of the few European capitals where people live with the wilderness literally in their back yard, or with access to a suburban train line that allows the city's many hikers and cross-country skiers to simply step off the train and start walking or skiing. Geography Oslo occupies an arc of land at the northernmost end of the Oslofjord. The fjord, which is nearly bisected by the Nesodden peninsula opposite Oslo, lies to the south; in all other directions Oslo is surrounded by green hills and mountains. There are 40 islands within the city limits, the largest being Malmøya (), and scores more around the Oslofjord. Oslo has 343 lakes, the largest being Maridalsvannet (). This is also a main source of drinking water for large parts of Oslo. Although Eastern Norway has a number of mighty rivers, none of these flows into the ocean at Oslo. Instead Oslo has two smaller rivers: Akerselva (draining Maridalsvannet) and Alna (Oslo's longest river). Akerselva traditionally separates Oslo's East and West end, and flows into the fjord in Bjørvika. River Alna flows through Groruddalen, Oslo's major suburb and industrial area. The highest point is Kirkeberget, at . Although the city's population is not among the highest of the European capitals, it occupies an unusually large land area, of which two thirds are protected areas of forests, hills and lakes. Its boundaries encompass many parks and open areas, giving it an airy and often very green appearance. It is not uncommon to encounter wild moose in relatively urban areas of Oslo, especially during wintertime. Climate Oslo has a humid continental climate (Dfb according to the Köppen climate classification system). Because of the city's northern latitude, daylight varies greatly from more than 18 hours in midsummer to around 6 hours in midwinter. Despite its northernly location, the climate is relatively mild throughout the year because of the Gulf Stream. Oslo has pleasantly mild to warm summers with average high temperatures of 20-22°C (68-71°F) and lows of around . Temperatures exceed quite often, and heatwaves are common during the summer. The highest temperature ever recorded was on 21 July 1901. Due to the fjord's being a relatively enclosed body of water, the water temperatures can get quite high during long warm periods. During the summer of 2008, the water reached a temperature of . Spring and autumn are generally chilly. Winters are cold and snowy with temperatures between up to . The coldest temperature recorded is in January 1942. Temperatures have tended to be higher in recent years. Geography of Norway#climate Annual precipitation is with moderate rainfall throughout the year. Snowfall can occur from November to April, but snow accumulation occurs mainly from January through March. Almost every winter, ice develops in the innermost parts of the Oslofjord, and some winters the whole inner fjord freezes. As it is far from the mild Atlantic water of the west coast, this large fjord can freeze over, although this has become rare. Parks and recreation areas Vigeland Park is one of the many parks in Oslo. Oslo has a large number of parks and green areas within the city core, as well as outside it. The large park Vigeland Park is located a few minutes walk away from the city centre. This is the biggest and most reputed park in Norway. St. Hanshaugen Park is an old public park on a high hill in central Oslo. The park has a small tower at the top and a stage used for outdoor concerts. 'St.Hanshaugen' is also the name of the surrounding rich neighborhood as well as the larger administrative district (borough) that includes major parts of central Oslo. City of Oslo parks Tøyen Park stretches out behind the Munch Museum, and is a vast, grassy expanse. In the north there is also the natural viewing point known as Ola Narr. The Tøyen area also includes the Botanical garden and Museum belonging to the University of Oslo. City of Oslo parks Oslo (with neighboring Sandvika-Asker) is basically built in a horseshoe shape on the shores of the Oslofjord and limited in most directions by hills and forests. This means that any point within the city is relatively close to the forest. There are two major forests with immediate access: Østmarka (literally "Eastern Forest", on the eastern perimeter of the city), and the very large Nordmarka (literally "Northern Forest", stretching from the northern perimeter of the city deep into the hinterland). Swimming pools The city of Oslo runs eight public swimming pools. Tøyenbadet is the largest indoor swimming facility in Oslo and one of the few pools in Norway offering a 50-meter main pool. The outdoor pool Frognerbadet also has the 50-meter range. Main sights Karl Johan Statue The Karl Johan Gate is the most important street in Oslo with at its western end the Royal Palace (Slottet). Oslo Opera House. The Munch museum. Akershus Castle and Fortress Norsk Folkemuseum, the Norwegian Museum of Cultural History at Bygdøy, with a large open air museum The Armed Forces Museum The City Hall, where the annual Nobel Peace Prize ceremony is held The Nobel Peace Center, Aker brygge The New National Opera House, Bjørvika The Historical Museum The Museum of Modern Art The Holmenkollen ski jump, arena of the 1952 Winter Olympics and the Holmenkollen ski festival, Holmenkollen The Holmenkollen Ski Museum, Holmenkollen The Kon-Tiki Museum, Bygdøy The Munch Museum, Tøyen The river Akerselva The National Gallery The Norwegian Maritime Museum, including Gjøa, Bygdøy The Fram Museum, exhibiting the ship Fram, Bygdøy The Oslo City Museum, at Frogner Manor The Royal Palace The Henie-Onstad Art Centre, Høvikodden in Bærum Oslo Cathedral Norwegian Museum of Science and Technology The Zoological Museum , Tøyen The Botanical garden , Tøyen The Storting, parliament building The Vigeland Park in the Frogner park (Frognerparken) The Viking Ship Museum, displaying ships from Gokstad, Oseberg and Tune at Bygdøy Tryvannstårnet Hovedøya Ullevål Hageby The islands of the Oslofjord Oslo Opera House Ullevaal Football Stadium Ekeberg Restaurant Politics and government Stortinget is the seat of Norway's parliament. Oslo is the capital of Norway, and as such is the seat of Norway's national government. Most government offices, including that of the Prime Minister, are gathered at Regjeringskvartalet, a cluster of buildings close to the national Parliament, the Storting. Constituting both a municipality and a county of Norway, the city of Oslo is represented in the Storting by seventeen Members of Parliament. Six MPs are from the Labour Party; the Conservative Party and the Progress Party have three each; the Socialist Left Party and the Liberals have two each; and one is from the Christian Democrats. The combined municipality and county of Oslo has had a parliamentary system of government since 1986. The supreme authority of the city is the City Council (Bystyret), which currently has 59 seats. Representatives are popularly elected every four years. The City Council has five standing committees, each having its own areas of responsibility. These are: Health and Social Welfare; Education and Cultural Affairs; Urban Development; Transport and Environmental Affairs; and Finance. The council's executive branch (Byrådet) consists of a head of government (byrådsleder) and six commissioners (byråder, sing. byråd) holding ministerial positions. Each of the commissioners needs the confidence of the City Council and each of them can be voted out of office. Since the local elections of 2003, the city government has been a coalition of the Conservative Party and the Progress Party. Based mostly on support from the Christian Democrats and the Liberals, the coalition maintains a majority in the City Council. After the 2007 local elections on 10 September, the conservative coalition remained in majority. The largest parties in the City Council are the Labour Party and the Conservatives, with 18 and 16 representatives respectively. The Mayor of Oslo is the head of the City Council and the highest ranking representative of the city. This used to be the most powerful political position in Oslo, but following the implementation of parliamentarism, the Mayor has had more of a ceremonial role, similar to that of the President of the Storting at the national level. The current Mayor of Oslo is Fabian Stang. Administrative divisions Following the latest reform of 1 January 2004, the city is divided into fifteen boroughs (bydeler) that are to a considerable extent self governed. Each borough is responsible for local services not overseen by the City Council, such as social services, basic healthcare, and kindergartens. Gamle Oslo Grünerløkka Sagene St. Hanshaugen Frogner Ullern Vestre Aker Nordre Aker Bjerke Grorud Stovner Alna Østensjø Nordstrand Søndre Nordstrand Sentrum Marka Sentrum (the city centre) and Marka (the rural/recreational areas surrounding the city) are separate geographical entities, but do not have an administration of their own. Sentrum is governed by the borough of St. Hanshaugen. The administration of Marka is shared between neighbouring boroughs. Economy Oslo Business Centre Oslo is an important centre of maritime knowledge in Europe and is home to approximately 980 companies and 8,500 employees within the maritime sector, among which are some of the world's largest shipping companies, shipbrokers, and insurance brokers. Oslo Teknopol Mal Det Norske Veritas, headquartered at Høvik outside Oslo, is one of the three major maritime classification societies in the world, with The Oslo Stock Exchange serves as the main market for trading in the shares of Norwegian companies. 16.5% of the world fleet to class in its register. The city's port is the largest general cargo port in the country and its leading passenger gateway. Close to 6,000 ships dock at the Port of Oslo annually with a total of 6 million tonnes of cargo and over five million passengers. The gross domestic product of Oslo totaled NOK268.047 billion (€33.876 billion) in 2003, which amounted to 17% of the national GDP. This compares with NOK165.915 billion (€20.968 billion) in 1995. The metropolitan area, bar Moss and Drammen, contributed 25% of the national GDP in 2003 and was also responsible for more than one quarter of tax revenues. In comparison, total tax revenues from the oil and gas industry on the Norwegian Continental Shelf amounted to about 16%. e_skdårsm03_web_3.indd The region has one of the highest per capita GDPs in Europe, at NOK391,399 (€49,465) in 2003. If Norway were a member of the European Union, the capital region would have the fourth strongest GDP per capita, behind Inner London, Brussels-Capital and Luxembourg. The Barcode Project is a project of building 12 highrise apartments and offices in a row. Oslo is one of the most expensive cities in the world. As of 2006, it is ranked tenth according to the Worldwide Cost of Living Survey provided by Mercer Human Resource Consulting and first according to the Economist Intelligence Unit. The reason for this discrepancy is that the EIU omits certain factors from its final index calculation, most notably housing. Although Oslo does have the most expensive housing market in Norway, it is comparably cheaper than other cities on the list in that regard. Meanwhile, prices on goods and services remain some of the highest of any city. According to a report compiled by Swiss bank UBS in the month of August 2006, Oslo and London were the world's most expensive cities. Total pay packets were the biggest in Oslo along with Copenhagen and Zurich. Demographics An estimated 25 percent of Oslo's population consists of immigrants and their immediate descendants. (about 140,000 inhabitants). Norwegians of Pakistani descent make up 20,036 of the city's inhabitants, followed by: Somalians (9,708), Swedes (7,462), and Sri Lankan Tamils (7,128) - these being the four largest ethnic minority groups. Other large immigrant groups are people from Poland, Vietnam, Morocco, Turkey, Iraq and Denmark. 25 prosent av alle som bor i Oslo er innvandrere - Nyheter - Oslo - Aftenposten.no http://nyhuus.deich.folkebibl.no/deichman/dfb/sprakland.html The population of Oslo is currently increasing at a record rate of nearly 2 percent annually (17 percent over the last 15 years), making it the fastest-growing Scandinavian capital. The increase is due, in almost equal degree, to high birth-rates and immigration. In particular, immigration from Poland and the Baltic states has increased sharply since the accession of these countries to the EU in 2004. Education Institutions of higher education Norwegian School of Management Nydalen University of Oslo (Universitetet i Oslo) - undergraduate, graduate and PhD programs in most fields. Oslo University College (Høgskolen i Oslo) - focuses on 3-4 year professional degree programs. Norwegian School of Management (Handelshøyskolen BI) - primarily economics and business administration. Norwegian School of Information Technology (Norges Informasjonsteknologiske Høyskole) Oslo School of Architecture and Design (Arkitektur- og designhøgskolen i Oslo) Norwegian University of Sport and Physical Education (Norges idrettshøgskole) Norwegian Academy of Music (Norges musikkhøgskole) MF Norwegian School of Theology (Det teologiske Menighetsfakultet — MF) Oslo National Academy of the Arts (Kunsthøgskolen i Oslo KHIO) Norwegian University of Life Sciences (Universitetet for Miljø og Biovitenskap-UMB) located right outside of Oslo Norwegian Military Academy (Krigsskolen) Norwegian School of Veterinary Science (Norges Veterinærhøgskole) Oslo Academy of Fine Arts (Statens kunstakademi) Ska-Wiki - Ska-Wiki Oslo School of Management. (Markedshøyskolen) Oslo now has over 50 schools, colleges and universities in itself alone. Transport Air A train in Oslo Central Station. Oslo International Airport Oslo International Airport lounge Oslo Airport, Gardermoen (in Akershus county) - Norway's main international airport, served by high-speed train (Flytoget) Sandefjord Airport, Torp (in Vestfold county about one and a half hours, or away) Moss Airport, Rygge (In Østfold county, away) Sea There are daily ferry connections to Kiel (Germany), Copenhagen (Denmark), Frederikshavn (Denmark) and Nesodden. Public ferries run daily to and from the islands scattered in the Oslo harbour basin. Train Oslo Central Station. Oslo Sentralstasjon is the main railway station in Oslo. From there, there are connections to far away destinations Trondheim, Bergen, Stavanger, Stockholm (Sweden), Gothenburg (Sweden) and Copenhagen (Denmark), as well as several local and regional destinations in southern Norway and Sweden. In 2004 Norwegian Trains were Europe's third most punctual national train company. For the first 4 months in 2005 the punctuality was 92.9%. During winter in particular, weather conditions such as snow and blizzards may cause delays and cancellations on the routes crossing the central mountains. Public transport The public transportation system in Oslo is managed by the municipal transport company Ruter. This includes metro, tram, bus and ferry, but not the local train lines, which are operated by the state railway company NSB. All public transport in Oslo, including local trains, operates on a common ticket system, allowing free transfer within a period of one hour with a regular ticket. Tickets also transfer to the local and inter-city trains, unless a traveler intends to cross the city border. In 2004, 160 million journeys were made using public transport, of which 85% was handled by Oslo Sporveier's own subsidiaries and 15% by private bus and ferry operators under cost-based contracts. Oslo's T-bane is its form of rapid transit. A rental bicycle station in the city centre. The tram system, Oslotrikken, is made up of six lines that criss-cross the inner parts of the city and extend outward toward the suburbs. Trams run partly on in the streets and partly on separate roads. The metro system—known as the T-bane -- connects the eastern and western suburbs and comprises six lines which all converge in a tunnel beneath downtown Oslo. The metro lines are identified by numbers from 1 to 6, with two lines running into the municipality of Bærum in the west. The tramway lines are numbered 11 to 13 and 17 to 19. A new, partially underground loop line was opened in August 2006, connecting Ullevål in the northwest and Carl Berners plass in the east. Two new stations, Nydalen and Storo, have been operational for a couple of years already; the third station, Sinsen, opened 20 August 2006, completing the loop. In conjunction with the opening of the circle line, there will be a major upgrade of the rolling stock, with delivery taking place between 2007 and 2010. An RFID ticketing system with automatic turnstile barriers has been under introduction for several years, but has been greatly delayed and is not yet in service. A public bicycle rental programme has been in operation beginning in April every year since 2002. With an electronic subscription card, users can access bikes from over 90 stations across the city. Road A motorway leading into the city centre As Oslo is Norway's capital and biggest city, several national motorways meet or passes through it. European route E6 runs through Oslo in the eastern suburbs on its way from Southern Sweden to Northern Norway. European route E18 runs through Oslo city centre(including a tunnel under Akershus fortress) on its way from Stavanger and Kristiansand to Stockholm. European route E16 from Bergen doesn't go into Oslo proper, but ends on E18 at Sandvika a few kilometres west of Oslo. Oslo also has a system of ring roads connecting east and west. Ring 3, the outer one, runs from the E6 junction in the east via Ullevål to E18 on the border to Bærum municipality in the west. Ring 2 runs from Gamlebyen in the east to E18 at Skøyen in the west. Ring 1 is the city centre through road. The ring roads were designed to navigation easier and improve trafic flow. E18, E6, Ring 2 and Ring 3 are connected by an elaborate system of tunnels and bridges in the Økern-Ekeberg area. At present (2008) a new underwater tunnel for E18 is under construction in Bjørvika to divert traffic from the street level. Access into the city centre requires the payment of a toll at one of 19 entry points around the ring road. It costs 25 NOK to enter the cordoned zone at all times of day, seven days a week. A 20% price reduction is available to car owners using the AutoPASS system. As of 2 February 2008, coins are no longer accepted at the toll booths and all cars must pass through the automatic lanes without stopping. Drivers fitted with the electronic AutoPASS system will be debited as they pass; all other drivers will receive an invoice in the mail. Initially revenues from the road tolls funded the public road network, but since 2002 theses revenues finance mainly new developments for the public transport system in Oslo. There has been discussion whether to continue to use the cordon after 2007, based on the funding decisions, extensions, accommodation of time-differentiated pricing or replaced by another form of pricing altogether, perhaps to make congestion-pricing possible. Commission for Integrated Transport: Road Charging Scheme: Oslo Media The newspapers Aftenposten, Verdens Gang, Dagbladet, Dagsavisen, Morgenbladet, Vårt Land, Nationen and Klassekampen are published in Oslo. Many of these are located in Akersgata, what appears to be the "national media district" of Norway. The main office of the national broadcasting company NRK is located at Marienlyst in Oslo, near Majorstuen. TVNorge (TVNorway) is also located in Oslo, while TV2 (based in Bergen) and TV3 (based in the United Kingdom) operate branch offices in central Oslo. There is also a variety of specialty publications and smaller media companies. Culture Literature Oslo National Theater Several Norwegian authors from Oslo City have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, namely Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson in 1903, Knut Hamsun in 1920 and Sigrid Undset in 1928 for Kristin Lavransdatter. Though he was not awarded a Nobel Prize for his plays, as the first of these were awarded after he published his last play in 1899, playwright Henrik Ibsen is probably the most famous figure in Norwegian literature. Ibsen wrote plays such as Peer Gynt, A Doll's House and The Lady from the Sea. Also of importance to the Norwegian literary culture is the Norse literature, and in particular the works of Snorre Sturlason , as well as the more recent folk tales, collected by Asbjørnsen and Moe in the 19th century. Norwegian literature attained international acclaim in the 1990s with Jostein Gaarder's novel Sophie's world (Sofies verden) which was translated into 40 languages. Other noteworthy writers with an international profile include Erik Fosnes Hansen (Psalm at Journey's End) and Åsne Seierstad whose controversial work, The Bookseller of Kabul, was particularly successful in 2003. Contemporary literature from Norway Cultural Profile. Retrieved 27 November 2008. Architecture Oslo, or Norway generally has always had a tradition of modern building. Indeed, many of today's most interesting new buildings are made of wood, reflecting the strong appeal that this material continues to hold for Norwegian designers and builders. The evolution of Norwegian architecture. Norway, the official site in the United States. Retrieved 25 November 2008. Norway's conversion to Christianity some 1,000 years ago led to the introduction of stonework architecture, beginning with the construction of Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim. In the early Middle Ages, stave churches were constructed throughout Norway. Many of them remain to this day and represent Norway’s most important contribution to architectural history. A fine example is The Stave Church at Urnes which is now on UNESCO’s World Heritage List. Another notable example of wooden architecture is the Bryggen Wharf in Bergen, consisting of a row of narrow wooden structures along the quayside. In the 17th century, under the Danish monarchy, cities such as Kongsberg with its Baroque church and Røros with its wooden buildings were established. After Norway’s union with Denmark was dissolved in 1814, Oslo became the capital. Architect Christian H. Grosch designed the oldest parts of the University of Oslo, the Oslo Stock Exchange, and many other buildings and churches. At the beginning of the 20th century, the city of Ålesund was rebuilt in the Art Nouveau style. The 1930s, when functionalism dominated, became a strong period for Norwegian architecture, but it is only in recent decades that Norwegian architects have truly achieved international renown. One of the most striking modern buildings in Norway is the Sami Parliament in Kárášjohka designed by Stein Halvorson and Christian Sundby. Its debating chamber is an abstract timber version of a Lavvo, the traditional tent used by the nomadic Sami people. Sports The Holmenkollen ski jump hill. Oslo was the host city for the 1952 Winter Olympics. Except for the downhill skiing at Norefjell, all events took place within the city limits. The opening and closing ceremonies were held at Bislett stadion, which was also used for the speed skating events. In recent years, the stadium has been better known for hosting the annual Bislett Games track and field event in the IAAF Golden League. The stadium was rebuilt in 2004/2005 and was formally opened for the Bislett Games on 29 July 2005. Holmenkollen nordic skiing arena, with its centrepiece the ski jump, was an important venue during the 1952 Olympics. The arena has hosted numerous Nordic skiing and biathlon world championships since 1930, and its ski-jump competition is the second oldest in the world, having been contested since 1892. Holmenkollen has been selected once again to host the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships in 2011. Thursday October 16, 2008, the work began on the dismantling of the ski jump, as a new ski jump is going to be built and is expected to be finished by the end of 2009. During the summer months, the harbour becomes a venue for various maritime events, including the start of a large sailing regatta that attracts around 1,000 competing boats each year, and one race of the international Class 1 offshore powerboat racing circuit. Bislett Stadium. Two football clubs from Oslo, Vålerenga and Lyn, play in the Norwegian Premier League in the 2009 season. In addition, two teams from the conurbations are represented - Stabæk Fotball and Lillestrøm Sportsklubb. Stabæk won the Premier Division in 2008. Oslo had two ice hockey teams in the highest division in the previous season, Vålerenga Ishockey and Furuset I.F., the former winning the cup and league double in 2007. Speed skating is also held at the Valle Hovin venue, which in the summer is host to large popular music concerts. Ullevaal stadion, located in the borough of Nordre Aker, is the home of the Norwegian national football team. Built in 1926, it is the largest football stadium in Norway, and has served as the venue for the Norwegian Cup final since 1948. Both Lyn and Vålerenga use the stadium as their home ground. Historical population YearPopulation18019,500182515,400185531,700187576,9001900227,9001925255,7001951434,3651960471,5111970487,3631980454,8721990458,3642000507,4672002529,4072006538,4112008560,4842009575,475Source: SSB1, SSB2 Conurbation population YearPopulation1999763,9572005 811,688 2006825,105 2007 839,423 Table 1 Urban settlements. Population and area, by municipality. 1 January 2007 2008 856,915 Notable residents International relations Cooperation agreements have been signed with the following cities/regions: Gothenburg, Västra Götaland County, Sweden Schleswig-Holstein, Germany Shanghai, China Saint Petersburg, Russia Vilnius, Vilnius County, Lithuania Warsaw, Masovian Voivodeship, Poland (since 2005) Reykjavík, Iceland Washington, D.C., U.S.A New York, U.S.A Rotterdam, Holland Antwerp, Belgium Oslo has a longstanding tradition of sending a Christmas tree every year to the cities of Washington, D.C., New York, London, Rotterdam, Antwerp, and Reykjavík. Aftenposten Newspaper: Oslo tree is London-bound Since 1947, Oslo sends a 65-80 foot (20-25 m) high spruce, which may be 50 to 100 years old (according to the sources), as an expression of gratitude for Britain's support to Norway during World War II which is usually placed in Trafalgar Square. For the 61st time, this spruce will have been lit by the Mayor of Oslo, Fabian Stang and The Lord Mayor of Westminster, Councilor Carolyn Keen, between 6 December 2007 and 4 January 2008, and it has received yet more special attention than before, expressing environmental concern. Christmas tree recycling (City of Westminster Council website). See also Oslo Accords Parks and open spaces in Oslo List of books about Oslo Timeline of transport in Oslo References External links Municipal fact sheet from Statistics Norway City of Oslo: Official website Official Travel and Visitors Guide to Oslo be-x-old:Осла | Oslo |@lemmatized formerly:2 christiania:9 capital:14 large:24 city:95 norway:38 oslo:154 cultural:5 scientific:1 economic:1 governmental:1 centre:20 important:6 maritime:7 knowledge:2 europe:5 home:5 approximately:2 company:10 employee:2 within:9 sector:2 among:4 world:14 shipping:2 shipbrokers:2 insurance:2 broker:2 population:11 around:14 metropolitan:4 area:25 million:5 fast:3 grow:3 scandinavian:2 urban:10 region:7 map:1 grey:1 middle:3 indicate:1 municipality:11 january:9 extend:2 beyond:1 boundary:2 surround:5 county:15 akershus:12 muncipallities:1 bærum:4 asker:2 røyken:1 lørenskog:1 skedsmo:1 gjerdrum:1 sørum:1 oppegård:1 agglomeration:1 total:6 inhabitant:3 also:24 refer:2 great:2 land:4 inner:4 fjord:8 make:16 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6,347 | Rod_(optics) | Rods (sometimes known as Sky Fish, Solar Entities, or "Fulgure" in French Skyfish and Solar Entities ) are a rather new subject of focus within the pseudoscience of cryptozoology. Videos of rod-shaped objects moving quickly through the air fueled speculation that the atmosphere was filled with a previously unknown species or small UFOs, but subsequent experiments showed that these rods naturally appear in film because of an optical illusion. Alleged Sightings Rods are claimed to have been spotted in the U.S., Australia, Canada, Mexico, Europe, Philippines and China. X-Project: Roswell Rods Rods have also been claimed to have been sighted underwater and in caves. José Escamilla has promoted video footage of rods recorded during the filming of BASE jumpers (Brandon Daruna and Andrew Bradberry) at the Cave of Swallows in Mexico. Optical Illusion Investigators have proposed that rods are mere tricks of light which result from how images (primarily video images) are recorded and played back. In particular, the fast passage before the camera of an insect flapping its wings has been shown to produce rod-like effects, due to motion blur, if the camera is shooting with relatively long exposure times. Sol's Bugrod Sequences (In low-light conditions or even when pointed at blue sky, the automatic exposure programming of a video camera is likely to select the longest possible exposure time, which is 1/60th second per video field for NTSC format or 1/50th second for PAL format.) This criticism suggests that such video is incapable of capturing a clean image of something which moves so fast relative to the camera. In particular, the "membrane" in a video frame of a rod is effectively a time-lapse of the wings of the flying animal in different positions over several wingbeats that occurred during the field exposure time, while the central "rod" is a time-lapse image of the body, showing the full distance traveled during the field exposure time. The effect is especially pronounced with large, long-bodied insects which have broad wings and fairly slow wingbeats, such as mantises, grasshoppers, and katydids, or completely opaque wings such as moths. On video equipment which resolves the two interlaced fields of a single video frame (which are captured successively and then displayed as alternating horizontal lines), the "rod" effect can be seen to alternate from one field to the other, producing the distinctive gaps between successive images. Sol's Rod Sequences Similar results can be produced using standard film, if there is a long exposure and/or a stroboscopic lighting effect which lasts more than a single wingbeat. In other words, one can produce "rod" effects at will with the right equipment, lighting, and subject. The optical illusion theory was validated by an experiment on an episode The History Channel series Monster Quest season 1, episode 11, first aired on January 9, 2008, includes footage where a "rod" is captured simultaneously by a traditional video camera and a high-speed camera. While the video recorded by the traditional camera showed a brightly-illuminated "rod" with multiple undulating wings, the high-speed video clearly showed a common moth flying across its field of view. On August 8-9 2005, China Central Television (CCTV) aired a two-part documentary about flying rods in China. It reported the events from May to June of the same year at Tonghua Zhenguo Pharmaceutical Company in Tonghua City, Jilin Province, which debunked the flying rods. 中国UFO悬案调查：飞棍出没的世界(下)_科学探索_科技时代_新浪网 Surveillance cameras in the facility's compound captured video footage of flying rods identical to those shown in Jose Escamilla's video. Getting no satisfactory answer to the phenomenon, the curious research staff of the facility, being scientists, decided that they would try to solve the mystery by attempting to catch these airborne creatures. Huge nets were set up and the same surveillance cameras then captured images of rods flying into the trap. When the nets were inspected, the "rods" were no more than regular moths and other ordinary flying insects. Subsequent investigations proved that the appearance of flying rods on video was an optical illusion created by the slower recording speed of the camera (done to save video space). This is the empirical evidence showing that the "rods" themselves can be captured, and that they do indeed prove to be ordinary animals/insects. References Monster Quest Season One Episode: "Unidentified Flying Creatures." External links Straight Dope report: What's up with "rods," the mysterious insects that can be seen only on video? Jose Escamilla's "Rods" Video Sequences The Cryptid Zoo: Air Rods in Cryptozoology Famous video of "rods" at the Cave of the Swallows Detailed video analysis | Rod_(optics) |@lemmatized rod:27 sometimes:1 know:1 sky:2 fish:1 solar:2 entity:2 fulgure:1 french:1 skyfish:1 rather:1 new:1 subject:2 focus:1 within:1 pseudoscience:1 cryptozoology:2 video:20 shaped:1 object:1 move:2 quickly:1 air:4 fuel:1 speculation:1 atmosphere:1 fill:1 previously:1 unknown:1 specie:1 small:1 ufo:1 subsequent:2 experiment:2 show:7 naturally:1 appear:1 film:2 optical:4 illusion:4 allege:1 sighting:1 claim:2 spot:1 u:1 australia:1 canada:1 mexico:2 europe:1 philippine:1 china:3 x:1 project:1 roswell:1 also:1 sight:1 underwater:1 cave:3 josé:1 escamilla:3 promote:1 footage:3 record:4 filming:1 base:1 jumper:1 brandon:1 daruna:1 andrew:1 bradberry:1 swallow:2 investigator:1 propose:1 mere:1 trick:1 light:2 result:2 image:6 primarily:1 play:1 back:1 particular:2 fast:2 passage:1 camera:10 insect:5 flap:1 wing:5 produce:4 like:1 effect:5 due:1 motion:1 blur:1 shoot:1 relatively:1 long:4 exposure:6 time:6 sol:2 bugrod:1 sequence:3 low:1 condition:1 even:1 point:1 blue:1 automatic:1 programming:1 likely:1 select:1 possible:1 second:2 per:1 field:6 ntsc:1 format:2 pal:1 criticism:1 suggest:1 incapable:1 capture:6 clean:1 something:1 relative:1 membrane:1 frame:2 effectively:1 lapse:2 fly:9 animal:2 different:1 position:1 several:1 wingbeats:2 occur:1 central:2 body:2 full:1 distance:1 travel:1 especially:1 pronounce:1 large:1 broad:1 fairly:1 slow:2 mantis:1 grasshopper:1 katydid:1 completely:1 opaque:1 moth:3 equipment:2 resolve:1 two:2 interlaced:1 single:2 successively:1 display:1 alternate:2 horizontal:1 line:1 see:2 one:3 distinctive:1 gap:1 successive:1 similar:1 use:1 standard:1 stroboscopic:1 lighting:2 last:1 wingbeat:1 word:1 right:1 theory:1 validate:1 episode:3 history:1 channel:1 series:1 monster:2 quest:2 season:2 first:1 january:1 include:1 simultaneously:1 traditional:2 high:2 speed:3 brightly:1 illuminate:1 multiple:1 undulating:1 clearly:1 common:1 across:1 view:1 august:1 television:1 cctv:1 part:1 documentary:1 report:2 event:1 may:1 june:1 year:1 tonghua:2 zhenguo:1 pharmaceutical:1 company:1 city:1 jilin:1 province:1 debunk:1 中国ufo悬案调查:1 飞棍出没的世界:1 下:1 surveillance:2 facility:2 compound:1 identical:1 jose:2 get:1 satisfactory:1 answer:1 phenomenon:1 curious:1 research:1 staff:1 scientist:1 decide:1 would:1 try:1 solve:1 mystery:1 attempt:1 catch:1 airborne:1 creature:2 huge:1 net:2 set:1 trap:1 inspect:1 regular:1 ordinary:2 investigation:1 prove:2 appearance:1 create:1 save:1 space:1 empirical:1 evidence:1 indeed:1 reference:1 unidentified:1 external:1 link:1 straight:1 dope:1 mysterious:1 cryptid:1 zoo:1 famous:1 detail:1 analysis:1 |@bigram optical_illusion:4 external_link:1 straight_dope:1 |
6,348 | Aimaq_people | Aymāq (), also transliterated as Aimak or Aimaq, is a term designating Persian-speaking nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes of mixed Iranian and Mongolian stock inhabiting the north and north-west highlands of Afghanistan (immediately to the north of Herat) and in the Khorasan Province of Iran. They are closely related to the Hazara, and—in varying degrees—to the Tajiks. They live in western Hazarajat in the provinces of Ghor, Farah, Herat, Badghis, Faryab, Jowzjan and Sar-e Pol. The name is Mongolian for tribe (compare Aimag). They were originally known as chahar or (the four) Eimaks by the Hazaras, because there were four principal tribes: the Taimani (the predominating element in the population of Ghor), the Ferozkhoi, the Temuri, and the Jamshidi. Except that they are sunnis, they are Hazaras by genetics, ethnicity, language, culture, food etc. However successive Pushtun/Afghan governments have Classified them as Aimaq, as a separate ethnic Group so as to show the Hazaras in less numbers. Furthermore to create a wedge between the Hazaras on sectarian grounds. The Iranian Islamic revolution and the taliban rule further eliminated the group from the Hazaras. There had not been any efforts on the part of each group to come together as both are politicaly and economically weak. Estimates of the Aimak population vary between 250,000 and 2 million. They are Sunni Muslims, in contrast to the Hazara, who are Shiahs. The Chahar Aimaqs are of Mongolian origin, judging by their physical appearance and their housing (Mongolian-style yurts) but speak a Persian dialect (Dari). "Afghanistan". Encyclopædia Britannica. Ultimate Reference Suite. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. The best estimates of the Aimak population in Afghanistan hover around 1-2 million. References Further reading Macgregor, Central Asia, (Calcutta, 1871) See also Nikudari Qara'unas | Aimaq_people |@lemmatized aymāq:1 also:2 transliterate:1 aimak:3 aimaq:2 term:1 designate:1 persian:2 speaking:1 nomadic:2 semi:1 tribe:3 mixed:1 iranian:2 mongolian:4 stock:1 inhabit:1 north:3 west:1 highland:1 afghanistan:3 immediately:1 herat:2 khorasan:1 province:2 iran:1 closely:1 relate:1 hazara:2 vary:2 degree:1 tajik:1 live:1 western:1 hazarajat:1 ghor:2 farah:1 badghis:1 faryab:1 jowzjan:1 sar:1 e:1 pol:1 name:1 compare:1 aimag:1 originally:1 know:1 chahar:2 four:2 eimaks:1 hazaras:5 principal:1 taimani:1 predominating:1 element:1 population:3 ferozkhoi:1 temuri:1 jamshidi:1 except:1 sunnis:1 genetics:1 ethnicity:1 language:1 culture:1 food:1 etc:1 however:1 successive:1 pushtun:1 afghan:1 government:1 classify:1 separate:1 ethnic:1 group:3 show:1 less:1 number:1 furthermore:1 create:1 wedge:1 sectarian:1 ground:1 islamic:1 revolution:1 taliban:1 rule:1 far:2 eliminate:1 effort:1 part:1 come:1 together:1 politicaly:1 economically:1 weak:1 estimate:2 million:2 sunni:1 muslim:1 contrast:1 shiahs:1 aimaqs:1 origin:1 judge:1 physical:1 appearance:1 housing:1 style:1 yurt:1 speak:1 dialect:1 dari:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 ultimate:1 reference:2 suite:1 chicago:1 best:1 hover:1 around:1 read:1 macgregor:1 central:1 asia:1 calcutta:1 see:1 nikudari:1 qara:1 unas:1 |@bigram semi_nomadic:1 nomadic_tribe:1 closely_relate:1 sunni_muslim:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 |
6,349 | Limestone | A stratigraphic section of Ordovician limestone exposed in central Tennessee, U.S. The less-resistant and thinner beds are composed of shale. Vertical lines are drill holes for explosives used during road construction. Thin-section view of a Middle Jurassic limestone in southern Utah. The round grains are ooids; the largest is 1.2 mm in diameter. This limestone is an oosparite. Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed largely of the mineral calcite (calcium carbonate: CaCO3). The deposition of limestone strata is often a by-product and indicator of biological activity in the geologic record. Calcium (along with nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) is a key mineral to plant nutrition: soils overlying limestone bedrock tend to be pre-fertilized with calcium. Limestone is an important stone for masonry and architecture, vying with only granite and sandstone to be the most commonly used architectural stone. Limestone is a key ingredient of quicklime, mortar, cement, and concrete. The solubility of limestone in water and weak acid solutions leads to important phenomena. Regions overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible groundwater sources (ponds and streams), as surface water easily drains downward through cracks in the limestone. While draining, water slowly (over thousands or millions of years) enlarges these cracks; dissolving the calcium-carbonate and carrying it away in solution. Most well-known natural cave systems are through limestone bedrock. Description Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert and/or flint, as well as varying amounts of clay, silt and sand as disseminations, nodules, or layers within the rock. The primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly marine organisms. These organisms secrete shells that settle out of the water column and are deposited on ocean floors as pelagic ooze or alternatively are conglomerated in a coral reef (see lysocline for information on calcite dissolution). Secondary calcite may also be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that precipitates the material in caves). This produces speleothems such as stalagmites and stalactites. Another form taken by calcite is that of oolites (oolitic limestone) which can be recognized by its granular appearance. Limestone makes up about 10% of the total volume of all sedimentary rocks. Limestones may also form in both lacustrine and evaporite depositional environments |Trewin,N.H. & Davidson,R.G. 1999. Lake-level changes, sedimentation and faunas in a Middle Devonian basin-margin fish bed, Journal Geological Society, 156, 535-548 Oilfield Glossary: Term 'evaporite' . Calcite can be either dissolved by groundwater or precipitated by groundwater, depending on several factors including the water temperature, pH, and dissolved ion concentrations. Calcite exhibits an unusual characteristic called retrograde solubility in which it becomes less soluble in water as the temperature increases. When conditions are right for precipitation, calcite forms mineral coatings that cement the existing rock grains together or it can fill fractures. Karst topography and caves develop in carbonate rocks due to their solubility in dilute acidic groundwater. Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation. Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means. This process is known as bioerosion. It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the fossil record (see Taylor and Wilson, 2003). Because of impurities, such as clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide and other materials, many limestones exhibit different colors, especially on weathered surfaces. Limestone may be crystalline, clastic, granular, or massive, depending on the method of formation. Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities in the rock. Folk and Dunham classifications are used to describe limestones more precisely. Travertine is a banded, compact variety of limestone formed along streams, particularly where there are waterfalls and around hot or cold springs. Calcium carbonate is deposited where evaporation of the water leaves a solution that is supersaturated with chemical constituents of calcite. Tufa, a porous or cellular variety of travertine, is found near waterfalls. Coquina is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of pieces of coral or shells. During regional metamorphism that occurs during the mountain building process (orogeny) limestone recrystallizes into marble. Limestone is a parent material of Mollisol soil group. Types Main article: List of types of limestone Limestone landscape Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosional landforms. These include limestone pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and gorges. Such erosion landscapes are known as karsts. Limestone is less resistant than most igneous rocks, but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks. Limestone is therefore usually associated with hills and downland and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays. Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands. Examples include the Burren in Co. Clare, Ireland; the Verdon Gorge in France; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight , England; on Fårö near the Swedish island of Gotland, the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/United States, Notch Peak in Utah, and the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam. Unique habitats are found on alvars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles. The largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Oland, Sweden. Another area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden. Huge quarries in northwestern Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more than a hundred kilometers. The world's largest limestone quarry is at Michigan Limestone and Chemical Company in Rogers City, Michigan. Michigan Markers Uses Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in North America and Europe. Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its associated Complex in Giza, Egypt, are made of limestone. So many buildings in Kingston, Ontario, Canada were constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'. On the island of Malta, a variety of limestone called Globigerina limestone was for a long time the only building material available, and is still very frequently used on all types of buildings and sculptures. Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving. It is also long-lasting and stands up well to exposure. However, it is a very heavy material, making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a building material. Courthouse built of limestone in Manhattan, Kansas A limestone plate with a negative map of Moosburg in Bavaria is prepared for a lithography print Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Train stations, banks and other structures from that era are normally made of limestone. Limestone is used as a facade on some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering rather than solid blocks. In the United States, Indiana, most notably the Bloomington area, has long been a source of high quality quarried limestone, called Indiana limestone. Many famous buildings in London are built from Portland limestone. Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas where it occurred since it is hard, is durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone. Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England. Limestone and marble are very reactive to acid solutions, making acid rain a significant problem. Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid rain. Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which should only be cleaned with a neutral or mild alkaline-based cleaner. Other uses include: The manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide) and slaked lime (calcium hydroxide); Cement and mortar; Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soil conditions; Crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads; Geological formations of limestone are among the best petroleum reservoirs; As a reagent in desulfurizations; Glass making, in some circumstances; Added to paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and a cheap filler. Toothpaste Suppression of methane explosions in underground coal mines Added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium Notes References Taylor, P.D. and Wilson, M.A., 2003. Palaeoecology and evolution of marine hard substrate communities. Earth-Science Reviews 62: 1-103. 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6,350 | Giovanni_Boccaccio | Giovanni Boccaccio (1313 – 21 December 1375) Bartlett, Kenneth R. (1992). The Civilization of the Italian Renaissance. Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company. ISBN 0-669-20900-7 (Paperback). Page 43–44. () was an Italian author and poet, a friend and correspondent of Petrarch, an important Renaissance humanist and the author of a number of notable works including the Decameron, On Famous Women, and his poetry in the Italian vernacular. Boccaccio is particularly notable for his dialogue, of which it has been said that it surpasses in verisimilitude that of just about all of his contemporaries, since they were medieval writers and often followed formulaic models for character and plot. Biography The exact details of his birth are uncertain. A number of sources state that he was born in Paris and that his mother was a Parisian, Bartlett, Kenneth R. (1992). The Civilization of the Italian Renaissance. Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company. ISBN 0-669-20900-7 (Paperback). Page 43. but others denounce this as a romanticism by the earliest biographers. In this case his birthplace was possibly in Tuscany, perhaps in Certaldo, the town of his father. Biographical information by the Brown University, Department of Italian Studies . He was the son of a Florentine merchant and an unknown woman, and almost certainly born illegitimate. Early life Boccaccio grew up in Florence. His father was working for the Compagnia dei Bardi and in the 1320s married Margherita dei Mardoli, of an illustrious family. It is believed Boccaccio was tutored by Giovanni Mazzuoli and received from him an early introduction to the works of Dante. In 1326 Boccaccio moved to Naples with the family when his father was appointed to head the Neapolitan branch of his bank. Boccaccio was apprenticed to the bank, but it was a trade for which he had no affinity. He eventually persuaded his father to let him study law at the Studium in the city. For the next six years Boccaccio studied canon law there. Then from there he pursued his interest in scientific and literary studies. New Standard Encyclopedia 1992. Boccaccio, Giovanni. Volume B, page 316. Standard Educational Corporation (Chicago). His father introduced him to the Neapolitan nobility and the French-influenced court of Robert the Wise in the 1330s. At this time he fell in love with a married daughter of Robert the Wise (known as, King Robert of Naples) and she is immortalized as the character "Fiammetta" in many of Boccaccio's prose romances, particularly Filocolo (1338). Boccaccio became a friend of fellow Florentine Niccolò Acciaioli, and benefited from his influence as administrator and, perhaps, the lover of Catherine of Valois-Courtenay, widow of Philip I of Taranto. Acciaioli later became counsellor to Queen Joanna and, eventually, her Grand Seneschal. It seems Boccaccio enjoyed law no more than banking, but his studies allowed him the opportunity to study widely and make good contacts with fellow scholars. His early influences included Paolo da Perugia (a curator and author of a collection of myths, the Collectiones), the humanists Barbato da Sulmona and Giovanni Barrili, and the theologian Dionigi di Borgo San Sepolcro. Mature years Boccaccio's statue in Uffizi In Naples, Boccaccio began what he considered his true vocation, poetry. Works produced in this period include Filostrato and Teseida (the source for Chaucer's Troilus and Criseyde and The Knight's Tale respectively), Filocolo, a prose version of an existing French romance, and La caccia di Diana, a poem in octave rhyme listing Neapolitan women. Complete list of Boccaccio works at Decameron The period featured considerable formal innovation, including possibly the introduction of the Sicilian octave to Florence, where it influenced Petrarch. tuttotempolibero.altervista.org/poesia/trecento/giovanniboccaccio.html - Life and complete works of Boccaccio Boccaccio returned to Florence in early 1341, avoiding the plague in that city of 1340, but also missing the visit of Petrarch to Naples in 1341. He had left Naples due to tensions between the Angevin king and Florence. His father had returned to Florence in 1338, where he had gone bankrupt. His mother died shortly afterward. Although dissatisfied with his return to Florence, Boccaccio continued to work, producing Comedia delle ninfe fiorentine (also known as Ameto) a mix of prose and poems, in 1341, completing the fifty canto allegorical poem Amorosa visione in 1342, and Fiammetta Boccaccio, Giovanni La Fiammetta (1342), Project Gutenburg in 1343 The pastoral piece Ninfale fiesolano probably dates from this time also. In 1343 Boccaccio's father re-married, to Bice del Bostichi. His children by his first marriage had all died (except Boccaccio) but he had another son, Iacopo, in 1344. In Florence, the overthrow of Walter of Brienne brought about the government of popolo minuto. It diminished the influence of the nobility and the wealthier merchant classes and assisted in the relative decline of Florence. The city was hurt further, in 1348, by the Black Death, later represented in the Decameron, which killed some three-quarters of the city's population. From 1347 Boccaccio spent much time in Ravenna, seeking new patronage, and despite his claims, it is not certain whether he was present in plague-ravaged Florence. His stepmother died during the epidemic and his father, as Minister of Supply in the city was closely associated with the government efforts. His father died in 1349 and as head of the family Boccaccio was forced into a more active role. Boccaccio began work on the Decameron Boccaccio, Giovanni The Decameron, Volume I, Project Gutenburg Boccaccio, Giovanni The Decameron, Volume II, Project Gutenburg around 1349. It is probable that the structures of many of the tales date from earlier in his career, but the choice of a hundred tales and the frame-story lieta brigata of three men and seven women dates from this time. The work was largely complete by 1352. It was Boccaccio's final effort in literature and one of his last works in Italian, the only other substantial work was Corbaccio (dated to either 1355 or 1365). Boccaccio revised and rewrote the Decameron in 1370-1371. This manuscript has survived to the present day. From 1350 Boccaccio, although less of a scholar, became closely involved with Italian humanism and also with the Florentine government. His first official mission was to Romagna in late 1350. He revisited that city-state twice and also was sent to Brandenburg, Milan, and Avignon. He also pushed for the study of Greek, housing Barlaam of Calabria, and encouraging his tentative translations of works by Homer, Euripides, and Aristotle. In October 1350 he was delegated to greet Francesco Petrarca as he entered Florence and also to have the great man as a guest at his home during his stay. The meeting between the two was extremely fruitful and they were friends from then on, Boccaccio calling Petrarch his teacher and magister. Petrarch at that time encouraged Boccaccio to study classical Greek and Latin literature. They met again in Padua in 1351, Boccaccio on an official mission to invite Petrarch to take a chair at the university in Florence. Although unsuccessful, the discussions between the two were instrumental in Boccaccio writing the Genealogia deorum gentilium; the first edition was completed in 1360 and this would remain one of the key reference works on classical mythology for over 400 years. The discussions also formalized Boccaccio's poetic ideas. Certain sources also see a conversion of Boccaccio by Petrarch from the open humanist of the Decameron to a more ascetic style, closer to the dominant fourteenth century ethos. For example, he followed Petrarch (and Dante) in the unsuccessful championing of an archaic and deeply allusive form of Latin poetry. In 1359 following a meeting with Pope Innocent VI and further meetings with Petrarch it is probable that Boccaccio took some kind of religious mantle. There is a persistent, but unsupported, tale that he repudiated his earlier works, including the Decameron, in 1362, as profane. Circes: illustration of one of the women featured the 1374 biographies of 106 famous women, De Claris Mulieribus, by Boccaccio - from a German translation of 1541 In 1360 Boccaccio began work on De mulieribus claris, a book offering biographies of one hundred and six famous women, that he completed in 1374. Two centuries later, approximately in 1541, this work was translated into the German language by Heinrich Steinhowel and printed by Johannes Zainer, in Ulm, Germany. The secondary title caption, a subtitle, of the German translation reads . Following the failed coup of 1361, a number of Boccaccio's close friends and other acquaintances were executed or exiled in the subsequent purge. Although not directly linked to the conspiracy, it was in this year that Boccaccio left Florence to reside in Certaldo, and became less involved in government affairs. He did not undertake further missions for Florence until 1365, and traveled to Naples and then on to Padua and Venice, where he met up with Petrarch in grand style at Palazzo Molina, Petrarch's residence as well as the place of Petrarch's library. He later then returned to Certaldo. He met Petrarch only once again, in Padua in 1368. Upon hearing of the death of Petrarch (July 19, 1374), Boccaccio wrote a commemorative poem, including it in his collection of lyric poems, the Rime. He returned to work for the Florentine government in 1365, undertaking a mission to Pope Urban V. When the papacy returned to Rome from Avignon in 1367, Boccaccio was again sent to Urban, offering congratulations. He also undertook diplomatic missions to Venice and Naples. Of his later works the moralistic biographies gathered as De casibus virorum illustrium (1355-74) and De mulieribus claris (1361-1375) were most significant. http://digilander.libero.it/il_boccaccio/index.html The chronological archives of his complete works Other works include a dictionary of geographical allusions in classical literature, De montibus, silvis, fontibus, lacubus, fluminibus, stagnis seu paludibus, et de nominibus maris liber (a title desperate for the coining of the word "geography"). He gave a series of lectures on Dante at the Santo Stefano church in 1373 and these resulted in his final major work, the detailed Esposizioni sopra la Commedia di Dante. Works of Giovanni Boccaccio text, concordances and frequency lists Boccaccio and Petrarch were also two of the most educated people in early Renaissance in the field of archaeology. JSTOR - Boccaccio's Archaeological Knowledge Boccaccio's change in writing style in the 1350s was not due just to meeting with Petrarch. It was mostly due to poor health and a premature weakening of his physical strength. It also was due to disappointments in love. Some such disappointment could explain why Boccaccio, having previously written always in praise of women and love, came suddenly to write in a bitter Corbaccio style. Petrarch describes how Pietro Petrone (a Carthusian monk) on Boccaccio's death bed sent another Carthusian (Gioacchino Ciani) to urge him to renounce his worldly studies. Encyclopædia Britannica 2007, Petrarch and Boccaccio's mature years. Petrarch then dissuaded Boccaccio from burning his own works and selling off his personal library, letters, books, and manuscripts. Petrarch even offered to purchase Boccaccio's library, so that it would become part of Petrarch's library. Library of Liberty. His final years were troubled by illnesses, some relating to obesity and what often is described as dropsy, severe edema that would be described today as congestive heart failure. He died at the age of sixty-three in Certaldo on 21 December, 1375, where he is buried. Children Boccaccio never married, but had three children. Mario and Giulio were born in the 1330s. In the 1340s, Violente was born in Ravenna, where Boccaccio was a guest of Ostasio I da Polenta from about 1345 through 1346. References Works Alphabetical listing of selected works, Amorosa visione (1342) Buccolicum carmen (1367-1369) Caccia di Diana (1334-1337) Comedia delle ninfe fiorentine (Amato, 1341-1342) Corbaccio (around 1365, this date is disputed) De Canaria (within 1341 - 1345) De Casibus Virorum Illustrium (c.1360). Facsimile of 1620 Paris ed., 1962, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ISBN 9780820110059. De mulieribus claris (1361, revised up to 1375) Decameron (1349-52, revised 1370-1371) Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta (1343-1344) Esposizioni sopra la Comedia di Dante (1373-1374) Filocolo (1336-1339) Filostrato (1335 or 1340) Genealogia deorum gentilium libri (1360, revised up to 1374) Ninfale fiesolano (within 1344-46, this date is disputed) Rime (finished 1374) Teseida delle nozze di Emilia (before 1341) Trattatello in laude di Dante (1357, title revised to De origine vita studiis et moribus viri clarissimi Dantis Aligerii florentini poetae illustris et de operibus compositis ab eodem) Zibaldone Magliabechiano (within 1351-1356) For an exhaustive listing there is Giovanni Boccaccio: an Annotated Bibliography (1992) by Joseph P. Consoli. Further reading On Famous Women, Latin text and English translation, 2001 ISBN 0-674-00347-0 The Decameron, ISBN 0-451-52866-2 The Life of Dante, ISBN 1-84391-006-3 The Elegy of Lady Fiammetta, ISBN 0-226-06276-7 be-x-old:Джавані Бакачча | Giovanni_Boccaccio |@lemmatized giovanni:9 boccaccio:53 december:2 bartlett:2 kenneth:2 r:2 civilization:2 italian:7 renaissance:4 toronto:2 c:3 heath:2 company:2 isbn:7 paperback:2 page:3 author:3 poet:1 friend:4 correspondent:1 petrarch:21 important:1 humanist:3 number:3 notable:2 work:25 include:7 decameron:11 famous:4 woman:9 poetry:3 vernacular:1 particularly:2 dialogue:1 say:1 surpass:1 verisimilitude:1 contemporary:1 since:1 medieval:1 writer:1 often:2 follow:4 formulaic:1 model:1 character:2 plot:1 biography:4 exact:1 detail:1 birth:1 uncertain:1 source:3 state:2 bear:3 paris:2 mother:2 parisian:1 others:1 denounce:1 romanticism:1 early:7 biographer:1 case:1 birthplace:1 possibly:2 tuscany:1 perhaps:2 certaldo:4 town:1 father:9 biographical:1 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6,351 | Algae | The lineage of algae according to Thomas Cavalier-Smith. The exact number and placement of endosymbiotic events is not yet clear, so this diagram can be taken only as a general guide. Endosymbiotic events are noted by dotted lines. Algae (Latin for "seaweeds", singular alga) are a large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds. They are photosynthetic, like plants, and "simple" because they lack the many distinct organs found in land plants. For that reason they are currently excluded from being considered plants. Though the prokaryotic Cyanobacteria (commonly referred to as Blue-green Algae) were traditionally included as "Algae" in older textbooks, many modern sources regard this as outdated and restrict the term Algae to eukaryotic organisms. All true algae therefore have a nucleus enclosed within a membrane and chloroplasts bound in one or more membranes. Round (1981). Algae constitute a paraphyletic and polyphyletic group, as they do not include all the descendants of the last universal ancestor nor do they all descend from a common algal ancestor, although their chloroplasts seem to have a single origin. Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as phyllids and rhizoids in nonvascular plants, or leaves, roots, and other organs that are found in tracheophytes. Many are photoautotrophic, although some groups contain members that are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some unicellular species rely entirely on external energy sources and have limited or no photosynthetic apparatus. Nearly all algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from the Cyanobacteria, and so produce oxygen as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike other photosynthetic bacteria such as purple and green sulfur bacteria. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dating back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago. Bengtson S, Belivanova V, Rasmussen B, Whitehouse M. (2009). The controversial "Cambrian" fossils of the Vindhyan are real but more than a billion years older. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 106: 7729–7734 The first alga to have its genome sequenced was Cyanidioschyzon merolae. Etymology and study The singular alga is the Latin word for a particular seaweed and retains that meaning in English. The etymology is obscure. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algēre, "be cold", there is no known reason to associate seaweed with temperature. A more likely source is alliga, "binding, entwining." Since Algae has become a biological classification, alga can also mean one classification under Algae, parallel to a fungus being a species of fungi, a plant being a species of plant, and so on. The ancient Greek word for seaweed was φῦκος (fūkos or phykos), which could mean either the seaweed, probably Red Algae, or a red dye derived from it. The Latinization, fūcus, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. The etymology is uncertain, but a strong candidate has long been some word related to the Biblical פוך (pūk), "paint" (if not that word itself), a cosmetic eye-shadow used by the ancient Egyptians and other inhabitants of the eastern Mediterranean. It could be any color: black, red, green, blue. Downloadable Google Books. Accordingly the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology. The name Fucus appears in a number of taxa. Classification While Cyanobacteria have been traditionally included among the Algae, recent works usually exclude them due to large differences such as the lack of membrane-bound organelles, the presence of a single circular chromosome, the presence of peptidoglycan in the cell walls, and ribosomes different in size and content from those of the Eukaryotes. . Rather than in chloroplasts, they conduct photosynthesis on specialized infolded cytoplasmic membranes called thylakoid membranes. Therefore, they differ significantly from the Algae despite occupying similar ecological niches. By modern definitions Algae are Eukaryotes and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound organelles called chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA and are similar in structure to Cyanobacteria, presumably representing reduced cyanobacterial endosymbionts. The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of Algae, reflecting different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three major groups of Algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right. Many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic. Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost plastids entirely. Phylogeny: Supergroup affiliation Members Endosymbiont SummaryPrimoplantae/Archaeplastida Chlorophyta Rhodophyta GlaucophytaCyanobacteriaThese Algae have primary chloroplasts, i.e. the chloroplasts are surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiotic event. The chloroplasts of Red Algae have chlorophylls a and d (often), and phycobilins, while those of Green Algae have chloroplasts with chlorophyll a and b. Higher plants are pigmented similarly to Green Algae and probably developed from them, and thus Chlorophyta is a sister taxon to the plants; sometimes they are grouped as Viridiplantae. Excavata and Rhizaria Chlorarachniophytes EuglenidsGreen AlgaeThese groups have green chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and b . Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four and three membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from ingested Green Algae. Chlorarachniophytes, which belong to the phylum Cercozoa, contain a small nucleomorph, which is a relict of the algae's nucleus. Euglenids, which belong to the phylum Euglenozoa, live primarily in freshwater and have chloroplasts with only three membranes. It has been suggested that the endosymbiotic Green Algae were acquired through myzocytosis rather than phagocytosis.Chromista and Alveolata Heterokonts Haptophyta Cryptomonads DinoflagellatesRed AlgaeThese groups have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls a and c, and phycobilins. The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with the Red Algae suggest a relationship there. In the first three of these groups (Chromista), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in Cryptomonads, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor, although other evidence casts doubt on whether the Heterokonts, Haptophyta, and Cryptomonads are in fact more closely related to each other than to other groups. The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts within the group, and it appears there were a number of endosymbiotic events. The Apicomplexa, a group of closely related parasites, also have plastids called apicoplasts. Apicoplasts are not photosynthetic but appear to have a common origin with Dinoflagellate chloroplasts. W.H.Harvey (1811—1866) was the first to divide the Algae into four divisions based on their pigmentation. This is the first use of a biochemical criterion in plant systematics. Harvey's four divisions are: Red Algae (Rhodophyta), Brown Algae (Heteromontophyta), Green Algae (Chlorophyta) and Diatomaceae. Relationship to higher plants The first plants on earth evolved from shallow freshwater algae much like Chara some 400 million years ago. These probably had an isomorphic alternation of generations and were probably filamentous. Fossils of isolated land plant spores suggest land plants may have been around as long as 475 million years ago. Morphology A range of algal morphologies are exhibited, and convergence of features in unrelated groups is common. The only groups to exhibit three dimensional multicellular thalli are the reds and browns, and some chlorophytes. Apical growth is constrained to subsets of these groups: the florideophyte reds, various browns, and the charophytes. The form of charophytes is quite different to those of reds and browns, because have distinct nodes, separated by internode 'stems'; whorls of branches reminiscent of the horsetails occur at the nodes. Conceptacles are another polyphyletic trait; they appear in the coralline algae and the Hildenbrandiales, as well as the browns. Most of the simpler algae are unicellular flagellates or amoeboids, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups. Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the life cycle of a species, are Colonial: small, regular groups of motile cells Capsoid: individual non-motile cells embedded in mucilage Coccoid: individual non-motile cells with cell walls Palmelloid: non-motile cells embedded in mucilage Filamentous: a string of non-motile cells connected together, sometimes branching Parenchymatous: cells forming a thallus with partial differentiation of tissues In three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached, with full tissue differentiation. These are the brown algae, —some of which may reach 50 m in length (kelps) —the red algae, and the green algae. Introduction to the Green Algae The most complex forms are found among the green algae (see Charales and Charophyta), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants. The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other alga groups. Symbiotic algae Some species of algae form symbiotic relationships with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the algae. Examples are as follows. Lichens Lichens are defined by the International Association for Lichenology to be "an association of a fungus and a photosynthetic symbiont resulting in a stable vegetative body having a specific structure." The fungi, or mycobionts, are from the Ascomycota with a few from the Basidiomycota. They are not found alone in nature but when they began to associate is not known. One mycobiont associates with the same phycobiont species, rarely two, from the Green Algae, except that alternatively the mycobiont may associate with the same species of Cyanobacteria (hence "photobiont" is the more accurate term). A photobiont may be associated with many specific mycobionts or live independently; accordingly, lichens are named and classified as fungal species. Brodo et al. (2001), page 6: "A species of lichen collected anywhere in its range has the same lichen-forming fungus and, generally, the same photobiont. (A particular photobiont, on the other hand, may associate with scores of different lichen fungi)." The association is termed a morphogenesis because the lichen has a form and capabilities not possessed by the symbiont species alone (they can be experimentally isolated). It is possible that the photobiont triggers otherwise latent genes in the mycobiont. Brodo et al. (2001), page 8. Coral reefs Coral reefs are accumulated from the calcareous exoskeletons of marine invertebrates of the Scleractinia order; i.e., the Stony Corals. As animals they metabolize sugar and oxygen to obtain energy for their cell-building processes, including secretion of the exoskeleton, with water and carbon dioxide as byproducts. As the reef is the result of a favorable equilibrium between construction by the corals and destruction by marine erosion, the rate at which metabolism can proceed determines the growth or deterioration of the reef. Algae of the Dinoflagellate phylum are often endosymbionts in the cells of marine invertebrates, where they accelerate host-cell metabolism by generating immediately available sugar and oxygen through photosynthesis using incident light and the carbon dioxide produced in the host. Endosymbiont algae in the Stony Corals are described by the term zooxanthellae, with the host Stony Corals called on that account hermatypic corals, which although not a taxon are not in healthy condition without their endosymbionts. Zooxanthellae belong almost entirely to the genus Symbiodinium. The loss of Symbiodinium from the host is known as coral bleaching, a condition unless corrected leading to the deterioration and loss of the reef. Sea sponges Green Algae live close to the surface of some sponges, for example, breadcrumb sponge (Halichondria panicea). The alga is thus protected from predators; the sponge is provided with oxygen and sugars which can account for 50 to 80% of sponge growth in some species. http://uwsp.edu/cnr/UWEXlakes/laketides/vol26-4/vol26-4.pdf Life-cycle Rhodophyta, Chlorophyta and Heterokontophyta, the three main algal Phyla, have life-cycles which show tremendous variation with considerable complexity. In general there is an asexual phase where the seaweed's cells are diploid, a sexual phase where the cells are haploid followed by fusion of the male and female gametes. Asexual reproduction is advantageous in that it permits efficient population increases, but less variation is possible. Sexual reproduction allows more variation but is more costly because among other things. Often there is no strict alternation between the sporophyte and also because there is often an asexual phase, which could include the fragmentation of the thallus. Lobban, C S and Harrison, P J (1997) Seaweed Ecology and Physiology. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40897-00 [http://scitec.uwichill.edu.bb/bcs/bl14apl/algae2.htm Algae II<!-- Bot generated title -- Numbers The Algal Collection of the U.S. National Herbarium (located in the National Museum of Natural History) consists of approximately 320500 dried specimens, which, although not exhaustive (no exhaustive collection exists), gives an idea of the order of magnitude of the number of algal species (that number remains unknown). Estimates vary widely. For example, according to one standard textbook, John (2002), page 1. in the British Isles the UK Biodiversity Steering Group Report estimated there to be 20000 algal species in the UK. Another checklist reports only about 5000 species. Regarding the difference of about 15000 species, the text concludes: "It will require many detailed field surveys before it is possible to provide a reliable estimate of the total number of species ...." Regional and group estimates have been made as well: 5000—5500 species of Red Algae worldwide, "some 1300 in Australian Seas," Huisman (2000), page 25. 400 seaweed species for the western coastline of South Africa, Stegenga (1997). 669 marine species from California (U.S.A.), Abbott and Hollenberg (1976), page 2. 642 in the check-list of Britain and Ireland, Hardy and Guiry (2006). and so on, but lacking any scientific basis or reliable sources, these numbers have no more credibility than the British ones mentioned above. Most estimates also omit the microscopic Algae, such as the phytoplankta, entirely. Distribution The topic of distribution of algal species has been fairly well studied since the founding of phytogeography in the mid-19th century AD. Round (1981), Chapter 8, Dispersal, continuity and phytogeography. Algae spread mainly by the dispersal of spores analogously to the dispersal of Plantae by seeds and spores. Spores are everywhere in all parts of the Earth: the waters fresh and marine, the atmosphere, free-floating and in precipitation or mixed with dust, the humus and in other organisms, such as humans. Whether a spore is to grow into an organism depends on the combination of the species and the environmental conditions. The spores of fresh-water Algae are dispersed mainly by running water and wind, as well as by living carriers. Round (1981), page 360. The bodies of water into which they are transported are chemically selective. Marine spores are spread by currents. Ocean water is temperature selective, resulting in phytogeographic zones, regions and provinces. Round (1981), page 362. To some degree the distribution of Algae is subject to floristic discontinuities caused by geographical features, such as Antarctica, long distances of ocean or general land masses. It is therefore possible to identify species occurring by locality, such as "Pacific Algae" or "North Sea Algae". When they occur out of their localities, it is usually possible to hypothesize a transport mechanism, such as the hulls of ships. For example, Ulva reticulata and Ulva fasciata travelled from the mainland to Hawaii in this manner. Mapping is possible for select species only: "there are many valid examples of confined distribution patterns." Round (1981), Page 357. For example, Clathromorphum is an arctic genus and is not mapped far south of there. Round (1981), page 371. On the other hand, scientists regard the overall data as insufficient due to the "difficulties of undertaking such studies." Round (1981), page 366. Ecology Algae are prominent in bodies of water, common in terrestrial environments and are found in unusual environments, such as on snow and on ice. Seaweeds grow mostly in shallow marine waters, under ; however some have been recorded to a depth of Round (1981), page 176. The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology. Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column (phytoplankton) provide the food base for most marine food chains. In very high densities (algal blooms) these algae may discolor the water and outcompete, poison, or asphyxiate other life forms. Algae are variously sensitive to different factors, which has made them useful as biological indicators in the Ballantine Scale and its modification. Uses Agar Agar, an Algae derivative, has a number of commercial uses. Alginates Between 100,000 and 170,000 wet tons of Macrocystis are harvested annually in California for alginate extraction and abalone feed. Energy source To be competitive and independent from fluctuating support from (local) policy on the long run, biofuels should equal or beat the cost level of fossil fuels. Here, algae based fuels hold great promise, directly related to the potential to produce more biomass/ha-year than any other form of biomass. The break-even point for algae-based biofuels should be within reach in about ten years. Fertilizer Seaweed is used as a fertilizer. For centuries seaweed has been used as a fertilizer; George Owen of Henllys writing in the 16th century referring to drift weed in South Wales: Downloadable Google Books. This kind of ore they often gather and lay on great heapes, where it heteth and rotteth, and will have a strong and loathsome smell; when being so rotten they cast on the land, as they do their muck, and thereof springeth good corn, especially barley ... After spring-tydes or great rigs of the sea, they fetch it in sacks on horse backes, and carie the same three, four, or five miles, and cast it on the lande, which doth very much better the ground for corn and grass. Today Algae are used by humans in many ways; for example, as fertilizers, soil conditioners and livestock feed. Aquatic and microscopic species are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and are either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. Algaculture on a large scale is an important type of aquaculture in some places. Maerl is commonly used as a soil conditioner. Nutrition Naturally growing seaweeds are an important source of food, especially in Asia. They provide many vitamins including: A, B1, B2, B6, niacin and C, and are rich in iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium and calcium. In addition commercially cultivated microalgae, including both Algae and Cyanobacteria, are marketed as nutritional supplements, such as Spirulina, Chlorella and the Vitamin-C supplement, Dunaliella, high in beta-carotene. Algae are national foods of many nations: China consumes more than 70 species, including fat choy, a cyanobacterium considered a vegetable; Japan, over 20 species; Ireland, dulse; Chile, cochayuyo. Laver is used to make "laver bread" in the British Isles; in Korea, gim; in Japan, nori and aonori. It is also used along the west coast of North America from California to British Columbia, in Hawaii and by the Maoris of New Zealand. Sea lettuce and badderlocks are a salad ingredient in Scotland, Ireland, Greenland and Iceland. The oils from some Algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids. For example, Arachidonic acid is very high in Parietochloris incisa, where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool. Some varieties of Algae favored by vegetarianism and veganism contain the long-chain, essential omega-3 fatty acids, Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), in addition to vitamin B12. Fish oil contains the omega-3 fatty acids, but the original source is algae, which are eaten by marine life such as copepods and are passed up the food chain. Pollution control Sewage can be treated with algae, reducing the need for greater amounts of toxic chemicals than are already used. Algae can be used to capture fertilizers in runoff from farms. When subsequently harvested, the enriched algae itself can be used as fertilizer. Algae Bioreactors are used by some powerplants to reduce CO2 emissions. Pigments The natural pigments produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical dyes and coloring agents. Stabilizing substances Carrageenan, from the red alga Chondrus crispus, is used as a stabiliser in milk products. Notes Bibliography General . Regional Britain and Ireland Australia New Zealand Europe Arctic Greenland Faroe Islands . Canary Islands Morocco South Africa North America See also AlgaeBase Microphyte Nutrition Plant Hediniella Microalgae Photobioreactor External links Algae - Cell Centered Database Algae: Protists with Chloroplasts | Algae |@lemmatized lineage:3 algae:76 accord:2 thomas:1 cavalier:1 smith:1 exact:2 number:9 placement:1 endosymbiotic:6 event:5 yet:1 clear:2 diagram:1 take:2 general:4 guide:1 note:2 dotted:1 line:3 latin:3 seaweed:13 singular:2 alga:7 large:4 diverse:1 group:20 simple:2 typically:1 autotrophic:1 organism:7 range:3 unicellular:3 multicellular:2 form:11 complex:2 marine:11 call:6 photosynthetic:7 like:2 plant:17 lack:4 many:10 distinct:2 organ:3 find:6 land:7 reason:2 currently:1 exclude:2 consider:2 though:1 prokaryotic:1 cyanobacteria:6 commonly:2 refer:2 blue:2 green:14 traditionally:2 include:8 old:2 textbook:2 modern:3 source:7 regard:3 outdated:1 restrict:1 term:4 eukaryotic:1 true:1 therefore:3 nucleus:2 enclose:1 within:4 membrane:11 chloroplast:21 bind:1 one:6 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6,352 | Christian_views_on_marriage | Christians typically regard marriage as instituted and ordained by God (Genesis 2 and 3) for the lifelong relationship between one man as husband and one woman as wife Adams, Jay E. Marriage, Divorce, and Remarriage in the Bible, Zondervan, 1986, ISBN: 0310511119 In the New Testament marriage is thought of as normal and proper. It is to be "held in honor among all" (). Stagg, Evelyn and Frank Stagg. Woman in the World of Jesus. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1978. ISBN 0-664-24195-6 Civil laws recognize marriage as having social and political status. Christian theology affirms the secular status of marriage, but additionally views it from a moral and religious perspective that transcends all social interests. Bingham, Joel F. Christian Marriage: Ceremony, history, significance [brief title]. E.P. Dutton & Co., 1900. Harvard College Library. Online: http://www.google.com/search?client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla%3Aen-US%3Aofficial&channel=s&hl=en&q=history+of+christian+marriage&btnG=Google+Search A few denominations recently have extended the definition to include two persons of the same sex. While marriage is honored among Christians and throughout the Bible, it is not seen as necessary for everyone. Unmarrieds who either have chosen to remain single or who have lost their spouse for some reason are neither incomplete in Christ nor personal failures. There is no suggestion that Jesus was ever married. Divorce—dissolution of marriage ("putting asunder what God has joined together")—is generally seen from a Christian perspective as less than the ideal, with specific opinions ranging from it being universally wrong to the notion that it sometimes is inevitable. Duty, Guy. Divorce & Remarriage: A Christian View. Bethany House Publishers (May 2002). ISBN 0764227262. Except for a brief time during the Middle Ages, the traditional Christian view has held that sex is reserved for marriage and that sex outside of marriage is a sin. More liberal or progressive societal trends have moved some Christian denominations to reaffirm historical conservative views and others to reconsider traditional practice in this area. Roles and responsibilities of husband and wives now vary considerably on a continuum between the long-held male-dominant/female-submission view "Marriage Preparation and Improvement." http://www.gospelway.com/family/marriage-roles.php and a growing shift toward equality (without sameness) of the woman and the man. "Marriage Matters: Married for Life." http://O'Shields, Dale. "Marriage Matters." www.church-redeemer.org/uploads/Married%20For%20Life%20PD%2007.pdf Biblical foundations Marriage is considered in its ideal according to the purpose of God. It is also considered in its actual occurrence, sometimes involving failure. Therefore, the Bible speaks also on the subject of divorce. Old Testament Christians regard the foundational principle of the lifelong union of a man and a woman to have been first articulated biblically in the Book of Genesis (). Jesus 150x|Sometimes used as a symbol for Christian marriage: Two gold wedding rings interlinked with the Greek letters chi (X) and rho (P)—the first two letters in the Greek word for "Christ" (see Labarum) To Jesus, marriage allows a woman and a man to complement each other as two halves of a whole. The two are joined together by God so that "they are no longer two, but one." He set forth his basic position on marriage by bringing together two important passages from Genesis (; ), reinforcing the basic position on marriage found in Jewish scripture. He also emphasized that it is God-made and lifelong. Jesus regarded marriage as monogamous, with monogamy as the only normal, the only divine basis of family relationships. Mathews, Shailer. The Social Teaching of Jesus. Macmillan, 1900. Have you not read, he replied, that at the beginning the Creator "made them male and female," and said, "For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two will become one flesh"? So they are no longer two, but one. Therefore, what God has joined together, let man not separate (, ). Despite this, Jesus demonstrated an ambivalent view in the gospels on marriage. He himself never married, and seems not to have considered the family to be an important or significant institution; because he believed it was a distraction from an urgent mission Karen Armstrong, The Gospel according to women: Christianity's creation of the sex war in the west, London, 1986 . He believed he was living in a time of crisis and urgency where the Kingdom of God would be established where there would be no marriage nor giving in marriage (Luke 18:29-30): And he said unto them, Verily I say unto you, There is no man that hath left house, or parents, or brethren, or wife, or children, for the kingdom of God's sake, who shall not receive manifold more in this present time, and in the world to come life everlasting. () However, Jesus is seen to have dignified the institution of marriage by performing the first of his recorded miracles at a wedding, albeit reluctantly. See Marriage at Cana (). New Testament beyond the Gospels The Apostle Paul quoted passages from Genesis almost verbatim in two of his New Testament books ( and in ). He taught that Christian marriage parallels the relationship between Christ and the Church. His theological view was a Christian development of the Old Testament parallel between marriage and the relationship between God and Israel (; also ). Jesus () and Paul provide the only New Testament discouragement of getting married. Both Jesus and Paul seem to provide these "exceptions" because of extraordinary circumstances ("Because of the impending crisis"—1 Cor. 7:26). Now to the unmarried and the widows I say: It is good for them to stay unmarried, as I am. But if they cannot control themselves, they should marry, for it is better to marry than to burn with passion. —Paul (). It remains unclear if the Apostle Paul was once married. Some scholars believe he may have been a widower since he was a Pharisee and member of the Sanhedrin, positions in which the social norm of the day required the men to be married. Early church fathers First-century Christians did not value the family and saw celibacy and freedom from family ties as a preferable state. Augustine believed that marriage was a sacrament because it was a symbol used by Paul to express Christ's love of the Church. Despite this for the Fathers of the Church with their hatred of sex, marriage could not be a true and valuable Christian vocation. Jerome wrote: "It is not disparaging wedlock to prefer virginity. No one can make a comparison between two things if one is good and the other evil" (Letter 22). Tertullian argued that marriage "consists essentially in fornication" (An Exhortation to Chastity") Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage said that the first commandment given to men was to increase and multiply, but now that the earth was full there was no need to continue this process of multiplication. Augustine was clear that if everybody stopped marrying and having children that would be an admirable thing; it would mean that the Kingdom of God would return all the sooner and the world would come to an end. This negative view of marriage was reflected in the lack of interest shown by the Church authorities. No special ceremonial was devised to celebrate Christian marriage - despite the fact that the Church quickly produced liturgies to celebrate the Eucharist, Baptism and Confirmation. It was not important for a couple to have their nuptials blessed by a priest. People could marry by mutual agreement in the presence of witnesses. This system, known as Spousals, persisted after the Reformation. At first, the old Roman pagan rite was used by Christians, although modified superficially. The first detailed account of a Christian wedding in the West dates from the 9th century and was identical to the old nuptial service of Ancient Rome. Views of Protestant Christians The Wedding of Stephen Beckingham and Mary Cox by William Hogarth, c. 1729 (Metropolitan Museum of Art, N.Y.). Protestant denominations hold marriage to be ordained by God for the union between a man and a woman. They see the primary purpose of this union to be to glorify Praise, honor God by demonstrating his love to the world. Other purposes of marriage include intimate companionship, rearing children and mutual support for both husband and wife to fulfill their life callings. Protestants generally approve of birth control and consider marital sexual pleasure to be a gift of God. Conservative Protestants take a strict view of the nature of marriage. They consider marriage a solemn covenant between wife, husband and God. Most view sexual relations as appropriate only within a marriage. Divorce is permissible, if at all, only in very specific circumstances (for example, sexual immorality or abandonment by the non-believer). Roles and responsibilities of husband and wives now vary considerably on a continuum between the long-held male dominant/female submission view and a growing shift toward equality (without sameness) Steil, Janice M. Marital Equality: Its Relationship to the Well-Being of Husbands and Wives. Sage. 1997. ISBN 0-8039-5251-1 of the woman and the man. Throckmorton, Anne. "The Lives of Wives: Their Changing Roles." University of Virginia, January 9, 2008. Online: http://www.virginia.edu/uvatoday newsRelease.php?id=3654. Accessed 11 May 2009 There is considerable debate among many Christians today—not just Protestants—whether equality of husband and wife or male headship is the biblically-ordained view, and even if it is biblically-permissible. They fall into two main groups: Complementarians (who call for husband-headship and wife-submission) and the Christian Egalitarians (who believe in full partnership equality in which couples can discover and negotiate roles and responsibilities in marriage). The Complementarian view The Complementarian (also known as Traditionalist or Hierarchical) view of marriage maintains that male leadership is biblically required in marriage. Complementarians generally believe that the husband and wife are of equal worth before God, since both are created in God's image, but that husbands and wives have different functions and responsibilities in marriage. http://www.cbmw.org/Danvers According to this view, the husband has the God-given responsibility to provide for, protect, and lead his family. Wives are expected to respect their husbands' authority and submit to it. http://www.sbc.net/bfm/bfm2000.asp The 2000 Baptist Faith and Message, Southern Baptist Convention, 2000 revision However, some Complementarian authors caution that a wife's submission should never cause her to "follow her husband into sin." Piper, John and Grudem, Wayne (eds.) Recovering Biblical Manhood and Womanhood: A Response to Evangelical Feminism. Wheaton, IL: Crossway Books, 1991, p. 57 This Complementarian view of Christian marriage has been articulated by several prominent evangelical leaders in what is called the Danvers Statement. Biblical authority for gender-based conclusions include , , , and . The Danvers Statement. Prepared by several evangelical leaders at a Council on Biblical Manhood and Womanhood (CBMW) meeting in Danvers, Massachusetts, December 1987. Online: http://www.cbmw.org/Resources/Articles/The-Danvers-Statement A more detailed statement of the Complementarian view of marriage appears in Southern Baptist Convention's Baptist Faith and Message (2000): Many complementarians also interpret Scripture as forbidding women from holding positions of authority in the religious and/or political worlds. The Egalitarian View Christian Egalitarians believe that full partnership in an equal marriage is the most biblical view. In a most important sense, there is no priority of one over the other. As persons husband and wife are of equal value. In truth, they are one. Their position is that equality between a wife and husband produces the most intimate, wholesome and mutually fulfilling marriages. Their belief is that the Apostle Paul's statement recorded in applies to all Christian relationships, including Christian marriage: "There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female: for you are all one in Christ Jesus." See for example Christians for Biblical Equality Christian egalitarian theologians also find it significant that the "two becoming one" concept, first cited in , was quoted by Jesus in his teachings on marriage recorded in and . In those passages he reemphasized the concept by saying, "So, they are no longer two, but one" (NIV). The Apostle Paul cited the Genesis 2:24 passage in writing . Stagg, Evelyn and Frank. Woman in the World of Jesus. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1978. ISBN 0-664-24195-6 A New Testament passage that has long been interpreted to require a male priority in marriage is , which states: "Wives, submit to your husbands as to the Lord," and "the husband is the head of the wife as Christ is the head of the church…." Both Christian Egalitarians and Complementarians agree that the Apostle Paul wrote that the "husband is head" and "wives, submit" and that he was divinely inspired to write what he wrote, but the two groups diverge in their interpretation of this passage. Complementarians understand "head" to mean "leader" and "authority figure" like the head of an organization being its president or chief executive officer. Grudem, Wayne. “The Meaning Of kefale (“Head”): An Evaluation Of New Evidence, Real And Alleged,” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 44:1 (March 2001) p. 25-65. Online: http://74.125.95.132/search?q=cache:wZSw-mG-XN4J:www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/kephale.pdf+kephale&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=firefox-a Christian Egalitarians consider this understanding to be contrary to the teachings and example of Jesus Christ. Therefore, they believe more attention needs to be given to discerning (1) what Paul actually meant when he penned those instructions, (2) to what extent his gender-based guidance was intended for an abusive first century culture in which women were considered disposable entities, chattel (property of husband) and permanently minors legally and to what extent he was prescribing a hierarchical relationship in which wives must be under husband authority for all people in all times. Much has been written concerning the meaning of "head" in the New Testament. The word used for "head," transliterated from Greek, is kephalē—which means the anatomical head of a body. Today's English word "cephalic" (sə-făl'ĭk) means "Of or relating to the head; or located on, in, or near the head." In the New Testament, a thorough concordance search shows that the second most frequent use of "head" (kephalē), after "the structure that connects to our neck and sits atop our bodies," is the metaphorical sense of "source." Kroeger, Catherine Clark. "Toward an Understanding of Ancient Conceptions of 'Head'." Priscilla Papers, Volume 20:3, Summer 2006. <ref>Johnson, Alan F. "A Meta-Study of the Debate over the Meaning of 'Head' (Kephale) in Paul's Writings."] Priscilla Papers, Volume 20:4, Autumn 2006</ref> In Hebrew thought throughout the Old Testament, primarily because of the law of primogeniture—the right of the firstborn to preside over the affairs of the family International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. "Primogeniture." Online: http://www.bible-history.com/isbe/P/PRIMOGENITURE/ Accessed 11 May 2009 it was very important to determine who came first in birth order. Therefore, Paul and other rabbis pointed to the record, "the God made a woman from the rib Meaning of Heb. word translated "rib" unclear. Lit. "side" according to TNIV translation. he had taken out of the man," making it clear that the male was the first-created (first "born") and therefore perpetually entitled to special rights and privileges under the primogeniture doctrine. The wife's submission is seen in the context of Paul's injunction (in ) for all Christians to submit to one another. A straightforward reading of , , and may suggest that Jesus even forbids any hierarchy of relationships in Christian relationships: "You know that the rulers of the Gentiles lord it over them, and their high officials exercise authority over them. Not so with you!" While "lord it over" implies abusive leadership, his words "exercise authority" have no connotation of abuse of authority.''' Marsh, Clive, Steve Moyise. Jesus and the Gospels. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006. ISBN 0567040739 View of Roman Catholic Church This article will list several Catholic distinctives on marriage. The main article includes more detail. Roman Catholic couple at their holy Matrimony or marriage. In the Latin rite of the Catholic Church, during the celebration the priest imposes his liturgical stole upon the couple's hands, as a sign to confirm the marriage bond. "God himself is the author of marriage" which is his way of showing love for those he created. Marriage is a divine institution that can never be broken, even if the partners are legally divorced: as long as they are both alive, the Church considers them bound together by God. "Marriage in the Catholic Church." Religion and Ethics – Christianity. bbc.co.uk http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/ritesrituals/weddings_2.shtml Marriage is intended to be a faithful, exclusive, lifelong union of a man and a woman. They commit themselves completely to each other and to bringing children into the world and caring for them. Man and woman are equal and made for each other. They are created different from, but made for, each other. This complementarity, including sexual difference, draws them together in a mutually loving union. Catechism of the Catholic Church [CCC], nos. 1602-1605) The valid marriage of baptized Christians is one of the seven Roman Catholic sacraments—a saving reality. In opposing making same-sex unions equal to marriage, the Catholic Church views marriage as originating from God, though it is regulated by civil laws and church laws. Therefore, the Church's stance is that neither church nor state can alter the basic meaning and structure of marriage. Husband and wife give themselves totally to each other in their masculinity and femininity. Catechism of the Catholic Church, no. 1643 http://"The U.S. Bishops' Between Man and Woman" www.americancatholic.org/Newsletters/CU/ac0304.asp Arbëreshë Albanian couple during marriage in an Italo-Greek Catholic Church rite. During the Warsaw Uprising (1944), a Polish couple, members of an Armia Krajowa resistance group, are married in a secret Catholic chapel in a street in Warsaw.Catholics are encouraged to marry other Catholics. Priests are to remember that marriage is part of God's natural law and to support the couple if they do choose to marry. Today it is common for Catholics to enter into a mixed marriage (between a Catholic and a baptized non-Catholic). Couples entering into a mixed marriage are usually allowed to marry in a Catholic church provided their decision is of their own accord, and they intend to remain together for life, to be faithful to each other, and to have children if the bride is of childbearing age. Engaged couples are expected to refrain from sexual activity. The Church teaches that sex is part of the procreation process and should only happen within marriage. In Catholicism, a principal objective of marriage is procreation. "Entering marriage with the intention of never having children is a grave wrong and more than likely grounds for an annulment" Sacrament of Holy Matrimony, by P.McLachlan http://www.catholic-pages.com/marriage/sacrament.asp . It is normal procedure for a priest to ask the prospective bride and groom about their plans to have children before officiating at their wedding. The Catholic Church may refuse to marry anyone unwilling - or unable - to have children (such as older persons beyond the age of having children) since procreation by "the marriage act" is a fundamental part of marriage Humanae Vitae, Paul VI http://blog.beliefnet.com/stevenwaldman/2009/02/humanae-vitae----papal-encycli.html . View of the Eastern Orthodox Church Byzantine wedding ring, depicting Christ uniting the bride and groom, 7th century, nielloed gold (Musée du Louvre). Orthodox betrothal depicted by Vasily Vladimirovich Pukirev, 1832. The Wedding of Nicholas II and Grand Duchess Alexandra Feodorovna, by Ilya Yefimovich Repin, 1894 (Russian State Museum, St. Petersburg). In Eastern Orthodoxy, marriage is treated as a Sacred Mystery (sacrament), and as an ordination. Therefore, it is considered a martyrdom as each spouse learns to die to self for the sake of the other. Like all Mysteries, Orthodox marriage is more than just a celebration of something which already exists: it is the creation of something new, the imparting to the couple of the grace which transforms them from a 'couple' into husband and wife within the Body of Christ. Marriage is an icon (image) of the relationship between Jesus and the Church. This is somewhat akin to the Old Testament prophets' use of marriage as an analogy to describe the relationship between God and Israel. Marriage is the simplest, most basic unity of the church: a congregation where "two or three are gathered together in [Jesus'] name" (). The home is considered a consecrated space (the ritual for the Blessing of a House is based upon that of the Consecration of a Church), and the husband and wife are considered the ministers of that congregation. However, they do not "perform" the Sacraments in the house church; they "live" the Sacrament of Marriage. Because marriage is considered to be a pilgrimage wherein the couple walk side by side toward the Kingdom of Heaven, marriage to a non-Orthodox partner is discouraged, though it may be permitted. Unlike Western Christianity, Eastern Orthodox Churches do not consider the sacramental aspect of the marriage to be conferred by the couple themselves. Rather, the marriage is conferred by the action of the Holy Spirit acting through the priest. Furthermore, no one besides a bishop or priest—not even a deacon—may perform the Sacred Mystery. The external sign of the marriage is the placing of wedding crowns upon the heads of the couple, and their sharing in a "Common Cup" of wine. Once crowned, the couple walk a circle three times in a ceremonial "dance" in the middle of the church, while the choir intones a joyous three-part antiphonal hymn, "Dance, Isaiah" The sharing of the Common Cup symbolizes the transformation of their union from a common marriage into a sacred union. The wedding is usually performed after the Divine Liturgy at which the couple receives Holy Communion. Traditionally, the wedding couple would wear their wedding crowns for eight days, and there is a special prayer said by the priest at the removal of the crowns. Divorce is discouraged. Sometimes out of economia (mercy) a marriage may be dissolved if there is no hope whatever for a marriage to fulfill even a semblance of its intended sacramental character. The standard formula for remarriage is that the Orthodox Church joyfully blesses the first marriage, merely performs the second, barely tolerates the third, and invariably forbids the fourth. Orthodox Church prepared for a wedding (Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki. Early church texts forbid marriage between an Orthodox Christian and a heretic or schismatic (which would include all non-Orthodox Christians). Traditional Orthodox Christians forbid mixed marriages with other denominations. More liberal ones perform them, provided that the couple formally commit themselves to rearing their children in the Orthodox faith. All people are called to celibacy—human beings are all born into virginity, and Orthodox Christians are expected by Sacred Tradition to remain in that state unless they are called into marriage and that call is sanctified. The church blesses two paths on the journey to salvation: monasticism and marriage. Mere celibacy, without the sanctification of monasticism, can fall into selfishness and tends to be regarded with disfavour by the Church. Orthodox priests who serve in parishes are usually married. They must marry prior to their ordination. If their wife dies, they are forbidden to remarry; if they do, they may no longer serve as a priest. A married man may be ordained as a priest or deacon. However, a priest or deacon is not permitted to enter into matrimony after ordination. Bishops must always be monks and are thus celibate. However, if a married priest is widowed, he may receive monastic tonsure and thus become eligible for the episcopate. Views of other Churches A Celestial Marriage must be performed in an LDS temple. In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ("LDS Church"; see also Mormon), "Celestial Marriage" is a sacred covenant between a man, a woman and God performed by a priesthood authority in the temples of the Church. Eternal Marriage is legally recognized, but unlike other civil marriages, Eternal Marriage is intended to continue into the afterlife after the resurrection if the man and woman do not break their covenants. Eternally married couples are often referred to as being "sealed" to each other. Sealed couples who keep their covenants are also promised to have their posterity sealed to them in the after life. Thus, the slogan of the LDS Church: "families are forever." The LDS Church encourages its members to be in good standing with it so that they may marry in the temple. "Cancellation of a sealing," sometimes incorrectly called a "temple divorce," is uncommon and is granted only by the highest authority in the Church. Civil divorce and marriage outside the temple is somewhat of a stigma in the Latter-day Saint culture although currently the Church itself directs its local leaders not to advise members about divorce one way or another. In the New Church (or Swedenborgianism), marriage is considered a sacred covenant between one man, one woman and the Lord. The doctrine of the New Church teaches that married love (sometime translated conjugal love'') is "the precious jewel of human life and the repository of the Christian religion" because the love shared between a husband and a wife is the source of all peace and joy. http://www.theheavenlydoctrines.org/static/d6295/457.htm see Married Love 457 Marriage is also meant to be eternal and divorce is only allowable when the spiritual union is broken by adultery. When a husband and wife work together to become angels in heaven, their marriage continues uninterrupted even after the death of their bodies, living together in heaven to eternity. Emanuel Swedenborg claimed to have spoken to angels who had been married for thousands of years. Those who are never married on earth will find a spouse in heaven. Same sex marriage A small number of Protestant denominations, such as the United Church of Canada, perform weddings between same sex couples. Other churches perform ceremonies blessing same sex unions, but do not refer to them as marriages. Whether to bless same-sex marriages and unions is a matter of debate within some denominations. See also Christian Egalitarianism Complementarianism Religious aspects of marriage (for all religions). Footnotes External links Analysis of historic, current and Biblical Christian views on Marriage, Divorce and Remarriage Annulment Tribunal, Diocese of San Jose Annulments, Information on Roman Catholic Bernard Orchard, Summary of The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph and chronological chart Bernard Orchard, The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph, Part 1 Bernard Orchard, The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph, Part 2 Biblical view of marriage—The Blood Covenant of Marriage Catholic divorce Catholic Familyland Christian Marriage Resources Christian view of the meaning and permanence of marriage Christians for Biblical Equality Divorce; Canonical Impediments Divorce First Century Marriage Research by Dr. Intone Brewer, Tyndale Biblical Library For Your Marriage - "Resources for living happily ever after" Future of Marriage from a Christian Viewpoint Marriage Catechism Photo: Orthodox Crowning (Marriage) Russian Orthodox Saint Josemaría on marriage "The Kyrios Dialogue" - The Socratic Method used on conservative Christian men for the issue of a husband's authority. 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6,353 | Cuban_missile_crisis | The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Cuba in October 1962, during the Cold War. In Russia, it is termed the "Caribbean Crisis" (, Karibskiy krizis), while in Cuba it is called the "October Crisis." The Cuban and Soviet governments decided in September 1962 to place nuclear missiles on Cuba in order to protect it from United States harassment. When United States intelligence discovered the weapons its government decided to do all they could to ensure the removal of them. The crisis ranks with the Berlin Blockade as one of the major confrontations of the Cold War, and is generally regarded as the moment in which the Cold War came closest to a nuclear war. B. Gregory Marfleet, ‘The Operational Code of John F. Kennedy During the Cuban Missile Crisis: A Comparison of Public and Private Rhetoric’, Political Psychology, 21/3, p 545. Background The Americans feared the Soviet expansion of communism or socialism, but for a Latin American country to ally openly with the USSR was regarded as unacceptable, given the Russo-American enmity since the end of the Second World War in 1945. Such an involvement would also directly defy the Monroe Doctrine which prevented European powers from getting involved in South American matters. In late 1961, President John F. Kennedy engaged Operation Mongoose, a series of covert operations against Castro's government. They were unsuccessful. More overtly, in February 1962, the United States launched an economic embargo against Cuba. The United States also considered covert action again and had inserted CIA paramilitary officers from their Special Activities Division. Shadow Warrior: The CIA Hero of 100 unknown battles, Felix Rodriguez and John Weisman, Publisher: Simon & Schuster, October 1989, ISBN 9780671667214 Air Force General Curtis LeMay presented to Kennedy a pre-invasion bombing plan in September, while spy flights and minor military harassment from the United States Guantanamo Naval Base were the subject of continual Cuban diplomatic complaints to the U.S. government. In September 1963, the Cuban government saw significant evidence that the U.S. would invade, including a joint U.S. Congressional resolution authorising the use of military force in Cuba if American interests were threatened, Cuban resolution,october U.S. Public Law 87-733, S.J. Res. 230 and the announcement of a U.S. military exercise in the Caribbean planned for the following month (Operation Ortsac). As a consequence, Castro and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev agreed to secretly place strategic nuclear missiles in Cuba. Like Castro, Khrushchev felt that a U.S. invasion of Cuba was imminent, and that to lose Cuba would do great harm to the spread of communism, especially in Latin America. He said that he wanted to confront the Americans "with more than words...the logical answer was missiles." quote in Weldes, J. - "Constructing National Interests: The United States and the Cuban Missile Crisis" University of Minnesota Press, 1999 p.29 The tensions were at their height from October 8, 1962. On October 14, United States reconnaissance saw the missile bases being built in Cuba. The crisis ended two weeks later on October 28, 1962, when the President of the United States John F. Kennedy and the United Nations Secretary-General U Thant reached an agreement with the Soviets to dismantle the missiles in Cuba in exchange for a no-invasion agreement. Khrushchev requested that the Jupiter and Thor missiles in Turkey be removed, but the United States did not actually remove them, and his request was ignored by the Kennedy administration and not pressed by the Soviet Union. Mark J. White, The Cuban Missile Crisis (London: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1996), p. 228 Kennedy gave a key warning in his first public speech on the crisis (October 22, 1962): It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union. This speech included another key policy: To halt this offensive buildup, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated. All ships of any kind bound for Cuba from whatever nation and port will, if found to contain cargoes of offensive weapons, be turned back. This quarantine will be extended, if needed, to other types of cargo and carriers. We are not at this time, however, denying the necessities of life as the Soviets attempted to do in their Berlin blockade of 1948. Kennedy ordered intensified surveillance, and cited cooperation from the foreign ministers of the Organization of American States (OAS). Kennedy "directed the Armed Forces to prepare for any eventualities; and I trust that in the interest of both the Cuban people and the Soviet technicians at the sites, the hazards to all concerned of continuing the threat will be recognised." He called for emergency meetings of the OAS and United Nations Security Council to deal with the matter. U-2 flights U-2 reconnaissance photograph of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. Shown are the transports and tents for fuelling and maintenance. The first consignment of SS-3 MRBMs (medium range ballistic missiles) arrived on the night of September 8, followed by a second on September 16. The Soviets were building nine sites — six for SS-4s and three for SS-5s with a 4,000 kilometer-range (2,400 statute miles). The planned arsenal was forty launchers, a 70% increase in first strike capacity. The Cuban populace readily noticed it, with over one thousand reports reaching Miami, which U.S. intelligence considered spurious.<ref name=GWUgraybeal>{{citation | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/interviews/episode-21/graybeal3.html | volume = George Washington University National Security Archive | title = Interview with Sidney Graybeal - 29.1.98}}</ref> On October 8, Cuban President Osvaldo Dorticós (1959-1976) spoke at the U.N. General Assembly: "If ... we are attacked, we will defend ourselves. I repeat, we have sufficient means with which to defend ourselves; we have indeed our inevitable weapons, the weapons, which we would have preferred not to acquire, and which we do not wish to employ". Several unrelated problems meant the missiles were not discovered by the U.S. until an October 14 U-2 flight showed the construction of an SS-4 site at San Cristóbal, Pinar del Río Province, in western Cuba. Planning an American Response Kennedy saw the photographs on October 16; Revelations from the Russian Archives he assembled the Executive Committee of the National Security Council (EXCOMM), fourteen key officials and his brother Robert, at 9.00 a.m. The U.S. had no plan for dealing with such a threat, because U.S. intelligence was convinced that the Soviets would not install nuclear missiles in Cuba. The EXCOMM quickly discussed five courses of action: Do nothing. Use diplomatic pressure to get the Soviet Union to remove the missiles. An air attack on the missiles. A full military invasion. The naval blockade of Cuba, which was redefined as a more restrictive quarantine. </blockquote> Unanimously, the Joint Chiefs of Staff agreed that a full-scale attack and invasion was the only solution. They agreed that the Soviets would not act to stop the U.S. from conquering Cuba; Kennedy was skeptical, saying: They, no more than we, can let these things go by without doing something. They can't, after all their statements, permit us to take out their missiles, kill a lot of Russians, and then do nothing. If they don't take action in Cuba, they certainly will in Berlin. Kennedy concluded that attacking by air would signal the Soviets to presume "a clear line" to conquer Berlin. Adding that in taking such an action, the United States' allies would think of the U.S. as "trigger-happy cowboys" who lost Berlin because they could not peacefully resolve the Cuban situation. President Kennedy and Secretary of Defense McNamara in an EXCOMM meeting. The EXCOMM then discussed the effect on the strategic balance. The Joint Chiefs of Staff believed that the missiles would seriously alter the balance, but Secretary of Defence Robert McNamara disagreed. He was convinced that the missiles would not affect the strategic balance at all. An extra forty, he reasoned, would make little difference to the overall strategic balance. The US already had circa 5,000 strategic warheads, whilst the Soviet Union only had 300. He concluded that the Soviets having 340 would not therefore substantially alter the strategic balance. In 1990 he reiterated that "it made no difference...The military balance wasn't changed. I didn't believe it then, and I don't believe it now." Blight, J. & Welch, D. - 'On the Brink: Americans and Soviets Reexamine the Cuban Missile Crisis' Noonday Press, 1990 The EXCOMM did agree, however, that the missile would affect the political balance. First, Kennedy had explicitly promised the American people less than a month before the crisis that "if Cuba should possess a capacity to carry out offensive actions against the United States...the United States would act" Kennedy, J. - 'The President's News Conference of September 13, 1962', In 'Public Papers of the Presidents: John F Kennedy, 1962' pp. 674-681. Washington, DC. Government Printing Office, 1963 . Second, U.S. credibility amongst their allies, and amongst the American people, would have been damaged if they had allowed the Soviet Union to appear to redress the strategic balance by placing missiles in Cuba. Kennedy explained after the crisis that "it would have politically changed the balance of power. It would have appeared to, and appearances contribute to reality." Kennedy, J. - 'After Two Years: A conversation with the president' Television and radio interview, December 17 1962. In 'Public Papers of the Presidents: John F. Kennedy, 1962' pp.889-904. Washington, DC. Government Printing Office 1963 Thus full-scale invasion was not an option, but something had to be done. Robert McNamara supported the naval blockade as a strong but limited military action that left the U.S. in control. According to international law a blockade is an act of war, but the Kennedy administration did not feel itself limited, thinking that the USSR would not be provoked to attack by a mere blockade. By October 19, frequent U-2 spy flights showed four operational sites. As part of the blockade, US military was put on high alert to enforce the blockade and to be ready to invade Cuba at a moment's notice. The 1st Armored Division was sent to Georgia, and five army divisions were alerted for maximal action. The Strategic Air Command (SAC) distributed its shorter-ranged B-47 Stratojet medium bombers to civilian airports and sent aloft its B-52 Stratofortress heavy bombers. Quarantine In customary international practice, a blockade stops all shipments into the blockaded area, and is considered an act of war. Quarantines are more selective, as, in this case, being limited to offensive weapons. While the original U.S. Navy paper did use the term "blockade,"This initially was to involve a naval blockade against offensive weapons within the framework of the Organization of American States and the Rio Treaty. Such a blockade might be expanded to cover all types of goods and air transport. The action was to be backed up by surveillance of Cuba. CNO's scenario was followed closely in later implementing the quarantine. Kennedy made an address to the Nation in which he said "To halt this offensive buildup, a strict quarantine on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated." "1962 Year In Review: Cuban Missile Crisis" Admiral Anderson's paper, by differentiating between the quarantine of offensive weapons and all materials, indicated that a classic blockade was not the original intention. Since it would take place in international waters, President John F. Kennedy obtained the approval of the OAS for military action under the hemispheric defense provisions of the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (i.e., the Rio Treaty). Latin American participation in the quarantine now involved two Argentine destroyers which were to report to the U.S. Commander South Atlantic [COMSOLANT] at Trinidad on November 9. An Argentine submarine and a Marine battalion with lift were available if required. In addition, two Venezuelan destroyers and one submarine had reported to COMSOLANT, ready for sea by November 2. The Government of Trinidad and Tobago offered the use of Chaguaramas Naval Base to warships of any OAS nation for the duration of the quarantine. The Dominican Republic had made available one escort ship. Colombia was reported ready to furnish units and had sent military officers to the U.S. to discuss this assistance. The Argentine Air Force informally offered three SA-16 aircraft in addition to forces already committed to the quarantine operation. President Kennedy signs the Proclamation for Interdiction of the Delivery of Offensive Weapons to Cuba at the Oval Office on October 23, 1962. At 7 p.m. on October 22, President Kennedy delivered a televised radio address announcing the discovery of the missiles. Crisis deepens Only an hour later, at 11:24 a.m. a cable drafted by George Ball to the U.S. Ambassador in Turkey and the U.S. Ambassador to NATO notified them that they were considering making an offer to withdraw missiles from Turkey in exchange for a withdrawal from Cuba. Later, on the morning of October 25, journalist Walter Lippman proposed the same thing in his syndicated column. For many years this has been interpreted as a trial balloon floated by the Kennedy administration, although the historical record suggests this is not the case. At the time the crisis continued unabated, and that evening TASS reported on an exchange of telegrams between Khrushchev and Bertrand Russell, where Khrushchev warned that the United States' "pirate action" would lead to war. However, this was followed at 9:24 p.m. by a telegram from Khrushchev to Kennedy which was received at 10:52 p.m., in which Khrushchev stated that "if you coolly weigh the situation which has developed, not giving way to passions, you will understand that the Soviet Union cannot fail to reject the arbitrary demands of the United States", and that the Soviet Union views the blockade as "an act of aggression" and their ships will be instructed to ignore it. On the night of October 23, the Joint Chiefs of Staff instructed Strategic Air Command to go to DEFCON 2, for the only confirmed time in history. The message, and the response, were deliberately transmitted uncoded, unencrypted, in order to allow Soviet intelligence to capture them. Operation Falling Leaves quickly set up three radar bases to watch for missile launches from Cuba. The radars were experimental models ahead of their time. Each base was connected with a hotline to NORAD control. At 1:45 a.m. on October 25, Kennedy responded to Khrushchev's telegram, stating that the U.S. was forced into action after receiving repeated assurances that no offensive missiles were being placed in Cuba, and that when these assurances proved to be false, the deployment "required the responses I have announced... I hope that your government will take necessary action to permit a restoration of the earlier situation." A recently declassified map used by the U.S. Navy's Atlantic Fleet showing the position of American and Soviet ships at the height of the crisis. At 7:15 a.m., the USS Essex and USS Gearing attempted to intercept the Bucharest but failed to do so. Fairly certain the tanker did not contain any military material, it was allowed through the blockade. Later that day, at 5:43 p.m., the commander of the blockade effort ordered the USS Kennedy to intercept and board the Lebanese freighter Marcula. This took place the next day, and the Marcula was cleared through the blockade after its cargo was checked. At 5:00 p.m. William Clements announced that the missiles in Cuba were still actively being worked on. This report was later verified by a CIA report that suggested there had been no slow-down at all. In response, Kennedy issued Security Action Memorandum 199, authorizing the loading of nuclear weapons onto aircraft under the command of SACEUR (which had the duty of carrying out the first air strikes on the Soviet Union). The next morning, Kennedy informed the executive committee that he believed only an invasion would remove the missiles from Cuba. However, he was persuaded to give the matter time and continue with both military and diplomatic pressure. He agreed and ordered the low-level flights over the island to be increased from two per day to once every two hours. He also ordered a crash programme to institute a new civil government in Cuba if an invasion went ahead. At this point the crisis was ostensibly at a stalemate. The USSR had shown no indication that they would back down and had made several comments to the contrary. The U.S. had no reason to believe otherwise and was in the early stages of preparing for an invasion, along with a nuclear strike on the Soviet Union in case it responded militarily, which was assumed. Secret negotiations At 1:00 p.m., John A. Scali of ABC News had lunch with Aleksandr Fomin at Fomin's request. Fomin noted that "war seems about to break out" and asked Scali to use his contacts to talk to his "high-level friends" at the State Department to see if the U.S. would be interested in a diplomatic solution. He suggested that the language of the deal would contain an assurance from the Soviet Union to remove the weapons under UN supervision and that Castro would publicly announce that he would not accept such weapons in the future, in exchange for a public statement by the U.S. that it would never invade Cuba. The U.S. responded by asking the Brazilian government to pass a message to Castro that the U.S. would be "unlikely to invade" if the missiles were removed. At 6:00 p.m. the State Department started receiving a message that appeared to be written personally by Khrushchev. Robert Kennedy described the letter as "very long and emotional." Khrushchev reiterated the basic outline that had been stated to Scali earlier in the day, "I propose: we, for our part, will declare that our ships bound for Cuba are not carrying any armaments. You will declare that the United States will not invade Cuba with its troops and will not support any other forces which might intend to invade Cuba. Then the necessity of the presence of our military specialists in Cuba will disappear." At 6:45pm, news of Fomin's offer to Scali was finally heard and was interpreted as a "set up" for the arrival of Khrushchev's letter. The letter was then considered official and accurate, although it was later learned that Fomin was almost certainly operating of his own accord without official backing. Additional study of the letter was ordered and continued into the night. Canada, the NORAD ally of the United States, was not consulted in these negotiations. Crisis continues S-75 Dvina with V-750V 1D missile on a launcher. An installation similar to this one shot down Major Anderson's U-2 over Cuba. Castro, on the other hand, was convinced that an invasion was soon at hand, and he dictated a letter to Khrushchev which appeared to call for a preemptive strike on the U.S. He also ordered all anti-aircraft weapons in Cuba to fire on any U.S. aircraft, whereas in the past they had been ordered only to fire on groups of two or more. At 6:00 a.m. on October 27, the CIA delivered a memo reporting that three of the four missile sites at San Cristobal and the two sites at Sagua la Grande appeared to be fully operational. They also noted that the Cuban military continued to organise for action, although they were under order not to initiate action unless attacked. At 9 a.m. Moscow's Voice of Russia began broadcasting a message from Khrushchev. Contrary to the letter of the night before, the message offered a new trade, that the missiles on Cuba would be removed in exchange for the removal of the Jupiters from Turkey. Throughout the crisis, Turkey had repeatedly stated that it would be upset if the Jupiter missiles were removed. At 10 a.m. the executive committee met again to discuss the situation and came to the conclusion that the change in message was due to internal debate between Khrushchev and other party officials in the Kremlin. For the President's Eyes Only, pg. 300 McNamara noted that another tanker, the Grozny, was about out and should be intercepted. He also noted that they had not made the USSR aware of the quarantine line and suggested relaying this information to them via U Thant at the UN. An Air Force U-2 "Dragon Lady" similar to this one was shot down over Cuba. While the meeting progressed, at 11:03 a.m. a new message began to arrive from Khrushchev. The message stated, in part, "You are disturbed over Cuba. You say that this disturbs you because it is ninety miles by sea from the coast of the United States of America. But... you have placed destructive missile weapons, which you call offensive, in Turkey, literally next to us... I therefore make this proposal: We are willing to remove from Cuba the means which you regard as offensive... Your representatives will make a declaration to the effect that the United States ... will remove its analogous means from Turkey ... and after that, persons entrusted by the United Nations Security Council could inspect on the spot the fulfillment of the pledges made." The executive committee continued to meet through the day. The engine of the Lockheed U-2 shot down over Cuba on display at Museum of the Revolution in Havana. That morning, a Lockheed U-2 piloted by Major Rudolf Anderson, USAF had departed the U-2 forward operating location at McCoy AFB, Florida. At approximately 12:00 p.m. Eastern Standard Time, the aircraft was shot down by an S-75 Dvina (NATO designation SA-2 Guideline) SAM emplacement in Cuba, increasing the stress in negotiations between the USSR and the U.S. It was later learned that the decision to fire was made locally by an undetermined Soviet commander on his own authority. Later that day, at about 3:41 p.m., several U.S. Navy RF-8A Crusader reconnaissance aircraft on low-level photoreconnaissance missions were fired upon, and one was hit by a 37 mm shell but managed to return to base. At 4 p.m. Kennedy recalled the executive committee to the White House and ordered that a message immediately be sent to U Thant asking if the Soviets would "suspend" work on the missiles while negotiations were carried out. During this meeting, Maxwell Taylor delivered the news that the U-2 had been shot down. Kennedy had earlier claimed he would order an attack on such sites if fired upon, but he decided to leave the matter unless another attack was made. In an interview 40 years later, McNamara remembers (Note that he dates, from memory, the shooting down of the U-2 to Friday, October 26): We had to send a U-2 over to gain reconnaissance information on whether the Soviet missiles were becoming operational. We believed that if the U-2 was shot down that—the Cubans didn't have capabilities to shoot it down, the Soviets did—we believed if it was shot down, it would be shot down by a Soviet surface-to-air-missile unit, and that it would represent a decision by the Soviets to escalate the conflict. And therefore, before we sent the U-2 out, we agreed that if it was shot down we wouldn't meet, we'd simply attack. It was shot down on Friday [...]. Fortunately, we changed our mind, we thought "Well, it might have been an accident, we won't attack." Later we learned that Khrushchev had reasoned just as we did: we send over the U-2, if it was shot down, he reasoned we would believe it was an intentional escalation. And therefore, he issued orders to Pliyev, the Soviet commander in Cuba, to instruct all of his batteries not to shoot down the U-2. Interview with Robert McNamara by Columbia Tristar Home Entertainment, bundled as a DVD special feature of Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb. Drafting the response Emissaries sent by both Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev agreed to meet at the Yenching Palace Chinese restaurant in the Cleveland Park neighbourhood of Washington D.C. Kennedy suggested that they take Khrushchev's offer to trade away the missiles. Unknown to most members of the EXCOMM, Robert Kennedy had been meeting with the USSR Ambassador in Washington to discover whether these intentions were genuine. The EXCOMM was generally against the proposal because it would undermine NATO, and the Turkish government had repeatedly stated it was against any such trade. As the meeting progressed, a new plan emerged and Kennedy was slowly persuaded. The new plan called for the President to ignore the latest message and instead to return to Khrushchev's earlier one. Kennedy was initially hesitant, feeling that Khrushchev would no longer accept the deal because a new one had been offered, but Llewellyn Thompson argued that he might accept it anyway. White House Special Counsel and Advisor Ted Sorensen and Robert Kennedy left the meeting and returned 45 minutes later with a draft letter to this effect. The President made several changes, had it typed, and sent it. After the EXCOMM meeting, a smaller meeting continued in the Oval Office. The group argued that the letter should be underscored with an oral message to Ambassador Dobrynin stating that if the missiles were not withdrawn, military action would be used to remove them. Dean Rusk added one proviso, that no part of the language of the deal would mention Turkey, but there would be an understanding that the missiles would be removed "voluntarily" in the immediate aftermath. The President agreed, and the message was sent. An EXCOMM meeting during the Cuban Missile Crisis. President Kennedy, Secretary of State Rusk, and Secretary of Defense McNamara, in the White House Cabinet Room. At Juan Brito's request, Fomin and Scali met again. Scali asked why the two letters from Khrushchev were so different, and Fomin claimed it was because of "poor communications". Scali replied that the claim was not credible and shouted that he thought it was a "stinking double cross". He went on to claim that an invasion was only hours away, at which point Fomin stated that a response to the U.S. message was expected from Khrushchev shortly, and he urged Scali to tell the State Department that no treachery was intended. Scali said that he did not think anyone would believe him, but he agreed to deliver the message. The two went their separate ways, and Scali immediately typed out a memo for the EXCOMM. Within the U.S. establishment it was well understood that ignoring the second offer and returning to the first put Khrushchev in a terrible position. Military preparations continued, and all active duty Air Force personnel were recalled to base for possible action. Robert Kennedy later recalled the mood, "We had not abandoned all hope, but what hope there was now rested with Khrushchev's revising his course within the next few hours. It was a hope, not an expectation. The expectation was military confrontation by Tuesday, and possibly tomorrow..." At 8:05 p.m. the letter drafted earlier in the day was delivered. The message read, "As I read your letter, the key elements of your proposals—which seem generally acceptable as I understand them—are as follows: 1) You would agree to remove these weapons systems from Cuba under appropriate United Nations observation and supervision; and undertake, with suitable safe-guards, to halt the further introduction of such weapon systems into Cuba. 2) We, on our part, would agree—upon the establishment of adequate arrangements through the United Nations, to ensure the carrying out and continuation of these commitments (a) to remove promptly the quarantine measures now in effect and (b) to give assurances against the invasion of Cuba." The letter was also released directly to the press to ensure it could not be "delayed." With the letter delivered, a deal was on the table. However, as Robert Kennedy noted, there was little expectation it would be accepted. At 9 p.m. the EXCOMM met again to review the actions for the following day. Plans were drawn up for air strikes on the missile sites as well as other economic targets, notably petroleum storage. McNamara stated that they had to "have two things ready: a government for Cuba, because we're going to need one; and secondly, plans for how to respond to the Soviet Union in Europe, because sure as hell they're going to do something there". At 12:12 a.m. on October 27, the U.S. informed its NATO allies that "the situation is growing shorter... the United States may find it necessary within a very short time in its interest and that of its fellow nations in the Western Hemisphere to take whatever military action may be necessary." To add to the concern, at 6 a.m. the CIA reported that all missiles in Cuba were ready for action. On October 27, the US Navy dropped a series of "signaling depth charges" on a Soviet submarine (B-59) at the quarantine line, unaware that it was armed with a nuclear-tipped torpedo with orders that allowed it to be used if the submarine was "hulled" (hole in the hull from depth charges or surface fire). Ending the crisis of 1962 After much deliberation between the Soviet Union and Kennedy's cabinet, Kennedy secretly agreed to remove all missiles set in Turkey on the border of the Soviet Union in exchange for Khrushchev removing all missiles in Cuba. At 9 a.m. on October 28, a new message from Khrushchev was broadcast on Radio Moscow. Khrushchev stated that, "the Soviet government, in addition to previously issued instructions on the cessation of further work at the building sites for the weapons, has issued a new order on the dismantling of the weapons which you describe as 'offensive' and their crating and return to the Soviet Union." Kennedy immediately responded, issuing a statement calling the letter "an important and constructive contribution to peace". He continued this with a formal letter: "I consider my letter to you of October twenty-seventh and your reply of today as firm undertakings on the part of both our governments which should be promptly carried out... The U.S. will make a statement in the framework of the Security Council in reference to Cuba as follows: it will declare that the United States of America will respect the inviolability of Cuban borders, its sovereignty, that it take the pledge not to interfere in internal affairs, not to intrude themselves and not to permit our territory to be used as a bridgehead for the invasion of Cuba, and will restrain those who would plan to carry an aggression against Cuba, either from U.S. territory or from the territory of other countries neighbouring to Cuba." Faria p. 103 The practical effect of this Kennedy-Khrushchev Pact was that it effectively strengthened Castro's position in Cuba in that he would not be invaded by the United States. It is possible that Khrushchev only placed the missiles in Cuba to get Kennedy to remove the missiles from Turkey and that the Soviets had no intention of resorting to nuclear war if they were out-gunned by the Americans. However, because the withdrawals from Turkey were not made public at the time, Khrushchev appeared to have lost the conflict and become weakened. The perception was that Kennedy had won the contest between the superpowers and Khrushchev had been humiliated. However, this is not entirely the case as both Kennedy and Khrushchev took every step to avoid full conflict despite the pressures of their governments. Khrushchev held power for another two years. Faria p. 102-105 Aftermath The compromise was a particularly sharp embarrassment for Khrushchev and the Soviet Union because the withdrawal of U.S. missiles from Turkey was not made public—it was a secret deal between Kennedy and Khrushchev. The Russians were seen as retreating from circumstances that they had started — though if played well, it could have looked just the opposite. Khrushchev's fall from power two years later can be partially linked to Politburo embarrassment at both Khrushchev's eventual concessions to the U.S. and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place. However, the Cuban Missile Crisis was not solely responsible for the fall of Khrushchev. The main reason was that rival politicians such as Leonid Brezhnev believed that Khrushchev did not have enough "power" to handle international crises. For Cuba, it was a partial betrayal by the Soviet, given that decisions on how to resolve the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev, and certain issues of interest to Cuba, such as the status of Guantanamo, were not addressed. This caused deteriorated Cuban-Soviet relations for years to come. Ramonet, Ignacio, Fidel Castro: My Life. Penguin Books: 2007, p. 278. ISBN 978-0-1410-2626-8 On the other hand, Cuba continued to be protected from invasion. One U.S. military commander was not happy with the result either. General LeMay told the President that it was "the greatest defeat in our history" and that the U.S. should invade immediately. The Cuban Missile Crisis was started by Tristan Rusch spurred the Hotline Agreement, which created the Moscow-Washington hot line, a direct communications link between Moscow and Washington, D.C. The purpose was to have a way that the leaders of the two Cold War countries could communicate directly to solve such a crisis. Various commentators (Melman, 1988; Hersh, 1997) also suggest that the Cuban Missile Crisis encouraged US use of military means, such as in the Vietnam War. This Russo-American confrontation was synchronous with the Sino-Indian War, dating from the U.S.'s military quarantine of Cuba; historians speculate that the Chinese attack against India for disputed land was meant to coincide with the Cuban Missile Crisis. Frontier India India-China Section Note alleged connections to Cuban Missile Crisis Historical notes Adlai Stevenson shows aerial photos of Cuban missiles to the United Nations in November 1962. Arthur Schlesinger, historian and adviser to John F. Kennedy, on National Public Radio on October 16, 2002, concluded that Castro had not wanted the missiles but that Khrushchev had forced them upon Cuba in a bit of political arm-twisting and "socialist solidarity." However, Castro has said that although he was not completely happy about the idea of the missiles in Cuba, the Cuban National Directorate of the Revolution accepted them to protect Cuba against U.S. attack, and to aid its ally, the Soviet Union. Ramonet, Ignacio, ibid, p. 272 Schlesinger believed that, having accepted the missiles, Castro was angrier with Khrushchev than he was with Kennedy when the missiles were withdrawn, because Khrushchev had not consulted Castro before deciding to remove them from Cuba. In his biography, Castro does not compare his feelings for either leader at that moment, however he makes it clear that he was angry with Khrushchev for lack of consultation. See Ramonet, Ignacio, Fidel Castro: My Life. Penguin Books: 2007, pp. 284-5. ISBN 978-0-1410-2626-8 In early 1992 it was confirmed that Soviet forces in Cuba had, by the time the crisis broke, received tactical nuclear warheads for their artillery rockets and IL-28 bombers, Arms Control Association: Arms Control Today though General Anatoly Gribkov, part of the Soviet staff responsible for the operation, stated that the local Soviet commander, General Issa Pliyev, had predelegated authority to use them if the U.S. had mounted a full-scale invasion of Cuba. Gribkov misspoke: the Kremlin's authorization remained unsigned and undelivered. (Other accounts show that Pliyev was given permission to use tactical nuclear warheads but only in the most extreme case of an U.S. invasion during which contact with Moscow was lost. However, when U.S. forces seemed to be readying for an attack (after the U-2 photos, but before Kennedy's television address), Khrushchev rescinded his earlier permission for Pliyev to use the tactical nuclear weapons, even under the most extreme conditions.) Castro has stated that he knew during the crisis that the warheads had indeed reached Cuba, and that he would recommended their use in the event of invasion, despite being sure that Cuba would be completely destroyed should nuclear war break out. In October 1997, The John F. Kennedy Library released a set of tape recordings documenting the crisis for the period October 18 to October 29, 1962. These recordings were made in the Oval Office. They include President Kennedy's personal recollections of discussions, conversations with his advisers, meetings with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and members of the president's executive committee. Arguably the most dangerous moment in the crisis was unrecognized until the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference in October 2002, attended by many of the veterans of the crisis, at which it was learned that on October 26, 1962 the USS Beale had tracked and dropped practice depth charges on the B-39, a Soviet Foxtrot-class submarine which was armed with a nuclear torpedo. Running out of air, the Soviet submarine was surrounded by American warships and desperately needed to surface. An argument broke out among three officers on the B-39, including submarine captain Valentin Savitsky, political officer Ivan Semonovich Maslennikov, and chief of staff of the submarine flotilla, Commander Vasiliy Arkhipov. An exhausted Savitsky became furious and ordered that the nuclear torpedo on board be made combat ready. Accounts differ about whether Commander Arkhipov convinced Savitsky not to make the attack, or whether Savitsky himself finally concluded that the only reasonable choice left open to him was to come to the surface. Dobbs, Michael, One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2008; p. 303, 317. ISBN 978-1-4000-4358-3. At the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference, Robert McNamara admitted that nuclear war had come much closer than people had thought. Thomas Blanton, director of the National Security Archive, said that "a guy called Vasili Arkhipov saved the world." See also Central Intelligence Agency International crisis Cold War Brinkmanship Bomber gap Missile gap Dino Brugioni Cuba – United States relations Cuba–Soviet Union relations Stanislav Petrov Sino-Indian War Able Archer 83 Norwegian rocket incident MediaMissiles of October, a dramatizationThirteen Days (book)Thirteen Days (film)The Fog of War, a film biography of U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara.Cuban Missile Crisis: The Aftermath, a videogame set in this periodThe World Next Door, a novel set in this periodC.S.A.: The Confederate States of America, features a parody known as the Newfoundland Missile Crisis http://www.csathemovie.com/timeline/moreinfo/newfoundland.html Notes References The short time span of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the extensive documentation of the decision-making processes on both sides makes it an excellent case study for analysis of state decision-making. In the Essence of Decision, Graham T. Allison and Philip D. Zelikow use the crisis to illustrate multiple approaches to analysing the actions of the state. It was also a substantial focus of the 2003 documentary The Fog of War, which won an Oscar. Allison, Graham and Zelikow, P. Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis; New York: Longman, 1999. Blight, James G., and David A. Welch. On the Brink: Americans and Soviets Reexamine the Cuban Missile Crisis; New York: Hill and Wang, 1989. Chayes, Abram. The Cuban Missile Crisis, International Crisis and the Role of Law; Oxford University Press, 1974; 2nd ed., 1987. Diez Acosta, Tomás, October 1962: The 'Missile' Crisis As Seen From Cuba; Pathfinder Press, New York, 2002. Divine, Robert A. The Cuban Missile Crisis; New York: M. Wiener Pub.,1988. Dobbs, Michael. One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War; Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2008; ISBN 978-1-4000-4358-3. Faria, Miguel, Cuba in Revolution—Escape from a Lost Paradise(2002); Hacienda Publishing, Macon, Georgia, ISBN 0-9641077-3-2. http://www.haciendapub.com Frankel, Max, High Noon in the Cold War; Ballantine Books, 2004; Presidio Press (reprint), 2005; ISBN 0-345-46671-3. Fursenko, Aleksandr, and Naftali, Timothy; One Hell of a Gamble - Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy 1958-1964; W.W. Norton (New York 1998) Fursenko, Aleksandr; Night Session of the Presidium of the Central Committee, 22-23 October; Naval War College Review, vol. 59, no. 3 (Summer 2006). Gonzalez, Servando The Nuclear Deception: Nikita Khrushchev and the Cuban Missile Crisis; IntelliBooks, 2002; ISBN 0- 9711391-5-6. Kennedy, Robert F. Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis; ISBN 0-393-31834-6. Khrushchev, Sergei, How my father and President Kennedy saved the world; American Heritage magazine, October 2002 issue. May, Ernest R. (editor); Zelikow, Philip D. (editor), The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House during the Cuban Missile Crisis; Belknap Press, 1997; ISBN 0-674-17926-9. Polmar, Norman and Gresham, John D. (foreword by Clancy, Tom) DEFCON – 2: Standing on the Brink of Nuclear War During the Cuban Missile Crisis; Wiley, 2006; ISBN 0-471-67022-7. Pope, Ronald R., Soviet Views on the Cuban Missile Crisis: Myth and Reality in Foreign Policy Analysis; University Press of America, 1982. Pressman, Jeremy. "September Statements, October Missiles, November Elections: Domestic Politics, Foreign-Policy Making, and the Cuban Missile Crisis.” Security Studies 10, no. 3 (Spring, 2001), pages 80-114. Stern, Sheldon M., Averting the Final Failure: John F. Kennedy and the Secret Cuban Missile Crisis Meetings''; Stanford University Press, 2003; ISBN 0804748462 The Cuban Missile Crisis: Declassified (Television Program) External links IV. Chronology of Submarine. Contact During the Cuban Missile Crisis. October 1, 1962 - November 14, 1962. Prepared by Jeremy Robinson-Leon and William Burr. CIA Documents on the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962(.pdf, 354 pgs.) U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, McAuliffe, M. ed., CIA History Staff, 1992. Cuban Missile Crisis and Aftermath, 1961 - 1963, Volume XI of the Kennedy Administration in the Foreign Relations of the United States series, U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Keefer, E., Sampson, C., & Smith, L., Eds., U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 1996. The official U.S. documentary historical record. Declassified Documents, etc. - Provided by the National Security Archive at The George Washington University. Declassified "Memorandum for the Secretary of Defense" on "Justification for U.S. Military Intervention in Cuba," from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Washington, D.C., March 13, 1962, html text from Cryptome .pdf from National Security Archive, at The George Washington University. Transcripts and Audio of EXCOMM meetings - Provided by the Miller Center's Presidential Recordings Program, University of Virginia. Tapes of debates between JFK and his advisors during the crisis President Kennedy's Address to the Nation on the Soviet Arms Buildup in Cuba The World On the Brink: John F. Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis 14 Days in October: The Cuban Missile Crisis - a site geared toward high-school students Nuclear Files.org Introduction, timeline and articles regarding the Cuban Missile Crisis Cuba Havana Documentary Bye Bye Havana is a documentary revealing what Cubans are thinking about today Annotated bibliography on the Cuban Missile Crisis from the Alsos Digital Library. 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6,354 | Hermann_Göring | Hermann Wilhelm Göring (also spelled Goering Göring is the German spelling, but the name is commonly transliterated Goering in English and other languages, using "oe" as the standard representation of "ö". ) (12 January 1893 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader and a leading member of the Nazi Party. Among many offices, he was Hitler's designated successor and commander of the Luftwaffe (German Air Force). With twenty-two confirmed kills as a fighter pilot, he was a veteran of the First World War and recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite ("The Blue Max"). He was the last commander of "The Red Baron" Manfred von Richthofen's famous Jagdgeschwader 1 air squadron. Following the end of the Second World War, Göring was convicted of war crimes and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg Trials. He was sentenced to death by hanging, but committed suicide by cyanide ingestion the night before he was due to be hanged. Family background and relatives Göring was born on 12 January, 1893 at the sanatorium Marienbad in Rosenheim, Bavaria. His father Heinrich Ernst Göring (31 October, 1839 7 December, 1913) had been the first Governor-General of the German protectorate of South West Africa (modern day Namibia) as well as being a former cavalry officer and member of the German consular service. Göring had among his paternal ancestors Eberle/Eberlin, a Swiss-German family of high bourgeoisie. Göring was a relative of such Eberle/Eberlin descendants as the German aviation pioneer Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin; German romantic nationalist Hermann Grimm (1828–1901), an author of the concept of the German hero as a mover of history, whom the Nazis claimed as one of their ideological forerunners; the industrialist family Merck, the owners of the pharmaceutical giant Merck; one of the world's major Catholic writers and poets of the 20th century German Baroness Gertrud von Le Fort, whose works were largely inspired by her revulsion against Nazism; and Swiss diplomat, historian and President of International Red Cross, Carl J. Burckhardt. In a historical coincidence, Göring was related via the Eberle/Eberlin line to Jacob Burckhardt (1818–1897), a great Swiss scholar of art and culture who was a major political and social thinker as well an opponent of nationalism and militarism, who rejected German claims of cultural and intellectual superiority and predicted a cataclysmic 20th century in which violent demagogues, whom he called "terrible simplifiers", would play central roles. Göring's mother Franziska "Fanny" Tiefenbrunn (1859 – 15 July, 1923) came from a Bavarian peasant family. The marriage of a gentleman to a woman from lower class (1885) occurred only because Heinrich Ernst Göring was a widower. Hermann Göring was one of five children; his brothers were Albert Göring and Karl Göring, and his sisters were Olga Therese Sophia Göring and Paula Elisabeth Rosa Göring, the last of whom were from his father's first marriage. Although anti-semitism had become rampant in Germany at that time, his parents were not anti-Semitic . Hermann Göring's elder brother, Karl, emigrated to the United States. Karl's son, Werner G. Göring, became a Captain in the United States Army Air Forces opposing his uncle's Luftwaffe during the Second World War. He participated in bombing runs over Germany. Göring's younger brother Albert Göring was opposed to the Nazi regime, and helped Jews and other dissidents in Germany during the Nazi era. He is said to have forged his brother Hermann's signature on transit papers to facilitate escapes, among other acts. Göring's other nephew, Hans-Joachim Göring, was a pilot in the Luftwaffe with III./Zerstörergeschwader 76, flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110. Hans-Joachim was killed in action on 11 July, 1940, when his Bf 110 was shot down by Hawker Hurricanes of No. 78 Squadron RAF. His aircraft crashed into Portland Harbour, Dorset, England. Weal 1999, p. 44-45. Early life and Ritter von Epenstein Göring later claimed his given name was chosen to honor the Arminius who defeated the legions of Rome at Teutoburg Forest. However the name was possibly to honor his godfather, a Christian of Jewish descent born Hermann Epenstein. Epenstein, whose father was an army surgeon in Berlin, became a wealthy physician and businessman and a major if not paternal influence on Göring's childhood. Much of Hermann's very early childhood, including a lengthy separation from his parents when his father took diplomatic posts in Africa and in Haiti (climates ruled too brutal for a young European child), was spent with governesses and with distant relatives. However, upon Heinrich Göring's retirement ca. 1898 his large family, supported solely on Heinrich's civil service pension, became for financially practical reasons the house guests of their longtime friend and Göring's probable namesake, a man whose minor title (acquired through service and donation to the Crown) made him now known as Hermann, Ritter von Epenstein. Von Epenstein purchased two largely dilapidated castles, Burg Veldenstein in Bavaria and Schloss Mauterndorf near Salzburg, Austria, whose very expensive restorations were ongoing by the time of Hermann Göring's birth. Both castles were to be residences to the Göring family, their official "caretakers" until 1913. Both castles were also ultimately to be his property. Göring in 1907. According to some biographers of both Hermann Göring and his younger brother Albert Göring, soon after the family took residence in his castles, von Epenstein began an adulterous relationship with Frau Göring and may in fact have been Albert's father. (Albert's physical resemblance to von Epenstein was noted even during his childhood and is evident in photographs.) Whatever the nature of von Epenstein's relationship with his mother, the young Hermann Göring enjoyed a close relationship with his godfather. Göring was unaware of von Epenstein's Jewish ancestry and birth until, as a child at a prestigious Austrian boarding school (where his tuition was paid by von Epenstein), he wrote an essay in praise of his godfather and was mocked by the school's anti-Semitic headmaster for professing such admiration for a Jew. Göring initially denied the allegation, but when confronted with proof in the "Semi-Gotha", a book of German heraldry (Ritter von Epenstein had purchased his minor title and castles with wealth garnered from speculation and trade and was thus included in a less than complimentary reference work on German speaking nobility), Göring remained steadfast in his devotion to his family's friend and patron so adamantly that he was expelled from the school. The action seems to have tightened the already considerable bond between godfather and godson. Relations between the Göring family and von Epenstein became far more formal during Göring's adolescence (causing Mosley and other biographers to speculate that perhaps the theorized affair ended naturally or that the elderly Heinrich discovered he was a cuckold and threatened its exposure). By the time of Heinrich Göring's death, the family no longer lived in a residence supplied by or seemed to have much contact at all with von Epenstein (though the family's comfortable circumstances indicate the Ritter may have continued to support them financially). Late in his life, Ritter von Epenstein wed a singer, Lily, who was half his age, bequeathing her his estate in his will, but requesting that she in turn bequeath the castles at Mauterndorf and Veldenstein to his godson Hermann upon her own death. Goering studied Greek with Rev. John Francis Richards in South Luffenham, Rutland, England, before the First World War. During his visits to England he went to Burghley House in which he decided he would live following a successful invasion of England. First World War Video clip of Hermann Göring in his cockpit in the First World War Göring was sent to boarding school at Ansbach, Franconia and then attended the cadet institutes at Karlsruhe and the military college at Berlin Lichterfelde. Göring was commissioned in the Prussian army on 22 June 1912 in the Prinz Wilhelm Regiment (112th Infantry), headquartered at Mulhouse as part of the 29th Division of the Imperial German Army. During the first year of World War I, Göring served with an infantry regiment in the Vosges region. He was hospitalized with Rheumatism resulting from the damp of trench warfare. While he was recovering, his friend Bruno Loerzer convinced him to transfer to the Luftstreitkräfte. Göring's application to transfer was immediately turned down. But later that year Göring flew as Loerzer's observer in Feldfliegerabteilung (FFA) 25 - Göring had arranged his own transfer. He was detected and sentenced to three weeks' confinement to barracks. The sentence was never carried out: by the time it was imposed Göring's association with Loerzer had been regularized. They were assigned as a team to the 25th Field Air Detachment of the Crown Prince's Fifth Army – "though it seems that they had to steal a plane in order to qualify." They flew reconnaissance and bombing missions for which the Crown Prince invested both Göring and Loerzer with the Iron Cross, first class. On completing his pilot's training course he was posted back to Feldfliegerabteilung (FFA) 2 in October 1915. Göring had already claimed two air victories as an Observer (one unconfirmed). He gained another flying a Fokker EIII single-seater scout in March 1916. In October 1916 he was posted to Jagdstaffel 5, but was wounded in action in November. In February 1917 he joined Jagdstaffel 26. He now scored steadily until in May 1917 he got his first command, Jasta 27. Serving with Jastas 5, 26 and 27, he claimed 21 air victories. Besides the Iron Cross, he was awarded the Zaehring Lion with swords, the Karl Friedrich Order and the House Order of Hohenzollern with swords, third class, and finally in May 1918 (despite not having the required 25 air victories) the coveted Pour le Mérite. On 7 July 1918, after the death of Wilhelm Reinhard, the successor of The Red Baron, he was made commander of the famed "Flying Circus", Jagdgeschwader 1. In June 1917, after a lengthy dogfight, Göring shot down an Australian pilot named Frank Slee. The battle is recounted in The Rise and Fall of Hermann Goering. Göring landed and met the Australian, and presented Slee with his Iron Cross. Years after, Slee gave Göring's Iron Cross to a friend, who later died on the beaches of Normandy on D-Day. Also during the war Göring had through his generous treatment made a friend of his prisoner of war Captain Frank Beaumont, a Royal Flying Corps pilot. "It was part of Goering's creed to admire a good enemy, and he did his best to keep Captain Beaumont from being taken over by the Army." Göring finished the war with twenty-two confirmed kills. Because of his arrogance Göring's appointment as commander of Jagdgeschwader 1 had not been well received. Though after demobilization Göring and his officers spent most of their time during the first weeks of November 1918 in the Stiftskeller, the best restaurant and drinking place in Aschaffenburg, he was the only veteran of Jagdgeschwader 1 never invited to post-war reunions. Göring was genuinely surprised (at least by his own account) at Germany's defeat in the First World War. He felt personally violated by the surrender, the Kaiser's abdication, the humiliating terms, and the supposed treachery of the post-war German politicians who had "goaded the people [to uprising] [and] who [had] stabbed our glorious Army in the back [thinking] of nothing but of attaining power and of enriching themselves at the expense of the people." Hermann Goering: The Man and His Work was the official biography edited by Göring himself. He later claimed the lion's share of the royalties for his efforts, according to Ordered to surrender the planes of his squadron to the Allies in December 1918, Göring and his fellow pilots intentionally wrecked the planes on landing. This endeavor paralleled the scuttling of surrendered ships. Typical for the political climate of the day, he was not arrested or even officially reprimanded for his action. Post war He remained in flying after the war, worked briefly at Fokker, tried "barnstorming", and in 1921 he joined Svenska Lufttrafik. He was also listed on the officer rolls of the Reichswehr, the post-World War I peacetime army of Germany, and by 1933 had risen to the rank of General major. He was made a Generalleutnant in 1935 and then a General in the Luftwaffe upon its founding later that year. Göring as a veteran pilot was often hired to fly businessmen and others on private aircraft. He worked in Denmark and Sweden as a commercial pilot. It may have been here that Göring first saw the swastika emblem, a family badge which was set in the chimney piece around the roaring fire. The swastika was a badge which the count and some friends had adopted at school and it became a family emblem, see This was also the first time Göring saw his future wife. A great staircase led down into the hall opposite the fireplace. As Göring looked up he saw a woman coming down the staircase as if toward him. He thought she was very beautiful. The count introduced his sister-in-law Baroness Carin von Kantzow (née Freiin von Fock, 1888–1931) to the twenty-seven year old Göring. Carin was a tall, maternal, unhappy, sentimental woman five years Göring's senior, estranged from her husband and in delicate health. Göring was immediately smitten with her. Carin's eldest sister and biographer claimed that it was love at first sight. Carin was carefully looked after by her parents as well as by Count and Countess von Rosen. She was also married and had an eight-year-old son Thomas to whom she was devoted. No romance other than one of courtly love was possible at this point. First marriage Carin divorced her estranged husband, Niels Gustav von Kantzow, in December 1922. She married Göring on 3 January 1923 in Stockholm. Von Kantzow behaved generously. He provided a financial settlement which enabled Carin and Göring to set up their first home together in Germany. It was a hunting lodge at Hochkreuth in the Bavarian Alps, near Bayrischzell, some 50 miles from Munich. Early Nazi Hermann Göring as the SA Commander in 1923 wearing his Pour le Mérite Göring joined the Nazi Party in 1922 and took over the SA leadership as the Oberste SA-Führer. After stepping down as SA Commander, he was appointed an SA-Gruppenführer (Lieutenant General) and held this rank on the SA rolls until 1945. Hitler later recalled his early association with Göring thus: At this time Carin, who liked Hitler, often played hostess to meetings of leading Nazis including her husband, Hitler, Hess, Rosenberg and Röhm. Göring was with Hitler in the Beer Hall Putsch in Munich on 9 November 1923. He marched beside Hitler at the head of the SA. When the Bavarian police broke up the march with gunfire, Göring was seriously wounded in the groin. Addiction and exile Stricken with pneumonia, Carin arranged for Göring to be spirited away to Austria. Göring was in no fit state to travel and the journey may have aggravated his condition, although he did avoid arrest. Göring was X-rayed and operated on in the hospital at Innsbruck. Carin wrote to her mother from Göring's bedside on 8 December 1923 describing the terrible pain Göring was in: "... in spite of being dosed with morphine every day, his pain stays just as bad as ever." Quoted in This was the beginning of his morphine addiction. Meanwhile in Munich the authorities declared Göring a wanted man. The Görings, acutely short of funds and reliant on the good will of Nazi sympathizers abroad, moved from Austria to Venice then in May 1924 to Rome via Florence and Siena. Göring met Benito Mussolini in Rome. Mussolini expressed some interest in meeting Hitler, by then in prison, on his release. Personal problems, however, continued to multiply. Göring's mother had died in 1923. By 1925 it was Carin's mother who was ill. The Görings, with difficulty, raised the money for a journey in spring 1925 to Sweden via Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland and the Free City of Danzig. Göring had become a violent morphine addict and Carin's family were shocked by his deterioration when they saw him. Carin, herself an epileptic, had to let the doctors and police take full charge of Göring. He was certified a dangerous drug addict and placed in the violent ward of Långbro asylum on 1 September 1925. Biographer Roger Manvell interviewed a psychiatrist in Stockholm who had seen Göring at a private clinic before being placed in Långbro : Göring was very violent and had to be placed in a straitjacket but was not insane. The 1925 psychiatrist's reports claimed Göring to be weak of character, a hysteric and unstable personality, sentimental yet callous, violent when afraid and a person who deployed bravado to hide a basic lack of moral courage. "Like many men capable of great acts of physical courage which verge quite often on desperation, he lacked the finer kind of courage in the conduct of his life which was needed when serious difficulties overcame him." See also At the time of Göring's detention all doctors' reports in Sweden were matters of public record. In 1925, Carin sued for custody of her son. Niels von Kantzow, her ex-husband, used a doctor's report on Carin and Göring as evidence to show that neither of them was fit to look after the boy, and so von Kantzow kept custody. The reports were also used by political opponents in Germany. Politics and Nazi electoral victory Göring returned to Germany in autumn 1927, after the newly elected President von Hindenburg declared amnesty for participants in the 1923 Putsch. Göring resumed his political work for Hitler. He became the 'salon Nazi', the Party's representative in upper class circles. Göring was elected to the Reichstag in 1928. In 1932, he was elected President of the Reichstag, which he remained until 1945. His wife Carin had suffered from tuberculosis during her later years. Her mother Huldine Fock died completely unexpectedly on 25 September 1931, and Carin died of heart failure on 17 October 1931, four days prior to her 43rd birthday. Hitler became Chancellor on 30 January 1933, by a deal with the conservative Franz von Papen. Only two other Nazis were included in the cabinet. One was Göring, who was named minister without portfolio. It was understood, however, that he would be named minister of aviation once Germany built up an air force. At Hitler's insistence, Göring also was appointed interior minister of Prussia under Papen, who doubled as Vice Chancellor of the Reich and minister-president of Prussia. (Prussia at this time, though a constituent state of Germany, included over half of the country.) Although his appointment as Prussian interior minister was little noticed at the time, it made Göring commander of the largest police force in Germany. He moved quickly to Nazify the police and use them against the Social Democrats and Communists. On 22 February, Göring ordered the police to recruit "auxiliaries" from the Nazi party militia, and to cease all opposition to the street violence of the SA. New elections were scheduled for 5 March, and Göring's police minions harassed and suppressed political opponents and rivals of the Nazis. He also detached the political and intelligence departments from the Prussian police and reorganized them as the Gestapo, a secret police force. On the night of February 27, 1933, the Reichstag building was gutted by fire. The Reichstag fire was arson, and the Nazis blamed the Communists. Göring himself met Hitler at the fire scene, and denounced it as "a Communist outrage," the first act in a planned uprising. Hitler agreed. The next day (February 26), the Reichstag Fire Decree suspended civil liberties. Göring ordered the complete suppression of the Communist party. Most German states banned party meetings and publications, but in Prussia, Göring's police summarily arrested 25,000 Communists and other leftists, including the entire Party leadership, save those that escaped abroad. Hundreds of other prominent anti-Nazis were also rounded up. Göring told the Prussian police that "...all other restraints on police action imposed by Reich and state law are abolished..." On 5 March, the Nazi-DNVP coalition won a narrow majority in the election; on 23 March, the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act, which effectively gave Hitler dictatorial powers. As part of the anti-Communist campaign, in the first executions in the Third Reich, Göring declined to commute the August 1933 death sentences passed against Bruno Tesch and three other Communists for their alleged role in the deaths of two SA members and sixteen others in the Altona Bloody Sunday (Altonaer Blutsonntag) riot, an SA march on 17 July 1932. asfpg Altonaer Stiftung für philosophische Grundlagenforschung . Possible responsibility for the Reichstag fire Marinus van der Lubbe, an ex-Communist radical, was arrested on the scene and claimed sole responsibility for the fire. But many observers believed that the Nazis set the fire to justify the subsequent crackdown. Göring in particular was suspected: he was first on the scene, and both Hitler and Goebbels were apparently surprised by the news. At Nuremberg, General Franz Halder testified that Göring admitted responsibility: Göring in his own Nuremberg testimony denied this story. It remains unclear whether or not Göring was responsible for the fire. The following is a transcript excerpt from the Nuremberg Trials: GOERING: This conversation did not take place and I request that I be confronted with Herr Halder. First of all I want to emphasize that what is written here is utter nonsense. It says, "The only one who really knows the Reichstag is I." The Reichstag was known to every representative in the Reichstag. The fire took place only in the general assembly room, and many hundreds or thousands of people knew this room as well as I did. A statement of this type is utter nonsense. How Herr Halder came to make that statement I do not know. Apparently that bad memory, which also let him down in military matters, is the only explanation. MR. ROBERT JACKSON: You know who Halder is? GOERING: Only too well. GOERING: That accusation that I had set fire to the Reichstag came from a certain foreign press. That could not bother me because it was not consistent with the facts. I had no reason or motive for setting fire to the Reichstag. From the artistic point of view I did not at all regret that the assembly chamber was burned – I hoped to build a better one. But I did regret very much that I was forced to find a new meeting place for the Reichstag and, not being able to find one, I had to give up my Kroll Opera House, that is, the second State Opera House, for that purpose. The opera seemed to me much more important than the Reichstag. MR. ROBERT JACKSON: Have you ever boasted of burning the Reichstag building, even by way of joking? GOERING: No. I made a joke, if that is the one you are referring to, when I said that, 'after this, I should be competing with Nero and that probably people would soon be saying that, dressed in a red toga and holding a lyre in my hand, I looked on at the fire and played while the Reichstag was burning'. That was the joke. But the fact was that I almost perished in the flames, which would have been very unfortunate for the German people, but very fortunate for their enemies. MR. ROBERT JACKSON: You never stated then that you burned the Reichstag? GOERING: No. I know that Herr Rauschning said in the book which he wrote, and which has often been referred to here, that I had discussed this with him. I saw Herr Rauschning only twice in my life and only for a short time on each occasion. If I had set fire to the Reichstag, I would presumably have let that be known only to my closest circle of confidants, if at all. I would not have told it to a man whom I did not know and whose appearance I could not describe at all today. That is an absolute distortion of the truth. Second marriage During the early 1930s Göring was often in the company of Emmy Sonnemann (1893–1973), an actress from Hamburg. He proposed to her in Weimar in February 1935. The wedding took place on 10 April 1935 in Berlin and was celebrated like the marriage of an emperor. They had a daughter, Edda Göring (born 2 June 1938) who was then thought to be named after Countess Edda Ciano, eldest child of Benito Mussolini. Actually, Edda was named after a friend of her mother. Time magazine: "Lady of the Axis" published 24 July 1939. Nazi potentate Göring was one of the key figures in the process of "forcible coordination" (Gleichschaltung) that established the Nazi dictatorship. For example, in 1933, Göring promulgated the ban on all Roman Catholic newspapers in Germany as a means of removing not only resistance to National Socialism but also to deprive the population of alternative forms of association and means of political communication. Göring's uniform on display at the Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr In the Nazi regime's early years, Göring served as minister in various key positions at both the Reich (German national) level and other levels as required. For example, in the state of Prussia, Göring was responsible for the economy as well as re-armament. His police forces included the Gestapo, which he converted into a political spy force. On 20 April 1934, Göring and Himmler agreed to put aside their differences (largely because of mutual hatred and growing dread of the SA or Sturmabteilung) and Göring transferred full authority over the Gestapo to Himmler, who was also named chief of all German police forces outside Prussia. With the Gestapo under their control, Himmler and Heydrich plotted (with Göring) as to its use along with the SS to crush the SA. Göring retained Special Police Battalion Wecke, which he converted to a paramilitary unit attached to the Landespolizei (State Police), Landespolizeigruppe General Göring. This formation participated in the Night of the Long Knives, when the SA leaders were purged. Göring was head of the Forschungsamt (FA), which secretly monitored telephone and radio communications, The FA was connected to the SS, the SD, and Abwehr intelligence services. In 1936, he became Plenipotentiary of the Four Year Plan for German rearmament, where he effectively took control of the economy – as economics minister Hjalmar Schacht became increasingly reluctant to pursue rapid rearmament and eventually resigned. The vast steel plant Reichswerke Hermann Göring was named after him. He gained great influence with Hitler (who placed a high value on rearmament). He never seemed to accept the Hitler Myth quite as much as Goebbels and Himmler, but remained loyal nevertheless. In 1938, Göring forced out the War Minister, Field Marshal von Blomberg, and the Army commander, General von Fritsch. They had welcomed Hitler's accession in 1933, but then annoyed him by criticising his plans for expansionist wars. Göring, who had been best man at Blomberg's recent wedding to a 26-year-old typist, discovered that the young woman was a former prostitute, and blackmailed him into resigning. Fritsch was accused of homosexual activity, and though completely innocent, resigned in shock and disgust. He was later exonerated by a "court of honor" presided over by Göring. Also in 1938, Göring played a key role in the Anschluss (annexation) of Austria. At the height of the crisis, Göring spoke on the telephone to Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg. Göring announced Germany's intent to march into Austria, and threatened war and the destruction of Austria if there was any resistance. Schuschnigg collapsed, and the German army marched into Austria without resistance. Personal qualities The confiscation of Jewish property gave Göring great opportunities to amass a personal fortune. Some properties he seized himself, or acquired for a nominal price. In other cases, he collected bribes for allowing others to steal Jewish property. He also took kickbacks from industrialists for favorable decisions as Four Year Plan director. Göring also "collected" several other offices, such as Reichsforst- und Jägermeister (Reich Master of the Forest and Hunt), for which he received high government salaries. Göring acquired a vast Prussian estate in 1933, and built his great manor house there. It was named Carinhall in memory of his first wife Carin. He exulted in aristocratic trappings, such as a coat of arms, and ceremonial swords and daggers, such as the Wedding Sword (an over sized broadsword with elaborate gold hilts presented to Göring at his 1935 wedding to Emmy). He also owned many fancy uniforms and much gaudy jewelry. Göring was also noted for his patronage of music, especially opera. He entertained frequently and lavishly. Most infamously, he collected art, looting from numerous museums (some in Germany itself), stealing from Jewish collectors, or buying for grossly discounted prices in occupied countries. When Göring was promoted to the unique rank of Reichsmarschall, he designed an elaborate personal flag for himself. The design included a German eagle, swastika, and crossed marshal's batons on one side, and on the other Großkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ("Grand Cross of the Iron Cross") between four Luftwaffe eagles. He had the flag carried by a personal standard-bearer at all public occasions. Göring was known for his extravagant tastes and garish clothing. Hans-Ulrich Rudel, the top Stuka pilot of the war, recalled twice meeting Göring dressed in outlandish costumes: first, a medieval hunting costume, practicing archery with his doctor, and second, dressed in a russet toga fastened with a golden clasp, smoking an abnormally large pipe. Italian Foreign Minister Ciano once noted Göring wearing a fur coat looking like what "a high grade prostitute wears to the opera." His personal car, dubbed "The Blue Goose" an aviation blue Mercedes 540K Special Cabriolet had luxurious features, as well as special additions, including bullet-proof glass and bomb resistant armor for protection and modifications to allow him to fit his girth behind the wheel. www.literaryclub.org/sitebuildercontent/sitebuilderfiles/The_Saga_of_the_ Blue_Goose-Maley.doc Though he liked to be called "der Eiserne" (the Iron Man), the once-dashing and muscular fighter pilot had become flabby and obese. He was however one of the few Nazi leaders who did not take offense at hearing jokes about himself, "no matter how rude," taking them as a sign of his popularity. Germans joked about his ego, saying that he would wear an admiral's uniform to take a bath, and his obesity, joking that "he sits down on his stomach." Göring and foreign policy Göring was certainly an ardent Nazi and utterly loyal to Hitler. But his preferences in foreign policy were different. The German diplomatic historian Klaus Hildebrand in his study of German foreign policy in the Nazi era noted that besides for Hitler's foreign policy program that there existed three other rival foreign programs held by factions in the Nazi Party, whom Hildebrand dubbed the agrarians, the revolutionary socialists and the Wilhelmine Imperialists Hildebrand, Klaus The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich, London: Batsford, 1973 pages 14–21 . Göring was the most prominent of the "Wilhelmine Imperialist" group in the Nazi regime. This group wanted to restore the German frontiers of 1914, regain the pre-1914 overseas empire, and make Eastern Europe Germany's exclusive sphere of influence. This was a much more limited set of goals than Hitler's dream of Lebensraum seized in merciless racial wars. By contrast, Göring and the "Wilhelmine Imperialist" fraction were more guided by traditional Machtpolitik in their foreign policy conceptions. Hildebrand, Klaus The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich, London: Batsford, 1973 pages 14–15 . Furthermore, the "Wilhelmine Imperialists" expected to achieve their goals within the established international order. While not rejecting war as an option, they preferred diplomacy, and sought political domination in eastern Europe rather than the military conquests envisioned by Hitler. And they rejected Hitler's mystical vision of war as a necessary ordeal for the nation, and of perpetual war as desirable. Göring himself feared that a major war might interfere with his luxurious lifestyle. Göring's advocacy of this policy led to his temporary exclusion by Hitler for a time in 1938–39 from foreign policy decisions. Göring's unwillingness to offer a major challenge to Hitler prevented him from offering any serious resistance to Hitler's policies, and the "Wilhelmine Imperialists" had no real influence. In the summer of 1939, Göring (who had some private doubts about the wisdom of Hitler’s policies attacking Poland, which he felt would cause a world war, and was anxious to see a compromise solution) and the rest of the "Wilhelmine Imperialists" made a last ditch effort to assert their foreign policy program. This was especially the case as Göring's Forschungsamt (research office), which functioned as Göring's private intelligence agency had broken the codes which the British Embassy in Berlin used to communicate with London. As the Forschungsamt revealed, Neville Chamberlain was most serious about going to war if Germany invaded Poland in 1939, and directly contradicted the advice given to Hitler by the Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop (a man whom Göring loathed at the best of times) that Chamberlain would dishonor the “guarantee” he had given Poland in March 1939 if Germany attacked that country. Göring was involved in the desperate attempts to avert a war in the summer of 1939 by using various amateur diplomats such as his deputy Helmuth Wohltat at the Four Year Plan organization, the British civil servant Sir Horace Wilson, the newspaper proprietor Lord Kemsley, together with would be peace-makers like the Swedish businessmen Axel Wenner-Gren and Birger Dahlerus, who served as couriers between Göring and various British officials Watt, D.C. How War Came, London: Heinemann, 1989 pages 394-407 . All of these efforts came to naught because Hitler (who much preferred Ribbentrop’s assessment of Britain to Göring's) would not be deterred from attacking Poland in 1939 together with the unwillingness and inability of the "Wilhelmine Imperialists" to challenge Hitler despite their reservations about his foreign policy. Complicity in the Holocaust Göring's letter to Reinhard Heydrich ordering him to arrange "für eine Gesamtlösung der Judenfrage im deutschen Einflußgebiet in Europa" – 'for a final solution of the Jewish Question in the German sphere of influence in Europe'. Despite his protestations to the contrary at Nuremberg, Göring was undoubtedly anti-Semitic, though whether this would have reached the level of genocide if he had been the sole decision-maker, absent the influence of Hitler and Himmler, is unclear. He occasionally intervened to shield individual Jews from harm, sometimes in exchange for a bribe, sometimes after a request from his wife Emmy or his anti-Nazi brother Albert. Despite these sporadic actions to help individuals, Göring was unquestionably and directly complicit in the Holocaust: he was the highest figure in the Nazi hierarchy to issue written orders for the "final solution of the Jewish Question", when he issued a memo to Heydrich to organize the practical details. This resulted in the Wannsee Conference. Göring wrote, "submit to me as soon as possible a general plan of the administrative material and financial measures necessary for carrying out the desired final solution of the Jewish question." Head of the Luftwaffe When the Nazis took power, Göring was Minister of Civil Air Transport, which was a screen for the build-up of German war aviation, prohibited by the Treaty of Versailles. When Hitler repudiated Versailles, in 1935, the Luftwaffe was unveiled, with Göring as Minister and Oberbefehlshaber (Supreme Commander). In 1938, he became the first Generalfeldmarschall (Field Marshal) of the Luftwaffe; this promotion also made him the highest ranking officer in Germany. Göring directed the rapid creation of this new branch of service. Within a few years, Germany produced large numbers of the world's most advanced military aircraft. In 1936, Göring at Hitler's direction sent several hundred aircraft along with several thousand air and ground crew, to assist the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War this became known as the Condor Legion. By 1939 the Luftwaffe was the most advanced and one of the most powerful air forces in the world. On 9 August 1939, Göring boasted "The Ruhr will not be subjected to a single bomb. If an enemy bomber reaches the Ruhr, my name is not Hermann Göring: you can call me Meier!" ("I want to be called Meier if ..." is a German idiom to express that something is impossible. Meier (in several spelling variants) is the second most common surname in Germany.) By the end of the war, Berlin's air raid sirens were bitterly known to the city's residents as "Meier's trumpets", or "Meier's hunting horns." Göring's army Unusually, the Luftwaffe also included its own ground troops, which became in a sense, Göring's private army. German Fallschirmjäger (parachute and glider) troops were organised as part of the Luftwaffe, not as part of the Army. Subject to rigorous training, they came to be regarded as elite troops, much the same as the paratroopers of the British and American armies. Fallschirmjäger units were awarded 134 Knight's Crosses between the years 1940–1945. U.S. Parachutists, WWII intelligence bulletin In addition to the Fallschirmjäger, there were also the Luftwaffe Field Divisions, which were organised as basic infantry units but were led by officers with little training for ground combat, and generally performed badly as combat troops as a result. The Herman Goring Panzer Division was also raised and served with distinction in the Italian campaign. Second World War Göring's Reichsmarschall baton and S&W revolver Göring was skeptical of Hitler's war plans. He believed Germany was not prepared for a new conflict and, in particular, that his Luftwaffe was not yet ready to beat the British Royal Air Force (RAF). So he made contacts through various diplomats and emissaries to avoid war. However, once Hitler decided on war, Göring supported him completely. On 1 September 1939, the first day of the war, Hitler spoke to the Reichstag at the Kroll Opera House. In this speech he designated Göring as his successor "if anything should befall me." Initially, decisive German victories followed quickly one after the other. The Luftwaffe destroyed the Polish Air Force within two weeks. The Fallschirmjäger seized key airfields in Norway and captured Fort Eben-Emael in Belgium. German air-to-ground attacks served as the "flying artillery" of the panzer troops in the blitzkrieg of France. "Leave it to my Luftwaffe" became Göring's perpetual gloat. After the defeat of France, Hitler awarded Göring the Grand Cross of the Iron Cross for his successful leadership. By a decree on 19 July 1940, Hitler promoted Göring to the rank of Reichsmarschall (Marshal of Germany), the highest military rank of the Greater German Reich. Reichsmarschall was a special rank for Göring, which made him senior to all other Army and Luftwaffe Field Marshals. Göring's political and military careers were at their peak. Göring had already received the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 30 September 1939 as Commander in Chief of the Luftwaffe. Göring promised Hitler that the Luftwaffe would quickly destroy the RAF, or break British morale with devastating air raids. He personally directed the first attacks on Britain from his private luxury train. But the Luftwaffe failed to gain control of the skies in the Battle of Britain. This was Hitler's first defeat. And Britain withstood the worst the Luftwaffe could do for the eight months of "the Blitz". However, the damage inflicted on British cities largely maintained Göring's prestige. The Luftwaffe destroyed Belgrade in April 1941, and Fallschirmjäger captured Crete from the British army in May 1941. The Eastern Front If Göring was skeptical about war against Britain and France, he was absolutely certain that a new campaign against the Soviet Union was doomed to defeat. After trying, completely in vain, to convince Hitler to give up Operation Barbarossa, he embraced the campaign. Hitler still relied on him completely. On 29 June, Hitler composed a special 'testament', which was kept secret till the end of the war. This formally designated Göring as "my deputy in all my offices" if Hitler was unable to function, and his successor if he died. Ironically, Göring did not know the contents of this testament, which was marked "To be opened only by the Reichsmarschall", until after leaving Berlin in April 1945 for Berchtesgaden, where it had been kept. The Luftwaffe shared in the initial victories in the east, destroying thousands of Soviet aircraft. But as Soviet resistance grew and the weather turned bad, the Luftwaffe became overstretched and exhausted. Göring by this time had lost interest in administering the Luftwaffe. That duty was left to others like Udet and Jeschonnek. Aircraft production lagged. Yet Göring persisted in outlandish promises. When the Soviets surrounded a German army in Stalingrad in 1942, Göring encouraged Hitler to fight for the city rather than retreat. He asserted that the Luftwaffe would deliver 500 tons per day of supplies to the trapped force. In fact no more than 100 tons were ever delivered in a day, and usually much less. While Göring's men struggled to fly in the savage Russian winter, Göring celebrated his 50th birthday. Göring was in charge of exploiting the vast industrial resources captured during the war, particularly in the Soviet Union. This proved to be an almost total failure, and little of the available potential was effectively harnessed for the service of the German military machine. The bomber war As early as 1940, British aircraft raided targets in Germany, debunking Göring's assurance that the Reich would never be attacked. Before the war, he proclaimed that he would change his name to "So-And-So" or eat his hat if an Allied bomber ever penetrated German airspace. By 1942, the bombers were coming by hundreds and thousands. Entire cities such as Cologne and Hamburg were devastated. The Luftwaffe responded with night fighters and anti-aircraft guns. Göring was still nominally in charge, but in practice he had little to do with operations. When Göring visited the devastated cities, civilians would say "Hello, Mr. So-And-So. How's your hat?". Göring's prestige, reputation, and influence with Hitler all declined, especially after the Stalingrad debacle. Hitler could not publicly repudiate him without embarrassment, but contact between them largely stopped. Göring withdrew from the military and political scene to enjoy the pleasures of life as a wealthy and powerful man. His reputation for extravagance made him particularly unpopular as ordinary Germans began to suffer deprivation. The end of the war In 1945, Göring fled the Berlin area with trainloads of treasures for the Nazi alpine resort in Berchtesgaden. He was presented with Hitler's testament, which he read for the first time. To his mind, since Hitler had decided to stay in Berlin to face almost certain death, Göring had a duty to take over as his successor. Indeed, Hitler had suggested a day earlier that Göring would be better suited to negotiate peace terms. On 23 April, as Soviet troops closed in around Berlin, Göring sent a radiogram to Hitler, suggesting that the testament should now come into force. He added that if he did not hear back from Hitler by 11 PM, he would assume Hitler was incapacitated, and would assume leadership of the Reich. Bormann received the telegram before Hitler did. He portrayed it as an ultimatum to surrender power or face a coup d'état. On 25 April, Hitler issued a telegram to Göring telling him that he had committed "high treason" and gave him the option of resigning all of his offices in exchange for his life. However, not long after that, Bormann ordered the SS in Berchtesgaden to arrest Göring. On 26 April, Hitler dismissed Göring as commander of the Luftwaffe. In his last will and testament, Hitler dismissed Göring from all his offices and expelled him from the Nazi Party. On 24 April, Hitler ordered the SS to execute Göring, his wife, and their daughter (Hitler's own goddaughter). But this order was ignored. Instead, the Görings and their SS captors moved together, to the same Schloß Mauterndorf where Göring had spent much of his childhood and which he had inherited (along with Burg Veldenstein) from his godfather's widow in 1938. (Göring had arranged for preferential treatment for the woman, and protected her from confiscation and arrest as the widow of a wealthy Jew.) Capture, trial and death Göring (first row, far left) at the Nuremberg Trials. Göring surrendered on 9 May 1945 in Bavaria. He was the third-highest-ranking Nazi official tried at Nuremberg, behind Reich President (former Admiral) Karl Dönitz and former Deputy Führer Rudolf Hess. Göring's last days were spent with Captain Gustave Gilbert, a German-speaking American intelligence officer and psychologist (and a Jew), who had access to all the prisoners held in the Nuremberg jail. Gilbert classified Göring as having an I.Q. of 138, the same as Dönitz. Gilbert kept a journal which he later published as Nuremberg Diary. Here he describes Göring on the evening of 18 April 1946, as the trials were halted for a three-day Easter recess. Despite claims that he was not anti-Semitic, while in the prison yard at Nuremberg, after hearing a remark about Jewish survivors in Hungary, Albert Speer reported overhearing Göring say, "So, there are still some there? I thought we had knocked off all of them. Somebody slipped up again." Despite his claims of non-involvement, he was confronted with orders he had signed for the murder of Jews and prisoners of war. Göring dressed for display, along with the other war criminals, after committing suicide by cyanide. Though he defended himself vigorously, and actually appeared to be winning the trial early on (partly by building popularity with the audience by making jokes and finding holes in the prosecution's case) he was sentenced to death by hanging. The judgment stated that: Judgment of International Military Tribunal on Hermann Goering Göring made an appeal, offering to accept the court's death sentence if he were shot as a soldier instead of hanged as a common criminal, but the court refused. Defying the sentence imposed by his captors, he committed suicide with a potassium cyanide capsule the night before he was to be hanged. Göring obtained the cyanide from his skin cream jars (he had interigo) and he had hidden two cyanide capsules in his opaque skin cream that no one found. Before his death, he had written a note to Colonel Andrus mocking him and his inability to find Goering's cyanide capsules. It has been claimed that Göring befriended U.S. Army Lieutenant Jack G. Wheelis, who was stationed at the Nuremberg Trials and helped Göring obtain cyanide which had been hidden among Göring's personal effects when they were confiscated by the Army. In 2005, former U.S. Army Private Herbert Lee Stivers claimed he gave Göring "medicine" hidden inside a gift fountain pen from a German woman the private had met and flirted with. Stivers served in the 1st Infantry Division's 26th Infantry Regiment, who formed the honor guard for the Nuremberg Trials. Stivers claims to have been unaware of what the "medicine" he delivered actually was until after Göring's death. Because he committed suicide, his dead body was displayed by the gallows for the witnesses of the executions. After his death, the bodies of Göring and the other executed Nazi leaders were cremated in the East Cemetery, Munich Ostfriedhof (München). His ashes were scattered in the Conwentzbach in Munich, which runs into the Isar river. He and Alfred Rosenberg were born on the same day (12 January 1893), and had Göring not committed suicide the night before his planned execution, they would also have died on the same day. Quotations Göring spoke about war and extreme nationalism to Captain Gilbert, as recorded in Gilbert's Nuremberg Diary: The well-known quotation, and its variations, is frequently attributed to Göring during the inter-war period. Whether or not he actually used this phrase, it did not originate with him. The line comes from Nazi playwright Hanns Johst's play Schlageter, "Wenn ich Kultur höre ... entsichere ich meinen Browning" ("Whenever I hear of culture... I set the safety-catch of my Browning"). Nor was Göring the only Nazi official to use this phrase: Rudolf Hess used it as well, and it was a popular cliché in Germany, often in the form: "Wenn ich 'Kultur' höre, nehme ich meine Pistole." Göring in film and fiction In film He has been portrayed by: Curly Howard parodied Göring as "Field Marshal Curly Gallstone" - 1940, in the Three Stooges short You Nazty Spy!. Billy Gilbert parodied Göring as "Minister Herring" - 1940 - Charlie Chaplin's The Great Dictator. At the beginning of the episode of the Donald Duck cartoon Der Fuehrer's Face, Göring is marching in a procession with other Nazi figures in a dream sequence. Mel Blanc voiced a bumbling Göring, called "Fatso" by Bugs Bunny, in the Merrie Melody cartoon Herr Meets Hare, directed in 1945 by Friz Freleng. Jan Werich - 1949, Padeniye Berlina (both parts) Hein Riess - 1969, Battle of Britain. John Banner - 1970 ""Fat Hermann Go Home" Hogan Heroes" Barry Primus - 1971, Von Richthofen and Brown. David King - 1981 The Bunker (television movie). Reinhard Kolldehoff - 1983 The Winds of War (television miniseries). Joss Ackland - 1988 The Man Who Lived at the Ritz (television movie). Volker Spengler - 1996, The Ogre, directed by Volker Schlöndorff, also starring John Malkovich. Glenn Shadix - 1996, The Empty Mirror. Brian Cox - 2000, Nuremberg (television movie), also starring Alec Baldwin and Jill Hennessy. Chris Larkin - 2003, Hitler: The Rise of Evil (television movie). Mathias Gnädinger - 2004, Der Untergang. Hannes Hellmann - 2006, Nuremberg: Goering's Last Stand. Robert Pugh in the 2006 BBC docudrama Nuremberg: Nazis on Trial. Gerhard Haase-Hindenberg in the 2008 film Valkyrie. Footage of Göring has been included in many films, notably in the 1935 Triumph of the Will by Leni Riefenstahl. Notes Sources Excerpt from Germany Reborn Weal, John. Messerschmitt Bf 110 Zerstörer Aces World War Two. London: Osprey, 1999. ISBN 1-85532-753-8. External links TRIAL: Göring trial "The Iron Knight" Göring's last prison interview he gave to US Army Intelligence before the Nuremberg Trials published by World War II Magazine Germany Reborn by Hermann Goring Hermann Göring's last letter to Winston Churchill Nuremberg Trial Proceedings Vol. 9 Transcript of Goering's testimony at the Nuremberg trial. |- |- | Hermann_Göring |@lemmatized hermann:22 wilhelm:3 göring:224 also:26 spell:2 goering:15 german:39 spelling:1 name:13 commonly:1 transliterated:1 english:1 language:1 use:10 oe:1 standard:2 representation:1 ö:1 january:5 october:5 politician:2 military:10 leader:4 leading:1 member:3 nazi:35 party:9 among:4 many:6 office:6 hitler:59 designate:3 successor:5 commander:11 luftwaffe:27 air:16 force:15 twenty:3 two:9 confirmed:1 kill:3 fighter:3 pilot:10 veteran:3 first:28 world:16 war:51 recipient:1 coveted:1 pour:3 le:4 mérite:3 blue:3 max:1 last:8 red:4 baron:2 manfred:1 von:28 richthofen:2 famous:1 jagdgeschwader:4 squadron:3 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6,355 | Fiddle | The term fiddle may refer to any bowed string musical instrument, including the violin; it is a colloquial term for the instrument used by players in all genres, including classical music. Fiddle playing, or fiddling, refers to various styles of music. The fiddle Any bowed string musical instrument may be informally called a fiddle, regardless of the kind of music being played with it. Violins or other members of the violin family are often affectionately referred to by their players as "my fiddle". History The medieval fiddle emerged in 10th-century Europe, deriving from the Byzantine lira (Greek:λύρα, Latin:lira, English:lyre), a bowed string instrument of the Byzantine Empire and ancestor of most European bowed instruments "fiddle." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 06 Mar. 2009 Anthony Baines: The Oxford Companion to Musical Instruments. Oxford University Press, USA (November 12, 1992) . The first recorded reference to the bowed lira was in the 9th century by the Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih (d. 911); in his lexicographical discussion of instruments he cited the lira (lūrā) as a typical instrument of the Byzantines and equivalent to the rabāb played in the Islamic Empires Margaret J. Kartomi: On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments. Chicago Studies in Ethnomusicology, University of Chicago Press, 1990 p.124 . Lira spread widely westward to Europe; in the 11th and 12th centuries European writers use the terms fiddle and lira interchangeably when referring to bowed instruments (Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009). Over the centuries, Europe continued to have two distinct types of fiddles: one, relatively square-shaped, held in the arms, became known as the lira da braccio (arm viol) family and evolved into the violin; the other, with sloping shoulders and held between the knees, was the lira da gamba (leg viol) group. During the Renaissance the gambas, were important and elegant instruments; they eventually lost ground to the louder (and originally less aristocratic) lira da braccio family stringed instrument. (2009). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 14, 2009, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/569200/stringed-instrument (Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009) . The fiddle or violin Fiddle has a more generalized meaning than violin. Whereas violin refers to a specific instrument, fiddle may be used to refer to a violin or any member of a general category of similar stringed instruments played with a horsehair bow, such as the Hardanger fiddle, the Byzantine lira, the Chinese erhu, the Welsh crwth, the Apache Tzii'edo' a 'tl, the cello in the context of a Scottish violin/cello duo ("wee fiddle and big fiddle"), the double bass ("bull fiddle" or "bass fiddle"), and so on. Etymology The etymology of fiddle is uncertain: the Germanic fiddle may derive from the same early Romance word as does violin, or it may be natively Germanic. (as access to the OED online is not free, the relevant excerpt is provided) "The ultimate origin is obscure. The [Teutonic] word bears a singular resemblance in sound to its [medieval Latin] synonym vitula, vidula, whence [Old French] viole, Pr. viula, and (by adoption from these [languages]) [Italian], [Spanish], [Portuguese] viola: see [viol]. The supposition that the early [Romance] vidula was adopted independently in more than one [Teutonic language] would account adequately for all the [Teutonic] forms; on the other hand, *fiÞulôn- may be an [Old Teutonic] word of native etymology, though no satisfactory [Teutonic] derivation has been found." A native Germanic ancestor of fiddle may even be the ancestor of the early Romance form of violin. Mario Pei, The Story of the English Language (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967), p. 109. Historically, fiddle also referred to a predecessor of today's violin. Like the violin, it tended to have four strings, but came in a variety of shapes and sizes. Another family of instruments which contributed to the development of the modern fiddle are the viols, which are held between the legs and played vertically, and have fretted fingerboards. Musical style Common distinctions between violins and fiddles reflect the differences in the instruments used to play classical and folk music. However, it is not uncommon for classically trained violinists to play fiddle music, and today many fiddle players have some classical training. As might be expected from the differences between the classical and folk music cultures, more musicians with no formal training play fiddle music than play classical music. Construction and setup In construction, fiddles and violins are essentially identical (with the Norwegian Hardanger fiddle excepted as a special case). The medieval fiddle had rear tuning pegs set in a flat headstock similarly to the Byzantine lyra and unlike the rabāb and rebec. Bridge Some (folk) fiddle traditions fit the instrument with a flatter bridge than classical violinists use. The difference between "round" and "flat" is not more than about a quarter or half a millimeter variation in the height of one or two strings, but is sufficient to reduce the range of right-arm motion required for the rapid string-crossings found in some styles, and those who use flatter bridges say it makes playing double stops and shuffles (bariolage) easier. It can also make triple stops possible, allowing one to play chords. In bluegrass and old-time music, for example, the top of the bridge is sometimes cut so that it is very slightly flattened; the Hardanger fiddle uses an even flatter bridge, and the bridge of the kontra or bracsa (a three-string viola used in Hungarian and Transylvanian folk music) is flat enough that all three strings can easily be played simultaneously. Most classical violinists prefer a more rounded curve to the top of the bridge, feeling that this allows them to articulate each note more easily and clearly. Many fiddle players use the same top curve as well; most fiddles are fitted with a standard classical bridge, regardless of the style of music played on the instrument. Since the bridge may be changed, it does not permanently define an instrument as fiddle or violin. Strings and tuners Fiddle is more likely to be used than violin if the instrument's strings are steel rather than gut or synthetic, as the sound of steel strings better suits some fiddling styles. Tuning steel strings is easier with fine tuners (small screw mechanisms attached or built into the tailpiece) so fiddlers may favor instruments with fine tuners on all four strings; it is very uncommon to see four fine tuners on full-size instruments played by classical musicians. Strings are subject to regular replacement, fine tuners may be added or removed, and tailpieces may be changed, so, like flattened bridges, they do not make an irreversible difference. Clichés Various clichés describe the difference between fiddle and violin: "When you are buying it, it's a fiddle. When you are selling it, it's a violin." "What's the difference between a violin and a fiddle? About $10,000." "The difference is in the nut that holds the bow." "The violin sings, the fiddle dances." "A fiddle is a violin with attitude." "No one cries when they spill beer on a fiddle." According to the performer Shoji Tabuchi, the difference lies "in how you fiddle around with it." Fiddling In performance, a solo fiddler, or one fiddler with a group of other instrumentalists, is the norm, though twin fiddling is represented in some North American, Scandinavian, and Irish styles. Violins, on the other hand, are commonly grouped in sections. These contrasting traditions may be vestiges of historical performance settings: large concert halls in which violins were played required more instruments, before electronic amplification, than did more intimate dance halls and houses fiddles were played in. The difference was likely compounded by the different sounds expected of violin music and fiddle music. Historically, the majority of fiddle music was dance music, while violin music had either grown out of dance music or was something else entirely. Violin music came to value a smoothness which fiddling, with its dance-driven clear beat, did not always follow - in situations that required greater volume, a fiddler (as long as they kept the beat) could push their instrument harder than could a violinist. (Different fiddle traditions had different values, as detailed below; these explanations are meant to present the differences between fiddle music and violin music generally.) Following the folk revivals of the second half of the 20th century, however, it has become common for less formal situations to find large groups of fiddlers playing together -- see for example the Swedish Spelmanslag folk-musician clubs, and the world-wide phenomenon of Irish sessions. In the very late 20th century, a few artists have successfully attempted a reconstruction of the Scottish tradition of violin and "big fiddle," or cello. Notable recorded examples include Amelia Kaminski and Christine Hanson's Bonnie Lasses and Alasdair Fraser and Natalie Haas' Fire and Grace. Bows used in fiddling Most fiddling styles that use the standard violin also use the standard violin bow, the same as classical players; the bow stick may be usually made from wood, but bows made from fiberglass and other materials are becoming more common. However, there are a few styles which use other bows. One notable example is the folk music from Hungary and Transylvania used in the táncház tradition. While the violinist uses a standard bow, both the kontra (3-string viola) and bass are played with heavy and crude "folk bows", consisting of a stout stick, usually hand-hewn, with the hank of horsehair attached at the tip and tied around the frog. The player tensions the hair by squeezing it when playing. Scottish fiddlers emulating 18th century playing styles sometimes use a replica of the type of bow used in that period, which is a few inches shorter, and weighs significantly more. Fiddling styles To a greater extent than classical violin playing, fiddle playing is characterized by a huge variety of ethnic or folk music traditions, each of which has its own distinctive sound, including, but not limited to: American fiddling, including Blues fiddling Bluegrass music fiddling Cajun fiddling Country fiddling Rock fiddling Jazz fiddling Worldbeat fiddling Folk Dance fiddling, including Square Dance and Contra Dance fiddling Old-time fiddling Western Swing style fiddling Zydeco style fiddling Balkan music, including Táncház (Hungarian music), Romanian music, Gypsy music Canadian fiddling, including Newfoundland fiddle player Patrick Moran Cape Breton fiddling, with a distinct Scottish and Acadian influence French-Canadian fiddling, influenced from the Brittany area of northern France Métis fiddling, of central and western Canada, with French influence Newfoundland and Labrador fiddling, with a strong Irish Sliabh Luachra style of playing Maritimes, Acadian or Downeast style of fiddling which has many similarities to Cape Breton fiddling English-Canadian fiddling or Anglo-Canadian fiddling, which is a combination of English, Scottish, Irish, French, Ukrainian and German fiddling styles Eastern European Jewish Klezmer fiddling English Folk music fiddling French fiddling (including a rich Breton music fiddling tradition) Irish Folk music fiddling including, among others, Clare fiddling, from the central west Donegal fiddling, from the northwest Sliabh Luachra fiddling, from the southwest Sligo fiddling, from a bit south of the northwest Mexican fiddling from various regions of Mexico Middle Eastern and Mediterranean fiddling Norwegian fiddling (including Hardanger fiddling; see also Bygdedans and Gammaldans) Peruvian violin Scottish fiddling Shetland fiddling, which includes trowie tunes said to come from peerie folk. Slovenian fiddling Swedish fiddling (see Spelmanslag) South Indian Carnatic fiddling References See also List of fiddlers Donegal fiddle tradition List of All-Ireland Champions Bibliography The Fiddle Book, by Marion Thede, (1970), Oak Publications. ISBN 0-8256-0145-2. The Fiddler's Fakebook, by David Brody, (1983), Oak Publications. US ISBN 0-8256-0238-6; UK ISBN 0-7119-0309-3. Oldtime Fiddling Across America, by David Reiner and Peter Anick (1989), Mel Bay Publications. ISBN 0-87166-766-5. Has transcriptions (standard notation) and analysis of tunes from multiple regional and ethnic styles. The Portland Collection, by Susan Songer, (1997), ISBN 0-9657476-0-3 (Vol. 2 ISBN 0-9657476-1-1) External links Faroese fiddle Fiddle and Alternative Strings Forum Fiddle Fork Fiddle Hangout Voyager Records' catalog,organized by region, has clips of many North American styles. A French Violin fiddle method website - video, text, and forum with explanation (with tablatures). The Fiddler's Companion, an encyclopedia of historical notes on tunes from British, Celtic, and American traditions. | Fiddle |@lemmatized term:3 fiddle:78 may:13 refer:5 bow:13 string:19 musical:5 instrument:25 include:12 violin:34 colloquial:1 use:18 player:7 genre:1 classical:11 music:30 playing:4 fiddling:29 refers:2 various:3 style:17 bowed:3 informally:1 call:1 regardless:2 kind:1 play:19 member:2 family:4 often:1 affectionately:1 history:1 medieval:3 emerge:1 century:7 europe:3 derive:2 byzantine:5 lira:10 greek:1 λύρα:1 latin:2 english:5 lyre:1 empire:2 ancestor:3 european:3 encyclopædia:6 britannica:7 online:3 mar:1 anthony:1 baines:1 oxford:2 companion:2 university:2 press:2 usa:1 november:1 first:1 record:2 reference:2 persian:1 geographer:1 ibn:1 khurradadhbih:1 lexicographical:1 discussion:1 cite:1 lūrā:1 typical:1 equivalent:1 rabāb:2 islamic:1 margaret:1 j:1 kartomi:1 concept:1 classification:1 chicago:2 study:1 ethnomusicology:1 p:2 spread:1 widely:1 westward:1 writer:1 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6,356 | Isle_Royale_National_Park | Isle Royale National Park is a U.S. National Park in the state of Michigan. Isle Royale, the largest island in Lake Superior, is over 45 miles (72 km) in length and 9 miles (14 km) wide at its widest point. The park is made of Isle Royale itself and multiple smaller islands, along with any submerged lands within 4.5 miles (7.24 km) of the surrounding islands (16USC408g). Isle Royale National Park was established on April 3, 1940, was designated as a Wilderness Area in 1976, and was made an International Biosphere Reserve in 1980. It is a relatively small national park at 894 square miles (2,314 km²), with only 209 square miles (542 km²) above water. At the U.S.-Canada border, it will meet the borders of the future Canadian Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area. Human history The island was once the site of a fishing industry, native copper mining and a resort community. Because numerous small islands surround Isle Royale, ships were once guided through the area by lighthouses at Passage Island, Rock Harbor, Rock of Ages, and Isle Royale Lighthouse on Menagerie Island. Natural history Official map of Isle Royale National Park courtesy of NPS Ecology Isle Royale National Park is known for its wolf and moose populations which are studied by scientists investigating predator-prey relationships in a closed environment. This is made easier due to the fact that Isle Royale has been colonized by roughly just one third of the mainland mammal species, due to it being so remote. In addition, the environment is unique in that it is the only known place where wolves and moose coexist without the presence of bears There are usually around 25 wolves and 1000 moose on the island, but the numbers change greatly year to year. In rare years with very hard winters, animals can travel over the frozen lake from the Canadian mainland. To protect the wolves from canine diseases, dogs are not allowed in any part of the park, including the adjacent waters. In the 2006-2007 winter, 385 moose were counted, as well as 21 wolves, in three packs. In spring 2008, 23 wolves and approximately 650 moose were counted Lydersen, Kari. "Warming Alters Predator-Prey Balance." Washington Post, 21 July 2008 Geology Isle Royale greenstone (chlorastrolite, a form of pumpellyite) is found here, as well as on the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. It is the official Michigan state gemstone. Recreation An aerial view of Isle Royale The Greenstone Ridge is a high ridge in the center of the island and carries the longest trail in the park, the Greenstone Ridge trail, which runs 40 miles (60 km) from one end of the island to the other. This is generally done as a 4 or 5 day hike. A boat shuttle can carry hikers back to their starting port. In total there are 165 miles (265 km) of hiking trails. There are also canoe/kayak routes, many involving portages, along coastal bays and inland lakes. Services The park has two developed areas: Windigo, at the southwest end of the island (docking site for the ferries from Minnesota), with a campstore, showers, campsites, and a boat dock; and Rock Harbor on the south side of the northeast end (docking site for the ferries from Michigan), with a campstore, showers, restaurant, lodge, campsites, and a boat dock. Sleeping accommodations at the park are limited to the lodge at Rock Harbor and 36 designated wilderness campgrounds. Some campgrounds are accessible only by private boat; others in the interior are accessible only by trail or by canoe/kayak on the island lakes. The campsites vary in capacity but typically include a few three-sided wood shelters (the fourth wall is screened) with floors and roofs, and several individual sites suitable for pitching a small tent. Some tent sites with space for groups of up to 10 are available, and are used for overflow if all the individual sites are filled. The only amenities at the campgrounds are pit toilets, picnic tables, and fire-rings at specific areas. Campfires are not permitted at most campgrounds; gas or alcohol camp stoves are recommended. Drinking and cooking water must be drawn from local water sources (Lake Superior and inland lakes) and filtered, treated, or boiled to avoid parasites. Hunting is not permitted, but fishing is, and edible berries (blueberries, thimbleberries) may be picked from the trail. Soil Bedrock on Isle Royale is basalt or sandstone and conglomerates on the 1100 million year old Midcontinent Rift. Most of the island is covered with a thin layer of glacial material. A number of small native copper mines were active in the 1800s but mining was never really prosperous. Recent analyses by the USGS of both unmineralized basalt and copper-mineralized rock show that a small amount of naturally-occurring mercury is associated with mineralization. Access Floatplane taking off from Windigo on Washington Harbor - Beaver Island can be seen in the background at right The park is accessible by floatplane and by ferry during the summer months from Grand Portage, Minnesota, and from Houghton and Copper Harbor in Michigan. Private boats travel to the island mainly from Thunder Bay, Ontario, the closest city to the park. Isle Royale is not popular with day-trippers because of the scheduling constraints of transportation to and from the park. The ferries that make this voyage have a relatively long transit time, and thus spend only short periods on the island. Some ferries may delay—and in some situations cancel—trips during heavy weather. The Ranger III is a 165-foot (50 m) ship operated by the National Park Service, said to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, canoes and kayaks -- even small powerboats -- and operates out of Houghton, Michigan. This is a six-hour voyage from the park, and the ship overnights at the island before returning the next day, making two round trips each week, June to mid-September. The Isle Royale Queen out of Copper Harbor, Michigan, and the Wenonah, out of Grand Portage, Minnesota, operate round-trips daily in peak season, less frequently in early summer and autumn. The Voyageur II, also out of Grand Portage, crosses up to three times a week, overnighting at Rock Harbor and providing transportation between popular lakeside campgrounds. The Voyageur and boat taxi services ferry hikers to points along the island, allowing a one-way hike back to Rock Harbor or Windigo. For the 2008 season, the Ranger III will carry visitors to/from Windigo on several occasions. This new schedule will allow visitors to park in Houghton, MI while traversing the entire length of the island. Visitors may land at Rock Harbor and depart from Windigo several days later or vice versa. Formerly, visitors would have paid an additional fare to ride the Voyageur II in one direction to do a cross-island hike. Because of the difficulty of travel and the hazards of wilderness survival during the winter months, it is the only major National Park Service park to close entirely for the season. Because of the relative difficulty reaching the park and its seasonal closing, fewer than 20,000 people a year visit Isle Royale - fewer than the number of people who visit the most popular national parks in a single day. List of islands Amygdaloid Island - has a ranger station Barnum Island Beaver Island - has a campground Belle Isle - a small island just off the north shore of Isle Royale at the head of Belle Harbor. It is the site of a primitive campground and is visited every second day during the peak season by the island-circling ferry. Caribou Island - has a campground Grace Island - has a campground Johns Island Long Island Menagerie Island - has a lighthouse Mott Island - summer park headquarters Passage Island - has a lighthouse and short trail Raspberry Island - has a nature trail Rock of Ages - has a lighthouse Ryan Island - the largest island in the largest lake on the largest island in the largest freshwater lake in the world Tookers Island - has a campground Washington Island Wright Island References External links Official site: Isle Royale National Park Isle Royale National Park info page | Isle_Royale_National_Park |@lemmatized isle:19 royale:18 national:13 park:25 u:2 state:2 michigan:7 large:6 island:40 lake:9 superior:3 mile:7 km:5 length:2 wide:2 point:2 make:5 multiple:1 small:8 along:3 submerged:1 land:2 within:1 surround:2 establish:1 april:1 designate:1 wilderness:3 area:5 international:1 biosphere:1 reserve:1 relatively:2 square:2 water:4 canada:1 border:2 meet:1 future:1 canadian:2 marine:1 conservation:1 human:1 history:2 site:7 fishing:2 industry:1 native:2 copper:5 mining:2 resort:1 community:1 numerous:1 ship:3 guide:1 lighthouse:5 passage:2 rock:9 harbor:10 age:2 menagerie:2 natural:1 official:3 map:1 courtesy:1 nps:1 ecology:1 know:1 wolf:6 moose:5 population:1 study:1 scientist:1 investigate:1 predator:2 prey:2 relationship:1 closed:1 environment:2 easy:1 due:2 fact:1 colonize:1 roughly:1 one:4 third:1 mainland:2 mammal:1 specie:1 remote:1 addition:1 unique:1 known:1 place:1 coexist:1 without:1 presence:1 bear:1 usually:1 around:1 number:3 change:1 greatly:1 year:5 rare:1 hard:1 winter:3 animal:1 travel:3 frozen:1 protect:1 canine:1 disease:1 dog:1 allow:3 part:1 include:2 adjacent:1 count:2 well:2 three:3 pack:1 spring:1 approximately:1 lydersen:1 kari:1 warm:1 alters:1 balance:1 washington:3 post:1 july:1 geology:1 greenstone:3 chlorastrolite:1 form:1 pumpellyite:1 find:1 upper:1 peninsula:1 gemstone:1 recreation:1 aerial:1 view:1 ridge:3 high:1 center:1 carry:4 long:3 trail:7 run:1 end:3 generally:1 day:6 hike:4 boat:6 shuttle:1 hiker:2 back:2 start:1 port:1 total:1 also:2 canoe:3 kayak:3 route:1 many:1 involve:1 portage:4 coastal:1 bay:2 inland:2 service:4 two:2 develop:1 windigo:5 southwest:1 dock:4 ferry:7 minnesota:3 campstore:2 shower:2 campsite:3 south:1 side:2 northeast:1 restaurant:1 lodge:2 sleep:1 accommodation:1 limit:1 designated:1 campground:10 accessible:3 private:2 others:1 interior:1 vary:1 capacity:1 typically:1 wood:1 shelter:1 fourth:1 wall:1 screen:1 floor:1 roof:1 several:3 individual:2 suitable:1 pitch:1 tent:2 sit:1 space:1 group:1 available:1 use:1 overflow:1 fill:1 amenity:1 pit:1 toilet:1 picnic:1 table:1 fire:1 ring:1 specific:1 campfire:1 permit:2 gas:1 alcohol:1 camp:1 stove:1 recommend:1 drinking:1 cooking:1 must:1 draw:1 local:1 source:1 filter:1 treat:1 boil:1 avoid:1 parasite:1 hunting:1 edible:1 berry:1 blueberry:1 thimbleberry:1 may:3 pick:1 soil:1 bedrock:1 basalt:2 sandstone:1 conglomerate:1 million:1 old:1 midcontinent:1 rift:1 cover:1 thin:1 layer:1 glacial:1 material:1 mine:1 active:1 never:1 really:1 prosperous:1 recent:1 analysis:1 usgs:1 unmineralized:1 mineralize:1 show:1 amount:1 naturally:1 occur:1 mercury:1 associate:1 mineralization:1 access:1 floatplane:2 take:1 beaver:2 see:1 background:1 right:1 summer:3 month:2 grand:3 houghton:3 mainly:1 thunder:1 ontario:1 close:2 city:1 popular:3 tripper:1 schedule:2 constraint:1 transportation:2 voyage:2 transit:1 time:2 thus:1 spend:1 short:2 period:1 delay:1 situation:1 cancel:1 trip:3 heavy:1 weather:1 ranger:3 iii:2 foot:1 operate:3 say:1 piece:1 equipment:1 system:1 passenger:1 even:1 powerboat:1 six:1 hour:1 overnights:1 return:1 next:1 round:2 week:2 june:1 mid:1 september:1 queen:1 wenonah:1 daily:1 peak:2 season:4 less:1 frequently:1 early:1 autumn:1 voyageur:3 ii:2 cross:2 overnighting:1 provide:1 lakeside:1 taxi:1 way:1 visitor:4 occasion:1 new:1 mi:1 traverse:1 entire:1 depart:1 later:1 vice:1 versa:1 formerly:1 would:1 pay:1 additional:1 fare:1 ride:1 direction:1 difficulty:2 hazard:1 survival:1 major:1 entirely:1 relative:1 reach:1 seasonal:1 closing:1 people:2 visit:3 single:1 list:1 amygdaloid:1 station:1 barnum:1 belle:2 north:1 shore:1 head:1 primitive:1 every:1 second:1 circling:1 caribou:1 grace:1 john:1 mott:1 headquarters:1 raspberry:1 nature:1 ryan:1 freshwater:1 world:1 tookers:1 wright:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 info:1 page:1 |@bigram isle_royale:18 mile_km:5 biosphere_reserve:1 predator_prey:2 hike_trail:1 canoe_kayak:3 midcontinent_rift:1 thin_layer:1 thunder_bay:1 day_tripper:1 vice_versa:1 belle_isle:1 freshwater_lake:1 external_link:1 |
6,357 | Chloramphenicol | Chloramphenicol is a bacteriostatic antimicrobial originally derived from the bacterium Streptomyces venezuelae, isolated by David Gottlieb, and introduced into clinical practice in 1949. It was the first antibiotic to be manufactured synthetically on a large scale. Chloramphenicol is effective against a wide variety of microorganisms; it is still very widely used in low income countries because it is exceedingly inexpensive, but oral use has fallen out of favour in the West due to its ability to cause aplastic anemia on rare occasions. It is, however, still often used topically for eye infections. Chloramphenicol has recently been discovered to be a life saving cure for chytridiomycosis in amphibians. Chloramphenicol cures chytridiomycosis R. T. M. Poulter, J. N. Busby, P. J. Bishop, M. I. Butler, R. Speare, BBC News Chytridiomycosis is a fungal disease that has been blamed for the extinction of one-third of the 120 frog species lost since 1980. Dosage The usual dose is 50 mg/kg/day in four divided doses: the usual dose in an adult male is therefore around 750 mg four times daily; this dose is doubled in severe illness. Half the dose is used in premature babies or neonates, because they do not metabolise the drug as effectively. Chloramphenicol is available as 250 mg capsules or as a liquid (125 mg/5 ml). In some countries, chloramphenicol is sold as chloramphenicol palmitate ester. Chloramphenicol palmitate ester is inactive, and is hydrolysed to active chloramphenicol in the small intestine. There is no difference in bioavailability between chloramphenicol and chloramphenicol palmitate. The intravenous (IV) preparation of chloramphenicol is the succinate ester, because pure chloramphenicol does not dissolve in water. This creates a problem: chloramphenicol succinate ester is an inactive prodrug and must first be hydrolysed to chloramphenicol; the hydrolysis process is incomplete and 30% of the dose is lost unchanged in the urine, therefore serum concentrations of chloramphenicol are only 70% of those achieved when chloramphenicol is given orally. For this reason, the chloramphenicol dose needs to be increased to 75 mg/kg/day when administered IV in order to achieve levels equivalent to the oral dose. The oral route is therefore preferred to the intravenous route. Manufacture of oral chloramphenicol in the U.S. stopped in 1991, because the vast majority of chloramphenicol-associated cases of aplastic anaemia are associated with the oral preparation. There is now no oral formulation of chloramphenicol available in the U.S. Dose monitoring Plasma levels of chloramphenicol must be monitored in neonates and in patients with abnormal liver function. It is recommended that plasma levels be monitored in all children under the age of 4, the elderly and patients with renal failure. Peak levels (1 hour after the dose is given) should be 15–25 mg/l; trough levels (taken immediately before a dose) should be less than 15 mg/l. Chloramphenicol and the liver Chloramphenicol is metabolised by the liver to chloramphenicol glucuronate (which is inactive). In liver impairment, the dose of chloramphenicol must therefore be reduced. There is no standard dose reduction for chloramphenicol in liver impairment, and the dose should be adjusted according to measured plasma concentrations. Chloramphenicol is also noted for its cause of "Gray Baby Syndrome" because of infants lack of the enzyme glucoronyl transferase which is the main pathway congagational excretion, which leads to a buildup of the chemical in infants system- contraindication. Chloramphenicol and the kidneys The majority of the chloramphenicol dose is excreted by the kidneys as the inactive metabolite, chloramphenicol glucuronate. Only a tiny fraction of the chloramphenicol is excreted by the kidneys unchanged. It is suggested that plasma levels be monitored in patients with renal impairment, but this is not mandatory. Chloramphenicol succinate ester (the inactive intravenous form of the drug) is readily excreted unchanged by the kidneys, more so than chloramphenicol base, and this is the major reason why levels of chloramphenicol in the blood are much lower when given intravenously than orally. Oily chloramphenicol Dose: 100 mg/kg (maximum dose 3 g) as a single intramuscular injection. The dose is repeated if there is no clinical response after 48 hours. A single injection costs approximately US$5. Oily chloramphenicol (or chloramphenicol oil suspension) is a long-acting preparation of chloramphenicol first introduced by Roussel in 1954; marketed as Tifomycine, it was originally used as a treatment for typhoid. Roussel stopped production of oily chloramphenicol in 1995; the International Dispensary Association has manufactured it since 1998, first in Malta and then in India from December 2004. Oily chloramphenicol is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO) as the first line treatment of meningitis in low-income countries and appears on the essential drugs list. It was first used to treat meningitis in 1975 and there have been numerous studies since demonstrating its efficacy. It is the cheapest treatment available for meningitis (US$5 per treatment course, compared to US$30 for ampicillin and US$15 for five days of ceftriaxone). It has the great advantage of requiring only a single injection, whereas ceftriaxone is traditionally given daily for five days. This recommendation may yet change now that a single dose of ceftriaxone (cost US$3) has been shown to be equivalent to one dose of oily chloramphenicol. Oily chloramphenicol is not currently available in the U.S. or Europe. Chloramphenicol eye drops In the West, chloramphenicol is still widely used in topical preparations (ointments and eye drops) for the treatment of bacterial conjunctivitis. Isolated cases report of aplastic anaemia following chloramphenicol eyedrops exist, but the risk is estimated to be less than 1 in 224,716 prescriptions. Note. http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/40025037/ suggests that the link between chloramphenicol eye drops and aplastic anemia is "not well founded". Pharmacokinetics Chloramphenicol is extremely lipid soluble, it remains relatively unbound to protein and is a small molecule: it has a large apparent volume of distribution of 100 litres and penetrates effectively into all tissues of the body, including the brain. The concentration achieved in brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is around 30 to 50% even when the meninges are not inflamed; this increases to as high as 89% when the meninges are inflamed. Chloramphenicol increases the absorption of iron. Uses Because it functions by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis, chloramphenicol has a very broad spectrum of activity: it is active against Gram-positive bacteria (including most strains of MRSA), Gram-negative bacteria and anaerobes.<ref name=Baron>{{cite book | author = Neu HC, Gootz TD | title = Antimicrobial Chemotherapy:Antimicrobial Inhibitors of Ribosome Function.. In: Baron's Medical Microbiology (Baron S et al., eds.)| edition = 4th | publisher = Univ of Texas Medical Branch | year = 1996 | id = (via NCBI Bookshelf) ISBN 0-9631172-1-1 }}</ref> It is not active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa or Enterobacter species. It has some activity against Burkholderia pseudomallei, but is no longer routinely used to treat infections caused by this organism (it has been superseded by ceftazidime and meropenem). In the West, chloramphenicol is mostly restricted to topical uses because of the worries about the risk of aplastic anaemia. The original indication of chloramphenicol was in the treatment of typhoid, but the now almost universal presence of multi-drug resistant Salmonella typhi has meant that it is seldom used for this indication except when the organism is known to be sensitive. Chloramphenicol may be used as a second-line agent in the treatment of tetracycline-resistant cholera. Because of its excellent CSF penetration (far superior to any of the cephalosporins), chloramphenicol remains the first choice treatment for staphylococcal brain abscesses. It is also useful in the treatment of brain abscesses due to mixed organisms or when the causative organism is not known. Chloramphenicol is active against the three main bacterial causes of meningitis: Neisseria meningitidis, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae. In the West, chloramphenicol remains the drug of choice in the treatment of meningitis in patients with severe penicillin or cephalosporin allergy and GPs are recommended to carry intravenous chloramphenicol in their bag. In low income countries, the WHO recommend that oily chloramphenicol be used first-line to treat meningitis. Chloramphenicol has been used in the U.S. in the initial empirical treatment of children with fever and a petechial rash, when the differential diagnosis includes both Neisseria meningitidis septicaemia as well as Rocky Mountain spotted fever, pending the results of diagnostic investigations. Chloramphenicol is also effective against Enterococcus faecium, which has led to it being considered for treatment of vancomycin-resistant enterococcus. Although unpublished, recent research suggests that chloramphenicol could also be applied to frogs to prevent their widespread destruction from fungal infections. Adverse effects Aplastic anemia The most serious side effect of chloramphenicol treatment is aplastic anaemia. This effect is rare and is generally fatal: there is no treatment and there is no way of predicting who may or may not get this side effect. The effect usually occurs weeks or months after chloramphenicol treatment has been stopped and there may be a genetic predisposition. It is not known whether monitoring the blood counts of patients can prevent the development of aplastic anaemia, but it is recommended that patients have a blood count checked twice weekly while on treatment. The highest risk is with oral chloramphenicol (affecting 1 in 24,000–40,000) and the lowest risk occurs with eye drops (affecting less than 1 in 224,716 prescriptions). At least one internet medical source suggests that the link between chloramphenicol eye drops and aplastic anemia is "not well founded". Thiamphenicol is a related compound with a similar spectrum of activity that is available in Italy and China for human use, and has never been associated with aplastic anaemia. Thiamphenicol is available in the U.S. and Europe as a veterinary antibiotic, and is not approved for use in humans. Bone marrow suppression It is common for chloramphenicol to cause bone marrow suppression during treatment: this is a direct toxic effect of the drug on human mitochondria. This effect manifests first as a fall in hemoglobin levels and occurs quite predictably once a cumulative dose of 20 g has been given. This effect is fully reversible once the drug is stopped and does not predict future development of aplastic anaemia. Leukemia There is an increased risk of childhood leukemia as demonstrated in a Chinese case-controlled study, and the risk increases with length of treatment. Gray baby syndrome Intravenous chloramphenicol use has been associated with the so called gray baby syndrome. This phenomenon occurs in newborn infants because they do not yet have fully functional liver enzymes, and so chloramphenicol remains unmetabolized in the body. This causes several adverse effects, including hypotension and cyanosis. The condition can be prevented by using chloramphenicol at the recommended doses and monitoring blood levels. Mechanism and resistance Chloramphenicol is bacteriostatic (that is, it stops bacterial growth). It functions by inhibiting peptidyl transferase activity of the bacterial ribosome, binding to A2451 and A2452 residues in the 23S rRNA of the 50S ribosomal subunit, preventing peptide bond formation. While chloramphenicol and the macrolide class of antibiotics both interact with the 50S ribosomal subunit, chloramphenicol is not a macrolide. Furthermore, their mechanisms are slightly different. While chloramphenicol directly interferes with substrate binding, macrolides sterically block the progression of the growing peptide. There are three mechanisms of resistance to chloramphenicol: reduced membrane permeability, mutation of the 50S ribosomal subunit and elaboration of chloramphenicol acetyltransferase. It is easy to select for reduced membrane permability to chloramphenicol in vitro by serial passage of bacteria, and this is the most common mechanism of low-level chloramphenicol resistance. High level resistance is conferred by the cat''-gene; this gene codes for an enzyme called chloramphenicol acetyltransferase which inactivates chloramphenicol by covalently linking one or two acetyl groups, derived from acetyl-S-coenzyme A, to the hydroxyl groups on the chloramphenicol molecule. The acetylation prevents chloramphenicol from binding to the ribosome. Resistance-conferring mutations of the 50S ribosomal subunit are rare. Chloramphenicol resistance may be carried on a plasmid that also codes for resistance to other drugs. One example is the ACCoT plasmid (A=ampicillin, C=chloramphenicol, Co=co-trimoxazole, T=tetracycline) which mediates multi-drug resistance in typhoid (also called R factors). Trade names Chloramphenicol has a long history and therefore a multitude of alternative names in many different countries: Alficetyn Amphicol Biomicin Chlornitromycin Chloromycetin (U.S., intravenous preparation) Chlorsig (U.S., Australia, eye drops) Dispersadron C (Greece, eye drops) Fenicol Kemicetine (UK, intravenous preparation) Laevomycetin UK as an eye treatment Brochlor (Aventis Pharma Ltd) Golden Eye (Typharm Ltd) Optrex Infected Eyes Oftan Chlora (eye ointment) Phenicol Medicom Nevimycin Renicol (India,eye drops) Silmycetin (Thailand, eye drops) Synthomycine (Israel, eye ointment) Tifomycine (France, oily chloramphenicol) Vernacetin Veticol Isoptophenicol (Egypt . eye drops) Cedoctine (Egypt .intravenous preparation) References External links University of Pennsylvania | Chloramphenicol |@lemmatized chloramphenicol:85 bacteriostatic:2 antimicrobial:3 originally:2 derive:2 bacterium:1 streptomyces:1 venezuelae:1 isolate:1 david:1 gottlieb:1 introduce:2 clinical:2 practice:1 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6,358 | Cream | A milk bottle showing cream risen to the top Cream (including light whipping cream) is a dairy product that is composed of the higher-butterfat layer skimmed from the top of milk before homogenization. In un-homogenized milk, over time, the lighter fat rises to the top. In the industrial production of cream this process is accelerated by using centrifuges called "separators". In many countries, cream is sold in several grades depending on the total butterfat content. Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. Cream produced by cows (particularly Jersey cattle) grazing on natural pasture often contains some natural carotenoid pigments derived from the plants they eat; this gives the cream a slight yellow tone, hence the name of the yellowish-white colour cream. Cream from cows fed indoors, on grain or grain-based pellets, is white. Types Stewed nectarines and whipped cream In the United Kingdom, the types of cream are legally defined The Cheese and Cream Regulations 1995 (SI 1995 No. 3240) ISBN 0110538536 as follows: Name Minimum milk fat Additional definition Main uses Clotted cream 55% and heat treated Served as it is with scones, jam, stargazy pie, etc. Double cream 48% Whips the easiest and thickest for puddings and desserts, can be piped Whipping cream 35% Whips well but lighter, can be piped - just Whipped cream 35% and has been whipped Decorations on cakes and gâteaux. Sterilized cream 23% is sterilized Cream or single cream 18% is not sterilized Poured over puddings, used in coffee Sterilized half cream 12% is sterilized Half cream 12% is not sterilized Only used in coffee In the United States, cream is usually sold as: Half and half (10.5–18% fat) Light, coffee, or table cream (18–30% fat) Medium cream (25% fat) Whipping or light whipping cream (30–36% fat) Heavy whipping cream (36% or more) Extra-heavy, double, or manufacturer's cream (38–40% or more), generally not available at retail except at some warehouse and specialty stores. Not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary. The above figures are based on the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Part 131 FDA > CDRH > CFR Title 21 Database Search 2005 CFR Title 21, Volume 2 and a small sample of state regulations. Other cream products Chart of 50 types of milk products and relationships, including cream (right-click image to enlarge). by churning cream to separate the butterfat and buttermilk. This can be done by hand or by machine. Whipped cream is made by whisking or mixing air into cream with more than 30% fat, to turn the liquid cream into a soft solid. Nitrous oxide or carbon dioxide may also be used to make whipped cream. Sour cream, common in many countries including the U.S. and Australia, is cream (12 to 16% or more milk fat) that has been subjected to a bacterial culture that produces lactic acid (0.5%+), which sours and thickens it. Crème fraîche (28% milk fat) slightly soured with bacterial culture, but not as sour or as thick as sour cream. Mexican crema (or cream espesa) is similar to crème fraîche. Smetana is a heavy cream product (35-40% milk fat) Central and Eastern European sour cream. Rjome or rømme is Norwegian sour cream cointaining 35% milk fat, similar to Icelandic rjómi. Clotted cream, common in the United Kingdom, is cream that has been slowly heated to dry and thicken it, producing a very high-fat (55%) product. This is similar to Indian malai. Cream as an ingredient Cream is used as an ingredient in many foods, including ice cream, many sauces, soups, stews, puddings, and some custard bases, and is also used for cakes. Irish cream is an alcoholic liqueur which blends cream with whiskey and coffee. Cream is also used in curries such as masala dishes. Cream (usually light/single cream or half and half) is often added to coffee. For cooking purposes, both single and double cream can be used in cooking, although the former can separate when heated, usually if there is a high acid content. Most UK chefs always use double cream or full-fat crème fraîche when cream is added to a hot sauce, to prevent any problem with it separating or "splitting". In sweet and savoury custards such as those found in flan fillings, crème brûlées and crème caramels, both types of cream are called for in different recipes depending on how rich a result is called for. It is useful to note that double cream can also be thinned down with water to make an approximation of single cream if necessary. Other foods called "cream" Some foods or even cosmetics may be labeled cream not because they are made with cream, but because they make claim to the consistency or richness of cream. In some locations labeling restrictions prevent the use of the word cream to describe such products, so variations such as creme, kreme, creame, or whipped topping may be found. See also Artificial cream Condensed milk Cool Whip, a brand of imitation whipped cream. Creamer Crème fraîche Kaymak, which is similar to clotted cream Sour cream Ice cream Larousse gastronomique Malai Mock cream Healing cream Whipped-cream charger, describes how nitrous oxide whips cream References External links Cream 2004 - Whipped cream cooking. (Link confirmed active August 2008.) | Cream |@lemmatized milk:10 bottle:1 show:1 cream:74 risen:1 top:3 include:4 light:6 whip:15 dairy:1 product:6 compose:1 high:3 butterfat:3 layer:1 skim:1 homogenization:1 un:1 homogenize:1 time:1 fat:14 rise:1 industrial:1 production:1 process:1 accelerate:1 use:10 centrifuge:1 call:4 separator:1 many:4 country:2 sell:2 several:1 grade:2 depend:2 total:1 content:3 dry:2 powder:1 shipment:1 distant:1 market:1 produce:3 cow:2 particularly:1 jersey:1 cattle:1 graze:1 natural:2 pasture:1 often:2 contain:1 carotenoid:1 pigment:1 derive:1 plant:1 eat:1 give:1 slight:1 yellow:1 tone:1 hence:1 name:2 yellowish:1 white:2 colour:1 feed:1 indoors:1 grain:2 base:3 pellet:1 type:4 stew:2 nectarine:1 united:3 kingdom:2 legally:1 define:2 cheese:1 regulation:3 si:1 isbn:1 follow:1 minimum:1 additional:1 definition:1 main:1 us:1 clot:2 heat:3 treat:1 serve:1 scone:1 jam:1 stargazy:1 pie:1 etc:1 double:5 easy:1 thickest:1 pudding:3 dessert:1 pip:2 well:1 decoration:1 cake:2 gâteaux:1 sterilize:6 single:4 pour:1 coffee:5 half:6 state:2 usually:3 table:1 medium:1 whipping:1 heavy:3 extra:1 manufacturer:1 generally:1 available:1 retail:1 except:1 warehouse:1 specialty:1 store:1 jurisdiction:1 exact:1 range:1 vary:1 figure:1 code:1 federal:1 title:3 part:1 fda:1 cdrh:1 cfr:2 database:1 search:1 volume:1 small:1 sample:1 chart:1 relationship:1 right:1 click:1 image:1 enlarge:1 churn:1 separate:3 buttermilk:1 hand:1 machine:1 whipped:2 make:5 whisk:1 mix:1 air:1 turn:1 liquid:1 soft:1 solid:1 nitrous:2 oxide:2 carbon:1 dioxide:1 may:3 also:5 sour:8 common:2 u:1 australia:1 subject:1 bacterial:2 culture:2 lactic:1 acid:2 thicken:2 crème:6 fraîche:4 slightly:1 thick:1 mexican:1 crema:1 espesa:1 similar:4 smetana:1 central:1 eastern:1 european:1 rjome:1 rømme:1 norwegian:1 cointaining:1 icelandic:1 rjómi:1 slowly:1 indian:1 malai:2 ingredient:2 food:3 ice:2 sauce:2 soup:1 custard:2 irish:1 alcoholic:1 liqueur:1 blend:1 whiskey:1 curry:1 masala:1 dish:1 add:2 cook:1 purpose:1 cooking:2 although:1 former:1 uk:1 chef:1 always:1 full:1 hot:1 prevent:2 problem:1 splitting:1 sweet:1 savoury:1 find:2 flan:1 filling:1 brûlées:1 caramel:1 different:1 recipe:1 rich:1 result:1 useful:1 note:1 thin:1 water:1 approximation:1 necessary:1 even:1 cosmetic:1 label:2 claim:1 consistency:1 richness:1 location:1 restriction:1 word:1 describe:2 variation:1 creme:1 kreme:1 creame:1 topping:1 see:1 artificial:1 condense:1 cool:1 brand:1 imitation:1 creamer:1 kaymak:1 clotted:1 larousse:1 gastronomique:1 mock:1 heal:1 charger:1 reference:1 external:1 link:2 confirm:1 active:1 august:1 |@bigram whip_cream:10 dairy_product:1 homogenize_milk:1 cattle_graze:1 clot_cream:2 cream_whip:5 whipped_cream:2 nitrous_oxide:2 carbon_dioxide:1 sour_cream:5 lactic_acid:1 crème_fraîche:4 ice_cream:2 soup_stew:1 pudding_custard:1 condense_milk:1 larousse_gastronomique:1 external_link:1 |
6,359 | Female_genital_mutilation | Female genital cutting (FGC), also known as female genital mutilation (FGM), female circumcision or female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), is defined by the WHO as "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs whether for cultural, religious or other non-therapeutic reasons." The term is almost exclusively used to describe tradition, cultural, and religious procedures where parents must give consent, because of the minor age of the subject, rather than to procedures generally done with self-consent (such as labiaplasty and vaginoplasty). Green, Fiona: "From clitoridectomies to 'designer vaginas': The medical construction of heteronormative female bodies and sexuality through female genital cutting." Sexualities, Evolution & Gender 7(2):153-187, 2005. Essen, B & Johnsdotter, S: "Female Genital Mutilation in the West: Traditional Circumcision versus Genital Cosmetic Surgery". Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand,(83):611-613, 2004. Braun, Virginia: "In search of (better) sexual pleasure: female genital ‘cosmetic’ surgery". Sexualities 8(4):407-424, 2005. It also generally does not refer to procedures used in gender reassignment surgery, and the genital modification of intersexuals. Chase, Cheryl: "'Cultural practice' or 'Reconstructive Surgery'? U.S. genital cutting, the intersex movement, and medical double standards." In Genital Cutting and Transnational Sisterhood. James M. Stanlie and Claire C. Robertson, eds. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Pp. 126-151, 2005. Ehrenreich, Nancy and Mark Barr: "Intersex surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the selective condemnation of 'cultural practices'." Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 40(1):71-140, 2005. Holmes, Morgan: "Rethinking the meaning and management of intersexuality". Sexualities 5(2):159-180, 2002. FGC is practiced throughout the world, with the practice concentrated most heavily in Asia and Africa . Its practice is extremely controversial. Opposition is motivated by concerns regarding the consent (or lack thereof, in most cases) of the patient, and subsequently the safety and long-term consequences of the procedures. In the past several decades, there have been many concentrated efforts by the World Health Organization (WHO) to end the practice of FGC. The United Nations has also declared February 6 as "International Day Against Female Genital Mutilation". Varying terminology Different terms are used to describe female genital surgery and other such procedures. The procedures are commonly referred to as female circumcision (FC), but the terms female genital mutilation (FGM) and female genital cutting (FGC) are now dominant in the international community opposed to the practice. Such groups that oppose the stigma of the word "mutilation" prefer to use the term female genital cutting. A few organizations have started using the combined term female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C). All terms are currently still actively used. Female circumcision Several dictionaries, including medical dictionaries, define the word circumcision as applicable to some procedures performed on females. Cook states that historically, the term female circumcision was used, but that "this procedure in whatever form it is practiced is not at all analogous to male circumcision and so the term 'female circumcision' gave way to the term 'female genital mutilation'" Shell-Duncan states that the term female circumcision is a euphemism for a variety of procedures for altering the female genitalia. Toubia argued, in 1995, that the term female circumcision "implies a fallacious analogy to nonmutilating male circumcision, in which the foreskin is cut off from the tip of the penis without damaging the organ itself." However, in the 1999 book Male and Female Circumcision, Toubia states that she agrees that "circumcision -- that is, the genital mutilation of girls and boys -- is wrong despite its widespread practice." Female genital mutilation The term female genital mutilation gained growing support in the late 1970s. The word "mutilation" not only established clear linguistic distinction from male circumcision, but it also emphasized the gravity of the act. In 1990, this term was adopted at the third conference of the Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children (IAC) in Addis Ababa. In 1991, the World Health Organization (WHO), a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN), recommended that the UN adopt this terminology; subsequently, it has been widely used in UN documents. In this context, the term female circumcision was thus predominantly replaced by the term female genital mutilation: The extensive literature on the subject, the support of international organizations, and the emergence of local groups working against the continuation practices appear to suggest that an international consensus has been reached. The terminology used to refer to these surgeries has changed, and the clearly disapproving and powerfully evocative expression of "female genital mutilation" has now all but replaced the possibly inaccurate, but relatively less value-laden term of "female circumcision". Female genital cutting Because the term female genital mutilation has been criticized for increasing the stigma associated with female genital surgery, some groups have proposed an alteration, substituting the word "cutting" for "mutilation." According to a joint WHO/UNICEF/UNFPA statement, the use of the word "mutilation" reinforces the idea that this practice is a violation of the human rights of girls and women, and thereby helps promote national and international advocacy towards its abandonment. They state that, at the community level, however, the term can be problematic; and that local languages generally use the less judgmental "cutting" to describe the practice. They also state that parents resent the suggestion that they are "mutilating" their daughters. In 1999, the UN Special Rapporteur on Traditional Practices called for tact and patience regarding activities in this area and drew attention to the risk of "demonizing" certain cultures, religions, and communities. As a result, the term "cutting" has increasingly come to be used to avoid alienating communities. In 1996, the Uganda-based initiative REACH (Reproductive, Educative, And Community Health) began using the term "FGC", observing that "FGM" may "imply excessive judgment by outsiders as well as insensitivity toward individuals who have undergone some form of genital excision." The UN uses "FGM" in official documents, while some of its agencies, such as the UN Population Fund, use both the terms "FGM" and "FGC". Procedures: World Health Organization categorization FGC consists of several distinct procedures. Their severity is often viewed as dependent on how much genital tissue is cut away. The WHO—which uses the term Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)—divides the procedure into four major types (see Diagram 1), although there is some debate as to whether all common forms of FGM fit into these four categories, as well as issues with the reliability of reported data. Diagram 1:This image shows the different types of FGM and how they differ to the uncircumcised female anatomy. Type I The WHO defines Type I FGM as the partial or total removal of the clitoris (clitoridectomy) and/or the prepuce (clitoral hood); see Diagram 1B. When it is important to distinguish between the variations of Type I mutilation, the following subdivisions are proposed: Type Ia, removal of the clitoral hood or prepuce only; Type Ib, removal of the clitoris with the prepuce. In the context of women who seek out labiaplasty, Stern opposes removal of the clitoral hood and points to potential scarring and nerve damage. Type II The WHO's definition of Type II FGM is "partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without excision of the labia majora (excision). When it is important to distinguish between the major variations that have been documented, the following subdivisions are proposed: Type IIa, removal of the labia minora only; Type IIb, partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora; Type IIc, partial or total removal of the clitoris, the labia minora and the labia majora. Type III: Infibulation with excision The WHO defines Type III FGM as narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a covering seal by cutting and repositioning the labia minora and/or the labia majora, with or without excision of the clitoris (infibulation)." It is the most extensive form of FGM, and accounts for about 10% of all FGM procedures described from Africa. (infibulation). When it is important to distinguish between variations in infibulations, the following subdivisions are proposed: Type IIIa, removal and apposition of the labia minora; Type IIIb, removal and apposition of the labia majora. Infibulation is also known as "pharaonic circumcision." Frequently Asked Questions on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) In a study of infibulation in the Horn of Africa, Pieters observed that the procedure involves extensive tissue removal of the external genitalia, including all of the labia minora and the inside of the labia majora. The labia majora are then held together using thorns or stitching. In some cases the girl's legs have been tied together for two to six weeks, to prevent her from moving and to allow the healing of the two sides of the vulva. Nothing remains but the walls of flesh from the pubis down to the anus, with the exception of an opening at the inferior portion of the vulva to allow urine and menstrual blood to pass through; see Diagram 1D. Generally, a practitioner recognized as having the necessary skill carries out this procedure, and a local anesthetic is used. However, when carried out "in the bush," infibulation is often performed by an elderly matron or midwife of the village, with no anesthesia used. A reverse infibulation can be performed to allow for sexual intercourse or when undergoing labor, or by female relatives, whose responsibility it is to inspect the wound every few weeks and open it some more if necessary. During childbirth, the enlargement is too small to allow vaginal delivery, and so the infibulation is opened completely and may be restored after delivery. Again, the legs are sometimes tied together to allow the wound to heal. When childbirth takes place in a hospital, the surgeons may preserve the infibulation by enlarging the vagina with deep episiotomies. Afterwards, the patient may insist that her vulva be closed again. Women who have been infibulated face a lot of difficulty in delivering children, especially if the infibulation is not undone beforehand, which often results in severe tearing of the infibulated area, or fetal death if the birth canal is not cleared (Toubia, 1995). The risk of severe physical, and psychological complications is more highly associated with women who have undergone infibulations as opposed to one of the lesser forms of FGM. Although there is little research on the psychological side effects of FGM, many women feel great pressure to conform to the norms set out by their community, and suffer from anxiety and depression as a result (Toubia, 1995). “There is also a higher rate of post-traumatic stress disorder in circumcised females” (Nicoletti, 2007, p. 2). Toubia, N. (1995). Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue. New England Journal of Medicine, 331, 712-716. Nicoletti, A. (2007). Female Genital Cutting. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 20, 261-262. A five-year study of 300 women and 100 men in Sudan found that "sexual desire, pleasure, and orgasm are experienced by the majority of women who have been subjected to this extreme sexual mutilation, in spite of their being culturally bound to hide these experiences." Type IV: Other types There are other forms of FGM, collectively referred to as Type IV, that may not involve tissue removal. The WHO defines Type IV FGM as "all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purposes, for example, pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization." This includes a diverse range of practices, such as pricking the clitoris with needles, burning or scarring the genitals as well as ripping or tearing of the vagina. Type IV is found primarily among isolated ethnic groups as well as in combination with other types. Prevalence Amnesty International estimates that over 130 million women worldwide have been affected by some form of FGM, with over 2 million procedures being performed every year. FGM is mainly practiced in African countries. Razor's Edge - The Controversy of Female Genital Mutilation It is common in a band that stretches from Senegal in West Africa to Ethiopia on the East coast, as well as from Egypt in the north to Tanzania in the south; see Map. It is also practiced by some groups in the Arabian peninsula. The country where FGM is most prevalent is Egypt, followed by Sudan, Ethiopia, and Mali. Egypt recently passed a law banning FGM. BBC NEWS | World | Middle East | Egypt forbids female circumcision Map: Estimated Prevalence of Female Genital Cutting (FGC) in Africa. Data based on uncertain estimates. Whilst FGM is widely practiced out in the open by Africans of varied faiths, it is practiced in secrecy in some parts of the Middle East. In the Arabian peninsula, Types I and II FGM is usually performed, often referred to as Sunna circumcision especially among Afro-Arabs (ethnic groups of African descent are more likely to prefer infibulation). The practice occurs particularly in northern Saudi Arabia, southern Jordan, and northern Iraq (Kurdistan) Stop FGM in Kurdistan http://www.stopfgmkurdistan.org/html/english/updates/update003e.htm Strobel S, von der Osten-Sacken T (2006).Female genital mutilation in Iraqi Kurdistan. Presented at the 1ère Journée Humanitaire sur la Santé des Femmes dans le Monde, Paris, France. Gynécologie sans Frontières . In the Iraqi village of Hasira, a recent study found that 60 percent of the women and girls reported having undergone FGM Stop FGM in Kurdistan . Before the study, there had been no solid proof of the prevalence of the practice. There is also circumstantial evidence to suggest that FGM is practiced in Syria and Kurdistan. http://www.stopfgmkurdistan.org/html/english/updates/update003e.htm In Oman, a few communities still practice FGM; however, experts believe that the number of such cases is small and declining annually. In the United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, it is practiced mainly among foreign workers from East Africa and the Nile Valley. The practice can also be found among a few ethnic groups in South America. In Indonesia, the practice is not uncommon among the country's rural women; almost all are Type I or Type IV, the latter usually involving the pricking of blood release. Sometimes the procedures are merely symbolic, and no actual cutting is done. As a result of immigration, the practice has also spread to Europe, Australia and the United States. Some tradition-minded families have their daughters undergo FGM whilst on vacation in their home countries. As Western governments become more aware of FGM, legislation has come into effect in many countries to make the practice of FGM a criminal offense. In 2006, Khalid Adem became the first man in the United States to be prosecuted for mutilating his daughter. Cultural and religious aspects The traditional cultural practice of FGC predates both Islam and Christianity. A Greek papyrus from 163 B.C. mentions girls in Egypt undergoing circumcision and it is widely accepted to have originated in Egypt and the Nile valley at the time of the Pharaohs. Evidence from mummies have shown both Type I and Type III FGC present. (Note that the earliest evidence of male circumcision is also from Ancient Egypt.) Amnesty International says that the prevalence of the practice of FGC is unknown, and that the procedure is now only practiced by some Muslims and Animists. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services states that the custom of FGC "cuts across religions and is practiced by Muslims, Christians, Jews and followers of indigenous religions." Medical justifications offered by cultural tradition are regarded by scientists and doctors as unsubstantiated. Some African societies consider FGC part of maintaining cleanliness as it removes secreting parts of the genitalia. Vaginal secretions, in reality, play a critical part in maintaining female health. Some Bambara and Dogon believe that babies die if they touch the clitoris during birth. Mali: Report on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) or Female Genital Cutting (FGC) In some areas of Africa, there exists the belief that a newborn child has elements of both sexes. In the male body the foreskin of the penis is considered to be the female element. In the female body the clitoris is considered to be the male element. Hence when the adolescent is reaching puberty, these elements are removed to make the indication of sex clearer. In years past, doctors advocating or performing these procedures sometimes claimed that girls of all ages would otherwise engage in excessive masturbation and be "polluted" by the activity, which was referred to as "self-abuse". C.F. McDonald wrote in a 1958 paper titled "Circumcision of the Female" "If the male needs circumcision for cleanliness and hygiene, why not the female? I have operated on perhaps 40 patients who needed this attention." The author describes symptoms as "irritation, scratching, irritability, masturbation, frequency and urgency," and in adults, smegmaliths causing "dyspareunia and frigidity." The author then reported that a two-year-old was no longer masturbating so frequently after the procedure. Of adult women, the author stated that "for the first time in their lives, sex ambition became normally satisfied." Justification of the procedure on hygienic grounds, or to reduce masturbation, has since declined. The view that masturbation is a cause of mental and physical illness has dissipated since the mid-20th century. Clitorecdomy in its less invasive form, removal of the prepuce alone, is also called a hoodectomy. It is often an elective surgery undertaken by mature consenting adults. Some doctors and other advocators believe that the hoodectomy form of FGC can help to increase and improve sexual sensitivity and sexual pleasure in cases where the hood of the clitoris is too tight. There are websites promoting the practice, like Circlist, BMEzine (Body Modification E-Zine), and the Clitoral Hood Removal Information Page contain testimonials and citations of medical studies, which support this claim (for example a study done in 1959 Rathmann et al. claim that 87.5% of women saw an improvement in sexual pleasure following a hoodectomy FGC, with 75% in a study by Knowles et al.). FGC advocates have stated that the practices cure females of a myriad of psychological diseases including depression, hysteria, insanity and kleptomania. FGC is sometimes viewed as a means of control over female virtue. FGC is often used as a means of preservation and proof of virginity, and is regarded in many societies as a prerequisite for honorable marriage. Type III FGC is often used in these societies, and the husband will sometimes cut his bride's scar tissue open after marriage to allow for sexual intercourse. Heavy stigma lies on men who marry an uncircumcised woman. Women who have had genital surgeries are often considered to have higher status than those who have not and are entitled to positions of religious, political and cultural power. Encyclopedia of bioethics; Stephen G. Post, editor in chief; 3rd ed; Thompson Gale; volume 1; ISBN 0-02-865775-6. Removal of the clitoris is often cited as a means of discouraging promiscuity, as it is viewed as eliminating the motivating factor of sexual pleasure. Feminists and human rights activists generally disapprove of the practice because they view it as presupposing that women lack the self control or the right to decide when and with whom they engage in sexual activity. Aesthetic reasons for FGC are also cited. Some societies view FGC as enhancing the beauty of female genitals, in the same way they view male circumcision as enhancing the beauty of male genitals. Kurdish advocates of FGC say it makes a girl spiritually clean so that others can eat the meals she prepares. While there are differing rates of FGC prevalence in different religions like Islam and Christianity, prevalence rates also vary by culture. These variances preclude an unequivocal link between religion and FGC. However there is debate as to whether or not FGC are religious practices in particular religious subcultures. Islam According to McAuliffe, female genital cutting is not commanded by the Qur'an, and according to Obermeyer, is not practiced by the majority of Muslims. In Egypt, mufti Sheikh Ali Gomaa stated: "The traditional form of excision is a practice totally banned by Islam because of the compelling evidence of the extensive damage it causes to women's bodies and minds." Sheikh Musa Mohammed Omer, a member of the Executive Committee of the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs in Ethiopia has said: “there is no evidence from Islamic sources prohibiting female circumcision," unless it is infibulation. [ http://www.irinnews.org/InDepthMain.aspx?InDepthId=15&ReportId=62475 IRIN interview with Sheikh Omer, a muslim religious leader] Pharaonic circumcision refers to infibulation, or WHO Type III FGC. Sunni View There are dichotomous differences of opinion among Sunni scholars in regards to female genital cutting. These differences of opinion range from forbidden to obligatory. The debate focuses around a hadith from the Sunni collections. One narration states that "a woman used to perform circumcision in Medina. Muhammad said to her, 'Do not cut severely as that is better for a woman and more desirable for a husband.'" Abu Dawood, who relates the narration in his collection, states the hadith is poor in authenticity. Abu Dawood’s sunan, XIII, 125–26 Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani describes this hadith as poor in authenticity, and quotes Imam Ahmad Bayhaqi’s point of view that it is "poor, with a broken chain of transmission" Talkhis al-habir fi takhrij ahadith al-rafie al-kabiri, Ibn Hajar Zein al-Din al-Iraqi points out in his commentary on Al-Ghazali’s Ihya ulum al-din (I:148) that the mentioned hadith has a weak chain of transmission." Yusuf ibn Abd-al-Barr comments: "Those who consider (female) circumcision a sunna, use as evidence this hadith of Abu al-Malih, which is based solely on the evidence of Hajjaj ibn Artaa, who cannot be admitted as an authority when he is the sole transmitter. The consensus of Muslim scholars shows that circumcision is for men". Al-tamhid lima fil-muwatta min al-ma’ani wal-assanid, XXI, 59 Imam Shams-ul-haq Azeemabadi asserts that, "[t]he Hadith of female circumcision has been reported through so many ways all of which are weak, blemished and defective, and thus it is unacceptable to prove a legal ruling through such ways."<ref name="Dr. Muhammad Salim al-Awwa - Dual Usage">Dr. Muhammad Salim al-Awwa, Secretary General of the World Union of the Muslim Ulemas, "Female Circumcision Neither a Sunna, nor a Sign of Respect"(Al Alazhar, Cairo),</ref> While some scholars reject ahadith that refer to FGC on grounds of inauthenticity, other scholars argue that authenticity alone does not confer legitimacy. One of the sayings used to support FGC practices is the hadith (349) in Sahih Muslim: Aishah narrated an authentic Hadith that the Prophet said: "When a man sits between the four parts (arms and legs of his wife) and the two circumcised parts meet, then ghusl is obligatory." Dr. Muhammad Salim al-Awwa, Secretary General of the World Union of the Muslim Ulemas states that while the hadith is authentic, it is not evidence of legitimacy. He states that the Arabic for "the two circumcision organs" is a single word used to connote two forms; however the plural term for one of the forms is used to denote not two of the same form, but two different forms characterized as a singular of the more prominent form. For example, in Arabic, the word with the female gender can be chosen to make the dual form, such as in the expression "the two Marwas", referring to the two hills of As-Safa and Al-Marwa (not "two of the same hills, each called Al-Marwa") in Mecca. Abbas Hassan, An-nahw al-wafi, I, 118–19 He goes on to state that, while the female form is used to denote both male and female genitalia, it is identified with the prominent aspect of the two forms, which, in this case, is only the male circumcised organ. He further states that the connotation of circumcision is not transitive. Dr. al-Awwa concludes that the hadith is specious because "such an argument can be refuted by the fact that in Arabic language, two things or persons may be given one quality or name that belongs only to one of them for an effective cause." Dr. Muhammad Salim al-Awwa, Secretary General of the World Union of the Muslim Ulemas, "Female Circumcision Neither a Sunna, nor a Sign of Respect"(Al Alazhar, Cairo), [e.g. the usage in "Qur'an in Surah Al-Furqan(25):53", "bahrayn" is the dual form of "bahr" (sea) meaning "sea (salty and bitter) and river (sweet and thirst-allaying)", and not "two seas".] In March 2005, Dr Ahmed Talib, Dean of the Faculty of Sharia at Al-Azhar University, stated: "All practices of female circumcision and mutilation are crimes and have no relationship with Islam. Whether it involves the removal of the skin or the cutting of the flesh of the female genital organs... it is not an obligation in Islam." Both Christian and Muslim leaders have publicly denounced the practice of FGC since 1998. A recent conference at Al-Azhar University in Cairo (December, 2006) brought prominent Muslim clergy to denounce the practice as not being necessary under the umbrella of Islam. Although there was some reluctance amongst some of the clergy, who preferred to hand the issue to doctors, making the FGC a medical decision, rather than a religious one, the Grand Mufti Ali Jumaa of Egypt, signed a resolution denouncing the practice. One of the four Sunni schools of religious law, the Shafi'i school, rules that trimming of the clitoral hood is mandatory. Sheikh Faraz Rabbani states, "That which is [fard|wajib] [obligatory] in the Shafi`i texts is merely slight 'trimming' of the tip of the clitoral hood - prepuce." Contrary to the WHO definition, he states that this practice is not "FGM, nor harmful to the woman or her ability to derive sexual pleasure." He states that "excision, FGM, or other harmful practices" are not permitted. In 1994, Egyptian Mufti Sheikh Jad Al-Hâqq argued that the procedure may not be banned simply on grounds of improper use. Al-Azhar University in Cairo had issued several fatwas endorsing FGC, in 1949, 1951 and 1981, but then over ruled these with a more recent fatwa totally banning the practice, as it goes against the principles and teachings of Islam. Judaism The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion states that female circumcision was never allowed in Judaism. Toubia (1995) states that female circumcision is not even mentioned in any religious text. FGC is practiced by the minority Ethiopian Jewish community (Beta Israel), formerly known as Falasha, most of whom now live in Israel. The operation may only be performed by a Jewish female. Those Ethiopian Jews who have emigrated to Israel no longer practice FGC. Female genital mutilation among Ethiopian Jews In general, traditional Judaism maintains that the body of a person belongs not to the person but to God. How Jewish is Body Piercing? by Rabbi Chaim Steinmetz. Any permanent modification of the body which does not serve the purpose of correcting a deformity is considered to be a defacement of God's property; thus, tattoos and body modifications are forbidden, with the exception of male circumcision, which is mandated by Jewish Law as Brit Milah. Christianity FGC has never been part of Christianity as a faith system. There are no scriptural or doctrinal documents existing within the larger Christian tradition that even address the issue. The only contemporary examples of Christians practicing FGC are in Africa. As FGC rituals predated the missionaries work in North Africa, many African tribes continue the practice as a matter of cultural tradition, unrelated to religious belief. In the United States, as recently as 1938, FGC was advocated by Reverend Oscar Lowry as a method of preventing masturbation: "While incest and illicit commerce of the sexes is abominable, there is another even more so—if that be possible—that is, the heinous sin of self-pollution or masturbation... In some cases where there may be impingement of the clitoris, a slight operation may be necessary to relieve the tension and irritation..." Lowry, Reverend Oscar. A Virtuous Woman: Sex Life in Relation to the Christian Life. Zondervan Publishing House, 1815 Franklin Street, Grand Rapids, Michigan; November, 1938 (Fourth Edition); pp. 29 and 35. Medical consequences Among practising cultures, FGC is most commonly performed between the ages of four and eight, but can take place at any age from infancy to adolescence. Prohibition has led to FGC going underground, at times with people who have had no medical training performing the cutting without anaesthetic, sterilisation, or the use of proper medical instruments. The procedure, when performed without any anaesthetic, can lead to death through shock from immense pain or excessive bleeding. The failure to use sterile medical instruments may lead to infections. Other serious long term health effects are also common. These include urinary and reproductive tract infections, caused by obstructed flow of urine and menstrual blood, various forms of scarring and infertility. Epidermal inclusion cysts may form and expand, particularly in procedure affecting the clitoris. These cysts can grow over time and can become infected, requiring medical attention such as drainage. Braddy, Cathleen M., Files, Julia A. (2007). Female genital mutilation: cultural awareness and clinical considerations. Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health, 52, 158-163 The first time having sexual intercourse will often be extremely painful for infibulated women, who will need the labia majora to be opened, to allow their partner access to the vagina. This second cut, sometimes performed by the partner with a knife, can cause other complications to arise. A June 2006 study by the WHO has cast doubt on the safety of genital cutting of any kind. This study was conducted on a cohort of 28,393 women attending delivery wards at 28 obstetric centers in areas of Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, Senegal and The Sudan. A high proportion of these mothers had undergone FGC. According to the WHO criteria, all types of FGC were found to pose an increased risk of death to the baby (15% for Type I, 32% for Type II, and 55% for Type III). Mothers with FGC Type III were also found to be 30% more at risk for cesarean sections and had a 70% increase in postpartum haemorrhage compared to women without FGC. Estimating from these results, and doing a rough population estimate of mothers in Africa with FGC, an additional 10 to 20 per thousand babies in Africa die during delivery as a result of the mothers having undergone genital cutting. In cases of repairing the damage resulting from FGC, called de-infibulation when reversing Type III FGC, this is usually carried out by a gynecologist. See also Pierre Foldes, French surgeon, who developed modern surgical corrective techniques. A 12-year-old Egyptian girl, Badour Shaker, died in June, 2007 during or soon after a circumcision, prompting the Egyptian Health Ministry to ban the practice. She died from an overdose of anaesthesia. The girl's mother, Zeinab Abdel Ghani, paid $9.00 [or 5 Pounds Sterling] to a female doctor, in an illegal clinic in the southern town of Maghagh, for the operation. The mother stated that the doctor tried to give her $3,000 to withdraw a lawsuit, but she refused. Sexual consequences The effect of FGC on a woman's sexual experience varies depending on many factors. FGC does not eliminate sexual pleasure for all women who undergo the procedure. Although sexual excitement and arousal for a woman during intercourse involves a complex series of nerve endings being activated and stimulated in and around her vagina, vulva (labia minora and majora), cervix, uterus and clitoris, psychological response and mindset are also important. Komisaruk, B. et al.: The Science of Orgasm. JHU Press, 2006. For an interview with two of the researchers, see ”Exploring the Mind-Body Orgasm", http://www.wired.com/medtech/health/news/2007/01/72325 Mah K, Binik YM: ”Are orgasms in the mind of the body? Psychosocial versus physiological correlates of orgasmic pleasure and satisfaction”. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy 31:187-200, 2005. Lightfoot-Klein (1989) studied circumcised and infibulated females in Sudan, stating, "Contrary to expectations, nearly 90% of all women interviewed said that they experienced orgasm (climax) or had at various periods of their marriage experienced it. Frequency ranged from always to rarely." Lightfoot-Klein stated that the quality of orgasm varied from intense and prolonged, to weak or difficult to achieve. Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny: "The Sexual Experience and Marital Adjustment of Genitally Circumcised and Infibulated Females in The Sudan". The Journal of Sex Research Vol.26. No.3, pp.375-392, 1989. http://www.fgmnetwork.org/authors/Lightfoot-klein/sexualexperience.htm See also Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa, by Hanny Lightfoot-Klein; Harrington Park Press, 1989, ISBN 0-918393-68-X A study in 2007 found that in some infibulated women, some erectile tissue fundamental to producing pleasure had not been completely excised. Defibulation of subjects revealed that a part of or the whole of the clitoris was underneath the scar of infibulation. The study found that sexual pleasure and orgasm are still possible after infibulation, and that they rely heavily on cultural influences — when mutilation is lived as a positive experience, orgasm is more likely. When FGC is experienced as traumatic, its frequency drops. The study suggested that FGC women who did not suffer from long-term health consequences and are in a good and fulfilling relationship may enjoy sex, and women who suffered from sexual dysfunction as a result of FGC have a right to sex therapy. A study by Anthropologist Rogaia M. Abusharaf, found that "circumcision is seen as 'the machinery which liberates the female body from its masculine properties' and for the women she interviewed, it is a source of empowerment and strength". Female genital cutting: traditional practice or human rights violation? Attempts to end the practice of FGC Despite laws forbidding the practice, FGC remains an enduring tradition in many societies and cultural groups. Political leaders have found FGC difficult to eliminate on the local level because of its cultural and sometimes political importance. For instance, in Kenya, missionaries present in the 1920s and 1930s forbade their Christianised adherents to practice clitoridectomy. In response, FGC became instrumental to the ethnic independence movement among the Kikuyu, the most populous ethnic group of Kenya - indigenous people reacted against what they perceived as cultural imperialistic attacks by Europeans. Natsoulas, Theodore: “The Politicization of the Ban of Female Circumcision and the Rise of the Independent School Movement in Kenya. The KCA, the Missions and Government, 1929-1932”. Journal of African Studies 33(2):137-158, 1998. Likewise, prohibition by the British of the procedure among tribes in Kenya significantly strengthened the tribes' resistance to British colonial rule in the 1950s and increased support for the Mau Mau guerrilla movement. Birch/Abril, Nicholas. "An End to Female Genital Cutting?", Time Magazine, 2008-01-04. Retrieved on 2008-01-08. Because the practice holds much cultural and marital significance, FGC opponents recognize that in order to end the practice it is necessary to work closely with local communities. In order to leave no individuals handicapped, as what happened with the rapid abandonment of foot binding among the Chinese early in the 20th century, members of a marriage network must all give up the practice simultaneously. Despite the close tie between FGC and cultural and, sometimes, religious tradition, there are cases where attempts at ending FGC have been successful. One example is in Senegal, where initiative was taken by native women working at the local level in connection with the Tostan Project. Since 1997, 1,271 villages (600,000 people), some 12% of the practicing population in Senegal, have voluntarily given up FGC and are also working to end early and forced marriage. This has come about through the voluntary efforts of locals carrying the message out to other villages within their marriage networks in a self-replicating process. By 2003, 563 villages had participated in public declarations, and the number continues to rise. By then, at least 23 villages in Burkina Faso had also held such community wide ceremonies, marking "the first public declaration to end FGC outside of Senegal and showing the replicability of the Tostan program for large-scale abandonment of this practice". Molly Melching of TOSTAN believes that in Senegal the practice of female genital mutilation could be ended within 2–5 years. She credits education, instead of cultural imperialism, for the rapid and significant changes which have occurred in Senegal. Some countries which have prohibited FGC still experience the practice in secrecy. In many cases, the enforcement of this prohibition is a low priority for governments. Other countries have tried to educate practitioners in order to make it easier and safer, instead of outlawing the practice entirely. However, with pressure from the WHO and other groups, laws are being passed in regards to FGC. On June 28, 2007 Egypt banned female genital cutting after the death of 12-year-old Badour Shaker during a genital circumcision. The Guardian of Britain reported that her death "sparked widespread condemnation" of the practice. However, Britain has had its own problem confronting cases of FGC, as immigrants from Africa have been known to send their daughters to their home nations to undergo the procedure before returning to Britain. The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) has declared February 6 as the International Day Against Female Genital Mutilation. The UNFPA has stated that [the] practice violates the basic rights of women and girls, [...]" and "[...] female genital mutilation or cutting is not required by any religion." FGC can now be partially reversed via a surgical technique, which gives back certain sensation to the genitalia. Clitoraid, a non-profit international organization, is in the process of building a hospital in Burkina Faso, West Africa, where women who have undergone FGC will be able to receive this procedure free of charge. The hospital will be staffed with volunteers, including surgeons who specialize in this area. There are two main anti-FGC frameworks: the health model and the human rights-based model. The health model campaign defines FGC as harmful to women's health (physical and psychological trauma, sterility, damage to the urethra and anus, tetanus, child and maternal mortality and more recently HPV and HIV infection). This approach has failed to bring about large scale behavioural change. And although the health model is against FGC and the adverse effects associated, they often reject methods to provide medical support to minimize FGC health risks (i.e. medicalization). The human rights-based model has in more recent times replaced the health based model as the preferred approach in anti-FGC campaigns. The human rights model encompasses four important human rights discourses: violence against women, rights of the child, freedom from torture and rights to health and bodily integrity. Laws and prevalence Africa In July, 2003 at its second summit, the African Union adopted the Maputo Protocol promoting women's rights including an end to female genital mutilation. Having been ratified by fifteen members, it went into force in November, 2005. By December 2008, 25 member countries had ratified and deposited the Maputo Protocol. The countries where FGC is commonly practiced were identified by the US State Department. (Web archive) Other information in this section is from Skaine (2005), Appendix I. Burkina Faso (71.6% prevalence, Type II) A law prohibiting FGC was enacted in 1996 and went into effect in February 1997. Even before this law, however, a presidential decree had set up the National Committee against excision and imposed fines on people guilty of excising girls and women. The new law includes stricter punishment. Several women excising girls have been handed prison sentences. Burkina Faso ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2006. Central African Republic (43.4% prevalence, Type I and II) In 1996, the President issued an Ordinance prohibiting FGC throughout the country. It has the force of national law. Any violation of the Ordinance is punishable by imprisonment of from one month and one day to two years and a fine of 5,100 to 100,000 francs (approximately US$8–160). No arrests are known to have been made under the law. Côte d'Ivoire ( 44.5% prevalence, Type II) A December 18, 1998 law provides that harm to the integrity of the genital organ of a woman by complete or partial removal, excision, desensitization or by any other procedure will, if harmful to a women's health, be punishable by imprisonment of one to five years and a fine of 360,000 to two million CFA Francs (approximately US$576–3,200). The penalty is five to twenty years incarceration if a death occurs during the procedure and up to five years' prohibition of medical practice, if this procedure is carried out by a doctor. Djibouti (90-98% prevalence, Type II) FGC was outlawed in the country's revised Penal Code that went into effect in April 1995. Article 333 of the Penal Code provides that persons found guilty of this practice will face a five year prison term and a fine of one million Djibouti francs (approximately US$5,600). Djibouti ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2005. Egypt (78-97% prevalence, Type I, II and III) Egypt's Ministry of Health and Population has banned all forms of female genital cutting since 2007. The ministry's ban order declared it is 'prohibited for any doctors, nurses, or any other person to carry out any cut of, flattening or modification of any natural part of the female reproductive system'. Islamic authorities in the nation also stressed that Islam opposes female circumcision. The Grand Mufti of Egypt, Ali Gomaa, said that it is "Prohibited, prohibited, prohibited." The June 2007 Ministry ban eliminated a loophole that allowed girls to undergo the procedure for health reasons. There had previously been provisions under the Penal Code involving "wounding" and "intentional infliction of harm leading to death," as well as a ministerial decree prohibiting FGC. In December 1997, the Court of Cassation (Egypt's highest appeals court) upheld a government banning of the practice providing that those who did not comply would be subjected to criminal and administrative punishments. This law had proved ineffective and in a survey in 2000, a study found that 97% of the country's population still practiced FGC. In light of the widespread practice of FGC, even after the ban in 1997, some Egyptian villages decided to voluntarily give up the practice, as was the case with Abou Shawareb, which vowed in July 2005 to end the practice. However, it remains a culturally accepted practice, and a 2005 study found that over 95% of Egyptian women have undergone some form of FGC. Eritrea (90-95% prevalence, Type I, II and III) Eritrea has outlawed all forms of female genital cutting since 2007. There have been no arrests made yet under the new law. Ghana (9-15% prevalence, Type I,II and III) In 1989, the head of the government of Ghana, President Rawlings, issued a formal declaration against FGC. Article 39 of Ghana's Constitution also provides in part that traditional practices that are injurious to a person's health and well being are abolished. Ghana ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2007. Guinea (98.6% prevalence, Type I, II and III) FGC is illegal in Guinea under Article 265 of the Penal Code. The punishment is hard labor for life and if death results within 40 days after the crime, the perpetrator will be sentenced to death. No cases regarding the practice under the law have ever been brought to trial. Article 6 of the Guinean Constitution, which outlaws cruel and inhumane treatment, could be interpreted to include these practices, should a case be brought to the Supreme Court. A member of the Guinean Supreme Court is working with a local NGO on inserting a clause into the Guinean Constitution specifically prohibiting these practices. Guinea signed the Maputo Protocol in 2003 but has not ratified it. Nigeria (25.1% prevalence, Type I, II and III) There is no federal law banning the practice of FGC in Nigeria. Opponents of these practices rely on Section 34(1)(a) of the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria that states "no person shall be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment" as the basis for banning the practice nationwide. A member of the House of Representatives has drafted a bill, not yet in committee, to outlaw this practice. Nigeria ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2005. Senegal (5-20% prevalence, Type II and III) A law that was passed in January 1999 makes FGC illegal in Senegal. President Diouf had appealed for an end to this practice and for legislation outlawing it. The law modifies the Penal Code to make this practice a criminal act, punishable by a sentence of one to five years in prison. A spokesperson for the human rights group RADDHO (The African Assembly for the Defense of Human Rights) noted in the local press that "Adopting the law is not the end, as it will still need to be effectively enforced for women to benefit from it. Senegal ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2005. Sudan (91% prevalence, Type I,II and III) Currently there is no law forbidding FGC, although Sudan was the first country to outlaw it in 1946, under the British. Type III was prohibited under the 1925 Penal Code, with less severe forms allowed. Outreach groups have been trying to eradicate the practice for 50 years, working with NGO's, religious groups, the government, the media and medical practitioners. Arrests have been made but no further action seems to have taken place. Sudan signed the Maputo Protocol in June, 2008 but no ratification has yet been deposited with the African Union. Tanzania (17.6% prevalence, Type II and III) Section 169A of the Sexual Offences Special Provisions Act of 1998 prohibits FGC. Punishment is imprisonment of from five to fifteen years or a fine not exceeding 300,000 shillings (approximately US$380) or both. There have been some arrests under this legislation, but no reports of prosecutions yet. Tanzania ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2007. Togo (12% prevalence, Type II) On October 30, 1998, the National Assembly unanimously voted to outlaw the practice of FGC. Penalties under the law can include a prison term of two months to ten years and a fine of 100,000 francs to one million francs (approximately US$160 to 1,600). A person who had knowledge that the procedure was going to take place and failed to inform public authorities can be punished with one month to one year imprisonment or a fine of from 20,000 to 500,000 francs (approximately US$32 to 800). Togo ratified the Maputo Protocol in 2005. Uganda (<5% prevalence, Type I and II) There is no law against the practice of FGC in Uganda. In 1996, however, a court intervened to prevent the performance of this procedure under Section 8 of the Children Statute, enacted that year, that makes it unlawful to subject a child to social or customary practices that are harmful to the child's health. Uganda signed the Maputo Protocol in 2003 but has not ratified it, despite calls from women's rights advocates. Uganda Government News: Uganda asked to ratify Women’s rights protocol, UGPulse, November 27, 2008 Asia Indonesia (No national prevalence figures avail., Type I and IV) Officials are preparing to release a decree banning doctors and paramedics from performing FGC. Azrul Azwar, the director general of community health, stated that, "All government health facilities will also be instructed to spread information about the decision as well as the redundancy of female circumcision." Iraq (Type I) In 2007, the German NGO Wadi began a wide scale research in all three Governorates of Iraqi Kurdistan, interviewing more than 1,800 women from various areas and social backgrounds to collect data on the base of a profile of Kurdish women. Preliminary findings show, that FGM is widespread among women and girls (60 % up to virtually 100 % affected in some regions) and exists in nearly all parts of the Kurdish region of Iraq (with the only exception of Dohuk governorate where FGM-rates are down to 10 %). In the Pishder region and Raniyah from March to end of August 2008 a mobile medical team of Wadi paid 115 regular visits to 50 Villages and 25 Girls schools in the Raniya region and as a result they met with 2,952 women and girls. From these a total of 2,810 were mutilated, which amounts to 95 % Stop FGM in Kurdistan . Sri Lanka According to Asiff Hussien Sarandib: An Ethnological Study of the Muslims of Sri Lanka by Asiff Hussein ISBN 9559726226 / 9789559726227 / 955-97262-2-6 Publisher Asiff Hussein Country Sri Lanka Language English Edition Hardcover p.74f "female circumcision [is] almost universal amongst the Muslims and [is] practiced in all part of the country. ... [Also] all non-Muslim females who had embraced Islam (usually to marry Muslim men) had to undergo the operation." The type of FGC practiced in Sri Lanka involves a "small incision on the clitoris of the baby", or on rarer occasions, "removing the skin covering the clitoris or a little bit of tissue in the vulval region." Yemen (Type I and II) There is no law against FGC in Yemen. A ministerial decree effective January 9, 2001, however, prohibits the practice in both government and private health facilities. Other regions Several countries outside areas where FGC is traditionally performed have laws banning the practice. Australia In 1994 there were several anecdotal reports of FGC being practised amongst migrant communities in Australia. By 1997, all Australian states and territories had made FGC a specific criminal offence. It is also a criminal offence to take, or propose to take, a child outside Australia to have a FGC procedure performed. The incidence of FGC in Australia is unknown as it is unreported to authorities and is often only uncovered when women and girls are taken to hospital due to complications with the procedure. Canada FGC is considered child assault and prohibited under sections 267 (assault causing bodily harm) or 268 (aggravated assault, including wounding, maiming, disfiguring) of the Criminal Code. Canada's Criminal Code ( R.S., 1985, c. C-46 ) Italy After a few cases of infibulation practiced by complaisant medical practicioners within the African immigrants community came to public knowledge through Media coverage, the Law n°7/2006 was passed on 1/9/2006, becoming effective on 1/28/2006, concerning "Measures of prevention and prohibition of any female genital mutilation practice"; the Act is also known as the Legge Consolo ("Consolo Act") named after its primary promoter, Senator Giuseppe Consolo. Article 6 of the law integrates the Italian Penal Code with Articles 583-Bis and 583-Ter, punishing any practice of female genital cutting and/or mutliation "not justifiable under therapeutical or medical needs" with enprisonment ranging from 4 to 12 years (3 to 7 years for any mutilation other than, or less severe than, clitoridectomy, excision or infibulation). Penalty can be reduced up to 2/3 if the harm caused is of modest entity (i.e. if partially or completely unsuccessful), but may also be elevated up to 1/3 if the victim is a minor or if the offense has been committed for profit. An Italian citizen or a foreign citizen legally resident in Italy can be punished under this law even if the offense is committed abroad; the law will as well afflict any individual of any citizenship in Italy, even illegally or provisionally. The law also mandates any medical practicioner found guilty under those provisions to have his/her medical license revoked for a minimum of six up to a maximum of ten years. Italian Law n°7 1/9/2006, Disposizioni concernenti la prevenzione e il divieto delle pratiche di mutilazione genitale femminile Retrieved on March 23, 2009. The law gained general public consense, and continues to receive nowadays support from several women's rights movements. Supporters of the law however imput that more could yet be done to protect young girls within the communities of African immigrants from such practices, as it is reported that "the girls go on vacation in their families' homelands to visit their grandparents and return infibulated". Consolo Act supporters blog Retrieved on March 23, 2009. New Zealand Under a 1995 amendment to the Crimes Act, it is illegal to perform "any medical or surgical procedure or mutilation of the vagina or clitoris of any person" for reasons of "culture, religion, custom or practice". It is also illegal to send or make any arrangement for a child to be sent out of New Zealand for FGC to be performed, assist or encourage any person in New Zealand to perform FGC on a New Zealand citizen or resident outside New Zealand convince or encourage any other New Zealand citizen or resident to go outside New Zealand to have FGC performed. Sweden FGC is punishable according to Act (1982:316) Prohibiting Female Genital Mutilation. Sweden was the first western country to prohibit FGC, legislation against 'female circumcision' passed in 1982. In 1998 the law was revised with a change in terminology and more severe penalties for breaking the law were imposed. The law was further reformulated in 1999, to allow for prosecution in a Swedish court of someone performing FGC even if the act has been performed in a country where it is not considered criminal (removal of the principle of double incrimination). United Kingdom FGC has been a specific criminal offence since the Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act was passed in 1985. The child could be removed from her home where this is the only way her protection can be guaranteed. NOTES ON SOME OVERSEAS COUNTRIES' LAWS, The FGC Education and Networking Project This was superseded by the Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003. The Scottish Parliament also passed the Prohibition Of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act in 2005. United States Federal law prohibiting FGC was enacted in 1996. 17 states enacted similar laws between 1994 and 2006. Women's Human Rights: The International and Comparative Law Casebook By Susan Deller Ross Published by Vantage Press, Inc, 2008 ISBN 0812240677, 9780812240672 , page 509 In Literature and films Literature Desert Flower by Waris Dirie (1999): Waris Dirie autobiographical novel tells the story of her own childhood and genital mutilation was written in collaboration with Cathleen Miller. The book has been printed in numerous languages and topped bestseller lists in Europe. Somalia's Desert Flower Time Magazine July 7th, 2002 Desert Dawn by Waris Dirie (2003): The book describes how Dirie became a UN Special Ambassador against female genital mutilation (FGM) and returned to her family in Somalia. Written in collaboration with Jeanne D'Haem. Desert Children reveals how Dirie and journalist Corinna Milborn investigated the practice of FGM in Europe. Waris reports on encounters with victims and offenders, on the difficult research, on setbacks and achievements. Written with Corinna Milborn, translation by Sheelagh Alabaster; published in 2007 by Time Warner UK. A Europe-wide campaign against Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) was initiated after the publication of this book. Book Reviews-Desert Children, Times Online ,01 March 2006 Films Best "Female Genital Mutilation" Titles, IMDb Best "Female Circumcision" Titles, IMDb Finzan by Cheick Oumar Sissoko (1989, Mali): About two women rebel against the traditions of a village society. Bintou in Paris by Kirsten Johnson and Julia Pimsleur (1995 documentary short, France) Schnitt ins Leben - Afrikanerinnen bekämpfen ein Ritual by Dagmar Brendecke and Anke Müller-Belecke (2000 TV documentary, Germany) The Day I Will Never Forget by Kim Longinotto (2002 documentary, UK) Dabla! Excision by Erica Pomerance (2003 documentary, Canada): Follows the growing movement across Africa to stop FGC. Moolaadé by Ousmane Sembene (2004, Senegal, France, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Morocco, Tunisia) Dunia by Jocelyn Saab (2005 Drama, Egypt-Lebanon-France) Kokonainen by Alexis Kouros (2005 short, Finland): The film won 2005 New York Short Film Festival Jury Award for Best Screenplay. Awards for Kokonainen, IMDb Maimouna - La vie devant moi by Fabiola Maldonado (2007 documentary, Germany) Desert Flower - The Feature Film by Peter Herrmann (is to be released in autumn 2009) based on Waris Dirie's first book, Desert Flower. Model Liya Kebede to star in 'Flower' See also Breast ironing - a practice of flattening the breasts of girls Chastity belt Circumcision Foot binding - an old, primarily Chinese, practice of constricting the feet of girls Infibulation Labiaplasty - a recently developed cosmetic practice Vulvectomy References Further reading Bibliography Al-Qaradawi, Y. (2004, February 7). Islamic ruling on female circumcision. Retrieved March 29, 2006. Al-Qaradawi, Y. (2004, December 13). Circumcision: Juristic, medical & social perspectives. Retrieved March 29, 2006. Boyle, E. H. (2002). Female genital cutting: Cultural conflict in the global community. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-7063-7. Dettwyler, Katherine A. (1994). Dancing skeletons: life and death in West Africa. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press. ISBN 0-88133-748-X. Ferguson, I and Ellis, P. (1995). Female Genital Mutilation: a Review of the Current Literature Department of Justice, Canada. Working document Gruenbaum, E. (2001). The female circumcision controversy. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1746-9. Hoffman, B. (2002). Womanhood and Circumcision: Three Maasai women have their say. Berkeley: Berkeley Media. Hrzán, Daniela. (Re)Discovering FGC: Anthropology, Whiteness, Feminism. In: Tißberger, Martina/ Dietze, Gabriele/ Hrzán, Daniela/ Husmann-Kastein, Jana (eds.). Weiß – Weißsein – Whiteness: Kritische Studien zu Gender und Rassismus/Critical Studies on Gender and Racism. Frankfurt/Main: Peter Lang, 2006, pp. 113–142. Johnson, Michelle C. (2000). Becoming a Muslim, Becoming a person: Female 'circumcision', religious identity, and personhood in Guinea-Bissau. In B. Shell-Duncan & Y. Herlund (Eds.), Female circumcision in Africa: Culture, controversy, and change. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Kandela, P. (1995, January). Egypt sees U turn on female circumcision. British Medical Journal, 310, 12. Kassindja, F. (1998). Do they hear you when you cry. New York: Delacorte Press. ISBN 0-38531-832-4. Obermeyer, Carla Makhlouf (2003). The health consequences of female circumcision: Science, advocacy, and standards of evidence. Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 17(3), 394-412. PMID 12974204. Pieters, G., & Lowenfels A. B. (1977). Infibulation in the horn of Africa. New York State Journal of Medicine, 77(5), 729-31. PMID 265433. Research papers from medical gynecologists, judges, linguistics, and social scientists on the subject (1994). University of Khartoum, Sudan. Umm Atteya Organization website (Arabic). Retrieved March 29, 2006. UNICEF (1999). Consultation on the elimination of female genital mutilation: 14 December-16 December 1998. New York: Author. 40 pp. World Health Organization. (1996). Female genital mutilation: Report of a WHO Technical Working Group (unpublished document WHO/FRH/WHD/96.10). Geneva: World Health Organization. Retrieved 2007-02-21. Print Aldeeb, Sami (2000). Male and Female Circumcision in the Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities, Religious debate. Beirut, ISBN 1855134063. Daw, E. (1970). Female circumcision and infibulation complicating delivery. Practitioner, 204(222), 559-63. . Dewhurst, C.J., & Michelson, A. (1964). Infibulation complicating pregnancy. British Medical Journal, 2(5422), 1442. . Dirie, Waris (2001). Desert Flower. Autobiography of a Somali woman's journey from nomadic tribal life to a career as a fashion model in London and to the post of special ambassador at the United Nations. Dirie recounts her personal experience with female genital mutilation that began with circumcision at age five. Leonard, Lori (2000). We did it for pleasure only: Hearing alternative tales of female circumcision. Qualitative Inquiry, 6(2), 212-228. Mernissi, Fatima. Beyond the veil: Male-female dynamics in a modern Muslim society. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman Pub. Co. ISBN 0-470-59613-9. Mustafa, Asim Zaki (1966). Female circumcision and infibulation in the Sudan. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of the British Commonwealth, 73(2), 302–306. . Robinett, Patricia (2006). The rape of innocence: One woman's story of female genital mutilation in the USA. N.p.: Aesculapius Press. ISBN 1-878411-04-7. External links endfgmkenya.org: Campaign to End FGM in Kenya ReligiousTolerance.org: About FGM: Female Genital Mutilation U.S. State Department estimates of prevalence of FGC in Africa World Health Organization: Female genital mutilation Columbia University: Circumcised clitoris (Female 'circumcision')? 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6,360 | Julia_Kristeva | Julia Kristeva in 2008 Julia Kristeva () (born 24 June 1941) is a Bulgarian-French philosopher, literary critic, psychoanalyst, feminist, and, most recently, novelist, who has lived in France since the mid-1960s. Kristeva became influential in international critical analysis, cultural theory and feminism after publishing her first book Semeiotikè in 1969. Her immense body of work includes books and essays which address intertextuality, the semiotic, and abjection, in the fields of linguistics, literary theory and criticism, psychoanalysis, biography and autobiography, political and cultural analysis, art and art history. Together with Roland Barthes, Todorov, Goldmann, Gérard Genette, Lévi-Strauss, Lacan, Greimas, and Althusser, she stands as one of the foremost structuralists, in that time when structuralism took major place in humanities. Her works also have an important place in post-structuralist thought. She is also the founder and head of the Simone de Beauvoir Prize committee. Simone de Beauvoir Prize 2009 goes to the One Million Signatures Campaign in Iran, Change for Equality Life Born in Sliven, Bulgaria, Kristeva was the daughter of a church accountant. Her parents were not members of the Bulgarian Communist Party in power at the time, excluding Kristeva and her sister from the associated privileges. They were enrolled in a Francophone school run by Dominican nuns. Kristeva became acquainted with the work of Mikhail Bakhtin at this time in Bulgaria. Kristeva went on to study at the University of Sofia, and whilst a postgraduate there obtained a research fellowship that enabled her to moved to France in December 1965, when she was 24. Siobhan Chapman, Christopher Routledge, Key thinkers in linguistics and the philosophy of language, Oxford University Press US, 2005, ISBN 0-195-18767-9, Google Print, p. 166 She continued her education at several French universities. Work After joining the 'Tel Quel group' in 1965, Kristeva focused on the politics of language and became an active member of the group. She trained in psychoanalysis, and earned her degree in 1979. In some ways, her work can be seen as trying to adapt a psychoanalytic approach to the poststructuralist criticism. For example, her view of the subject, and its construction, shares similarities with Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan. However, Kristeva rejects any understanding of the subject in a structuralist sense, instead, she favors a subject always "in process" or "in crisis." In this way, she contributes to the poststructuralist critique of essentialized structures, whilst preserving the teachings of psychoanalysis. She travelled to China in the 1970s and wrote About Chinese Women (1977) about her experiences. State University of New York at Stony Brook Tate Britain Online Event: Julia Kristeva Who's who in Les samouraïs An Interview with Josefina Ayerza - Flash Art Magazine Guardian article: March 14, 2006 Julia Kristeva - site officiel The semiotic One of Kristeva's most important propositions is the semiotic. Kristeva's use of the term 'semiotic' here should not be confused with the discipline of semiotics suggested by Ferdinand de Saussure. For Kristeva, the semiotic is closely related to the infantile pre-Oedipal referred to in the works of Freud and mainly Melanie Klein and the British Object Relation psychoanalysis, and to the Lacanian (pre-mirror stage). It is an emotional field, tied to our instincts, which dwells in the fissures and prosody of language rather than in the denotative meanings of words. In this sense, the semiotic opposes the symbolic, which corresponds words with meaning in a stricter, mathematical sense. She is also noted for her work on the concepts of abjection (a notion that relates to a primary psychological force of rejection, directed toward the mother-figure), and intertextuality. Anthropology and psychology Kristeva argues that anthropology and psychology, or the connection between the social and the subject, do not represent each other, but rather follow the same logic: the survival of the group and the subject. Furthermore, in her analysis of Oedipus, she claims that the speaking subject cannot exist on his own, but that he "stands on the fragile threshold as if stranded on account of an impossible demarcation" (Powers of Horror, p. 85). In her comparison between the two disciplines, Kristeva claims that the way in which an individual excludes the abject mother as means of forming an identity, is the same way in which societies are constructed. On a broader scale, cultures exclude the maternal and the feminine, and by this come into being. Feminism Kristeva was regarded as a key proponent of French feminism together with Simone de Beauvoir, Hélène Cixous, and Luce Irigaray. Vanda Zajko and Miriam Leonard (eds.), Laughing with Medusa. Oxford University Press, 2006. ISBN0-19-927438-X , Griselda Pollock, Inscriptions in the feminine. In: Insdie the Visible edited by Catherine de Zegher. MIT Press, 1996. Kristeva had a remarkable influence on feminism and feminist literary studies Parallax, n. 8, [Vol. 4(3)], 1998. Humm, Maggie, Modernist Women and Visual Cultures. Rutgers University Press, 2003. ISBN 0813532663 in the US and the UK, as well as on readings into contemporary art Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum. Routledge, 2007. , Humm, Maggie, Feminism and Film. Indiana University press, 1997. ISBN 0253333342 although her relations with feminist circles and movements in France was quite controversial. Kristeva made a famous disambiguation of three types of feminism in "Women's Time" in New Maladies of the Soul (1993), while rejecting the first two, including that of Simone de Beauvoir, her stands are sometimes considered as rejective of feminism in common; in fact, Kristeva tried to propose the idea of multiple sexual identities against the joined code of "unified feminine language". Novels In the past decade, Kristeva has written a number of novels that resemble detective stories. While the books maintain narrative suspense and develop a compellingly stylized surface, her readers also encounter ideas intrinsic to her theoretical projects. Her characters reveal themselves mainly through psychological devices, making her type of fiction mostly resemble the later work of Dostoevsky. Her fictional oeuvre, which includes The Old Man and the Wolves, Murder in Byzantium, and Possessions, while often allegorical, also approaches the autobiographical in some passages, especially with one of the protagonists of "Possessions," Stephanie Delacour - a French journalist - which can be seen as Kristeva's alter ego. Murder in Byzantium deals with themes from orthodox Christianity and politics and has been described by Kristeva as "a kind of anti-Da Vinci Code." Interview wth John Sutherland, The Guardian, 14 March 2006 Personal Julia Kristeva is married to the French writer Philippe Sollers and has a son. Honors For her "innovative explorations of questions on the intersection of language, culture and literature", Kristeva was awarded the Holberg International Memorial Prize in 2004. She won the 2006 Hannah Arendt Award for Political Thought. Selected Writings Séméiôtiké: recherches pour une sémanalyse, Paris: Edition du Seuil, 1969. (English translation: Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. Oxford: Blackwell, 1980.) La Révolution Du Langage Poétique: L'avant-Garde À La Fin Du Xixe Siècle, Lautréamont Et Mallarmé. Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1974. (English translation: Revolution in Poetic Language, New York: Columbia University Press, 1984.) About Chinese Women. London: Boyars, 1977. Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection. New York: Columbia University Press, 1982. The Kristeva Reader. (ed. Toril Moi) Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986. In the Beginning Was Love: Psychoanalysis and Faith. New York: Columbia University Press, 1987. Black Sun: Depression and Melancholia. New York: Columbia University Press, 1989. Nations without Nationalism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.New Maladies of the Soul. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.Crisis of the European Subject. New York: Other Press, 2000. Reading the Bible. In: David Jobling, Tina Pippin & Ronald Schleifer (eds). The Postmodern Bible Reader. (pp. 92-101). Oxford: Blackwell, 2001.Female Genius: Life, Madness, Words: Hannah Arendt, Melanie Klein, Colette: A Trilogy. 3 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.Strangers to Ourselves New York: Columbia University Press,1991 NovelsThe Samurai: A Novel. New York: Columbia University Press, 1992.The Old Man and the Wolves. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.Possessions: A Novel. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.Murder in Byzantium.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 2006. See also list of deconstructionists Luce Irigaray Fashionable Nonsense Hélène Cixous Écriture féminine French feminism External links Julia Kristeva Notes � | Julia_Kristeva |@lemmatized julia:6 kristeva:27 bear:2 june:1 bulgarian:2 french:6 philosopher:1 literary:3 critic:1 psychoanalyst:1 feminist:4 recently:1 novelist:1 live:1 france:3 since:1 mid:1 become:3 influential:1 international:2 critical:1 analysis:3 cultural:2 theory:2 feminism:8 publish:1 first:2 book:3 semeiotikè:1 immense:1 body:1 work:8 include:3 essay:2 address:1 intertextuality:2 semiotic:7 abjection:3 field:2 linguistics:2 criticism:2 psychoanalysis:5 biography:1 autobiography:1 political:2 art:5 history:1 together:2 roland:1 barthes:1 todorov:1 goldmann:1 gérard:1 genette:1 lévi:1 strauss:1 lacan:2 greimas:1 althusser:1 stand:3 one:4 foremost:1 structuralists:1 time:4 structuralism:1 take:1 major:1 place:2 humanity:1 also:6 important:2 post:1 structuralist:2 thought:2 founder:1 head:1 simone:4 de:6 beauvoir:4 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comparison:1 two:2 individual:1 abject:1 mean:1 form:1 identity:2 society:1 construct:1 broad:1 scale:1 culture:3 maternal:1 feminine:3 come:1 regard:1 proponent:1 hélène:2 cixous:2 luce:2 irigaray:2 vanda:1 zajko:1 miriam:1 leonard:1 eds:2 laugh:1 medusa:1 x:1 griselda:2 pollock:2 inscription:1 insdie:1 visible:1 edit:1 catherine:1 zegher:1 mit:1 remarkable:1 influence:1 parallax:1 n:1 vol:1 humm:2 maggie:2 modernist:1 visual:1 rutgers:1 uk:1 well:1 reading:1 contemporary:1 encounter:2 virtual:1 museum:1 film:1 indiana:1 although:1 circle:1 movement:1 quite:1 controversial:1 make:2 famous:1 disambiguation:1 three:1 type:2 malady:2 soul:2 sometimes:1 consider:1 rejective:1 common:1 fact:1 propose:1 idea:2 multiple:1 sexual:1 joined:1 code:2 unified:1 novel:4 past:1 decade:1 number:1 resemble:2 detective:1 story:1 maintain:1 narrative:1 suspense:1 develop:1 compellingly:1 stylized:1 surface:1 reader:3 intrinsic:1 theoretical:1 project:1 character:1 reveal:1 device:1 fiction:1 mostly:1 late:1 dostoevsky:1 fictional:1 oeuvre:1 old:2 man:2 wolf:2 murder:3 byzantium:3 possession:3 often:1 allegorical:1 autobiographical:1 passage:1 especially:1 protagonist:1 stephanie:1 delacour:1 journalist:1 alter:1 ego:1 deal:1 theme:1 orthodox:1 christianity:1 describe:1 kind:1 anti:1 da:1 vinci:1 wth:1 john:1 sutherland:1 personal:1 marry:1 writer:1 philippe:1 sollers:1 son:1 honor:1 innovative:1 exploration:1 question:1 intersection:1 literature:2 award:2 holberg:1 memorial:1 win:1 hannah:2 arendt:2 select:1 writing:1 séméiôtiké:1 recherches:1 pour:1 une:1 sémanalyse:1 paris:2 edition:1 du:4 seuil:2 english:2 translation:2 desire:1 blackwell:3 la:2 révolution:1 langage:1 poétique:1 l:1 avant:1 garde:1 à:1 fin:1 xixe:1 siècle:1 lautréamont:1 et:1 mallarmé:1 éditions:1 revolution:1 poetic:1 columbia:12 london:1 boyars:1 ed:1 toril:1 moi:1 basil:1 beginning:1 love:1 faith:1 black:1 sun:1 depression:1 melancholia:1 nation:1 without:1 nationalism:1 european:1 read:1 bible:2 david:1 jobling:1 tina:1 pippin:1 ronald:1 schleifer:1 postmodern:1 pp:1 female:1 genius:1 madness:1 colette:1 trilogy:1 vols:1 stranger:1 novelsthe:1 samurai:1 list:1 deconstructionists:1 fashionable:1 nonsense:1 écriture:1 féminine:1 external:1 link:1 note:1 |@bigram julia_kristeva:6 roland_barthes:1 lévi_strauss:1 post_structuralist:1 de_beauvoir:4 mikhail_bakhtin:1 sigmund_freud:1 jacques_lacan:1 stony_brook:1 closely_relate:1 luce_irigaray:2 griselda_pollock:2 de_zegher:1 alter_ego:1 da_vinci:1 hannah_arendt:2 pour_une:1 du_seuil:2 oxford_blackwell:2 la_révolution:1 avant_garde:1 paris_éditions:1 basil_blackwell:1 fashionable_nonsense:1 external_link:1 |
6,361 | Lexeme | For its use in the context of Computer Science, see Lexical analysis. A lexeme () is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughly corresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme, conventionally written as RUN. RUN is here intended to display in small caps. Software limitations may result in its display either in full-sized capitals (RUN) or in full-sized capitals of a smaller font; either is anyway regarded as an acceptable substitute for genuine small caps. A related concept is the lemma (or citation form), which is a particular form of a lexeme that is chosen by convention to represent a canonical form of a lexeme. Lemmas are used in dictionaries as the headwords, and other forms of a lexeme are often listed later in the entry if they are not common conjugations of that word. A lexeme belongs to a particular syntactic category, has a certain meaning (semantic value), and in inflecting languages, has a corresponding inflectional paradigm; that is, a lexeme in many languages will have many different forms. For example, the lexeme RUN has a present third person singular form runs, a present non-third-person-singular form run (which also functions as the past participle and non-finite form), a past form ran, and a present participle running. (It does not include runner, runners, runnable, etc.) The use of the forms of a lexeme is governed by rules of grammar; in the case of English verbs such as RUN, these include subject-verb agreement and compound tense rules, which determine which form of a verb can be used in a given sentence. A lexicon consists of lexemes. In many formal theories of language, lexemes have subcategorization frames to account for the number and types of complements they occur with in sentences and other syntactic structures. The notion of a lexeme is very central to morphology, and thus, many other notions can be defined in terms of it. For example, the difference between inflection and derivation can be stated in terms of lexemes: Inflectional rules relate a lexeme to its forms. Derivational rules relate a lexeme to another lexeme. Decomposition Lexemes are often composed of smaller units with individual meaning called morphemes, according to root morpheme + derivational morphemes + desinence (not necessarily in this order), where: The root morpheme is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced to smaller constituents. SIL dictionary of linguistic terms: What is a root? The derivational morphemes carry only derivational information. SIL dictionary of linguistic terms: What is a derivational affix? The desinence is composed of all inflectional morphemes, and carries only inflectional information. SIL dictionary of linguistic terms: What is an inflectional affix? The compound root morpheme + derivational morphemes is often called the stem. SIL dictionary of linguistic terms: What is a stem? The decomposition stem + desinence can then be used to study inflection. See also Ending (linguistics) Inflection Lexical unit Lexical word vs. grammatical word Lexicography Lexis (linguistics) Marker (linguistics) Morpheme Morphology (linguistics) Multiword expression Null morpheme Root (linguistics) Stem Notes | Lexeme |@lemmatized use:5 context:1 computer:1 science:1 see:2 lexical:4 analysis:2 lexeme:17 abstract:1 unit:4 morphological:1 linguistics:6 roughly:1 correspond:1 set:1 form:14 take:1 single:1 word:5 example:3 english:2 language:4 run:11 ran:2 conventionally:1 write:1 intend:1 display:2 small:5 cap:2 software:1 limitation:1 may:1 result:1 either:2 full:2 size:1 capital:2 sized:1 font:1 anyway:1 regard:1 acceptable:1 substitute:1 genuine:1 related:1 concept:1 lemma:2 citation:1 particular:2 choose:1 convention:1 represent:1 canonical:1 dictionary:5 headword:1 often:3 list:1 later:1 entry:1 common:1 conjugation:1 belongs:1 syntactic:2 category:1 certain:1 meaning:2 semantic:2 value:1 inflect:1 corresponding:1 inflectional:5 paradigm:1 many:4 different:1 present:3 third:2 person:2 singular:2 non:2 also:2 function:1 past:2 participle:2 finite:1 include:2 runner:2 runnable:1 etc:1 govern:1 rule:4 grammar:1 case:1 verb:3 subject:1 agreement:1 compound:2 tense:1 determine:1 give:1 sentence:2 lexicon:1 consist:1 formal:1 theory:1 subcategorization:1 frame:1 account:1 number:1 type:1 complement:1 occur:1 structure:1 notion:2 central:1 morphology:2 thus:1 define:1 term:6 difference:1 inflection:3 derivation:1 state:1 relate:2 derivational:6 another:1 decomposition:2 compose:2 individual:1 call:2 morpheme:10 accord:1 root:5 desinence:3 necessarily:1 order:1 primary:1 carry:3 significant:1 aspect:1 content:1 cannot:1 reduce:1 constituent:1 sil:4 linguistic:4 information:2 affix:2 stem:4 study:1 end:1 v:1 grammatical:1 lexicography:1 lexis:1 marker:1 multiword:1 expression:1 null:1 note:1 |@bigram past_participle:1 inflectional_morpheme:1 |
6,362 | Black_metal | Black metal is an extreme subgenre of heavy metal. It often employs fast tempos, shrieked vocals, highly distorted guitars played with tremolo picking, double-kick drumming, and unconventional song structure. During the 1980s, certain thrash metal bands established a prototype for black metal. This so-called First Wave included bands such as Venom, Bathory, Hellhammer and Celtic Frost. Dunn, Sam (2005). Metal: A Headbanger's Journey. A Second Wave emerged in the early 1990s, which consisted primarily of Norwegian bands such as Mayhem, Burzum, Darkthrone, Immortal and Emperor. This scene developed the black metal style into a distinct genre. Black metal has been met with considerable hostility from mainstream culture, mainly due to the misanthropic and anti-Christian ideology of many artists. Additionally, some musicians have been associated with church burnings, murder and/or National Socialism. For these reasons and others, black metal is often viewed as an underground form of music. Characteristics Instrumentation Black metal guitarists usually favour high-treble guitar tones and abundant distortion. Kahn-Harris, Keith (2006). Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge, page 4. Typically, the guitar is played with much usage of fast tremolo picking. Campion, Chris (February 20, 2005). "In the Face of Death". The Guardian. Kalis, Quentin (August 31, 2004). "Black Metal: A Brief Guide". Chronicles of Chaos. When composing music, guitarists often use those scales, intervals and chord progressions that produce the most dissonant, fearful and ominous sounds. Additionally, guitar solos and low guitar tunings are a rarity in black metal. The bass guitar is rarely used to perform independent melodies. It is not uncommon for the bass guitar to be inaudible or to homophonically follow the bass lines of the electric guitar. Typically, drumming is fast-paced and performed using double-bass and/or blast beat techniques. However it is not unusual for drummers to employ more simplistic techniques. Many solo composers use drum machines instead of a human drummer. Black metal compositions commonly deviate from conventional song structure and are often devoid of clear verse-chorus sections. Instead, many black metal songs contain extended and repetitive instrumental sections. Vocals and lyrics Traditional black metal vocals are in the form of high-pitched shrieks, screams and snarls. This vocal style sharply contrasts with the low-pitched growls of death metal. The majority of black metal vocalists are male, although there are a few notable exceptions – for example Cadaveria and Astarte. The most common and founding lyrical theme is opposition to Christianity and other organized religions (described by some as Right-Hand Path religions). As part of this, many artists write lyrics that could be seen to promote atheism, antitheism, paganism and Satanism. Dome, Michael (2007). Murder Music – Black Metal. Rockworld TV. Other themes that are commonly explored include depression, nihilism, misanthropy and death. However, some black metal artists write lyrics that are inspired by winter, nature, mythology, folklore and fantasy narratives. Production Low-cost production quality began as a must for pioneering black metal artists with low budgets. However, even when they were able to increase their production quality, many artists intentionally recorded in a low fidelity style. The reason for this was to remain true to the genre's underground roots and to make the music sound more "cold". One of the better-known examples of this production is the album Transilvanian Hunger by Darkthrone, a band who "represent the DIY aspect of black metal" according to Johnathan Selzer of Terrorizer magazine. Many have noted that, originally, black metal was not designed to attract listeners. Vocalist Gaahl claimed that during its early years, "black metal was never meant to reach an audience, it was purely for our own satisfaction". Imagery and performances Gaahl and King ov Hell performing live in 2007. Unlike artists of other genres, many black metal artists do not perform concerts. Many consist of just one member and thus performing live is impractical; although some recruit extra musicians specifically for concerts. Bands that choose to perform concerts often make use of stage props and theatrics. Mayhem and Gorgoroth among other bands are noted for their controversial stage performances; which have featured impaled animal heads, mock crucifixions, medieval weaponry, and band members doused in animal blood. "Norwegian black metal band shocks Poland". Aftenposten. February 4, 2004. Black metal artists typically appear dressed in black with combat boots, bullet belts, spiked wristbands, and inverted crosses/inverted pentagrams to reinforce their anti-Christian or anti-religious stance. However, they are most often identified by their usage of corpse paint – black and white makeup (sometimes detailed with real or fake blood), which is used to simulate a corpse-like appearance. In the early 1990s, most pioneering black metal artists used very simplistic black-and-white imagery on their record covers. Zebub, Bill (2007). Black Metal: A Documentary. Some believe this was a reaction against death metal bands, who at that time had begun to use brightly coloured album artwork. Most underground black metal artists have continued this style. Bands that do not use this style usually have album covers that are either atmospheric or provocative; some feature natural or fantastical landscapes (for example Burzum's Filosofem and Emperor's In The Nightside Eclipse) while others are violent, perverted and iconoclastic (for example Marduk's Fuck Me Jesus). The First Wave The first wave of black metal refers to those bands during the 1980s who influenced the black metal sound and formed a prototype for the genre. They were often speed metal or thrash metal bands. Sharpe-Young, Garry. Metal: The Definitive Guide, page 208 The term "black metal" was coined by the British band Venom with their sophomore album Black Metal (1982). Although considered thrash rather than black metal by modern standards, the album had lyrics and imagery that focused on anti-Christian and Satanic themes more so than any before it. Their music was unpolished in production and featured raspy grunted vocals. Additionally, Venom's members adopted pseudonyms – a practise that would become widespread among black metal musicians. Another pioneer of black metal was the Swedish band Bathory, led by Thomas Forsberg (under the pseudonym Quorthon). Not only did Bathory use low fidelity production and anti-Christian themes, but Quorthon was the first to use the "shrieked" vocals that came to define black metal. The band exhibited this style on their first four albums, beginning with Bathory (1984) and ending with Blood Fire Death (1988). At the beginning of the 1990s, Bathory pioneered the style that would become known as Viking metal. Other artists usually considered part of this movement include Hellhammer and Celtic Frost (from Switzerland), Sodom and Destruction (from Germany), both described as underrated "masterpieces of black stinking metal' by Euronymous Lahdenpera, Esa. Interview with Euronymous. Kill Yourself #2. August 1993. , Bulldozer and Death SS (from Italy), Tormentor (from Hungary), Root (from Czech Republic), Mercyful Fate (from Denmark), Sarcófago (from Brazil) and Blasphemy (from Canada). Additionally, King Diamond and the members of Sarcófago were allegedly the first musicians to sport "true" corpsepaint. On the Role of Clothing Styles In The Development of Metal - Part I - Metal Storm The Second Wave The Second Wave of black metal emerged in the early 1990s and was largely centred on the Norwegian black metal scene. During 1990–1994 a number of Norwegian artists began performing and releasing black metal music; this included Mayhem, Burzum, Immortal, Darkthrone, Satyricon, Enslaved, Emperor, Thorns, Ildjarn, Gorgoroth, Ulver and Carpathian Forest. As seen below, some of these artists would be responsible for a rash of criminal controversy, including church burnings and murder. Musically, these artists developed the style of their 1980s precursors as a distinct genre that was separate from thrash metal. Philosophically, an aggressive anti-Christian sentiment became a must for any artists to be finalized as "black metal". Ihsahn of Emperor believes that this trend may have developed simply from "an opposition to society, a confrontation to all the normal stuff." Lords of Chaos (1998): Ihsahn interview A dark, misanthropic mentality was complemented visually with the use of corpsepaint, which was also most prevalent during this period as a statement to separate black metal artists from other rock bands of the era. Inspired by the Norwegian scene, a few bands in neighbouring Sweden adopted a similar sound. This included Marduk, Dissection, Lord Belial, Dark Funeral, Arckanum, Nifelheim and Abruptum. In Finland, the bands Beherit and Impaled Nazarene began to apply some of these traits to death metal. Norwegian-inspired black metal scenes also emerged on the European mainland during the early 1990s. In Poland, a scene was spearheaded by Graveland and Behemoth. In France, a close-knit group of musicians known as Les Légions Noires emerged; this included artists such as Mütiilation, Vlad Tepes, Belketre and Torgeist. Bands such as Von, Judas Iscariot, Demoncy and Profanatica emerged during this time in the United States, where thrash metal and death metal were more predominant among extreme metal enthusiasts. By the mid 1990s, the musical style of the Norwegian scene was being adopted by bands across the globe. Newer black metal bands also began raising their production quality and introducing additional instrumentation such as synthesizers and full-symphony orchestras. This expansion and diversification marked the end of the Second Wave. Helvete and Deathlike Silence During May–June 1991, In May or June 1991, according to the Interview with Bård Eithun. Lords of Chaos (1998), page 66. Øystein Aarseth (aka 'Euronymous') of Mayhem opened an independent record store named Helvete (Norwegian for hell) in Oslo. Musicians from Mayhem, Burzum, Emperor and Thorns frequently met there, and it became a prime outlet for black metal records. Grude, Torstein (1998). Satan Rides The Media. In its basement, Aarseth founded an independent record label named Deathlike Silence Productions. With the rising popularity of his band and others like it, the underground success of Aarseth's label is often credited for encouraging other record labels –that previously refused black metal acts– to then reconsider and release their material. Ohlin's suicide A photograph of Ohlin's corpse was used as the cover of the bootleg live album, Dawn of the Black Hearts (1995). On 8 April 1991, Mayhem vocalist Per Yngve "Pelle" Ohlin (aka 'Dead') committed suicide in a house shared by the band. Fellow musicians often described Ohlin as a quiet and introverted person. However he was best known for his infamous performances – which involved cutting himself, carrying around a dead crow, and wearing clothes that had been buried weeks prior to the event. Hellhammer interviewed by Dmitry Basik (June 1998) He was found with slit wrists and a shotgun wound to the head, by Mayhem guitarist Øystein Aarseth (aka 'Euronymous'). Ohlin's suicide note read "Excuse all the blood" and included an apology for firing the weapon indoors. Before calling the police, Aarseth went to a nearby store and bought a disposable camera to photograph the corpse, after re-arranging some items. Lords of Chaos (1998): Hellhammer interview One of these photographs was later stolen and used as the cover of a bootleg live album entitled Dawn of the Black Hearts. Sounds of Death magazine (1998): Hellhammer interview Eventually, rumours surfaced that Aarseth made a stew with pieces of Ohlin's brain, and made necklaces with fragments of Ohlin's skull. The band later denied the former rumour, but confirmed that the latter was true. Additionally, Aarseth claimed to have given these necklaces to musicians he deemed worthy. Mayhem bassist Jørn Stubberud (aka 'Necrobutcher') noted that "people became more aware of the [black metal] scene after Dead had shot himself ... I think it was Dead's suicide that really changed the scene." Unrestrained magazine #15: Necrobutcher interview Church burnings The Fantoft stave church. Members and fans of the black metal scene claimed responsibility for over 50 arsons directed at Christian churches in Norway from 1992 to 1996. Many of the buildings were hundreds of years old, and widely regarded as important historical landmarks. One of the first and most notable was Norway's Fantoft stave church, which the police believed was destroyed by Varg Vikernes of the one-man band Burzum. However, Vikernes would not be convicted of any arson offences, until his arrest for the murder of Øystein Aarseth in 1993 (see below). The cover of Burzum's EP Aske (Norwegian for ash) portrays a photograph of the Fantoft stave church after the arson; it is still unconfirmed whether or not he took this picture himself. The musicians Samoth, Lords of Chaos (1998), page 79 Faust, and Jørn Inge Tunsberg were also convicted for church arsons. Today, opinions differ within the black metal community concerning the legitimacy of such actions. Guitarist Infernus and former vocalist Gaahl of the band Gorgoroth have praised the church burnings in interviews, with the latter also opining "there should have been more of them, and there will be more of them". However, Necrobutcher and Kjetil Manheim of Mayhem have disapproved of the church burnings, with the latter claiming "It was just people trying to gain acceptance within a strict group (the black metal scene) ... they wanted some sort of approval and status". Aarseth's murder On 10 August 1993, Varg Vikernes of Burzum murdered Mayhem guitarist Øystein Aarseth (aka 'Euronymous'). On that night, Vikernes and Snorre Ruch travelled from Bergen to Aarseth's apartment in Oslo. Upon their arrival a confrontation began, which ended when Vikernes fatally stabbed Aarseth. His body was found outside the apartment with twenty-three cut wounds – two to the head, five to the neck, and sixteen to the back. Steinke, Darcey. "Satan's Cheerleaders" SPIN Magazine, February 1996. It has been speculated that the murder was the result of a power struggle, a financial dispute over Burzum records, or an attempt at "out doing" a stabbing in Lillehammer committed the year before by another black metal musician, Bard Faust. Mayhem Biography on Yahoo! Music Vikernes claims that Aarseth had plotted to torture him to death and videotape the event – using a meeting about an unsigned contract as a pretext. Varg Vikernes - A Burzum Story: Part II - Euronymous On the night of the murder, Vikernes claims he intended to hand Aarseth the signed contract and "tell him to fuck off", but that Aarseth attacked him first. Additionally, Vikernes has stated that most of Aarseth's cut wounds were caused by broken glass he had fallen on during the struggle. Regardless of the circumstances, Vikernes was arrested within days, and a few months later was sentenced to 21 years in prison for both the murder and church arsons. In a controversial display, Vikernes actually smiled at the moment his verdict was read, an image that was widely reprinted in the news media. In May 1994, Mayhem finally released the album De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas, which features Aarseth on electric guitar and Vikernes on bass guitar. While granted a brief leave in 2003, Vikernes attempted to escape his bonds in Tønsberg, but shortly thereafter he was re-arrested driving a stolen vehicle and carrying various firearms. "Police nab 'The Count' after he fled jail". Aftenposten. October 27, 2003. Conflict between scenes Many recall a strong rivalry between Norwegian black metal and Swedish death metal scenes. Fenriz and Tchort have noted that Norwegian black metal musicians were "fed up with the whole death metal scene" and that "death metal was very uncool in Oslo" at the time. Martin Ledang, Pål Aasdal (2008). Once Upon a Time in Norway. On a number of occasions, Euronymous sent death threats to the more commercialized death metal groups in Europe. Allegedly, a group of Norwegian black metal fans plotted to kidnap and murder certain Swedish death metal musicians. A brief "conflict" between Norwegian and Finnish scenes gained some media recognition during 1992 and 1993. Part of this was motivated by seemingly harmless pranks; Nuclear Holocausto of the Finnish band Beherit started to make prank calls in the middle of the night to Samoth of Emperor (in Norway) and Mika Luttinen of Impaled Nazarene (in Finland). The calls consisted of senseless babbling and playing of children's songs, although Luttinen believed them to be death threats from Norwegian bands. Notably, the album cover of Impaled Nazarene's Tol Cormpt Norz Norz Norz contains texts like "No orders from Norway accepted" and "Kuolema Norjan kusipäille!" ("Death to the assholes of Norway!"). The Finnish band Black Crucifixion criticized Darkthrone as "trendies" due to the fact that Darkthrone began their career as a death metal band. Additionally, a Norwegian band released two demos under the name Fuck Beherit. Stylistic divisions Symphonic black metal Symphonic black metal is a style of black metal that uses symphonic and orchestral elements. This may include the usage of instruments found in symphony orchestras (piano, violin, cello, flute and keyboards), 'clean' or operatic vocals and guitars with less distortion. Symphonic black metal is often confused with melodic black metal and gothic metal, as the styles overlap. Folk and Viking black metal Folk black metal and Viking black metal are terms used to describe black metal bands who incorporate various kinds of folk music. Viking black metal bands focus solely on Nordic folk music and mythology. These bands typically seek to create an epic or romanticized atmosphere. Their harsh black metal sound is "often augmented by sorrowful keyboard melodies," acoustic guitars and folk instruments. Vocals are typically a mixture of high-pitched shrieks and 'clean' choral singing. The origin of Viking metal can be traced to the albums Blood Fire Death (1988) and Hammerheart (1990) by the Swedish band Bathory. In the mid 1990s, Irish bands such as Cruachan and Primordial began to combine black metal with Irish folk music, while the Jerusalemite band Melechesh incorporated Middle Eastern music. Ambient black metal Ambient black metal is a style that combines elements of black metal and ambient/dark ambient music. Typically the electric guitar is played together with synthesizers and keyboards, or simply in an 'atmospheric' style with much use of reverb. The Norwegian band Burzum may be considered a pioneer of black ambient, as demonstrated on a few of his early songs. Other prominent artists who have performed in this style include Velvet Cacoon (US), Wolves in the Throne Room (US), Xasthur (US), Leviathan (US), Manes (Norway), Blut Aus Nord (France), Summoning (Austria) and Striborg (Australia). Black doom Black doom (also known as blackened doom metal) is a style that combines elements of black metal and doom metal. Typically, vocals are in the form of high-pitched shrieks and guitars are played with much distortion, which is common in black metal. However, the music is played at a slow tempo with a much 'thicker' guitar sound, which is common in doom metal. The style was pioneered in the early work of Barathrum (Finland) and Bethlehem (Germany). Pure blackened doom bands are fairly rare, but Dolorian (Finland), Unholy (Finland), Ajattara (Finland), Forgotten Tomb (Italy), and Gallhammer (Japan) Brandon Stosuy, "Show No Mercy", Pitchfork, August 29, 2007. have performed in this style. Blackened death metal Blackened death metal is a style that combines elements of black metal with death metal (and occasionally grindcore). When compared with 'traditional' black metal, there is more usage of down-tuned guitars, palm muting, and complex blast beats. Vocals are often a mixture of shrieks and death growls. Bands of this style often focus on themes common in black metal, such as anti-Christianity, Satanism and occultism. The style was influenced by bands such as Blasphemy (Canada), Beherit (Finland) and Impaled Nazarene (Finland). In the mid 1990s it was developed further by bands such as Belphegor (Austria), Behemoth (Poland), Akercocke (England) and Zyklon (Norway). Ideology Any attempt to lay out the ideology of a musical genre is bound to generalize to the extent that some traits are unfairly emphasized, while others are laid out which do not apply to all. Nonetheless, black metal is generally opposed to Christianity and supportive of individualism. Arguably, this is the only coherent sentiment among black metal artists. In a Norwegian documentary, Fenriz stated that "black metal is individualism above all". Norsk Black Metal (2003). Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. Artists who oppose Christianity tend to promote atheism, antitheism, paganism or Satanism. Some musicians – such as Euronymous, Infernus and Erik Danielsson – have insisted that Satanism should be first and foremost. Live-Metal.Net - Interviews:Gorgoroth Interview with WATAIN Occasionally, artists write lyrics that appear to be nihilistic and misanthropic, although it is debatable whether this represents their mentality. In some cases, black metal artists have also espoused romantic nationalism, although the majority of those involved are not outspoken with regard to this. Nonetheless, many black metal artists seek to reflect their surroundings within their music. The documentarist Sam Dunn noted of the Norwegian scene that "unlike any other heavy metal scene, the culture and the place is incorporated into the music and imagery". Regarding the sound of black metal, there are two conflicting groups within the genre – "those that stay true to the genre's roots, and those that introduce progressive elements". The former believe that the music should always be minimalist – performed only with the standard guitar-bass-drums setup and recorded in a low fidelity style. One supporter of this train of thought is Blake Judd of Nachtmystium, who has rejected labelling his band black metal for its departure from the genre's typical sound. "Nachmystium shines black light on black metal". Daily Herald. June 20, 2008. A supporter of the latter is Snorre Ruch of Thorns, who stated that modern black metal is "too narrow" and believes that this was "not the idea at the beginning". Thorns interview. Voices From The Darkside. Some prominent black metal musicians believe that black metal does not need to hold any ideologies. For example, Jan Axel Blomberg said in an interview with Metal Library that "In my opinion, black metal today is just music." Skogtroll (January 7, 2007). Hellhammer (Jan Axel Blomberg) interview (in Russian (google-translated to English). Metal Library. Open Publishing. Retrieved on 2008-06-24. Likewise, Sigurd Wongraven stated in the Murder Music documentary that black metal "doesn't necessarily have to be all Satanic, as long as it's dark." National Socialist black metal National Socialist black metal (NSBM) is a term used for black metal artists who promote National Socialist (Nazi) beliefs through their music and imagery. NSBM is not regarded as a distinct subgenre, as there is no method to play black metal in a National Socialist way. Some black metal bands have made references to Nazi Germany for shock value, causing them to be wrongly labelled as NSBM. Due to his writings, Varg Vikernes - A Burzum Story: Part VII - The Nazi Ghost Varg Vikernes is regarded as the prime inspiration for the NSBM movement. NSBM artists are a small minority within black metal, according to Mattias Gardel. Gardel, Mattias. Gods of the Blood (2003) They have been rejected or strongly criticised by many prominent black metal musicians – including Jon Nödtveidt, Tormentor, Metal Heart 2/00 King ov Hell, Interview with JOTUNSPOR :: Maelstrom :: Issue No 50 Infernus, BLABBERMOUTH.NET - GORGOROTH Guitarist INFERNUS: 'I Personally Am Against Racism In Both Thought And Practice' Lord Ahriman, Zebub, Bill (2007). Black Metal: A Documentary. Emperor Magus Caligula, YouTube - Dark Funeral - Interview (Episode 276) and the members of Arkhon Infaustus. Like Christianity and organised religion, they regard Nazism as authoritarian, collectivist, and a "herd mentality". DISSECTION. Interview with Jon Nödtveidt, June 2003 Unblack metal Unblack metal (also known as Christian black metal) is a term used in reference to black metal bands whose lyrics and imagery depict Christianity positively. Such bands are controversial, primarily because they contradict the anti-Christian and individualistic sentiment of most black metal. Like National Socialist black metal it is not regarded as a distinct subgenre, as there is no distinct method to play black metal in a Christian way. The first black metal albums to promote Christianity were Antestor's Martyrium (1994) and Horde's Hellig Usvart (1994) – the latter coined the term unblack metal. Erasmus, Horde Interview. Retrieved on 2007-10-23 A number of such bands have emerged since then, but it should be noted that they remain a small minority within the genre. Media Documentaries on black metal: Det Svarte Alvor (1994). Satan Rides the Media (1998). Norsk Black Metal (2003) was aired on Norwegian TV by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation (NRK). Metal: A Headbanger's Journey (2005) touches on black metal in the early 1990s, and includes an extensive 25-minute feature on the DVD release. True Norwegian Black Metal (2007) was aired as a five-part feature by the online broadcasting network VBS.tv. It explores some of the aspects of the lifestyle, beliefs and controversies surrounding former Gorgoroth frontman Gaahl. YouTube Until The Light Takes Us (2008) explores black metal's origins and subculture, including "exclusive interviews" and "rare, seldom seen footage from the Black Circle's earliest days". Until the Light Takes Us (2008) Black Metal: A Documentary (2007), produced by Bill Zebub, explores the world of black metal from the point of view of the artists. There is no narrator and no one outside of black metal takes part in any interview or storytelling. Murder Music: A History of Black Metal (2007). Once Upon a Time in Norway (2008). References in media: The cartoon show Metalocalypse is about an extreme metal band called Dethklok, with many references to leading black metal artists on the names of various buildings such as Fintroll's, Dimmu Burger, Gorgoroth's electric wheelchair store, Carpathian Forest High School, Marduk's Putt & Stuff, Burzum's hot-dogs and Behemoth studios (as well as the man who owns Behemoth studios, whose name is Mr. Grishnackh). In the episode Dethdad they travel to Norway to visit Toki's dying father, and visit the original black metal record store. A Norwegian commercial for a laundry detergent once depicted black metal musicians as part of the advertisement. Christe, Ian (2001). Sound of The Beast: The Headbanging History of Heavy Metal, page 289. Black metal bands such as 1349, Emperor, Behemoth, Dimmu Borgir, Enslaved and Satyricon have had their videos make appearances on MTV's Headbangers Ball. Comedian Brian Posehn made a visual reference to Norwegian black metal bands in the music video for his comedy song "Metal By Numbers". YouTube - Brian Posehn - Metal By Numbers A Canadian commercial by KFC in 2008 featured a fictional black metal band called Hellvetica. The band's vocalist engages in a fire-eating trick during a show (like Abbath from Immortal usually does). Once backstage he takes a bite of the spicy KFC chicken product and declares "Oh man, that is hot". See also List of black metal bands Extreme metal Literature Ekeroth, Daniel (2008). Swedish Death Metal. Bazillion Points Books. ISBN 978-0-9796163-1-0 Moynihan, Michael. Lords of Chaos: The Bloody Rise of the Satanic Metal Underground. Venice: Feral House, 2006. ISBN 0-922915-48-2 Kahn-Harris, Keith. Extreme Metal: Music and Culture on the Edge. Oxford: Berg, 2006. ISBN 9781845203993 Christe, Ian. Sound of the Beast: the Complete Headbanging History of Heavy Metal. New York: Harper Collins, 2004. References | Black_metal |@lemmatized black:125 metal:163 extreme:6 subgenre:3 heavy:4 often:13 employ:2 fast:3 tempo:2 shrieked:1 vocal:10 highly:1 distorted:1 guitar:17 play:7 tremolo:2 picking:2 double:2 kick:1 drumming:1 unconventional:1 song:6 structure:2 certain:2 thrash:5 band:53 establish:1 prototype:2 call:6 first:10 wave:7 include:12 venom:3 bathory:6 hellhammer:6 celtic:2 frost:2 dunn:2 sam:2 headbanger:2 journey:2 second:4 emerge:6 early:9 consist:3 primarily:2 norwegian:24 mayhem:12 burzum:12 darkthrone:5 immortal:3 emperor:8 scene:16 develop:4 style:22 distinct:5 genre:10 meet:2 considerable:1 hostility:1 mainstream:1 culture:4 mainly:1 due:3 misanthropic:3 anti:8 christian:9 ideology:4 many:13 artist:26 additionally:7 musician:16 associate:1 church:11 burning:4 murder:12 national:6 socialism:1 reason:2 others:4 view:2 underground:5 form:4 music:23 characteristic:1 instrumentation:2 guitarist:6 usually:4 favour:1 high:5 treble:1 tone:1 abundant:1 distortion:3 kahn:2 harris:2 keith:2 edge:2 page:5 typically:7 much:4 usage:4 campion:1 chris:1 february:3 face:1 death:25 guardian:1 kali:1 quentin:1 august:4 brief:3 guide:2 chronicle:1 chaos:6 compose:1 use:20 scale:1 interval:1 chord:1 progression:1 produce:2 dissonant:1 fearful:1 ominous:1 sound:11 solo:2 low:7 tuning:1 rarity:1 bass:6 rarely:1 perform:10 independent:3 melody:2 uncommon:1 inaudible:1 homophonically:1 follow:1 line:1 electric:4 drum:3 pace:1 blast:2 beat:2 technique:2 however:8 unusual:1 drummer:2 simplistic:2 composer:1 machine:1 instead:2 human:1 composition:1 commonly:2 deviate:1 conventional:1 devoid:1 clear:1 verse:1 chorus:1 section:2 contain:2 extend:1 repetitive:1 instrumental:1 lyric:6 traditional:2 pitch:4 shriek:5 scream:1 snarl:1 sharply:1 contrast:1 growl:2 majority:2 vocalist:5 male:1 although:6 notable:2 exception:1 example:5 cadaveria:1 astarte:1 common:4 founding:1 lyrical:1 theme:5 opposition:2 christianity:7 organize:1 religion:3 describe:4 right:1 hand:2 path:1 part:9 write:3 could:1 see:5 promote:4 atheism:2 antitheism:2 paganism:2 satanism:4 dome:1 michael:2 rockworld:1 tv:3 explore:4 depression:1 nihilism:1 misanthropy:1 inspire:2 winter:1 nature:1 mythology:2 folklore:1 fantasy:1 narrative:1 production:8 cost:1 quality:3 begin:10 must:2 pioneer:5 budget:1 even:1 able:1 increase:1 intentionally:1 record:9 fidelity:3 remain:2 true:5 root:3 make:8 cold:1 one:7 good:1 know:6 album:12 transilvanian:1 hunger:1 represent:2 diy:1 aspect:2 accord:3 johnathan:1 selzer:1 terrorizer:1 magazine:4 note:7 originally:1 design:1 attract:1 listener:1 gaahl:4 claim:5 year:4 never:1 mean:1 reach:1 audience:1 purely:1 satisfaction:1 imagery:6 performance:3 king:3 ov:2 hell:3 live:5 unlike:2 concert:3 member:6 thus:1 impractical:1 recruit:1 extra:1 specifically:1 choose:1 stage:2 prop:1 theatrics:1 gorgoroth:7 among:4 controversial:3 feature:7 impale:2 animal:2 head:3 mock:1 crucifixion:2 medieval:1 weaponry:1 douse:1 blood:6 shock:2 poland:3 aftenposten:2 appear:2 dress:1 combat:1 boot:1 bullet:1 belt:1 spike:1 wristband:1 inverted:2 cross:1 pentagram:1 reinforce:1 religious:1 stance:1 identify:1 corpse:4 paint:1 white:2 makeup:1 sometimes:1 detail:1 real:1 fake:1 simulate:1 like:6 appearance:2 pioneering:1 cover:6 zebub:3 bill:3 documentary:6 believe:7 reaction:1 time:5 brightly:1 colour:1 artwork:1 continue:1 either:1 atmospheric:2 provocative:1 natural:1 fantastical:1 landscape:1 filosofem:1 nightside:1 eclipse:1 violent:1 perverted:1 iconoclastic:1 marduk:3 fuck:3 jesus:1 refers:1 influence:2 speed:1 sharpe:1 young:1 garry:1 definitive:1 term:5 coin:2 british:1 sophomore:1 consider:3 rather:1 modern:2 standard:2 focus:3 satanic:3 unpolished:1 raspy:1 grunt:1 adopt:3 pseudonyms:1 practise:1 would:4 become:5 widespread:1 another:2 swedish:5 lead:2 thomas:1 forsberg:1 pseudonym:1 quorthon:2 come:1 define:1 exhibit:1 four:1 end:3 fire:4 beginning:1 viking:5 movement:2 switzerland:1 sodom:1 destruction:1 germany:3 underrated:1 masterpiece:1 stink:1 euronymous:8 lahdenpera:1 esa:1 interview:19 kill:1 bulldozer:1 italy:2 tormentor:2 hungary:1 czech:1 republic:1 mercyful:1 fate:1 denmark:1 sarcófago:2 brazil:1 blasphemy:2 canada:2 diamond:1 allegedly:2 sport:1 corpsepaint:2 role:1 clothing:1 development:1 storm:1 largely:1 centre:1 number:5 release:5 satyricon:2 enslave:2 thorn:4 ildjarn:1 ulver:1 carpathian:2 forest:2 responsible:1 rash:1 criminal:1 controversy:2 musically:1 precursor:1 separate:2 philosophically:1 aggressive:1 sentiment:3 finalize:1 ihsahn:2 trend:1 may:6 simply:2 society:1 confrontation:2 normal:1 stuff:2 lord:7 dark:5 mentality:3 complement:1 visually:1 also:9 prevalent:1 period:1 statement:1 rock:1 era:1 neighbour:1 sweden:1 similar:1 dissection:2 belial:1 funeral:2 arckanum:1 nifelheim:1 abruptum:1 finland:8 beherit:4 impaled:3 nazarene:4 apply:2 trait:2 inspired:1 european:1 mainland:1 spearhead:1 graveland:1 behemoth:5 france:2 close:1 knit:1 group:5 le:1 légions:1 noires:1 included:1 mütiilation:1 vlad:1 tepes:1 belketre:1 torgeist:1 von:1 judas:1 iscariot:1 demoncy:1 profanatica:1 united:1 state:5 predominant:1 enthusiast:1 mid:3 musical:2 across:1 globe:1 new:2 raise:1 introduce:2 additional:1 synthesizer:2 full:1 symphony:2 orchestra:2 expansion:1 diversification:1 mark:1 helvete:2 deathlike:2 silence:2 june:5 bård:1 eithun:1 øystein:4 aarseth:17 aka:5 open:2 store:4 name:5 oslo:3 frequently:1 prime:2 outlet:1 grude:1 torstein:1 satan:3 rid:2 medium:6 basement:1 found:1 label:5 rise:2 popularity:1 success:1 credit:1 encourage:1 previously:1 refuse:1 act:1 reconsider:1 material:1 ohlin:7 suicide:4 photograph:4 bootleg:2 dawn:2 heart:3 april:1 per:1 yngve:1 pelle:1 dead:4 commit:2 house:2 share:1 fellow:1 quiet:1 introverted:1 person:1 best:1 infamous:1 involve:2 cut:3 carry:2 around:1 crow:1 wear:1 clothes:1 bury:1 week:1 prior:1 event:2 dmitry:1 basik:1 find:3 slit:1 wrist:1 shotgun:1 wound:3 read:2 excuse:1 apology:1 weapon:1 indoors:1 police:3 go:1 nearby:1 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playing:1 child:1 notably:1 tol:1 cormpt:1 norz:3 text:1 order:1 accept:1 kuolema:1 norjan:1 kusipäille:1 asshole:1 criticize:1 trendies:1 fact:1 career:1 demo:1 stylistic:1 division:1 symphonic:4 orchestral:1 element:5 instrument:2 piano:1 violin:1 cello:1 flute:1 keyboard:3 clean:2 operatic:1 less:1 confuse:1 melodic:1 gothic:1 overlap:1 folk:6 incorporate:3 kind:1 solely:1 nordic:1 seek:2 create:1 epic:1 romanticize:1 atmosphere:1 harsh:1 augment:1 sorrowful:1 acoustic:1 mixture:2 choral:1 singing:1 origin:2 trace:1 hammerheart:1 irish:2 cruachan:1 primordial:1 combine:4 jerusalemite:1 melechesh:1 eastern:1 ambient:5 together:1 reverb:1 demonstrate:1 prominent:3 velvet:1 cacoon:1 u:6 wolf:1 throne:1 room:1 xasthur:1 leviathan:1 mane:1 blut:1 au:1 nord:1 summon:1 austria:2 striborg:1 australia:1 doom:6 blackened:1 slow:1 thicker:1 work:1 barathrum:1 bethlehem:1 pure:1 blacken:3 fairly:1 rare:2 dolorian:1 unholy:1 ajattara:1 forget:1 tomb:1 gallhammer:1 japan:1 brandon:1 stosuy:1 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christe:2 ian:2 beast:2 headbanging:2 borgir:1 video:2 mtv:1 headbangers:1 ball:1 comedian:1 brian:2 posehn:2 visual:1 comedy:1 canadian:1 kfc:2 fictional:1 hellvetica:1 engages:1 eat:1 trick:1 abbath:1 backstage:1 bite:1 spicy:1 chicken:1 product:1 declare:1 oh:1 list:1 literature:1 ekeroth:1 daniel:1 bazillion:1 book:1 isbn:3 moynihan:1 bloody:1 venice:1 feral:1 oxford:1 berg:1 complete:1 york:1 harper:1 collins:1 |@bigram distorted_guitar:1 thrash_metal:4 mayhem_burzum:3 chord_progression:1 bass_guitar:3 double_bass:1 lyrical_theme:1 brightly_colour:1 sophomore_album:1 czech_republic:1 judas_iscariot:1 symphony_orchestra:2 commit_suicide:1 deem_worthy:1 varg_vikernes:5 fatally_stab:1 shortly_thereafter:1 violin_cello:1 acoustic_guitar:1 broadcasting_corporation:2 romantic_nationalism:1 blabbermouth_net:1 laundry_detergent:1 dimmu_borgir:1 harper_collins:1 |
6,363 | Oracle_machine | In complexity theory and computability theory, an oracle machine is an abstract machine used to study decision problems. It can be visualized as a Turing machine with a black box, called an oracle, which is able to decide certain decision problems in a single operation. The problem can be of any complexity class. Even undecidable problems, like the halting problem, can be used. Definition An oracle machine is a Turing machine connected to an oracle. The oracle, in this context, is thought of as an entity capable of answering some collection of questions, and usually represented as some subset A of the natural numbers. Intuitively then, the Turing machine can perform all of the usual operations of a Turing machine, and can also query the oracle for an answer to a specific question of the form "is x in A?" There are several different definitions of an oracle machine, all of which are equivalent in the sense that they agree on when a specific function f can be computed by an oracle machine with oracle A. The following is a description of one particular definition. An oracle machine, like a Turing machine, includes a work tape: a sequence of cells without beginning or end, each of which may contain a B (for blank) or a 1; a read/write head, which rests on a single cell of the work tape and can read the data there, write new data, and move left or right along the tape; and a control mechanism, which can be in one of a finite number of states, and which will perform different actions (reading data, writing data, moving the control mechanism, and changing states) depending on the current state and the data being read. In addition to these components, an oracle machine also includes an oracle tape, on which is printed an infinite sequence of B's and 1's corresponding to the characteristic function of the oracle set A, and an oracle head, which (like the read/write head) can move left or right along the oracle tape reading data, but which cannot write. Formal definition An oracle Turing machine is a 4-tuple where is a finite set of states is a partial function called the transition function, where L is left shift, R is right shift. is the initial state is the set of halting states. The oracle machine is initialized with the work tape containing some input with finitely many 1's and the rest of the tape blank, the oracle tape containing the characteristic function of the oracle, A, and the Turing machine in state q0 with read/write head reading the first nonblank cell of the work tape, and oracle head reading the cell of the oracle tape which corresponds to . Thereafter it operates according to : if the Turing machine is currently in state q, the read/write head is reading a symbol S1, and the oracle head is reading S2, then if , the machine enters state , the read/write head writes the symbol S1' in place of S1, and then the read/write head moves 1 cell in direction D1 and the oracle head moves one cell in direction D2. At this point if is a halting state, the machine halts, otherwise it repeats this same procedure. Turing machines can compute functions as follows: if f is a function that takes natural numbers to natural numbers, MA is a Turing machine with oracle A, and whenever MA is initialized with the work tape consisting of n+1 consecutive 1's (and blank elsewhere) MA eventually halts with f(n) 1's on the tape, MA is said to compute the function f. A similar definition can be made for functions of more than one variable, or partial functions. If there is an oracle machine M that computes a function f with oracle A, f is said to be A-computable. If f is the characteristic function of a set B, B is also said to be A-computable, and M is said to be a Turing reduction from B to A. Complexity classes of oracle machines The complexity class of decision problems solvable by an algorithm in class A with an oracle for a problem in class B is written AB. For example, the class of problems solvable in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine with an oracle for a problem in NP is PNP. (This is also the class of problems reducible by polynomial-time Turing reduction to a problem in NP.) It is obvious that NP ⊆ PNP, but the question of whether NPNP, PNP, NP, and P are equal remains open. See polynomial hierarchy for further extensions. The notation AB also means the class of problems solvable by an algorithm in class A with an oracle for the language B. For example, PSAT is the class of problems solvable in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine with an oracle for the Boolean satisfiability problem. When language B is complete for some class C, then AB=AC. In particular, since SAT is NP-complete, PSAT=PNP. Note that this assumes that the machine used in the definition of the class A is powerful enough to execute the reductions used in the completeness definition of the class C; for example, if A = DSPACE(1), ASAT does not necessarily equal ANP. Oracle machines are useful for investigating the relationship between complexity classes P and NP, by considering the relationship between PA and NPA for an oracle A. In particular, it has been shown that there exist languages A and B such that PA=NPA and PB≠NPB (Baker, Gill, Solovay, 1975). The fact that the P=NP question relativizes both ways is taken as evidence that answering this question will be difficult, because any proof technique that relativizes (i.e., is unaffected by the addition of an oracle) will not answer the P=NP question. It is interesting to consider the case where an oracle is chosen randomly from among all possible oracles. It has been shown that if oracle A is chosen randomly, then with probability 1, PA≠NPA (Bennett, Gill, 1981). When a question is true for almost all oracles, it is said to be true for a random oracle. This is sometimes taken as evidence that P≠NP. Unfortunately, a statement may be true for a random oracle and false for ordinary Turing machines at the same time; for example for almost all oracles A, IPA≠PSPACEA, while IP = PSPACE. Richard Chang, Benny Chor, Oded Goldreich, Juris Hartmanis, Johan Hastad, Desh Ranjan, Pankaj Rohatgi. The Random Oracle Hypothesis is False. Journal of Computer and System Sciences, volume 49, issue 1, pp.24–39. August 1994. ISSN 0022-0000. http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/282397.html Oracles and halting problems It is possible to posit the existence of an oracle which computes a non-computable function, such as the answer to the halting problem or some equivalent. A machine with an oracle of this sort is a hypercomputer. Interestingly, the halting paradox still applies to such machines; that is, although they can determine whether particular Turing machines will halt on particular inputs, they cannot determine whether machines with equivalent halting oracles will themselves halt. This fact creates a hierarchy of machines, called the arithmetical hierarchy, each with a more powerful halting oracle and an even harder halting problem. Applications to cryptography In cryptography, oracles are sometimes used to make arguments for the security of cryptographic protocols where (typically) a hash function is used. A security reduction for the protocol is given in the case where, instead of a hash function, a random oracle is used which answers each query randomly but consistently; the oracle is assumed to be available to all parties including the attacker, just as a hash function is. Such a proof shows that unless the attacker can solve the hard problem at the heart of the security reduction, they must make use of some interesting property of the hash function to break the protocol; they cannot treat the hash function as a black box (i.e., as a random oracle). This method has been very effective in giving good reductions for the security of efficient protocols, but its validity is sometimes challenged in the cryptographic community since computable functions are inherently very different from random oracles. See random oracle for more details. See also Turing machine Turing reduction Bibliography Alan Turing, Systems of logic based on ordinals, Proc. London math. soc., 45, 1939 C. Papadimitriou. Computational Complexity. Addison-Wesley, 1994. Section 14.3: Oracles, pp. 339 – 343. T. P. Baker, J. Gill, R. Solovay. Relativizations of the P =? NP Question. SIAM Journal on Computing, 4(4): 431-442 (1975) C. H. Bennett, J. Gill. Relative to a Random Oracle A, PA != NPA != co-NPA with Probability 1. SIAM Journal on Computing, 10(1): 96-113 (1981) Section 9.2: Relativization, pp.318 – 321. Martin Davis, editor: The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions, Raven Press, New York, 1965. Turing's paper is in this volume. Papers include those by Godel, Church, Rosser, Kleene, and Post. References | Oracle_machine |@lemmatized complexity:6 theory:2 computability:1 oracle:54 machine:33 abstract:1 use:8 study:1 decision:3 problem:19 visualize:1 turing:20 black:2 box:2 call:3 able:1 decide:1 certain:1 single:2 operation:2 class:14 even:2 undecidable:3 like:3 halting:4 definition:7 connect:1 context:1 think:1 entity:1 capable:1 answer:6 collection:1 question:8 usually:1 represent:1 subset:1 natural:3 number:4 intuitively:1 perform:2 usual:1 also:6 query:2 specific:2 form:1 x:1 several:1 different:3 equivalent:3 sense:1 agree:1 function:20 f:7 compute:5 following:1 description:1 one:4 particular:5 include:4 work:5 tape:12 sequence:2 cell:6 without:1 begin:1 end:1 may:2 contain:3 b:9 blank:3 read:14 write:11 head:10 rest:2 data:6 new:2 move:5 leave:3 right:3 along:2 control:2 mechanism:2 finite:2 state:10 action:1 change:1 depend:1 current:1 addition:2 component:1 print:1 infinite:1 correspond:2 characteristic:3 set:4 cannot:3 formal:1 tuple:1 partial:2 transition:1 l:1 shift:2 r:2 initial:1 halt:9 initialize:2 input:2 finitely:1 many:1 first:1 nonblank:1 thereafter:1 operate:1 accord:1 currently:1 q:1 symbol:2 enters:1 place:1 direction:2 point:1 otherwise:1 repeat:1 procedure:1 follow:1 take:3 whenever:1 consist:1 n:2 consecutive:1 elsewhere:1 eventually:1 say:5 similar:1 make:3 variable:1 computable:5 reduction:7 solvable:4 algorithm:2 ab:3 example:4 polynomial:4 time:4 deterministic:2 np:10 pnp:4 reducible:1 obvious:1 whether:3 npnp:1 p:7 equal:2 remains:1 open:1 see:3 hierarchy:3 extension:1 notation:1 mean:1 language:2 psat:2 boolean:1 satisfiability:1 complete:2 c:4 ac:1 since:2 sat:1 note:1 assume:2 powerful:2 enough:1 execute:1 completeness:1 dspace:1 asat:1 necessarily:1 anp:1 useful:1 investigate:1 relationship:2 consider:2 pa:4 npa:5 show:3 exist:1 languages:1 pb:1 npb:1 baker:2 gill:4 solovay:2 fact:2 relativize:2 way:1 evidence:2 difficult:1 proof:2 technique:1 e:2 unaffected:1 interest:1 case:2 choose:2 randomly:3 among:1 possible:2 probability:2 bennett:2 true:3 almost:2 random:8 sometimes:3 unfortunately:1 statement:1 false:2 ordinary:1 oracles:1 ipa:1 pspacea:1 ip:1 pspace:1 richard:1 chang:1 benny:1 chor:1 oded:1 goldreich:1 juris:1 hartmanis:1 johan:1 hastad:1 desh:1 ranjan:1 pankaj:1 rohatgi:1 hypothesis:1 journal:3 computer:1 system:2 science:1 volume:2 issue:1 pp:3 august:1 issn:1 http:1 citeseer:1 ist:1 psu:1 edu:1 html:1 posit:1 existence:1 non:1 sort:1 hypercomputer:1 interestingly:1 paradox:1 still:1 apply:1 although:1 determine:2 create:1 arithmetical:1 hard:2 application:1 cryptography:2 argument:1 security:4 cryptographic:2 protocol:4 typically:1 hash:5 give:2 instead:1 consistently:1 available:1 party:1 attacker:2 unless:1 solve:1 heart:1 must:1 interesting:1 property:1 break:1 treat:1 method:1 effective:1 good:1 efficient:1 validity:1 challenge:1 community:1 inherently:1 detail:1 bibliography:1 alan:1 logic:1 base:1 ordinal:1 proc:1 london:1 math:1 soc:1 papadimitriou:1 computational:1 addison:1 wesley:1 section:2 j:2 relativizations:1 siam:2 computing:2 h:1 relative:1 co:1 relativization:1 martin:1 davis:1 editor:1 basic:1 paper:3 proposition:1 unsolvable:1 raven:1 press:1 york:1 godel:1 church:1 rosser:1 kleene:1 post:1 reference:1 |@bigram turing_machine:15 halting_problem:2 solvable_polynomial:2 deterministic_turing:2 boolean_satisfiability:1 satisfiability_problem:1 np_complete:1 ist_psu:1 psu_edu:1 alan_turing:1 math_soc:1 computational_complexity:1 addison_wesley:1 siam_journal:2 undecidable_proposition:1 unsolvable_problem:1 |
6,364 | Charles_Farrar_Browne | See also Artemas Ward (disambiguation) Charles Farrar Browne, (April 26, 1834 - March 6, 1867) was a United States humor writer, better known under his nom de plume, Artemus Ward. At birth, his surname was "Brown." He added the "e" after he became famous. Artemus Ward Browne was born in Waterford, Maine. He began life as a compositor and occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858, he published in the Cleveland Plain Dealer the first of the "Artemus Ward" series, which, in a collected form, achieved great popularity in both America and England. In 1860, he became editor of Vanity Fair, a humorous New York weekly, which proved a failure. About the same time, he began to appear as a lecturer and, by his droll and eccentric humor, attracted large audiences. "Artemus Ward" was the favorite author of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln. Before presenting "The Emancipation Proclamation" to his Cabinet, Lincoln read to them the latest episode, "Outrage in Utiky", also known as High-Handed Outrage at Utica. Ward is also said to have inspired Mark Twain when Ward performed in Virginia City, Nevada. Legend has it that, following Ward's stage performance, he, Mark Twain, and Dan De Quille were taking a drunken rooftop tour of Virginia City until a town constable threatened to blast all three of them with a shotgun loaded with rock salt. In 1866, Ward visited England, where he became exceedingly popular both as a lecturer and as a contributor to Punch. In the spring of the following year, Ward's health gave way and he died of tuberculosis at Southampton on March 6, 1867. After initial deposit at Kensal Green Cemetery, Ward's remains were removed to America on 20 May 1868. Stories A Visit to Brigham Young Women's Rights One of Mr Ward's Business Letters On "Forts" Fourth of July Oration High-Handed Outrage at Utica Artemus Ward and the Prince of Wales Interview with Lincoln Letters to his Wife External links Works by Artemus Ward Additional photos from the Maine Historical Society References | Charles_Farrar_Browne |@lemmatized see:1 also:3 artemas:1 ward:14 disambiguation:1 charles:1 farrar:1 browne:2 april:1 march:2 united:1 state:1 humor:2 writer:1 good:1 know:2 nom:1 de:2 plume:1 artemus:6 birth:1 surname:1 brown:1 add:1 e:1 become:3 famous:1 bear:1 waterford:1 maine:2 begin:2 life:1 compositor:1 occasional:1 contributor:2 daily:1 weekly:2 journal:1 publish:1 cleveland:1 plain:1 dealer:1 first:1 series:1 collected:1 form:1 achieve:1 great:1 popularity:1 america:2 england:2 editor:1 vanity:1 fair:1 humorous:1 new:1 york:1 prove:1 failure:1 time:1 appear:1 lecturer:2 droll:1 eccentric:1 attract:1 large:1 audience:1 favorite:1 author:1 u:1 president:1 abraham:1 lincoln:3 present:1 emancipation:1 proclamation:1 cabinet:1 read:1 late:1 episode:1 outrage:3 utiky:1 high:2 hand:2 utica:2 say:1 inspire:1 mark:2 twain:2 perform:1 virginia:2 city:2 nevada:1 legend:1 follow:1 stage:1 performance:1 dan:1 quille:1 take:1 drunken:1 rooftop:1 tour:1 town:1 constable:1 threaten:1 blast:1 three:1 shotgun:1 load:1 rock:1 salt:1 visit:2 exceedingly:1 popular:1 punch:1 spring:1 following:1 year:1 health:1 give:1 way:1 die:1 tuberculosis:1 southampton:1 initial:1 deposit:1 kensal:1 green:1 cemetery:1 remains:1 remove:1 may:1 story:1 brigham:1 young:1 woman:1 right:1 one:1 mr:1 business:1 letter:2 fort:1 fourth:1 july:1 oration:1 prince:1 wale:1 interview:1 wife:1 external:1 link:1 work:1 additional:1 photo:1 historical:1 society:1 reference:1 |@bigram nom_de:1 artemus_ward:6 vanity_fair:1 abraham_lincoln:1 emancipation_proclamation:1 mark_twain:2 brigham_young:1 external_link:1 |
6,365 | Shuffling | A riffle shuffle being performed during a game of poker Shuffling is a procedure used to randomize a deck of playing cards to provide an element of chance in card games. Shuffling is often followed by a cut, to ensure that the shuffler has not manipulated the outcome. A typical sequence between hands of poker, for example, is a wash, two riffles, a strip, a third riffle, and a cut. Shuffling techniques Several techniques are used to shuffle a deck of cards. Some techniques are easy to learn while others achieve better randomization or are better suited to special decks. Riffle After a riffle shuffle, the cards then cascade. A common shuffling technique is called the riffle or dovetail shuffle, in which half of the deck is held in each hand with the thumbs inward, then cards are released by the thumbs so that they fall to the table interleaved. Many also lift the cards up after a riffle, forming what is called a bridge which puts the cards back into place. This can also be done by placing the halves flat on the table with their rear corners touching, then lifting the back edges with the thumbs while pushing the halves together. While this method is more difficult, it is often used in casinos because it minimizes the risk of exposing cards during the shuffle. Stripping or overhand Another procedure is called stripping, overhand, or slide shuffle, where small groups of cards are removed from the top or bottom of a deck and replaced on the opposite side (or just assembled on the table in reverse order). Hindu shuffle Also known as "Kattar" or "Kenchi" (Hindi for scissor). The deck is held face down, with the middle finger on one long edge and the thumb on the other on the bottom half of the deck. The other hand draws off a packet from the bottom of the deck. This packet is allowed to drop into the palm, then put on top of the first half. The maneuver is repeated over and over until the deck is all in the second hand. Hindu shuffle differs from stripping in that all the action is in the hand taking the cards, whereas in stripping, the action is performed by the hand with the original deck, giving the cards to the resulting pile. This is the most common shuffling technique in Asia and other parts of the world. Pile shuffle Cards are simply dealt out into a number of piles, then the piles are stacked on top of each other. This ensures that cards that were next to each other are now separated. The pile shuffle does not provide a good randomization of the cards (but this can be enormously improved by dealing to the piles in a different order each circuit, not always in the same order). It is sometimes used in collectible card games where other forms of shuffling can be damaging to rare cards. Corgi, Chemmy or Wash shuffle Also known as the Wash or Corgi, scramble or beginner shuffle this involves simply spreading the cards out face down, and sliding them around and over each other with one's hands. Then the cards are moved into one pile so that they begin to intertwine and are then arranged back into a stack. This method is useful for beginners and small children or if one is inept at shuffling cards. However, the beginner shuffle requires a large surface for spreading out the cards and takes longer than the other methods. The now often used name Corgi, originated in Yorkshire, England. It has spread and is used in many parts of the UK, and often heard in international poker rooms or tournaments such as the WSOP or EPT. It is quite common in casino poker rooms for dealers to use this method upon introducing a brand new deck, which are packaged in ranked order by suits, before shuffling it by some other means (i.e., a riffle shuffle or shuffling machine). Mongean shuffle The Mongean shuffle, or Monge's shuffle, is performed as follows (by a right-handed person): Start with the unshuffled deck in the left hand and transfer the top card to the right. Then repeatedly take the top card from the left hand and transfer it to the right, putting the second card at the top of the new deck, the third at the bottom, the fourth at the top, the fifth at the bottom, etc. The result, if one started with cards numbered consecutively , would be a deck with the cards in the following order: . For a deck of given size, the number of Mongean shuffles that it takes to return a deck to starting position, is known . Weave and Faro shuffles Weaving is the procedure of pushing the ends of two halves of a deck against each other in such a way that they naturally intertwine. Sometimes the deck is split into equal halves of 26 cards which are then pushed together in a certain way so as to make them perfectly interweave. This is known as a Faro Shuffle The faro shuffle is performed by cutting the deck into two, preferably equal, packs in both hands as follows (right-handed): The cards are held from above in the right and from below in the left hand. Separation of the deck is done simply lifting up half the cards with the right hand thumb slightly and pushing the left hand's packet forward away from the right hand. The two packets are often crossed and slammed into each other as to align them. They are then pushed together by the short sides and bent (either up or down). The cards will then alternately fall into each other, much like a zipper. A flourish can be added by springing the packets together by applying pressure and bending them from above. The faro is a controlled shuffle which does not randomize a deck. A perfect faro shuffle, where the cards are perfectly alternated, is considered one of the most difficult sleights by card magicians, simply because it requires the shuffler to be able to cut the deck into two equal packets and apply just about the right pressure when pushing the cards into each other. If one does perform eight perfect faro shuffles in a row, the order of the deck will return to the original order, if there are 52 cards in the deck and if the original top and bottom cards remain in their positions (1st and 52nd) during the eight shuffles. If the top and bottom cards get weaved in during each shuffle then it takes 52 shuffles to return a deck back into original order (26 shuffles to reverse the order of a deck containing 52 cards). False shuffles Magicians, sleight-of-hand artists, and card cheats employ various methods of shuffling whereby the deck appears to have been shuffled fairly, when in reality one or more cards (up to and including the entire deck) stays in the same position. It is also possible, though generally considered very difficult, to "stack the deck" (place cards into a desirable order) by means of one or more riffle shuffles; this is called "riffle stacking". Both performance magicians and card sharps regard the Zarrow shuffle as a particularly effective example of the false shuffle. In this shuffle, the entire deck remains in its original order, although spectators think they see an honest riffle shuffle. Shuffling machines Because standard shuffling techniques are seen as weak, and in order to avoid "inside jobs" where employees collaborate with gamblers by performing inadequate shuffles, many casinos employ automatic shuffling machines. They also save time that would otherwise be spent shuffling, allowing several more hands per hour to be played (increasing the profitability of the table). These machines are also used to lessen repetitive motion stress injuries to a dealer. Note that the shuffling machines have to be carefully designed, as they can generate biased shuffles otherwise: the most recent shuffling machines are computer-controlled, though they have not yet fully been integrated into gaming. Randomization There are exactly 52! (about 8) possible ways to order the cards in a 52-card deck. The magnitude of this number means that it is exceedingly improbable that two randomly selected, truly randomized decks, will ever, in the history of cards, be the same. However, while the exact sequence of all cards in a randomized deck is unpredictable, it may be possible to make some probabilistic predictions about a deck that is not sufficiently randomized. A famous paper by mathematician and magician Persi Diaconis, and mathematician Dave Bayer, on the number of shuffles needed to randomize a deck, concluded that the deck did not start to become random until five good riffle shuffles, and was truly random after seven, in the precise sense of variation distance described in Markov chain mixing time; of course, you would need more shuffles if your shuffling technique is poor. Recently, the work of Trefethen et al. has questioned some of Diaconis' results, concluding that six shuffles are enough. The difference hinges on how each measured the randomness of the deck. Diaconis used a very sensitive test of randomness, and therefore needed to shuffle more. Even more sensitive measures exist and the question of what measure is best for specific card games is still open. Diaconis released a response indicating that you only need four shuffles for un-suited games such as blackjack . One sensitive test for randomness uses a standard deck without the jokers divided into suits with two suits in ascending order from ace to king, and the other two suits in reverse. (Many decks already come ordered this way when new.) After shuffling, the measure of randomness is the number of rising sequences that are left in each suit. In practice the number of shuffles that you need depends both on how good you are at shuffling, and how good the people playing are at noticing and using non-randomness. Two to four shuffles is good enough for casual play. But in club play, good bridge players take advantage of non-randomness after four shuffles, and top blackjack players supposedly track aces through the deck; this is known as "ace tracking", or more generally, as "shuffle tracking". Shuffling algorithms In a computer, shuffling is equivalent to generating a random permutation of the cards. There are two basic algorithms for doing this, both popularized by Donald Knuth. The first is simply to assign a random number to each card, and then to sort the cards in order of their random numbers. This will generate a random permutation, unless two of the random numbers generated are the same. This can be eliminated either by retrying these cases, or reduced to an arbitrarily low probability by choosing a sufficiently wide range of random number choices. The second, generally known as the Knuth shuffle or Fisher–Yates shuffle, is a linear-time algorithm (as opposed to the previous O(n log n) algorithm if using efficient sorting such as mergesort or heapsort) which involves moving through the pack from top to bottom, swapping each card in turn with another card from a random position in the part of the pack that has not yet been passed through (including itself). Providing that the random numbers are unbiased, this will always generate a random permutation. Implementation For a variety of reasons, shuffling algorithms can be particularly difficult to implement. Here are some of the most common pitfalls: Poorly implemented Knuth shuffles Care needs to be taken in implementing the Knuth shuffle; even slight deviations from the correct algorithm will produce biased shuffles. For example, working your way through the pack swapping each card in turn with a random card from any part of the pack is an algorithm with nn different possible execution paths, yet there are only n! permutations, and a counting argument based on using the pigeonhole principle on assignments of execution paths to outcomes shows that this algorithm cannot produce an unbiased shuffle, unlike the true Knuth shuffle, which has n! execution paths which match up one-to-one with the possible permutations. For an example of how this pigeonhole argument works on the nn shuffle, consider the simple case of shuffling only three cards, so that n=3. Then there are nn = 27 different possible execution paths (these are the 27 things to put in the pigeonholes). But there are only 3! = 6 ways to permute three cards (these are the 6 pigeonholes to put the things in). 27 is odd, and 6 is even, so 27 things cannot be divided evenly into 6 pigeonholes. Therefore, if we assume that the execution paths are equiprobable, then the outcomes cannot be, since at least two of the different outcomes must have different probabilities. Therefore the nn shuffle cannot be unbiased for n=3. Similar reasoning can be applied for other values of n > 2. Another very easy mistake to make is to overlook the possibility of swapping an element with itself. The consequence of this error is that an element (for example, the top element) can never remain in its same position after the shuffle, when in reality, 1/52 of the time, it should. This was a critical flaw in the Enigma cipher. Whichever algorithm is chosen, it is important that a source of truly random numbers is used as the input to the shuffling algorithm. If a biased or (weak) pseudo-random source of random numbers is used, the output shuffles may be non-random in a way that is hard to detect, but easy to exploit by someone who knows the characteristics of the supposedly "random" number source. Modulo bias Another common source of bias in shuffling implementations is to use both a good shuffling algorithm and a true random number generator, but not to correctly reduce the output of the random number generator into the choice of which card to shuffle at a particular step. For example, if a 32-bit random number is used to choose one of 52 choices by using the modulo operator provided in most programming languages, it can be demonstrated using a pigeonhole argument that this choice cannot possibly be unbiased, since 232 cannot be evenly divided by 52. This is sometimes called "modulo bias". This form of bias can be avoided in a number of ways. Probably the easiest involves deliberately limiting the number of usable outputs of the random number generator to a multiple of the number of choices to be made prior to performing the modulo operator, and re-trying the random number generator until a value within that range is produced. Although this algorithm is, strictly speaking, not guaranteed to terminate, given a true random number generator, the probability of this algorithm not terminating in a reasonable time is so small that it can be neglected for all practical purposes. Pseudo-random shuffles Even if only pseudo-random shuffles are required, there is another potential pitfall: the number of pseudo-random shuffles that can be generated cannot exceed the number of states that the pseudo-random number generator can take. For many older systems, this can be as small as 232, a number which is 58 orders of magnitude smaller than 52!, and thus 52-card shuffles generated using this system cannot possibly be unbiased. Indeed, since they can be completely enumerated, it is often possible to tell from the first few cards in such a pseudo-randomly shuffled pack what the remainder of the cards will be. Thus, in addition to all of the implementation problems above, to have any chance at all of generating a plausible pseudo-random shuffle, the pseudo-random generator must have in excess of log2 52! = 225.58 bits of internal state, preferably by a considerable margin. It should also be noted that many pseudo-random number generators have non-random behavior in their low-order bits. If using the modulo operator as described above, with a small set of items to be shuffled, this non-random behavior in the low-order bits can produce very poor shuffles. In online gaming These issues are of considerable commercial importance in online gambling, where the randomness of the shuffling of packs of simulated cards for online card games is crucial. For this reason, many online gambling sites provide descriptions of their shuffling algorithms and the sources of randomness used to drive these algorithms, with some gambling sites also providing auditors' reports of the performance of their systems. See also Card manipulation Mental poker Solitaire (cipher) References Footnotes External links Physical card shuffling: Illustrated guide to several shuffling methods Magicians tool with lots of shuffling simulation Mathematics of shuffling: Real World Shuffling In Practice Shuffle - MathWorld - Wolfram Research Generating random permutations Ivars Peterson's MathTrek: Card Shuffling Shenanigans Real World (Historical) Application: How We Learned to Cheat at Online Poker: A Study in Software Security | Shuffling |@lemmatized riffle:12 shuffle:88 perform:7 game:8 poker:6 shuffling:14 procedure:3 use:22 randomize:4 deck:40 play:5 card:63 provide:6 element:4 chance:2 often:6 follow:3 cut:4 ensure:2 shuffler:2 manipulate:1 outcome:3 typical:1 sequence:3 hand:18 example:6 wash:3 two:12 strip:2 third:2 technique:7 several:3 easy:4 learn:2 others:1 achieve:1 good:8 randomization:3 well:1 suit:7 special:1 cascade:1 common:5 call:5 dovetail:1 half:8 hold:3 thumb:5 inward:1 release:2 fall:2 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6,366 | Letter_game | A letter game involves the exchange of written letters, or e-mails, between two or more participants. The first player writes a letter in the voice of a newly created character; in this first letter, the writer should establish her own identity and that of her correspondent, should set the scene, and should explain why she and her correspondent must communicate in written fashion. In subsequent letters, plot and character can be developed, but the writers should not talk about plot outside of the letters and the characters should never meet. Letter games can be a writing exercise or a form of collaborative fiction Novels written using or inspired by this type of letter game include Sorcery and Cecelia or The Enchanted Chocolate Pot, The Grand Tour or The Purloined Coronation Regalia, and The Mislaid Magician or Ten Years After, all three by Patricia Wrede and Caroline Stevermer; Freedom and Necessity, by Steven Brust and Emma Bull; and the children's books P.S. Longer Letter Later and Snail Mail No More by Paula Danziger and Ann M. Martin. See also constrained writing epistolary novel Play-by-mail game | Letter_game |@lemmatized letter:9 game:4 involve:1 exchange:1 write:5 e:1 mail:3 two:1 participant:1 first:2 player:1 voice:1 newly:1 create:1 character:3 writer:2 establish:1 identity:1 correspondent:2 set:1 scene:1 explain:1 must:1 communicate:1 fashion:1 subsequent:1 plot:2 develop:1 talk:1 outside:1 never:1 meet:1 writing:1 exercise:1 form:1 collaborative:1 fiction:1 novel:2 use:1 inspire:1 type:1 include:1 sorcery:1 cecelia:1 enchanted:1 chocolate:1 pot:1 grand:1 tour:1 purloined:1 coronation:1 regalia:1 mislaid:1 magician:1 ten:1 year:1 three:1 patricia:1 wrede:1 caroline:1 stevermer:1 freedom:1 necessity:1 steven:1 brust:1 emma:1 bull:1 child:1 book:1 p:1 longer:1 later:1 snail:1 paula:1 danziger:1 ann:1 martin:1 see:1 also:1 constrain:1 epistolary:1 play:1 |@bigram epistolary_novel:1 |
6,367 | Gothic_fiction | Strawberry Hill, an English villa in the "Gothic revival" style, built by seminal Gothic writer Horace Walpole Gothic fiction (sometimes referred to as Gothic horror) is a genre of literature that combines elements of both horror and romance. As a genre, it is generally believed to have been invented by the English author Horace Walpole, with his 1764 novel The Castle of Otranto. The effect of Gothic fiction depends on a pleasing sort of terror, an extension of Romantic literacy pleasures that were relatively new at the time of Walpole's novel. Melodrama and parody (including self-parody) were other long-standing features of the Gothic initiated by Walpole. Gothic literature is intimately associated with the Gothic Revival architecture of the same era. In a way similar to the gothic revivalists' rejection of the clarity and rationalism of the neoclassical style of the Enlightened Establishment, the literary Gothic embodies an appreciation of the joys of extreme emotion, the thrills of fearfulness and awe inherent in the sublime, and a quest for atmosphere. The ruins of gothic buildings gave rise to multiple linked emotions by representing the inevitable decay and collapse of human creations— thus the urge to add fake ruins as eyecatchers in English landscape parks. English Gothic writers often associated medieval buildings with what they saw as a dark and terrifying period, characterized by harsh laws enforced by torture, and with mysterious, fantastic, and superstitious rituals. In literature such Anti-Catholicism had a European dimension featuring Roman Catholic excesses such as the Inquisition (in southern European countries such as Italy and Spain). Prominent features of Gothic fiction include terror (both psychological and physical), mystery, the supernatural, ghosts, haunted houses and Gothic architecture, castles, darkness, death, decay, doubles, madness, secrets, and hereditary curses. The stock characters of Gothic fiction include tyrants, villains, bandits, maniacs, Byronic heroes, persecuted maidens, femmes fatales, madwomen, magicians, vampires, werewolves, monsters, demons, angel, fallen angel, the beauty and the beast, revenants, ghosts, perambulating skeletons, the Wandering Jew, and the Devil himself. First Gothic romances The term "Gothic" came to be applied to the literary genre precisely because the genre dealt with emotional extremes and dark themes, and because it found its most natural settings in the buildings of this style — often spelled "Gothick", to highlight their "medievalness" - castles, mansions, and monasteries, often remote, crumbling, and ruined. It was a fascination with this architecture and its related art, poetry (such as graveyard poets), and even landscape gardening that inspired the first wave of gothic novelists. For example, Horace Walpole, whose The Castle of Otranto (1764) is often regarded as the first true gothic romance, was obsessed with medieval gothic architecture, and built his own house, Strawberry Hill, in that form, sparking a fashion for gothic revival. His declared aim was to combine elements of the medieval romance, which he deemed too fanciful, and the modern novel, which he considered to be too confined to strict realism. The basic plot created many other gothic staples, including a threatening mystery and an ancestral curse, as well as countless trappings such as hidden passages and oft-fainting heroines. The first edition was published disguised as an actual medieval romance from Italy discovered and republished by a fictitious translator. When Walpole admitted to his authorship in the second edition, its originally favourable reception by literary reviewers changed into rejection. The romance, usually held in contempt by the educated as a tawdry and debased kind of writing, had only recently been made respectable by the works of Richardson and Fielding. A romance with superstitious elements, and moreover void of didactical intention, was considered a setback and not acceptable as a modern production. Walpole's forgery, together with the blend of history and fiction that was contravening the principles of the Enlightenment, brought about the Gothic novel's association with fake documentation. Clara Reeve, best known for her work The Old English Baron, set out to take Walpole's plot and adapt it to the demands of the time by balancing fantastic elements with 18th century realism. The question now arose whether supernatural events that were not as evidently absurd as Walpole's would not lead the simpler minds to believe them possible. It was Ann Radcliffe's technique of the explained supernatural, in which every seemingly supernatural intrusion is eventually traced back to natural causes, and the impeccable conduct of her heroines that finally met with the approval of the reviewers. Radcliffe made the gothic novel socially acceptable, ironically followed by an abrupt degradation of its renown. Her success attracted many imitators, mostly of low quality, which soon led to a general perception of the genre as inferior, formulaic, and stereotypical. Among other elements, Radcliffe introduced the brooding figure of the gothic villain, which developed into the Byronic hero. Radcliffe's novels, above all The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794), were best-sellers, although along with all novels they were looked down upon by well-educated people as sensationalist women's entertainment (despite some men's enjoyment of them). "The person, be it gentleman or lady, who has not pleasure in a good novel, must be intolerably stupid. I have read all Mrs. Radcliffe's works, and most of them with great pleasure. The Mysteries of Udolpho, when I had once begun it, I could not lay down again; I remember finishing it in two days – my hair standing on end the whole time." [said Henry] ... "I am very glad to hear it indeed, and now I shall never be ashamed of liking Udolpho myself. " [replied Catherine] — Jane Austen, Northanger Abbey (written 1798) Radcliffe also provided an aesthetic for the burgeoning genre courtesy of her influential article "On the Supernatural in Poetry" in The New Monthly Magazine 7, 1826, pp 145–52, examining the distinction and correlation between horror and terror in Gothic fiction. Developments in continental Europe, and The Monk Contemporaneously to English Gothic, parallel Romantic literary movements developed in continental Europe: the roman noir ("black novel") in France, by such writers as François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil, Gaston Leroux, Baculard d'Arnaud, and Stéphanie Félicité Ducrest de St-Albin, Madame de Genlis and the Schauerroman ("shudder novel") in Germany by such writers as Friedrich Schiller, author of The Ghost-Seer (1789) and Christian Heinrich Spiess, author of Das Petermännchen (1791/92). These works were often more horrific and violent than the English gothic novel. The fruit of this harvest of continental horrors was Matthew Gregory Lewis' lurid tale of monastic debauchery, black magic, and diabolism The Monk (1796). Though Lewis' novel could be read as a sly, tongue-in-cheek spoof of the emerging genre, self-parody was a constituent part of the Gothic from the time of the genre's inception with Walpole's Otranto. Lewis' tale appalled some contemporary readers; however his portrayal of depraved monks, sadistic inquisitors and spectral nuns, and his scurrilous view of the Catholic Church was an important development in the genre and influenced established terror-writer Anne Radcliffe in her last novel The Italian (1797). In this book the hapless protagonists are ensnared in a web of deceit by a malignant monk called Schedoni and eventually dragged before the tribunals of the Inquisition in Rome, leading one contemporary to remark that if Radcliffe wished to transcend the horror of these scenes she would have to visit hell itself (Birkhead 1921). The Marquis de Sade used a gothic framework for some of his fiction, notably The Misfortunes of Virtue and Eugenie de Franval, though the marquis himself never thought of his work as such. Sade critiqued the genre in the preface of his Reflections on the novel (1800) which is widely accepted today, stating that the gothic is "the inevitable product of the revolutionary shock with which the whole of Europe resounded". This correlation between the French revolutionary Terror and the "terrorist school" of writing represented by Radcliffe and Lewis was noted by contemporary critics of the genre (Wright 2007: 57-73). Sade considered The Monk to be superior to the work of Ann Radcliffe. Other notable writers in the continental tradition include Jan Potocki (1761-1815) and E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776–1822). Parody The excesses, stereotypes, and frequent absurdities of the traditional Gothic made it rich territory for satire. The most famous parody of the Gothic is Jane Austen's novel Northanger Abbey (1818) in which the naive protagonist, after reading too much Gothic fiction, conceives herself a heroine of a Radcliffian romance and imagines murder and villainy on every side, though the truth turns out to be much more prosaic. Jane Austen's novel is valuable for including a list of early Gothic works since known as the Northanger Horrid Novels: The Necromancer; or, The Tale of the Black Forest (1794) by 'Ludwig Flammenberg' (pseudonym for Carl Friedrich Kahlert; translated by Peter Teuthold) Horrid Mysteries (1796) by the Marquis de Grosse (translated by P. Will) The Castle of Wolfenbach (1793) by Eliza Parsons The Mysterious Warning, a German Tale (1796) by Eliza Parsons Clermont (1798) by Regina Maria Roche The Orphan of the Rhine (1798) by Eleanor Sleath The Midnight Bell (1798) by Francis Lathom These books, with their lurid titles, were once thought to be the creations of Jane Austen's imagination, though later research by Michael Sadleir and Montague Summers confirmed that they did actually exist and stimulated renewed interest in the Gothic. They are currently all being reprinted by Valancourt Press (Wright 2007: 29-32). Another example of Gothic parody in a similar vein is The Heroine by Eaton Stannard Barrett (1813). Cherry Wilkinson, a fatuous female protagonist with a history of novel-reading, fancies herself as the heroine of a Gothic romance. She perceives and models reality according to the stereotypes and typical plot structures of the Gothic novel, leading to a series of absurd events culminating in catastrophe. After her downfall, her affectations and excessive imaginations become eventually subdued by the voice of reason in the form of Stuart, a paternal figure, under whose guidance the protagonist receives a sound education and correction of her misguided taste. The Romantics Further contributions to the Gothic genre were provided in the work of the Romantic poets. Prominent examples include Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner and Christabel and Keats' La Belle Dame sans Merci which feature mysteriously fey ladies. The poetry, romantic adventures and character of Lord Byron, characterised by his spurned lover Lady Caroline Lamb as 'mad, bad and dangerous to know' was another inspiration for the Gothic, providing the archetype of the Byronic hero. Byron features, under the codename of 'Lord Ruthven', in Lady Caroline's own Gothic novel: Glenarvon (1816). Byron was also the host of the celebrated ghost-story competition involving himself, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Mary Shelley, and John William Polidori at the Villa Diodati on the banks of Lake Geneva in the summer of 1816. This occasion was productive of both Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818) and Polidori's The Vampyre (1819). This latter story revives Lamb's Byronic 'Lord Ruthven', but this time as a vampire. The Vampyre has been accounted by cultural critic Christopher Frayling as one of the most influential works of fiction ever written and spawned a craze for vampire fiction and theatre (and latterly film) which has not ceased to this day. Mary Shelley's novel, though clearly influenced by the gothic tradition, is often considered the first science fiction novel, despite the omission in the novel of any scientific explanation of the monster's animation and the focus instead on the moral issues and consequences of such a creation. A late example of traditional Gothic is Melmoth the Wanderer (1820) by Charles Maturin which combines themes of Anti-Catholicism with an outcast Byronic hero. Victorian Gothic Though it is sometimes asserted that the Gothic had played itself out by the Victorian era and had declined into the cheap horror fiction of the "Penny Blood" or "Penny Dreadful" type, exemplified by the serial novel Varney the Vampire, in many ways Gothic was now entering its most creative phase - even if it was no longer a dominant literary genre (in fact the form's popularity as an established genre had already begun to erode with the success of the historical romance). The Victorians sometimes called their novels 'Gothick' to distinguish them from 'Gothic'. Influential critics, above all John Ruskin, far from denouncing mediaeval obscurantism, praised the imagination and fantasy exemplified by its gothic architecture, influencing the Pre-Raphaelites. Recently readers and critics have also begun to reconsider a number of previously overlooked Penny Blood and Penny Dreadful fictions. Authors such as G.W.M. Reynolds are slowly being accorded an important place in the development of the urban as a particularly Victorian Gothic setting, an area within which interesting links can be made with established readings of the work of Dickens and others. The formal relationship between these fictions, serialised for predominantly working class audiences, and the roughly contemporaneous sensation fictions serialised in middle class periodicals is also an area worthy of inquiry. An important and innovative reinterpreter of the Gothic in this period was Edgar Allan Poe who believed 'that terror is not of Germany, but of the soul’. His story "The Fall of the House of Usher" (1839) explores these 'terrors of the soul' whilst revisiting classic Gothic tropes of aristocratic decay, death, and madness. The legendary villainy of the Spanish Inquisition, previously explored by Gothicists Radcliffe, Lewis, and Maturin, is revisited in "The Pit and the Pendulum" (1842). The influence of Ann Radcliffe is also detectable in Poe's "The Oval Portrait" (1842), including an honorary mention of her name in the text of the story. The influence of Byronic Romanticism evident in Poe is also apparent in the work of the Brontë sisters. Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights (1847) transports the Gothic to the forbidding Yorkshire Moors and features ghostly apparitions and a Byronic hero in the person of the demonic Heathcliff whilst Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre (1847) adds the madwoman in the attic (Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar 1979) to the cast of gothic fiction. The Brontës' fiction is seen by some feminist critics as prime examples of Female Gothic, exploring woman's entrapment within domestic space and subjection to patriarchal authority and the transgressive and dangerous attempts to subvert and escape such restriction. Charlotte's Jane Eyre and Emily's Cathy are both examples of female protagonists in such a role (Jackson 1981: 123-29). Louisa May Alcott's gothic potboiler, A Long Fatal Love Chase (written in 1866, but published in 1995) is also an interesting specimen of this subgenre. Elizabeth Gaskell's tales "The Doom of the Griffiths" (1858) "Lois the Witch", and "The Grey Woman" all employ one of the most common themes of Gothic fiction, the power of ancestral sins to curse future generations, or the fear that they will. The gloomy villain, forbidding mansion, and persecuted heroine of Sheridan Le Fanu Uncle Silas (1864) shows the direct influence of both Walpole's Otranto and Radcliffe's Udolpho. Le Fanu's short story collection In a Glass Darkly (1872) includes the superlative vampire tale Carmilla, which provided fresh blood for that particular strand of the Gothic and influenced Bram Stoker's Dracula (1897). According to literary critic Terry Eagleton, Le Fanu, together with his predecessor Maturin and his successor Stoker, form a sub-genre of Irish Gothic, whose stories, featuring castles set in a barren landscape, with a cast of remote aristocrats dominating an atavistic peasantry, represent in allegorical form the political plight of colonial Ireland subjected to the Protestant Ascendancy (Eagleton 1995). The genre was also a heavy influence on more mainstream writers, such as Charles Dickens, who read gothic novels as a teenager and incorporated their gloomy atmosphere and melodrama into his own works, shifting them to a more modern period and an urban setting. His most explicitly Gothic work is his last novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood (1870). The mood and themes of the gothic novel held a particular fascination for the Victorians, with their morbid obsession with mourning rituals, Mementos, and mortality in general. The 1880s, saw the revival of the Gothic as a powerful literary form allied to "fin de siecle" decadence. Classic works of this period include Robert Louis Stevenson's Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891), George du Maurier's Trilby (1894), Henry James' The Turn of the Screw (1898), and the stories of Arthur Machen. The most famous gothic villain ever, Count Dracula was created by Bram Stoker in his novel Dracula (1897). Stoker's book also established Transylvania and Eastern Europe as the locus classicus of the Gothic. In America, two notable writers of the end of the 19th century, in the Gothic tradition, were Ambrose Bierce and Robert W. Chambers. Bierce's short stories were in the horrific and pessimistic tradition of Poe. Chambers, though, indulged in the decadent style of Wilde and Machen (even to the extent of having a character named 'Wilde' in his The King in Yellow). The Victorian Gothic fictionalized contemporary fears like ethical degeneration and questioned the social structures of the time. Post-Victorian legacy Notable English twentieth century writers in the Gothic tradition include Algernon Blackwood, William Hope Hodgson, M. R. James, Hugh Walpole, and Marjorie Bowen. In America pulp magazines such as Weird Tales reprinted classic Gothic horror tales from the previous century, by such authors as Poe, Arthur Conan Doyle, and Edward Bulwer-Lytton and printed new stories by modern authors featuring both traditional and new horrors. The most significant of these was H. P. Lovecraft who also wrote an excellent conspectus of the Gothic and supernatural horror tradition in his Supernatural Horror in Literature (1936). Lovecraft's protégé, Robert Bloch, contributed to Weird Tales and penned Psycho (1959), which drew on the classic interests of the genre. From these, the gothic genre per se gave way to modern horror fiction, regarded by some literary critics as a branch of the Gothic (Wisker 2005: 232-33) although others use the term to cover the entire genre. Many modern writers of horror (or indeed other types of fiction) exhibit considerable gothic sensibilities—examples include the works of Anne Rice, as well as some of the sensationalist works of Stephen King. In the twentieth century the Romantic strand of Gothic was taken up in Daphne du Maurier's Rebecca (1938) which is in many respects a reworking of Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre. Other books by du Maurier, such as Jamaica Inn (1936), also display Gothic tendencies. Du Maurier's work inspired a substantial body of 'Female Gothics,' concerning heroines alternately swooning over or being terrified by scowling Byronic men in possession of acres of prime real estate and the appertaining droit de seigneur . Gothic Romances of this description became popular during the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, with authors such as Joan Aiken, Dorothy Eden, Dorothy Fletcher, Victoria Holt, Barbara Michaels, Mary Stewart, and Jill Tattersall. Many featured covers depicting a terror-stricken woman in diaphanous attire in front of a gloomy castle. Many were published under the Paperback Library Gothic imprint and were marketed to a female audience. Though the authors were mostly women, some men wrote gothic romances under female pseudonyms. For instance the prolific Clarissa Ross and Marilyn Ross were pseudonyms for the male writer Dan Ross. Another example is British writer, Peter O'Donnell, who wrote under the pseudonym of Madeleine Brent. Outside of companies like Lovespell, who carry Colleen Shannon, very few books seem to be published using the term today. The genre also influenced American writing to create the Southern Gothic genre, which combines some Gothic sensibilities (such as the Grotesque) with the setting and style of the Southern United States. Examples include William Faulkner, Harper Lee, and Flannery O'Connor. Contemporary American writers in this tradition include Joyce Carol Oates, in such novels as Bellefleur and A Bloodsmoor Romance and short story collections such as Night-Side and Raymond Kennedy in his novel Lulu Incognito. The Southern Ontario Gothic applies a similar sensibility to a Canadian cultural context. Robertson Davies, Alice Munro, Barbara Gowdy, and Margaret Atwood have all produced works that are notable exemplars of this form. Another writer in this gothic tradition was Henry Farrell whose best-known work was the Hollywood horror novel What Ever Happened to Baby Jane? (1960). Farrel's novels spawned a sub-genre of 'Grande Dame Guignol' in the cinema, dubbed the 'Psycho-biddy' genre. Notable contemporary British writers in the Gothic tradition are Susan Hill, author of The Woman in Black (1983), and Patrick McGrath, author of The Grotesque (1989). The themes of the literary Gothic have been translated into other media such as the theatre and had a notable revival in twentieth century gothic horror films such the classic Universal Horror films of the 1930s, Hammer Horror, and Roger Corman's Poe cycle. Twentieth century rock and roll music also had its gothic side. Black Sabbath created a dark sound different at the time. Themes from gothic writers such as H. P. Lovecraft were also used among gothic rock and heavy metal bands, especially in black metal, thrash metal (Metallica's The Call of Ktulu), death metal, and gothic metal. For example, heavy metal musician King Diamond delights in telling stories full of horror, theatricality, satanism and anti-Catholicism in his compositions. In Hindi cinema, the gothic tradition was combined with aspects of Indian culture, particularly reincarnation, to give rise to an "Indian gothic" genre, beginning with the films Mahal (1949) and Madhumati (1958). Prominent examples The Castle of Otranto (1764) by Horace Walpole (Full text at Project Gutenberg) Vathek, an Arabian Tale (1786) by William Thomas Beckford (Full text at Project Gutenberg) The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) by Ann Radcliffe (Full text at Project Gutenberg) Caleb Williams (1794) by William Godwin (Full text at Project Gutenberg) The Monk (1796) by Matthew Gregory Lewis (Full text at Project Gutenberg) The Castle Spectre (1797) by Matthew Gregory Lewis (Full text) The Italian (1797) by Ann Radcliffe Clermont (1798) by Regina Maria Roche Wieland (1798) by Charles Brockden Brown The Children of the Abbey (1800) by Regina Maria Roche The Manuscript Found in Saragossa (1805) by Jan Potocki Frankenstein (1818) by Mary Shelley (Full text at Wikisource) The Vampyre; a Tale (1819) by John William Polidori (Full text at Project Gutenberg) Melmoth the Wanderer (1820) by Charles Maturin (Full text at HorrorMasters.com) Confessions of an English Opium-Eater (1821) by Thomas de Quincey (Full text at Project Gutenberg) The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner (1824) by James Hogg (Full text at Project Gutenberg) The Mummy! A Tale of the Twenty-Second Century (1827) by Jane Webb Loudon The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1831) by Victor Hugo "Young Goodman Brown" (1835) by Nathaniel Hawthorne "The Minister's Black Veil" (1836) by Nathaniel Hawthorne The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1839) by Edgar Allan Poe The Phantom Ship (1839) by Frederick Marryat "The Fall of the House of Usher" (1839) by Edgar Allan Poe (Full text at Wikisource) "The Tell-Tale Heart" (1843) by Edgar Allan Poe (Full text at Wikisource) The Quaker City; or, the Monks of Monk Hall (1844) by George Lippard (full text page images at openlibrary.org - USA best-seller) Wuthering Heights (1847) by Emily Brontë Jane Eyre (1847) by Charlotte Brontë Villette (1850) by Charlotte Brontë The House of the Seven Gables (1851) by Nathaniel Hawthorne Gothic Tales (1850-1859) by Elizabeth Gaskell (Collected by Penguin Books, ISBN 0-14-043741-X) The Mummy's Foot (1863) by Théophile Gautier (Full text at Wikisource) "Carmilla" (1872) by Sheridan Le Fanu (Full text at Project Gutenberg) Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886) by Robert Louis Stevenson (Full text at Project Gutenberg) The Picture of Dorian Gray (1891) by Oscar Wilde (Full text at Project Gutenberg) "The Horla" (1887) by Guy de Maupassant (Full text at Wikisource) "The Yellow Wallpaper" (1892) by Charlotte Perkins Gilman (Full text at Project Gutenberg) Dracula (1897) by Bram Stoker (Full text at Wikisource) The Turn of the Screw (1898) by Henry James (Full text at Project Gutenberg) "'The Monkey's Paw" (1902 by W. W. Jacobs (Full text at Project Gutenberg) The Phantom of the Opera (1910) by Gaston Leroux (Full text at Project Gutenberg) The Lair of the White Worm (1911) by Bram Stoker (Full text at Wikisource) Rebecca (1938) by Daphne du Maurier The Iron Gates (1945) by Margaret Millar Other Voices, Other Rooms (1948) by Truman Capote The Lottery and Others (1951) by Shirley Jackson Gormenghast (1946–1959) by Mervyn Peake The Haunting of Hill House (1959) by Shirley Jackson We Have Always Lived in the Castle (1963) by Shirley Jackson The Unicorn (1963) by Iris Murdoch Rosemary's Baby (1967) by Ira Levin Expensive People (1968) by Joyce Carol Oates Last Summer (1968) by Evan Hunter Don't Look Now (1970) by Daphne du Maurier The Stepford Wives (1972) by Ira Levin Triad (1973) by Mary Leader 22 Hallowfield (1974) by Doris Shannon 'Salem's Lot (1975) by Stephen King Julia (1975) by Peter Straub The House Next Door (1976) by Anne Rivers Siddons The Shining (1977) by Stephen King The Hour of the Oxrun Dead (1977) by Charles L. Grant Ghost Story (1979) by Peter Straub Clara Reeve (1979) by Thomas M. Disch Bellefleur (1980) by Joyce Carol Oates The Land of Laughs (1980) by Jonathan Carroll The Nameless (1981) by Ramsey Campbell The Elementals (1981) by Michael McDowell The Woman in Black (1983) by Susan Hill Familiar Spirit (1983) by Lisa Tuttle The Place (1986) by T. M. Wright Bones of the Moon (1988) by Jonathan Carroll The Secret History (1992) by Donna Tartt Elephantasm (1993) by Tanith Lee My Heart Laid Bare (1998) by Joyce Carol Oates The Diary of Ellen Rimbauer: My Life at Rose Red (2002) by Ridley Pearson and Stephen King The Little Friend (2002) by Donna Tartt Candles Burning (2006) by Tabitha King & Michael McDowell Heart-Shaped Box (2007) by Joe Hill Ghostwalk (novel) (2007) by Rebecca Stott Gothic satire Northanger Abbey (1818) by Jane Austen (Full text at Wikisource) Nightmare Abbey (1818) by Thomas Love Peacock (Full text at Project Gutenberg) The Ingoldsby Legends (1840) by Thomas Ingoldsby (Full text at The Ex-Classics Website) See also Dark romanticism Gothic-Punk Southern Gothic Southern Ontario Gothic Suburban Gothic Tasmanian Gothic References Edith Birkhead (1921) The Tale of Terror. Clive Bloom (2007) Gothic Horror: A Guide for Students and Readers. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Fred Botting (1996) Gothic, Routledge. Clery, E.J. (1995) The Rise of Supernatural Fiction, Cambridge UP. Terry Eagleton (1995) Heathcliff and the Great Hunger. NY: Verso. Gamer, Michael (2006) Romanticism and the Gothic. Genre, Reception and Canon Formation, Cambridge UP. Luke Gibbons (2004) Gaelic Gothic. Galway: Arlen House. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar (1979) The Madwoman in the Attic. ISBN 0-300-08458-7 George Haggerty (2006) Queer Gothic. Urbana, IL: Illinois UP Judith Halberstam (1995) Skin Shows. Durham, NC: Duke UP. Avril Horner & Sue Zlosnik (2005) Gothic and the Comic Turn. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Rosemary Jackson (1981) Fantasy: The Literature of Subversion. Maggie Kilgour (1995)The Rise of the Gothic Novel, Routledge. Robert Mighall (2003) A Geography of Victorian Gothic Fiction: Mapping History's Nightmares. David Punter (1996) The Literature of Terror (2 vols). Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick (1986) The Coherence of Gothic Conventions. NY: Methuen. David Stevens (2000) The Gothic Tradition. ISBN 0-521-77732-1 Jack Sullivan (ed) (1986) The Penguin Encyclopedia of Horror and the Supernatural. Montague Summers (1938) Gothic Quest. Devandra Varma (1957) The Gothic Flame. Gina Wisker (2005) Horror Fiction: An Introduction. Continuum: New York. Angela Wright (2007) Gothic Fiction. Basingstoke: Palgrave. Marshall Brown (2005) The Gothic Text. Stanford, CA: Stanford UP. External links CALIGARI - German Journal of Horror Studies Gothic Poets and Writers Literary Club Gothic and Sensation Fiction - Crossref-it.info The Gothic Literature Page by Zittaw Press Valancourt Books: Specialists in rare 18th and 19th century Gothic fiction Zittaw Press Gothic Fiction Bookshelf at Project Gutenberg Supernatural Horror in Literature by H. P. Lovecraft at Wikisource Gothic Tradition Gothic Nightmares Irish Journal of Gothic and Horror Studies Literary Gothic: A Web Guide to Gothic Literature "Typical Elements of American Gothic Fiction" House of Pain E-Zine Archives: Modern Gothic Fiction In Praise of the Gothic Novel - video clips Gothic Author Biographies The Sickly Taper: A Gothic bibliography on the web | Gothic_fiction |@lemmatized strawberry:2 hill:6 english:9 villa:2 gothic:128 revival:5 style:5 build:2 seminal:1 writer:17 horace:4 walpole:13 fiction:29 sometimes:3 refer:1 horror:23 genre:25 literature:9 combine:5 element:6 romance:13 generally:1 believe:3 invent:1 author:11 novel:36 castle:10 otranto:5 effect:1 depend:1 please:1 sort:1 terror:10 extension:1 romantic:6 literacy:1 pleasure:3 relatively:1 new:5 time:7 melodrama:2 parody:6 include:14 self:2 long:3 standing:1 feature:9 initiate:1 intimately:1 associate:2 architecture:5 era:2 way:3 similar:3 revivalist:1 rejection:2 clarity:1 rationalism:1 neoclassical:1 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6,368 | Oxford_English_Dictionary | The Oxford English Dictionary (OED), published by the Oxford University Press (OUP), is a comprehensive dictionary of the English language. Oxford University Press Two fully-bound print editions of the OED have been published under its current name, in 1928 and 1989; as of December 2008 the dictionary's current editors have completed a fourth of the third edition. OED reaches its quarter mark from the official OED website Entries and relative size According to the publishers, it would take a single person 120 years to type the 59 million words of the OED second edition, 60 years to proofread it, and 540 megabytes to store it electronically. OED Facts As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries. Supplementing the entry headwords, there are 157,000 bold-type combinations and derivatives; 169,000 italicized-bold phrases and combinations; 616,500 word-forms in total, including 137,000 pronunciations; 249,300 etymologies; 577,000 cross-references; and 2,412,400 usage quotations. The dictionary's latest, complete print edition (Second Edition, 1989) was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, which required 60,000 words to describe some 430 senses. As entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007. http://www.oed.com/news/updates/revisions0712.html Set is expected to regain its place as the longest entry once it too is revised. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the world's largest nor earliest dictionary. The Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal, which has similar aims to the OED, is the largest and it took twice as long to complete. The earliest large dictionary is the Grimm brothers' dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838 and completed in 1961. The first edition of the Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca, which is the first great dictionary devoted to a modern European language (Italian), was published in 1612; the first edition of Dictionnaire de l'Académie française dates from 1694. The first edition of the official dictionary of Spanish, the Diccionario de la lengua española (produced, edited, and published by the Real Academia Española) was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese published even earlier, in 1716. However, none of these other dictionaries has had as broad a cultural impact as the OED. The OEDs official policy was to attempt to record a word's most-known usages and variants in all varieties of English past and present, world-wide. Per the 1933 "Preface": It continues: The OED is the focus of much scholarly work about English words. Its headword variant spellings order list influences written English in Anglophone countries. History Origins At first, the dictionary was unconnected to Oxford University; it originally was a Philological Society project conceived in London by Richard Chenevix Trench, Herbert Coleridge, and Frederick Furnivall, who were dissatisfied with the current English dictionaries. In June 1857, they formed an "Unregistered Words Committee" to search for unlisted and undefined words lacking in current dictionaries. In November, Trench's report was not a list of unregistered words; instead, it was the study On Some Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries, which identified seven distinct shortcomings in contemporary dictionaries: Incomplete coverage of obsolete words Inconsistent coverage of families of related words Incorrect dates for earliest use of words History of obsolete senses of words often omitted Inadequate distinction among synonyms Insufficient use of good illustrative quotations Space wasted on inappropriate or redundant content. Trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. Volunteer readers would copy to quotation slips passages illustrating actual word usages, then post them to the dictionary editor. In 1858, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title "A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles" (NED). Early editors Richard Chenevix Trench played the key role in the project's first months, but his ecclesiastical career meant that he could not give the dictionary project the time required, easily ten years; he withdrew, and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor. Frederick Furnivall, 1825-1910 On 12 May 1860, Coleridge's dictionary plan was published, and research started. His house was the first editorial office. He arrayed 100,000 quotation slips in a 54-pigeon-hole grid. In April 1861, the group published the first sample pages; later that month, the thirty-one-year old Coleridge died of tuberculosis. Furnivall then became editor; he was enthusiastic and knowledgeable, yet temperamentally ill-suited for the work. Recruited assistants handled two tons of quotation slips and other materials. Furnivall understood the need for an efficient excerpting system, and instituted several prefatory projects. In 1864, he founded the Early English Text Society, and in 1865, he founded the Chaucer Society for preparing general benefit editions of immediate value to the dictionary project. The compilation lasted 21 years. In the 1870s, Furnivall unsuccessfully attempted to recruit both Henry Sweet and Henry Nicol to succeed him. He then approached James Murray, who accepted the post of editor. Murray's effort and association with the dictionary led the Oxford English Dictionary to be dubbed Murray's Dictionary. Despite the participation of some 800 volunteer readers, the technology of paper-and-ink was the major drawback regarding the arbitrary choices of relatively untrained volunteers about "what to read and select" and "what to discard." A prolific contributor, W. C. Minor, Murray would learn much later during his editorship of the dictionary, was an inmate of the Broadmoor Asylum for the Criminally Insane. As months and years elapsed, the project languished. Furnivall lost track of assistants; some presumed the project abandoned; some died, their quotation slips unreturned to the editor. Later, the letter "H" quotation slips sack was found in Tuscany; others slips were burned as waste paper tinder. Oxford editors James Murray in the Scriptorium at Banbury Road Simultaneously, the Philological Society was concerned with the process of publishing such an immense book. Although they had pages printed by publishers, no publication agreement was reached; both the Cambridge University Press and the Oxford University Press were approached. Finally, in 1879, after two years' negotiating by Sweet, Furnivall, and Murray, the OUP agreed to publish the dictionary and to pay the editor, Murray, who was also the Philological Society president. The dictionary was to be published as interval fascicles, with the final form in four 6,400-page volumes. They hoped to finish the project in ten years. Murray started the project, working in a corrugated iron outbuilding, the "Scriptorium", which was lined with wooden planks, book shelves, and 1,029 pigeon-holes for the quotation slips. He tracked and regathered Furnivall's collection of quotation slips, which were found to concentrate on rare, interesting words rather than common usages: for instance, there were ten times more quotations for abusion than for abuse. He appealed for readers in newspapers distributed to bookshops and libraries; readers were specifically asked to report "as many quotations as you can for ordinary words" and for words that were "rare, obsolete, old-fashioned, new, peculiar or used in a peculiar way." Murray had American philologist and liberal-arts-college professor Francis March manage the collection in North America; 1,000 quotation slips arrived daily to the Scriptorium, and by 1882, there were 3,500,000. The first Dictionary fascicle was published on 1 February 1884 — twenty-three years after Coleridge's sample pages. The full title was A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles; Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by The Philological Society; the 352-page volume, words from A to Ant, cost 12s.6d or U.S.$3.25. The total sales were a disappointing 4,000 copies. The OUP saw it would take too long to complete the work with unrevised editorial arrangements. Accordingly, new assistants were hired and two new demands were made on Murray. The first was that he move from Mill Hill to Oxford; he did, in 1885. Murray had his Scriptorium re-erected on his new property. The 78 Banbury Road, Oxford, house, erstwhile residence of James Murray, Editor of the Oxford English Dictionary. Murray resisted the second demand: that if he could not meet schedule, he must hire a second, senior editor to work in parallel to him, outside his supervision, on words from elsewhere in the alphabet. Murray did not want to share the work, feeling he would accelerate his work pace with experience. That turned out not to be so, and Philip Gell of the OUP forced the promotion of Murray's assistant Henry Bradley (hired by Murray in 1884), who worked independently in the British Museum in London, beginning in 1888. In 1896, Bradley moved to Oxford University. Famously, Dr. W. C. Minor was a prolific contributor as a reader for Murray. Whilst imprisoned in a criminal lunatic asylum, he invented his own quotation-tracking system, so that he could then submit his slips upon the editors' request. Gell continued harassing Murray and Bradley with his business concerns—containing costs and speedy production—to the point where the project's collapse seemed likely. Newspapers reported the harassment, and public opinion backed the editors. Gell was fired, and the University reversed his cost policies. If the editors felt that the Dictionary would have to grow larger, it would; it was an important work, and worth the time and money to properly finish. Neither Murray nor Bradley lived to see it. Murray died in 1915, having been responsible for words starting with A-D, H-K, O-P and T, nearly half the finished dictionary; Bradley died in 1923, having completed E-G, L-M, S-Sh, St and W-We. By then two additional editors had been promoted from assistant work to independent work, continuing without much trouble. William Craigie, starting in 1901, was responsible for N, Q-R, Si-Sq, U-V and Wo-Wy. Whereas previously the OUP had thought London too far from Oxford, after 1925 Craigie worked on the dictionary in Chicago, where he was a professor. The fourth editor was C. T. Onions, who, starting in 1914, compiled the remaining ranges, Su-Sz, Wh-Wo and X-Z. It was around this time that J. R. R. Tolkien was employed by the OED, researching etymologies of the Waggle to Warlock range OED Contributors: Tolkien ; he parodied the principal editors as "The Four Wise Clerks of Oxenford" in the story Farmer Giles of Ham. Julian Barnes also was an employee; he was said to dislike the work. Fascicles By early 1894 a total of 11 fascicles had been published, or about one per year: four for A-B, five for C, and two for E. Of these, eight were 352 pages long, while the last one in each group was shorter to end at the letter break (which would eventually become a volume break). At this point it was decided to publish the work in smaller and more frequent installments: once every three months, beginning in 1895, there would now be a fascicle of 64 pages, priced at 2s.6d. or $1 U.S. If enough material was ready, 128 or even 192 pages would be published together. This pace was maintained until World War I forced reductions in staff. Each time enough consecutive pages were available, the same material was also published in the original larger fascicles. Also in 1895, the title Oxford English Dictionary (OED) was first used. It then appeared only on the outer covers of the fascicles; the original title was still the official one and was used everywhere else. The 125th and last fascicle, covering words from Wise to the end of W, was published on 19 April 1928, and the full Dictionary in bound volumes followed immediately. It has been determined that the early modern English prose of Sir Thomas Browne is the most frequently quoted source of neologisms in the completed dictionary. William Shakespeare is the most-quoted writer, with Hamlet his most-quoted work. George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) is the most-quoted woman. Collectively, translations of the Bible are the most-quoted work; the most-quoted single work is Cursor Mundi. Second Supplement and Second Edition In 1933 Oxford University had finally put the Dictionary to rest; all work ended, and the quotation slips went into storage. However, the English language continued to change, and by the time 20 years had passed, the Dictionary was outdated. There were three possible ways to update it. The cheapest would have been to leave the existing work alone and simply compile a new supplement of perhaps one or two volumes; but then anyone looking for a word or sense and unsure of its age would have to look in three different places. The most convenient choice for the user would have been for the entire dictionary to be re-edited and retypeset, with each change included in its proper alphabetical place; but this would have been the most expensive option, with perhaps 15 volumes required to be produced. The OUP chose a middle approach: combining the new material with the existing supplement to form a larger replacement supplement. Robert Burchfield was hired in 1957 to edit the second supplement; Onions, who turned 84 that year, was still able to make some contributions as well. Burchfield emphasized the inclusion of modern-day language, and through the supplement the dictionary was expanded to include a wealth of new words from the burgeoning fields of science and technology, as well as popular culture and colloquial speech. Burchfield also broadened the scope to include developments of the language in English-speaking regions beyond the United Kingdom, including North America, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, and the Caribbean. The work was expected to take seven to ten years. It actually took 29 years, by which time the new supplement (OEDS) had grown to four volumes, starting with A, H, O and Sea. They were published in 1972, 1976, 1982, and 1986 respectively, bringing the complete dictionary to 16 volumes, or 17 counting the first supplement. By this time it was clear that the full text of the Dictionary would now need to be computerized. Achieving this would require retyping it once, but thereafter it would always be accessible for computer searching — as well as for whatever new editions of the dictionary might be desired, starting with an integration of the supplementary volumes and the main text. Preparation for this process began in 1983, and editorial work started the following year under the administrative direction of Timothy J. Benbow, with John A. Simpson and Edmund S. C. Weiner as co-editors. Editing an entry of the NOED using LEXX And so the New Oxford English Dictionary (NOED) project began. More than 120 keyboarders of International Computaprint Corporation in Tampa, Florida, and Fort Washington, Pennsylvania, USA, started keying in over 350,000,000 characters, their work checked by 55 proof-readers in England. Retyping the text alone was not sufficient; all the information represented by the complex typography of the original dictionary had to be retained, which was done by marking up the content in SGML. A specialized search engine and display software were also needed to access it. Under a 1985 agreement, some of this software work was done at the University of Waterloo, Canada, at the Centre for the New Oxford English Dictionary, led by Frank Tompa and Gaston Gonnet; this search technology went on to become the basis for the Open Text Corporation. Computer hardware, database and other software, development managers, and programmers for the project were donated by the British subsidiary of IBM; the colour syntax-directed editor for the project, LEXX, was written by Mike Cowlishaw of IBM. LEXX – A programmable structured editor, Cowlishaw, M. F., IBM Journal of Research and Development, Vol 31, No. 1, 1987, IBM Reprint order number G322-0151 The University of Waterloo, in Canada, volunteered to design the database. A. Walton Litz, an English professor at Princeton University who served on the Oxford University Press advisory council, was quoted in Time as saying "I've never been associated with a project, I've never even heard of a project, that was so incredibly complicated and that met every deadline." Paul Gray, "A Scholarly Everest Gets Bigger," Time, March 27, 1989. By 1989 the NOED project had achieved its primary goals, and the editors, working online, had successfully combined the original text, Burchfield's supplement, and a small amount of newer material, into a single unified dictionary. The word "new" was again dropped from the name, and the Second Edition of the OED, or the OED2, was published. The first edition retronymically became the OED1. The OED2 was printed in 20 volumes. For the first time, there was no attempt to start them on letter boundaries, and they were made roughly equal in size. The 20 volumes started with A, B.B.C., Cham, Creel, Dvandva, Follow, Hat, Interval, Look, Moul, Ow, Poise, Quemadero, Rob, Ser, Soot, Su, Thru, Unemancipated, and Wave. Although the content of the OED2 is mostly just a reorganization of the earlier corpus, the retypesetting provided an opportunity for two long-needed format changes. The headword of each entry was no longer capitalized, allowing the user to readily see those words that actually require a capital letter. Also, whereas Murray had devised his own notation for pronunciation, there being no standard available at the time, the OED2 adopted the modern International Phonetic Alphabet. Unlike the earlier edition, all foreign alphabets except Greek were transliterated. The British quiz show Countdown has awarded the leather-bound complete version to the champions of each series since its inception in 1982. When the print version of the second edition was published in 1989, the response was enthusiastic. The author Anthony Burgess declared it "the greatest publishing event of the century," as quoted by Dan Fisher of the Los Angeles Times (25 March 1989). TIME dubbed the book "a scholarly Everest," and Richard Boston, writing for the London Guardian (24 March 1989), called it "one of the wonders of the world." New material was published in the Oxford English Dictionary Additions Series, which consisted of two small volumes in 1993, and a third in 1997, bringing the dictionary to a total of 23 volumes. Each of the supplements added about 3,000 new definitions. However, no more Additions volumes are planned, and it is not expected that any part of the Third Edition, or OED3, will be printed in fascicles. Compact editions In 1971, the 13-volume OED1 (1933) was reprinted as a two-volume, Compact Edition, done by photographically reducing each page to one-half its linear dimensions; each compact edition page held four OED1 pages in a four-up ("4-up") format. The two volume letters were A and P; the Supplement was at the second volume's end. The Compact Edition included, in a small slip-case drawer, a magnifying glass to help in reading reduced type. Many copies were inexpensively distributed through book clubs. In 1987, the second Supplement was published as a third volume to the Compact Edition. In 1991, for the OED2, the compact edition format was re-sized to one-third of original linear dimensions, a nine-up ("9-up") format requiring greater magnification, but allowing publication of a single-volume dictionary. After these volumes were published, though, book club offers commonly continued to sell the two-volume 1971 Compact Edition. Electronic versions Screenshot of the second CD-ROM edition of the OED Once the text of the dictionary was digitized and online, it was also available to be published on CD-ROM. The text of the First Edition was made available in 1988. Afterward, three versions of the second edition were issued. Version 1 (1992) was identical in content to the printed Second Edition, and the CD itself was not copy-protected. Version 2 (1999) had some additions to the corpus, and updated software with improved searching features, but it had clumsy copy-protection that made it difficult to use and would even cause the program to deny use to OUP staff in the midst of demonstrating the product. Version 3 was released in 2002 with additional words and software improvements, though its copy-protection remained as unforgiving as that of the earlier version. The current and only edition of the OED on CD available for purchase from Oxford University Press, Version 3.1.1 (2007), includes a return to the less restrictive nature of Version 1, with support for hard disk installation, so that the user does not have to insert the CD to use the dictionary. It has been reported R.J.Holmgren, "v3.x under Mac OS X and Linux", last revised 22 March 2008. Accessed 19 April 2008 "Bernie" from ELearnAid.com, "Oxford English Dictionary News", 6 May 2004. Accessed 19 April 2008 that this version will work on operating systems other than Microsoft Windows, using emulation programs. Version 4.0 of the CD, scheduled to be available June of 2009, will work with Windows and Mac OS X. This version will use the CD drive for installation, running only from the hard drive. On 14 March 2000, the Oxford English Dictionary Online (OED Online) became available to subscribers. , The online database contains the entire OED2 and is updated quarterly with revisions that will be included in the OED3 (see below). The online edition is the most up-to-date version of the dictionary available. As the price for an individual to use this edition, even after a reduction in 2004, is £195 or $295 US every year, most subscribers are large organizations such as universities. Some of them do not use the Oxford English Dictionary Online portal and have legally downloaded the entire database into their organization's computers. Some public libraries and companies have subscribed as well, including, in March and April 2006, most public libraries in England and Wales and New Zealand; any person belonging to a library subscribing to the service is able to use the service from their own home. Another method of payment was also introduced in 2004, offering residents of North or South America the opportunity to pay $29.95 US a month to access the online site. Third Edition The planned Third Edition, or OED3, is intended as a nearly complete overhaul of the work. Each word is being examined and revised to improve the accuracy of the definitions, derivations, pronunciations, and historical quotations—a task requiring the efforts of a staff consisting of more than 300 scholars, researchers, readers, and consultants, and projected to cost about $55 million. The result is expected to double the overall length of the text. The style of the dictionary will also change slightly. The original text was more literary, in that most of the quotations were taken from novels, plays, and other literary sources. The new edition, however, will reference all manner of printed resources, such as cookbooks, wills, technical manuals, specialist journals, and rock lyrics. The pace of inclusion of new words has been increased to the rate of about 4,000 a year. The estimated date of completion is 2037. Stephanie Willen Brown, From Unregistered Words to OED3, CogSci Librarian, 23 August 2007. Accessed 23 October 2007. New content can be viewed through the OED Online or on the periodically updated CD-ROM edition. It is possible that the OED3 will never be printed conventionally, but will be available only electronically. That will be a decision for the future, when it is nearer completion. As of 1993, John Simpson is the Chief Editor. Since the first work by each editor tends to require more revision than his later, more polished work, (work on the first edition was, of course, begun at A) it was decided to balance out this effect, by performing the early, and perhaps itself less polished, work of the current revision at a letter other than A. Accordingly, the main work of the OED3 has been proceeding in sequence from the letter M. When the OED Online was launched in March 2000, it included the first batch of revised entries (officially described as draft entries), stretching from M to mahurat, and successive sections of text have since been released on a quarterly basis; by December 2008, the revised section had reached reamy. As new work is done on words in other parts of the alphabet, this is also included in each quarterly release. In March 2008, the editors announced that they would alternate each quarter between moving forward in the alphabet as before and updating "key English words from across the alphabet, along with the other words which make up the alphabetical cluster surrounding them." The production of the new edition takes full advantage of computers, particularly since the June 2005 inauguration of the whimsically named "Perfect All-Singing All-Dancing Editorial and Notation Application", or "Pasadena." With this XML-based system, the attention of lexicographers can be directed more to matters of content than to presentation issues such as the numbering of definitions. The new system has also simplified the use of the quotations database, and enabled staff in New York to work directly on the Dictionary in the same way as their Oxford-based counterparts. Other important computer uses include internet searches for evidence of current usage, and e-mail submissions of quotations by readers and the general public. Wordhunt was a 2005 appeal to the general public for help in providing citations for 50 selected recent words, and produced antedatings for many. The results were reported in a BBC TV series, Balderdash and Piffle. The OED’s small army of devoted readers continue to contribute quotations; the department currently receives about 200,000 a year. Spelling The OED lists British headword spellings (e.g. labour, centre) with variants following (labor, center, etc.). For the suffix more commonly spelt -ise in British English, OUP policy dictates a preference for the spelling -ize, e.g. realize vs realise and globalization vs globalisation. The rationale is partly linguistic, that the English suffix mainly derives from the Greek suffix -ιζειν, (-izo), or the Latin -izāre; however, -ze is also an Americanism in the fact that the -ze suffix has crept into words where it did not originally belong, as with analyse (British English), which is spelt analyze in American English. http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutspelling/ize?view=get See also -ise/-ize at American and British English spelling differences. The sentence "The group analysed labour statistics published by the organization" is an example of OUP practice. This spelling (indicated with the registered IANA language tag en-GB-oed''') is used by the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the International Organization for Standardization, and many British academic publications, such as Nature, the Biochemical Journal, and The Times Literary Supplement. Criticisms Despite its claim of authority on the English language, the Oxford English Dictionary has been criticized from various angles. Indeed, it has become a target precisely because of its massiveness, its claims to authority, and, above all, its influence. In his review of the 1982 supplement, University of Oxford linguist Roy Harris writes that criticizing the OED is extremely difficult because "one is dealing not just with a dictionary but with a national institution," one that "has become, like the English monarchy, virtually immune from criticism in principle." Harris 1982, p.935. Harris criticizes what he sees as the "black-and-white lexicography" of the Dictionary, by which he means its reliance upon printed language over spoken—and then, only privileged forms of printing. He notes that, while neologisms from respected "literary" authors like Samuel Beckett and Virginia Woolf are included, usage of words in newspapers or other, less "respectable" sources holds less sway, though they may actually be more valid in common usage. He writes that the OED’s "[b]lack-and-white lexicography is also black-and-white in that it takes upon itself to pronounce authoritatively on the rights and wrongs of usage," faulting the Dictionary’s prescriptive, rather than descriptive, usage. To Harris, this prescriptive classification of certain usages as "erroneous" and the complete omission of various forms and usages cumulatively represent the "social bias[es]" of the (presumably well-educated and wealthy) compilers. Harris 1982, p.936. Harris also faults the editors' "donnish conservatism" and their adherence to prudish Victorian morals, citing as an example the non-inclusion of "various centuries-old 'four-letter words'" until 1972. Tim Bray, co-creator of the Extensible Markup Language (XML), credits the OED as the developing inspiration of that markup language. See also Canadian Oxford Dictionary Compact Oxford English Dictionary of Current English Concise Oxford English Dictionary New Oxford American Dictionary Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary Oxford Dictionary of English Shorter Oxford English Dictionary Notes and references Specific references: General references: Creaser, Wanda. Review of Willinsky, John, Empire of Words: The Reign of the Oxford English Dictionary. Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature 50:1 (1996): 108-109. JSTOR. 7 April 2008. Harris, Roy. "The History Men." Times Literary Supplement 3 Sept. 1982: 935-936. "Cyber-Neologoliferation," by James Gleick, The New York Times Magazine, 5 November 2006. Further reading Caught in the Web of Words: J. A. H. Murray and the Oxford English Dictionary, by K. M. Elisabeth Murray, Oxford University Press and Yale University Press, 1977; new edition 2001, Yale University Press, trade paperback, ISBN 0-300-08919-8. Empire of Words: The Reign of the Oxford English Dictionary, by John Willinsky, Princeton University Press, 1995, hardcover, ISBN 0-691-03719-1. The Meaning of Everything: The Story of the Oxford English Dictionary, Simon Winchester, Oxford University Press, 2003, hardcover, ISBN 0-19-860702-4. (UK title) The Surgeon of Crowthorne / (US title) The Professor and the Madman: A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of The Oxford English Dictionary, by Simon Winchester; see The Surgeon of Crowthorne for full details of the various editions. Lost for Words: The Hidden History of the Oxford English Dictionary, by Lynda Mugglestone, Yale University Press, 2005, hardcover, ISBN 0-300-10699-8. The Ring of Words: Tolkien and the Oxford English Dictionary, by Peter Gilliver, Jeremy Marshall, and Edmund Weiner, Oxford University Press, 2006, hardcover, ISBN 0-19-861069-6. <cite>Treasure-House of the Language: the Living OED, Charlotte Brewer, Yale University Press, 2007, hardcover, ISBN 978-0-300-12429-3. Chasing the Sun: Dictionary Makers and the Dictionaries They Made, by Jonathon Green, Jonathan Cape, 1996, hardcover, ISBN 0-224-04010-3. External links The Oxford English Dictionary's official website Archive of documents (as page images), including Trench's original "Deficiencies in our English Dictionaries" paper Murray's original appeal for readers Their page of OED statistics, and another such page. Two from the OED. Examining the OED: Charlotte Brewer's analysis of the principles and practices used by OED editors Bibliography of "[c]ritical assessments of OED or accounts of its history", from Examining the OEDThe OED Meets Cyberspace: James Gleick's 2006 article.The New English Dictionary on Historical Principles'' (OED-1). 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6,369 | John_Horton_Conway | John Horton Conway (born December 26, 1937, Liverpool, England) is a prolific mathematician active in the theory of finite groups, knot theory, number theory, combinatorial game theory and coding theory. He has also contributed to many branches of recreational mathematics, notably the invention of the cellular automaton called the Game of Life. Conway is currently professor of mathematics at Princeton University. He studied at Cambridge, where he started research under Harold Davenport. He has an Erdős number of one. He received the Berwick Prize (1971), LMS Prizewinners was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (1981), List of Royal Society Fellows was the first recipient of the Pólya Prize (LMS) (1987), and won the Nemmers Prize in Mathematics (1998). Biography Conway's parents were Agnes Boyce and Cyril Horton Conway. John had two older sisters, Sylvia and Joan. Cyril Conway was a chemistry laboratory assistant. John became interested in mathematics at a very early age and his mother Agnes recalled that he could recite the powers of two when aged four years. John's young years were difficult for he grew up in Britain at a time of wartime shortages. At primary school John was outstanding and he topped almost every class. At the age of eleven his ambition was to become a mathematician. After leaving secondary school, Conway entered Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge to study mathematics. He was awarded his BA in 1959 and began to undertake research in number theory supervised by Harold Davenport. Having solved the open problem posed by Davenport on writing numbers as the sums of fifth powers, Conway began to become interested in infinite ordinals. It appears that his interest in games began during his years studying at Cambridge, where he became an avid backgammon player spending hours playing the game in the common room. He was awarded his doctorate in 1964 and was appointed as College Fellow and Lecturer in Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. He left Cambridge in 1986 to take up the appointment to the John von Neumann Chair of Mathematics at Princeton University. He is also a regular visitor at Mathcamp and MathPath, summer math programs for high schoolers and middle schoolers, respectively. Conway resides in Princeton, New Jersey, United States with his wife and youngest son. He has six other children from his two previous marriages, three grandchildren, and two great-grandchildren. Combinatorial game theory Among amateur mathematicians, he is perhaps most widely known for his contributions to combinatorial game theory (CGT), a theory of partisan games. This he developed with Elwyn Berlekamp and Richard Guy, and with them also co-authored the book Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays. He also wrote the book On Numbers and Games (ONAG) which lays out the mathematical foundations of CGT. He is also one of the inventors of sprouts, as well as philosopher's football. He developed detailed analyses of many other games and puzzles, such as the Soma cube, peg solitaire, and Conway's soldiers. He came up with the Angel problem, which was solved in 2006. He invented a new system of numbers, the surreal numbers, which are closely related to certain games and have been the subject of a mathematical novel by Donald Knuth. He also invented a nomenclature for exceedingly large numbers, the Conway chained arrow notation. Much of this is discussed in the 0th part of ONAG. He is also known for the invention of the Game of Life, one of the early and still celebrated examples of a cellular automaton. Geometry In the mid-1960s with Michael Guy, son of Richard Guy, he established that there are sixty-four convex uniform polychora excluding two infinite sets of prismatic forms. Conway has also suggested a system of notation dedicated to describing polyhedra called Conway polyhedron notation. Geometric topology Conway's approach to computing the Alexander polynomial of knot theory involved skein relations, by a variant now called the Alexander-Conway polynomial. After lying dormant for more than a decade, this concept became central to work in the 1980s on the novel knot polynomials. Conway further developed tangle theory and invented a system of notation for tabulating knots, nowadays known as Conway notation, while completing the knot tables up to 10 crossings. Group theory He worked on the classification of finite simple groups and discovered the Conway groups. He was the primary author of the Atlas of Finite Groups giving properties of many finite simple groups. He with collaborators constructed the first concrete representations of some of the sporadic groups. With Simon Norton he formulated the complex of conjectures relating the monster group with modular functions, which was christened monstrous moonshine by them. Number Theory As a graduate student, he proved the conjecture by Edward Waring that every integer could be written as the sum of 37 numbers, each raised to the fifth power, though Chen Jingrun solved the problem independently before the work could be published Breakfast with John Horton Conway . Algebra He has also done work in algebra, particularly with quaternions. Algorithmics For calculating the day of the week, he invented the Doomsday algorithm. The algorithm is simple enough for anyone with basic arithmetic ability to do the calculations mentally. Conway can usually give the correct answer in under two seconds. To improve his speed, he practices his calendrical calculations on his computer, which is programmed to quiz him with random dates every time he logs on. One of his early books was on finite state machines. Theoretical physics In 2004, Conway and Simon Kochen, another Princeton mathematician, proved the Free will theorem, a startling version of the No Hidden Variables principle of Quantum Mechanics. It states that given certain conditions, if an experimenter can freely decide what quantities to measure in a particular experiment, then elementary particles must be free to choose their spins in order to make the measurements consistent with physical law. In Conway's provocative wording: "if experimenters have free will, then so do elementary particles". Books He has (co-)written several books including the ATLAS of Finite Groups, Regular Algebra and Finite Machines, Sphere Packings, Lattices and Groups, The Sensual (Quadratic) Form, On Numbers and Games, Winning Ways for your Mathematical Plays, The Book of Numbers, and On Quaternions and Octonions. He is currently finishing The Triangle Book written with the late Steve Sigur, math teacher at Paideia School in Atlanta Georgia, and in summer 2008 publishedThe Symmetries of Things with Chaim Goodman-Strauss and Heidi Burgiel. See also Conway polyhedron notation Conway's LUX method for magic squares Orbifold notation Conway chained arrow notation Conway's Game of Life Conway's soldiers Phutball Pinwheel tiling Look-and-say sequence 15 theorem Conway's thrackle conjecture Conway base 13 function Notes References The Triangle Book,2005, John H. Conway and Steve Sigur The Symmetries of Things 2008, John H. Conway, Heidi Burgiel, Chaim Goodman-Strass, ISBN 978-1-56881-220-5 Mind As Machine, Margaret Boden, Oxford University Press, 2006, p. 1271 Symmetry, Marcus du Sautoy, HarperCollins, 2008, p.308 On Quaternions and Octonions, 2003, John Horton Conway and Derek A. Smith ISBN 978-1-56881-134-5 Further reading Guy, Richard K., "Conway's Prime Producing Machine", Mathematics Magazine, Vol. 56, No. 1 (Jan., 1983), pp. 26-33, Mathematical Association of America External links by O'Connor and Robertson Charles Seife, "Impressions of Conway", The Sciences Mark Alpert, "Not Just Fun and Games", Scientific American April 1999. (official online version; registration-free online version) Jasvir Nagra, "Conway's Proof Of The Free Will Theorem" John Conway: "Free Will and Determinism in Science and Philosophy" (Video Lectures) Video of Conway leading a tour of brickwork patterns in Princeton, lecturing on the ordinals, and lecturing on sums of powers and Bernoulli numbers. Photos of John Horton Conway "Bibliography of John H. 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6,370 | Histogram | An example histogram of the heights of 31 Black Cherry trees. In statistics, a histogram is a graphical display of tabulated frequencies, shown as bars. It shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several categories: it is a form of data binning. The categories are usually specified as non-overlapping intervals of some variable. The categories (bars) must be adjacent. The intervals (or bands, or bins) are generally of the same size, and are most easily interpreted if they are. Howitt, D. and Cramer, D. (2008) "Statistics in Psychology". Prentice Hall Histograms are used to plot density of data, and often for density estimation: estimating the probability density function of the underlying variable. The total area of a histogram always equals 1. If the length of the intervals on the x-axis are all 1, then a histogram is identical to a relative frequency plot. An alternative to the histogram is kernel density estimation, which uses a kernel to smooth samples. This will construct a smooth probability density function, which will in general more accurately reflect the underlying variable. The histogram is one of the seven basic tools of quality control, which also include the Pareto chart, check sheet, control chart, cause-and-effect diagram, flowchart, and scatter diagram. Etymology The word histogram derived from the Greek histos 'anything set upright' (as the masts of a ship, the bar of a loom, or the vertical bars of a histogram); and gramma 'drawing, record, writing'. Examples As an example we consider data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau on time to travel to work (2000 census, , Table 2). The census found that there were 124 million people who work outside of their homes. This rounding is a common phenomenon when collecting data from people. Histogram of travel time, US 2000 census. Area under the curve equals the total number of cases. This diagram uses Q/width from the table. +Data by absolute numbers Interval Width Quantity Quantity/width 0 5 4180 836 5 5 13687 2737 10 5 18618 3723 15 5 19634 3926 20 5 17981 3596 25 5 7190 1438 30 5 16369 3273 35 5 3212 642 40 5 4122 824 45 15 9200 613 60 30 6461 215 90 60 3435 57 This histogram shows the number of cases per unit interval so that the height of each bar is equal to the proportion of total people in the survey who fall into that category. The area under the curve represents the total number of cases (124 million). This type of histogram shows absolute numbers. Histogram of travel time, US 2000 census. Area under the curve equals 1. This diagram uses Q/total/width from the table. +Data by proportion Interval Width Quantity (Q) Q/total/width 0 5 4180 0.0067 5 5 13687 0.0221 10 5 18618 0.0300 15 5 19634 0.0316 20 5 17981 0.0290 25 5 7190 0.0116 30 5 16369 0.0264 35 5 3212 0.0052 40 5 4122 0.0066 45 15 9200 0.0049 60 30 6461 0.0017 90 60 3435 0.0005 This histogram differs from the first only in the vertical scale. The height of each bar is the decimal percentage of the total that each category represents, and the total area of all the bars is equal to 1, the decimal equivalent of 100%. The curve displayed is a simple density estimate. This version shows proportions, and is also known as a unit area histogram. In other words a histogram represents a frequency distribution by means of rectangles whose widths represent class intervals and whose areas are proportional to the corresponding frequencies. They only place the bars together to make it easier to compare data. Activities and demonstrations The SOCR resource pages contain a number of hands-on interactive activities demonstrating the concept of a histogram, histogram construction and manipulation using Java applets and charts. Mathematical definition An ordinary and a cumulative histogram of the same data. The data shown is a random sample of 10,000 points from a normal distribution with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. In a more general mathematical sense, a histogram is a mapping that counts the number of observations that fall into various disjoint categories (known as bins), whereas the graph of a histogram is merely one way to represent a histogram. Thus, if we let be the total number of observations and be the total number of bins, the histogram meets the following conditions: Cumulative histogram A cumulative histogram is a mapping that counts the cumulative number of observations in all of the bins up to the specified bin. That is, the cumulative histogram of a histogram is defined as: Number of bins and width There is no "best" number of bins, and different bin sizes can reveal different features of the data. Some theoreticians have attempted to determine an optimal number of bins, but these methods generally make strong assumptions about the shape of the distribution. You should always experiment with bin widths before choosing one (or more) that illustrate the salient features in your data. The number of bins can be calculated directly, or from a suggested bin width : The braces indicate the ceiling function. Sturges' formula , which implicitly bases the bin sizes on the range of the data, and can perform poorly if . Scott's choice , where is the sample standard deviation. Freedman-Diaconis' choice , which is based on the interquartile range. Continuous data The idea of a histogram can be generalized to continuous data. Let (see Lebesgue space), then the cumulative histogram operator can be defined by: with only finitely many intervals of monotony this can be rewritten as is undefined if is the value of a stationary point. See also Data binning Freedman-Diaconis rule Image histogram Density estimation Density estimation Kernel density estimation, a smoother but more complex method of density estimation Notes References Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Merriam-Webster; Ind Una edition (June 2002). Lancaster, H.O. An Introduction to Medical Statistics. John Wiley and Sons. 1974. ISBN 0 471 51250-8 External links Journey To Work and Place Of Work (location of census document cited in example) Understanding histograms in digital photography Histograms: Construction, Analysis and Understanding with external links and an application to particle Physics. 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6,371 | Alexis_Korner | Alexis Korner (19 April 1928 – 1 January 1984), born Alexis Andrew Nicholas Koerner, was a pioneering blues musician and broadcaster who has sometimes been referred to as "the Founding Father of British Blues". A major influence on the sound of the British music scene in the 1960s, "Korner, a pioneer and influential musician" retrieved 26 August 2007 Korner was instrumental in bringing together various English blues musicians. Early career Alexis Korner was born in Paris to an Austrian father and Greek mother, and spent his childhood in France, Switzerland, and North Africa. He arrived in London in 1940 at the start of the Second World War. One memory of his youth was listening to a record by Jimmy Yancey during a German air raid. He said, "From then on all I wanted to do was play the blues." allmusic ((( Alexis Korner > Biography ))) After the war, he played piano and guitar, and in 1949 joined Chris Barber's Jazz Band where he met blues harmonica player Cyril Davies. They started playing together as a duo, formed the influential London Blues and Barrelhouse Club in 1955, and made their first record together in 1957. Korner brought many American blues artists, previously unknown in England, to perform. The 1960s In 1961, Korner and Davies formed Blues Incorporated, initially a loose-knit group of musicians with a shared love of electric blues and R&B music. The group included, at various times, such influential musicians as Charlie Watts, Jack Bruce, Ginger Baker, Long John Baldry, Graham Bond, Danny Thompson and Dick Heckstall-Smith. It also attracted a wider crowd of mostly younger fans, some of whom occasionally performed with the group, including Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, Brian Jones, Rod Stewart, John Mayall and Jimmy Page. One story is that The Rolling Stones went to stay at Korner's house late one night, in the early 1960s, after a performance. They entered in the accepted way, by climbing in through the kitchen window, to find Muddy Waters' band sleeping on the kitchen floor. Although Cyril Davies left the group in 1963, Blues Incorporated continued to record, with Korner at the helm, until 1966. However, by that time its originally stellar line-up and crowd of followers had mostly left to start their own bands. "While his one-time acolytes The Rolling Stones and Cream made the front pages of music magazines all over the world, Korner was relegated to the role of "elder statesman."" Although he himself was a blues purist, Korner criticised better-known British blues musicians during the blues boom of the late '60s for their blind adherence to Chicago blues, as if the music came in no other form. He liked to surround himself with jazz musicians and often performed with a horn section drawn from a pool which included, among others, saxophone players Art Themen, Mel Collins, Dick Heckstall-Smith, Dick Morrissey, John Surman and trombonist Mike Zwerin. In the 1960s Korner began a media career, initially as a show business interviewer and then on ITV's Five O'Clock Club, a children's TV show. He also wrote about blues for the music papers, and continued his performing career especially in Europe. Apart from discovering various English musicians Korner also introduced foreign artists, such as German Wolfgang Michels, to a larger audience. Korner also wrote the liner notes for Michels' group Percewood's Onagram first album in 1969. While touring Scandinavia he first joined forces with singer Peter Thorup, together forming the band New Church, who were one of the support bands at the Rolling Stones Free Concert at Hyde Park on 5 July 1969. It is said that Jimmy Page found out about a new singer, Robert Plant, who had been jamming with Korner, who wondered why Plant had not yet been discovered. Plant and Korner were in the process of recording a full album with Plant on vocals until Page had asked him to join "the New Yardbirds", aka Led Zeppelin. Only two songs are in circulation from these recordings: "Steal Away" and "Operator". The 1970s and 1980s Alexis Korner and Peter Thorup in Bremen In 1970 Korner and Thorup formed a big band ensemble, C.C.S. - short for The Collective Consciousness Society - which had several hit singles produced by Mickie Most, including a version of Led Zeppelin's "Whole Lotta Love" which was used as the theme for BBC's Top Of The Pops for several years. Another instrumental called Brother was used as the theme to the Radio 1 Top 20 when Tom Browne presented the programme in the early 1970s. This was the period of Korner's greatest commercial success in the UK. In 1973, he formed another group, Snape, with Boz Burrell, Mel Collins, and Ian Wallace, previously together in King Crimson. Korner also played on B. B. King's Supersession album, and cut his own, similar album, Get Off My Cloud, with Keith Richards, Peter Frampton, Nicky Hopkins, and members of Joe Cocker's Grease Band. In the mid 1970s, while touring Germany, he established an intensive working relationship with bassist Colin Hodgkinson who played for the support act Back Door. They would continue to collaborate until the end. In the 1970s Korner's main career was in broadcasting. In 1973 he presented a unique 6-part documentary on BBC Radio 1, The Rolling Stones Story, Radiorewind.co.uk - retrieved 26 August 2007 and in 1977 he established a weekly blues and soul show on Radio 1, which ran until 1981. He also used his gravelly voice to great effect as an advertising voice over artist. In 1978, for Korner's 50th birthday, an all-star concert was held featuring many of his friends mentioned above, as well as Eric Clapton, Paul Jones, Chris Farlowe, Zoot Money and other friends, which was later released as The Party Album, and as a video. In 1981, he joined another "supergroup", Rocket 88, a project led by Ian Stewart based around boogie-woogie keyboard players, which featured a rhythm section comprising Jack Bruce and Charlie Watts, among others, as well as a horn section. They toured Europe and released an album on Atlantic Records. Alexis Korner, a lifelong chain smoker, died of lung cancer in London on 1 January 1984, aged 55. Discography (LPs unless otherwise stated) Ken Colyer's Skiffle Group: Back to the Delta (Decca, 1954) Alexis Korner's Breakdown Group Featuring Cyril Davis (sic.) (77, 1957) Alexis Korner Skiffle Group: Blues from the Roundhouse Vol. 1 (Tempo, 1957) - EP Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated: Blues from the Roundhouse Vol. 2 (Tempo, 1958) - EP R&B from the Marquee (Decca, 1962) Alexis Korner's Blues Incorporated (Decca, 1963) At the Cavern (Oriole, 1964) Red Hot From Alex (Transatlantic, 1964) Sky High (Spot, 1966) I Wonder Who (Fontana, 1967) A New Generation of Blues (Liberty, 1968) Both Sides (Metronome, 1970) - GERMANY only Alexis Korner (Rak, 1971) Bootleg Him (Rak, 1972) Accidentally Born in New Orleans (Transatlantic, 1972) Live On Tour in Germany (Brain, 1973) - GERMANY only Alexis Korner (Polydor, 1974) - GERMANY only Get Off Of My Cloud (CBS, 1975) Live in Paris (1976) Just Easy (1978) The Party Album (1979) Me (1980) Juvenile Delinquent (1984) Testament (1985) References Bibliography Alexis Korner: The Biography, Harry Shapiro, published 1997 External links Biography at Allmusic Alexis Korner page at Radio Rewind You Tube: Korner and 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6,372 | Hotel | The Pierre Hotel, New York City A hotel is an establishment that provides paid lodging on a short-term basis. The provision of basic accommodation, in times past, consisting only of a room with a bed, a cupboard, a small table and a washstand has largely been replaced by rooms with modern facilities, including en-suite bathrooms and air conditioning or climate control. Additional common features found in hotel rooms are a telephone, an alarm clock, a television, and Internet connectivity; snack foods and drinks may be supplied in a mini-bar, and facilities for making hot drinks. Larger hotels may provide a number of additional guest facilities such as a restaurant, a swimming pool or childcare, and have conference and social function services. Some hotels offer meals as part of a room and board arrangement. In the United Kingdom, a hotel is required by law to serve food and drinks to all guests within certain stated hours; to avoid this requirement it is not uncommon to come across private hotels which are not subject to this requirement. In Japan, capsule hotels provide a minimized amount of room space and shared facilities. In Australia, Canada and Ireland, the word may also refer to a pub or bar and might not offer accommodation. In India, the word may also refer to a restaurant since the best restaurants were always situated next to a good hotel. Etymology Corinthia Grand Hotel Royal, Budapest, Hungary The word hotel is derived from the French hôtel (coming from hôte meaning host), which referred to a French version of a townhouse or any other building seeing frequent visitors, rather than a place offering accommodation. In contemporary French usage, hôtel now has the same meaning as the English term, and hôtel particulier is used for the old meaning. The French spelling, with the circumflex, was also used in English, but is now rare. The circumflex replaces the 's' found in the earlier hostel spelling, which over time took on a new, but closely related meaning. Grammatically, hotels usually take the definite article - hence "The Astoria Hotel" or simply "The Astoria". Classification A budget hotel located in Malaysia The cost and quality of hotels are usually indicative of the range and type of services available. Due to the enormous increase in tourism worldwide during the last decades of the 20th century, standards, especially those of smaller establishments, have improved considerably. For the sake of greater comparability, rating systems have been introduced, with the one to five stars classification being most common and with higher star ratings indicating more luxury. Hotels are independently assessed in traditional systems and these rely heavily on the facilities provided. Some consider this disadvantageous to smaller hotels whose quality of accommodation could fall into one class but the lack of an item such as an elevator would prevent it from reaching a higher categorization. In some countries, there is an official body with standard criteria for classifying hotels, but in many others there is none. There have been attempts at unifying the classification system so that it becomes an internationally recognized and reliable standard but large differences exist in the quality of the accommodation and the food within one category of hotel, sometimes even in the same country. The American Automobile Association (AAA) and their affiliated bodies use diamonds instead of stars to express hotel and restaurant ratings levels. Historic hotels Hotel Astoria and a statue of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia in front, in Saint Petersburg Some hotels have gained their renown through tradition, by hosting significant events or persons, such as Schloss Cecilienhof in Potsdam, Germany, which derives its fame from the Potsdam Conference of the World War II allies Winston Churchill, Harry Truman and Joseph Stalin in 1945. The Taj Mahal Palace & Tower in Mumbai is one of India's most famous and historic hotels because of its association with the Indian independence movement. Some establishments have given name to a particular meal or beverage, as is the case with the Waldorf Astoria in New York City, United States where the Waldorf Salad was first created or the Hotel Sacher in Vienna, Austria, home of the Sachertorte. Others have achieved fame by association with dishes or cocktails created on their premises, such as the Hotel de Paris where the crêpe Suzette was invented or the Raffles Hotel in Singapore, where the Singapore Sling cocktail was devised. Hôtel Ritz in Paris A number of hotels have entered the public consciousness through popular culture, such as the Ritz Hotel in London, UK, through its association with Irving Berlin's song, 'Puttin' on the Ritz'. The Algonquin Hotel in New York City is famed as the meeting place of the literary group, the Algonquin Round Table, and Hotel Chelsea, also in New York City, has been the subject of a number of songs and the scene of the stabbing of Nancy Spungen (allegedly by her boyfriend Sid Vicious). The Waldorf Astoria and Statler hotels in New York City are also immortalized in the names of Muppets Statler and Waldorf. The luxurious Grand Hotel Europe in Saint Petersburg, Russia achieved fame with its inclusion in the James Bond film GoldenEye. Unusual hotels Many hotels can be considered destinations in themselves, by dint of unusual features of the lodging or its immediate environment: Treehouse hotels Some hotels are built with living trees as structural elements, for example the Costa Rica Tree House in the Gandoca-Manzanillo Wildlife Refuge, Costa Rica; the Treetops Hotel in Aberdare National Park, Kenya; the Ariau Towers near Manaus, Brazil, on the Rio Negro in the Amazon; and Bayram's Tree Houses in Olympos, Turkey. Cave hotels Desert Cave Hotel in Coober Pedy, South Australia and the Cuevas Pedro Antonio de Alarcón (named after the author) in Guadix, Spain, as well as several hotels in Cappadocia, Turkey, are notable for being built into natural cave formations, some with rooms underground. Capsule hotels Capsule hotels are a type of economical hotel that are found in Japan. Ice and snow hotels The Ice Hotel in Jukkasjärvi, Sweden, and the Hotel de Glace in Duschenay, Canada, melt every spring and are rebuilt each winter; the Mammut Snow Hotel in Finland is located within the walls of the Kemi snow castle; and the Lainio Snow Hotel is part of a snow village near Ylläs, Finland. Garden hotels Garden hotels, famous for their gardens before they became hotels, include Gravetye Manor, the home of garden designer William Robinson, and Cliveden, designed by Charles Barry with a rose garden by Geoffrey Jellicoe. Underwater hotels Some hotels have accommodation underwater, such as Utter Inn in Lake Mälaren, Sweden. Hydropolis, under construction in Dubai, will have suites on the bottom of the Persian Gulf, and Jules Undersea Lodge in Key Largo, Florida requires scuba diving to access its rooms. Other unusual hotels The Library Hotel in New York City is unique in that each of its ten floors are assigned one category from the Dewey Decimal System. The Burj al-Arab hotel in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, built on an artificial island, is structured in the shape of a boat's sail. The former ocean liner in Long Beach, California uses its first-class staterooms as a hotel. The Jailhotel Löwengraben in Lucerne, Switzerland is a converted prison now used as a hotel. The Luxor, a hotel and casino on The Las Vegas Strip in Paradise, Nevada, United States due to its pyramidal structure. The Liberty Hotel in Boston used to be the Charles Street Jail. Resort hotels Some hotels are built specifically to create a captive trade, example at casinos and holiday resorts. Though of course hotels have always been built in popular desinations, the defining characteristic of a resort hotel is that it exists purely to serve another attraction, the two having the same owners. In Las Vegas, Nevada there is a tradition of one-upmanship with extravagant themed hotels in a concentrated area known as the Las Vegas Strip. This trend now has extended to other resorts worldwide, but the concentration in Las Vegas is still the world's highest: nineteen of the world's twenty-five largest hotels by room count are on the Strip, with a total of over 67,000 rooms. In Europe Center Parcs might be considered a chain of resort hotels, since the sites are largely man-made (though set in natural surroundings such as country parks) with captive trade, whereas holiday camps such as Butlins and Pontin's are probably not considered as resort hotels, since they are set at traditional holiday destinations which existed before the camps. Railway hotels Frequently, expanding railway companies built grand hotels at their termini, such as the Midland Hotel, Manchester above St Pancras railway station, the Chiltern Court Hotel above Baker Street tube station and Canada's grand railway hotels. They are mostly, but not exclusively, used by those travelling by rail. Motels A motel (Motor Hotel) is a hotel which is for a short stay, usually for a night, for motorists on long journeys. It has direct access from the room to the vehicle (for example a central parking lot around which the buildings are set), and is built conveniently close to major roads and intersections. World record setting hotels Largest In 2006, Guinness World Records listed the First World Hotel in Genting Highlands, Malaysia as the world's largest hotel with a total of 6,118 rooms. Genting's First World Recognized As World's Largest Hotel, Bernama.com Oldest According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the oldest hotel still in operation is the Hoshi Ryokan, in the Awazu Onsen area of Komatsu, Japan which opened in 717. Hoshi Ryokan website, accessed 22 June 2008 Tallest Burj Al Arab is the tallest building used exclusively as a hotel. However, the Rose Tower, also in Dubai, which has already topped Burj Al Arab's height at , will take away this title upon its opening. The opening of the Rose Tower was originally scheduled to take place in April 2008, but has still not opened as of late May 2008. Living in hotels A number of public figures have notably chosen to take up semi-permanent or permanent residence in hotels. Actor Richard Harris lived at the Savoy Hotel while in London. Hotel archivist Susan Scott recounts an anecdote that when he was being taken out of the building on a stretcher shortly before his death he raised his hand and told the diners "it was the food". Home Suite Home – BBC News Fictitious hotels Hotels have been used as the settings for television programmes such as the British situation comedies Fawlty Towers and I'm Alan Partridge, the British soap opera Crossroads, and in films such as the Bates Motel Hithcock's 1960 film Psycho. See also Industry and careers Bellhop Concierge Front desk clerk, a type of clerk General manager Hospitality industry Hotel chains (category) Hotels (category) Innkeeper Hotel toilet-paper folding Housekeeper Night auditor Property caretaker Revenue per available room (RevPAR) Security guard Tourism Transient occupancy tax (TOT) List of lodging types Apartment hotel Bed and breakfast Boutique hotel Cruise ship Eco hotel Homestay Hospitality service Hostal Hostel Inn Luxury resort Motel Serviced apartment Vacation rental Gallery References Further reading Lundberg, Donald E., The Hotel and Restaurant Business, Boston : Cahners Books, 1974. 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6,373 | Cursus_honorum | The cursus honorum (Latin: "course of honours") was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank. The cursus honorum comprised a mixture of military and political administration posts. Each office had a minimum age for election. There were minimum intervals between holding successive offices and laws forbade repeating an office. These rules were altered and flagrantly ignored in the course of the last century of the Republic. For example, Gaius Marius held consulships for five years in a row between 104 BC and 100 BC. Officially presented as opportunities for public service, the offices often became mere opportunities for self-aggrandizement. The reforms of Lucius Cornelius Sulla required a ten year period between holding offices or before another term in the same office. In Rome, there was nothing resembling the modern political party. Candidates were elected based on their familial and personal reputations. Candidates from older, established families were sometimes favoured because they could use their ancestor's feats as electoral propaganda. Although political parties were not officially established, in the mid to late Republic, factions such as the populares and optimates were developed. These factions lacked any real structure, just representing groups of individuals that either favored the Popular assemblies or the senate as the chief governing body. To have held each office at the youngest possible age (in suo anno, "in his year") was considered a great political success, since to miss out on a praetorship at 39 meant that one could not become consul at 42. Cicero expressed extreme pride both in being a novus homo ("new man") who became consul though none of his ancestors had ever served as a consul, and in having become consul "in his year". Military Tribune The cursus honorum officially began with ten years of military duty in the Roman cavalry (the equites) or in the staff of a general who was a relative or a friend of the family. The ten years of service were intended to be mandatory in order to qualify for political office, but in practice, the rule was not always rigidly applied. A more prestigious position was that of a military tribune. In the early Roman Republic, 24 men at the age of around 20 were elected by the Tribal Assembly to serve as a commander in the legions, with six tribunes to each and command rotating among them. Tribunes could also be appointed by the Consuls or by military commanders in the field as necessary. After the reforms of Gaius Marius in 107 BC, the six tribunes acted as staff officers for the legionary Legatus and were appointed tasks and command of units of troops whenever the need arose. The following steps of the cursus honorum were achieved by direct election every year. Quaestor The first official post was that of quaestor. Candidates had to be at least 30 years old. However, men of patrician rank could subtract two years from this and other minimum age requirements. Such exemptions, however, either were rarely permitted or removed after the reforms of Sulla, since Julius Caesar had been elected a quaestor after turning 30. It was rare that a Roman was elected quaestor in his first year of eligibility; such an election would usually boost the official's standing in Rome. Twenty quaestors served in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They could also serve as the pay master for a legion. A young man who obtained this job was expected to become a very important official. An additional task of all quaestors was the supervision of public games. Also, after the reforms of Sulla in the early 80s BC, election to quaestor brought automatic membership in the Senate, which previously was decided by the censors. As a quaestor, an official was allowed to wear the toga praetexta, but was not escorted by lictors, nor did he possess imperium. Aediles At 36 years of age, former quaestors could stand for election to one of the aedile positions. Of these aediles, two were plebeian and two were patrician, with the patrician aediles called Curule Aediles. The plebeian aediles were elected by the Plebeian Council and the curule aediles were either elected by the Tribal Assembly or appointed by the reigning consul. The aediles had administrative responsibilities in Rome. They had to take care of the temples (whence their title, from the Latin aedes, "temple") they organized games and were responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they took charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their capacity as market superintendents, they served sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs. The Aedile was the supervisor of public works; the words "edifice" and "edification" stem from the title. He oversaw the public works, temples and markets. Therefore the Aediles would have been in some cooperation with the current Censors, who had similar or related duties. Also they oversaw the organization of festivals and games (ludi), which made this a very sought after office for a career minded politician of the late republic, as it was a good means of gaining popularity by staging spectacles. Curule Aediles were added at a later date in the 4th century BCE, and their duties do not differ substantially from plebeian aediles. However, unlike plebeian aediles, curule aediles were allowed certain symbols of rank--the sella curulis or 'curule chair,' for example--and only patricians could stand for election to curule aedile. This later changed, and both Plebeians and Patricians could stand for Curule Aedileship. The elections for Curule Aedile were at first alternated between Patricians and Plebeians, until late in the II Century BC the practice was abandoned and both classes became free to run during all years. While part of the cursus honorum, this step was optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office was usually held after the quaestorship and before the praetorship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles. Praetor After holding either the office of quaestor or aedile, a man of 39 years could run for praetor. The number of Praetors elected varied through history, generally increasing with time. During the republic, six or eight were generally elected each year to serve judicial functions throughout Rome and other governmental responsibilities. In the absence of the Consuls, a Praetor would be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a Praetor could exercise the functions of the Consuls throughout Rome, but their main function was that of a judge. They would preside over trials involving criminal acts as well as grant court orders or validate "illegal" acts as acts of administering justice. As a Praetor, a magistrate was escorted by six lictors, owned imperium, and would wear the toga praetexta. After a term as Praetor, the magistrate would serve as a provincial governor in the office of Propraetor, owning Propraetor imperium, commanding the province’s legions, and possessing ultimate authority within his province(s). Of all the Praetors, two were more prestigious than the others. The first was the Praetor Peregrinus, who was the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other was the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He had the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, and served as judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus was not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors was absent from Rome, the other would perform the duties of both. Consul The office of consul was the most prestigious of all and represented the summit of a successful career. The minimum age was 42 for plebeians and 40 for patricians. The names of the two elected consuls identified the year during which they served; "Cicerone consule," for instance, referred to the year 63 BC, when Marcus Tullius Cicero was consul. Consuls were responsible for the city's political agenda, commanded large-scale armies and controlled important provinces. The consuls served for only a year (to prevent corruption) and could only rule when they agreed, because each consul could veto the other's decision. The consuls would alternate monthly as the chairman of the Senate. They also were the supreme commanders in the Roman army, with each being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercised the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limited their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs could supersede their decisions. A consul was escorted by twelve lictors, owned imperium and wore the toga praetexta. Because the consul was the highest executive office within the Republic, they had the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul was assigned one of the more important provinces and acted as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor did, only owning Proconsular imperium. A second consulship could only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man holding too much power. Governor Though not part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer was required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many provinces. These Propraetors and Proconsuls held near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor held equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they were escorted by the same number of lictors (12) and could only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern were only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the people's assemblies, and the Tribune of the Plebs was unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remained at least a mile outside of Rome. Censor After a term as consul, the final step in the Cursus Honorum was the office of censor. This was the only office in the Roman Republic whose term was a period of eighteen months instead of the usual twelve. Censors were elected every five years and although the office held no military imperium, it was considered a great honour. The censors took a regular census of the people and then apportioned the citizens into voting classes on the basis of income and tribal affiliation. The censors enrolled new citizens in tribes and voting classes as well. The censors were also in charge of the membership roll of the Senate, every five years adding new senators who had been elected to the requisite offices. Censors could also remove unworthy members from the Senate. This ability was lost during the dictatorship of Sulla. Censors were also responsible for construction of public buildings and the moral status of the city. Censors also had financial duties, in that they had to put out to tender projects that were to be financed by the state. Also, the censors were in charge of the leasing out of conquered land for public use and auction. Though this office owned no imperium, meaning no lictors for protection, they were allowed to wear the toga praetexta. Tribune of the Plebs The office of Tribune of the Plebs was an important step in the political career of plebeians. The Tribune was an office first created to protect the right of the common man in Roman politics and served as the head of the Plebeian Council. In the mid to late Republic, however, plebeians were often just as, and sometimes more, wealthy and powerful than patricians. Those who held the office were granted sacrosanctity (the right to be legally protected from any physical harm), the power to rescue any plebeian from the hands of a patrician magistrate, and the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune of the people and the consuls. The tribune also had the power to exercise capital punishment against any person who interfered in the performance of his duties. The tribunes could even convene a Senate meeting and lay legislation before it and arrest magistrates. Their houses had to remain open for visitors even during the night, and they were not allowed to be more than a day's journey from Rome. Due to their unique power of sacrosanctity, the Tribune had no need for lictors for protection and owned no imperium, nor could they wear the toga praetexta. Princeps senatus Another office not officially a step in the cursus honorum was the princeps senatus, an extremely prestigious office for a patrician. The princeps senatus served as the leader of the Senate and was chosen to serve a five year term by each pair of Censors every five years. Censors could, however, confirm a princeps senatus for a period of another five years. The princeps senatus was chosen from all Patricians who had served as a Consul, with former Censors usually holding the office. The office originally granted the holder the ability to speak first at session on the topic presented by the presiding magistrate, but eventually gained the power to open and close the senate sessions, decide the agenda, decide where the session should take place, impose order and other rules of the session, meet in the name of the senate with embassies of foreign countries, and write in the name of the senate letters and dispatches. This office, like the Tribune, did not own imperium, was not escorted by lictors, and could not wear the toga praetexta. Dictator and Magister Equitum Of all the offices within the Roman Republic, none granted as much power and authority as the position of dictator, known as the Master of the People. In times of emergencies, the Senate would declare that a dictator was required, and the current consuls would appoint a dictator. This was the only decision that could not be vetoed by the Tribune of the Plebs. The dictator was the sole exception to the Roman legal principles of having multiple magistrates in the same office and being legally able to be held to answer for actions in office. There could never be more than one dictator at any one time for any reason, and no dictator could ever be held legally responsible for any action during his time in office for any reason. The dictator was the highest magistrate in degree of imperium and was attended by twenty-four lictors. Though his term lasted only six months instead of twelve, all other magistrates were suspended (except for the tribunes of the plebs), granting the dictator absolute authority in both civil and military matters throughout the Republic. The Dictator was free from the control of the Senate in all that he did, could execute anyone without a trial for any reason, and could ignore any law in the performance of his duties. The Dictator was the sole magistrate under the Republic that was truly independent in discharging his duties. All of the other offices were extensions of the Senate's executive authority and thus answerable to the Senate. Since the Dictator exercised his own authority, he did not suffer this limitation, which was the cornerstone of the office's power. When a Dictator entered office, he appointed to serve as his second-in-command a magister equitum, the Master of the Horse, whose office ceased to exist once the Dictator left office. The magister equitum held Praetorian imperium, was attended by six lictors, and was charged with assisting the Dictator in managing the State. When the Dictator was away from Rome, the magister equitum usually remained behind to administer the city. The magister equitum, like the Dictator, had unchallengeable authority in all civil and military affairs, with his decisions only being overturned by the Dictator himself. See also Career List of topics related to ancient Rome Political institutions of Rome Constitution of the Roman Republic Roman Empire Roman Republic Roman Senate External links Diagram of the cursus honorum Livius.org: Cursus honorum | Cursus_honorum |@lemmatized cursus:10 honorum:10 latin:2 course:2 honour:2 sequential:1 order:4 public:8 office:40 hold:17 aspire:1 politician:2 roman:13 republic:15 early:3 empire:2 design:1 men:3 senatorial:1 rank:3 comprise:1 mixture:1 military:8 political:8 administration:2 post:2 minimum:4 age:6 election:7 interval:2 successive:1 law:3 forbid:1 repeat:1 rule:4 alter:1 flagrantly:1 ignore:2 last:2 century:3 example:2 gaius:2 marius:2 consulship:3 five:6 year:24 row:1 bc:6 officially:4 present:2 opportunity:2 service:2 often:2 become:6 mere:1 self:1 aggrandizement:1 reform:4 lucius:1 cornelius:1 sulla:4 require:4 ten:4 period:3 another:4 term:8 rome:17 nothing:1 resemble:1 modern:1 party:2 candidate:3 elect:11 base:1 familial:1 personal:1 reputation:1 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6,374 | Mayerling | Hunting lodge and Carmelites church at Mayerling Mayerling is a small village (pop: 200) in Lower Austria belonging to the municipality of Alland in the district of Baden. It is situated on the Schwechat River, in the Wienerwald (Vienna woods), 15 miles (24 km) southwest of Vienna. From 1550, it was in the possession of the abbey of Heiligenkreuz. The Mayerling Incident In 1886 Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria, only son of Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria and Empress Elisabeth of Bavaria and heir to the Austro-Hungarian crown acquired the manor and transformed it into a hunting lodge. It was in this hunting lodge that, on January 30, 1889, he was found dead with his mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera, apparently as a result of suicide. Exactly what happened is clouded in mystery. After the deaths of Prince Rudolf and Baroness Vetsera, the Emperor Franz Joseph, who wanted to found a new church, had the building turned into a convent which was settled by nuns of the Discalced Carmelite Order. Visitors should view the statue of the Madonna in the Lady Chapel of the church. It has the face of the Empress Elisabeth and has a dagger in the sacred heart. The position of the main cross in the chapel is supposed to be where the bed of Rudolf and his lover Mary Vetsera was situated. Today the lodge is a museum and tourist attraction in Austria. Prayers are still said daily by the nuns for the repose of the soul of Crown Prince Rudolf. External links Travel to Austria The Mayerling-Information-Center | Mayerling |@lemmatized hunt:1 lodge:4 carmelites:1 church:3 mayerling:4 small:1 village:1 pop:1 low:1 austria:5 belong:1 municipality:1 alland:1 district:1 baden:1 situate:2 schwechat:1 river:1 wienerwald:1 vienna:2 wood:1 mile:1 km:1 southwest:1 possession:1 abbey:1 heiligenkreuz:1 incident:1 crown:3 prince:3 rudolf:4 son:1 emperor:2 franz:2 joseph:2 empress:2 elisabeth:2 bavaria:1 heir:1 austro:1 hungarian:1 acquire:1 manor:1 transform:1 hunting:2 january:1 find:2 dead:1 mistress:1 baroness:2 mary:2 vetsera:3 apparently:1 result:1 suicide:1 exactly:1 happen:1 cloud:1 mystery:1 death:1 want:1 new:1 building:1 turn:1 convent:1 settle:1 nun:2 discalced:1 carmelite:1 order:1 visitor:1 view:1 statue:1 madonna:1 lady:1 chapel:2 face:1 dagger:1 sacred:1 heart:1 position:1 main:1 cross:1 suppose:1 bed:1 lover:1 today:1 museum:1 tourist:1 attraction:1 prayer:1 still:1 say:1 daily:1 repose:1 soul:1 external:1 link:1 travel:1 information:1 center:1 |@bigram mile_km:1 austro_hungarian:1 hunting_lodge:2 tourist_attraction:1 external_link:1 |
6,375 | Alcamenes | Alcamenes was an ancient Greek sculptor of Lemnos and Athens. He was a younger contemporary of Phidias and noted for the delicacy and finish of his works, among which a Hephaestus and an Aphrodite "of the Gardens" were conspicuous. Pausanias says (v. 10. 8) that he was the author of one of the pediments of the temple of Zeus at Olympia, but this seems a chronological and stylistic impossibility. Pausanias (I, 8, 4), also refers to a statue of Ares by Alcamenes that was erected on the Athenian agora, which some have related to the Ares Borghese. However, the temple of Ares to which he refers had only been moved from Acharnes and re-sited in the Agora in Augustus's time, and statues known to derive from Alcamenes' statue show the god in a breastplate (one is depicted in this relief), so the identification of Alcamenes' Ares with the Ares Borghese is not secure. At Pergamum there was discovered in 1903 a Hellenistic copy of the head of the Hermes "Propylaeus" of Alcamenes (Athenische Mittheilungen, 1904, p. 180). As, however, the deity is represented in an Neo-Attic, archaistic and conventional character, this copy cannot be relied on as giving us much information as to the usual style of Alcamenes, who was almost certainly a progressive and original artist. It is safer to judge him by the sculptural decoration of the Parthenon, in which he must almost certainly have taken a share under the direction of Pheidias. He is said to be the most eminent sculptor in Athens after the departure of Pheidias for Olympia, but enigmatic in that none of the sculptures associated with his name in classical literature can be securely connected with existing copies. References Andrew Stewart, One hundred Greek Sculptors : Their Careers and Extant Works (on-line) External links Acamenes | Alcamenes |@lemmatized alcamenes:6 ancient:1 greek:2 sculptor:3 lemnos:1 athens:2 young:1 contemporary:1 phidias:1 note:1 delicacy:1 finish:1 work:2 among:1 hephaestus:1 aphrodite:1 garden:1 conspicuous:1 pausanias:2 say:2 v:1 author:1 one:3 pediment:1 temple:2 zeus:1 olympia:2 seem:1 chronological:1 stylistic:1 impossibility:1 also:1 refer:2 statue:3 erect:1 athenian:1 agora:2 relate:1 borghese:2 however:2 move:1 acharnes:1 sit:1 augustus:1 time:1 know:1 derive:1 show:1 god:1 breastplate:1 depict:1 relief:1 identification:1 secure:1 pergamum:1 discover:1 hellenistic:1 copy:3 head:1 hermes:1 propylaeus:1 athenische:1 mittheilungen:1 p:1 deity:1 represent:1 neo:1 attic:1 archaistic:1 conventional:1 character:1 cannot:1 rely:1 give:1 u:1 much:1 information:1 usual:1 style:1 almost:2 certainly:2 progressive:1 original:1 artist:1 safe:1 judge:1 sculptural:1 decoration:1 parthenon:1 must:1 take:1 share:1 direction:1 pheidias:2 eminent:1 departure:1 enigmatic:1 none:1 sculpture:1 associate:1 name:1 classical:1 literature:1 securely:1 connect:1 exist:1 reference:1 andrew:1 stewart:1 hundred:1 career:1 extant:1 line:1 external:1 link:1 acamenes:1 |@bigram external_link:1 |
6,376 | Instant-runoff_voting | Example Instant-runoff voting ballot Instant-runoff voting (IRV) is the American English term for a voting system used for single-winner elections, in which voters rank candidates in an order of preference. If no candidate is the first preference of a majority of voters, the candidate with the fewest number of first preference rankings is eliminated and that candidate's ballots are redistributed at full value to the remaining candidates according to the next ranking on each ballot. This process is repeated until one candidate obtains a majority of votes among candidates not eliminated. The term "instant runoff" is used because the method is said to simulate a series of runoff elections tallied in rounds, as in an exhaustive ballot election. Instant-runoff voting is sometimes referred to as alternative voting or the Alternative Vote (its oldest name) in the United Kingdom, the preferential ballot or preferential voting in Canada and Australia, and ranked choice voting in the United States. Instant-runoff voting is used to elect members of the Australian House of Representatives, the President of Ireland, the national parliament of Papua New Guinea, and the Fijian House of Representatives. It is also employed by several jurisdictions in the United States, including San Francisco, California and Pierce County, Washington; to elect the leaders of the Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats in the United Kingdom; to elect the leader of the Liberal Party of Canada in a national primary http://thetyee.ca/Blogs/TheHook/Federal-Politics/2009/05/02/Liberals-one-member-one-vote/ ; and in the elections of city mayors in a number of countries including Great Britain and New Zealand. Robert's Rules of Order calls preferential voting "especially useful and fair in an election by mail if it is impractical to take more than one ballot. . . . In such cases it makes possible a more representative result than that under a rule that a plurality shall elect. . . . Preferential voting has many variations." The single transferable vote technique used by IRV is the example given. The manual goes on to note that if voters don't rank enough candidates, this may prevent any from receiving a majority and "require the voting to be repeated. . . . Although this type of preferential ballot is preferable to an election by plurality, it affords less freedom of choice than repeated balloting, because it denies voters the opportunity of basing their second or lesser choices on the results of earlier ballots, and because the candidate in last place is automatically eliminated and may thus be prevented from becoming a compromise choice." Robert's Rules of Order, Newly Revised, 10th edition, pp 411-414 History Instant runoff voting was invented around 1870 by American architect William Robert Ware. He evidently based IRV on the single-winner outcome of the single transferable vote, originally developed by Carl Andrae and Thomas Hare. The first known use of IRV in a governmental election was in 1893 in an election for the colonial government of Queensland, in Australia. The system used for this election was a special form known as the contingent vote. IRV in its true form was first used in 1908 in a State election in Western Australia. Australia The preferential system was introduced in 1918, in response to the rise of the Country Party, a party representing small farmers. The Country Party split the anti-Labor vote in conservative country areas, allowing Labor candidates to win on a minority vote. The conservative government of Billy Hughes introduced preferential voting as a means of allowing competition between the two conservative parties without putting seats at risk. It was first used at the Corangamite by-election on 14 December 1918. http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/a/australia/1917/1918-corangamite-by.txt http://www.australianpolitics.com/voting/history/voting-methods.shtml It had previously been introduced as a result of the work of Thomas Hare and Andrew Inglis Clark in the Tasmanian House of Assembly. Preferential voting has gradually extended to both upper and lower houses, in the federal, state and territory legislatures, and is also used in municipal elections, and most other kinds of elections as well, such as internal political party elections, trade union elections, church elections, elections to company boards and elections in voluntary bodies such as football clubs. Negotiations for disposition of preference recommendations to voters are taken very seriously by candidates because transferred preferences carry the same weight as primary votes. United States Since 2002, Instant Runoff Voting has been adopted in a number of U.S. cities. Most of these adoptions are pending implementation; however, as of May 2009, 46 elections have been held in six counties, cities or towns: San Francisco, California; Burlington, Vermont; Takoma Park, Maryland; Cary, North Carolina; Aspen, Colorado; and Pierce County, Washington. Non-governmental organizations The sequential elimination method used by IRV is described in Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised, 10th edition. as an example of "preferential voting," a term covering "any of a number of voting methods by which, on a single ballot when there are more than two possible choices, the second or less-preferred choices of voters can be taken into account if no candidate or proposition attains a majority. While it is more complicated than other methods of voting in common use and is not a substitute for the normal procedure of repeated balloting until a majority is obtained, preferential voting is especially useful and fair in an election by mail if it is impractical to take more than one ballot. In such cases it makes possible a more representative result than under a rule that a plurality shall elect...."Preferential voting has many variations. One method is described ... by way of illustration." Robert's Rules of Order, Newly Revised, 10th edition, p. 411 And then the single transferable vote method, with votes from a majority of ballots required to win, is detailed. Robert's Rules of Order, Newly Revised, 10th edition, pp. 412-413 Robert's Rules continues: "The system of preferential voting just described should not be used in cases where it is possible to follow the normal procedure of repeated balloting until one candidate or proposition attains a majority. Although this type of preferential ballot is preferable to an election by plurality, it affords less freedom of choice than repeated balloting, because it denies voters the opportunity of basing their second or lesser choices on the results of earlier ballots, and because the candidate or proposition in last place is automatically eliminated and may thus be prevented from becoming a compromise choice." Robert's Rules of Order, Newly Revised, 10th edition, p. 414 Two other less widely-used books on parliamentary procedure take a similar stance, disapproving of plurality voting and describing preferential voting as an option, if authorized in the bylaws, when repeated balloting is impractical: The Standard Code of Parliamentary Procedure and Riddick's Rules of Procedure . Forms of instant runoff voting have been adopted by various private and non-profit associations, particularly in the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom and Canada. Examples in the United States include the 160,000-member American Chemical Society, 150,000-member American Psychological Association,38,000-member American Psychiatric Association,100,000-member American Association of University Women and 56,000 member American Mensa. The American Political Science Association has long had the "alternative vote" in its constitution for electing its national President-Elect by mail under certain conditions, although there has not been a contested election for APSA President since about 1970. Steven J. Brams, Mathematics and Democracy (2008), p. 21 . Updated in March 2009, a list of organizations with links to their bylaws is available at the advocacy organization FairVote. As of March 2009, at least 51 American college and university student governments have either adopted and actively use IRV, or approve and provide for its use in internal elections. A list of such colleges and universities and examples of their contested elections with IRV is available at the advocacy organization FairVote. Terminology Instant runoff voting has a number of other names. In the United States it is called instant runoff voting primarily because of its resemblance to runoff voting and ranked choice voting because of the ballot type. It has occasionally been referred to as Ware's method, after its U.S. proponent, William Robert Ware. Writers differ as to whether or not they treat instant runoff voting as a proper noun. In the United States, instant runoff voting is an umbrella term associated with ranked ballot elections where lower choices can replace a voter's higher choice. North Carolina law uses "instant runoff" to describe the "batch elimination" form of IRV in one-seat elections where there is a single second round of counting with the top two candidates advance to the runoff. S.L. 2006-192 Election officials in Hendersonville (NC) use "instant runoff" to describe a multi-seat election system that attempts to simulate in a single round of voting their previous system of multi-seat runoffs. CITIZEN-TIMES: Capital Letters - Post details: No instant runoff in Hendersonville State law in South Carolina http://www.scstatehouse.net/sess116_2005-2006/bills/3720.doc and Arkansas http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/ftproot/bills/2005/public/HB1770.pdf use "instant runoff" to describe the practice of having certain categories of absentee voters cast ranked ballots before the first round of a runoff that then are counted in a runoff election. When the single transferable vote (STV) system is applied to a single-winner election it becomes the same as IRV. For this reason IRV is sometimes considered to be merely a special form of STV. However, because STV was designed for multi-seat constituencies, many scholars consider it to be a separate system from IRV, and that is the convention followed in this article. IRV is usually known simply as "STV" in New Zealand and Ireland, although the term Alternative Vote is also used in those countries. Multiseat variations of the IRV elimination process have sometimes been labeled as instant runoff voting although they should be more accurately called preferential bloc voting, since like bloc voting, multiple votes are counted per ballot at the same time. Election procedure optical scan IRV ballot In instant-runoff voting, as with other ranked election methods, each voter ranks the list of candidates in order of preference. Under a common ballot layout, the voter marks a '1' beside the most preferred candidate, a '2' beside the second-most preferred, and so forth, using an 'ascending' system. The fundamental mechanics of the process are the same regardless of how many candidates the voter ranks, and how many are left unsorted. In some implementations of IRV, the voter is allowed to rank as many or as few choices as they wish, while in other implementations the voter is required to rank either all of the candidates, or only a prescribed number of them. flowchart for counting IRV Votes In the initial count, the first preferences of each voter are counted and used to order the candidates. Each first preference is counted as one vote for the appropriate candidate. If, once all the first preferences are counted, one candidate holds a majority of the votes, that candidate can be immediately declared the winner. Otherwise the candidate who holds the fewest first preferences is eliminated. If there is an exact tie for last place in numbers of votes, special tie-breaking rules are invoked to determine which candidate to eliminate. Some jurisdictions eliminate more than one lowest-ranking candidate simultaneously if their combined number of votes is fewer than the number of votes received by any of the remaining candidates. Once a candidate has been eliminated, all the ballots assigned to them are recounted and the second preference of each voter is used to reassign their vote to one of the remaining candidates. The total counts for the remaining candidates are updated and the candidates are reordered. Again if the top candidate attains a majority, they are declared the winner, otherwise the bottom candidate is again eliminated and their votes reassigned; each ballot paper is reassigned to whichever remaining candidate is the most preferred by that voter. If a ballot has all its ranked candidates eliminated, it is 'exhausted' and it can no longer be counted towards any candidate. Eventually, one candidate must attain a majority of votes cast for continuing candidates and is declared the winner. Examples CandidateRound 1Round 2Bob Kiss 3,809 (38.9%) 4,761 (48.6%)Hinda Miller 3,106(31.7%) 3,986(40.7%)Kevin Curley 2,609(26.7%) —Other254(2.6%) —Exhausted ballots10(0.1%)1,041(10.5%)Total9,778(100%)9,778(100%) In 2006 the city of Burlington, Vermont held a mayoral election using instant-runoff voting. Progressive Bob Kiss won in two rounds with 48.6% of the ballots, defeating Democrat Hinda Miller who achieved 40.7%. 10.6% of the ballots were exhausted before the final round, offering no preference among the final two. After the first round, all of the 'other' candidates were eliminated, as was Curley, as their combined vote (2,863) was less than Miller's and so it would be impossible for Curley to pull ahead of Miller, even if he gained every one of the votes from the 'other' candidates. The votes for these candidates were recounted and redistributed amongst Kiss and Miller; 1,031 of those votes did not express a preference for either remaining candidate, and so were exhausted. After the second round recount, Kiss was declared the winner as he had obtained a majority (54.4%) of the remaining unexhaused ballots. Irish Presidential Election, 1990CandidateRound 1Round 2Mary Robinson612,265 (38.9%)817,830 (51.6%)Brian Lenihan694,484(44.1%)731,273(46.2%)Austin Currie267,902(17.0%) —Exhausted ballots9,444(0.6%)34,992(2.2%)Total1,584,095(100%)1,584,095(100%) The result of the Irish Presidential election in 1990 is a good example of how instant-runoff voting can produce a different result than the simple first past the post system. The three candidates were Brian Lenihan of the traditionally dominant Fianna Fáil party, Austin Currie of the nation's second largest party, Fine Gael, and Mary Robinson of the Labour Party. After the first round, Lenihan had the largest share of the first-preference votes (and hence would have won a first-past-the-post vote), but no candidate attained the necessary majority. Currie was eliminated and his votes reassigned; in this process, Robinson received over 80% of Currie's votes, being the second preference of the majority of his supporters', thereby overtaking Lenihan and becoming the seventh President of Ireland. Ballots As seen above, voters in an IRV election rank candidates on a preferential ballot. IRV systems in use in different countries vary both as to ballot design and as to whether or not voters are obliged to provide a full list of preferences. In elections such as those for the President of Ireland and the New South Wales Legislative Assembly, voters are permitted to rank as many or as few candidates as they wish. This is known in Australia as Optional Preferential Voting. Under Optional Preferential Voting some voters may rank only the candidates of a single party, or of their most preferred parties. Some voters may 'bullet vote', expressing only a first choice. Allowing voters to rank only as many candidates as they wish grants them greater freedom but can also lead to some voters ranking so few candidates that their vote eventually becomes 'exhausted'–that is, at a certain point during the count it can no longer be counted for a continuing candidate and therefore loses an opportunity to influence the result. To prevent exhausted ballots, some IRV systems require or request that voters give a complete ordering of all of the candidates in an election - if a voter does not rank all candidates her ballot may be considered spoilt or an informal ballot. In Australia this variant is known as 'full preferential voting', and is used in elections for the federal House of Representatives and in most states. However, when there is a large set of candidates this requirement may prove burdensome and can lead to "donkey voting" in which, where a voter has no strong opinions about his or her lower preferences, the voter simply chooses them at random or in top-to-bottom order. Partly to overcome these problems, in elections to the Australian House of Representatives many parties distribute 'how-to-vote' cards, recommending how to allocate preferences on the ballot paper. The common way to list candidates on a ballot paper is alphabetically or by random lot, a process whereby the order of the candidates published on the ballot paper is determined by lottery. In some cases candidates may also be grouped by party. Any fixed ordering of candidates on the ballot paper will give some candidates an unfair advantage, because voters, consciously or otherwise, are influenced in their ordering of candidates by the order on the ballot paper. The random ordering of candidates is intended to overcome this. The most effective form is Robson Rotation, a system where the order of candidates on the paper is randomly changed for each print run of the same election's ballot papers. This means that any one ballot paper is almost certainly different from the next. Voters Voters have the option to rank candidates in order of choice rather than mark a single candidate. By choosing not to rank all candidates, a voter's ballot may not be counted in the decisive round of counting. Only ballots ranking at least one of the finalists will be counted. Where preferential voting is used for the election of an assembly or council, parties and candidates often advise their supporters on how to use their lower preferences. As noted above, in Australia parties even issue 'how-to-vote' cards to the electorate before polling day, and Australia's requirement that voters must rank all candidates contributes to some voters using them. These kinds of recommendations can increase the influence of party leaderships and lead to a form of pre-election bargaining, in which smaller parties bid to have key planks of their platforms included in those of the major parties by means of 'preference deals'. Counting methods Changing from plurality to IRV may require startup costs for new voting machinery, although several nations count ballots by hand. However, once the equipment is available, IRV can reduce costs of a second election (required in a two round system or nonpartisan primary). 568_SF_Base.qxd Forms of IRV have been implemented in cities using optical scan voting systems, as in San Francisco, California and Burlington, Vermont. A hand count also is possible under IRV and was the method used in the Cary, North Carolina pilot program in October 2007 SL2006-0192 (after initially counting first choices on optical scan equipment at the polls) and in most non-U.S. jurisdictions; however it is usually more time-consuming than a plurality count, and may need to occur over a number of rounds. In Australia, a simplified count is sent to a central location on the night with the actual ballot papers transported there, securely, for the final count. In Ireland's presidential race, there are several dozen counting centers around the nation. Each center reports its totals for each candidate and receives instructions from the central office about which candidate or candidates to eliminate in the next round of counting. Handling ties Exact ties can happen in any election; although the odds remain very low when many votes are cast, the multiple rounds of counting used in IRV create more opportunities for a tie than there are in some other voting systems. If there is a tie for last place in the elimination process, various rules can be used to break it: If the total of all the combined votes of any grouping of the candidates with the fewest votes is fewer than the votes cast for the next weakest candidate, then all those bottom tier candidates can be eliminated simultaneously. One candidate, from among those tied, is eliminated at random (e.g. by a coin toss). In Australia the candidate, from among those tied, with the fewest votes in the previous round is eliminated. If there is still a tie those counting votes then look back to the next most recent round and then, if necessary, to further progressively earlier rounds until one candidate can be eliminated. In Irish presidential elections, the candidate, from among those tied, with fewest first choices is eliminated. If this cannot break the tie, ballot-counters look forwards, first to find the tied candidate with fewest votes in the second round and then, if necessary, to the third, fourth and subsequent rounds. In some private elections the method is to 'conditionally eliminate' candidates from the tie and recount to see if either (or any) can survive. Usually the full set will become eliminated in any order. Runoff elimination ties can also be settled by looking at the two candidate's ranking on all ballots, and seeing which of the two would win head to head in a Condorcet voting style. Winner-take-all single-seat elections vs. legislative elections The intention of IRV is to find one candidate acceptable to a majority of voters. It is intended as an improvement on the 'First Past the Post' (plurality) voting system. Under 'First Past the Post' the candidate with most votes (a plurality) wins, even if they do not have a majority (more than half) of votes (unless election rules require a runoff under that condition). IRV is most suited to elections in which there can be only one winner, such as a mayor or governor. Legislative bodies, city councils or boards also often elect winners by dividing voters into geographic districts. Australia is the only nation with a long record of using IRV for the election of legislative bodies. IRV produces representation very similar to those produced by the plurality system, with a two party system in parliament similar to those found in many countries that use plurality and two round systems. A significant difference is that a smaller third party, the National Party of Australia, can co-exist with its coalition partner the Liberal Party of Australia, and can compete against it without fear of losing seats to other parties due to vote splitting. History of Preferential Voting in Australia, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 2004 Election Guide. "Such a long lasting Coalition would not have been possible under first part the post voting" In the November 2007 elections, at least four candidates ran in every constituency, with an average of seven, but every constituency was won with an absolute majority of votes. Virtual Tally Room If IRV is used to elect a council or legislature it will not produce proportional representation (PR). This means that it is likely to lead to the representation of a small number of larger parties in an assembly, rather than a proliferation of small parties. Under a parliamentary system it is more likely to produce single party governments than are PR systems, which tend to produce coalition governments. While IRV is designed to ensure that each individual candidate elected is supported by a majority of those in his or her constituency, if used to elect an assembly it does not ensure this result on a national level. As in other non-PR systems the party or coalition that wins a majority of seats will often not have the support of an overall majority of voters across the nation. Many election reformers do not advocate IRV for legislative bodies or city councils that are intended to represent both majorities and minorities (in appropriate proportions). As with any winner-take-all election method, IRV can result in a shut-out of minority representation. Gerrymandering of single seat districts can also result in minorities gaining majority control of a legislative body, with IRV or any other winner-take-all election method. According to a 2007 Brookings Institute paper, IRV can empower moderate voters in the U.S.. Presumably, this effect would result from combining the primary and general election into a single election that would have higher participation rates by moderates than typical primaries. However, empirical evidence suggests that IRV does not always favor moderates. A 2006 study found that "Fiji's objective of ameliorating ethnic divisions by the adoption of [IRV] was not successful"; the moderate parties would have fared better under PR. Theoretical evaluation by voting system criteria Scholars of electoral systems often compare them using mathematically-defined voting system criteria, the value of some of which is controversial. Some of the criteria are considered by Arrow's Theorem and the Gibbard-Satterthwaite theorem, which assume that voters rank all candidates in a strict preference order, among other assumptions that do not hold for all methods. For methods such as IRV which use such ranked preferences, satisfying all of the criteria is impossible, because they are mutually exclusive. IRV passes the majority criterion, the later-no-harm criterion, the mutual majority criterion, the resolvability criterion, the Condorcet loser criterion, and, if the right tie-breaker method is used, the independence of clones criterion. IRV fails the monotonicity criterion, consistency criterion, the Condorcet criterion, the participation criterion, reversal symmetry, and the independence of irrelevant alternatives criterion. David Austen-Smith and Jeffrey Banks, "Monotonicity in Electoral Systems," American Political Science Review, Vol 85, No 2 (Jun. 1991) Tactical voting In his book Collective Decisions and Voting Nicolaus Tideman uses real-world voting data to analyze all proposed election methods in terms of resistance to tactical voting, and states on page 194 that "the alternative vote [IRV] is quite resistant to strategy." Instant runoff voting reduces incentive for insincere voting by reducing the spoiler effect in cases where there are two major candidates and one or more minor candidates. John J. Bartholdi III, James B. Orlin (1991) "Single transferable vote resists strategic voting," Social Choice and Welfare, vol. 8, p. 341-354 Under the common plurality ("first past the post") voting system, voters may have an incentive to vote insincerely for one of the two major candidates, instead of their true favorite, because a vote for the favorite is likely to be "wasted." John R. Chamberlin (1985) "An investigation into the relative manipulability of four voting systems" Behavioral Science, vol. 30, p. 195-203 All voting methods are subject to tactical voting in some circumstances. When there are three or more viable candidates, an incentive in IRV for insincere voting may return, because a compromise choice may not win if eliminated before the final round. Robert's Rules of Order Newly Revised, 10th edition, 2000, p. 414. Better than other winner-take-all systems? In the United States, there are campaigns for IRV in a number of states and local jurisdictions, which have been largely promoted and supported, in recent years, by a non-profit educational and advocacy organization, FairVote. Opposition to this campaign can be classified into two broad categories: Those who prefer to maintain the status quo, which is generally Plurality voting, or two-round runoff elections. Those who prefer reforms other than Instant Runoff Voting, e.g. Approval voting or the Schulze method. The arguments of these two groups are different, and sometimes the same argument is used on both sides; for example, some IRV advocates claim that IRV will help third parties to gain a toehold and, if they can eventually muster majority support, to win elections. This argument has been summarized as "IRV will allow third parties to grow without being spoilers." In seeming agreement with this, some opponents of IRV argue that IRV will indeed damage the two-party system, which these critics consider important to American democracy. On the other hand, critics of IRV who prefer other reformed methods have claimed that IRV will help preserve the two-party system, pointing to the countries that use single-winner STV, which have long maintained strong two-party systems with little exception. Further, some support for IRV comes from major-party supporters who want to eliminate the spoiler effect caused by vote-splitting, as with the Ralph Nader vote in Florida in the 2000 U.S. Presidential election, which presumably came largely from voters who would prefer Al Gore over George W. Bush, and which vote was more than enough to turn that election. These supporters of IRV expect that it will help maintain the two-party system by preventing spoiled elections. Although there are few reported examples of IRV failing to elect the Condorcet winner in governmental elections, computer simulations show that IRV does not necessarily result in electing the Condorcet winner, and can behave erratically. Controversies over Instant Runoff Voting can be broken down into a series of specific issues. These may be defined by arguments being presented that are in favor of IRV or opposed to it. Each argument will be examined in turn. Claims made in favor Ranked Choice Voting takes away voter dependence on pre-election polls Single-winner voting systems require some if not most voters to compromise and elect a second or third choice instead of their favorite. With single vote voting systems, such as plurality, voters may look to poll results, as announced by the media, to determine which candidates have a chance of winning. Voters may then make their own compromise decision based on this media information. This gives tremendous power to the media, which might incorrectly tell voters that their first choice has no chance of winning and would just split the vote of their second choice, throwing the race to their third choice. By allowing split majorities to re-combine, IRV could allow voters to simply rank their choices, and have their interest defended based on their sincere rankings. Compromising by electing a winner that is not everyone's first choice is a natural part of any election. But IRV advocates suggest compromising should be an automatic feature of the voting method, and not the result of being aware and trusting what is reported by the media. Advocates of other single-winner voting methods oserve, however, that IRV does not always fulfill this promise, since sincere rankings may cause a desirable compromise choice to be removed from the running prior to the final runoff stage. Usually allows one ballot to determine a majority winner Rank ballots allow a simulated runoff process to eliminate candidates without asking voters again for their top remaining choice. The process logically must end in a majority winner (or a tie) when two final candidates remain, the winner having a majority of votes in the final round. Because IRV collects additional preferences beyond first, given the same number of candidates, IRV is more likely to find a majority than would be the case with a Plurality election. However, if there are exhausted ballots, not showing a preference between the two remaining candidates, that last round majority may still only be a plurality with respect to valid ballots cast in the election. There are two sources of this failure of incomplete ranking: Some IRV implementations don't allow complete ranking, either due to voting machine limitations or other reasons; for example, in San Francisco, only three ranks are available on the ballot, whereas there may be over twenty candidates. San Francisco RCV brochure 2004 District 5 results Some voters don't rank enough of the candidates to express a preference between the final two candidates, even if the ballot allows it. In both cases such ballots, with all choices eliminated, are considered exhausted and don't count for or against any remaining candidate, in most implementations of IRV. Incomplete ranking "may prevent any candidate from receiving a majority and require the voting to be repeated" Robert's Rules of Order, Newly Revised, 10th edition, pp. 413-414 While some critics may argue that exhausted votes may prevent a true majority winner, if this strict definition of "majority" is used as a criterion, it is note worthy that in most plurality elections at least up to the year 2009, a significant number of people eligible to vote did not show up to the polls, preventing a true "majority" winner. Incomplete ballots that are exhausted may be no worse to society than eligible voters who chose to stay home. In order to avoid this issue, in Australia it is generally required that voters rank all candidates, which, by definition, creates a majority winner, because ballots not ranking all candidates are considered spoiled and invalid, but this has not been proposed for the United States. In New South Wales and Queensland, however, Optional Preferential Voting has been introduced as a reform, thus finding no absolute majority becomes, once again, possible. Antony Green notes that "The exhaustion rate has approached 80% in some seats.... In summary, optional preferential voting almost always assists the party with the highest primary vote." Antony Green, Antony Green's Q&A ... about the political effect of optional preferential voting. In Burlington, Vermont, in their second IRV election for Mayor, with 8980 valid ballots, Mayor Kiss won re-election with 4313 votes, or 48%, with Wright in second place. A study by UVM Political Scientist Tony Gierzynski found that Montroll, who was in third place in terms of first preferences, was also the compromise choice most Kiss and Wright voters ranked second, such that Montroll was preferred over Wright by 56 percent of the voters, and also preferred over Kiss by 54 percent of the voters. (Kiss was ranked ahead of Wright on 51 percent of the ballots.) So "majority winner" refers to "majority of voters expressing a preference between the two finalists," not to all the ballots cast in the first round of the election. Burlington 2009 results http://[www.wcax.com/Global/story.asp?S=9977981&nav=4QcRELCl WCAX-TV] Recount Begins in Burlington Mayoral Race Eliminates some of the spoiler effect In plurality elections, a third party candidate may draw sufficient votes away from a candidate who would otherwise be a majority winner, causing a different candidate to win with only minority support. In this case, the election has been "spoiled." Using ranked preference ballots, more candidates can run without talk of spoilers. In Australia's national elections in 2007, for example, the average number of candidates in a district was seven, and at least four candidates ran in every district. Every seat was won with a majority of the vote, including several where results would have been different under plurality voting. House of Representatives Results In the United States, IRV addressed the spoiler effect in Ann Arbor, Michigan, where IRV was implemented in 1975 after passing in a 1974 referendum. It resulted in election of the city's first African-American mayor, a Democrat, who won after trailing the Republican incumbent 49% to 40% in the first count of ballots, with remaining votes cast for the Human Rights Party. A new referendum to rescind the reform was then placed on the ballot for a special election, with low turnout, which reversed the reform. Jonathan Marwil, A History of Ann Arbor (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1990), 164-165. Other election reformers point out that there are other single-winner voting systems which could also reduce the spoiler effect. The only election reforms actually implemented in the United States, in recent times, that deal with the Spoiler effect, are IRV, single transferable vote and runoff voting. Previously, Bucklin voting addressed the problem. Gives voters a wider range of choices Like the two round system, IRV tends to give voters a wider range of choice among candidates than plurality. More independent and third party candidates are likely to run because the spoiler problems are less severe. The sequential method of IRV accommodates choices differently than runoff voting by not immediately reducing the field to two in the second round, as typically done in runoff elections like the French presidential election, 2002. May reduce negative campaigning John Russo, Oakland City Attorney, argued in the Oakland Tribune that "Instant runoff voting is an antidote to the disease of negative campaigning, and the New York Times in a 2004 news article The New York Times > National > New Runoff System in San Francisco Has the Rival Candidates Cooperating highlighted how some San Francisco candidates were conducting their campaigns more cooperatively. Under the system, their candidates were less likely to engage in malicious campaigning because such tactics would risk alienating the voters who support 'attacked' candidates." Oakland Tribune, John Russo However, critics allege there is a lack of evidence that such an effect occurs as often as suggested. No formal studies are known to have been conducted in the United States. Internationally, scholarship by Benjamin Reilly suggests instant runoff voting eases ethnic conflict in divided societies. Project MUSE , and this feature was a leading argument for why Papua New Guinea adopted instant runoff voting. Claims made in opposition Fails the monotonicity criterion Like all runoff processes with forced elimination, Instant runoff voting fails the monotonicity criterion. In certain scenarios, raising the rank of a winning candidate on some ballots, which originally had ranked that candidate last, could counter-intuitively result in the winning candidate becoming a loser. Doron, Gideon, and Richard Kronick (1977). "Single Transferable Vote, An Example of a Perverse Social Choice Function." American Journal of Political Science 21:303-311. Advocates of IRV point out that it is not the additional vote in favor of a candidate that can cause the candidate to lose, but rather the change in relative support among the other candidates resulting from a vote switch. It is the switch away from another candidate, whether that switch be to the current winner, or some other candidate, that changes which candidates are in the runoff and can cause a winner to turn loser. Simply adding new first-preferences for a candidate can never cause the candidate to lose -- IRV is monotonic as far as additional votes are concerned. IRV advocates argue that it is unlikely that the monotonicity "winner turn loser" dynamic will ever occur in any real-world elections. RangeVoting.org - Steve Hill responds to Clay Shentrup's anti-IRV letter Austan-Smith and Banks argued, in 1991, that "monotonicity/nonmonotonicity in electoral systems is a nonissue." It can be best understood by trying to exploit a tactical voting strategy called push-over, used in a runoff process with 3 or more strong candidates. If your candidate is in the lead, with two nearly equally supported competitors and you believe one of your competitors will be weaker in the final round, you might try insincerely supporting this weaker competitor to help eliminate the stronger competitor. In runoffs with sequential voting, this is a relatively safe strategy because you can move your vote back to your favorite in the final round. It is much more difficult in an instant runoff with a single ballot where insincere votes will stay with the competitor if the strategy succeeds. Plurality voting is good enough Plurality supporters point to the fact that most elections in the U.S. use plurality voting, and voters seem to accept plurality winners as legitimate, suggesting that, "If it ain't broke don't fix it." The fact that some revered leaders, such as Abraham Lincoln, did not receive a majority of the vote is sometimes mentioned. It can be claimed that the spoiler effect is not a weakness but a strength because it encourages and rewards like-minded candidates and voters to work together before the election. This encourages the formation of strong coalitions or parties, who attempt to best represent a collective position to the largest set of voters they can. Thus once an election is held, all compromising work has been completed and it's up to the voters to decide a first choice and accept the results as best. Writing in the Canadian Journal of Political Science, Harold J. Jansen studied the Alternative Vote in Canada, concluding that "On balance, it differed little from the single member plurality system." Online abstract. Violates the one person one vote mandate Ann Arbor, Michigan, through a petition drive, implemented "preference voting" in 1974. The arguments given in letters to newspapers included "Gives minority candidate voters two votes." In the other direction, it was argued, "The same 'two vote privilege' is extended to supporters of losing candidates in primaries or where there are run-off elections." This procedure went before the Michigan courts, and a ruling was issued in Stephenson vs. the Ann Arbor Board of City Canvassers in 1975. Majority Preferential Voting (or M.P.V., as it was called) was upheld as in compliance with the constitution. In his decision, Judge James Fleming wrote that On the other hand, in Minnesota, there is the precedent of Brown v. Smallwood, a case which addressed the constitutionality under Minnesota law of Bucklin Voting. Brown v Smallwood Bucklin also involves, like IRV, alternative votes from a ranked ballot, but adds them in, if no majority has been found, as additional votes, instead of through substitution. Focusing on an alleged one-person, one-vote violation in this, advocates of IRV have claimed that Brown v. Smallwood will not apply, in any challenge, to IRV. However, the majority argued in Brown v. Smallwood, repetitively, against the principle of any kind of alternative vote, so some legal opinion has been given that Brown v. Smallwood does indeed apply to other alternative voting systems. Legal analysis to Minneapolis Charter Commission There was a dissent in Brown v. Smallwood which specifically attempted to refute the one-person, one-vote argument, and there is reference that the predominant legal opinion of the time, as well as other precedent in U.S. law, was reversed by the court, and the judgment in Brown v. Smallwood was not replicated elsewhere. Similar systems Runoff voting The term instant runoff voting is derived from the name of a class of voting systems called runoff voting. In runoff voting voters do not rank candidates in order of preference on a single ballot. Instead a similar effect is achieved by using multiple rounds of voting. The simplest form of runoff voting is the two round system. Under the two round system voters vote for only one candidate but, if no candidate receives an overall majority of votes, another round of voting is held from which all but the two candidates with most votes are excluded. Exhaustive ballot A closer system to IRV is the exhaustive ballot. In this system -- one familiar to fans of the television show American Idol -- only one candidate is eliminated after each round, and many rounds of voting are used, rather than just two. Glossary: Exhaustive ballot Because holding many rounds of voting on separate days is generally expensive, the exhaustive ballot is not used for large scale, public elections. Instant runoff voting is so named because it achieves a similar effect to runoff voting but it is necessary for voters to vote only once. The result can be found 'instantly' rather than after several separate votes. Two round systems Runoff voting differs from IRV in a number of ways. The two round system can produce different results due to the fact that it uses a different rule for eliminations, excluding typically all but two candidates after just one round, rather than gradually eliminating candidates over a series of rounds. However all forms of "delayed" runoff voting differ from IRV in that voters can change their preferences as they go along, using the results of each round to influence their decision. This is not possible in IRV, as participants vote only once, and this prohibits certain forms of tactical voting which can be prevalent in 'standard' runoff voting. Contingent vote Top-two IRV The contingent vote, also known as Top-two IRV, or batch-style, is the same as IRV except that all but the two candidates with most votes are eliminated after the first round; the count therefore only ever has two rounds. This differs from the 'two round' runoff voting system described above in that only one round of voting is conducted. The two rounds are only for counting and both take place after voting has finished. Two particular variants of the contingent vote differ from IRV in a further way. Under the forms of the contingent vote used in Sri Lanka, and the elections for Mayor of London in the United Kingdom, voters are not permitted to rank all of the candidates, but only a certain maximum number. Under the variant used in London, called the supplementary vote, voters are only permitted to express a first and a second preference. Under the Sri Lankan form of the contingent vote voters are only permitted to rank three candidates. The supplementary vote is used for mayoral elections while the Sri Lankan contingent vote is used to elect the President of Sri Lanka. While superficially similar to "sequential elimination" forms of IRV, these contingent vote forms of IRV can produce different results. If, as occurs under all forms of the contingent vote, more than one candidate is excluded after the first count, a candidate might be eliminated who would have gone on to win the election under sequential elimination IRV. If voters are restricted to a maximum number of preferences then it is easier for their vote to become exhausted. This encourages voters to vote tactically, by giving at least one of their limited preferences to a candidate who is likely to win. Conversely, a practical benefit of the 'contingent vote' counting process is expediency and confidence in the result with only two rounds. Most apparent in smaller elections, like with fewer than 100 ballots among a dozen choices, confidence can be lost in a bottom-up elimination due to cumbersome ties on the bottom (or near ties affected by counting errors). Frequent and even multiple use of tie-breaking rules in one election will leave uncomfortable doubts over whether the winner might have changed if a recount was performed. IRV in a larger runoff process IRV may also be used within a part of a larger runoff process: In some jurisdictions where top two runoff is required if no candidate gets a majority, a provision has been implemented that allows absentee voters to cast a ranked ballot. In the short window between the first election and the runoff, there often is not enough time to deal with absentee voters. With a ranked ballot, the votes of overseas citizens can count even if their first choice does not make the runoff. Arkansas, Louisiana, South Carolina and Springfield (IL) all have implemented this form of instant runoff voting on ballots for military and overseas voters. Initiatives - Pew Center on the States Louisiana absentee balloting: E. Special Absentee Ballot for General Election: The special ballot permits you to vote in the following general election by writing in numbers according to your choice of preference for each candidate. You put the number one next to the name of the candidate who is your first choice, the number two for your second choice, and so forth so that, in consecutive numerical order, you write a number indicating your preference next to each candidate’s name on the ballot.] It can be used to automate a faster runoff elimination of weak candidates in early rounds of an exhaustive ballot runoff, with specific rules defined that can stop with process with two or more candidates remaining for further balloting. It can support a higher winner threshold not guaranteed by a single balloting, (like 60%). In such cases a second balloting may be used to confirm the winner. For example, in 2006, the Minnesota Independence Party used IRV for its endorsement elections, requiring 60% to win, and although unused, the rules required a exhaustive balloting to follow if needed. Elections requiring a majority winner defined by the total number of ballots may not be achieved with a single IRV balloting due to exhausted ballots. In such cases a post-balloting process may be needed to determine a final winner. Vermont S.22 1(c)3 Sec. 7. (6) ... if neither of the last two remaining candidates in an election ... received a majority, the report and the tabulations performed by the instant runoff count committee shall be forwarded to the Washington superior court which shall issue a certificate of election to whichever of the two remaining candidates received the greatest number of votes at the conclusion of the instant runoff tabulation, and send a certified copy of the tabulation and results to the secretary of state. Roberts Rules of Order, Newly Revised recommends preferential voting for elections by mail, giving the STV technique used by IRV as their example; however, the RRONR version still requires a majority of votes cast to elect a winner. For in-person elections, they recommend repeated balloting until a candidate wins with an absolute majority of all voters. Repeated ballot allows voters in a new election to turn to a candidate as a compromise who may not have polled well in the initial election. The term "Instant-runoff voting" is often applied to all these variations, with the common feature being one-vote counted per ballot at a time, with rules defined to eliminate one or more candidates each round with the fewest votes and transfer uncovered votes for remaining candidates; however, the term implies replacement of runoff elections, and most IRV implementations do accordingly drop the majority election requirement. References See also Australian electoral system Ballot Access News for occasional related news in the United States List of democracy and elections-related topics Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories Table of voting systems by nation Preferential bloc voting - An instant runoff process for electing multiple seat elections. External links General Information Instant Runoff Voting at FairVote History of IRV San Francisco Department of Elections on its IRV elections City of Burlington, Vermont on its IRV elections City of Takoma Park, Maryland on its IRV elections Examples Demo of an IRV Ballot, including the Visual Display of a Runoff | Instant-runoff_voting |@lemmatized example:14 instant:36 runoff:73 voting:98 ballot:82 irv:97 american:14 english:1 term:10 system:55 use:61 single:29 winner:38 election:113 voter:77 rank:35 candidate:153 order:22 preference:37 first:38 majority:51 number:24 ranking:6 eliminate:31 redistribute:2 full:4 value:2 remain:16 accord:3 next:7 process:16 repeat:8 one:41 obtain:3 vote:131 among:9 method:24 say:1 simulate:2 series:3 tally:2 round:49 exhaustive:7 sometimes:5 refer:2 alternative:10 old:1 name:6 united:17 kingdom:4 preferential:27 canada:4 australia:18 choice:40 state:23 elect:18 member:8 australian:5 house:7 representative:7 president:6 ireland:5 national:7 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6,377 | Ezekiel | This article is about the main speaker in the biblical Book of Ezekiel. For a summary and analysis of the book itself, see Book of Ezekiel. According to religious texts, Ezekiel ((, Yehezkel, ), "God will strengthen", from , hazak, [ħa'zaq], literally "to fasten upon", figuratively "strong", and , el, [ʔel], literally "strength", figuratively "Almighty" ()) was a priest in the Bible who prophesied for 22 years sometime in the 6th century BC in the form of visions while exiled in Babylon, as recorded in the Book of Ezekiel. Christianity regards Ezekiel as a saint and as prophet. Judaism considers the Book of Ezekiel a part of its canon, and regards Ezekiel as the third of the major prophets. The prophet Ezekiel, Sistine Chapel. In Judaism The Book of Ezekiel The Book of Ezekiel gives little detail about Ezekiel's life and mentions him only twice by name, in 1:3 and 24:24. Ezekiel was a prophet, the son of Buzi. He was one of the Israelite exiles who settled at a place called Tel-abib (mound of the deluge), on the banks of the Chebar River "in the land of the Chaldeans." Traditionally, the book of Ezekiel is thought to have been written in the 500s BC during the Babylonian exile of the southern Israelite kingdom, Judah. This estimate is supported by evidence that the author uses a dating system which was only used in the 500s BC. Other Jewish literature Monument to Holocaust survivors at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem; the quote is Ezekiel 37:14. Ezekiel, like Jeremiah, is said by Talmud (Meg. 14b) and Midrash (Sifre, Num. 78) to have been a descendant of Joshua by his marriage with the proselyte Rahab. Some statements found in rabbinic literature go so far as to posit that Ezekiel was Jeremiah or the son of Jeremiah, who was (also) called "Buzi" because he was despised by the Jews. Ezekiel was said to be already active as a prophet while in the Land of Israel, and he retained this gift when he was exiled with Jehoiachin and the nobles of the country to Babylon (Josephus, Ant. x. 6, § 3: "while he was still a boy"; comp. Rashi on Sanh. 92b, above). Rava states in the Babylonian Talmud that although Ezekiel describes the appearance of the throne of God (Merkabah), this is not due to the fact that he had seen more than the prophet Isaiah, but rather because the latter was more accustomed to such visions; for the relation of the two prophets is that of a courtier to a peasant, the latter of whom would always describe a royal court more floridly than the former, to whom such things would be familiar (Ḥag. 13b). Ezekiel, like all the other prophets, has beheld only a blurred reflection of the divine majesty, just as a poor mirror reflects objects only imperfectly (Midrash Lev. Rabbah i. 14, toward the end). According to the midrash Canticles Rabbah, it was Ezekiel whom the three pious men, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, (also called Shadrach, Meshech, and Abednego in the Bible) asked for advice as to whether they should resist Nebuchadnezzar's command and choose death by fire rather than worship his idol. At first God revealed to the prophet that they could not hope for a miraculous rescue; whereupon the prophet was greatly grieved, since these three men constituted the "remnant of Judah". But after they had left the house of the prophet, fully determined to sacrifice their lives to God, Ezekiel received this revelation: "Thou dost believe indeed that I will abandon them. That shall not happen; but do thou let them carry out their intention according to their pious dictates, and tell them nothing" (Midrash Canticles Rabbah vii. 8). Ezekiel's greatest "miracle" consisted in his resuscitation of the dead, which is recounted in chapter 37 of the Book of Ezekiel. Although the Hebrew Bible describes this event as an ecstatic vision rather than a historical occurrence, later interpreters speculated as to the fate of these men, both before and after their revitalization. Some say that they were godless people, who in their lifetime had denied the resurrection, and committed other sins; others think they were those Ephraimites who tried to escape from Egypt before Moses and perished in the attempt. There are still others who maintain that after Nebuchadnezzar had carried the beautiful youths of Judah to Babylon, he had them executed and their bodies mutilated, because their beauty had entranced the Babylonian women, and that it was these youths whom Ezekiel called back to life. This miracle is said to have been performed on the same day on which the three men were cast into the fiery furnace; namely, on the Sabbath and the Day of Atonement (Cant. R. vii. 9). Nebuchadnezzar, who had made a drinking-cup from the skull of a murdered Jew, was greatly astonished when, at the moment that the three men were cast into the furnace, the bodies of the dead boys moved, and, striking him in the face, cried out: "The companion of these three men revives the dead!" (see a Karaite record of this episode in Judah Hadasi's "Eshkol ha-Kofer," 45b, at foot; 134a, end of the section). When the boys awakened from death, they rose up and joined in a song of praise to God for the miracle vouchsafed to them; later, they went to Palestine, where they married and reared children As early as the second century, however, some authorities declared this resurrection of the dead was a prophetic vision: an opinion regarded by Maimonides (Guide for the Perplexed, II:46) and his followers as the only rational explanation of the Biblical passage. In Christianity Russian icon of the Prophet Ezekiel holding a scroll with his prophecy and pointing to the "closed gate" (18th century, Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Russia). Ezekiel is commemorated as a saint in the liturgical calendar of the Eastern Orthodox Church—and those Eastern Catholic Churches which follow the Byzantine Rite—on July 21 (for those churches which use the traditional Julian Calendar, July 21 falls on August 3 of the modern Gregorian Calendar). This date was chosen because it is the day after the feast day of the Prophet Elias. Ezekiel is commemorated on August 28 on the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church and the Armenian Catholic Church. Certain Lutheran churches also celebrate his commemoration on July 21. The Church Fathers interpret Ezekiel's vision of the human likeness upon the sapphire throne () as a prophesy of the Incarnation of the Logos from the Theotokos (Virgin Mary), who in many ancient church hymns is called the "living Throne of God". Ezekiel's statement about the "closed gate" () is understood by Eastern Christianity as another prophesy of the Incarnation: the "gate" signifying the Virgin Mary and the "prince" referring to Jesus. This is one of the readings at Vespers on Great Feasts of the Theotokos in the Eastern Orthodox and Byzantine Catholic Churches. In Islam Quranic verses Islam refers to him as "Hizqil" or "Dhu al-Kifl" Oxford Islamic Studies 21-85 (The Prophets) 38-48 (Sad) Hadith and other Sources Islamic View Of Ezekiel (Hizqil) Ezekiel Ibn Buzi succeeded him as the prophet to the Israelites. The people had fled from Palestine for fear of the plague and settled on a plateau. Allah said to them: "Die you all," and they all perished. A few centuries passed, and then Ezekiel, passing by, stopped over them, wondering. There came a voice: "Do you want Allah to resurrect them while you watch?" He said: "Yes." Then he was commanded to call those bones to join one to the other and to be covered with flesh. So he called them by the power of Allah, and the people arose and glorified Allah in the voice of one man. God resurrects the dead through Ezekiel According to Ibn Abbas, this place was called "Damardan." Its people were inflicted with plague, so they fled, while a group of them who remained in the village perished. The Angel of Death called to the survivors: "Die you all," and they perished. After a long time a prophet called Ezekiel passed by them and stood wondering over them, twisting his jaws and fingers. Allah revealed to him: "Do you want Me to show you how I bring them back to life? He said: "Yes." His idea was to marvel at the power of Allah over them. A voice said to him: "Call: 'O you bones, Allah commands you to gather up.'" The bones began to fly one to the other until they became skeletons. Then Allah revealed to him to say; "Call: 'O you bones, Allah commands you to put on flesh and blood and the clothes in which they had died.'" And a voice said: "Allah commands you to call the bodies to rise." And they rose. When they returned to life they said: "Blessed are You, O Lord, and all praises is Yours." Ibn 'Abbas reported that the dead who were resurrected were four thousand, while Ibn Salih said they were nine thousand. Hadith About the Plagues Regarding plague, Abu Ubaidah Ibn Al-Jarrah related that 'Umar Ibn Al-Khattab was on his way to Syria and had reached Sarg when the leader of the Muslim army, Abu Ubaidah Ibn Al-Jarrah, and his companions met him and told him of a pestilence that had broken out in Syria. 'Umar remember the Prophet's saying: "If it (plague) be in a country where you are staying, do not go out fleeing it, and if you hear it is in a country, do not enter it." Umar praised Allah and then went off. Muhammad Ibn Ishaaq stated that we do not know how long Ezekiel stayed among the Israelites before Allah took him away. After him, the Israelites deviated from the right way of life, and deserted Allah's covenant with them. They worshipped many idols, among them Ba'al, so Allah sent to them the Prophet Elijah. Secular Views Altschuler has suggested that the person described by the Book of Ezekiel may have suffered from epilepsy. Specifically, it is claimed that Ezekiel himself may have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy, which has several characteristic symptoms that are apparent from his writing. Altschuler, E.L.: "Did Ezekiel Have Temporal Lobe Epilepsy?", Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59:561-562. These symptoms include hypergraphia, hyperreligiosity, fainting spells, mutism and often collectively ascribed to a condition known as Geschwind syndrome. See list of people with epilepsy. Tomb of Ezekiel The tomb of Ezekiel is a structure located in modern day south Iraq near Kefil, believed to be the final resting place of Ezekiel. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=562&letter=E It has been a place of pilgrimage to both Muslims and Jews alike. After the Jewish exodus from Iraq, Jewish activity in the tomb ceased although a disused Synagogue remains in place. References See also Apocryphon of Ezekiel Book of Ezekiel Taw External links "Ezekiel" article from The Catholic Encyclopedia Prophet Ezekiel Orthodox icon and synaxarion "Introduction to Ezekiel" By S. 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6,378 | Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council | The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) is one of the highest courts in the United Kingdom, established by the Judicial Committee Act 1833. Judicial Committee Act 1833 (c.41) It replaced the Court of Delegates. It is also the highest court of appeal (or court of last resort) for several independent Commonwealth countries, the UK overseas territories, and the British Crown dependencies. P.A. Howell, The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 1833–1876: Its Origins, Structure, and Development, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1979 It is simply referred to as the Privy Council, as appeals are in fact made to the Queen as Her Majesty in Council, who then refers the case to the Judicial Committee for "advice". The panel of judges hearing a particular case (typically five members) is known as "the Board". It meets in the Privy Council Chamber in Downing Street http://www.privy-council.org.uk/output/page5.asp . In Commonwealth republics, appeals are made directly to the Judicial Committee instead. In the case of Brunei, the appeal is made to the local Sultan, who is advised by the Judicial Committee. Formerly the Judicial Committee gave a single piece of advice, but since the 1960s dissenting opinions have been allowed. In July 2007, the Judicial Committee held that it had power to depart from precedent if it concluded that one of its own previous decisions was incorrect. Gibson v. United States of America (The Bahamas) [2007] UKPC 52 (23 July 2007) The judicial system of the United Kingdom is unusual in having no single highest national court; the Judicial Committee is the highest court of appeal in some cases, while in most others the highest court of appeal is the House of Lords. In Scotland the highest court in criminal cases is the High Court of Justiciary, in civil cases the House of Lords, and the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council for matters arising from Scottish devolution. Domestic jurisdiction The Privy Council has jurisdiction in the following domestic matters: Cases involving "devolution issues" arising under the Scotland Act 1998, the Government of Wales Act 2006 or the Northern Ireland Act 1998, i.e. disputes regarding the validity of legislation (Acts of the Scottish Parliament, of the Northern Ireland Assembly, or Measures adopted by the National Assembly for Wales) or executive functions of the Scottish Government, the Welsh Assembly Government or the Northern Ireland Executive. The cases may reach the Committee as follows: The Attorney-General or other Law Officers may refer a bill from the devolved body to the Committee. The litigants may appeal a case from certain superior courts. Appellate courts, including the House of Lords, may refer a case to the Committee. Any court, if a Law Officer so desires, may refer a case to the Committee. Law Officers may refer any issue not related to a bill or case to the Committee. Appeals against schemes of the Church Commissioners (who control the estate of the Church of England). Appeals from the ecclesiastical courts (the Arches Court of Canterbury and the Chancery Court of York) in non-doctrinal faculty cases. Appeals from the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports. Appeals from Prize Courts. Disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 will transfer the devolution powers to the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom when it comes into force. Additionally, the Government may (through the Queen) refer any issue to the committee for "consideration and report". Within the United Kingdom legal systems, judgments of Judicial Committee made in devolution cases are binding on all other courts, including the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords. SCOTLAND ACT 1998 - SECT 103 The Judicial Committee This is significant because most devolution cases involve the interpretation of Convention rights, which under the Human Rights Act 1998, apply throughout the United Kingdom. Judgments of the Judicial Committee in overseas cases are of only “persuasive authority” in other courts in the United Kingdom; so while courts take them into account they are not as a matter of law binding. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, Her Majesty in Council, is the Court of Final Appeal for the Church of England. It hears appeals from the Arches Court of Canterbury and the Chancery Court of York, except on matters of doctrine, ritual or ceremony, which go to the Court for Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved. By the Church Discipline Act 1840 and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 all archbishop and bishops were eligible to be members of the Judicial Committee. Overseas jurisdiction The Committee holds jurisdiction in appeals from the following 30 jurisdictions (including 14 independent nations): Appeal is "to Her Majesty in Council" from nine independent nations and 16 other jurisdictions: The Commonwealth realms of Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Belize, Grenada, Jamaica, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Tuvalu. The New Zealand associated states of Cook Islands and Niue (though New Zealand itself established a Supreme Court of New Zealand in January 2004, replacing the Privy Council for appeals originating within New Zealand). The Crown dependencies of Jersey and Guernsey and appeals from the Staff of Government Division on the Isle of Man. The British overseas territories of Anguilla, Bermuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Falkland Islands, Gibraltar, Montserrat, St. Helena and dependencies, Turks and Caicos Islands, Pitcairn Islands. The United Kingdom's Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia in Cyprus. Appeal is directly to the Committee from four countries: The Commonwealth republics of Dominica, Mauritius, Trinidad and Tobago, and if the case involves constitutional rights, Kiribati. Appeal is to the Head of State: Brunei (Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom and Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah have agreed that the Judicial Committee hears the case and reports to the Sultan). Members Overview The Judicial Committee includes the following: Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (who also serve in the House of Lords, known as 'Law Lords') Other Lords of Appeal Privy Councillors who are or were judges of the Court of Appeal of England, the Inner House of the Court of Session in Scotland or the Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland Privy Councillors who are judges of certain superior courts in Commonwealth nations The bulk of the work is done by the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who are paid to work full time on the judicial functions of the House of Lords and the Privy Council. Overseas judges may not sit when certain domestic matters are being heard, and overseas judges will often sit when appeals from their countries are being heard. Registrars of the Judicial Committee Mary Macdonald 2005- John Watherston 1998–2005 DHO Owen 1983–1998 Eric Mills 1966–1983 Leslie Upton, CBE 1963–1966 Aylmer Paterson 1954–1963 Colin Smith, MVO OBE c.38 George Faber 1887–1896 Decline of Commonwealth Appeals Initially, all Commonwealth realms and their territories maintained a right of appeal to the Privy Council. Many of those that became republics or independent indigenous monarchies preserved the Privy Council's jurisdiction by entering into treaties with the British Crown. However, over time many members began to see the Privy Council as being out of tune with local values, and an obstacle to full judicial sovereignty. Canada Canada created its Supreme Court in 1875 and abolished appeals to the Privy Council in criminal cases. However, in Nadan v. The King [1926] AC 482(PC) the Privy Council nevertheless granted an appellant leave to appeal a criminal conviction and ruled that the Canadian Criminal Code was ultra vires the Canadian Parliament because it purported to legislate extraterritorially and purported to repeal imperial legislation. This together with the King-Byng Affair was a major irritant for Canada and provoked the discussion at the 1926 Imperial Conference which led to the Balfour Declaration. With that Declaration and its statutory confirmation in the Statute of Westminster 1931 (Imp) the impediment to abolishing appeals to the Privy Council, whether or not it had been legitimate, was comprehensively removed. Criminal appeals to the Privy Council were ended in 1933. Moves to extend the abolition to civil matters were shelved during the growing international crisis of the 1930s but re-tabled after World War II and civil appeals ended in 1949. Cases begun before 1949 were still allowed to appeal after 1949 and the final case to make it to the Council was not until 1959 with the case of Ponoka-Calmar Oils v. Wakefield, [1960] A.C. 18. The JCPC played a controversial role in the evolution of Canadian federalism in that whereas the Fathers of Confederation, negotiating the union of the British North American colonies against the backdrop of the American Civil War, wished to ensure a strong central government vis-a-vis relatively weak provinces, appeals to the JCPC in constitutional matters progressively shifted the balance in favour of the provinces. While a few commentators have suggested that Canadian First Nations retain the right to appeal to the Privy Council because their treaties predate their relationship to Canada, the JCPC has not entertained any such appeal since 1867 and the dominant view is that no such appeal right exists. Australia Australia effectively abolished the right of appeal from the Commonwealth Courts by the Privy Council (Limitation of Appeals) Act 1968 and the Privy Council (Appeals from the High Court) Act 1975, and from the State courts by the Australia Act 1986. The Australian constitution still has a provision allowing the High Court of Australia to permit appeals to the Privy Council on inter se questions; however, the High Court has stated that it will not give such permission and that the jurisdiction to do so "has long since been spent" and is obsolete, so the possibility is purely theoretical. Ceylon Ceylon abolished appeals to the Privy Council in 1972, following the Dominion of Ceylon becoming the Republic of Sri Lanka. Previously, the Privy Council had ruled in Ibralebbe v. The Queen [1964] A.C. 900 that it remained the highest court of appeal in Ceylon notwithstanding the country's independence as a Dominion in 1948. Malaysia Malaysia abolished appeals to the Privy Council in criminal and constitutional matters in 1978 and in civil matters in 1985. Singapore Singapore abolished Privy Council appeals in all cases save those involving the death penalty or in civil cases where the parties had agreed to such a right of appeal in 1989. The abolition followed a decision of the Privy Council the previous year that criticised the "grievous injustice" suffered by the opposition politician J B Jeyaretnam at the hands of the Government of Singapore. The remaining rights of appeal were abolished in 1994. Hong Kong Hong Kong's court system was changed after the 1997 handover to People's Republic of China. The Court of Final Appeal of Hong Kong now serves as the highest judicial authority. However, the interpretation of the Constitution, Basic Law of Hong Kong, is within the jurisdiction of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China. New Zealand New Zealand law was changed in October 2003 to abolish appeals to the Privy Council in respect of all cases heard by the Court of Appeal of New Zealand after the end of 2003, in favour of a Supreme Court of New Zealand. In 2008, National leader John Key ruled out any abolition of the Supreme Court and return to the Privy Council. Caribbean Community The nations of the Caribbean Community voted in 2001 to abolish the right of appeal to the Privy Council in favour of a Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ). Some debate between member countries and also the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council had repeatedly delayed the court's date of inauguration. As of 2005, Barbados replaced the process of appeals to Her Majesty in Council with the CCJ, which had then come into operation. The Republic of Guyana also enacted local legislation allowing the CCJ to have jurisdiction over their sovereign final court of appeals system. As it stands, a few other CARICOM states appear to be ready for the abolition of appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the immediate future. The government of Jamaica in particular, had come close and attempted to abolish appeals to the Judicial Committee without the support of the opposition in Parliament; however, it was ruled by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council that the procedure used in Jamaica to bypass the opposition was incorrect and unconstitutional. Caribbean governments have been coming under increased pressure from their electorates to devise ways to override previous rulings by the JCPC such as the Earl Pratt and Ivan Morgan v. The Attorney General for Jamaica (1993) JCPC Judgement: Earl Pratt and Ivan Morgan v. The Attorney General for Jamaica, Appeal No. 10 of 1993 judgement concerning the death penalty in the Caribbean region. Spurning Europe, Caribbean pushes death penalty By MIKE MELIA (Associated Press) – 11th November 2008 Letter: Colonial power over death penalty By THERESE MILLS (BBC) - Wednesday, 19 January, 2005, 19:15 GMT T & T pushing death penalty Nation Newspaper - 17th January 2008 See also Constitutional Reform Act 2005 List of Cingalese Privy Council cases List of Irish Privy Council cases List of Judicial Committee of the Privy Council cases References External links Privy Council Office site, including JCPC The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and the Canadian Constitution Text of the Scotland Act 1998 | Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council |@lemmatized judicial:29 committee:35 privy:39 council:42 jcpc:7 one:2 high:12 court:45 united:9 kingdom:8 establish:2 act:17 c:4 replace:3 delegate:1 also:5 appeal:56 last:1 resort:1 several:1 independent:4 commonwealth:8 country:5 uk:3 overseas:6 territory:3 british:5 crown:3 dependency:3 p:1 howell:1 origin:1 structure:1 development:1 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6,379 | Wikipedia:Building_Wikipedia_membership | As far as our server can handle it, we like to increase traffic to Wikipedia: it helps improve the quality and quantity of the content and increases the total amount of joy and other utility it has for people. This page lists ways of doing this. Let's talk about how to increase traffic to Wikipedia, of both readers and writers--that is now going to become one of the main focuses of my Wikipedia work. So I want your help! How can we increase "membership" in Wikipedia--both readers and new writers? Let's brainstorm. Please, add an idea below, or help develop ideas. (Sometimes, a really great new idea is a slight variation on a just-OK old idea.) Also, if you do any work that you think someone else might inadvertently replicate, can you please write it down here somehow (as on the Encyclopedia links solicited page)? Thanks! --Larry Sanger Urban poster campaign See meta:Wikimedia urban postering campaign! Brainstormin' How about we do something like Spread Firefox? We could start our own publicity campaign, and if we ever get something like the NYT ad or the Firefox coins (see article) then I get the feeling wikipedia use would go WAY up! :D 203.59.117.99 08:35, 22 August 2005 (UTC) Solicit links from (mentioning Wikipedia:Wikipedia banners and logos): Websites with substantial traffic, like About.com (see Big traffic links solicited) People with lists of encyclopedias (see Encyclopedia list links solicited) People with encyclopedia-type websites (see Encyclopedia links solicited) Best-of websites and similar resources (see Best of sites links solicited) Web sites for authors, films, whatever. There's always a list of links. Add a link to the Wikipedia Stephen King page to Stephen King web sites, to the Japan page on Japan web sites, and so on. for individual articles, solicit links from: related resources (particularly if we mention them in external links) directories such as LookSmart, Open Directory Project and Yahoo! Get people to add article review requests to User:Larry Sanger/Review requests; find reviewers for those articles. Approach websites that might want free content, and help them to get their hands on Wikipedia's; this is something Bomis programmers and volunteers could work on. Maybe after we're running Magnus' PHP code? Post announcements on mailing lists. But of what sort? Obviously, we want to avoid spam. Start and continue discussions about Wikipedia articles (for this, the help of Wikipedians will be necessary) Simply announce the existence of Wikipedia, soliciting help. I think this is actually plausible. Recruit fans for specific areas of Wikipedia. For example, someone could drop by a Star Trek newsgroup and mention that our pages need work. I bet we'd have a huge Star Trek section in no time... Possible solicitation letters: /Sample solicitation /Another sample solicitation /Sample solicitation 3 /Skeptical solicitation Post announcements on newsgroups. But try to be careful to go slowly through them--make sure the post is specially-tailored to whatever group you post to. A good strategy is to pick a Wikipedia article, point out a few problems with it, and post a link to the article, inviting people to make changes. If you have posted an announcement to a newsgroup, will you please list it here: Newsgroups. If you don't know much about newsgroups, go to http://groups.google.com. Contact webmasters who have content-rich sites. Get them excited about Wikipedia, and invite them to make their content part of something great. Increase production of pages that are of interest to the search engines. Look at the Lycos 50 and the Google Zeitgeist and make sure that there are articles on all those topics. I would say that writing some simple short biographies of famous people would help. It will help when we have reliable and regularly updated stats on what is popular. One interesting thing about this is that other people may follow suit so that there is a "trend" on the site. Increase the standing of Wikipedia with Bomis. (There is a bug in the system which means that Wikipedia articles are not returned as often as they could be. We're working on this.) Work to get additional press coverage, following up on the NYT article as best we can. Ideas for articles about Wikipedia and other press events. Write a scholarly article about "Empirical studies in social epistemology" and get it published. Write to authors of good books on subjects we need help on and invite them to write an article on Wikipedia. Schools. Speak to any teachers you know and have them set up an exercise where their students write on various topics that are untouched. Students get school credit for their work, obviously and also get excited about participating. I've told my mother (who teaches grade 4), and her students are planning to do articles about australian mammals, some as-yet-untouched countries, etc. Promote free content: Whenever you make a post on other content sites, include a statement that your content is GFDL, public domain, or whatever... Get slashdotted once in a while. For example submit article to Slashdot when we reach 150,000 articles, 200,000, etc... dave 15:48 18 Jul 2003 (UTC) Add an RSS feed to syndicate the content. See meta:RDF spool Would it be possible to make a subscription to an "Article of the Day" email. So someone subscribes and then every day they get a different entry in their mailbox. This is something that websters.com and dictionary.com do for "word of the day" definitions. It would probably need someone to take charge of it and select which entries go out (the random link too often goes to a stub or a disabmiguation page) I'll (user:MrWeeble) volunteer. It shouldn't be too hard to do - there's plenty of free (as in speech as well as in beer) software for this kind of thing Just tell people about Wikipedia- like one-on-one Suggest publications that came with CD or DVD to include converted static dump of Wikipedia (including viewer applications, if required) in their CD or DVD. Even better, suggest them to write an article about Wikipedia too. (The above is just a start! Please add to the list!) Moved from Wikipedia:Village pump on Tuesday, November 26th, 2002: Wikipedia Evangelism Hi, I've mentioned this before and thought I'd mention it again. As I'm browsing the pedia I find articles that might interest friends/coworkers. I pop them a link in a quick hello message and ask them if they confirm the accuracy of the content...the response so far has been first one of wonder, then awe, then enthusiasm! And it's been a nice way to relate to some folks I'm not often in contact with. Anyway, I searched for evangelism and came up with nada around the 'pedia. Is there a place for sharing an evangelical/ 'help us' message of wikipedia? --dgd There's some stuff at Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership. (Hint which wouldn't help here but may in general: after searching, go to the "Power search" box at the bottom of the screen and check the box for the 'Wikipedia' namespace. You'll get various about, help, documentation, etc pages that aren't supposed to show up when you're searching for encyclopedia articles.) Also check the Meta-wikipedia where we keep general project discussion and misc stuff. --Brion 20:42 Oct 22, 2002 (UTC) How about doing what a lot of news web pages do? They have a box at the bottom, "Send this article to a friend" with some kind of java mailer to ship it off and a box for you to add a signed message. Ortolan88 I like that idea too. Especially, and I know this would require more overhead, but a way to keep my list of folks in memory so I don't have to open my email client (which may not be available esp, as I'm a student and working on diff. machines). How about mailto:root@localhost?Subject=Main%20Page&Body=Look%20at%20http%3A//www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page] ? The text needs to be changed, but it takes no more work than the Edit this page link to add at the bottom. Use a form with input text or a JavaScript inputbox() to an e-mail, then add subject=<title>&body=Look%20at%20<url-to-title> to the mailto. Geoffrey 23:27 Mar 21, 2003 (UTC) Add Wikipedia pages to ODP and Yahoo directories Add Wikipedia to your Yahoo profile's favorite sites Hemanshu 22:48, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC) Develop software like Google toolbar to reach Wikipedia articles and browse Wikipedia Hemanshu 23:31, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC) Wikimedia should run a Wikipedia advertisement competition. As far as I can tell, WikiPedia has no advertisements. I am on a college campus and one group I am associated with advertises for lots of free software (Firefox and OpenOffice mostly) that is useful to college students. We would definitely put up some Wikipedia posters if there were a couple simple advertisements we could print out. This should be done similarly to how the logo contests were. If the contests are run, the purpose should be to get at least four advertisements: fliers for letter/A4 paper in both black & white and color and posters for tabloid/A3 paper in both black & white and color, so that it is easy for people to print them off and put them up on bulletin boards and the like. (If advertisements are available and I cannot find them, they should be made much more obvious.) --Jamethknorth 02:25, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC) Invitations requesting permission to re-use somebody else's content in Wikipedia: Wikipedia:Boilerplate request for permission m:Standard email texts Use Social Networks as a way to communicate. Moved from Wikipedia:Village pump on Wednesday, June 9th, 2004: Invitation Letter Last weekend, I went to a number of places where there were guided tours, and that got me thinking...it would be nice if this person could contribute their knowledge of this place to Wikipedia... I think there should be a standard letter to invite people to share their knowledge with Wikipedia, for when you come across someone who knows a lot about something. Or does a simlar thing already exist? What do you think? RealGrouchy 00:03, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) I think it's a great idea. There's some sample solicitation letters linked from Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership. — Matt 02:02, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) Okay, so obviously I checked it out. Can someone draft a copy that can be printed out and handed to people (maybe like two to a page?). If nobody does, then I'll probably make one in time. RealGrouchy 17:39, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) Don't lose new and existing members! There are a lot of great ideas for bringing in new members here. But don't forget that, once they're here, we want to keep them! America Online is a great case study of how focusing too much on new members and not enough on serving existing members can actually lose overall membership. Wikipedia must be an useful, easy, and pleasurable experience for new users. The droves of contributors ensure that "useful" is not a problem, at least as far as content goes. To make it "easy", more attention needs to be paid the initial interface learning curve for newbies. Both "pleasurable" and "useful" are significantly impacted by outrageously long response times and frequent server down time, so we must be careful not to bring in new people faster than we can fix these ongoing problems. Give a person a bad taste in their mouth from their first experience with Wikipedia, and we may not see them again. (That's why I never went back to Ask Jeeves!, Encylopedia Britannica, and many other search and reference sites after finding more reliable ones.) -- Jeff Q 17:55, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) I know what you mean. I still consider myself a 'new member', but I spend a lot of time just looking through the hordes of confusing help pages before I made my first edit (I have never used the sandbox). Luckily, I added an entry to my user page telling people that I am a new user, and asking for suggestions, and someone told me what they felt was the most important tips and links. Now, I do things with more ease, because I can look at pages I've created (esp images) and see how others have edited my work, and I can adapt to that format in new pages. However, I'm a follow-the-instructions kind of guy; we should have procedural stuff to tell people what they need to know about different things, like editing a page, and adding an image, etc. Wikipedia:Picture tutorial is a good example. - RealGrouchy 23:14, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC) I think Wikipedia does a pretty good job of explaining all the pieces that one needs to do various things. The problem is perhaps more the sheer size and quantity of things one should learn to feel truly Wiki-knowledgeable. I'm always coming across useful pages by accident. I just ran into Wikipedia:Style and How-to Directory, some items of which I've read before, and some I've picked up by Wiki-osmosis, but I suspect this will give me another boost along the learning curve. I have two tips about the Sandbox I hadn't noticed mentioned anywhere: Most of the time, what you're testing is completely demonstrated in "Show preview", so you don't even need to worry about overwriting the main Sandbox — just keep your Edit window open until you're done, then Cancel or just close it. I ran across another Wikipedian (I forgot who) who had created their own Sandbox at User:<username>/Sandbox. It's easy to create such a page, and you never have to worry about what's in the main Sandbox or that someone might overwrite it, plus you can save stuff for extended testing. I'll bet there are similar "best practices" tips scattered around, maybe even not so scattered. It's hard to know with some much to learn and find. But that's a Good Thing, mostly. -- Jeff Q 00:05, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC) There is a real need to make inforamtion about the project, especially help pages more ordered and useful. To give an example although I can find many pages which tell me that I can have a personal Sandbox there is no documentation on how to achieve this. There isn't even a forum where newbies can post a question and get an answer to their problem/request from someone more experienced, or if it exists it is not well publicised.--ChemRad 13:56, 24 Feb 2005 (UTC) From Wikipedia:Publicity There are numerous ways you can help publicize Wikipedia, and thereby get more people to edit your work and make this into a real live encyclopedia. Just think--in a few years, Wikipedia is probably going to be amazing. (Feel free to add to this list.) Ask people to read and help: If you've done a lot of work in some particular area, post an announcement to a mailing list or newsgroup telling people about your work and asking them to help. If there hasn't been a lot of work in a particular area, post an announcement telling people about Wikipedia and asking them to help! Tell friends and colleagues. E-mail an announcement to them. Ask them to check your work, or to write pages on their areas of specialization, or their hobbies, or whatever. Publicize wiki pages: Submit particular wiki pages (e.g., your "baby" pages) to search engines. Link to Wikipedia from your websites. Linking to articles helps people find them and improves their ranking on search engines. Ask other people to link to Wikipedia. Publicize Wikipedia as a whole: Observe (in writing and smugly) on other wikis that Wikipedia is easily the fastest-growing wiki in the world. Add a link to Wikipedia to your e-mail or message board signature. Share your joy of using Wikipedia with your friends and other people. From Wikipedia talk:Publicity Hard to find help on how to publicise the Wikipedia So, I got it into my head that I wanted to add a link to the Wikipedia from my blog...easier said than done! It took me quite a while to find the right graphic. That is weird. I ended up finding Wikipedia:Banners and buttons Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership But nowhwere from the Main pages or the "Community Portal" is this or an alternative page listed! An shouldn't the first one above be linked from all over the place? With instructions on how to create the links?—iFaqeer (Talk to me!) 21:35, Jan 19, 2005 (UTC) PS: before I come out sounding self-important, I wasn't looking to do the 'Pedia any favours; my blog is new and I am trying to make it a home for good wholesome thought and content. I feel the Wikipedia is an important thing to point to.—iFaqeer (Talk to me!) 21:40, Jan 19, 2005 (UTC) I do agree!! Hello, I do agree with Ifaqeer. The link to Wikipedia:Banners and buttons should be more accessible. Bye Java Targeting publicity efforts Wikipedia is now one of the top 30 web sites on the net, period. It seems that anyone in the developed world who hasn't heard about us yet soon will, either through word of mouth or the inevitable media coverage for such an important site. Wikipedia is also currently dominating Google and other search engines, so there's really no need to solicit links anymore. At this point, I think publicity efforts would be more useful if they were targeted. For example we would like to recruit: Experts for fields where articles are languishing Translators Editors from cultural minorities not well represented here English-speaking residents of non-English-speaking countries The amount of publicity that Wikipedia gets from media outlets is very large. Even if we could muster enough posters and volunteers to distribute them to compete with sheer volume, we have little direct control over what the media will say about us (though Jimbo has been doing a good job acting as a spokesperson, at least for those outlets who ask us for our point of view). The best way I think we can make sure that the large amounts of free publicity we are getting is good publicity, is to improve what it is people see when they visit the site. Given that most criticism recently has been about accuracy and trust and the site claiming to be more than it's not (since people assume an "encyclopedia" is professionally reviewed), an excellent first step would be to make sure anything that's in an unacceptable state is clearly marked, even if we can't fix it right away. :Category:Wikipedia maintenance catalogs the hundreds of different ways this can be done. -- Beland 21:40, 15 December 2005 (UTC) Good points. I'm doing something like this - I have started WikiProject International development and: have tried to make it useful for people new to Wikipedia have provided "Jumping off points" so that task-oriented people can get right into editing am now starting to contact organizations (e.g. these ones): to let them know about the resource to ask them to put it in their newsletters to let them know that it is easy to edit Wikipedia, that if they do want to share their expertise, that would be great to let them know that if they don't want to get into editing, they are still very welcome to post suggestions or feedback on the Wikiproject talk page to suggest that reading and working on articles in Wikipedia is a great way for students to learn, and a great way for development volunteers to prepare for a placement we can contact relevant experts to ask for suggestions on resources and feedback on articles (at the same time ensuring that they know about Wikipedia's articles in their topic area) we can post a brief notice on development-oriented discussion lists I have added a section on translating to the project page - and as I travel in Asia I will be on the lookout for keen people to help (partly through my contact with local NGO's and development professionals). -- Singkong2005 04:26, 4 April 2006 (UTC) | Wikipedia:Building_Wikipedia_membership |@lemmatized far:4 server:2 handle:1 like:12 increase:6 traffic:4 wikipedia:74 help:21 improve:3 quality:1 quantity:2 content:12 total:1 amount:3 joy:2 utility:1 people:26 page:29 list:12 way:10 let:5 talk:5 reader:2 writer:2 go:11 become:1 one:13 main:5 focus:2 work:16 want:7 membership:5 new:12 brainstorm:1 please:4 add:16 idea:7 develop:2 sometimes:1 really:2 great:8 slight:1 variation:1 ok:1 old:1 also:4 think:11 someone:9 else:2 might:4 inadvertently:1 replicate:1 write:8 somehow:1 encyclopedia:8 link:25 solicit:9 thanks:1 larry:2 sanger:2 urban:2 poster:4 campaign:3 see:10 meta:3 wikimedia:2 postering:1 brainstormin:1 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6,380 | Meat_Puppets | "Meat Puppet" redirects here. For other uses, see Meat puppet. The Meat Puppets are an American rock band formed in January 1980, in Paradise Valley, a suburb of Phoenix, Arizona. The group's original lineup was Curt Kirkwood (guitar/vocals), his brother Cris Kirkwood (bass guitar), and Derrick Bostrom (drums). The Kirkwood brothers met Bostrom while attending Brophy Prep High School in Phoenix. The three then moved to Tempe, Arizona (a Phoenix suburb and home to Arizona State University) where the Kirkwood brothers purchased two adjacent homes, one of which had a "shed" in the back where they regularly practiced. This same house would years later be the scene of at least two tragedies. One of the more notable groups on the roster of SST Records (who released most of their albums), the Meat Puppets started as a punk rock band, but like most of their SST peers, the Meat Puppets established their own unique style, blending punk with country and psychedelic rock, and featuring Curt's warbling vocals. The Meat Puppets later gained significant exposure when the Kirkwood brothers served as guest musicians on Nirvana's MTV Unplugged performance in 1993. The band's 1994 album Too High to Die subsequently became their most successful release. The band broke up twice, in 1996 and 2002, but reunited again in 2006. The Meat Puppets have influenced various rock bands such as Dinosaur Jr, Nirvana, Pavement, and Soundgarden. History Early career (1980–1990) In the late 70's, drummer Derrick Bostrom played with guitarist Jack Knetzger in a band called Atomic Bomb Club, which began as a duo, but would come to include bassist Cris Kirkwood. The band played a few local shows and recorded some demos, but began to dissolve quickly thereafter. Derrick and Cris began rehearsing together with Cris' brother Curt Kirkwood by learning songs from Bostrom's collection of punk rock 45s. After briefly toying with the name The Bastions of Immaturity, they settled on the name Meat Puppets in June, 1980 after a song by Curt of the same name which appears on their first album. Their early works were made up of hardcore punk, and attracted the attention of Joe Carducci as he was starting to work with legendary punk label SST Records. Carducci suggested they sign with the label, and the Meat Puppets released their first album Meat Puppets in 1982, which among several new originals and a pair of heavily skewed Doc Watson and Bob Nolan covers, featured the songs "The Gold Mine" and "Melons Rising", two tunes Derrick and Cris originally had written and performed as Atomic Bomb Club previously. Reynolds, Simon. Rip It Up and Start Again: Postpunk 1978-1984. Faber, 2005. ISBN 0-571-21569-6, pg. 469 By the release of 1984's Meat Puppets II, the bandmembers "were so sick of the hardcore thing," according to Bostrom. "We were really into pissing off the crowd." Reynolds, pg. 470 The band experimented with acid rock and country western sounds. While the album had been recorded in early 1983, the album's release was delayed for a year by SST. Reynolds, pg. 471 Meat Puppets II turned the band into one of the leading bands on SST Records, and along with the Violent Femmes, the Gun Club and others, helped establish the genre called "cow punk". Meat Puppets II was followed by 1985's Up on the Sun. The album's sound resembled the folk-rock of The Byrds more than punk, and some of the group's fans accused the Meat Puppets of sounding dangerously like hippies and abandoning their punk roots. In keeping with their unconventional way of doing things, both Cris and Curt purposefully sang the entire album off key. Over the next decade, the Meat Puppets remained on SST and released a series of albums while touring relentlessly. Between tours they would regularly play small shows in bars around the Phoenix area such as "The Mason Jar" and "The Sun Club" in Tempe. After the release of Out My Way in 1986, however, the band was briefly sidelined by an accident when Curt's finger was broken after being slammed in their touring van's door. The accident delayed the band's next album, the psychedelic Mirage, until the next year. The final result was considered their most polished sounding album to date. Their next album, the heavier Huevos, came out less than six months afterward, in late summer of 1987. In stark contrast to its predecessor, Huevos was recorded in a swift, fiery fashion, with many first takes, and minimal second guessing. These recordings were completed in only a matter of days, and along with a few drawings and one of Curt's paintings taken from the wall to serve as cover art (a dish of three boiled eggs, a green pepper, and a bottle of Tabasco sauce), were all sent to SST shortly before the band returned to the road en route to their next gig. Monsters was released in 1989, featuring a new sound with extended jams such as "Touchdown King" and "Flight of the Fire Weasel". Major label career (1991–1995) As numerous bands from the seminal SST label, and other kindred punk-oriented indies, grappled with the "going major" decision, so did the Meat Puppets. Two years after their final studio recording for SST, 1989's Monsters, the trio released its major-label debut, Forbidden Places, on the indie-friendly London Records. Forbidden Places is now out of print. In late 1993, the 'Pups achieved mainstream popularity when Nirvana's Kurt Cobain, who became a fan after seeing them open for Black Flag, invited Cris and Curt to join him on MTV Unplugged for acoustic performances of "Plateau", "Oh Me" and "Lake of Fire" (all originally from Meat Puppets II). The resulting album, MTV Unplugged in New York, served as a swan song for Nirvana, as Cobain died 138 days after the concert. "Lake of Fire" became a cult favorite for its particularly wrenching vocal performance from Cobain. Subsequently, the Nirvana exposure and the strength of the single "Backwater" (their only charting single) helped lift the Meat Puppets to new commercial heights. The band's studio return was 1994's Too High To Die, produced by Butthole Surfers guitarist Paul Leary. The album featured "Backwater", a minor hit on alternative radio, and a hidden-track update of "Lake of Fire." Too High To Die earned the 'Pups a gold record (500,000 sold), outselling their previous records combined. 1995's No Joke! was the final album recorded by the original Meat Puppets lineup. Though the band's drug use included cocaine, heroin, LSD and many others, Cris' use of heroin and crack cocaine became so bad he never left his house except to obtain more drugs. At least two people (including one of his best friends and his wife) died of overdoses at his house in Tempe, AZ during this time. Shooting Star article at the Phoenix Times The Kirkwood brothers had always had a legendary appetite for illegal substances and during the tour to support Too High To Die with Stone Temple Pilots, the easy availability of drugs was too much for Cris. When it was over, he was severely addicted to cocaine. First hiatus and reunion (1996–2001) Derrick recorded a solo EP under the moniker Today's Sounds in 1996, and later on in 1999 took charge of re-issuing the Puppets' original seven records on Rykodisc as well as putting out their first live album, Live in Montana. Curt formed a new band in Austin, TX called the Royal Neanderthal Orchestra, but they changed their name to Meat Puppets for legal reasons and released a promotional EP entitled You Love Me in 1999, Golden Lies in 2000 and Live in 2002. The line-up was Curt (voc/git), Kyle Ellison (voc/git), Andrew Duplantis (voc/bass) and Shandon Sahm (drums). Sahm's father was the legendary fiddler-singer-songwriter Doug Sahm of The Sir Douglas Quintet and Texas Tornados. The concluding track to Classic Puppets entitled "New Leaf" also dates from this incarnation of the band. Break up (2002–2005) Around 2002, the Meat Puppets dissolved as Curt had gone on to release albums with the groups Eyes Adrift and Volcano. In 2005, he released his first solo album entitled Snow. Bassist Cris was arrested in December 2003 for attacking a security guard at the main post office in downtown Phoenix, AZ with the guard's baton. The guard shot Kirkwood in the stomach at least twice during the melee, causing serious gunshot injuries requiring major surgery. Kirkwood was subsequently denied bail, the judge citing Kirkwood's previous drug arrests and parole violations. He eventually went to prison at the Arizona state prison in Florence, AZ for felony assault. He was released in July 2005. Derrick Bostrom began a web site for the band about six months before the original trio stopped working together. The site went through many different permutations before it was essentially mothballed in 2003. In late 2005, Bostrom revamped it once again, this time as a "blog" for his recollections and as a place to share pieces of Meat Puppets history. Second reunion (2006–present) On March 24, 2006, Curt Kirkwood polled fans at his MySpace page with a bulletin that asked: "Question for all ! Would the original line up of the Meat Puppets interest anyone ? Feedback is good — do you want a reunion!?" The response from fans was overwhelmingly positive within a couple of hours, leading to speculation of a full-blown Meat Puppets reunion in the near future. However, a post made by Derrick Bostrom on the official Meat Puppets site dismissed the notion. In April 2006 Billboard reported that the Kirkwood brothers would reunite as the Meat Puppets without original drummer Derrick Bostrom. Primus drummer Tim Alexander was announced as Bostrom's replacement, a role that was later attributed to drummer Ted Marcus. The new lineup recorded a new full-length album, Rise to Your Knees, in mid-to-late 2006. The album was released by Anodyne Records on July 17, 2007. On January 20, 2007, The Meat Puppets brothers performed two songs during an Army of Anyone concert, at La Zona Rosa in Austin, Texas. The first song was played with Curt Kirkwood and Cris Kirkwood along with Army of Anyone's Ray Luzier and Dean DeLeo. Then the second song was played with original members Curt and Cris Kirkwood and new Meat Puppets drummer Ted Marcus. This was in the middle of Army of Anyone's set, which they listed as Meat Puppet Theatre on the evening's set list. The band performed several new songs in March at the South by Southwest festival. On March 28, 2007, the band announced a West Coast tour through their MySpace page. This is the first tour with original bassist Cris in eleven years. The tour continued into the east coast and midwest later in 2007. In 2008 they performed their classic second album live in its entirety at the ATP New York festival and are set to perform it again in London during December. The Meat Puppets entered the studio in the winter 2008 to record their next album. For the recording of the new album, the band recently parted ways with Anodyne and is currently signed to Megaforce. The new album, entitled Sewn Together, was released on May 12, 2009. Lineups Dates Members & prominent instruments Notes (1980-1996) Curt Kirkwood - vocals, guitar Cris Kirkwood - bass Derrick Bostrom - drumsThe original Meat Puppets line-up. (1996-1999) SPLIT (1999-2002) Curt Kirkwood - vocals, guitar Kyle Ellison - guitar Andrew Duplantis - bass Shandon Sahm - drums (2002-2006) SPLIT (2006-present) Curt Kirkwood - vocals, guitar Cris Kirkwood - bass Ted Marcus - drums Discography Studio albums Meat Puppets (1982) Meat Puppets II (1984) Up on the Sun (1985) Mirage (1987) Huevos (1987) Monsters (1989) Forbidden Places (1991) Too High to Die (1994) No Joke! (1995) Golden Lies (2000) Rise to Your Knees (2007) Sewn Together (2009) See also List of alternative rock artists List of musicians in the second wave of punk music Notes and references External links Meat Puppets reunited band's official web site, maintained by the band and Anodyne Records Flipside Interview - Meat Puppets interview from 1982 A Conversation with Meat Puppets' Curt Kirkwood (9/2007) Shooting Star Article on band from Phoenix New Times Trouser Press entry | Meat_Puppets |@lemmatized meat:36 puppet:36 redirect:1 us:1 see:3 american:1 rock:8 band:25 form:2 january:2 paradise:1 valley:1 suburb:2 phoenix:7 arizona:4 group:4 original:10 lineup:3 curt:18 kirkwood:22 guitar:6 vocal:6 brother:8 cris:15 bass:5 derrick:9 bostrom:11 drums:2 meet:1 attend:1 brophy:1 prep:1 high:6 school:1 three:2 move:1 tempe:3 home:2 state:2 university:1 purchase:1 two:6 adjacent:1 one:5 shed:1 back:1 regularly:2 practice:1 house:3 would:5 year:5 later:5 scene:1 least:3 tragedy:1 notable:1 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6,381 | Father_Christmas | Excerpt from Josiah King's The Examination and Tryal of Father Christmas (1686), published shortly after Christmas was reinstated as a holy day in England. Father Christmas is the name used in many English speaking countries for a symbolic figure associated with Christmas. A similar figure with the same name (in other languages) exists in several other countries, including France (Père Noël) Spain (Papá Noel), Portugal (Pai Natal), Italy (Babbo Natale) and Romania (Moş Crăciun). In past centuries, the English Father Christmas was also known as Old Father Christmas, Sir Christmas, and Lord Christmas. Father Christmas is said to reside in Lapland Province, Finland, sometimes in the mountains of Korvatunturi. Father Christmas typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, but was neither a gift bringer, nor particularly associated with children. The pre-modern representations of the gift-giver from church history namely Saint Nicholas, Dutch Sinterklaas and folklore merged with the British character Father Christmas to create the character known to Britons and Americans as Santa Claus. In the English-speaking world, the character called "Father Christmas" influenced the development in the United States of Santa Claus, and in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, most people now consider them to be interchangeable. However, although "Father Christmas" and "Santa Claus" have for most practical purposes been merged, historically the characters have different origins and are not identical. Some non-Americans, such as the authors C. S. Lewis and J. R. R. Tolkien, have insisted on the traditional form of Father Christmas in preference to Santa Claus. History The symbolic personification of Christmas as a merry old figure begins in the early 17th century, in the context of resistance to Puritan criticism of observation of the Christmas feast. He is "old" because of the antiquity of the feast itself, which its defenders saw as a good old Christian custom that should be kept. Allegory was popular at the time, and so "old Christmas" was given a voice to protest his exclusion, along with the form of a rambunctious, jolly old man. Scrooge's second visitor (wearing green) in Dickens's A Christmas Carol, a Victorian representation of Father Christmas The earliest recorded personification of Christmas appears to be Ben Jonson's creation in Christmas his Masque Christmas, His Masque - Ben Jonson dating from December 1616, in which Christmas appears "attir'd in round Hose, long Stockings, a close Doublet, a high crownd Hat with a Broach, a long thin beard, a Truncheon, little Ruffes, white shoes, his Scarffes, and Garters tyed crosse", and announces "Why Gentlemen, doe you know what you doe? ha! would you ha'kept me out? Christmas, old Christmas?" Later, in a masque by Thomas Nabbes, The Springs Glorie produced in 1638, "Christmas" appears as "an old reverend gentleman in furred gown and cap". The character continued to appear over the next 250 years, appearing as Sir Christmas, Lord Christmas, or Father Christmas, the last becoming the most common. A book dating from the time of the Commonwealth, The Vindication of CHRISTMAS or, His Twelve Yeares' Observations upon the Times http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlibrary/controller/subjectidsearch?id=11675&startid=32953&width=4&height=2&idx=2 involved "Old Christmas" advocating a merry, alcoholic Christmas and casting aspersions on the charitable motives of the ruling Puritans. Father Christmas dating back at least as far as the 17th century in Britain, pictures of him survive from that era, portraying him as a well-nourished bearded man dressed in a long, green, fur-lined robe. He typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, and was reflected as the "Ghost of Christmas Present" in the Charles Dickens's classic A Christmas Carol, a great genial man in a green coat lined with fur, who takes Scrooge through the bustling streets of London on the current Christmas morning, sprinkling the essence of Christmas onto the happy populace. Since the Victorian era, the merge of Father Christmas with the pre modern gift giver St Nicholas, Dutch Sinterklaas and folklore to create Santa Claus, its often referred to as Father Christmas the British version of Santa Claus which survives today. Nowadays, most Britons use the expressions Father Christmas and Santa Claus as synonyms. Some traditions also suggest that Santa Claus and St Nicholas are also synonymous. Traditionally, Father Christmas comes down the chimney to put presents under the Christmas tree or in children's rooms, in their stockings. Some families leave a glass of sherry or mulled wine, mince pies, biscuits, or chocolate and a carrot for Santa Claus's reindeer near the stocking(s) as a present for him. In some homes children write Christmas lists (of wished-for presents) and send them up the chimney or post them. Appearance "Father Christmas" is often synonymous with Santa Claus Father Christmas often appears as a large elderly aged male often around 70 years old. He is dressed in either a red or green snowsuit trimmed with white fur, a matching hat and dark boots. Often he carries a large brown sack filled with toys on his back. In fiction Father Christmas appears in many English language works of fiction, including C. S. Lewis's The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe (1950), Raymond Briggs's Father Christmas (1973) and the translation from French of Jean de Brunhoff's Babar and Father Christmas (originally Babar et le père Noël, 1941). J. R. R. Tolkien's The Father Christmas Letters are letters he wrote addressed to his children from Father Christmas. The J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia compares Tolkien's Father Christmas with L. Frank Baum's Santa Claus, as he appears in The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus: C. S. Lewis, a theologian as well as a children's author, prefers the traditional Father Christmas because of his clear connection with the Christian festival of Christmas. Into the Wardrobe :: a C. S. Lewis web site at cslewis.drzeus.net, accessed 26 January 2009 Names in various countries The term "Father Christmas" is used in translation in many countries and languages. "Father Christmas" (and in some cases "baby Jesus") is used in the following countries or languages: Afghanistan - "Baba Chaghaloo" Albania - "Babadimri" Austria - "Weihnachtsmann" (not "Nikolaus", who is celebrated on 6 December) Note: The Christkind (Christ-child) is the traditional giftbringer in most parts of Austria. Armenia - "Kaghand Papik" (Կաղանդ պապիկ) Azerbaijan - "Shakhta baba" (Şaxta baba) Bosnia and Herzegovina - "Deda Mraz"/"Деда Мраз" meaning Grand Father Frost(related with New Year's Eve) Brazil - "Papai Noel" Bulgaria - "Dyado Koleda" {Дядо Коледа - Дядо Мраз) Canada - Santa Claus, Père Noël Chile - "Viejito Pascuero" China - "Shengdan laoren" (Traditional Chinese: 聖誕老人, Simplified Chinese: 圣诞老人, Cantonese: Sing Dan Lo Yan, literally "The Old Man of Christmas") Cornish language - "Tas Nadelik" Costa Rica - "Colacho" (from San Nicolás). Note: The Niño dios ("Child God", meaning Jesus) is the traditional giftbringer. Croatia - "Djed Božićnjak" Czech Republic - "Ježíšek", which means "Infant-Jesus", is the traditional giftbringer in Czech Republic. Denmark - "Julemanden" Ecuador - "Papa Noel" Egypt - "Baba Noël" England - "Father Christmas", "Santa Claus" Estonia - "Jõuluvana" Finland - Finnish: "Joulupukki", Swedish: "Julgubben" France and French Canada - "Père Noël", "Papa Noël" Germany - "Weihnachtsmann" (not "Nikolaus", who is celebrated on December 6). Note: The Christkind (Christ-child) is the traditional giftbringer in Southern Germany. Greece / Cyprus - "Άγιος Βασίλης-Άyos Vasílis" Hungary - "Mikulás" or "Télapó" ("Winter Father") India - "Santa Claus" Iran - "Baba Noel" Iraq - "Baba Noel" Iceland - "Jólasveinninn" Indonesia - "Sinterklas" Ireland - "Daidí na Nollag" (Gaeilge for Father Christmas); Santa Claus or Santy are commonly used in English http://www.boards.ie/vbulletin/showthread.php?p=58366414#post58366414 Italy - "Babbo Natale" Japan - "サンタクロース" (Romaji: "Santakurōsu") Korea - "산타 클로스" ("santa kullosu") Latin - "Pater Natalis" or "Sanctus Nicholaus" Latvia - "Ziemassvētku vecītis" Lebanon - "Papa Noël" Lithuania - "Kalėdų Senelis" Macedonia - "Dedo Mraz" (Дедо Мраз) Malta - "Christmas Father" , "Father Christmas" , "San Niklaw/San Nikola(Saint Nicholas)" , "Santa Klaws(Santa Claus)" Mexico - "El Niñito Dios" ("Child God", meaning Jesus) Netherlands and Flanders - "Kerstman" ("Christmas man") Norway - "Julenissen" Pakistan - "Christmas Baba" Peru - "Papá Noel" Philippines - "Santa Klaus" Poland - "Święty Mikołaj", "Gwiazdor" Portugal - "Pai Natal" Romania - "Moş Crăciun" Russia - "Ded Moroz" ("Дед Мороз", which means Grandfather Frost and is associated mostly with New Year's Eve) Sápmi - "Juovlastállu" Sardinia - "Babbu Nadale" Scotland - "Daidaín na Nollaig" (Gaelic); "Father Christmas", "Santa (Claus)" (English) Serbia - "Božić Bata" meaning Christmas Boy("Божић Бата"; related with Christmas), "Deda Mraz" meaning Grandpa Frost("Деда Мраз"; related with New Year's Eve) Sri Lanka - "Naththal Seeya" South Africa (Afrikaans) - "Vader Kersfees" or "Kersvader" Spain and some of Spanish-speaking Latin America - "Papá Noel" ("Daddy or Father Christmas") or "San Nicolás" or "Santa Claus". The gift bringers are the Three Kings on 6 January Slovakia - "Ježiško" Slovenia - "Božiček" Sweden - "Jultomten" Switzerland - "Samichlaus" Turkey - "Noel Baba" (Note: In Turkey Noel Baba is related with New Year's Eve instead of Christmas.) Turkmenistan - "Aýaz baba" Ukraine - "Did Moroz" ("Дід Мороз") United Kingdom - "Father Christmas" and, but less often, "Santa Claus" United States - Santa Claus Uzbekistan - "Qor bobo" (Which means Grandfather Snow, and is related with New Year's Eve instead of Christmas. Wales - "Siôn Corn" (Welsh); "Father Christmas" (English) See also Christmas worldwide The Father Christmas Letters References | Father_Christmas |@lemmatized excerpt:1 josiah:1 king:2 examination:1 tryal:1 father:39 christmas:74 publish:1 shortly:1 reinstate:1 holy:1 day:1 england:2 name:3 use:5 many:3 english:7 speaking:3 country:5 symbolic:2 figure:3 associate:3 similar:1 language:5 exist:1 several:1 include:2 france:2 père:4 noël:7 spain:2 papá:3 noel:9 portugal:2 pai:2 natal:2 italy:2 babbo:2 natale:2 romania:2 moş:2 crăciun:2 past:1 century:3 also:4 know:3 old:11 sir:2 lord:2 say:1 reside:1 lapland:1 province:1 finland:2 sometimes:1 mountain:1 korvatunturi:1 typify:2 spirit:2 good:3 cheer:2 neither:1 gift:4 bringer:1 particularly:1 child:9 pre:2 modern:2 representation:2 giver:2 church:1 history:2 namely:1 saint:2 nicholas:4 dutch:2 sinterklaas:2 folklore:2 merge:3 british:2 character:5 create:2 briton:2 american:2 santa:24 claus:21 world:1 call:1 influence:1 development:1 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6,382 | Chupacabra | The Chupacabra or Chupacabras (pronunciation: /tʃupa'kabɾa/, from the Spanish words chupar, meaning "to suck", and cabra, meaning "goat"; literally "goat sucker"), also called El Chupacabra or El Chupacabras in Spanish, is a legendary cryptid rumored to inhabit parts of the Americas. It is associated more recently with sightings of an allegedly unknown animal in Puerto Rico (where these sightings were first reported), Mexico, and the United States, especially in the latter's Latin American communities. The name comes from the animal's reported habit of attacking and drinking the blood of livestock, especially goats. Physical descriptions of the creature vary. Eyewitness sightings have been claimed as early as 1990 in Puerto Rico, and have since been reported as far north as Maine, and as far south as Chile. It is supposedly a heavy creature, the size of a small bear, with a row of spines reaching from the neck to the base of the tail. Biologists and wildlife management officials view the Chupacabra as a contemporary legend. History The first reported attacks occurred in March 1995 in Puerto Rico. In this attack, eight sheep were discovered dead, each with three puncture wounds in the chest area and completely drained of blood. A few months later, in August, an eyewitness, Madelyne Tolentino, reported seeing the creature in the Puerto Rican town of Canóvanas, when as many as 150 farm animals and pets were reportedly killed. In 1975, similar killings in the small town of Moca, were attributed to El Vampiro de Moca (The Vampire of Moca). Initially it was suspected that the killings were committed by a Satanic cult; later more killings were reported around the island, and many farms reported loss of animal life. Each of the animals had their bodies bled dry through a series of small circular incisions. Puerto Rican comedian and entrepreneur Silverio Pérez is credited with coining the term chupacabras soon after the first incidents were reported in the press. Shortly after the first reported incidents in Puerto Rico, other animal deaths were reported in other countries, such as the Dominican Republic, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Brazil, United States, and Mexico. Reported sightings In July 2004, a rancher near San Antonio, Texas, killed a hairless dog-like creature, which was attacking his livestock. This animal, initially given the name the Elmendorf Beast, was later determined by DNA assay conducted at University of California, Davis to be a coyote with demodectic or sarcoptic mange. In October 2004, two more carcasses were found in the same area. Biologists in Texas examined samples from the two carcasses and determined they were also coyotes suffering from very severe cases of mange. In Coleman, Texas, a farmer named Reggie Lagow caught an animal in a trap he set up after the deaths of a number of his chickens and turkeys. The animal was described as resembling a mix of hairless dog, rat, and kangaroo. Lagow provided the animal to Texas Parks and Wildlife officials for identification, but Lagow reported in a September 17, 2006 phone interview with John Adolfi, founder of the Lost World Museum, that the "critter was caught on a Tuesday and thrown out in Thursday's trash." In April 2006, MosNews reported that the chupacabra was spotted in Russia for the first time. Reports from Central Russia beginning in March 2005 tell of a beast that kills animals and sucks out their blood. Thirty-two turkeys were killed and drained overnight. Reports later came from neighboring villages when 30 sheep were killed and had their blood drained. Finally, eyewitnesses were able to describe the chupacabra. In May 2006, experts were determined to track the animal down. In mid-August 2006, Michelle O'Donnell of Turner, Maine, described an "evil looking" rodent-like animal with fangs that had been found dead alongside a road. The animal was apparently struck by a car, and was unidentifiable. Photographs were taken and witness reports seem to be in relative agreement that the creature was canine in appearance, but in widely published photos seemed unlike any dog or wolf in the area. Photos from other angles seem to show a chow- or akita-mixed breed dog. It was reported that "the carcass was picked clean by vultures before experts could examine it". For years, residents of Maine have reported a mysterious creature and a string of dog maulings. In May 2007, a series of reports on national Colombia news reported more than 300 dead sheep in the region of Boyaca, and the capture of a possible specimen to be analyzed by zoologists at Universidad Nacional of Colombia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.eltiempo.com/nacion/boyaca/May 2, 2007/ARTICULO-WEB-NOTA_INTERIOR-3539469.html| title=Bestia' chupasangre asusta a los campesinos de Chiscas: ha matado 310 animales'|publisher=El Tiempo|date=May 2, 2007}}</ref> In August 2007, Phylis Canion found three animals in Cuero, Texas. She and her neighbors reported to have discovered three strange animal carcasses outside Canion's property. She took photographs of the carcasses and preserved the head of one in her freezer before turning it over for DNA analysis. Canion reported that nearly 30 chickens on her farm had been exsanguinated over a period of years, a factor which led her to connect the carcasses with the chupacabra legend. State Mammologist John Young estimated that the animal in Canion's pictures was a Gray Fox suffering from an extreme case of mange. In November 2007, biology researchers at Texas State University–San Marcos determined from DNA samples that the suspicious animal was a coyote. The coyote, however, had grayish-blue, mostly hairless skin and large fanged teeth, which caused it to appear different from a normal coyote. Additional skin samples were taken to attempt to determine the cause of the hair loss. On January 11, 2008, a sighting was reported at the province of Capiz in the Philippines. Some of the residents from the barangay believed that it was the chupacabra that killed eight chickens. The owner of the chickens saw a dog-like animal attacking his chickens. On August 8, 2008, a DeWitt County deputy, Brandon Riedel, filmed an unidentifiable animal along back roads near Cuero, Texas on his dashboard camera. The animal was about the size of a coyote but was hairless with a long snout, short front legs and long back legs. However, Reiter's boss, Sherrif Jode Zavesky, believes it may be the same species of coyote identified by Texas State University–San Marcos researchers in November 2007. Appearance The most common description of Chupacabra is a reptile-like being, appearing to have leathery or scaly greenish-gray skin and sharp spines or quills running down its back. This form stands approximately 3 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 m) high, and stands and hops in a similar fashion to a kangaroo. In at least one sighting, the creature was reported to hop 20 feet (6 m). This variety is said to have a dog or panther-like nose and face, a forked tongue, and large fangs. It is said to hiss and screech when alarmed, as well as leave behind a sulfuric stench. When it screeches, some reports assert that the chupacabra's eyes glow an unusual red which gives the witnesses nausea. Another description of Chupacabra, although not as common, describes a strange breed of wild dog. This form is mostly hairless and has a pronounced spinal ridge, unusually pronounced eye sockets, fangs, and claws. It is claimed that this breed might be an example of a dog-like reptile. Unlike conventional predators, the chupacabra is said to drain all of the animal's blood (and sometimes organs) through a single hole or two holes. Significant appearances in media The popularity of the Chupacabra has resulted in it being featured in several types of media. Some mystery novels that use aspects of the myth as the centerpoint of the plot have been published. Wagner, Lloyd. El Chupacabras: Trail of the Goatsucker. ISBN 059533315X Other kinds of books include those that provide a scientific explanation for the phenomena. Corrales, Scott. Chupacabras: And Other Mysteries. ISBN 1883729068 Authors, Mandy, and Clifton C. Phillips. Chupacabra, You Don't Scare Me! ISBN 0805944907 The Chupacabra has been featured in films such as Scooby-Doo and the Monster of Mexico and in independent film productions including:Chupacabra: Dark Seas, starring John Rhys-Davies;Guns of El Chupacabra, starring Scott Shaw;El Chupacabras; andVuelve el Chupacabras. Welsh rock band Super Furry Animals have a song on the 1997 album "Radiator" called "Chupacabras". Chupacabras(lyrics). Super Furry Animals. Radiator (album). 1997 An entire episode of The X-Files series, "El Mundo Gira", is devoted to the Chupacabra. In the episode "Got Your Goat" of Dexter's Laboratory the chupacabras is pictured . CNN's Ed Lavandera has described the Chupacabra as the "Bigfoot of Latino culture" and has stated that "El Chupacabra also symbolizes the fear of something that doesn't exist". Following the incident in Cuero, Texas the popularity of the Chupacabra myth was receiving global attention. Phylis Canion, who was responsible for capturing the alleged specimen, claimed that t-shirts highlighting the event were shipped to locations such as Italy, Guam, and Iraq. The publicity that Cuero received following this event has led to some suggesting changing the town's mascot. In July 2008, History's series Monster Quest'' featured the Texas carcasses, which were determined to be dogs and coyotes. Toy manufacturer Kidrobot produced a vinyl toy called "El Chupacabra", which comes with a goat skull and glass of blood. It wears a Mexican wrestling mask. References External links Alleged chupacabra likely a "Xolo dog"; story a hoax | Chupacabra |@lemmatized chupacabra:22 chupacabras:10 pronunciation:1 tʃupa:1 kabɾa:1 spanish:2 word:1 chupar:1 mean:2 suck:2 cabra:1 goat:5 literally:1 sucker:1 also:3 call:3 el:12 legendary:1 cryptid:1 rumor:1 inhabit:1 part:1 america:1 associate:1 recently:1 sighting:6 allegedly:1 unknown:1 animal:24 puerto:6 rico:4 first:5 report:25 mexico:3 united:2 state:6 especially:2 latter:1 latin:1 american:1 community:1 name:3 come:3 habit:1 attacking:1 drink:1 blood:6 livestock:2 physical:1 description:3 creature:7 vary:1 eyewitness:3 claim:3 early:1 since:1 far:2 north:1 maine:3 south:1 chile:2 supposedly:1 heavy:1 size:2 small:3 bear:1 row:1 spine:2 reach:1 neck:1 base:1 tail:1 biologist:2 wildlife:2 management:1 official:2 view:1 contemporary:1 legend:2 history:2 attack:4 occur:1 march:2 eight:2 sheep:3 discover:2 dead:3 three:3 puncture:1 wound:1 chest:1 area:3 completely:1 drain:4 month:1 later:4 august:4 madelyne:1 tolentino:1 see:1 rican:2 town:3 canóvanas:1 many:2 farm:3 pet:1 reportedly:1 kill:6 similar:2 killing:3 moca:3 attribute:1 vampiro:1 de:2 vampire:1 initially:2 suspect:1 commit:1 satanic:1 cult:1 around:1 island:1 loss:2 life:1 body:1 bleed:1 dry:1 series:4 circular:1 incision:1 comedian:1 entrepreneur:1 silverio:1 pérez:1 credit:1 coin:1 term:1 soon:1 incident:3 press:1 shortly:1 death:2 country:1 dominican:1 republic:1 argentina:1 bolivia:1 colombia:3 honduras:1 salvador:1 nicaragua:1 panama:1 peru:1 brazil:1 july:2 rancher:1 near:2 san:3 antonio:1 texas:10 hairless:5 dog:11 like:6 give:2 elmendorf:1 beast:2 determine:6 dna:3 assay:1 conduct:1 university:3 california:1 davis:1 coyote:7 demodectic:1 sarcoptic:1 mange:3 october:1 two:4 carcass:7 find:3 examine:2 sample:3 coyotes:1 suffer:2 severe:1 case:2 coleman:1 farmer:1 reggie:1 lagow:3 catch:2 trap:1 set:1 number:1 chicken:5 turkey:2 describe:5 resemble:1 mix:1 rat:1 kangaroo:2 provide:2 park:1 identification:1 september:1 phone:1 interview:1 john:3 adolfi:1 founder:1 lost:1 world:1 museum:1 critter:1 tuesday:1 throw:1 thursday:1 trash:1 april:1 mosnews:1 spot:1 russia:2 time:1 central:1 beginning:1 tell:1 thirty:1 overnight:1 neighbor:2 village:1 finally:1 able:1 may:5 expert:2 track:1 mid:1 michelle:1 donnell:1 turner:1 evil:1 look:1 rodent:1 fang:3 alongside:1 road:2 apparently:1 strike:1 car:1 unidentifiable:2 photograph:2 take:3 witness:2 seem:3 relative:1 agreement:1 canine:1 appearance:3 widely:1 publish:2 photo:2 unlike:2 wolf:1 angle:1 show:1 chow:1 akita:1 mixed:1 breed:3 pick:1 clean:1 vulture:1 could:1 year:2 resident:2 mysterious:1 string:1 maulings:1 national:1 news:2 region:1 boyaca:2 capture:2 possible:1 specimen:2 analyze:1 zoologist:1 universidad:1 nacional:1 ref:2 cite:1 url:1 http:1 www:1 eltiempo:1 com:1 nacion:1 articulo:1 web:1 html:1 title:1 bestia:1 chupasangre:1 asusta:1 los:1 campesinos:1 chiscas:1 ha:1 matado:1 animales:1 publisher:1 tiempo:1 date:1 phylis:2 canion:5 cuero:4 strange:2 outside:1 property:1 preserve:1 head:1 one:2 freezer:1 turn:1 analysis:1 nearly:1 exsanguinated:1 period:1 factor:1 lead:2 connect:1 mammologist:1 young:1 estimate:1 picture:2 gray:2 fox:1 extreme:1 november:2 biology:1 researcher:2 marcos:2 suspicious:1 however:2 grayish:1 blue:1 mostly:2 skin:3 large:2 fanged:1 teeth:1 cause:2 appear:2 different:1 normal:1 additional:1 attempt:1 hair:1 january:1 province:1 capiz:1 philippine:1 barangay:1 believe:2 owner:1 saw:1 dewitt:1 county:1 deputy:1 brandon:1 riedel:1 film:3 along:1 back:3 dashboard:1 camera:1 long:2 snout:1 short:1 front:1 leg:2 reiter:1 bos:1 sherrif:1 jode:1 zavesky:1 specie:1 identify:1 common:2 reptile:2 leathery:1 scaly:1 greenish:1 sharp:1 quill:1 run:1 form:2 stand:2 approximately:1 foot:2 high:1 hop:2 fashion:1 least:1 variety:1 say:3 panther:1 nose:1 face:1 forked:1 tongue:1 hiss:1 screech:2 alarmed:1 well:1 leave:1 behind:1 sulfuric:1 stench:1 assert:1 eye:2 glow:1 unusual:1 red:1 nausea:1 another:1 although:1 wild:1 pronounced:2 spinal:1 ridge:1 unusually:1 socket:1 claw:1 might:1 example:1 conventional:1 predator:1 sometimes:1 organ:1 single:1 hole:2 significant:1 medium:2 popularity:2 result:1 feature:3 several:1 type:1 mystery:2 novel:1 use:1 aspect:1 myth:2 centerpoint:1 plot:1 wagner:1 lloyd:1 trail:1 goatsucker:1 isbn:3 kind:1 book:1 include:2 scientific:1 explanation:1 phenomenon:1 corrales:1 scott:2 author:1 mandy:1 clifton:1 c:1 phillips:1 scare:1 scooby:1 doo:1 monster:2 independent:1 production:1 dark:1 sea:1 star:2 rhys:1 davy:1 gun:1 shaw:1 andvuelve:1 welsh:1 rock:1 band:1 super:2 furry:2 song:1 album:2 radiator:2 lyric:1 entire:1 episode:2 x:1 file:1 mundo:1 gira:1 devote:1 get:1 dexter:1 laboratory:1 cnn:1 ed:1 lavandera:1 bigfoot:1 latino:1 culture:1 symbolize:1 fear:1 something:1 exist:1 follow:2 receive:2 global:1 attention:1 responsible:1 allege:2 shirt:1 highlight:1 event:2 ship:1 location:1 italy:1 guam:1 iraq:1 publicity:1 suggest:1 change:1 mascot:1 quest:1 toy:2 manufacturer:1 kidrobot:1 produce:1 vinyl:1 skull:1 glass:1 wear:1 mexican:1 wrestling:1 mask:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 likely:1 xolo:1 story:1 hoax:1 |@bigram el_chupacabra:4 puerto_rico:4 puerto_rican:2 dominican_republic:1 argentina_bolivia:1 bolivia_chile:1 el_salvador:1 nicaragua_panama:1 panama_peru:1 san_antonio:1 http_www:1 san_marcos:2 coyote_coyote:1 scooby_doo:1 super_furry:2 furry_animal:2 el_mundo:1 external_link:1 |
6,383 | Germanic_peoples | The Germanic peoples (also called Teutonic in older literature) are a historical ethno-linguistic group, originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Indo-European Germanic languages which diversified out of Common Germanic in the course of the Pre-Roman Iron Age. The descendants of these peoples became, and in some areas contributed to, the ethnic groups of North Western Europe: the Danish, Norwegians, Swedish, Finland-Swedes, Faroese, English, Icelanders, the Germans, the Austrians, Dutch and Flemish on the continent, and the inhabitants of Switzerland and Friesland. Migrating Germanic peoples spread throughout Europe in Late Antiquity (300-600) and the Early Middle Ages. Germanic languages became dominant along the Roman borders (Austria, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium and England), but in the rest of the (western) Roman provinces, the Germanic immigrants adopted Latin (Romance) dialects. Furthermore, all Germanic peoples were eventually Christianized to varying extents. The Germanic people played a large role in transforming the Roman empire into Medieval Europe, and they contributed in developing a common identity, history, and culture which transcended linguistic borders. Ethnonym A depiction on the 8th century CE Tjängvide image stone often interpreted as Odin riding the eight-legged horse Sleipnir. Germanic Various etymologies for Latin Germani are possible. As an adjective, germani is simply the plural of the adjective germanus (from germen, "seed" or "offshoot"), which has the sense of "related" or "kindred" Whence derives Catalan germà, Spanish hermano and Portuguese irmão, "brother" or "authentic". According to Strabo, the Romans introduced the name Germani, because the Germanic tribes were the authentic Celts (; gnisíous Galátas). Strabo, Geogr. 7.1.2. Cf. L. Rübekeil, Suebica. Völkernamen und Ethnos, Innsbruck 1992, 182-7. Alternatively, it may refer from this use based on Roman experience of the Germanic tribes as allies of the Celts. The ethnonym seems to be attested in the Fasti Capitolini inscription for the year 222, DE GALLEIS INSVBRIBVS ET GERM(aneis), where it may simply refer to "related" peoples, namely related to the Gauls. Furthermore, since the inscriptions were erected only in 17 to 18 BCE, the word may be a later addition to the text. Another early mentioning of the name, this time by Poseidonios (writing around 80 BCE), is also dubious, as it only survives in a quotation by Athenaios (writing around 190 CE); the mention of Germani in this context was more likely inserted by Athenaios rather than by Poseidonios himself. Rübekeil, Suebica, Innsbruck 1992, 161f. The writer who apparently introduced the name "Germani" into the corpus of classical literature is Julius Caesar. He uses Germani in two slightly differing ways: one to describe any non-gaulic peoples of Germania, and one to denote the Germani Cisrhenani, a somewhat diffuse group of peoples in north-eastern Gaul, who cannot clearly be identified as either Celtic or Germanic. In this sense, Germani may be a loan from a Celtic exonym applied to the Germanic tribes, based on a word for "neighbour". Tacitus suggests that it might be from a tribe which changed its name after the Romans adapted it, but there is no evidence for this. The suggestion deriving the name from Gaulish term for "neighbour" invokes Old Irish gair, Welsh ger, "near", Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology 1966) Irish gearr, "cut, short" (a short distance), from a Proto-Celtic root *gerso-s, further related to ancient Greek chereion, "inferior" and English gash. McBain's An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language The Proto-Indo-European root could be of the form *khar-, *kher-, *ghar-, *gher-, "cut", from which also Hittite kar-, "cut", whence also Greek character. Apparently, the Germanic tribes did not have a self-designation ("endonym") that included all Germanic-speaking people but excluded all non-Germanic people. Non-Germanic peoples (primarily Celtic, Roman, Greek, the citizens of the Roman Empire), on the other hand, were called *walha- (this word lives forth in names such as Wales, Welsh, Cornwall, Walloons, Vlachs etc.). Yet, the name of the Suebi — which designated a larger group of tribes and was used almost indiscriminately with Germani in Caesar — was possibly a Germanic equivalent of the Latin name (*swē-ba- "authentic"). L. Rübekeil, Suebica. Völkernamen und Ethnos, Innsbruck 1992, 187-214. Teutonic, Deutsch Trying to identify a contemporary vernacular term and the associated nation with a classical name, Latin writers from the 10th century onwards used the learnèd adjective teutonicus (originally derived from the Teutones) to refer to East Francia ("Regnum Teutonicum") and its inhabitants. This usage is still partly present in modern English; hence the English use of "Teutons" in reference to the Germanic peoples in general besides the specific tribe of the Teutons defeated at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae in 102 BCE. The generic *þiuda- "people" occurs in many personal names such as Thiud-reks and also in the ethnonym of the Swedes from a cognate of Old English Sweo-ðēod and Old Norse: Sui-þióð (see e.g. Sö Fv1948;289). Additionally, þiuda- appears in Angel-ðēod ("Anglo-Saxon people") and Gut-þiuda ("Gothic people"). Hellquist, E. (1922). Svensk etymologisk ordbok p. 917 The adjective derived from this noun, *þiudiskaz, "popular", was later used with reference to the language of the people in contrast to the Latin language (earliest recorded example 786). The word is continued in German Deutsch (meaning German), English "Dutch", Dutch Duits and Diets (the latter referring to Dutch, the former meaning German) and Swedish/Danish tysk (meaning German). Classification By the 1st century CE, the writings of Caesar, Tacitus and other Roman era writers indicate a division of Germanic-speaking peoples into tribal groupings centred on: the rivers Oder and Vistula/Weichsel (East Germanic tribes), the lower Rhine river (Istvaeones), the river Elbe (Irminones), Jutland and the Danish islands (Ingvaeones). The Sons of Mannus, Istvaeones, Irminones, and Ingvaeones are collectively called West Germanic tribes. In addition, those Germanic people who remained in Scandinavia are referred to as North Germanic. These groups all developed separate dialects, the basis for the differences among Germanic languages down to the present day. Detail of the Uppland Rune Inscription 871 (12th century) The division of peoples into West Germanic, East Germanic, and North Germanic is a modern linguistic classification. Many Greek scholars only classified Celts and Scythians in the Northwest and Northeast of the Mediterranean and this classification was widely maintained in Greek literature until Late Antiquity. Latin-Greek ethnographers (Tacitus, Pliny the Elder, Ptolemy, and Strabo) mentioned in the first two centuries the names of peoples they classified as Germanic along the Elbe, the Rhine, and the Danube, the Vistula and on the Baltic Sea. Tacitus mentioned 40, Ptolemy 69 peoples. Classical ethnography applied the name Suebi to many tribes in the first century. It appeared that this native name had all but replaced the foreign name Germanic. After the Marcomannic wars the Gothic name steadily gained importance. Some of the ethnic names mentioned by the ethnographers of the first two centuries on the shores of the Oder and the Vistula (Gutones, Vandali) reappear from the 3rd century on in the area of the lower Danube and north of the Carpathian Mountains. For the end of the 5th century the Gothic name can be used - according to the historical sources - for such different peoples like the Goths in Gaul, Iberia and Italy, the Vandals in Africa, the Gepids along the Tisza and the Danube, the Rugians, Sciri and Burgundians, even the Iranian Alans. These peoples were classified as Scyths and often deducted from the ancient Getae (most important: Cassiodor/Jordanes, Getica around 550). Origins Bronze Age Map of the Nordic Bronze Age culture, around 1200 BCE Regarding the question of ethnic origins, evidence developed by archaeologists and linguists suggests that a people or group of peoples sharing a common material culture dwelt in a region defined by the Nordic Bronze Age culture between 1700 BCE and 600 BCE. The Germanic tribes then inhabited southern Scandinavia and Schleswig, Hermann Kinder and Werner Hilgemann, The Penguin Atlas of World History; translated by Ernest A. Menze ; with maps designed by Harald and Ruth Bukor. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-051054-0 1988 Volume 1. p.109. but subsequent Iron Age cultures of the same region, like Wessenstedt (800 to 600 BCE) and Jastorf, are also in consideration. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition, 20:67 The change of Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Germanic has been defined by the first sound shift (or Grimm's law) and must have occurred when mutually intelligible dialects or languages in a Sprachbund were still able to convey such a change to the whole region. So far it has been impossible to date this event conclusively. The precise interaction between these peoples is not known, however, they are tied together and influenced by regional features and migration patterns linked to prehistoric cultures like Hügelgräber, Urnfield, and La Tene. A deteriorating climate in Scandinavia around 850 BCE to 760 BCE and a later and more rapid one around 650 BCE might have triggered migrations to the coast of Eastern Germany and further towards the Vistula. A contemporary northern expansion of Hallstatt drew part of these peoples into the Celtic hemisphere, including nordwestblock areas and the region of Elp culture 1979: Nederland in de bronstijd, J.J. Butler (1800 BCE to 800 BCE). At around this time, this culture became influenced by Hallstatt techniques of how to extract bog iron from the ore in peat bogs, ushering in the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Early Iron Age The Tollund Man was buried in Jutland in the 4th Century BCE, a historically important area inhabited by the Germanic peoples. His corpse is one of several well preserved bog bodies from the Pre-Roman Iron Age. Archeological evidence suggests a relatively uniform Germanic people were located at about 750 BCE from the Netherlands to the Vistula and in Southern Scandinavia. In the west the coastal floodplains were populated for the first time, since in adjacent higher grounds the population had increased and the soil became exhausted. Leo Verhart, Op zoek naar de Kelten, 2006,ISBN 90 5345 303 2, p. 81-82 At about 250 BCE, some expansion to the south had occurred and five general groups can be distinguished: North Germanic in southern Scandinavia, excluding Jutland; North Sea Germanic, along the North Sea and in Jutland; Rhine-Weser Germanic, along the middle Rhine and Weser; Elbe Germanic, along the middle Elbe; and East Germanic, between the middle Oder and the Vistula. This concurs with linguistic evidence pointing at the development of five linguistic groups, mutually linked into sets of two to four groups that shared linguistic innovations. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition, 22:641-642 This period witnessed the advent of Celtic culture of Hallstatt and La Tene signature in previous Northern Bronze Age territory, especially to the western extends. However, some proposals by writers including Joke Delrue, University Gent suggest this Celtic superstrate was weak, while the general view in the Netherlands holds that this Celtic influence did not involve intrusions at all and assume fashion and a local development from Bronze Age culture. Leo Verhart, Op Zoek naar de Kelten, Nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn, ISBN 90 5345 303 2, 2006, p. 67 It is generally accepted such a Celtic superstratum was virtually absent to the East, featuring the Germanic Wessenstedt and Jastorf cultures. The Celtic influence and contacts between Gaulish and early Germanic culture along the Rhine is assumed as the source of a number of Celtic loanwords in Proto-Germanic. Frankenstein and Rowlands (1978), and Wells (1980) have suggested late Hallstatt trade contact to be a direct catalyst for the development of an elite class that came into existence around northeastern France, the Middle Rhine region, and adjacent Alpine regions (Collis 1984:41), culminating to new cultural developments and the advent of the classical Gaulish La Tene Culture Dr. Charles Orser, Complexity, Trade, and Death: Analysis of the shift in Burial Practices during the Late La Tène Period The development of La Tene culture extended to the north around 200 to 150 BCE, including the North German Plain, Denmark and Southern Scandinavia: Parker Pearson 1989:202 "In certain cremation graves, situated at some distance from other graves, Celtic metalwork appears: brooches and swords, together with wagons, Roman cauldrons and drinking vessels. The area of these rich graves is the same as the places where later (the first century CE) princely graves are found. A ruling class seems to have emerged, distinguished by the possession of large farms and rich gravegifts such as weapons for the men and silver objects for the women, imported earthenware and Celtic items." Looijenga, Jantina Helena, Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent CE 150-700, II.2, From the pre-Roman Iron Age to the late-Germanic Iron Age, University of Groningen, 1997 The first Germani in Roman ethnography cannot be clearly identified as either Germanic or Celtic in the modern ethno-linguistic sense, and it has been generally held the traditional clear cut division along the Rhine between both ethnic groups was primarily motivated by Roman politics. Caesar described the Eburones as a Germanic tribe on the Gallic side of the Rhine, and held other tribes in the neighbourhood as merely calling themselves of Germanic stock. Even though names like Eburones and Ambiorix were Celtic and, archeologically, this area shows strong Celtic influences, the problem is difficult. Some 20th century writers consider the possibility of a separate "Nordwestblock" identity of the tribes settled along the Rhine at the time, assuming the arrival of a Germanic superstrate from the 1st century BCE and a subsequent "Germanization" or language replacement through the "elite-dominance" model. by Rolf Hachmann, Georg Kossack and Hans Kuhn, Völker zwischen Germanen und Kelten, 1986, p. 183-212 However, immigration of Germanic Batavians from Hessen in the northern extent of this same tribal region is, archeologically speaking, hardly noticeable and certainly did not populate an exterminated country, very unlike Tacitus suggested. Here, probably due to the local indigenous pastoral way of life, the acceptance of Roman culture turned out to be particularly slow and, contrary to expected, the indigenous culture of the previous Eburones rather seems to have absorbed the intruding (Batavian) element, thus making it very hard to define the real extents of the pre-Roman Germanic indigenous territories. Leo Verhart, Op Zoek naar de Kelten, Nieuwe archeologische ontdekkingen tussen Noordzee en Rijn, ISBN 90 5345 303 2, 2006, p. 175-176 History Roman Empire period Germanic expansions during early Roman times are known only generally, but it is clear that the forebears of the Goths were settled on the southern Baltic shore by 100 A.D. The early Germanic tribes are assumed to have spoken mutually intelligible dialects, in the sense that Germanic languages derive from a single earlier parent language. No written records of such a parent language exists. The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, 15th edition, 20:640-642 From what we know of scanty early written material, by the fifth century CE the Germanic languages were already "sufficiently different to render communication between the various peoples impossible". Lucien Musset, The Germanic Invasions, the Making of Europe 400-600 AD, ISBN 1-56619-326-5, 1993 Barnes & Noble Books, p. 12-13 Some evidence point to a common pantheon made up of several different chronological layers. However, as for mythology only the Scandinavian one (see Germanic mythology) is sufficiently known. Some traces of common traditions between various tribes are indicated by Beowulf and the Volsunga saga. One indication of their shared identity is their common Germanic name for non-Germanic peoples, *walhaz (plural of *walhoz), from which the local names Welsh, Wallis, Walloon and others were derived. An indication of an ethnic unity is the fact that the Romans knew them as one and gave them a common name, Germani (this is the source of our German and Germanic, see Etymology above), although it was well known for the Romans to give geographical rather than cultural names to peoples. The very extensive practice of cremation deprives us of anthropological comparative material for the earliest periods to support claims of a longstanding ethnic isolation of a common (Nordic) strain. In the absence of large-scale political unification, such as that imposed forcibly by the Romans upon the peoples of Italy, the various tribes remained free, led by their own hereditary or chosen leaders. Collision with Rome Map showing the pre-Migration Age distribution of the Germanic tribes in Proto-Germanic times, and stages of their expansion up to 50 BCE, 100 CE and 300 CE. The extent of the Roman Empire in 68 BCE and 117 CE is also shown. By the late 2nd century BCE, Roman authors recount, Gaul, Italy and Hispania were invaded by migrating Germanic tribes. This culminated in military conflict with the armies of the Roman Republic, in particular those of the Roman Consul Gaius Marius. Six decades later, Julius Caesar invoked the threat of such attacks as one justification for his annexation of Gaul to Rome. As Rome expanded to the Rhine and Danube rivers, it incorporated many Celtic societies into the Empire. The tribal homelands to the north and east emerged collectively in the records as Germania. The peoples of this area were sometimes at war with Rome, but also engaged in complex and long-term trade relations, military alliances, and cultural exchanges with Rome as well. The Cimbri and Teutoni incursions into Roman Italy were thrust back in 101 BCE. These invasions were written up by Caesar and others as presaging of a Northern danger for the Roman Republic, a danger that should be controlled. In the Augustean period there was — as a result of Roman activity as far as the Elbe River — a first definition of the "Germania magna": from Rhine and Danube in the West and South to the Vistula and the Baltic Sea in the East and North. Caesar's wars helped establish the term Germania. The initial purpose of the Roman campaigns was to protect Transalpine Gaul by controlling the area between the Rhine and the Elbe. In 9 CE a revolt of their Germanic subjects headed by the supposed Roman ally, Arminius, (along with his decisive defeat of Publius Quinctilius Varus and the destruction of 3 Roman legions in the surprise attack on the Romans at the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest) ended in the withdrawal of the Roman frontier to the Rhine. At the end of the 1st century two provinces west of the Rhine called Germania inferior and Germania superior were established. Important medieval cities like Aachen, Cologne, Trier, Mainz, Worms and Speyer were part of these Roman provinces. The Germania by Gaius Cornelius Tacitus, an ethnographic work on the diverse group of Germanic tribes outside of the Roman Empire, is our most important source on the Germanic peoples of the 1st century. Migration Period 2nd century A.D. to 5th century A.D. simplified migrations. During the 5th century, as the Western Roman Empire lost military strength and political cohesion, numerous Germanic peoples, under pressure from population growth and invading Asian groups, began migrating en masse in far and diverse directions, taking them to Great Britain and as far south through present day Continental Europe to the Mediterranean and northern Africa. Over time, this wandering meant intrusions into other tribal territories, and the ensuing wars for land escalated with the dwindling amount of unoccupied territory. Wandering tribes then began staking out permanent homes as a means of protection. Much of this resulted in fixed settlements from which many, under a powerful leader, expanded outwards. A defeat meant either scattering or merging with the dominant tribe, and this continual process of assimilation was how nations were formed. In Denmark the Jutes merged with the Danes, in Sweden the Geats merged with the Swedes. In England, the Angles merged with the Saxons and other groups as well as a large number of natives to form the Anglo-Saxons. A direct result of the Roman retreat was the disappearance of imported products like ceramics and coins, and a return to virtually unchanged local Iron Age production methods. According to recent views this has caused confusion for decades, and theories assuming the total abandonment of the coastal regions to account for an archaeological time gap that never existed have been renounced. Instead, it has been confirmed that the Frisian graves has been used without interruption between the 4th and 9th century and that inhabited areas show continuity with the Roman period in revealing coins, jewellery and ceramics of the 5th century. Also, people continued to live in the same three-aisled farmhouse, while to the east completely new types of buildings arose. More to the south, in Belgium, archeological results of this period point to immigration from the north. J.H.F. Bloemers & T. van Dorp. Pre- en Protohistorie van de Lage Landen. De Haan/Open Universiteit, 1991, ISBN 90 269 4448 9, NUGI 644, pp 329-338 Role in the Fall of Rome Some of the Germanic tribes are frequently blamed in popular depictions of the decline of the Roman Empire in the late 5th century. Professional historians and archaeologists have since the 1950s shifted their interpretations in such a way that the Germanic peoples are no longer seen as invading a decaying empire but as being co-opted into helping defend territory the central government could no longer adequately administer. Individuals and small groups from Germanic tribes had long been recruited from the territories beyond the limes (i.e., the regions just outside the Roman Empire), and some of them had risen high in the command structure of the army. Then the Empire recruited entire tribal groups under their native leaders as officers. Assisting with defense eventually shifted into administration and then outright rule, as Roman government passed into the hands of Germanic leaders. Odoacer, who deposed Romulus Augustulus, is the ultimate example. The presence of successor states controlled by a nobility from one of the Germanic tribes is evident in the 6th century - even in Italy, the former heart of the Empire, where Odoacer was followed by Theodoric the Great, king of the Ostrogoths, who was regarded by Roman citizens and Gothic settlers alike as legitimate successor to the rule of Rome and Italy. Early Middle Ages The transition of the Migration period to the Middle Ages proper takes place over the course of the second half of the 1st millennium. It is marked by the Christianization of the Germanic peoples and the formation of stable kindoms replacing the mostly tribal structures of the Migration period. In continental Europe, this is the rise of Francia in the Merovingian period, eclipsing lesser kingdoms such as Alemannia. In England, the Wessex hegemony as the nucleus of the unification of England, Scandinavia is in the Vendel period and enters the extremely successful Viking Age, with expansion to Britain and Iceland in the west and as far as Russia and Greece in the east. The various Germanic tribal cultures begin their transformation into the larger nations of later history, English, Norse and German, and in the case of Burgundy, Lombardy and Normandy blending into a Romano-Germanic culture. Society Common elements of Germanic society can be deduced both from Roman historiography and comparative evidence from the Early Medieval period. A main element uniting Germanic societies is kingship, in origin a sacral institution combining the functions of military leader, high priest, lawmaker and judge. Germanic monarchy was elective, the king was elected by the free men from among elegible candidates of a family (OE cynn) tracing their ancestry to the tribe's divine or semi-divine founder. In early Germanic society, the free men of property each ruled their own estate and were subject to the king directly, without any intermediate hierarchy as in later feudalism. Free men without landed property could swear fealty to a man of property who as their lord would then be responsible for their upkeep, including generous feasts and gifts. This system of sworn retainers was central to early Germanic society, and the loyalty of the retainer to his lord was taken to replace his family ties. Early Germanic law reflects a hierarchy of worth within the society of free men, reflected in the differences in weregild. Among the Anglo-Saxons, a regular free man (a ceorl) had a weregild of 200 shillings (i.e. solidi or gold pieces), classified as a twyhyndeman "200-man" for this reason, while a nobleman commanded a fee of six times that amount (twelfhyndeman "1200-man"). Similarly, among the Alamanni the basic weregild for a free men was 200 shillings, and the amount could be doubled or trebled according to the man's rank. Unfree serfs did not command a weregild, and the recompense paid in the event of their death was merely for material damage, 15 shillings in the case of the Alamanni, increased to 40 or 50 if the victim had been a skilled artisan. The social hierarchy is not only reflected in the weregild due in the case of the violent or accidental death of a man, but also in differences in fines for lesser crimes. Thus the fines for insults, injury, burglary or damage to property differ depending on the rank of the injured party. e.g. " If a freeman steal from the king, let him pay ninefold. " in the laws of Æthelberht of Kent, paragraph 4. They do not usually depend on the rank of the guilty party, although there are some exceptions associated with royal privilege. e.g. reduction of the weregild to half the regular amount if the man responsible for the killing is employed by the king in the laws of Æthelberht of Kent, paragraph 7. Free women did not have a political station of their own but inherited the rank of their father if unmarried, or their husband if married. The weregild or recompense due for the killing or injuring of a woman is notably set at twice that of a man of the same rank in Alemannic law. All freemen had the right to participate in general assemblies or things, where disputes between freemen were addressed according to customary law. The king was bound to uphold ancestral law, but was at the same time the source for new laws for cases not addressed in previous tradition. This aspect was the reason for the creation of the various Germanic law codes by the kings following their conversion to Christianity: besides recording inherited tribal law, these codes have the purpose of settling the position of the church and Christian clergy within society, usually setting the weregilds of the members of the clerical hierarchy parallel to that of the existing hierarchy of nobility, with the position of an archbishop mirroring that of the king. In the case of a suspected crime, the accused could avoid punishment by presenting a fixed number of free men (their number depending on the severity of the crime) prepared to swear an oath on his innocence. Failing this, he could prove his innocence in a trial by combat. Corporeal or capital punishment for free men does not figure in the Germanic law codes, and banishment appears to be the most severe penalty issued officially. This reflects that Germanic tribal law did not have the scope of exacting revenge, which was left to the judgement of the family of the victim, but to settle damages as fairly as possible once an involved party decided to bring a dispute before the assembly. Traditional Germanic society is gradually replaced by the system of estates and feudalism characteristic of the High Middle Ages in both the Holy Roman Empire and Anglo-Norman England in the 11th to 12th centuries, to some extent under the influence of Roman law as an indirect result of Christianization, but also because political structures had grown too large for the flat hierarchy of a tribal society. The same effect of political centralization takes hold in Scandinavia slightly later, in the 12th to 13th century (Age of the Sturlungs, Consolidation of Sweden, Civil war era in Norway), by the end of the 14th century culminating in the giant Kalmar Union. Elements of tribal law, notably the wager of battle, nevertheless remained in effect throughout the Middle Ages, in the case of the Holy Roman Empire until the establishment of the Imperial Chamber Court in the beginning German Renaissance. In the federalist organization of Switzerland, where cantonal structures remained comparatively local, the Germanic thing survived into the 20th century in the form of the Landsgemeinde, albeit subject to federal law. Material culture Germanic settlements were typically small, rarely containing much more than ten households, often less, and were usually located at clearings in the wood. This and the following information is based on P.J. Geary, Before France and Germany. The Creation and Transformation of the Merovingian World (New York-Oxford 1988), 44 ff. and M. Innes, Introduction to Early Medieval Western Europe, 300-900 (Abingdon 2007), 71-72. Settlements remained of a fairly constant size throughout the period. The buildings in these villages varied in form, but normally consisted of farmhouses surrounded by smaller buildings such as granaries and other storage rooms. The universal building material was timber. Cattle and humans usually lived together in the same house. Although the Germans practiced both agriculture and husbandry, the latter was extremely important both as a source of dairy products and as a basis for wealth and social status, which was measured by the size of an individual's herd. The diet consisted mainly of the products of farming and husbandry and was supplied by hunting to a very modest extent. Barley and wheat were the most common agricultural products and were used for baking a certain flat type of bread as well as brewing beer. The fields were tilled with a light-weight wooden plow, although heavier models also existed in some areas. Common clothing styles are known from the remarkably well-preserved corpses that have been found in former marshes on several locations in Denmark, and included woolen garments and brooches for women and trousers and leather caps for men. Other important small-scale industries were weaving, the manual production of basic pottery and, more rarely, the fabrication of iron tools, especially weapons. Julius Caesar describes the Germans in his Commentarii De Bello Gallico, though it is still a matter of debate if he refers to Northern Celtic tribes or clearly identified German tribes. "[The Germans] have neither Druids to preside over sacred offices, nor do they pay great regard to sacrifices. They rank in the number of the gods those alone whom they behold, and by whose instrumentality they are obviously benefited, namely, the sun, fire, and the moon; they have not heard of the other deities even by report. Their whole life is occupied in hunting and in the pursuits of the military art; from childhood they devote themselves to fatigue and hardships. Those who have remained chaste for the longest time, receive the greatest commendation among their people; they think that by this the growth is promoted, by this the physical powers are increased and the sinews are strengthened. And to have had knowledge of a woman before the twentieth year they reckon among the most disgraceful acts; of which matter there is no concealment, because they bathe promiscuously in the rivers and [only] use skins or small cloaks of deer's hides, a large portion of the body being in consequence naked. They do not pay much attention to agriculture, and a large portion of their food consists in milk, cheese, and flesh; nor has any one a fixed quantity of land or his own individual limits; but the magistrates and the leading men each year apportion to the tribes and families, who have united together, as much land as, and in the place in which, they think proper, and the year after compel them to remove elsewhere. For this enactment they advance many reasons-lest seduced by long-continued custom, they may exchange their ardor in the waging of war for agriculture; lest they may be anxious to acquire extensive estates, and the more powerful drive the weaker from their possessions; lest they construct their houses with too great a desire to avoid cold and heat; lest the desire of wealth spring up, from which cause divisions and discords arise; and that they may keep the common people in a contented state of mind, when each sees his own means placed on an equality with [those of] the most powerful." Gaius Julius Caesar, Commentarii De Bello Gallico, VI. XX-XXI Paganism and Christianization Roman bronze figurine depicting a Germanic man adorned with a Suebian knot in the act of praying, in the typically Germanic posture of extending both arms (Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris). While the Germanic peoples were slowly converted to Christianity by varying means, many elements of the pre-Christian culture and indigenous beliefs remained firmly in place after the conversion process, particularly in the more rural and distant regions. The Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Vandals were Christianized while they were still outside the bounds of the Empire; however, they converted to Arianism rather than to orthodox Catholicism, and were soon regarded as heretics. The one great written remnant of the Gothic language is a translation of portions of the Bible made by Ulfilas, the missionary who converted them. The Lombards were not converted until after their entrance into the Empire, but received Christianity from Arian Germanic groups. The Franks were converted directly from paganism to Catholicism without an intervening time as Arians. Several centuries later, Anglo-Saxon and Frankish missionaries and warriors undertook the conversion of their Saxon neighbours. A key event was the felling of Thor's Oak near Fritzlar by Boniface, apostle of the Germans, in 723. Eventually, the conversion was forced by armed force, successfully completed by Charlemagne, in a series of campaigns (the Saxon Wars), that also brought Saxon lands into the Frankish empire. Massacres, such as the Bloody Verdict of Verden, were a direct result of this policy. In Scandinavia, Germanic paganism continued to dominate until the 11th century in the form of Norse paganism, when it was gradually replaced by Christianity. Ethnogeneses and cultural assimilation The Germanic tribes of the Migration period had settled down by the Early Middle Ages, the latest series of movements out of Scandinavia taking place during the Viking Age. The Goths and Vandals were linguistically assimilated to their Latin (Italo-Western Romance) substrate populations (with the exception of the Crimean Goths, who preserved their dialect into the 18th century). Burgundians and Lombards were assimilated into both Latin (French & Italian) and Germanic (German Swiss) populations. The Viking Age Norsemen split into an Old East Norse and an Old West Norse group, which further separated into Icelanders, Faroese and Norwegians on one hand, and Swedes and Danes on the other. Politically, the union between Norway and Sweden was dissolved in 1905, and the Republic of Iceland was established in 1944. In Great Britain, Germanic people coalesced into the Anglo-Saxon or English people between the 8th and 10th centuries.. On the European continent, the Holy Roman Empire included all remaining Germanic speaking groups from the 10th century. In the Late Medieval to Early Modern period, some groups split off the Empire before a "German" ethnicity had formed, consisting of Low Franconian (Dutch, Flemish) and Alemannic (Swiss) populations. The various Germanic Peoples of the Migrations period eventually spread out over a vast expanse stretching from contemporary European Russia to Iceland and from Norway to North Africa. The migrants had varying impacts in different regions. In many cases, the newcomers set themselves up as over-lords of the pre-existing population. Over time, such groups underwent ethnogenesis, resulting in the creation of new cultural and ethnic identities (such as the Franks and Galloromans becoming French). Thus many of the descendants of the ancient Germanic Peoples do not speak Germanic languages, as they were to a greater or lesser degree assimilated into the cosmopolitan, literate culture of the Roman world. Even where the descendants of Germanic Peoples maintained greater continuity with their common ancestors, significant cultural and linguistic differences arose over time; as is strikingly illustrated by the different identities of Christianized Saxon subjects of the Carolingian Empire and Pagan Scandinavian Vikings. More broadly, early Medieval Germanic peoples were often assimilated into the walha substrate cultures of their subject populations. Thus, the Burgundians of Burgundy, the Vandals of Andalusia and the Visigoths of western France and eastern Iberia all lost their Germanic identity and became part of Latin Europe. Likewise, the Franks of Western Francia form part of the ancestry of the French people. Examples of assimilation during the Viking Age include the Norsemen settled in Normandy and on the French Atlantic coast, and the societal elite in medieval Russia among whom many were the descendants of Slavified Norsemen (a theory, however, contested by some Slavic scholars in the former Soviet Union, who name it the Normanist theory). Conversely, the Germanic settlement of Britain resulted in Anglo-Saxon, or English, displacement of and/or cultural assimilation of the indigenous culture, the Brythonic speaking British culture causing the foundation of a new Kingdom, England. As in what became England, indigenous Brythonic Celtic culture in some of the south-eastern parts of what became Scotland (approximately the Lothian and Borders region) and areas of what became the Northwest of England (the kingdoms of Rheged, Elmet, etc) succumbed to Germanic influence c.600—800, due to the extension of overlordship and settlement from the Anglo-Saxon areas to the south. Between c. 1150 and c. 1400 most of the Scottish Lowlands became English culturally and linquistically through immigration from England, France and Flanders and from the resulting assimilation of native Gaelic-speaking Scots. The Scots language is the resulting Germanic language still spoken in parts of Scotland and is very similar to the speech of the Northumbrians of northern England. Between the 15th and 17th centuries Scots spread into Galloway,Carrick and parts of the Scottish Highlands, as well as into the Northern Isles. The latter, Orkney and Shetland, though now part of Scotland, were nominally part of the Kingdom of Norway until the 15th century. A version of the Norse language was spoken there from the Viking invasions until replaced by Scots. Portugal and Spain also had some measure of Germanic settlement, due to the Visigoths, the Suebi (Quadi and Marcomanni) and the Buri, who settled permanently. The Vandals (Silingi and Hasdingi) were also present, before moving on to North Africa. Many words of Germanic origin entered into the Spanish and Portuguese languages at this time and many more entered through other avenues (often French) in the ensuing centuries (see: List of Spanish words of Germanic origin and List of Portuguese words of Germanic origin). Italy has also had a history of heavy Germanic settlement. Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths, Vandals, and Ostrogoths had successfully invaded and sparsely settled Italy in the 5th century. Most notably, in the 6th century, the Germanic tribe known as the Lombards entered and settled primarily in the area known today as Lombardy. The Normans also conquered and ruled Sicily and parts of southern Italy for a time. Crimean Gothic communities appear to have survived intact until the late 1700’s, when many were deported by Catherine the Great. GOTHIC: an extinct language of Ukraine Their language vanished by the 1800’s. The territory of modern Germany was divided between Germanic and Celtic speaking groups in the last centuries BCE. The parts south of the Germanic Limes came under limited Latin influence in the early centuries CE, but were swiftly conquered by Germanic groups such as the Alemanni after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. In Scandinavia, there is a long history of assimilation of and by the Sami people and Finnic peoples, namely Finns and Karelians. In today's usage, the term 'Nordic peoples' refers to the ethnic groups in all of the Nordic countries. Contemporary Germanic Europe current-day distribution of Germanic languages in Europe: North Germanic in Scandinavia (blue), Anglo-Frisian in the British Isles and Frisia (orange) and Continental West Germanic (German and Dutch) on the European continent (green). In the 19th century, the Austrian Empire became an entity separate from the German Empire, leaving the rump Kingdom of Germany to form the German ethnicity by the 20th century, including sub-ethnicities such as the Franconians, Swabians, Bavarians or Saxons. The territory settled by Frisians remains divided between the Netherlands and Germany. The Alemannic-speaking Alsace was disputed between Germany and France from the 17th to the 20th centuries, finally passing to France in 1945, and largely romanized since then. Daughter-groups of Germanic ethnicities that emerged during the age of colonialism include Anglo-America, Australians and New Zealanders (British Empire, speaking varieties of English), the Afrikaners (Dutch Empire, speaking Afrikaans) and a scattered distribution of overseas Ethnic Germans, most notably in Brazil (mainly in the southern and southeast region), Namibia (the former German colony of South West Africa) and Argentina. The part of Europe in which Germanic languages are predominant corresponds more or less to North-Western Europe and western parts of Central Europe, including Iceland, the British Isles, the Faroe Islands, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, the Swedish-speaking municipalities of Finland, French Flanders and Alsace-Moselle in France, Flanders and the smaller German-speaking Community in Belgium, the German-speaking part of Luxembourg, Germany, the formerly German parts of Poland as well as in East Prussia, Liechtenstein, the German-speaking part of Switzerland, Austria, and the province of Bolzano-Bozen in Italy. Germanic antiquity in later historiography A plate from Philipp Clüver's Germania antiqua (1616) The population movements of the migration period in terms of scientific racism: "Expansion of the Teutonic Nordics and Slavic Alpines". The Teutonic "Nordics" appear in dark red, the Slavic "Continental Nordics" in light red, the "Alpines" in green. From Madison Grant's The Passing of the Great Race, or the Racial Basis of European History (1916). After the disappearance of Germanic ethnicities (tribes) in the High Middle Ages, the cultural identity of Europe was built on the idea of Christendom as opposed to Islam (the "Saracens", and later the "Turks"). The Germanic peoples of Roman historiography were lumped with the other agents of the "barbarian invasions", the Alans and the Huns, as opposed to the civilized "Roman" identity of the Holy Roman Empire. The Renaissance revived interest in pre-Christian Classical Antiquity and only in a second phase in pre-Christian Northern Europe. Early modern publications dealing with Old Norse culture appeared in the 16th century, e.g. Historia de gentibus septentrionalibus (Olaus Magnus, 1555) and the first edition of the 13th century Gesta Danorum (Saxo Grammaticus), in 1514. Authors of the German Renaissance such as Johannes Aventinus discovered the Germanii of Tacitus as the "Old Germans", whose virtue and unspoiled manhood, as it appears in the Roman accounts of noble savagery, they contrast with the decadence of their own day. The pace of publication increased during the 17th century with Latin translations of the Edda (notably Peder Resen's Edda Islandorum of 1665). The Viking revival of 18th century Romanticism finally establishes the fascination with anything "Nordic". The beginning of Germanic philology proper begins in the early 19th century, with Rasmus Rask's Icelandic Lexicon of 1814, and was in full bloom by the 1830s, with Jacob Grimm's Deutsche Mythologie giving an extensive account of reconstructed Germanic mythology and his Deutsches Wörterbuch of Germanic etymology. The development of Germanic studies as an academic discipline in the 19th century ran parallel to the rise of nationalism in Europe and the search for national histories for the nascent nation states developing after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. A "Germanic" national ethnicity offered itself for the unification of Germany, contrasting the emerging German Empire with its neighboring rivals, the Welsche French Third Republic and the "Slavic" Russian Empire. The nascent German ethnicity was consequently built on national myths of Germanic antiquity, in instances such ast the Walhalla temple and the Hermann Heights Monument. These tendencies culminated in Pan-Germanism, the {{lang|de| Alldeutsche Bewegung}} aiming for the political unity of all of German-speaking Europe (all Volksdeutsche) into a Teutonic nation state. Contemporary Romantic nationalism in Scandinavia placed more weight on the Viking Age, resulting in the movement known as Scandinavism. In the theories of race developed in the same period identified the Germanic peoples of the Migration period as members of a Nordic race expanding at the expense of an Alpine race native to Central and Eastern Europe, taken to include peoples of ancient Gaul, Italy or the Balkans, such as the Celts, Etruscans, Ligures or Greeks. See also Confederations of Germanic Tribes Germanic Europe List of Germanic peoples Norse clans Frisians Nordicism Tribal warfare References Further reading Beck, Heinrich and Heiko Steuer and Dieter Timpe, eds. Die Germanen. Studienausgabe. Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde. Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter 1998. Xi + 258 pp. ISBN 3-11-016383-7. Collins, Roger. Early medieval Europe. 300-1000. 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Macmillan 1999. XXV + 533 pp. ISBN 0-333-65807-8. Geary, Patrick J. Before France and Germany. The creation and transformation of the Merovingian world. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1988. Xii + 259 pp. ISBN 0-19-504458-4. Geary, Patrick J. The Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2002. X + 199 pp. ISBN 0-691-11481-1. Herrmann, Joachim. Griechische und lateinische Quellen zur Frühgeschichte Mitteleuropas bis zur Mitte des 1. Jahrtausends unserer Zeitrechnung. I. Von Homer bis Plutarch. 8. Jh. v. u. Z. bis 1. Jh. v. u. Z. II. Tacitus-Germania. III. Von Tacitus bis Ausonius. 2. bis 4. Jh. u. Z. IV. Von Ammianus Marcellinus bis Zosimos. 4. und 5. Jh. u. Z. Berlin: Akademie Verlag 1988 -1992. I: 657 pp. ISBN 3-05-000348-0. II: 291 pp. ISBN 3-05-000349-9. III: 723 pp. ISBN 3-05-000571-8. IV: 656 pp. ISBN 3-05-000591-2. Pohl, Walter. Die Germanen. Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte 57. München: Oldenbourg 2004. X + 156 pp. ISBN 3-486-56755-1. Pohl, Walter. Die Völkerwanderung. Eroberung und Integration. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer 2002. 266 pp. ISBN 3-17-015566-0. Monograph, German. Todd, Malcolm. The Early Germans. Oxford: Blackwell 2004. Xii + 266 pp. ISBN 0-631-16397-2. Jürgen Udolph. Namenkundliche Studien zum Germanenproblem. DeGruyter, Berlin 1994, ISBN 3-11-014138-8 Wolfram, Herwig. History of the Goths. Berkeley: University of California Press 1988. Xii + 613 pp. ISBN 0520052595 Wolfram, Herwig. The Roman Empire and its Germanic peoples. Berkeley: University of California Press 1997. 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6,384 | Oliver_Lieb | Oliver Lieb (born December 31, 1969 in Frankfurt, Germany) is a German electronic dance music producer, and DJ. Lieb is known to have more than a dozen aliases with over 200 productions and remixes in various electronic genres such as, trance, house, and techno. The DJ LIST - Oliver Lieb.djlist. Biography Career Oliver began his musical career at age 14 as a bass player with great ambitions, playing in funk and soul bands. However, he often left the bands he played in before they found any real success. Eventually he started exploring electronic music. His first own records, under the alias “Force Legato”, were released by ZYX Music. In 1992, Oliver Lieb met Matthias Schindehutte, A&R man for the newly formed Harthouse label, who contracted him for the Spicelab project. Spicelab went on to become one of the most important Harthouse projects and the figurehead of the Frankfurt techno scene. At the same time, Oliver started work on harder tracks, released using the alias Psilocybin. 1993 saw his first releases under the alias L.S.G., which he discontinued in 2007. In 1994, he first cooperated with Harald Großkopf (whom he later also performed with live), releasing tracks using the alias The Ambush Production Superstition Records have described Oliver Lieb's studio as one of the most exciting equipment collections of the entire techno scene. It contains dozens of synthesisers, many of them rare or unusual. He prefers analogue equipment, valuing especially oscillators capable of producing extraordinarily deep bass frequencies. His music typically consists of atypical sound tapestries and melodies intervowen with very straight, familiar techno rhythms. External links Oliver Lieb discography References | Oliver_Lieb |@lemmatized oliver:7 lieb:6 born:1 december:1 frankfurt:2 germany:1 german:1 electronic:3 dance:1 music:4 producer:1 dj:2 know:1 dozen:2 alias:5 production:2 remixes:1 various:1 genre:1 trance:1 house:1 techno:4 list:1 djlist:1 biography:1 career:2 begin:1 musical:1 age:1 bass:2 player:1 great:1 ambition:1 play:2 funk:1 soul:1 band:2 however:1 often:1 leave:1 find:1 real:1 success:1 eventually:1 start:2 explore:1 first:3 record:2 force:1 legato:1 release:4 zyx:1 meet:1 matthias:1 schindehutte:1 r:1 man:1 newly:1 form:1 harthouse:2 label:1 contract:1 spicelab:2 project:2 go:1 become:1 one:2 important:1 figurehead:1 scene:2 time:1 work:1 harder:1 track:2 use:2 psilocybin:1 saw:1 l:1 g:1 discontinue:1 cooperate:1 harald:1 großkopf:1 later:1 also:1 perform:1 live:1 ambush:1 superstition:1 describe:1 studio:1 exciting:1 equipment:2 collection:1 entire:1 contain:1 synthesiser:1 many:1 rare:1 unusual:1 prefer:1 analogue:1 value:1 especially:1 oscillator:1 capable:1 produce:1 extraordinarily:1 deep:1 frequency:1 typically:1 consist:1 atypical:1 sound:1 tapestry:1 melody:1 intervowen:1 straight:1 familiar:1 rhythm:1 external:1 link:1 discography:1 reference:1 |@bigram oliver_lieb:5 external_link:1 |
6,385 | Papua_(province) | Papua is the largest province of Indonesia, comprising a majority part of the western half of the island of New Guinea and nearby islands (see also Western New Guinea). The province originally covered the entire western half of New Guinea, but in 2003, the western portion of the province, on the Bird's Head Peninsula, was declared by the Indonesian Government as a separate province named West Irian Jaya (now West Papua). The legality of this separation has been disputed as it appears to conflict with the conditions of the Special Autonomy status awarded to Papua in the year 2000, but it has already resolved as of early 2007. The Papua Conflict takes place there. Naming "Papua" is the official Indonesian and internationally recognised name for the province. During the Dutch colonial era the region was known as part of "Dutch New Guinea" or "Netherlands New Guinea". Since its annexation in 1969, it became known as "West Irian" or "Irian Barat" until 1973, and thereafter renamed "Irian Jaya" (roughly translated, "Glorious Irian") by the Suharto administration. This was the official name until "Papua" was adopted in 2002. Today, natives of this province prefer to call themselves Papuans rather than Irianese. This may be due to etymology (variously identified as a real etymology or a folk etymology) of the name Irian which stems from the acronym Ikut Republik Indonesia, Anti Nederland (join/follow the Republic of Indonesia, rejecting The Netherlands). The name "West Papua" was adopted in 1961 by the New Guinea Council until the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) transferred administration to the Republic of Indonesia in 1963. "West Papua" has since been used among Papuan separatists and usually refers to the whole of the Indonesian portion of New Guinea. The other Indonesian province that shares New Guinea, West Irian Jaya, has been officially renamed as "West Papua". Government The province of Papua is governed by a directly-elected governor (currently Barnabas Suebu) and a regional legislature, DPRP (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Papua). A unique government organisation that only exists in Papua is the MRP (Majelis Rakyat Papua / Papuan People's Council) that was formed by the Indonesian Government in 2005 as a coalition of Papuan tribal chiefs, tasked with arbitration and speaking on behalf of Papuan tribal customs. Indonesian governance of Papua is controversial with international opinion varying a great deal. Some view it as naked colonialism, others maintain that Indonesia represents a legitimate authority with a willing people. Frank expression of views is complicated by the delicate and troubled relationship many nations have with Indonesia. The Free Papua Movement strives for independence of the area from Indonesia. Like the rest of Indonesia, governance of the province has traditionally been strong and centralised from Jakarta. Papua was a major beneficiary of a nation-wide decentralisation process started in 1999 and the Special Autonomy status introduced in 2002. Measures included the formation of the MRP and redistribution of resource revenues. The implementation, however, of the Special Autonomy measures has been criticized by many as only being half-hearted. In 1999 it was proposed to split the province into three government-controlled sectors, sparking Papuan protests (see external article). In January 2003 President Megawati Sukarnoputri signed an order dividing Papua into three provinces: Central Irian Jaya (Irian Jaya Tengah), Papua (or East Irian Jaya, Irian Jaya Timur), and West Papua (Irian Jaya Barat). The formality of installing a local government for Jaraka in Irian Jaya Barat (West) took place in February 2003 and a governor was appointed in November; a government for Irian Jaya Tengah (central) was delayed from August 2003 due to violent local protests. The creation of this separate central province was blocked by Indonesian courts, who declared it to be unconstitutional and in contravention of the Papua's special autonomy agreement. The previous division into two provinces was allowed to stand as an established fact. (King, 2004, p. 91) In January 2006, 43 refugees landed on the coast of Australia and stated that the Indonesian military is carrying out a genocide in Papua. This was a rumor developed from military operations against OPM, the rebel group fighting for Papua's freedom. They were transported to an Australian immigration detention facility on Christmas Island, 360 km south of the western end of Java. On 23 March 2006, the Australian government granted temporary visas to 42 of the 43 asylum seekers (the 43rd, who had a Japanese visa at the time of his arrival, finally received an Australian visa in early August 2006). On 24 March 2006 Indonesia recalled its ambassador to Australia. Regions Indonesia structures regions by regencies and subdistricts within those. Though names and areas of control of these regional structures can vary over time in accord with changing political and other requirements, in 2005 Papua province consisted of 19 regencies (kabupaten). The regencies ("kabupaten") are: Asmat; Biak-Numfor; Boven Digoel; Jayapura; Jayawijaya; Keerom; Mappi; Merauke; Mimika; Nabire; Paniai; Pegunungan Bintang; Puncak Jaya; Sarmi; Supiori; Tolikara; Waropen; Yahukimo and Yapen Waropen. In addition to these, the city of Jayapura also has the status of a regency. Jayapura, founded on 7 March 1910 as Hollandia, had by 1962 developed into a city with modern civil, educational, and medical services. Since Indonesian administration these services have been replaced by Indonesian equivalents such as the TNI (the army) replacing the Papua Battalion. The name of the city has been changed to Kotabaru, then to Sukarnopura and finally to its current official name. Among ethnic Papuans, it is also known as Port Numbai, the former name before the arrival of immigrants. Jayapura is the largest city, boasting a small but active tourism industry, it is built on a slope overlooking the bay. Cenderawasih University (UNCEN) campus at Abepura houses the University Museum. Both Tanjung Ria beach, near the market at Hamadi — site of the 22 April 1944 Allied invasion during World War II — and the site of General Douglas MacArthur's World War II headquarters at Ifar Gunung have monuments commemorating the events. Geography A central east-west mountain range dominates the geography of New Guinea, over 1600 km in total length. The western section is around 600 km long and 100 km across. The province contains the highest mountains between the Himalayas and the Andes, rising up to 4884 m high, and ensuring a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere. The tree line is around 4000 m elevation and the tallest peaks contain permanent equatorial glaciers, increasingly melting due to a changing climate. Various other smaller mountain ranges occur both north and west of the central ranges. Except in high elevations, most areas possess a warm humid climate throughout the year, with some seasonal variation associated with the northeast monsoon season. The third major habitat feature are the vast southern and northern lowlands. Stretching for hundreds of kilometers, these include lowland rainforests, extensive wetlands, savanna grasslands, and some of the largest expanses of mangrove forest in the world. The southern lowlands are the site of Lorentz National Park, also a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Mamberamo river, sometimes referred to as the "Amazon of Papua" is the province's largest river which winds through the northern part of the province. The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region. The famous Baliem Valley, home of the Dani people is a tableland 1600 m above sea level in the midst of the central mountain range; Puncak Jaya, sometimes known by its former Dutch name Carstensz Pyramid, is a mist covered limestone mountain peak 4884 m above sea level. Tribes The following are some of the most well-known tribes of Papua: Amungme Asmat Bauzi Dani Kamoro Kombai Korowai Mee Sentani Yali Yei Demographics The population of Papua province and the neighboring West Papua province, both of which are still under a united administration, totalled 2,646,489 in 2005. Since the early 1990s Papua has had the highest population growth rate of all Indonesian provinces at over 3% annually. This is partly a result of high birth rates, but also from immigration from other regions in Indonesia. According to the 2000 census, 78% of the Papuans identified themselves as Christian with 54% being Protestant and 24% being Roman Catholic. 21% of the population was Muslim and less than 1% were Buddhist or Hindu. Profile of Papua - official website There is also substantial practice of animism by Papuans, which is not recognized by the Indonesian government in line with the policy of Pancasila. Ecology A vital tropical rainforest with the tallest tropical trees and vast biodiversity, Papua's known forest fauna includes marsupials (including possums, wallabies, tree-kangaroos, cuscuses), other mammals (including the endangered Long-beaked Echidna), many bird species (including birds of paradise, cassowaries, parrots, cockatoos), the world's longest lizards (Papua monitor) and the world's largest butterflies. The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plant, 124 genera of which are endemic. The extensive waterways and wetlands of Papua are also home to salt and freshwater crocodile, tree monitors, flying foxes, osprey, bats and other animals; while the equatorial glacier fields remain largely unexplored. In February 2006, a team of scientists exploring the Foja Mountains, Sarmi, discovered numerous new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including a species of rhododendron which may have the largest bloom of the genus. Ecological threats include logging-induced deforestation, forest conversion for plantation agriculture (especially oil palm), smallholder agricultural conversion, the introduction and potential spread of non-native alien species such as the Crab-eating Macaque which preys on and competes with indigenous species, the illegal species trade, and water pollution from oil and mining operations. Papua's ancient rain forests have recently come under an even greater threat of deforestation after the Chinese government has placed an order of 1 billion US dollar or 800,000 cubic meters of the threatened merbau (intsia spp) rainforest timbers, to be used in constructions for the 2008 Summer Olympics. In remote forested valleys, several thousand small-holder farmers are growing Arabica coffee in the shade of Kaliandara, Erytrhina and Abizia trees. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are not available in these valleys. Since there are no roads, the coffee is being flown out and then exported from the port of Jayapura. See also Asmat Swamp British New Guinea Dutch New Guinea Free Papua Movement German New Guinea Human rights in western New Guinea Kaiser-Wilhelmsland New Guinea Western New Guinea West Papua Papua New Guinea References King, Peter, West Papua Since Suharto: Independence, Autonomy, or Chaos?. University of New South Wales Press, 2004, ISBN 0-86840-676-7. External links Official website Online Library West Papua Solidarity South Pacific - West Papua PapuaWeb "Human Abuse in West Papua - Application of Law to Genocide" "Prison, Torture and Murder in Jayapura - Twelve Days in an Indonesian Jail" (Neue Zürcher Zeitung, 2000) Map showing the three new provinces Declassified US documents on "Act of free choice" Languages and Ethnic Groups of Papua Province, SIL Ethnologue Crisis briefing on Papua From Reuters Alertnet Ecology The Deforesting of Irian Jaya, 1994 Monkeys Threaten New Guinea's Wildlife, 2 October 2001, Wall Street Journal (archived) An article on biodiversity Wetlands Study | Papua_(province) |@lemmatized papua:43 large:7 province:22 indonesia:11 comprise:1 majority:1 part:3 western:8 half:3 island:4 new:20 guinea:17 nearby:1 see:3 also:8 originally:1 cover:2 entire:1 portion:2 bird:4 head:1 peninsula:1 declare:2 indonesian:13 government:10 separate:2 name:11 west:17 irian:15 jaya:13 legality:1 separation:1 dispute:1 appear:1 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6,386 | Transport_in_Finland | Artistically crafted stone tortoises share a Helsinki parking lot with cars The transport system of Finland is well-developed. The extensive road system is utilized by most internal cargo and passenger traffic. As of 2005, the country's network of main roads has a total length of 13,258 km and all public roads 78,186 km, of which 50,616 km are paved. The motorway network totals 653 km. Road network expenditure of around 1 billion euro is paid with vehicle and fuel taxes that amount to around 1.5 billion euro and 1 billion euro. The main international passenger gateway is Helsinki-Vantaa Airport with over 13 million passengers in 2007. About 25 airports have scheduled passenger services. They are financed by competitive fees and rural airport may be subsidized. The Helsinki-Vantaa based Finnair (known for an Asia-focused strategy), Blue1 and Finncomm Airlines provide air services both domestically and internationally. Helsinki has an optimal location for great circle routes between Western Europe and the Far East. Hence, many international travelers visit Helsinki on a stop-over between Asia and Europe. Despite low population density, taxpayers spend annually around 350 million euro in maintaining 5,865 km railway tracks even to many rural towns. Operations are privatized and currently the only operator is VR. It has 5 percent passenger market share (out of which 80 percent are urban trips in Greater Helsinki) and 25 percent cargo market share. Transport and communications ministry - Rail Helsinki has an urban rail network. Port logistics prices were among the lowest in OECD. Vuosaari harbour is the largest container port after completed in 2008. There is passenger traffic from Helsinki and Turku, which have ferry connections to Tallinn, Mariehamn, Sweden and several other destination. The busy Helsinki-Tallinn route is also served by a helicopter line. Roads Road transport in Finland is the most popular method of transportation, particularly in rural areas where the railway network does not extend to. There are around 78 000 km of public roads, most of which are paved. The main road network comprises over 13 000 km of road, mostly in the south of the country and along the west coast. 63% of all traffic on public roads takes place on main roads, which are divided into class I (valtatie) and class II (kantatie) main roads. Motorways have been constructed in the country since the 1960s, but they are still reasonably rare because traffic volumes are not large enough to motivate their construction. There are 700 km of motorways. Longest stretches are Helsinki–Turku (valtatie 1/E18), Helsinki–Tampere (valtatie 3/E12), Helsinki–Heinola (valtatie 4/E75), and Helsinki–Porvoo (valtatie 7/E18). The world's northernmost motorway is also located in Finland between Keminmaa and Tornio (valtatie 29/E8). Office buildings line Kehä I in Pohjois-Haaga, Helsinki. Speed limits change depending on the time of the year; the maximum speed limit on motorways is 120 km/h (75 mph) in the summer and 100 km/h (62 mph) in the winter. The main roads usually have speed limits of either 100 km/h or 80 km/h (50 mph). Speed limits in urban areas range between 30 km/h (19 mph) and 60 km/h (37 mph). Finland, like most other European countries, has right-hand traffic. There are no toll roads in Finland. , there are 2,727,160 cars in Finland, giving a total of 521 cars per a thousand inhabitants. Thus, the average citizen is less likely to own a car in Finland than in other European countries. This is despite the fact that Finland has one of the highest average GDPs in Europe, and probably results from the high quality of public transport in the country. see also: Highways in Finland A Finnair bus rushes passengers to Helsinki airport Coaches and buses Coaches are mainly operated by private companies and provide services widely across the country. There is a large network of ExpressBus services with connections to all major cities and the most important rural areas. Coach stations are operated by Matkahuolto. Local bus services inside cities and towns are often tightly regulated by the councils. Many councils also have their own bus operators, such as Helsinki City Transport, which operate some bus lines on a commercial basis in competition with privately owned providers. Regional bus lines are generally less strictly regulated, leading to cartel situations like TLO in the Turku region, but strong regional regulating bodies like the Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council (YTV) exist as well. Helsinki Central railway station Railways The Finnish railway network consists of a total of 5,794 km of railways built with 1524 mm gauge. Passenger trains are operated by the state-owned VR Group. They serve all the major cities and many rural areas, though railway connections are available to fewer places than bus connections. Most passenger train services originate or terminate at Helsinki Central railway station, and a large proportion of the passenger rail network radiates out of Helsinki. High-speed Pendolino services are operated from Helsinki to other major cities like Joensuu, Kuopio, Oulu, Tampere and Turku. Modern InterCity services complement the Pendolino network, and the cheaper and older long and short distance trains operate in areas with fewer passengers. Pendolino on Helsinki-Turku line The Helsinki area has three urban rail systems: a tramway system, Helsinki Metro, and the VR commuter rail system. Light rail systems are currently being planned for Turku and Tampere, two of the country's other major urban centres. Railway links to adjacent countries Sweden - break of gauge - 1435mm; change of voltage 25 kV AC/15 kV AC Russia - small break of gauge 1524mm/1520mm (through running possible). Norway - none. Trams and Light Rail In Finland, there have been three cities with trams: Helsinki, Turku and Viipuri. Only Helsinki still has retained a tram network. The system operates 11 routes constituting 71 kilometers of tramlines. Around 200,000 passengers use the tram network each weekday and within the inner city of Helsinki, trams have established a position as the main form of public transport. The Viipuri tram system ceased operations in 1957, after the city had been ceded to the Soviet Union, while Turku tram system shut down in 1972. Air transport There are 148 airfields, 76 of which have paved runways. 21 airports are served by scheduled passenger flights. By far the largest airport is Helsinki-Vantaa Airport, and the second largest by passenger volume is Oulu Airport. Other international airports include Turku Airport and Tampere-Pirkkala Airport. The larger airports are managed by the state-owned Finavia (formerly the Finnish Civil Aviation Administration), while the smaller ones are usually managed by municipal authorities. Finnair, Blue1 and Finncomm Airlines are the main carriers for domestic flights. Helsinki-Vantaa airport is Finland's global gateway with scheduled non-stop flights to such places as Bangkok, Beijing, Guangzhou, Nagoya, New York, Osaka, Shanghai, Hong Kong and Tokyo. Helsinki has an optimal location for great circle airline traffic routes between Western Europe and the Far East. The airport is located approximately 19 kilometers north of Helsinki's downtown area in Helsinki's northern suburb of Vantaa, thus the name Helsinki-Vantaa. Tampere-Pirkkala Airport is served by low-fare Ryanair flights to destinations in Europe. A cruise liner in Helsinki harbor. Viking Line is one of several companies operating ferry service between Helsinki and Tallinn. Water transport Frequent ferry service connects Finland with Estonia and Sweden. Baltic cruise liners regularly call on the port of Helsinki as well. In domestic service, ferries connect Finland's islands with the mainland. Finland's cargo ports move freight both for Finland's own needs and for transshipment to Russia. The Finnish Maritime Administration is responsible for the maintenance of Finland's waterway network. Finland's waterways includes some 7,600 kilometres of coastal fairways and 7,900 kilometres of inland waterways (on rivers, canals, and lakes). Saimaa Canal connects Lake Saimaa, and thus much of the inland waterway system of Finland, with the Baltic Sea at Vyborg (Viipuri). However, the lower part of the canal is currently located in Russia. To facilitate through shipping, Finland leases the Russian section of the canal from Russia (the original agreement with the Soviet Union dates to 1963). References External links VR Group (The main site of the Finnish railway company) Search engine for all public transit in Finland Finnish Maritime Administration Finnish Road Administration | Transport_in_Finland |@lemmatized artistically:1 craft:1 stone:1 tortoise:1 share:3 helsinki:36 parking:1 lot:1 car:4 transport:8 system:10 finland:20 well:3 develop:1 extensive:1 road:14 utilize:1 internal:1 cargo:3 passenger:14 traffic:6 country:9 network:13 main:9 total:4 length:1 km:15 public:6 pave:3 motorway:5 expenditure:1 around:5 billion:3 euro:4 pay:1 vehicle:1 fuel:1 tax:1 amount:1 international:3 gateway:2 vantaa:6 airport:15 million:2 schedule:1 service:11 finance:1 competitive:1 fee:1 rural:5 may:1 subsidize:1 base:1 finnair:3 know:1 asia:2 focus:1 strategy:1 finncomm:2 airline:3 provide:2 air:2 domestically:1 internationally:1 optimal:2 location:2 great:3 circle:2 route:4 western:2 europe:5 far:3 east:2 hence:1 many:4 traveler:1 visit:1 stop:2 despite:2 low:4 population:1 density:1 taxpayer:1 spend:1 annually:1 maintain:1 railway:9 track:1 even:1 town:2 operation:2 privatize:1 currently:3 operator:2 vr:4 percent:3 market:2 urban:5 trip:1 communication:1 ministry:1 rail:7 port:4 logistics:1 price:1 among:1 oecd:1 vuosaari:1 harbour:1 large:7 container:1 complete:1 turku:9 ferry:4 connection:4 tallinn:3 mariehamn:1 sweden:3 several:2 destination:2 busy:1 also:4 serve:4 helicopter:1 line:6 popular:1 method:1 transportation:1 particularly:1 area:8 extend:1 comprise:1 mostly:1 south:1 along:1 west:1 coast:1 take:1 place:3 divide:1 class:2 valtatie:6 ii:1 kantatie:1 construct:1 since:1 still:2 reasonably:1 rare:1 volume:2 enough:1 motivate:1 construction:1 long:2 stretch:1 tampere:5 heinola:1 porvoo:1 world:1 northernmost:1 locate:3 keminmaa:1 tornio:1 office:1 building:1 kehä:1 pohjois:1 haaga:1 speed:5 limit:4 change:2 depend:1 time:1 year:1 maximum:1 h:6 mph:5 summer:1 winter:1 usually:2 either:1 range:1 like:4 european:2 right:1 hand:1 toll:1 roads:1 give:1 per:1 thousand:1 inhabitant:1 thus:3 average:2 citizen:1 less:2 likely:1 fact:1 one:3 high:3 gdp:1 probably:1 result:1 quality:1 see:1 highway:1 bus:7 rush:1 coach:3 mainly:1 operate:8 private:1 company:3 widely:1 across:1 expressbus:1 major:4 city:8 important:1 station:3 matkahuolto:1 local:1 inside:1 often:1 tightly:1 regulate:2 council:3 commercial:1 basis:1 competition:1 privately:1 provider:1 regional:2 generally:1 strictly:1 lead:1 cartel:1 situation:1 tlo:1 region:1 strong:1 regulating:1 body:1 metropolitan:1 ytv:1 exist:1 central:2 railways:1 finnish:6 consist:1 build:1 mm:1 gauge:3 train:3 state:2 group:2 though:1 available:1 originate:1 terminate:1 proportion:1 radiate:1 pendolino:3 joensuu:1 kuopio:1 oulu:2 modern:1 intercity:1 complement:1 cheap:1 old:1 short:1 distance:1 three:2 tramway:1 metro:1 commuter:1 light:2 plan:1 two:1 centre:1 link:2 adjacent:1 break:2 voltage:1 kv:2 ac:2 russia:4 small:2 run:1 possible:1 norway:1 none:1 tram:7 viipuri:3 retain:1 constitute:1 kilometer:2 tramline:1 use:1 weekday:1 within:1 inner:1 establish:1 position:1 form:1 cease:1 cede:1 soviet:2 union:2 shut:1 airfield:1 runway:1 scheduled:2 flight:4 second:1 include:2 pirkkala:2 manage:2 finavia:1 formerly:1 civil:1 aviation:1 administration:4 municipal:1 authority:1 carrier:1 domestic:2 global:1 non:1 bangkok:1 beijing:1 guangzhou:1 nagoya:1 new:1 york:1 osaka:1 shanghai:1 hong:1 kong:1 tokyo:1 approximately:1 north:1 downtown:1 northern:1 suburb:1 name:1 fare:1 ryanair:1 cruise:2 liner:2 harbor:1 viking:1 water:1 frequent:1 connects:2 estonia:1 baltic:2 regularly:1 call:1 connect:1 island:1 mainland:1 move:1 freight:1 need:1 transshipment:1 maritime:2 responsible:1 maintenance:1 waterway:4 kilometre:2 coastal:1 fairway:1 inland:2 river:1 canal:4 lake:2 saimaa:2 much:1 sea:1 vyborg:1 however:1 part:1 facilitate:1 shipping:1 lease:1 russian:1 section:1 original:1 agreement:1 date:1 reference:1 external:1 site:1 search:1 engine:1 transit:1 |@bigram parking_lot:1 helsinki_vantaa:5 vantaa_airport:3 domestically_internationally:1 helsinki_turku:4 h_mph:5 mph_km:1 toll_roads:1 tightly_regulate:1 commuter_rail:1 voltage_kv:1 kv_ac:2 soviet_union:2 pave_runway:1 hong_kong:1 cruise_liner:2 inland_waterway:2 lake_saimaa:2 baltic_sea:1 external_link:1 |
6,387 | Dimension_(mathematics_and_physics) | From left to right, the square, the cube, and the tesseract. The square is bounded by 1-dimensional lines, the cube by 2-dimensional areas, and the tesseract by 3-dimensional volumes. A projection of the cube is given since it is viewed on a two-dimensional screen. The same applies to the tesseract, which additionally can only be shown as a projection even in three-dimensional space. A diagram showing the first four spatial dimensions. In physics and mathematics, the dimension of a space is roughly defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify every point within it Curious About Astronomy MathWorld: Dimension . For example: a point on the unit circle in the plane can be specified by two Cartesian coordinates but one can make do with a single coordinate (the polar coordinate angle), so the circle is 1-dimensional even though it exists in the 2-dimensional plane. This intrinsic notion of dimension is one of the chief ways in which the mathematical notion of dimension differs from its common usages. There is also an inductive description of dimension: consider a discrete set of points (such as a finite collection of points) to be 0-dimensional. By dragging a 0-dimensional object in some direction, one obtains a 1-dimensional object. By dragging a 1-dimensional object in a new direction, one obtains a 2-dimensional object. In general one obtains an n+1-dimensional object by dragging an n dimensional object in a new direction. Returning to the circle example: a circle can be thought of as being drawn as the end-point on the minute hand of a clock, thus it is 1-dimensional. To construct the plane one needs two steps: drag a point to construct the real numbers, then drag the real numbers to produce the plane. Consider the above inductive construction from a practical point of view -- ie: with concrete objects that one can play with in one's hands. Start with a point, drag it to get a line. Drag a line to get a square. Drag a square to get a cube. Any small translation of a cube has non-trivial overlap with the cube before translation, thus the process stops. This is why space is said to be 3-dimensional. High-dimensional spaces occur in mathematics and the sciences for many reasons, frequently as configuration spaces such as in Lagrangian or Hamiltonian mechanics. Ie: these are abstract spaces, independent of the actual space we live in. The state-space of quantum mechanics is an infinite-dimensional function space. Some physical theories are also by nature high-dimensional, such as the 4-dimensional general relativity and higher-dimensional string theories. Mathematics In mathematics, the dimension of Euclidean n-space E n is n. When trying to generalize to other types of spaces, one is faced with the question “what makes E n n-dimensional?" One answer is that in order to cover a fixed ball in E n by small balls of radius ε, one needs on the order of ε−n such small balls. This observation leads to the definition of the Minkowski dimension and its more sophisticated variant, the Hausdorff dimension. But there are also other answers to that question. For example, one may observe that the boundary of a ball in E n looks localy like E n − 1 and this leads to the notion of the inductive dimension. While these notions agree on E n, they turn out to be different when one looks at more general spaces. A tesseract is an example of a four-dimensional object. Whereas outside of mathematics the use of the term "dimension" is as in: "A tesseract has four dimensions," mathematicians usually express this as: "The tesseract has dimension 4," or: "The dimension of the tesseract is 4." Although the notion of higher dimensions goes back to René Descartes, substantial development of a higher-dimensional geometry only began in the 19th century, via the work of Arthur Cayley, William Rowan Hamilton, Ludwig Schläfli and Bernhard Riemann. Riemann's 1854 Habilitationsschrift, Schlafi's 1852 Theorie der vielfachen Kontinuität, Hamilton's 1843 discovery of the quaternions and the construction of the Cayley Algebra marked the beginning of higher-dimensional geometry. The rest of this section examines some of the more important mathematical definitions of dimension. Hamel dimension For vector spaces, there is a natural concept of dimension, namely the cardinality of a basis. Manifolds A connected topological manifold is locally homeomorphic to Euclidean n-space, and the number n is called the manifold's dimension. One can show that this yields a uniquely defined dimension for every connected topological manifold. The theory of manifolds, in the field of geometric topology, is characterized by the way dimensions 1 and 2 are relatively elementary, the high-dimensional cases are simplified by having extra space in which to 'work'; and the cases n = 3 and 4 are in some senses the most difficult. This state of affairs was highly marked in the various cases of the Poincaré conjecture, where four different proof methods are applied. Lebesgue covering dimension For any normal topological space X, the Lebesgue covering dimension of X is defined to be n if n is the smallest integer for which the following holds: any open cover has an open refinement (a second open cover where each element is a subset of an element in the first cover) such that no point is included in more than n + 1 elements. In this case we write dim X = n. For X a manifold, this coincides with the dimension mentioned above. If no such integer n exists, then the dimension of X is said to be infinite, and we write dim X = ∞. Note also that we say X has dimension −1, i.e. dim X = −1 if and only if X is empty. This definition of covering dimension can be extended from the class of normal spaces to all Tychonoff spaces merely by replacing the term "open" in the definition by the term "functionally open". Inductive dimension The inductive dimension of a topological space may refer to the small inductive dimension or the large inductive dimension, and is based on the analogy that balls have n dimensional boundaries, permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets. Hausdorff dimension For sets which are of a complicated structure, especially fractals, the Hausdorff dimension is useful. The Hausdorff dimension is defined for all metric spaces and, unlike the Hamel dimension, can also attain non-integer real values. Fractal Dimension, Boston University Department of Mathematics and Statistics The box dimension or Minkowski dimension is a variant of the same idea. In general, there exist more definitions of fractal dimensions that work for highly irregular sets and attain non-integer positive real values. Hilbert spaces Every Hilbert space admits an orthonormal basis, and any two such bases for a particular space have the same cardinality. This cardinality is called the dimension of the Hilbert space. This dimension is finite if and only if the space's Hamel dimension is finite, and in this case the above dimensions coincide. In physics Spatial dimensions A three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. Classical physics theories describe three physical dimensions: from a particular point in space, the basic directions in which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. Movement in any other direction can be expressed in terms of just these three. Moving down is the same as moving up a negative distance. Moving diagonally upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies; i.e., moving in a linear combination of up and forward. In its simplest form: a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes three dimensions. (See Space and Cartesian coordinate system.) Time Time is often referred to as the "fourth dimension". It is one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction. The equations used in physics to model reality do not treat time in the same way that humans perceive it. The equations of classical mechanics are symmetric with respect to time, and equations of quantum mechanics are typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as charge and parity) are reversed. In these models, the perception of time flowing in one direction is an artifact of the laws of thermodynamics (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing entropy). The best-known treatment of time as a dimension is Poincaré and Einstein's special relativity (and extended to general relativity), which treats perceived space and time as components of a four-dimensional manifold, known as spacetime, and in the special, flat case as Minkowski space. Additional dimensions Theories such as string theory and M-theory predict that physical space in general has in fact 10 and 11 dimensions, respectively. The extra dimensions are spacelike. We perceive only three spatial dimensions, and no physical experiments have confirmed the reality of additional dimensions. A possible explanation that has been suggested is that space acts as if it were "curled up" in the extra dimensions on a subatomic scale, possibly at the quark/string level of scale or below. Another less-held fringe view asserts that dimensions beyond the fourth progressively condense timelines and universes into single spatial points in the above dimension, until the tenth, where a 0-dimensional point equates to all possible timelines in all possible universes. Literature Perhaps the most basic way in which the word dimension is used in literature is as a hyperbolic synonym for feature, attribute, aspect, or magnitude. Frequently the hyperbole is quite literal as in he's so 2-dimensional, meaning that one can see at a glance what he is. This contrasts with 3-dimensional objects which have an interior that is hidden from view. Science fiction texts often mention the concept of dimension, when really referring to parallel universes, alternate universes, or other planes of existence. This usage is derived from the idea that in order to travel to parallel/alternate universes/planes of existence one must travel in a spatial direction/dimension besides the standard ones. In effect, the other universes/planes are just a small distance away from our own, but the distance is in a fourth (or higher) spatial dimension, not the standard ones. One of the most heralded science fiction novellas regarding true geometric dimensionality, and often recommended as a starting point for those just starting to investigate such matters, is the 1884 novel Flatland by Edwin A. Abbott. Isaac Asimov, in his foreword to the Signet Classics 1984 edition, described Flatland as "The best introduction one can find into the manner of perceiving dimensions." Another reference would be the novel "A Wrinkle In Time" which uses the 5th Dimension as a way for Tesseracting the universe. Or in a better sense, folding the universe in half to move across it quickly. Philosophy In 1783, Kant wrote: "That everywhere space (which is not itself the boundary of another space) has three dimensions and that space in general cannot have more dimensions is based on the proposition that not more than three lines can intersect at right angles in one point. This proposition cannot at all be shown from concepts, but rests immediately on intuition and indeed on pure intuition a priori because it is apodictically (demonstrably) certain." Prolegomena, § 12 More dimensions Dimension of an algebraic variety Lebesgue covering dimension Isoperimetric dimension Poset dimension Metric dimension Pointwise dimension Lyapunov dimension Kaplan-Yorke dimension Exterior dimension Hurst exponent Vector space dimension / Hamel dimension q-dimension; especially: Information dimension (corresponding to q = 1) Correlation dimension (corresponding to q = 2) See also Fractal dimension Space-filling curve Degrees of freedom Dimension (data warehouse) and dimension tables Hyperspace (disambiguation page) A list of topics indexed by dimension Zero dimensions: Point Zero-dimensional space Integer One dimension: Line Graph (combinatorics) Real number Two dimensions: Complex number Cartesian coordinate system List of uniform tilings Surface Three dimensions Platonic solid Stereoscopy (3-D imaging) Euler angles 3-manifold Knot (mathematics) Four dimensions: Spacetime Fourth spatial dimension Convex regular 4-polytope Quaternion 4-manifold High-dimensional topics from mathematics: Octonion Vector space Manifold Calabi-Yau spaces High-dimensional topics from physics: Kaluza-Klein theory String theory M-theory Infinitely many dimensions: Hilbert space Function space Further reading Edwin A. Abbott, (1884) Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions, Public Domain. Online version with ASCII approximation of illustrations at Project Gutenberg. Thomas Banchoff, (1996) Beyond the Third Dimension: Geometry, Computer Graphics, and Higher Dimensions, Second Edition, Freeman. Clifford A. Pickover, (1999) Surfing through Hyperspace: Understanding Higher Universes in Six Easy Lessons, Oxford University Press. Rudy Rucker, (1984) The Fourth Dimension, Houghton-Mifflin. References | Dimension_(mathematics_and_physics) |@lemmatized leave:2 right:3 square:4 cube:7 tesseract:7 bound:1 dimensional:35 line:6 area:1 volume:1 projection:2 give:1 since:1 view:4 two:6 screen:1 applies:1 additionally:1 show:4 even:2 three:10 space:41 diagram:1 first:2 four:6 spatial:8 dimension:98 physic:5 mathematics:8 roughly:1 define:3 minimum:1 number:6 coordinate:7 need:3 specify:2 every:3 point:15 within:1 curious:1 astronomy:1 mathworld:1 example:4 unit:1 circle:4 plane:8 cartesian:4 one:27 make:2 single:2 polar:1 angle:3 though:1 exist:2 intrinsic:1 notion:5 chief:1 way:6 mathematical:2 differs:1 common:1 usage:2 also:6 inductive:8 description:1 consider:2 discrete:1 set:4 finite:3 collection:1 drag:8 object:9 direction:10 obtain:3 new:2 general:7 n:21 return:1 think:1 draw:1 end:1 minute:1 hand:2 clock:1 thus:2 construct:2 step:1 real:5 produce:1 construction:2 practical:1 ie:2 concrete:1 play:1 start:2 get:3 small:6 translation:2 non:3 trivial:1 overlap:1 process:1 stop:1 say:3 high:12 occur:1 science:3 many:3 reason:1 frequently:2 configuration:1 lagrangian:1 hamiltonian:1 mechanic:4 abstract:1 independent:1 actual:1 live:1 state:2 quantum:2 infinite:2 function:2 physical:5 theory:10 nature:1 relativity:3 string:4 euclidean:2 e:8 try:1 generalize:1 type:1 face:1 question:2 answer:2 order:3 cover:8 fixed:1 ball:5 radius:1 ε:2 observation:1 lead:2 definition:6 minkowski:3 sophisticated:1 variant:2 hausdorff:4 may:2 observe:1 boundary:4 look:2 localy:1 like:1 agree:1 turn:1 different:2 whereas:1 outside:1 use:4 term:4 mathematician:1 usually:1 express:2 although:1 go:1 back:1 rené:1 descartes:1 substantial:1 development:1 geometry:3 begin:1 century:1 via:1 work:3 arthur:1 cayley:2 william:1 rowan:1 hamilton:2 ludwig:1 schläfli:1 bernhard:1 riemann:2 habilitationsschrift:1 schlafi:1 theorie:1 der:1 vielfachen:1 kontinuität:1 discovery:1 quaternion:2 algebra:1 mark:2 beginning:1 rest:2 section:1 examine:1 important:1 hamel:4 vector:3 natural:1 concept:3 namely:1 cardinality:3 basis:2 manifold:10 connected:2 topological:4 locally:1 homeomorphic:1 call:2 yield:1 uniquely:1 defined:1 field:1 geometric:2 topology:1 characterize:1 relatively:1 elementary:1 case:6 simplify:1 extra:3 sens:1 difficult:1 affair:1 highly:2 various:1 poincaré:2 conjecture:1 proof:1 method:1 apply:1 lebesgue:3 normal:2 x:9 integer:5 follow:1 hold:1 open:6 refinement:1 second:2 element:3 subset:1 include:1 write:3 dim:3 coincide:2 mention:2 exists:1 note:1 empty:1 extend:2 class:1 tychonoff:1 merely:1 replace:1 functionally:1 refer:3 large:1 base:4 analogy:1 permit:1 complicated:1 structure:1 especially:2 fractal:4 useful:1 metric:2 unlike:1 attain:2 value:2 boston:1 university:2 department:1 statistic:1 box:1 idea:2 irregular:1 positive:1 hilbert:4 admit:1 orthonormal:1 particular:2 system:3 classical:2 describe:5 basic:2 move:7 forward:3 backward:1 movement:1 negative:1 distance:3 diagonally:1 upward:1 name:1 imply:1 moving:1 linear:1 combination:1 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6,388 | Dehydroepiandrosterone | Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is a multi-functional steroid that has been implicated in a broad range of biological effects in humans and other mammals. Together with its sulfate ester (DHEA-S), it is the most abundant steroid in humans. DHEA is produced by adrenal glands, but also sythesized de novo in the brain. It acts on the androgen receptor both directly and through its metabolites, which include androstenediol and androstendione, which can undergo further conversion to produce the androgen testosterone and the estrogens estrone and estradiol. DHEA is also a potent sigma-1 agonist. Romieu, P.; Martin-Fardon, R.; Bowen, W. D.; and Maurice, T. (2003). Sigma 1 Receptor-Related Neuroactive Steroids Modulate Cocaine-Induced Reward. 23(9): 3572. It is considered a neurosteroid. Synonyms and brand names Synonyms for dehydroepiandrosterone are: 3-beta-Hydroxy-5-androsten-17-one, 3.beta.-Hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one, 3beta-hydroxy-5-androsten-17-one, 3beta-hydroxy-androst-5-en-17-one, 3beta-Hydroxy-D5-androsten-17-one, 3beta-Hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one, 3beta-Hydroxyandrost-5-ene-17-one, 3-beta-hydroxy-etioallocholan-5-ene-17-one , 5-Androsten-3beta-ol-17-one, Brand names for DHEA include Prastera, Prasterone, Fidelin and Fluasterone. Supplement versions are manufactured from wild Mexican yam. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) is the sulfated version of DHEA. This conversion is reversibly catalyzed by sulfotransferase (SULT2A1) primarily in the adrenals, the liver, and small intestine. In the blood, most DHEA is found as DHEAS with levels that are about 300 times higher than those of free DHEA. Orally ingested DHEA is converted to its sulfate when passing through intestines and liver. Whereas DHEA levels naturally reach their peak in the early morning hours, DHEAS levels show no diurnal variation. From a practical point of view, measurement of DHEAS is preferable to DHEA, as levels are more stable. Production Production of DHEA from Cholesterol DHEA is produced from cholesterol through two cytochrome P450 enzymes. Cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone by the enzyme P450 scc (side chain cleavage); then another enzyme, CYP17A1, converts pregnenolone to 17α-Hydroxypregnenolone and then to DHEA. Harper's illustrated Biochemistry, 27th edition, Ch.41 "The Diversity of the Endocrine system" Role DHEA can be understood as a prohormone for the sex steroids. DHEAS may be viewed as buffer and reservoir. As most DHEA is produced by the zona reticularis of the adrenal, it is argued that there is a role in the immune and stress response. As almost all DHEA is derived from the adrenal glands, blood measurements of DHEAS/DHEA are useful to detect excess adrenal activity as seen in adrenal cancer or hyperplasia, including certain forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Women with polycystic ovary syndrome tend to have elevated levels of DHEAS. Effects and uses Studies have shown that DHEA is useful in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. An application of the evidence was discussed by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 2001 and is available online. FDA document regading DHEA and SLE This review also shows that cholesterol and other serum lipids decrease with the use of DHEA (mainly a decrease in HDL-C and triglycerides can be expected in women, p110). DHEA supplementation has been studied as a treatment for Alzheimer's disease, but was found to be ineffective. Some small placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial studies have found long-term supplementation to improve mood and relieve depression or to decrease insulin resistance. However, a larger placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial reported in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2006 found that DHEA supplementation in elderly men and women had no beneficial effects on body composition, physical performance, insulin sensitivity, or quality of life. In contrast to the non-beneficial effects of DHEA on memory in the elderly, a randomised UK study Alhaj et al., Effects of DHEA administration on episodic memory, cortisol and mood in healthy young men: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, Psychopharmacology (2006) 188: 541–551 found that a 7-day course of DHEA (150 mg twice daily) improved episodic memory in healthy young men. In this study, DHEA was also shown to improve subjective mood and decrease evening cortisol concentration, which is known to be elevated in depression Young, E. A.; Haskett, R. F.; Grunhaus, L.; Pande, A.; Weinberg, V. M.; Watson, S. J.; Akil, H. (1994) Increased evening activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis in depressed patients. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 51:701–707 . The effect of DHEA on memory appeared to be related to an early activation of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and it was suggested this was due to neuronal recruitment of the steroid sensitive ACC that may be involved in pre-hippocampal memory processing. DHEA supplements are sometimes used as muscle-building or performance-enhancing drugs by athletes. However, a randomized placebo-controlled trial found that DHEA supplementation had no effect on lean body mass, strength, or testosterone levels. A 1986 study found that a higher level of endogenous DHEA, as determined by a single measurement, correlated with a lower risk of death or cardiovascular disease. However, a more recent 2006 study found no correlation between DHEA levels and risk of cardiovascular disease or death in men. A 2007 study found the DHEA restored oxidative balance in diabetic patients, reducing tissue levels of pentosidine—a biomarker for advanced glycation endproducts. Some in vitro studies have found DHEA to have an anti-proliferative or apoptotic effect on cancer cell lines. The clinical significance of these findings, if any, is unknown. Higher levels of DHEA, in fact, have been correlated with an increased risk of developing breast cancer in both pre- and postmenopausal women. An anonymous 2002 review, in the French journal Prescrire, concluded: DHEA plasma levels are so low in most animals that they are difficult to measure, hindering studies on DHEA and aging. DHEA had not yet, at the time of writing, been linked to any specific health disorder. Side effects are linked to its androgenic effects, unfavorable lipid metabolism effects, and "possible growth-stimulating effect" on hormone dependent malignancies. "In practice, there is currently no scientific reason to prescribe DHEA for any purpose whatsoever." A 2005 study, measured serum DHEA in 206 men with type-2 diabetes, and found an inverse relationship between serum DHEA and carotid atherosclerosis in men. The authors say the study "supports the notion that DHEA, which is sold in increasing amount as a food supplement, is atheroprotective in humans, and that androgen replacement therapy should be considered for men with hypogonadism." A 2006 study supplemented DHEA to men of average 65 years of age, and found that the men experienced significant increases in testosterone and cGMP (Cyclic guanosine monophosphate), and significant decreases in low-density liprotein (LDL). The authors say that the "findings...suggest that chronic DHEA supplementation would exert antiatherogenic effects, particularly in elderly subjects who display low circulating levels of this hormone." A 2008 study in the Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, June 2008, measured serum DHEA in 940 men and women ranging from age 21 to 88, following them from 1978 until 2005. The researches found that low levels of DHEA-s showed a significant association with shorter lifespan and that higher DHEA-s levels are a "strong predictor" of longevity in men, even after adjusting for age, blood pressure, and plasma glucose. No relationship was found between serum DHEA and longevity for women during the study period. The study did not find a significant difference in longevity until the 15-year follow-up point, which the researchers note may explain why some past research that followed men for less duration found no relationship. Disputed effects In the United States, DHEA or DHEAS have been advertised with claims that they may be beneficial for a wide variety of ailments. DHEA and DHEAS are readily available in the United States, where they are marketed as over-the-counter dietary supplements. A 2004 review in the American Journal of Sports Medicine concluded that "The marketing of this supplement's effectiveness far exceeds its science." Because DHEA is converted to androstenedione and then testosterone, it has two chances to aromatize into estrogen- estrone from androstenedione, and estradiol from testosterone. As such, it is possible for increases in estrogen levels more than testosterone in men. Increasing endogenous production Regular exercise is known to increase DHEA production in the body. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 1998 Oct; 78(5):466-71 Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2001 Jul; 85(1- 2):177-84 J. Gerontol. A. Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 2002 Apr; 57(4):B158-65 Caloric restriction has also been shown to increase DHEA in primates. Exp. Gerontol. 2003 Jan-Feb; 38(1-2):35-46 Some theorize that the increase in endogenous DHEA brought about by caloric restriction is partially responsible for the longer life expectancy known to be associated with caloric restriction. Roberts, E.; The importance of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate in the blood of primates: a longer and healthier life? Biochem. Pharmacol. 1999 Feb 15;57(4):329-46. Isomers DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone) is really a meaningless term scientifically, since it isn't descriptive of the actual molecule structure and could include a family of structures that are missing hydrogen atoms at one or more points in the molecule. DHEA can have many naturally occurring isomers that may have similar pharmacological effects. Some proven natural isomers of DHEA are 1-dehydroepiandrosterone (shown to be synthesized in pigs), 4-dehydroepiandrosterone (shown to occur in rats), 19NorDHEA (shown to occur in pigs and humans). These isomers are also technically DHEA, since they are dehydro epiandrosterones (removing hydrogens from the epiandrosterone skeleton). Legality United States A bill has been introduced, in March 2007, in the U.S. Senate (S. 762) that attempts to classify DHEA as a controlled substance under the category of anabolic steroids. The sponsor is Charles Grassley (R-IA). The cosponsors are Richard Durbin (D-IL), and John McCain (R-AZ). S. 762: A bill to include dehydroepiandrosterone as an anabolic steroid, from Govtrack.us. Accessed May 9, 2007. This bill was referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee. Then in December 2007, Charles Grassley introduced the "S. 2470: Dehydroepiandrosterone Abuse Reduction Act of 2007," in an attempt to amend the Controlled Substances Act to make "unlawful for any person to knowingly selling, causing another to sell, or conspiring to sell a product containing dehydroepiandrosterone to an individual under the age of 18 years, including any such sale using the Internet," without a prescription. The bill was read twice and referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee. S. 2470: Dehydroepiandrosterone Abuse Reduction Act of 2007 (GovTrack.us) Canada In Canada, a prescription is required to buy DHEA. Dr. Michael Colgin. The Deal With D.H.E.A. Vista Magazine Online. www.vistamag.com Professional Cycling DHEA is a prohibited substance under the World Anti-Doping Code of the World Anti-Doping Agency , that took over control of drug testing from the individual sports, such as international cycling body, Union Cycliste Internationale UCI Prohibited Substances . References External links Information on DHEA from the Mayo Clinic Information on DHEA from the American Cancer Society DHEA in elderly women and DHEA or testosterone in elderly men, published in the New England Journal of Medicine in 2006. "Neither DHEA nor low-dose testosterone replacement in elderly people has physiologically relevant beneficial effects on body composition, physical performance, insulin sensitivity, or quality of life." DHEA, from the Skeptic's Dictionary | Dehydroepiandrosterone |@lemmatized dehydroepiandrosterone:12 dhea:67 multi:1 functional:1 steroid:7 implicate:1 broad:1 range:2 biological:1 effect:16 human:4 mammal:1 together:1 sulfate:5 ester:1 abundant:1 produce:4 adrenal:8 gland:2 also:6 sythesized:1 de:1 novo:1 brain:1 act:4 androgen:3 receptor:2 directly:1 metabolite:1 include:6 androstenediol:1 androstendione:1 undergo:1 conversion:2 testosterone:8 estrogen:3 estrone:2 estradiol:2 potent:1 sigma:2 agonist:1 romieu:1 p:1 martin:1 fardon:1 r:4 bowen:1 w:1 maurice:1 related:1 neuroactive:1 modulate:1 cocaine:1 induced:1 reward:1 consider:2 neurosteroid:1 synonym:1 brand:2 name:2 synonyms:1 beta:3 hydroxy:5 androsten:4 one:10 hydroxyandrost:3 en:3 androst:1 ene:2 etioallocholan:1 ol:1 prastera:1 prasterone:1 fidelin:1 fluasterone:1 supplement:6 version:2 manufacture:1 wild:1 mexican:1 yam:1 dheas:9 sulfated:1 reversibly:1 catalyze:1 sulfotransferase:1 primarily:1 liver:2 small:2 intestine:2 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6,389 | Hominy | Bowl of hominy Hominy or nixtamal is dried maize (corn) kernels which have been treated with an alkali. The traditional U.S. version involves soaking dried corn in lye-water (sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide solution), traditionally derived from wood ash, until the hulls are removed. Mexican recipes describe a preparation process consisting primarily of cooking in lime-water (calcium hydroxide). In either case, the process is called nixtamalization, and removes the germ and the hard outer hull from the kernels, making them more palatable, easier to digest, and easier to process. Commercially available canned hominy may have a slightly stronger scent when compared to the traditional preparation. The earliest known usage of nixtamalization was in what is present-day Guatemala around 1500–1200 BC. It affords several significant nutritional advantages over untreated maize products. It converts some of the niacin (and possibly other B vitamins) into a form more absorbable by the body, improves the availability of the amino acids, and (at least in the lime-treated variant) supplements the calcium content, balancing maize's comparative excess of phosphorus. Many Native American cultures made hominy and integrated it into their diet. Cherokees, for example, made hominy grits by soaking corn in lye and beating it with a kanona (corn beater). The grits were used to make a traditional hominy soup (called ᎬᏃᎮᏅ ᎠᎹᎩᎢ, or Gv-No-He-Nv A-Ma-Gi-i), a hominy soup that was allowed to ferment (Gv-Wi Si-Da A-Ma-Gi-i), cornbread, dumplings (Di-Gu-Nv-i) or fried with bacon and green onions. Some recipes using hominy include menudo (a spicy tripe and hominy soup), pozole (a stew of hominy and pork, chicken, or other meat), hominy bread, hominy chili, casseroles and fried dishes. Hominy can be ground coarsely to make hominy grits, or into a fine mash (dough) to make masa, the dough used to make tamales. Rockihominy, a popular trail food in the 19th & early 20th centuries, is dried corn roasted to a golden brown, then ground to a very coarse meal, almost like hominy grits. Hominy can also be used as animal feed. External links The Mountain Laurel (2005). Homemade Hominy. Retrieved June 18 2005. Ha-pah-shu-tse (2005). Hominy Products. Retrieved June 18 2005. Native Way Cookbook Gv-No-He-Nv A-Ma-Gi-i, Gv-Wi Si-Da A-Ma-Gi-i and Di-Gu-Nv-i. wonderfulingredients.com Recipe for White Bean, Hominy and Chipotle Soup | Hominy |@lemmatized bowl:1 hominy:19 nixtamal:1 dry:3 maize:3 corn:5 kernel:2 treat:2 alkali:1 traditional:3 u:1 version:1 involve:1 soak:2 lye:2 water:2 sodium:1 hydroxide:3 potassium:1 solution:1 traditionally:1 derive:1 wood:1 ash:1 hull:2 remove:2 mexican:1 recipe:3 describe:1 preparation:2 process:3 consist:1 primarily:1 cook:1 lime:2 calcium:2 either:1 case:1 call:2 nixtamalization:2 germ:1 hard:1 outer:1 make:7 palatable:1 easy:2 digest:1 commercially:1 available:1 may:1 slightly:1 strong:1 scent:1 compare:1 early:2 known:1 usage:1 present:1 day:1 guatemala:1 around:1 bc:1 afford:1 several:1 significant:1 nutritional:1 advantage:1 untreated:1 product:2 convert:1 niacin:1 possibly:1 b:1 vitamin:1 form:1 absorbable:1 body:1 improve:1 availability:1 amino:1 acid:1 least:1 variant:1 supplement:1 content:1 balance:1 comparative:1 excess:1 phosphorus:1 many:1 native:2 american:1 culture:1 integrate:1 diet:1 cherokee:1 example:1 grit:4 beat:1 kanona:1 beater:1 use:4 soup:4 ꭼꮓꭾꮕ:1 ꭰꮉꭹꭲ:1 gv:4 nv:4 gi:4 allow:1 ferment:1 wi:2 si:2 da:2 cornbread:1 dumpling:1 di:2 gu:2 fry:1 bacon:1 green:1 onion:1 include:1 menudo:1 spicy:1 tripe:1 pozole:1 stew:1 pork:1 chicken:1 meat:1 bread:1 chili:1 casserole:1 fried:1 dish:1 grind:1 coarsely:1 fine:1 mash:1 dough:2 masa:1 tamale:1 rockihominy:1 popular:1 trail:1 food:1 century:1 roast:1 golden:1 brown:1 ground:1 coarse:1 meal:1 almost:1 like:1 also:1 animal:1 feed:1 external:1 link:1 mountain:1 laurel:1 homemade:1 retrieve:2 june:2 ha:1 pah:1 shu:1 tse:1 way:1 cookbook:1 wonderfulingredients:1 com:1 white:1 bean:1 chipotle:1 |@bigram maize_corn:1 sodium_hydroxide:1 potassium_hydroxide:1 calcium_hydroxide:1 amino_acid:1 pork_chicken:1 fried_dish:1 external_link:1 |
6,390 | Calculus | Calculus (Latin, calculus, a small stone used for counting) is a discipline in mathematics focused on limits, functions, derivatives, integrals, and infinite series, and which constitutes a major part of modern university education. It has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus, which are related by the fundamental theorem of calculus. Calculus is the study of change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape and algebra is the study of equations. A course in calculus is a gateway to other, more advanced courses in mathematics devoted to the study of functions and limits, broadly called mathematical analysis. Calculus has widespread applications in science, economics, and engineering and can solve many problems for which algebra alone is insufficient. Historically, calculus was called "the calculus of infinitesimals", or "infinitesimal calculus". More generally, calculus (plural calculi) may refer to any method or system of calculation guided by the symbolic manipulation of expressions. Some examples of other well-known calculi are propositional calculus, variational calculus, and lambda calculus. History Ancient The ancient period introduced some of the ideas of integral calculus, but does not seem to have developed these ideas in a rigorous or systematic way. Calculating volumes and areas, the basic function of integral calculus, can be traced back to the Egyptian Moscow papyrus (c. 1820 BC), in which an Egyptian successfully calculated the volume of a pyramidal frustum. There is no exact evidence on how it was done; some, including Morris Kline (Mathematical thought from ancient to modern times Vol. I) suggest trial and error. Helmer Aslaksen. Why Calculus? National University of Singapore. From the school of Greek mathematics, Eudoxus (c. 408−355 BC) used the method of exhaustion, which prefigures the concept of the limit, to calculate areas and volumes while Archimedes (c. 287−212 BC) developed this idea further, inventing heuristics which resemble integral calculus. Archimedes, Method, in The Works of Archimedes ISBN 978-0-521-66160-7 The method of exhaustion was later used in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century AD in order to find the area of a circle. In the 5th century AD, Zu Chongzhi used what would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a sphere. Medieval Around AD 1000, the Islamic mathematician, Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen), was the first to derive the formula for the sum of the fourth powers of an arithmetic progression, using a method that is readily generalizable to finding the formula for the sum of any higher integral powers, which he used to perform an integration. Victor J. Katz (1995). "Ideas of Calculus in Islam and India", Mathematics Magazine 68 (3), pp. 163-174. In the 11th century, the Chinese polymath Shen Kuo developed 'packing' equations that dealt with integration. In the 12th century, the Indian mathematician, Bhāskara II, developed an early derivative representing infinitesimal change, and he described an early form of "Rolle's theorem". Ian G. Pearce. Bhaskaracharya II. Also in the 12th century, the Persian mathematician Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī discovered the derivative of cubic polynomials, an important result in differential calculus. J. L. Berggren (1990). "Innovation and Tradition in Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi's Muadalat", Journal of the American Oriental Society 110 (2), pp. 304-309. In the 14th century, Madhava of Sangamagrama, along with other mathematician-astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics, described special cases of Taylor series, which are treated in the text Yuktibhasa. Modern In the modern period, independent discoveries relating to calculus were being made in early 17th century Japan, by mathematicians such as Seki Kowa, who expanded upon the method of exhaustion. In Europe, the foundational work was a treatise due to Bonaventura Cavalieri, who argued that volumes and areas should be computed as the sums of the volumes and areas of infinitesimal thin cross-sections. The ideas were similar to Archimedes' in The Method, but this treatise was lost until the early part of the twentieth century. Cavalieri's work was not well respected since his methods can lead to erroneous results, and the infinitesimal quantities he introduced were disreputable at first. The formal study of calculus combined Cavalieri's infinitesimals with the calculus of finite differences developed in Europe at around the same time. The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and James Gregory, the latter two proving the second fundamental theorem of calculus around 1675. The product rule and chain rule, the notion of higher derivatives, Taylor series, and analytical functions were introduced by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which he used to solve problems of mathematical physics. In his publications, Newton rephrased his ideas to suit the mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations with infinitesimals by equivalent geometrical arguments which were considered beyond reproach. He used the methods of calculus to solve the problem of planetary motion, the shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness of the earth, the motion of a weight sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in his Principia Mathematica. In other work, he developed series expansions for functions, including fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor series. He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods were still considered disreputable. These ideas were systematized into a true calculus of infinitesimals by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who was originally accused of plagiarism by Newton. He is now regarded as an independent inventor of and contributor to calculus. His contribution was to provide a clear set of rules for manipulating infinitesimal quantities, allowing the computation of second and higher derivatives, and providing the product rule and chain rule, in their differential and integral forms. Unlike Newton, Leibniz paid a lot of attention to the formalism – he often spent days determining appropriate symbols for concepts. Leibniz and Newton are usually both credited with the invention of calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics and Leibniz developed much of the notation used in calculus today. The basic insights that both Newton and Leibniz provided were the laws of differentiation and integration, second and higher derivatives, and the notion of an approximating polynomial series. By Newton's time, the fundamental theorem of calculus was known. When Newton and Leibniz first published their results, there was great controversy over which mathematician (and therefore which country) deserved credit. Newton derived his results first, but Leibniz published first. Newton claimed Leibniz stole ideas from his unpublished notes, which Newton had shared with a few members of the Royal Society. This controversy divided English-speaking mathematicians from continental mathematicians for many years, to the detriment of English mathematics. A careful examination of the papers of Leibniz and Newton shows that they arrived at their results independently, with Leibniz starting first with integration and Newton with differentiation. Today, both Newton and Leibniz are given credit for developing calculus independently. It is Leibniz, however, who gave the new discipline its name. Newton called his calculus "the science of fluxions". Since the time of Leibniz and Newton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing development of calculus. In the 19th century, calculus was put on a much more rigorous footing by mathematicians such as Cauchy, Riemann, and Weierstrass (see (ε, δ)-definition of limit). It was also during this period that the ideas of calculus were generalized to Euclidean space and the complex plane. Lebesgue generalized the notion of the integral so that virtually any function has an integral, while Laurent Schwartz extended differentiation in much the same way. Calculus is a ubiquitous topic in most modern high schools and universities, and mathematicians around the world continue to contribute to its development. UNESCO-World Data on Education Significance While some of the ideas of calculus were developed earlier in Greece, China, India, Iraq, Persia, and Japan, the modern use of calculus began in Europe, during the 17th century, when Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz built on the work of earlier mathematicians to introduce its basic principles. The development of calculus was built on earlier concepts of instantaneous motion and area underneath curves. Applications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration, the slope of a curve, and optimization. Applications of integral calculus include computations involving area, volume, arc length, center of mass, work, and pressure. More advanced applications include power series and Fourier series. Calculus can be used to compute the trajectory of a shuttle docking at a space station or the amount of snow in a driveway. Calculus is also used to gain a more precise understanding of the nature of space, time, and motion. For centuries, mathematicians and philosophers wrestled with paradoxes involving division by zero or sums of infinitely many numbers. These questions arise in the study of motion and area. The ancient Greek philosopher Zeno gave several famous examples of such paradoxes. Calculus provides tools, especially the limit and the infinite series, which resolve the paradoxes. Foundations In mathematics, foundations refers to the rigorous development of a subject from precise axioms and definitions. Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the century following Newton and Leibniz and is still to some extent an active area of research today. There is more than one rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. The usual one today is via the concept of limits defined on the continuum of real numbers. An alternative is nonstandard analysis, in which the real number system is augmented with infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in the original Newton-Leibniz conception. The foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which contains full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus as well as generalizations such as measure theory and distribution theory. Principles Limits and infinitesimals Calculus is usually developed by manipulating very small quantities. Historically, the first method of doing so was by infinitesimals. These are objects which can be treated like numbers but which are, in some sense, "infinitely small". An infinitesimal number dx could be greater than 0, but less than any number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ... and less than any positive real number. Any integer multiple of an infinitesimal is still infinitely small, i.e., infinitesimals do not satisfy the Archimedean property. From this point of view, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating infinitesimals. This approach fell out of favor in the 19th century because it was difficult to make the notion of an infinitesimal precise. However, the concept was revived in the 20th century with the introduction of non-standard analysis and smooth infinitesimal analysis, which provided solid foundations for the manipulation of infinitesimals. In the 19th century, infinitesimals were replaced by limits. Limits describe the value of a function at a certain input in terms of its values at nearby input. They capture small-scale behavior, just like infinitesimals, but use the ordinary real number system. In this treatment, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating certain limits. Infinitesimals get replaced by very small numbers, and the infinitely small behavior of the function is found by taking the limiting behavior for smaller and smaller numbers. Limits are easy to put on rigorous foundations, and for this reason they are usually considered to be the standard approach to calculus. Differential calculus Differential calculus is the study of the definition, properties, and applications of the derivative of a function. The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation. Given a function and a point in the domain, the derivative at that point is a way of encoding the small-scale behavior of the function near that point. By finding the derivative of a function at every point in its domain, it is possible to produce a new function, called the derivative function or just the derivative of the original function. In mathematical jargon, the derivative is a linear operator which inputs a function and outputs a second function. This is more abstract than many of the processes studied in elementary algebra, where functions usually input a number and output another number. For example, if the doubling function is given the input three, then it outputs six, and if the squaring function is given the input three, then it outputs nine. The derivative, however, can take the squaring function as an input. This means that the derivative takes all the information of the squaring function—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—and uses this information to produce another function. (The function it produces turns out to be the doubling function.) The most common symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called prime. Thus, the derivative of the function of f is f′, pronounced "f prime." For instance, if f(x) = x2 is the squaring function, then f′(x) = 2x is the doubling function. If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change with respect to time. For example, if f is a function that takes a time as input and gives the position of a ball at that time as output, then the derivative of f is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is the velocity of the ball. If a function is linear (that is, if the graph of the function is a straight line), then the function can be written y = mx + b, where: This gives an exact value for the slope of a straight line. If the graph of the function is not a straight line, however, then the change in y divided by the change in x varies. Derivatives give an exact meaning to the notion of change in output with respect to change in input. To be concrete, let f be a function, and fix a point a in the domain of f. (a, f(a)) is a point on the graph of the function. If h is a number close to zero, then a + h is a number close to a. Therefore (a + h, f(a + h)) is close to (a, f(a)). The slope between these two points is This expression is called a difference quotient. A line through two points on a curve is called a secant line, so m is the slope of the secant line between (a, f(a)) and (a + h, f(a + h)). The secant line is only an approximation to the behavior of the function at the point a because it does not account for what happens between a and a + h. It is not possible to discover the behavior at a by setting h to zero because this would require dividing by zero, which is impossible. The derivative is defined by taking the limit as h tends to zero, meaning that it considers the behavior of f for all small values of h and extracts a consistent value for the case when h equals zero: Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f at a. The tangent line is a limit of secant lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference quotients. For this reason, the derivative is sometimes called the slope of the function f. Here is a particular example, the derivative of the squaring function at the input 3. Let f(x) = x2 be the squaring function. The slope of tangent line to the squaring function at the point (3,9) is 6, that is to say, it is going up six times as fast as it is going to the right. The limit process just described can be performed for any point in the domain of the squaring function. This defines the derivative function of the squaring function, or just the derivative of the squaring function for short. A similar computation to the one above shows that the derivative of the squaring function is the doubling function. Leibniz notation A common notation, introduced by Leibniz, for the derivative in the example above is In an approach based on limits, the symbol dy/dx is to be interpreted not as the quotient of two numbers but as a shorthand for the limit computed above. Leibniz, however, did intend it to represent the quotient of two infinitesimally small numbers, dy being the infinitesimally small change in y caused by an infinitesimally small change dx applied to x. We can also think of d/dx as a differentiation operator, which takes a function as an input and gives another function, the derivative, as the output. For example: In this usage, the dx in the denominator is read as "with respect to x." Even when calculus is developed using limits rather than infinitesimals, it is common to manipulate symbols like dx and dy as if they were real numbers; although it is possible to avoid such manipulations, they are sometimes notationally convenient in expressing operations such as the total derivative. Integral calculus Integral calculus is the study of the definitions, properties, and applications of two related concepts, the indefinite integral and the definite integral. The process of finding the value of an integral is called integration. In technical language, integral calculus studies two related linear operators. The indefinite integral is the antiderivative, the inverse operation to the derivative. F is an indefinite integral of f when f is a derivative of F. (This use of upper- and lower-case letters for a function and its indefinite integral is common in calculus.) The definite integral inputs a function and outputs a number, which gives the area between the graph of the input and the x-axis. The technical definition of the definite integral is the limit of a sum of areas of rectangles, called a Riemann sum. A motivating example is the distances traveled in a given time. If the speed is constant, only multiplication is needed, but if the speed changes, then we need a more powerful method of finding the distance. One such method is to approximate the distance traveled by breaking up the time into many short intervals of time, then multiplying the time elapsed in each interval by one of the speeds in that interval, and then taking the sum (a Riemann sum) of the approximate distance traveled in each interval. The basic idea is that if only a short time elapses, then the speed will stay more or less the same. However, a Riemann sum only gives an approximation of the distance traveled. We must take the limit of all such Riemann sums to find the exact distance traveled. If f(x) in the diagram on the left represents speed as it varies over time, the distance traveled (between the times represented by a and b) is the area of the shaded region s. To approximate that area, an intuitive method would be to divide up the distance between a and b into a number of equal segments, the length of each segment represented by the symbol Δx. For each small segment, we can choose one value of the function f(x). Call that value h. Then the area of the rectangle with base Δx and height h gives the distance (time Δx multiplied by speed h) traveled in that segment. Associated with each segment is the average value of the function above it, f(x)=h. The sum of all such rectangles gives an approximation of the area between the axis and the curve, which is an approximation of the total distance traveled. A smaller value for Δx will give more rectangles and in most cases a better approximation, but for an exact answer we need to take a limit as Δx approaches zero. The symbol of integration is , an elongated S (the S stands for "sum"). The definite integral is written as: and is read "the integral from a to b of f-of-x with respect to x." The Leibniz notation dx is intended to suggest dividing the area under the curve into an infinite number of rectangles, so that their width Δx becomes the infinitesimally small dx. In a formulation of the calculus based on limits, the notation is to be understood as an operator that takes a function as an input and gives a number, the area, as an output; dx is not a number, and is not being multiplied by f(x). The indefinite integral, or antiderivative, is written: Functions differing by only a constant have the same derivative, and therefore the antiderivative of a given function is actually a family of functions differing only by a constant. Since the derivative of the function y = x² + C, where C is any constant, is y′ = 2x, the antiderivative of the latter is given by: An undetermined constant like C in the antiderivative is known as a constant of integration. Fundamental theorem The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations. More precisely, it relates the values of antiderivatives to definite integrals. Because it is usually easier to compute an antiderivative than to apply the definition of a definite integral, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus provides a practical way of computing definite integrals. It can also be interpreted as a precise statement of the fact that differentiation is the inverse of integration. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus states: If a function f is continuous on the interval [a, b] and if F is a function whose derivative is f on the interval (a, b), then Furthermore, for every x in the interval (a, b), This realization, made by both Newton and Leibniz, who based their results on earlier work by Isaac Barrow, was key to the massive proliferation of analytic results after their work became known. The fundamental theorem provides an algebraic method of computing many definite integrals—without performing limit processes—by finding formulas for antiderivatives. It is also a prototype solution of a differential equation. Differential equations relate an unknown function to its derivatives, and are ubiquitous in the sciences. Applications Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences, in computer science, statistics, engineering, economics, business, medicine, demography, and in other fields wherever a problem can be mathematically modeled and an optimal solution is desired. Physics makes particular use of calculus; all concepts in classical mechanics are interrelated through calculus. The mass of an object of known density, the moment of inertia of objects, as well as the total energy of an object within a conservative field can be found by the use of calculus. In the subfields of electricity and magnetism calculus can be used to find the total flux of electromagnetic fields. A more historical example of the use of calculus in physics is Newton's second law of motion, it expressly uses the term "rate of change" which refers to the derivative: The rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction. Even the common expression of Newton's second law as Force = Mass × Acceleration involves differential calculus because acceleration can be expressed as the derivative of velocity. Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and Einstein's theory of general relativity are also expressed in the language of differential calculus. Chemistry also uses calculus in determining reaction rates and radioactive decay. Calculus can be used in conjunction with other mathematical disciplines. For example, it can be used with linear algebra to find the "best fit" linear approximation for a set of points in a domain. Or it can be used in probability theory to determine the probability of a continuous random variable from an assumed density function. Green's Theorem, which gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral over the plane region D bounded by C, is applied in an instrument known as a planimeter which is used to calculate the area of a flat surface on a drawing. For example, it can be used to calculate the amount of area taken up by an irregularly shaped flower bed or swimming pool when designing the layout of a piece of property. In the realm of medicine, calculus can be used to find the optimal branching angle of a blood vessel so as to maximize flow. In analytic geometry, the study of graphs of functions, calculus is used to find high points and low points (maxima and minima), slope, concavity and inflection points. In economics, calculus allows for the determination of maximal profit by providing a way to easily calculate both marginal cost and marginal revenue. Calculus can be used to find approximate solutions to equations, in methods such as Newton's method, fixed point iteration, and linear approximation. For instance, spacecraft use a variation of the Euler method to approximate curved courses within zero gravity environments. See also Lists List of basic calculus topics List of basic calculus equations and formulas List of calculus topics Publications in calculus Table of integrals Related topics Calculus with polynomials Complex analysis Differential equation Differential geometry Elementary calculus Fourier series Integral equation Mathematical analysis Mathematics Multivariable calculus Non-classical analysis Non-standard analysis Non-standard calculus Precalculus (mathematical education) Product Integrals Stochastic calculus Taylor series References Notes Books Donald A. McQuarrie (2003). Mathematical Methods for Scientists and Engineers, University Science Books. ISBN 9781891389245 James Stewart (2002). Calculus: Early Transcendentals, 5th ed., Brooks Cole. ISBN 9780534393212 Other resources Further reading Courant, Richard ISBN 978-3540650584 Introduction to calculus and analysis 1. Edmund Landau. ISBN 0-8218-2830-4 Differential and Integral Calculus, American Mathematical Society. Robert A. Adams. (1999). ISBN 978-0-201-39607-2 Calculus: A complete course. Albers, Donald J.; Richard D. Anderson and Don O. Loftsgaarden, ed. (1986) Undergraduate Programs in the Mathematics and Computer Sciences: The 1985-1986 Survey, Mathematical Association of America No. 7. John L. Bell: A Primer of Infinitesimal Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0-521-62401-5. Uses synthetic differential geometry and nilpotent infinitesimals. Florian Cajori, "The History of Notations of the Calculus." Annals of Mathematics, 2nd Ser., Vol. 25, No. 1 (Sep., 1923), pp. 1-46. Leonid P. Lebedev and Michael J. Cloud: "Approximating Perfection: a Mathematician's Journey into the World of Mechanics, Ch. 1: The Tools of Calculus", Princeton Univ. Press, 2004. Cliff Pickover. (2003). ISBN 978-0-471-26987-8 Calculus and Pizza: A Math Cookbook for the Hungry Mind. Michael Spivak. (September 1994). ISBN 978-0-914098-89-8 Calculus. Publish or Perish publishing. Tom M. Apostol. (1967). ISBN 9780471000051 Calculus, Volume 1, One-Variable Calculus with an Introduction to Linear Algebra. Wiley. Tom M. Apostol. (1969). ISBN 9780471000075 Calculus, Volume 2, Multi-Variable Calculus and Linear Algebra with Applications. Wiley. Silvanus P. Thompson and Martin Gardner. (1998). ISBN 978-0-312-18548-0 Calculus Made Easy. Mathematical Association of America. (1988). Calculus for a New Century; A Pump, Not a Filter, The Association, Stony Brook, NY. ED 300 252. Thomas/Finney. (1996). ISBN 978-0-201-53174-9 Calculus and Analytic geometry 9th, Addison Wesley. Weisstein, Eric W. "Second Fundamental Theorem of Calculus." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. Online books Crowell, B. (2003). "Calculus" Light and Matter, Fullerton. Retrieved 6 May 2007 from http://www.lightandmatter.com/calc/calc.pdf Garrett, P. (2006). "Notes on first year calculus" University of Minnesota. Retrieved 6 May 2007 from http://www.math.umn.edu/~garrett/calculus/first_year/notes.pdf Faraz, H. (2006). "Understanding Calculus" Retrieved 6 May 2007 from Understanding Calculus, URL http://www.understandingcalculus.com/ (HTML only) Keisler, H. J. (2000). "Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals" Retrieved 6 May 2007 from http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/keislercalc1.pdf Mauch, S. (2004). "Sean's Applied Math Book" California Institute of Technology. Retrieved 6 May 2007 from http://www.cacr.caltech.edu/~sean/applied_math.pdf Sloughter, Dan (2000). "Difference Equations to Differential Equations: An introduction to calculus". Retrieved 17 March 2009 from http://synechism.org/drupal/de2de/ Stroyan, K.D. (2004). "A brief introduction to infinitesimal calculus" University of Iowa. Retrieved 6 May 2007 from http://www.math.uiowa.edu/~stroyan/InfsmlCalculus/InfsmlCalc.htm (HTML only) Strang, G. (1991). "Calculus" Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 6 May 2007 from http://ocw.mit.edu/ans7870/resources/Strang/strangtext.htm Smith, William V. (2001). "The Calculus" Retrieved 4 July 2008 (HTML only). Web pages Calculus Made Easy (1914) by Silvanus P. ThompsonFull text in PDF Calculus.org: The Calculus page at University of California, Davis — contains resources and links to other sites COW: Calculus on the Web at Temple University - contains resources ranging from pre-calculus and associated algebra Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: Calculus & Analysis Online Integrator (WebMathematica) from Wolfram Research The Role of Calculus in College Mathematics from ERICDigests.org OpenCourseWare Calculus from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Infinitesimal Calculus — an article on its historical development, in Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, Michiel Hazewinkel ed. . | Calculus |@lemmatized calculus:125 latin:1 small:17 stone:1 use:33 count:1 discipline:3 mathematics:13 focus:1 limit:23 function:63 derivative:39 integral:34 infinite:4 series:11 constitute:1 major:2 part:2 modern:6 university:9 education:3 two:9 branch:2 differential:15 relate:5 fundamental:9 theorem:12 study:11 change:13 way:6 geometry:5 shape:3 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6,391 | Division_ring | In abstract algebra, a division ring, also called a skew field, is a ring in which division is possible. More formally, a ring with 0 ≠ 1 is a division ring if every non-zero element a has a multiplicative inverse (i.e. an element x with ax = xa = 1). Division rings differ from fields only in that their multiplication is not required to be commutative. The condition 0 ≠ 1 is only there to exclude the trivial ring with a single element 0 = 1. Stated differently, a ring is a division ring if and only if the group of units is the set of all non-zero elements. All fields are division rings; more interesting examples are the non-commutative division rings. The best known example is the ring of quaternions H. If we allow only rational instead of real coefficients in the constructions of the quaternions, we obtain another division ring. In general, if R is a ring and S is a simple module over R, then the endomorphism ring of S is a division ring; every division ring arises in this fashion from some simple module. Much of linear algebra may be formulated, and remains correct, for (left) modules over division rings instead of vector spaces over fields. Every module over a division ring has a basis; linear maps between finite-dimensional modules over a division ring can be described by matrices, and the Gaussian elimination algorithm remains applicable. Differences between linear algebra over fields and skew fields occur whenever the order of the factors in a product matters. For example, the proof that the column rank of a matrix over a field equals its row rank yields for matrices over division rings only that the left column rank equals its right row rank: it does not make sense to speak about the rank of a matrix over a division ring. The center of a division ring is commutative and therefore a field. Every division ring is therefore a division algebra over its center. Division rings can be roughly classified according to whether or not they are finite-dimensional or infinite-dimensional over their centers. The former are called centrally finite and the latter centrally infinite. Every field is, of course, one-dimensional over its center. The quaternion ring forms a 4-dimensional algebra over its center, which is isomorphic to the real numbers. Wedderburn's little theorem: All finite division rings are commutative and therefore finite fields. (Ernst Witt gave a simple proof.) Frobenius theorem: The only finite dimensional division algebras over the reals are the real numbers, the complex numbers and the quaternions. Division rings used to be called fields in an older usage. In many languages, a word meaning "body" is used for division rings, in some languages designating either commutative or non-commutative division rings, while in others specifically designating commutative division rings (what we now call fields in English). A more complete comparison is found in the article Field (mathematics). While division rings and algebras as discussed here are assumed to have associative multiplication, nonassociative division algebras such as the octonions are also of interest. External links Proof of Wedderburn's Theorem at Planet Math | Division_ring |@lemmatized abstract:1 algebra:8 division:27 ring:31 also:2 call:4 skew:2 field:13 possible:1 formally:1 every:5 non:4 zero:2 element:4 multiplicative:1 inverse:1 e:1 x:1 ax:1 xa:1 differ:1 multiplication:2 require:1 commutative:7 condition:1 exclude:1 trivial:1 single:1 state:1 differently:1 group:1 unit:1 set:1 interesting:1 example:3 best:1 known:1 quaternion:4 h:1 allow:1 rational:1 instead:2 real:4 coefficient:1 construction:1 obtain:1 another:1 general:1 r:2 simple:3 module:5 endomorphism:1 arises:1 fashion:1 much:1 linear:3 may:1 formulate:1 remain:2 correct:1 leave:1 vector:1 space:1 basis:1 map:1 finite:6 dimensional:6 describe:1 matrix:4 gaussian:1 elimination:1 algorithm:1 applicable:1 difference:1 occur:1 whenever:1 order:1 factor:1 product:1 matter:1 proof:3 column:2 rank:5 equal:2 row:2 yield:1 left:1 right:1 make:1 sense:1 speak:1 center:5 therefore:3 roughly:1 classified:1 accord:1 whether:1 infinite:2 former:1 centrally:2 latter:1 course:1 one:1 form:1 isomorphic:1 number:3 wedderburn:2 little:1 theorem:3 ernst:1 witt:1 give:1 frobenius:1 complex:1 use:2 old:1 usage:1 many:1 language:2 word:1 meaning:1 body:1 designate:2 either:1 others:1 specifically:1 english:1 complete:1 comparison:1 find:1 article:1 mathematics:1 discuss:1 assume:1 associative:1 nonassociative:1 octonions:1 interest:1 external:1 link:1 planet:1 math:1 |@bigram abstract_algebra:1 multiplicative_inverse:1 endomorphism_ring:1 finite_dimensional:3 gaussian_elimination:1 infinite_dimensional:1 external_link:1 |
6,392 | DDR_SDRAM | Generic DDR-266 Memory in the 184pin DIMM form Corsair DDR-400 Memory with Heat Spreaders DDR SDRAM (double-data-rate synchronous dynamic random access memory) is a class of memory integrated circuits used in computers. It achieves nearly twice the bandwidth of the preceding "single data rate" SDRAM by double pumping (transferring data on the rising and falling edges of the clock signal) without increasing the clock frequency. With data being transferred 64 bits at a time, DDR SDRAM gives a transfer rate of (memory bus clock rate) × 2 (for dual rate) × 64 (number of bits transferred) / 8 (number of bits/byte). Thus with a bus frequency of 100 MHz, DDR SDRAM gives a maximum transfer rate of 1600 MB/s. JEDEC has set standards for data rates of DDR SDRAM, divided into two parts. The first specification is for memory chips, and the second is for memory modules. As DDR SDRAM is superseded by the newer DDR2 SDRAM, the older DDR version is sometimes referred to as DDR1 SDRAM. Specification standards Chips and modules Standard name Memory clock Cycle timeI/O bus clockData transfers per secondJEDEC standard VDDQ voltageModule namePeak transfer rate DDR-200 100 MHz 10 ns 10 ns = 1/(100 MHz) 100 MHz 200 Million 2.5±0.2 V PC-1600 1600 MB/s DDR-266 133 MHz 7.5 ns 133 MHz 266 Million 2.5±0.2 V PC-2100 2100 MB/s DDR-333 166 MHz 6 ns 166 MHz 333 Million 2.5±0.2 V PC-2700 2700 MB/s DDR-400 200 MHz 5 ns 200 MHz 400 Million 2.6±0.1 V PC-3200 3200 MB/s Note: All above listed are specified by JEDEC as JESD79. JESD79 All RAM data rates in-between or above these listed specifications are not standardized by JEDEC — often they are simply manufacturer optimizations using higher-tolerance or overvolted chips. The package sizes in which DDR SDRAM is manufactured are also standardized by JEDEC. There is no architectural difference between DDR SDRAM designed for different clock frequencies, for example, PC-1600, designed to run at 100 MHz, and PC-2100, designed to run at 133 MHz. The number simply designates the data rate at which the chip is guaranteed to perform, hence DDR SDRAM is guaranteed to run at lower and can possibly run at higher clock rates than those for which it was made. What is the difference between PC-2100 (DDR-266), PC-2700 (DDR-333), and PC-3200 (DDR-400)? These practices are known as "underclocking" and "overclocking" respectively. DDR SDRAM for desktop computers DIMMs have 184 pins (as opposed to 168 pins on SDRAM, or 240 pins on DDR2 SDRAM), and can be differentiated from SDRAM DIMMs by the number of notches (DDR SDRAM has one, SDRAM has two). DDR for notebook computers SO-DIMMs have 200 pins which is the same number of pins as DDR2 SO-DIMMs. These two specifications are notched very similarly and care must be taken during insertion when you are unsure of a correct match. DDR SDRAM operates at a voltage of 2.5 V, compared to 3.3 V for SDRAM. This can significantly reduce power consumption. Chips and modules with DDR-400/PC-3200 standard have a nominal voltage of 2.6 Volt. Many new chipsets use these memory types in dual-channel configurations, which doubles or quadruples the effective bandwidth. Chip characteristics DRAM density. Size of the chip in megabits. Example: 256 Mbit — 32 MB chip. Nearly all motherboards only recognize 1GB modules if they are "Low Density - 64Mx8" modules. If "High-Density - 128Mx4" 1GB modules are used, they most likely will not work. The JEDEC standard only allows 128Mx4 only for slower buffered/registered modules designed specifically for some servers, but some generic manufacturers do not comply. Low Density vs High Density memory modules DRAM organization. Written in the form of 64M x 4, where 64M is a number of storage units (64 million), x4 (pronounced "by 4") — number of bits per chip, which equals the number of bits per storage unit. There are x4, x8, and x16 DDR chips. The x4 chips allow the use of advanced error correction features like Chipkill, memory scrubbing and Intel SDDC, while the x8 and x16 chips are somewhat more expensive. Module characteristics Capacity # of DRAM Devices. The number of chips is a multiple of 8 for non-ECC modules and a multiple of 9 for ECC modules. Chips can occupy one side (Single Sided) or both sides (Dual Sided) of the module. The maximum number of chips per DDR module is 36 (9x4). # of DRAM ranks (also known as rows or sides). Any given module can have 1, 2 or 4 ranks, but only 1 rank of a module can be active at any moment of time. When a module has two or more ranks, the memory controller must periodically switch between them by performing close and open operations. Do not confuse rows in this context with rows used to describe internal chip architecture (that is why the term rank is to be preferred). The term sides is also confusing because it incorrectly suggests that this is tied to the physical placement of chips on the module. Timings: CAS Latency (CL), Clock Cycle Time (tCK), Row Cycle Time (tRC), Refresh Row Cycle Time (tRFC), Row Active Time (tRAS). Buffering: Registered vs. unbuffered Packaging: typically DIMM or SO-DIMM Power consumption: increases with clock rate. Module and chip characteristics are inherently linked. Total module capacity is a product of one chip's capacity by the number of chips. ECC modules multiply it by 8/9 because they use one bit per byte for error correction. A module of any particular size can therefore be assembled either from 32 small chips (36 for ECC memory), or 16(18) or 8(9) bigger ones. DDR memory bus width per channel is 64 bits (72 for ECC memory). Total module bit width is a product of bits per chip by number of chips. It also equals number of ranks (rows) multiplied by DDR memory bus width. Consequently a module with greater amount of chips or using x8 chips instead of x4 will have more ranks. + Example: Variations of 1 GB PC2100 Registered DDR SDRAM module with ECCModule sizeNumber of chipsChip sizeChip organizationNumber of rows (ranks) 1 GB 36 256 Mbit 64M x 4 2 1 GB 18 512 Mbit 64M x 8 2 1 GB 18 512 Mbit 128M x 4 1+ This example compares different real-world server memory modules with a common size of 1 GB. One should definitely be careful buying 1 GB memory modules, because all these variations can be sold under one price position without stating whether they are x4 or x8, single or dual ranked. There is a common belief that number of module rows or ranks equals number of sides. As above data shows, this is not true. One can find (2-side, 1-rank) or (2-side, 4-rank) modules. One can even think of 1-side, 2-rank memory module having 16(18) chips on single side x8 each, but it's unlikely such a module was ever produced. High density vs low density High density memory here means non-ECC 184 pin SDRAM memory. Organization PC3200 is DDR SDRAM designed to operate at 200 MHz using DDR-400 chips with a bandwidth of 3,200 MB/s. As DDR stands for Double Data Rate this means that the effective clock rate of PC3200 memory is 400 MHz. 1 GB PC3200 non-ECC modules are usually made with sixteen 512 Mbits chips, 8 down each side (512 Mbit x 16 chips) / (8 bits (per Byte)) = 1024 MBytes. The individual chips making up a 1 GByte memory module are usually organized with 64 Mbits and a data width of 8 bits for each chip, commonly expressed as 64M x 8. Memory manufactured in this way is low density RAM and will usually be compatible with any motherboard specifying PC3200 DDR-400 memory. High density RAM In the context of the 1 GB non-ECC PC3200 SDRAM module there is very little visually to differentiate Low Density from High Density RAM. High density DDR RAM modules will, like their low density counterparts, usually be double sided with eight 512 Mb chips per side. The difference is that each chip, instead of being organized in a 64M x 8 configuration is organized with 128M bits and a data width of 4 bits, or 128M x 4. To further confuse the issue, some RAM is labeled as 128M x 8, and is also called high density. Most high density PC3200 modules are assembled using Samsung chips. These chips come in both the familiar 22 x 10mm (approx) TSOP2 and smaller squarer 12 x 9mm (approx) FBGA package sizes. High density Samsung chips can be identified by the numbers on each chip. If the sixth and seventh characters are "04" (for example K4H510438D-UCCC) then the chips are x 4 and High Density. If the sixth and seventh characters are "08" then the chips are x 8 and Low Density. High density RAM devices were designed to be used in registered memory modules for servers. As a result, performance or response times may suffer when used on a desktop or workstation. JEDEC standards do not apply to high-density DDR RAM in desktop implementations. JEDEC's technical documentation however supports 128Mb X 4Mb semiconductors as such that contradicts 128X4 being classified as high density. As such "High Density" is a relative term which can be used to describe memory which is not supported by a particular motherboard's memory controller. Alternatives DDR (DDR1) has been superseded by DDR2 SDRAM, which has some modifications to allow higher clock frequency, but operates on the same principle as DDR. Competing with DDR2 are Rambus XDR DRAM. DDR2 has become the standard, as XDR is lacking support. DDR3 SDRAM is a new standard that offers even higher performance and new features. DDR's prefetch buffer depth is 2 bits; DDR2 uses 4 bits. Although the effective clock rates of DDR2 are higher than for DDR, the overall performance was no greater in the early implementations, primarily due to the high latencies of the first DDR2 modules. DDR2 started to be effective by the end of 2004, as modules with lower latencies became available. DDR2 vs. DDR: Revenge Gained Memory manufacturers have stated that it is impractical to mass-produce DDR1 memory with effective clock rates in excess of 400 MHz. DDR2 picks up where DDR1 leaves off, and is available at clock rates of 400 MHz and higher. RDRAM is a particularly expensive alternative to DDR SDRAM, and most manufacturers have dropped its support from their chipsets. DDR1 memory's prices have substantially increased since Q2 2008 while DDR2 prices are reaching an all-time low. In January 2009, 1GiB DDR1 is 2-3 times more expensive than 1GiB DDR2. MDDR MDDR is an acronym that some enterprises use for Mobile DDR SDRAM, a type of memory used in some portable electronic devices, like mobile phones, handhelds, and digital audio players. While standard DDR SDRAM operates at a voltage of 2.5 V, MDDR operates at voltage of 1.8 V, which allows a reduced power consumption. References See also Serial Presence Detect Fully Buffered DIMM List of device bandwidths External links Official JEDEC website | DDR_SDRAM |@lemmatized generic:2 ddr:42 memory:32 dimm:4 form:2 corsair:1 heat:1 spreader:1 sdram:28 double:5 data:11 rate:17 synchronous:1 dynamic:1 random:1 access:1 class:1 integrate:1 circuit:1 use:16 computer:3 achieve:1 nearly:2 twice:1 bandwidth:4 precede:1 single:4 pumping:1 transfer:7 rising:1 fall:1 edge:1 clock:13 signal:1 without:2 increase:3 frequency:4 bit:15 time:9 give:3 bus:5 dual:4 number:16 byte:3 thus:1 mhz:16 maximum:2 mb:8 jedec:8 set:1 standard:10 divide:1 two:4 part:1 first:2 specification:4 chip:39 second:1 module:37 supersede:2 new:4 old:1 version:1 sometimes:1 refer:1 name:1 cycle:4 timei:1 clockdata:1 per:9 secondjedec:1 vddq:1 voltagemodule:1 namepeak:1 ns:5 million:5 v:11 pc:10 note:1 list:3 specify:2 ram:8 standardize:2 often:1 simply:2 manufacturer:4 optimization:1 high:22 tolerance:1 overvolted:1 package:2 size:5 manufacture:2 also:6 architectural:1 difference:3 design:6 different:2 example:5 run:4 designate:1 guarantee:2 perform:2 hence:1 low:10 possibly:1 make:3 practice:1 know:2 underclocking:1 overclocking:1 respectively:1 desktop:3 dimms:4 pin:6 oppose:1 differentiate:2 notch:2 one:9 notebook:1 similarly:1 care:1 must:2 take:1 insertion:1 unsure:1 correct:1 match:1 operate:5 voltage:4 compare:2 significantly:1 reduce:1 power:3 consumption:3 nominal:1 volt:1 many:1 chipsets:2 type:2 channel:2 configuration:2 quadruple:1 effective:5 characteristic:3 dram:5 density:23 megabit:1 mbit:7 motherboards:1 recognize:1 likely:1 work:1 allow:4 slow:1 buffer:3 register:2 specifically:1 server:3 comply:1 organization:2 write:1 x:14 storage:2 unit:2 pronounce:1 equal:3 advanced:1 error:2 correction:2 feature:2 like:3 chipkill:1 scrubbing:1 intel:1 sddc:1 somewhat:1 expensive:3 capacity:3 device:4 multiple:2 non:4 ecc:8 occupy:1 side:14 rank:13 row:9 active:2 moment:1 controller:2 periodically:1 switch:1 close:1 open:1 operation:1 confuse:3 context:2 describe:2 internal:1 architecture:1 term:3 prefer:1 incorrectly:1 suggest:1 tie:1 physical:1 placement:1 timing:1 ca:1 latency:3 cl:1 tck:1 trc:1 refresh:1 trfc:1 tras:1 buffering:1 registered:2 unbuffered:1 packaging:1 typically:1 inherently:1 link:2 total:2 product:2 multiply:2 particular:2 therefore:1 assemble:2 either:1 small:2 big:1 width:5 consequently:1 great:2 amount:1 instead:2 variation:2 gb:8 eccmodule:1 sizenumber:1 chipschip:1 sizechip:1 organizationnumber:1 real:1 world:1 common:2 definitely:1 careful:1 buying:1 sell:1 price:3 position:1 state:2 whether:1 belief:1 show:1 true:1 find:1 modules:1 even:2 think:1 unlikely:1 ever:1 produce:2 vs:1 mean:2 stand:1 usually:4 sixteen:1 mbytes:1 individual:1 gbyte:1 organize:3 commonly:1 express:1 way:1 compatible:1 motherboard:2 little:1 visually:1 counterpart:1 eight:1 far:1 issue:1 label:1 call:1 samsung:2 come:1 familiar:1 approx:2 squarer:1 fbga:1 identify:1 sixth:2 seventh:2 character:2 uccc:1 result:1 performance:3 response:1 may:1 suffer:1 workstation:1 apply:1 implementation:2 technical:1 documentation:1 however:1 support:4 semiconductor:1 contradict:1 classify:1 relative:1 alternative:2 modification:1 principle:1 compete:1 rambus:1 xdr:2 become:2 lack:1 offer:1 prefetch:1 depth:1 although:1 overall:1 early:1 primarily:1 due:1 start:1 end:1 available:2 revenge:1 gain:1 impractical:1 mass:1 excess:1 pick:1 leave:1 rdram:1 particularly:1 drop:1 substantially:1 since:1 reach:1 january:1 mddr:3 acronym:1 enterprise:1 mobile:2 portable:1 electronic:1 phone:1 handhelds:1 digital:1 audio:1 player:1 reduced:1 reference:1 see:1 serial:1 presence:1 detect:1 fully:1 external:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram ddr_sdram:16 integrate_circuit:1 mhz_mhz:1 voltage_volt:1 mbit_mb:1 error_correction:2 mobile_phone:1 external_link:1 |
6,393 | Gian_Lorenzo_Bernini | "Bernini" redirects here. For people named Bernini, see Bernini (surname). Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (December 7, 1598 – November 28, 1680) was a pre-eminent Baroque sculptor and architect of 17th Century Rome. Early life Bernini was born in Naples to a Mannerist sculptor, Pietro Bernini, originally from Florence. At the age of seven he accompanied his father to Rome, where his father was involved in several high profile projects. Gianlorenzo Bernini There as a boy, his skill was soon noticed by the painter Annibale Carracci and by Pope Paul V, and Bernini gained the patronage exclusively under Cardinal Scipione Borghese, the pope's nephew. His first works were inspired by antique Hellenistic sculpture. Rise to master sculptor Under the patronage of the Cardinal Borghese, young Bernini rapidly rose to prominence as a sculptor. Among the early works for the cardinal were decorative pieces for the garden such as The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Zeus and a Faun, and several allegorical busts such as the Damned Soul and Blessed Soul. By the age of twenty-two years, he completed the bust of Pope Paul V. Scipione's collection in situ at the Borghese gallery chronicles his secular sculptures, with a series of masterpieces: Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius (1619) depicts three ages of man from various viewpoints, borrowing from a figure in a Raphael fresco, and perhaps an allegory reflecting the moment when a son attains the skill of his father. The Rape of Proserpina, (1621-22) recalls Giambologna's Mannerist Rape of the Sabine Women, and displays a masterful attention to detail, including the abductor "dimpling" the woman's marble skin. Apollo and Daphne (1622-25) has been widely admired since Bernini's time; along with the subsequent sculpture of David it represents the introduction of a new sculptural aesthetic. It depicts the most dramatic and dynamic moment in one of Ovid's stories in his Metamorphoses. In the story, Apollo, the god of light, scolded Eros, the god of love, for playing with adult weapons. In retribution, Eros wounded Apollo with a golden arrow that induced him to fall madly in love at the sight of Daphne, a water nymph sworn to perpetual virginity, who, in addition, had been struck by Eros with a lead arrow which immunized her from Apollo's advances. The sculpture depicts the moment when Apollo finally captures Daphne, yet she has implored her father, the river god, to destroy her beauty and repel Apollo's advances by transforming her into a laurel tree. This statue succeeds at various levels: it depicts the event and also represents an elaborate conceit of sculpture. This sculpture tracks the metamorphoses as a representation in stone of a person changing into lifeless vegetation; in other words, while a sculptor's art is to change inanimate stone into animated narrative, this sculpture narrates the opposite, the moment a woman becomes a tree. David (1623-24) like the Apollo and Daphne, was a revolutionary sculpture for its time. Both depict movement in a way not previously attempted in stone. The biblical youth is taut and poised to rocket his projectile. Famous Davids sculpted by Bernini's Florentine predecessors had portrayed the static moment before and after the event; Michelangelo portrayed David prior to his battle with Goliath, to intimate the psychological fortitude necessary for attempting such a gargantuan task; the contemplative intensity of Michelangelo's David or the haughty effeteness of Donatello's and Verrocchio's Davids are all, nonetheless, portraying moments of stasis. The twisted torso, furrowed forehead, and granite grimace of Bernini's David epitomize Baroque fixation with dynamic movement and emotion over High Renaissance stasis and classical severity. Michelangelo expressed David's psychological fortitude, preparing for battle; Bernini captures the moment when he becomes a hero. Works Mature sculptural output Bernini's sculptural output was immense and varied. Among his other well-known sculptures: the Ecstasy of St Theresa, in the Cornaro Chapel (see Bernini's Cornaro chapel: the complete work of art found in the Baroque section), Santa Maria della Vittoria, and the now-hidden Constantine, at the base of the Scala Regia (which he designed). He helped design the Ponte Sant'Angelo, sculpting two of the angels, soon replaced by copies by his own hand, while the others were made by his pupils based on his designs. At the end of April 1665, at the height of his fame and powers, he traveled to Paris, remaining there until November. Bernini's international popularity was such that on his walks in Paris the streets were lined with admiring crowds. This trip, encouraged by Father Oliva, general of the Jesuits, was a reply to the repeated requests for his works by King Louis XIV. Here Bernini presented some (ultimately rejected) designs for the east front of the Louvre; his adventurous concave-convex facades were discarded in favor of the more stern and classic proposals of native Claude Perrault. Bernini soon lost favor at the French court, for he praised the art and architecture of Italy at the expense of that of France; he said that a painting by Guido Reni was worth more than all of Paris. The sole work remaining from his time in Paris is a bust of Louis XIV, which set the standard for royal portraiture for a century. Architecture Monti - S Andrea al Quirinale in Italy San pietro in Rome The Pulcino della Minerva, an elephant sculpture, a base supporting one of the eleven Egyptian obelisks in Rome. Bernini's architectural conceits include the piazza and colonnades of St Peter's. He planned several Roman palaces: Palazzo Barberini (from 1630 on which he worked with Borromini); Palazzo Ludovisi (now Palazzo Montecitorio); and Palazzo Chigi. Bernini's first architectural project was the magnificent bronze St. Peter's baldachin (1624-1633), the canopy over the high altar of St. Peter's Basilica, and the façade for the church of Santa Bibiana (1624). In 1629, before the Baldacchino was complete, Urban VIII put him in charge of all the ongoing architectural works at St Peter's. He was given the commission for the Basilica's tomb of the Barberini Pope. However, due to political reasons and miscalculations in the design of bell-towers for St. Peter's, Bernini fell generally out of favor during the Pamphili papacy of Innocent X. Never wholly without patronage, Bernini again regained a major role in the decoration of St. Peter's with the Pope Alexander VII Chigi, leading to his design of the colonnade and piazza in front of St. Peter's. The Scala Regia entrance to the Vatican and the Chair of Saint Peter (Cathedra Petri), in the apse of St. Peter's, are also some of his masterpieces. Bernini did not build many churches from scratch, preferring instead to concentrate on the embellishment of pre-existing structures. He fulfilled three commissions in the field; his stature allowed him the freedom to design the structure and decorate the interiors in coherent designs. Best known is the small oval baroque church of Sant'Andrea al Quirinale which includes the statue of St. Andrew the Apostle soaring high above the aedicule framing the high altar. Bernini also designed churches in Castelgandolfo (San Tommaso da Villanova) and Ariccia (Santa Maria Assunta). Bernini was also hired by Louis XIV from June to November 1665 to build the colonnade of the Louvre in Paris (where he met Paul Fréart de Chantelou, who kept a Journal of the meeting), but was ultimately turned down in favor of French architect Claude Perrault, signalling the waning influence of Italian art in France. Perrault's final design did, however, include Bernini's feature of a flat roof behind a Palladian balustrade. Fountains in Rome True to the decorative dynamism of Baroque, Roman fountains, part public works and part Papal monuments, were among his most gifted creations. Bernini's fountains are the Fountain of the Triton and the Barberini Fountain (Fontana delle api). The Fountain of the Four Rivers (Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi) in the Piazza Navona is a masterpiece of spectacle and political allegory. An oft-repeated, but false, anecdote tells that one of the Bernini's river gods defers his gaze in disapproval of the facade of Sant'Agnese in Agone (designed by the talented, but less politically successful, rival Francesco Borromini). However, the fountain was built several years before the façade of the church was completed. Marble portraiture Bernini also revolutionized marble busts, lending glamorous dynamism to once stony stillness of portraiture. Starting with the immediate pose, leaning out of the frame, of bust of Monsignor Pedro de Foix Montoya at Santa Maria di Monserrato, Rome. The once-gregarious Cardinal Scipione Borghese, in his bust is frozen in conversation. The portrait of his alleged mistress, Costanza Bonarelli, does not portray divinity or royalty; but a woman in a moment of disheveled privacy, captured in conversation or surprise. Bernini also gained royal commissions from outside Italy, for subjects such as Louis XIV, Cardinal Richelieu, Francesco I d'Este, Charles I of England and Henrietta Maria. The last two were produced in Italy from portraits made by Van Dyck (now in the royal collection), though Bernini preferred to produce portraits from life - the bust of Charles was lost in the Whitehall Palace fire of 1698 and that of Henrietta Maria was not undertaken due to the outbreak of the English Civil War Triple Portrait of Charles I Lionel Cust, Van Dyck (Read books, 2007) - ISBN 1406774529 . An exhibition co-organized by the J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, and the National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa, explores Bernini's portraits: Bernini and the Birth of Baroque Portrait Sculpture, August 5–October 26, 2008. Other works Bernini in 1665, painted by Baciccio. The grave of Bernini at Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. Another of Bernini's sculptures is known affectionately as Bernini's Chick by the Roman people. It is located in the Piazza della Minerva, in front of the church Santa Maria sopra Minerva. Pope Alexander VII decided that he wanted an ancient Egyptian obelisk to be erected in the piazza and commissioned Bernini to create a sculpture to support the obelisk. The sculpture of an elephant was finally created in 1667 by one of Bernini's students, Ercole Ferrata. One of the most interesting features of this elephant is its smile. To find out why it is smiling, the viewer must head around to the rear end of the animal and to see that its muscles are tensed and its tail is shifted to the left. Bernini sculpted the animal as if it were defecating. The animal's rear is pointed directly at the office of Father Domenico Paglia, a Dominican friar, who was one of the main antagonists of Bernini and his artisan friends, as a final salute and last word. Bernini worked along with Ercole Ferrata to created a much admired fountain for the Lisbon Palace of the Portuguese nobleman Count of Ericeira. For the same patron he also created a series of paintings with the battles of Louis XIV as subject. These works were lost as the Palace, great Library and rich art collection of the Counts of Ericeira were destroyed along most of central Lisbon due to the great earthquake of 1755. The death of his constant patron Urban VIII in 1644 released a horde of Bernini's rivals and marked a change in his career, but Innocent X set him back to work on the extended nave of St Peter's and commissioned the Four Rivers fountain in Piazza Navona. At the time of Innocent's death in 1655 Bernini was the aribiter of public taste in Rome. He died in Rome in 1680, and was buried in the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore. Among the many who worked under his supervision were Luigi Bernini, Stefano Speranza, Giuliano Finelli, Andrea Bolgi, Filippo Parodi, Giacomo Antonio Fancelli, Lazzaro Morelli, Francesco Baratta, and Francois Duquesnoy. Among his rivals in architecture was Francesco Borromini; in sculpture, Alessandro Algardi. Two years after his death, Queen Christina of Sweden, then living in Rome, commissioned Filippo Baldinucci to write his biography, (translated in 1996 as The life of Bernini). Selected works Sculpture Fontana del Tritone Blessed Ludovica Albertoni. Angel with Crown of Thorns. Bust of Giovanni Battista Santoni (c. 1612) - Marble, life-size, Santa Prassede, Rome Martyrdom of St. Lawrence (1614-1615) - Marble, 66 x 108 cm, Contini Bonacossi Collection, Florence The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Jupiter and a Faun (1615) - Marble, Galleria Borghese, Rome St. Sebastian (c. 1617) - Marble, Thyssen Bornemisza Museum, Madrid A Faun Teased by Children (1616-1617) - Marble, height 132,1 cm, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius (1618-1619) - Marble, height 220 cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome Damned Soul (1619) - Palazzo di Spagna, Rome Blessed Soul (1619) - Palazzo di Spagna, Rome Apollo and Daphne (1622-1625) - Marble, height 243 cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome St. Peter's Baldachin (1624) - Bronze, partly gilt, Basilica di San Pietro, Vatican City Charity with Four Children (1627-1628) - Terracotta, height 39 cm, Museo Sacro, Musei Vaticani, Vatican David (1623-1624) - Marble, height 170 cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome Fontana della Barcaccia (1627-1628) - Marble, Piazza di Spagna, Rome Bust of Monsignor Pedro de Foix Montoya (c. 1621) - Marble, life-size, Santa Maria di Monserrato, Rome Neptune and Triton (1620) - Marble, height 182,2 cm, Victoria and Albert Museum, London The Rape of Proserpina (1621-1622) - Marble, height 295 cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome Fontana del Tritone (1624-1643) - Travertine, over life-size, Piazza Barberini, Rome Tomb of Pope Urban VIII (1627-1647) - Golden bronze and marble, figures larger than life-size, Basilica di San Pietro, Vatican City Bust of Thomas Baker (1638) - Marble, height 81,6 cm, Victoria and Albert Museum, London Bust of Costanza Bonarelli (c. 1635) - Marble, height 70 cm, Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence Charity with Two Children (1634) - Terracotta, height 41.6 cm, Museo Sacro, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City Saint Longinus (1631-1638) - Marble, height 450 cm, Basilica di San Pietro, Vatican City Bust of Scipione Borghese (1632) - Marble, height 78 cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome Bust of Cardinal Scipione Borghese (1632) - Marble, Basilica di San Pietro, Vatican City Bust of Pope Urban VIII (1632-1633) - Bronze, height 100 cm, Museo Sacro, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City Bust of Cardinal Armand de Richelieu (1640-1641) - Marble, Musée du Louvre, Paris Memorial to Maria Raggi (1643) - Gilt bronze and coloured marble, Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome Truth (1645-1652) - Marble, height 280 cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome Bust of Pope Leo X (1647) Palazzo Doria Pamphilij, Rome Ecstasy of St Theresa (1647-1652) - Marble, Cappella Cornaro, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome Loggia of the Founders (1647-1652) Marble, Cappella Cornaro, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome</small> Bust of Urban VIII - Marble, Basilica di San Pietro, Vatican City Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi (1648-1651) - Travertine and marble, Piazza Navona, Rome Corpus (sculpture) (1650) - Bronze, Art Gallery of Ontario, Toronto, Canada. Daniel and the Lion (1650) - Marble, Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome Francesco I d'Este (1650-1651) - Marble, height 107 cm, Galleria Estense, Modena Fountain of the Moor (1653-1654) - Marble, Piazza Navona, Rome Constantine (1654-1670) - Marble, Palazzi Pontifici, Vatican City Daniel and the Lion (1655) - Terracotta, height 41.6 cm, Museo Sacro, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City Habakkuk and the Angel (1655) - Terracotta, height 52 cm, Museo Sacro, Musei Vaticani, Vatican City Altar Cross (1657-1661) - Gilt bronze corpus on bronze cross, height: corpus 43 cm, cross 185 cm, Treasury of San Pietro, Vatican City Throne of Saint Peter (1657-1666) - Marble, bronze, white and golden stucco, Basilica di San Pietro, Rome Statue of Saint Augustine (1657-1666) - Bronze, Basilica di San Pietro, Vatican City Constantine (1663-1670) - Marble with painted stucco drapery, Scala Regia, Vatican Palace, Rome Standing Angel with Scroll (1667-1668) - Clay, terracotta, height: 29,2 cm, Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge Angel with the Crown of Thorns (1667-1669) - Marble, over life-size, Sant'Andrea delle Fratte, Rome Angel with the Superscription (1667-1669) - Marble, over life-size, Sant'Andrea delle Fratte, Rome Elephant of Minerva (1667-1669) - Marble, Piazza di Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Rome Bust of Gabriele Fonseca (1668-1675) - Marble, over life-size, San Lorenzo in Lucina, Rome Equestrian Statue of King Louis XIV (1669-1670) - Terracotta, height 76 cm, Galleria Borghese, Rome Bust of Louis XIV (1665) - Marble, height 80 cm, Musée National de Versailles, Versailles Herm of St. Stephen, King of Hungary - Bronze, Cathedral Treasury, Zagreb Saint Jerome (1661-1663) - Marble, height 180 cm, Cappella Chigi, Duomo, Siena Tomb of Pope Alexander VII (1671-1678) - Marble and gilded bronze, over life-size, Basilica di San Pietro, Vatican City Blessed Ludovica Albertoni (1671-1674) - Marble, Cappella Altieri-Albertoni, San Francesco a Ripa, Rome Paintings Bernini's activity as a painter was a sideline which he did mainly in his youth. Despite this his work reveals a sure and brilliant hand, free from any trace of pedantry. He studied in Rome under his father, Pietro, and soon proved a precocious infant prodigy. His work was immediately sought after by major collectors. Saint Andrew and Saint Thomas (c. 1627) - Oil on canvas, 59 x 76 cm, National Gallery, London Portrait of a Boy (c. 1638) - Oil on canvas, Galleria Borghese, Rome Self-Portrait as a Young Man (c. 1623) - Oil on canvas, Galleria Borghese, Rome Self-Portrait as a Mature Man (1630-1635) - Oil on canvas, Galleria Borghese, Rome References in popular culture Bernini was portrayed on two different series of former Italian notes of 50,000 lire. The picture was based on one of the artist's self-portraits. Bernini's sculptures around Rome form a prominent theme in the 2000 Dan Brown novel, Angels and Demons. In the novel, Bernini is portrayed as a high ranking member of the secret organization Illuminati. See also List of famous Italians List of Italian painters List of painters Saint Peter's Square References External links Checklist of Bernini's architecture and sculpture in Rome Excerpts from The life of the Cavaliers Bernini Gian Lorenzo Bernini in the "A World History of Art" Extract on Bernini from Simon Schama's The Power of Art Photographs of Bernini's Santa Maria Assunta smARThistory: Ecstacy of Saint Teresa, Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome Virtual tour of Rome visiting Bernini's key works | Gian_Lorenzo_Bernini |@lemmatized bernini:56 redirect:1 people:2 name:1 see:4 surname:1 giovanni:2 lorenzo:3 december:1 november:3 pre:2 eminent:1 baroque:6 sculptor:5 architect:2 century:2 rome:45 early:2 life:12 bear:1 naples:1 mannerist:2 pietro:12 originally:1 florence:3 age:3 seven:1 accompany:1 father:7 involve:1 several:4 high:6 profile:1 project:2 gianlorenzo:1 boy:2 skill:2 soon:4 notice:1 painter:4 annibale:1 carracci:1 pope:10 paul:4 v:2 gain:2 patronage:3 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6,394 | Neon | Neon () is the chemical element that has the symbol Ne and atomic number 10. Although a very common element in the universe, it is rare on Earth. A colourless, inert noble gas under standard conditions, neon gives a distinct reddish-orange glow when used in discharge tubes and neon lamps. It is commercially extracted from air, in which it is found in trace amounts. History Neon (Greek (neon) meaning "new one") was discovered in 1898 by Scottish chemist Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916) English chemist Morris W. Travers (1872–1961) in London, England. Neon was discovered when Ramsay chilled a sample of the atmosphere until it became a liquid, then warmed the liquid and captured the gases as they boiled off. The three gases that boiled off were krypton, xenon, and neon. In December of 1910, French engineer Georges Claude made a lamp from an electrified tube of neon gas. On January 19, 1915, Claude began selling his tubes to U.S. companies; the Packard car dealership in Los Angeles was one of the first to buy it. Isotopes Neon has three stable isotopes: 20Ne (90.48%), 21Ne (0.27%) and 22Ne (9.25%). 21Ne and 22Ne are nucleogenic and their variations are well understood. In contrast, 20Ne is not known to be nucleogenic and the causes of its variation in the Earth have been hotly debated. The principal nuclear reactions which generate neon isotopes are neutron emission, alpha decay reactions on 24Mg and 25Mg, which produce 21Ne and 22Ne, respectively. The alpha particles are derived from uranium-series decay chains, while the neutrons are mostly produced by secondary reactions from alpha particles. The net result yields a trend towards lower 20Ne/22Ne and higher 21Ne/22Ne ratios observed in uranium-rich rocks such as granites. Isotopic analysis of exposed terrestrial rocks has demonstrated the cosmogenic production of 21Ne. This isotope is generated by spallation reactions on magnesium, sodium, silicon, and aluminium. By analyzing all three isotopes, the cosmogenic component can be resolved from magmatic neon and nucleogenic neon. This suggests that neon will be a useful tool in determining cosmic exposure ages of surficial rocks and meteorites. Similar to xenon, neon content observed in samples of volcanic gases are enriched in 20Ne, as well as nucleogenic 21Ne, relative to 22Ne content. The neon isotopic content of these mantle-derived samples represent a non-atmospheric source of neon. The 20Ne-enriched components are attributed to exotic primordial rare gas components in the Earth, possibly representing solar neon. Elevated 20Ne abundances are found in diamonds, further suggesting a solar neon reservoir in the Earth. Characteristics Neon is the second-lightest noble gas. It glows reddish-orange in a vacuum discharge tube. According to recent studies, neon is the least reactive noble gas and thus the least reactive of all elements. Also, neon has the narrowest liquid range of any element: from 24.55 K to 27.05 K (-248.45 °C to −245.95 °C, or −415.21 °F to −410.71 °F). It has over 40 times the refrigerating capacity of liquid helium and three times that of liquid hydrogen (on a per unit volume basis). In most applications it is a less expensive refrigerant than helium. Spectrum of neon with ultraviolet lines (at left) and infrared (at right) shown in white Neon plasma has the most intense light discharge at normal voltages and currents of all the noble gases. The average colour of this light to the human eye is red-orange due to many lines in this range; it also contains a strong green line which is hidden, unless the visual components are dispersed by a spectroscope. Two quite different kinds of neon lights are in common use. Glow-discharge lamps are typically tiny, and often designed to operate at 120 volts; they are widely used as power-on indicators and in circuit-testing equipment. Neon signs and other arc-discharge devices operate instead at high voltages, often 3–15 kilovolts (3,000–15,000 volts); they can be made into (often bent) tubes a few meters long. Occurrence Neon is actually abundant on a universal scale: the fifth most abundant chemical element in the universe by mass, after hydrogen, helium, oxygen, and carbon (see chemical element). Its relative rarity on Earth, like that of helium, is due to its relative lightness and chemical inertness, both properties keeping it from being trapped in the condensing gas and dust clouds of the formation of smaller and warmer solid planets like Earth. Neon is monatomic, making it lighter than the molecules of diatomic nitrogen and oxygen which form the bulk of Earth's atmosphere; a balloon filled with neon will rise up into the air, albeit more slowly than a helium balloon. Mass abundance in the universe is about 1 part in 750 and in the Sun and presumably in the proto-solar system nebula, about 1 part in 600. The Galileo spacecraft atmospheric entry probe found that even in the upper atmosphere of Jupiter, neon is reduced by about a factor of 10, to 1 part in 6,000 by mass. This may indicate that even the ice-planetesmals which brought neon into Jupiter from the outer solar system, formed in a region which was too warm for them to have kept their neon (abundances of heavier inert gases on Jupiter are several times that found in the Sun). Neon is a monatomic gas at standard conditions. Neon is rare on Earth, found in the Earth's atmosphere at 1 part in 65,000 (by volume) or 1 part in 83,000 by mass. It is industrially produced by cryogenic fractional distillation of liquefied air. Applications A neon sign in the shape of its name. Neon is often used in signs and produces an unmistakable bright reddish-orange light. Although still referred to as "neon", all other colours are generated with the other Noble Gases or by many colours of fluorescent lighting. Neon is used in vacuum tubes, high-voltage indicators, lightning arrestors, wave meter tubes, television tubes, and helium-neon lasers. Liquefied neon is commercially used as a cryogenic refrigerant in applications not requiring the lower temperature range attainable with more extreme liquid helium refrigeration. Liquid neon is actually quite expensive, and nearly impossible to obtain in small quantities for laboratory tests. For small quantities, liquid neon can be >55x more expensive than liquid helium. The driver for expense is actually rarity of the gas, not the liquefaction process. The triple point temperature of Neon (24.5561 K) is a defining fixed point in the International Temperature Scale of 1990. "The Internet resource for the International Temperature Scale of 1990.." Amazon.com. 1999. Retrieved on August 31, 2007. Compounds Neon is the first p-block noble gas. Theoretically neon is the least reactive of all noble gases (including helium which produces a metastable compound HHeF), and therefore generally considered to be inert. The calculated bond energies of neon with noble metals, hydrogen, beryllium and boron are lesser than that of helium or any other noble gas. No true compounds including the neutral compounds of neon are known. However, the ions Ne+, (NeAr)+, (NeH)+, and (HeNe+) have been observed from optical and mass spectrometric studies, and there are some unverified reports of an unstable hydrate. "Periodic Table: Neon." Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Last updated on December 15, 2003. Retrieved on August 31, 2007. See also Expansion ratio Neon sign Neon lamp References External links WebElements.com – Neon It's Elemental – Neon Computational Chemistry Wiki Los Alamos National Laboratory – Neon USGS Periodic Table - Neon Atomic Spectrum of Neon Neon Museum, Las Vegas | Neon |@lemmatized neon:55 chemical:4 element:6 symbol:1 ne:2 atomic:2 number:1 although:2 common:2 universe:3 rare:3 earth:9 colourless:1 inert:3 noble:9 gas:17 standard:2 condition:2 give:1 distinct:1 reddish:3 orange:4 glow:3 use:6 discharge:5 tube:8 lamp:4 commercially:2 extract:1 air:3 find:5 trace:1 amount:1 history:1 greek:1 mean:1 new:1 one:2 discover:2 scottish:1 chemist:2 sir:1 william:1 ramsay:2 english:1 morris:1 w:1 travers:1 london:1 england:1 chill:1 sample:3 atmosphere:4 become:1 liquid:9 warm:3 capture:1 boil:2 three:4 krypton:1 xenon:2 december:2 french:1 engineer:1 george:1 claude:2 make:3 electrified:1 january:1 begin:1 sell:1 u:1 company:1 packard:1 car:1 dealership:1 los:2 angeles:1 first:2 buy:1 isotope:5 stable:1 nucleogenic:4 variation:2 well:2 understood:1 contrast:1 know:2 cause:1 hotly:1 debate:1 principal:1 nuclear:1 reaction:4 generate:3 neutron:2 emission:1 alpha:3 decay:2 produce:5 respectively:1 particle:2 derive:2 uranium:2 series:1 chain:1 mostly:1 secondary:1 net:1 result:1 yield:1 trend:1 towards:1 low:2 high:3 ratio:2 observe:3 rich:1 rock:3 granite:1 isotopic:2 analysis:1 exposed:1 terrestrial:1 demonstrate:1 cosmogenic:2 production:1 spallation:1 magnesium:1 sodium:1 silicon:1 aluminium:1 analyze:1 component:4 resolve:1 magmatic:1 suggest:2 useful:1 tool:1 determine:1 cosmic:1 exposure:1 age:1 surficial:1 meteorite:1 similar:1 content:3 volcanic:1 enrich:2 relative:3 mantle:1 represent:2 non:1 atmospheric:2 source:1 attribute:1 exotic:1 primordial:1 possibly:1 solar:4 elevate:1 abundance:3 diamond:1 far:1 reservoir:1 characteristic:1 second:1 light:6 vacuum:2 accord:1 recent:1 study:2 least:3 reactive:3 thus:1 also:3 narrow:1 range:3 k:3 c:2 f:2 time:3 refrigerate:1 capacity:1 helium:10 hydrogen:3 per:1 unit:1 volume:2 basis:1 application:3 less:2 expensive:3 refrigerant:2 spectrum:2 ultraviolet:1 line:3 leave:1 infrared:1 right:1 show:1 white:1 plasma:1 intense:1 normal:1 voltage:3 current:1 average:1 colour:3 human:1 eye:1 red:1 due:2 many:2 contain:1 strong:1 green:1 hide:1 unless:1 visual:1 disperse:1 spectroscope:1 two:1 quite:2 different:1 kind:1 typically:1 tiny:1 often:4 design:1 operate:2 volt:2 widely:1 power:1 indicator:2 circuit:1 testing:1 equipment:1 sign:4 arc:1 device:1 instead:1 kilovolt:1 bent:1 meter:2 long:1 occurrence:1 actually:3 abundant:2 universal:1 scale:3 fifth:1 mass:5 oxygen:2 carbon:1 see:2 rarity:2 like:2 lightness:1 inertness:1 property:1 keep:2 trap:1 condensing:1 dust:1 cloud:1 formation:1 small:3 solid:1 planet:1 monatomic:2 molecule:1 diatomic:1 nitrogen:1 form:2 bulk:1 balloon:2 fill:1 rise:1 albeit:1 slowly:1 part:5 sun:2 presumably:1 proto:1 system:2 nebula:1 galileo:1 spacecraft:1 entry:1 probe:1 even:2 upper:1 jupiter:3 reduce:1 factor:1 may:1 indicate:1 ice:1 planetesmals:1 bring:1 outer:1 region:1 heavy:1 several:1 industrially:1 cryogenic:2 fractional:1 distillation:1 liquefied:1 shape:1 name:1 unmistakable:1 bright:1 still:1 refer:1 fluorescent:1 lighting:1 lightning:1 arrestors:1 wave:1 television:1 laser:1 liquefy:1 require:1 temperature:4 attainable:1 extreme:1 refrigeration:1 nearly:1 impossible:1 obtain:1 quantity:2 laboratory:3 test:1 driver:1 expense:1 liquefaction:1 process:1 triple:1 point:2 define:1 fix:1 international:2 internet:1 resource:1 amazon:1 com:2 retrieve:2 august:2 compound:4 p:1 block:1 theoretically:1 include:2 metastable:1 hhef:1 therefore:1 generally:1 consider:1 calculated:1 bond:1 energy:1 metal:1 beryllium:1 boron:1 true:1 neutral:1 however:1 ion:1 near:1 neh:1 hene:1 optical:1 spectrometric:1 unverified:1 report:1 unstable:1 hydrate:1 periodic:2 table:2 lawrence:1 livermore:1 national:2 last:1 updated:1 expansion:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 webelements:1 elemental:1 computational:1 chemistry:1 wiki:1 alamos:1 usgs:1 museum:1 las:1 vega:1 |@bigram reddish_orange:3 neon_lamp:2 krypton_xenon:1 car_dealership:1 los_angeles:1 stable_isotope:1 hotly_debate:1 alpha_decay:1 liquid_helium:3 discharge_lamp:1 inert_gas:1 monatomic_gas:1 fractional_distillation:1 fluorescent_lighting:1 vacuum_tube:1 helium_neon:1 neon_laser:1 periodic_table:2 lawrence_livermore:1 livermore_national:1 external_link:1 link_webelements:1 webelements_com:1 computational_chemistry:1 los_alamos:1 alamos_national:1 las_vega:1 |
6,395 | Gospel_of_James | The Gospel of James, also sometimes known as the Infancy Gospel of James or the Protoevangelium of James, is an apocryphal Gospel probably written about AD 150. The Gospel of James may be the earliest surviving document attesting the veneration of Mary by stating her perpetual virginity http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0847.htm chapters 19-20 and presenting her as the new Eve. http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0847.htm chapter 13 Authorship and date The document presents itself as written by James: "I, James, wrote this history in Jerusalem." Thus the purported author is James the Just, whom the text claims is a son of Joseph from a prior marriage, and thus a stepbrother of Jesus. Scholars have established that, based on the style of the language and the fact that the author is apparently not aware of contemporary Jewish customs while James the Just certainly was, the work is pseudepigraphical (written by someone other than the person it claims to be written by). Quick Questions (This Rock: August 1990) The echoes and parallels of the Old Testament appear to derive from its Greek translation, the Septuagint, as opposed to the Hebrew Masoretic Text, which is noticeable due to several peculiarities and variations present in the Septuagint. It apparently embellishes what is told of events surrounding Mary, prior to and at the moment of Jesus' birth, in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke. The consensus is that it was actually composed some time in the 2nd century AD. The first mention of it is by Origen of Alexandria in the early third century, who says the text, like that of a "Gospel of Peter", was of dubious, recent appearance and shared with that book the claim that the 'brethren of the Lord' were sons of Joseph by a former wife. Manuscript tradition Some indication of the popularity of the Infancy Gospel of James may be drawn from the fact that about one hundred and thirty Greek manuscripts containing it have survived. The Gospel of James was translated into Syriac, Ethiopic, Coptic, Georgian, Old Slavonic, Armenian, Arabic, Irish and Latin. Though no early Latin versions are known, it was relegated to the apocrypha in the Gelasian decretal, so it must have been known in the West. As with the canonical gospels, the vast majority of the manuscripts come from the tenth century or later. The earliest known manuscript of the text, a papyrus dating to the third or early fourth century, was found in 1958; it is kept in the Bodmer Library, Geneva (Papyrus Bodmer 5). Of the surviving Greek manuscripts, the fullest text is a tenth century codex in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris (Paris 1454). Genre The Gospel of James is one of several surviving Infancy Gospels that give an idea of the miracle literature that was created to satisfy the hunger of early Christians for more detail about the early life of their Saviour. Such literature is filled with ignorance of Jewish life, unlike the many consistent details in the Bible, which were obviously written by authors who were at least acquainted with Judaism. Interestingly enough, not one work of the genre under discussion is in any Bible. In Greek such an infancy gospel was termed a protevangelion, a "pre-Gospel" narrating events of Jesus' life before those recorded in the four canonical gospels. Such a work was intended to be "apologetic, doctrinal, or simply to satisfy one's curiosity". http://www.osjoseph.org/stjoseph/apocrypha/ The literary genre that these works represent shows stylistic features that suggest dates in the second century and later. Other infancy gospels in this tradition include The Infancy Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew (based on the Protoevangelium of James and on the Infancy Gospel of Thomas), and the so-called Arabic Infancy Gospel; all of which were regarded by the church as apocryphal. Content Annunciation to Joachim and Anna, fresco detail by Gaudenzio Ferrari, 1544–45: Extra-canonical legends surrounding Mary's birth became an integral element of Roman Catholicism.The Gospel of James is in three equal parts, of eight chapters each: the first contains the story of Mary's own unique birth and childhood and assignment to the temple, the second concerns the crisis posed by Mary's becoming a woman and thus her imminent pollution of the temple, her assignment to Joseph as guardian and the tests of her virginity, the third relates the Nativity, with the visit of midwives, hiding of Jesus from Herod the Great in a feeding trough and the parallel hiding in the hills of John the Baptist and his mother (Elizabeth) from Herod Antipas. One of the work's high points is the Lament of Anna. A primary theme is the work and grace of God in Mary's life, Mary's personal purity, and her perpetual virginity before, during and after the birth of Jesus, as confirmed by the midwife after she gave birth, and tested by "Salome" who is perhaps intended to be Salome, later the disciple of Jesus who is mentioned in the Gospel of Mark as being at the Crucifixion. Besides the perpetual virginity of Mary, this is also the earliest text that explicitly claims that Joseph was a widower, with children, at the time that Mary is entrusted to his care. This feature is mentioned in the text of Origen, who adduces it to demonstrate that the 'brethren of the Lord' were sons of Joseph by a former wife. Since the text was among those "which are to be avoided by catholics" according to Gelasian Decree, its dismissal may be due in part to this reading of the adelphoi, which corresponded to the developed Eastern Orthodox view rather than the western, i.e. Roman Catholic, view, which treated them as cousins. Among further traditions not present in the four canonical gospels are the birth of Jesus in a cave, the martyrdom of John the Baptist's father Zachariah during the slaughter of the infants and Joseph's being elderly when Jesus was born. The Nativity reported as taking place in a cave, with its Mithraic overtones, remained in the popular imagination; many Early Renaissance Sienese and Florentine paintings of the Nativity, as well as Byzantine, Greek and Russian icons of the Nativity, show such a setting. See also General topics Castelseprio - early fresco depiction of the "Trial by water" History of Joseph the Carpenter New Testament apocrypha Pseudepigraphy Textual criticism Related literature List of Gospels Apocalyptic literature Epistles Acts of the Apostles (genre) List of New Testament papyri References External links The Whole Bible website: Infancy Gospel of James'' St. Joseph in Apocrypha, from "Oblates of St. Joseph". | Gospel_of_James |@lemmatized gospel:24 james:13 also:3 sometimes:1 know:3 infancy:9 protoevangelium:2 apocryphal:2 probably:1 write:6 ad:2 may:3 early:10 surviving:1 document:2 attest:1 veneration:1 mary:9 state:1 perpetual:3 virginity:4 http:3 www:3 newadvent:2 org:3 father:3 htm:2 chapter:3 present:4 new:3 eve:1 authorship:1 date:3 history:2 jerusalem:1 thus:3 purported:1 author:3 jam:1 text:8 claim:4 son:3 joseph:9 prior:2 marriage:1 stepbrother:1 jesus:8 scholar:1 establish:1 base:2 style:1 language:1 fact:2 apparently:2 aware:1 contemporary:1 jewish:2 custom:1 certainly:1 work:6 pseudepigraphical:1 someone:1 person:1 quick:1 question:1 rock:1 august:1 echo:1 parallel:2 old:2 testament:3 appear:1 derive:1 greek:5 translation:1 septuagint:2 oppose:1 hebrew:1 masoretic:1 noticeable:1 due:2 several:2 peculiarity:1 variation:1 embellish:1 tell:1 event:2 surround:2 moment:1 birth:6 matthew:2 luke:1 consensus:1 actually:1 compose:1 time:2 century:6 first:2 mention:3 origen:2 alexandria:1 third:3 say:1 like:1 peter:1 dubious:1 recent:1 appearance:1 share:1 book:1 brother:2 lord:2 former:2 wife:2 manuscript:5 tradition:3 indication:1 popularity:1 draw:1 one:5 hundred:1 thirty:1 contain:2 survive:3 translate:1 syriac:1 ethiopic:1 coptic:1 georgian:1 slavonic:1 armenian:1 arabic:2 irish:1 latin:2 though:1 version:1 relegate:1 apocrypha:4 gelasian:2 decretal:1 must:1 west:1 canonical:4 vast:1 majority:1 come:1 tenth:2 later:3 known:1 papyrus:3 fourth:1 find:1 keep:1 bodmer:2 library:1 geneva:1 full:1 codex:1 bibliotheque:1 nationale:1 paris:2 genre:4 give:2 idea:1 miracle:1 literature:4 create:1 satisfy:2 hunger:1 christian:1 detail:3 life:4 saviour:1 fill:1 ignorance:1 unlike:1 many:2 consistent:1 bible:3 obviously:1 least:1 acquaint:1 judaism:1 interestingly:1 enough:1 discussion:1 term:1 protevangelion:1 pre:1 narrating:1 record:1 four:2 intend:2 apologetic:1 doctrinal:1 simply:1 curiosity:1 osjoseph:1 stjoseph:1 literary:1 represent:1 show:2 stylistic:1 feature:2 suggest:1 second:2 include:1 thomas:2 pseudo:1 call:1 regard:1 church:1 content:1 annunciation:1 joachim:1 anna:2 fresco:2 gaudenzio:1 ferrari:1 extra:1 legend:1 become:2 integral:1 element:1 roman:2 catholicism:1 three:1 equal:1 part:2 eight:1 story:1 unique:1 childhood:1 assignment:2 temple:2 concern:1 crisis:1 pose:1 woman:1 imminent:1 pollution:1 guardian:1 test:2 relate:2 nativity:4 visit:1 midwife:2 hiding:2 herod:2 great:1 feeding:1 trough:1 hill:1 john:2 baptist:2 mother:1 elizabeth:1 antipas:1 high:1 point:1 lament:1 primary:1 theme:1 grace:1 god:1 personal:1 purity:1 confirm:1 salome:2 perhaps:1 disciple:1 mark:1 crucifixion:1 besides:1 explicitly:1 widower:1 child:1 entrust:1 care:1 adduce:1 demonstrate:1 since:1 among:2 avoid:1 catholic:2 accord:1 decree:1 dismissal:1 reading:1 adelphoi:1 correspond:1 developed:1 eastern:1 orthodox:1 view:2 rather:1 western:1 e:1 treat:1 cousin:1 cave:2 martyrdom:1 zachariah:1 slaughter:1 infant:1 elderly:1 bear:1 report:1 take:1 place:1 mithraic:1 overtone:1 remain:1 popular:1 imagination:1 renaissance:1 sienese:1 florentine:1 painting:1 well:1 byzantine:1 russian:1 icon:1 setting:1 see:1 general:1 topic:1 castelseprio:1 depiction:1 trial:1 water:1 carpenter:1 pseudepigraphy:1 textual:1 criticism:1 list:2 apocalyptic:1 epistles:1 act:1 apostle:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 whole:1 website:1 st:2 oblate:1 |@bigram infancy_gospel:9 perpetual_virginity:3 http_www:3 www_newadvent:2 newadvent_org:2 hebrew_masoretic:1 masoretic_text:1 gospel_matthew:1 matthew_luke:1 origen_alexandria:1 canonical_gospel:3 vast_majority:1 roman_catholicism:1 herod_antipas:1 virginity_mary:1 eastern_orthodox:1 testament_apocrypha:1 textual_criticism:1 apocalyptic_literature:1 external_link:1 |
6,396 | Ncurses | ncurses is a programming library providing an API, allowing the programmer to write text user interfaces in a terminal-independent manner. It's a toolkit for developing "GUI-like" apps which run under a terminal emulator. It also optimizes screen changes, in order to reduce the latency experienced when using remote shells. The project leader is Thomas Dickey. History The "N" in ncurses is an abbreviation of the word "new." This is because ncurses is a free software emulation (clone) of System V Release 4.0 (SVr4) curses, an enhancement over the discontinued classic 4.4 BSD curses. The XSI Curses standard issued by X/Open is explicitly and closely modeled on System V. Development started in 1991 or 1992 using pcurses and was first announced in 1993 as noted on the ncurses homepage. An earlier article refers to 1991 (second-hand information) but contains several flaws, e.g., asserting that pcurses was little known (it was distributed in the first volume of the comp.sources.unix newsgroup as noted in the terminfo article) and obscuring the connection between BSD and UNIX curses via Mark Horton. The README file in ncurses 1.8.1 states "v0.1 July 31, 1992" and "v1.8.1 Nov 5, 1993", which agrees with the current NEWS file. The ncurses NEWS file gives detailed development information. Most ncurses calls can be easily ported to the old curses. System V curses implementations can support BSD curses programs with just a recompilation. A Hacker's Guide to Ncurses Internals However, a few areas are problematic, such as handling terminal resizing (since no counterpart exists in the old curses). Terminal database Ncurses can use either terminfo (with extensible data), or termcap. Other implementations of curses generally use terminfo; a minority use termcap. Few (mytinfo was an older exception ) use both. License Ncurses is a part of the GNU Project. It is one of the few GNU files not distributed under the GNU GPL or LGPL; it is distributed under a permissive free software licence, similar to the MIT License. This is due to the agreement made with the Free Software Foundation at the time the developers assigned their copyright. However, because it is Free Software Foundation software, they may choose to GPL it in the future. NCURSES - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) However, when the agreement was made to pass on the rights to the FSF, there was a clause that stated "The Foundation promises that all distribution of the Package, or of any work "based on the Package", that takes place under the control of the Foundation or its agents or assignees, shall be on terms that explicitly and perpetually permit anyone possessing a copy of the work to which the terms apply, and possessing accurate notice of these terms, to redistribute copies of the work to anyone on the same terms." which may guarantee that ncurses will not be licenced under GPL. Programs using ncurses There are hundreds of programs which use ncurses. Some, such as GNU Screen and w3m, use only the termcap interface, performing screen management within the application. Others, such as GNU Midnight Commander and YaST use the curses programming interface. See also SMG$ The Screen Management library available under OpenVMS conio Curses Development Kit Dialog (software) References External links ncurses homepage Introduction "Writing Programs with NCURSES" by Eric S. Raymond and Zeyd M. Ben-Halim ncurses Programming HOWTO ( and PDF version) ncurses Beginner's Tutorial A Hacker's Guide to NCURSES Frequently asked questions and their corresponding answers by Thomas Dickey Toolkits NDK++ Development Kit for C++ Language bindings Ada95 Binding Binding for ANSI Common Lisp Binding for Haskell Binding for Java Binding for JavaScript Binding for Perl Terminal Screen Control Functions for PHP Using Ncurses in PHP Binding for Python Ruby module Distributions and packages Ncurses package for Windows – GnuWin32 | Ncurses |@lemmatized ncurses:21 program:7 library:2 provide:1 api:1 allow:1 programmer:1 write:2 text:1 user:1 interface:3 terminal:5 independent:1 manner:1 toolkit:1 develop:1 gui:1 like:1 apps:1 run:1 emulator:1 also:2 optimize:1 screen:5 change:1 order:1 reduce:1 latency:1 experience:1 use:11 remote:1 shell:1 project:2 leader:1 thomas:2 dickey:2 history:1 n:1 abbreviation:1 word:1 new:1 free:4 software:6 emulation:1 clone:1 system:3 v:3 release:1 curse:11 enhancement:1 discontinue:1 classic:1 bsd:3 xsi:1 standard:1 issue:1 x:1 open:1 explicitly:2 closely:1 model:1 development:4 start:1 pcurses:2 first:2 announce:1 note:2 homepage:2 early:1 article:2 refers:1 second:1 hand:1 information:2 contain:1 several:1 flaw:1 e:1 g:1 assert:1 little:1 known:1 distribute:3 volume:1 comp:1 source:1 unix:2 newsgroup:1 terminfo:3 obscure:1 connection:1 via:1 mark:1 horton:1 readme:1 file:4 state:2 july:1 nov:1 agree:1 current:1 news:2 give:1 detailed:1 call:1 easily:1 port:1 old:3 implementation:2 support:1 recompilation:1 hacker:2 guide:2 internals:1 however:3 area:1 problematic:1 handle:1 resizing:1 since:1 counterpart:1 exist:1 database:1 either:1 extensible:1 data:1 termcap:3 generally:1 minority:1 mytinfo:1 exception:1 license:2 part:1 gnu:5 one:1 gpl:3 lgpl:1 permissive:1 licence:2 similar:1 mit:1 due:1 agreement:2 make:2 foundation:4 time:1 developer:1 assign:1 copyright:1 may:2 choose:1 future:1 frequently:2 ask:2 question:2 faq:1 pass:1 right:1 fsf:1 clause:1 promise:1 distribution:2 package:4 work:3 base:1 take:1 place:1 control:2 agent:1 assignee:1 shall:1 term:4 perpetually:1 permit:1 anyone:2 possess:2 copy:2 apply:1 accurate:1 notice:1 redistribute:1 guarantee:1 hundred:1 perform:1 management:2 within:1 application:1 others:1 midnight:1 commander:1 yast:1 see:1 smg:1 available:1 openvms:1 conio:1 kit:2 dialog:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 introduction:1 eric:1 raymond:1 zeyd:1 ben:1 halim:1 howto:1 pdf:1 version:1 beginner:1 tutorial:1 corresponding:1 answer:1 toolkits:1 ndk:1 c:1 language:1 binding:7 bind:1 ansi:1 common:1 lisp:1 haskell:1 java:1 javascript:1 perl:1 function:1 php:2 python:1 ruby:1 module:1 window:1 |@bigram user_interface:1 terminal_emulator:1 bsd_unix:1 gnu_gpl:1 gpl_lgpl:1 external_link:1 eric_raymond:1 python_ruby:1 |
6,397 | Endoplasmic_reticulum | Micrograph of rough endoplasmic reticulum network around the nucleus (shown in lower right-hand side of the picture). Dark small circles in the network are mitochondria. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a eukaryotic organelle that forms an interconnected network of tubules, vesicles, and cisternae within cells. The lacey membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum were first seen by Keith R. Porter, Albert Claude, and Ernest F. Fullam in 1945. These structures are responsible for several specialized functions: protein translation, folding and transport of proteins to be used in the cell membrane (e.g. transmembrane receptors and other integral membrane proteins), or to be secreted (exocytosed) from the cell (e.g. digestive enzymes); sequestration of calcium; and production and storage of glycogen, steroids, and other macromolecules. Spurger, L. (2002). Endoplasmic reticulum: Structure and function. University of Texas Medical Branch. Retrieved September 13, 2006, from http://cellbio.utmb.edu/cellbio/rer1.htm The endoplasmic reticulum is part of the endomembrane system. The basic structure and composition of the ER membrane is similar to the plasma membrane. Structure 1 Nucleus 2 Nuclear pore 3 Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) 4 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) 5 Ribosome on the rough ER 6 Proteins that are transported 7 Transport vesicle 8 Golgi apparatus 9 Cis face of the Golgi apparatus 10 Trans face of the Golgi apparatus 11 Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus The general structure of the endoplasmic reticulum is an extensive membrane network of cisternae (sac-like structures) held together by the cytoskeleton. The phospholipid membrane encloses a space, the cisternal space (or lumen), from the cytosol. The functions of the endoplasmic reticulum vary greatly depending on the exact type of endoplasmic reticulum and the type of cell in which it resides. The three varieties are called rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum and sarcoplasmic reticulum. The quantity of RER and SER in a cell can quickly interchange from one type to the other, depending on changing metabolic needs: one type will undergo numerous changes including new proteins embedded in the membranes in order to transform. Also, massive changes in the protein content can occur without any noticeable structural changes, depending on the enzymatic needs of the cell (as per the functions listed below). Rough endoplasmic reticulum The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is studded with protein-manufacturing ribosomes giving it a "rough" appearance (hence its name). Campbell, Neil A. (1996) Biology Fourth Edition. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing, pp. 120-121 ISBN 0-8053-1940-9 The RER is not always studded with these ribosomes, however; initially, the RER appears smooth due to a lack of resident ribosomes. The ribosomes only bind to the ER once it begins to synthesize a protein destined for sorting. Lodish, Harvey, et al. (2003) Molecular Cell Biology 5th Edition. W. H. Freeman, pp. 659-666 ISBN 0716743663 The free ribosome begins synthesizing a protein until a cytosolic signal recognition particle recognizes the pre-piece of 5-15 hydrophobic amino acids preceded by a positively charged amino acid. This allows the complex to loop the sequence through the hydrophobic RER membrane. The pre-piece is then cleaved off within the lumen of the RER. The membrane of the RER is continuous with the outer layer of the nuclear envelope. Although there is no continuous membrane between the RER and the Golgi apparatus, membrane-bound vesicles shuttle proteins between these two compartments. Endoplasmic reticulum. (n.d.). McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. Retrieved September 13, 2006, from Answers.com Web site: http://www.answers.com/topic/endoplasmic-reticulum Vesicles are surrounded by coating proteins called COPI and COPII. COPII targets vesicles to the golgi and COPI marks them to be brought back to the RER. The RER works in concert with the Golgi complex to target new proteins to their proper destinations. A second method of transport out of the ER are areas called membrane contact sites, where the membranes of the ER and other organelles are held closely together, allowing the transfer of lipids and other small molecules. The RER is key in multiple functions: lysosomal enzymes with a mannose-6-phosphate marker added in the cis-Golgi network Secreted proteins, either secreted constitutively with no tag, or regulated secretion involving clathrin and paired basic amino acids in the signal peptide. integral membrane proteins that stay imbedded in the membrane as vesicles exit and bind to new membranes. Rab proteins are key in targeting the membrane, SNAP and SNARE proteins are key in the fusion event. initial glycosylation as assembly continues. This is either N-linked or O-linked (O-linked may likely occur in the golgi). N-linked glycosylation: if the protein is properly folded, glycosyltransferase recognizes the AA sequence NXS or NXT (with the S/T residue phosphorylated) and adds a 14 sugar backbone (2 N-acetylglucosamine, 9 branching mannose, and 3 glucose at the end) to the side chain nitrogen of Asn. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) has functions in several metabolic processes, including synthesis of lipids and steroids, metabolism of carbohydrates, regulation of calcium concentration, drug detoxification, attachment of receptors on cell membrane proteins, and steroid metabolism. It is connected to the nuclear envelope. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is found in a variety of cell types (both animal and plant) and it serves different functions in each. The Smooth ER also contains the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase which converts glucose-6-phosphate to glucose, a step in gluconeogenesis. The SER consists of tubules and vesicles that branch forming a network. In some cells there are dilated areas like the sacs of RER. The network of SER allows increased surface area for the action or storage of key enzymes and the products of these enzymes. Sarcoplasmic reticulum The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), from the Greek sarx, "flesh", is a special type of smooth ER found in smooth and striated muscle. The only structural difference between this organelle and the SER is the medley of proteins they have, both bound to their membranes and drifting within the confines of their lumens. This fundamental difference is indicative of their functions: the SER synthesizes molecules while the SR stores and pumps calcium ions. The SR contains large stores of calcium, which it sequesters and then releases when the muscle cell is stimulated. The SR's release of calcium upon electrical stimulation of the cell plays a major role in excitation-contraction coupling. Functions The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the facilitation of protein folding and the transport of synthesized proteins in sacs called cisternae. Correct folding of newly-made proteins is made possible by several endoplasmic reticulum chaperone proteins, including protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), ERp29, the Hsp70 family member Grp78, calnexin, calreticulin, and the peptidylpropyl isomerase family. Only properly-folded proteins are transported from the rough ER to the Golgi complex. Transport of proteins Secretory proteins, mostly glycoproteins, are moved across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Proteins that are transported by the endoplasmic reticulum and from there throughout the cell are marked with an address tag called a signal sequence. The N-terminus (one end) of a polypeptide chain (i.e., a protein) contains a few amino acids that work as an address tag, which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination. Proteins that are destined for places outside the endoplasmic reticulum are packed into transport vesicles and moved along the cytoskeleton toward their destination. The endoplasmic reticulum is also part of a protein sorting pathway. It is, in essence, the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell. The majority of endoplasmic reticulum resident proteins are retained in the endoplasmic reticulum through a retention motif. This motif is composed of four amino acids at the end of the protein sequence. The most common retention sequence is KDEL (lys-asp-glu-leu). However, variation on KDEL does occur and other sequences can also give rise to endoplasmic reticulum retention. It is not known if such variation can lead to sub-endoplasmic reticulum localizations. There are three KDEL receptors in mammalian cells, and they have a very high degree of sequence identity. The functional differences between these receptors remain to be established. Other functions Insertion of proteins into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane: Integral membrane proteins are inserted into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane as they are being synthesized (co-translational translocation). Insertion into the endoplasmic reticulum membrane requires the correct topogenic signal sequences in the protein. Glycosylation: Glycosylation involves the attachment of oligosaccharides. Disulfide bond formation and rearrangement: Disulfide bonds stabilize the tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins. Drug Metabolism: The smooth ER is the site at which some drugs are modified by microsomal enzymes which include the cytochrome P450 enzymes. See also ERAD Protein targeting Secretory pathway Reticulons References External links Lipid and protein composition of Endoplasmic reticulum in OPM database Animations of the various cell functions referenced here | Endoplasmic_reticulum |@lemmatized micrograph:1 rough:8 endoplasmic:33 reticulum:36 network:7 around:1 nucleus:2 show:1 low:1 right:1 hand:1 side:2 picture:1 dark:1 small:2 circle:1 mitochondrion:1 er:10 eukaryotic:2 organelle:3 form:2 interconnected:1 tubule:2 vesicle:7 cisterna:4 within:3 cell:16 lacey:1 membrane:25 first:1 see:2 keith:1 r:1 porter:1 albert:1 claude:1 ernest:1 f:1 fullam:1 structure:7 responsible:1 several:3 specialized:1 function:12 protein:38 translation:1 fold:2 transport:9 use:1 e:3 g:2 transmembrane:1 receptor:4 integral:3 secrete:3 exocytosed:1 digestive:1 enzyme:7 sequestration:1 calcium:5 production:1 storage:2 glycogen:1 steroid:3 macromolecule:1 spurger:1 l:1 university:1 texas:1 medical:1 branch:2 retrieve:2 september:2 http:2 cellbio:2 utmb:1 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6,398 | Computational_chemistry | Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses computers to assist in solving chemical problems. It uses the results of theoretical chemistry, incorporated into efficient computer programs, to calculate the structures and properties of molecules and solids. While its results normally complement the information obtained by chemical experiments, it can in some cases predict hitherto unobserved chemical phenomena. It is widely used in the design of new drugs and materials. Examples of such properties are structure (i.e. the expected positions of the constituent atoms), absolute and relative (interaction) energies, electronic charge distributions, dipoles and higher multipole moments, vibrational frequencies, reactivity or other spectroscopic quantities, and cross sections for collision with other particles. The methods employed cover both static and dynamic situations. In all cases the computer time and other resources (such as memory and disk space) increase rapidly with the size of the system being studied. That system can be a single molecule, a group of molecules, or a solid. Computational chemistry methods range from highly accurate to very approximate; highly accurate methods are typically feasible only for small systems. Ab initio methods are based entirely on theory from first principles. Other (typically less accurate) methods are called empirical or semi-empirical because they employ experimental results, often from acceptable models of atoms or related molecules, to approximate some elements of the underlying theory. Both ab initio and semi-empirical approaches involve approximations. These range from simplified forms of the first-principles equations that are easier or faster to solve, to approximations limiting the size of the system (for example, Periodic boundary conditions), to fundamental approximations to the underlying equations that are required to achieve any solution to them at all. For example, most ab initio calculations make the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, which greatly simplifies the underlying Schrödinger Equation by freezing the nuclei in place during the calculation. In principle, ab initio methods eventually converge to the exact solution of the underlying equations as the number of approximations is reduced. In practice, however, it is impossible to eliminate all approximations, and residual error inevitably remains. The goal of computational chemistry is to minimize this residual error while keeping the calculations tractable. History Building on the founding discoveries and theories in the history of quantum mechanics, the first theoretical calculations in chemistry were those of Walter Heitler and Fritz London in 1927. The books that were influential in the early development of computational quantum chemistry include: Linus Pauling and E. Bright Wilson’s 1935 Introduction to Quantum Mechanics – with Applications to Chemistry, Eyring, Walter and Kimball's 1944 Quantum Chemistry, Heitler’s 1945 Elementary Wave Mechanics – with Applications to Quantum Chemistry, and later Coulson's 1952 textbook Valence, each of which served as primary references for chemists in the decades to follow. With the development of efficient computer technology in the 1940s, the solutions of elaborate wave equations for complex atomic systems began to be a realizable objective. In the early 1950s, the first semi-empirical atomic orbital calculations were carried out. Theoretical chemists became extensive users of the early digital computers. A very detailed account of such use in the United Kingdom is given by Smith and Sutcliffe. The first ab initio Hartree-Fock calculations on diatomic molecules were carried out in 1956 at MIT, using a basis set of Slater orbitals. For diatomic molecules, a systematic study using a minimum basis set and the first calculation with a larger basis set were published by Ransil and Nesbet respectively in 1960. The first polyatomic calculations using Gaussian orbitals were carried out in the late 1950s. The first configuration interaction calculations were carried out in Cambridge on the EDSAC computer in the 1950s using Gaussian orbitals by Boys and coworkers. By 1971, when a bibliography of ab initio calculations was published, the largest molecules included were naphthalene and azulene. Preuss, H. (1968). International Journal of Quantum Chemistry 2: 651. Buenker, R. J.; Peyerimhoff S. D. (1969). Chemical Physics Letters 3: 37. Abstracts of many earlier developments in ab initio theory have been published by Schaefer. In 1964, Hückel method calculations (using a simple linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) method for the determination of electron energies of molecular orbitals of π electrons in conjugated hydrocarbon systems) of molecules ranging in complexity from butadiene and benzene to ovalene, were generated on computers at Berkeley and Oxford. These empirical methods were replaced in the 1960s by semi-empirical methods such as CNDO. In the early 1970s, efficient ab initio computer programs such as ATMOL, GAUSSIAN, IBMOL, and POLYAYTOM, began to be used to speed up ab initio calculations of molecular orbitals. Of these four programs, only GAUSSIAN, now massively expanded, is still in use, but many other programs are now in use. At the same time, the methods of molecular mechanics, such as MM2, were developed, primarily by Norman Allinger. One of the first mentions of the term “computational chemistry” can be found in the 1970 book Computers and Their Role in the Physical Sciences by Sidney Fernbach and Abraham Haskell Taub, where they state “It seems, therefore, that 'computational chemistry' can finally be more and more of a reality.” During the 1970s, widely different methods began to be seen as part of a new emerging discipline of computational chemistry. Reviews in Computational Chemistry vol 1, preface The Journal of Computational Chemistry was first published in 1980. Concepts The term theoretical chemistry may be defined as a mathematical description of chemistry, whereas computational chemistry is usually used when a mathematical method is sufficiently well developed that it can be automated for implementation on a computer. Note that the words exact and perfect do not appear here, as very few aspects of chemistry can be computed exactly. However, almost every aspect of chemistry can be described in a qualitative or approximate quantitative computational scheme. Molecules consist of nuclei and electrons, so the methods of quantum mechanics apply. Computational chemists often attempt to solve the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation, with relativistic corrections added, although some progress has been made in solving the fully relativistic Dirac equation. In principle, it is possible to solve the Schrödinger equation in either its time-dependent or time-independent form, as appropriate for the problem in hand; in practice, this is not possible except for very small systems. Therefore, a great number of approximate methods strive to achieve the best trade-off between accuracy and computational cost. Accuracy can always be improved with greater computational cost. Significant errors can present themselves in ab initio models comprising many electrons, due to the computational expense of full relativistic-inclusive methods. This complicates the study of molecules interacting with high atomic mass unit atoms, such as transitional metals and their catalytic properties. Present algorithms in computational chemistry can routinely calculate the properties of molecules that contain up to about 40 electrons with sufficient accuracy. Errors for energies can be less than a few kJ/mol. For geometries, bond lengths can be predicted within a few picometres and bond angles within 0.5 degrees. The treatment of larger molecules that contain a few dozen electrons is computationally tractable by approximate methods such as density functional theory (DFT). There is some dispute within the field whether or not the latter methods are sufficient to describe complex chemical reactions, such as those in biochemistry. Large molecules can be studied by semi-empirical approximate methods. Even larger molecules are treated by classical mechanics methods that employ what are called molecular mechanics. In QM/MM methods, small portions of large complexes are treated quantum mechanically (QM), and the remainder is treated approximately (MM). In theoretical chemistry, chemists, physicists and mathematicians develop algorithms and computer programs to predict atomic and molecular properties and reaction paths for chemical reactions. Computational chemists, in contrast, may simply apply existing computer programs and methodologies to specific chemical questions. There are two different aspects to computational chemistry: Computational studies can be carried out in order to find a starting point for a laboratory synthesis, or to assist in understanding experimental data, such as the position and source of spectroscopic peaks. Computational studies can be used to predict the possibility of so far entirely unknown molecules or to explore reaction mechanisms that are not readily studied by experimental means. Thus, computational chemistry can assist the experimental chemist or it can challenge the experimental chemist to find entirely new chemical objects. Several major areas may be distinguished within computational chemistry: The prediction of the molecular structure of molecules by the use of the simulation of forces, or more accurate quantum chemical methods, to find stationary points on the energy surface as the position of the nuclei is varied. Storing and searching for data on chemical entities (see chemical databases). Identifying correlations between chemical structures and properties (see QSPR and QSAR). Computational approaches to help in the efficient synthesis of compounds. Computational approaches to design molecules that interact in specific ways with other molecules (e.g. drug design and catalysis). Methods A single molecular formula can represent a number of molecular isomers. Each isomer is a local minimum on the energy surface (called the potential energy surface) created from the total energy (i.e., the electronic energy, plus the repulsion energy between the nuclei) as a function of the coordinates of all the nuclei. A stationary point is a geometry such that the derivative of the energy with respect to all displacements of the nuclei is zero. A local (energy) minimum is a stationary point where all such displacements lead to an increase in energy. The local minimum that is lowest is called the global minimum and corresponds to the most stable isomer. If there is one particular coordinate change that leads to a decrease in the total energy in both directions, the stationary point is a transition structure and the coordinate is the reaction coordinate. This process of determining stationary points is called geometry optimization. The determination of molecular structure by geometry optimization became routine only after efficient methods for calculating the first derivatives of the energy with respect to all atomic coordinates became available. Evaluation of the related second derivatives allows the prediction of vibrational frequencies if harmonic motion is estimated. More importantly, it allows for the characterization of stationary points. The frequencies are related to the eigenvalues of the Hessian matrix, which contains second derivatives. If the eigenvalues are all positive, then the frequencies are all real and the stationary point is a local minimum. If one eigenvalue is negative (i.e., an imaginary frequency), then the stationary point is a transition structure. If more than one eigenvalue is negative, then the stationary point is a more complex one, and is usually of little interest. When one of these is found, it is necessary to move the search away from it if the experimenter is looking solely for local minima and transition structures. The total energy is determined by approximate solutions of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation, usually with no relativistic terms included, and by making use of the Born-Oppenheimer approximation, which allows for the separation of electronic and nuclear motions, thereby simplifying the Schrödinger equation. This leads to the evaluation of the total energy as a sum of the electronic energy at fixed nuclei positions and the repulsion energy of the nuclei. A notable exception are certain approaches called direct quantum chemistry, which treat electrons and nuclei on a common footing. Density functional methods and semi-empirical methods are variants on the major theme. For very large systems, the relative total energies can be compared using molecular mechanics. The ways of determining the total energy to predict molecular structures are: Ab initio methods The programs used in computational chemistry are based on many different quantum-chemical methods that solve the molecular Schrödinger equation associated with the molecular Hamiltonian. Methods that do not include any empirical or semi-empirical parameters in their equations - being derived directly from theoretical principles, with no inclusion of experimental data - are called ab initio methods. This does not imply that the solution is an exact one; they are all approximate quantum mechanical calculations. It means that a particular approximation is rigorously defined on first principles (quantum theory) and then solved within an error margin that is qualitatively known beforehand. If numerical iterative methods have to be employed, the aim is to iterate until full machine accuracy is obtained (the best that is possible with a finite word length on the computer, and within the mathematical and/or physical approximations made). Diagram illustrating various ab initio electronic structure methods in terms of energy. Spacings are not to scale. The simplest type of ab initio electronic structure calculation is the Hartree-Fock (HF) scheme, an extension of molecular orbital theory, in which the correlated electron-electron repulsion is not specifically taken into account; only its average effect is included in the calculation. As the basis set size is increased, the energy and wave function tend towards a limit called the Hartree-Fock limit. Many types of calculations (known as post-Hartree-Fock methods) begin with a Hartree-Fock calculation and subsequently correct for electron-electron repulsion, referred to also as electronic correlation. As these methods are pushed to the limit, they approach the exact solution of the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation. In order to obtain exact agreement with experiment, it is necessary to include relativistic and spin orbit terms, both of which are only really important for heavy atoms. In all of these approaches, in addition to the choice of method, it is necessary to choose a basis set. This is a set of functions, usually centered on the different atoms in the molecule, which are used to expand the molecular orbitals with the LCAO ansatz. Ab initio methods need to define a level of theory (the method) and a basis set. The Hartree-Fock wave function is a single configuration or determinant. In some cases, particularly for bond breaking processes, this is quite inadequate, and several configurations need to be used. Here, the coefficients of the configurations and the coefficients of the basis functions are optimized together. The total molecular energy can be evaluated as a function of the molecular geometry; in other words, the potential energy surface. Such a surface can be used for reaction dynamics. The stationary points of the surface lead to predictions of different isomers and the transition structures for conversion between isomers, but these can be determined without a full knowledge of the complete surface. A particularly important objective, called computational thermochemistry, is to calculate thermochemical quantities such as the enthalpy of formation to chemical accuracy. Chemical accuracy is the accuracy required to make realistic chemical predictions and is generally considered to be 1 kcal/mol or 4 kJ/mol. To reach that accuracy in an economic way it is necessary to use a series of post-Hartree-Fock methods and combine the results. These methods are called quantum chemistry composite methods. Density Functional methods Density functional theory (DFT) methods are often considered to be ab initio methods for determining the molecular electronic structure, even though many of the most common functionals use parameters derived from empirical data, or from more complex calculations. In DFT, the total energy is expressed in terms of the total one-electron density rather than the wave function. In this type of calculation, there is an approximate Hamiltonian and an approximate expression for the total electron density. DFT methods can be very accurate for little computational cost. Some methods combine the density functional exchange functional with the Hartree-Fock exchange term and are known as hybrid functional methods. Semi-empirical and empirical methods Semi-empirical quantum chemistry methods are based on the Hartree-Fock formalism, but make many approximations and obtain some parameters from empirical data. They are very important in computational chemistry for treating large molecules where the full Hartree-Fock method without the approximations is too expensive. The use of empirical parameters appears to allow some inclusion of correlation effects into the methods. Semi-empirical methods follow what are often called empirical methods, where the two-electron part of the Hamiltonian is not explicitly included. For π-electron systems, this was the Hückel method proposed by Erich Hückel, and for all valence electron systems, the Extended Hückel method proposed by Roald Hoffmann. Molecular mechanics In many cases, large molecular systems can be modeled successfully while avoiding quantum mechanical calculations entirely. Molecular mechanics simulations, for example, use a single classical expression for the energy of a compound, for instance the harmonic oscillator. All constants appearing in the equations must be obtained beforehand from experimental data or ab initio calculations. The database of compounds used for parameterization, i.e., the resulting set of parameters and functions is called the force field, is crucial to the success of molecular mechanics calculations. A force field parameterized against a specific class of molecules, for instance proteins, would be expected to only have any relevance when describing other molecules of the same class. These methods can be applied to proteins and other large biological molecules, and allow studies of the approach and interaction (docking) of potential drug molecules (eg. and ). Methods for solids Computational chemical methods can be applied to solid state physics problems. The electronic structure of a crystal is in general described by a band structure, which defines the energies of electron orbitals for each point in the Brillouin zone. Ab initio and semi-empirical calculations yield orbital energies; therefore, they can be applied to band structure calculations. Since it is time-consuming to calculate the energy for a molecule, it is even more time-consuming to calculate them for the entire list of points in the Brillouin zone. Chemical dynamics Once the electronic and nuclear variables are separated (within the Born-Oppenheimer representation), in the time-dependent approach, the wave packet corresponding to the nuclear degrees of freedom is propagated via the time evolution operator (physics) associated to the time-dependent Schrödinger equation (for the full molecular Hamiltonian). In the complementary energy-dependent approach, the time-independent Schrödinger equation is solved using the scattering theory formalism. The potential representing the interatomic interaction is given by the potential energy surfaces. In general, the potential energy surfaces are coupled via the vibronic coupling terms. The most popular methods for propagating the wave packet associated to the molecular geometry are the split operator technique, the Multi-Configuration Time-Dependent Hartree method (MCTDH), the semiclassical method. Molecular dynamics (MD) examines (using Newton's laws of motion) the time-dependent behavior of systems, including vibrations or Brownian motion, using a classical mechanical description. MD combined with density functional theory leads to the Car-Parrinello method. Interpreting molecular wave functions The Atoms in Molecules model developed by Richard Bader was developed in order to effectively link the quantum mechanical picture of a molecule, as an electronic wavefunction, to chemically useful older models such as the theory of Lewis pairs and the valence bond model. Bader has demonstrated that these empirically useful models are connected with the topology of the quantum charge density. This method improves on the use of Mulliken population analysis. Software packages There are many self-sufficient software packages used by computational chemists. Some include many methods covering a wide range, while others concentrating on a very specific range or even a single method. Details of most of them can be found in: Quantum chemistry and solid state physics software supporting several methods. Molecular mechanics programs. Semi-empirical programs. Valence Bond programs. Biomolecular modelling programs: proteins, nucleic acid. See also Mathematical chemistry Molecular modeling Molecular graphics Monte Carlo molecular modeling Quantum chemistry Basis set (chemistry) Molecular dynamics Bioinformatics Cheminformatics Computational Chemistry List Important publications in computational chemistry International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science Computational Science Statistical mechanics Molecule Force field in Chemistry Force field implementation Cited References Other references Christopher J. Cramer Essentials of Computational Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons (2002) T. Clark A Handbook of Computational Chemistry, Wiley, New York (1985) R. Dronskowski Computational Chemistry of Solid State Materials, Wiley-VCH (2005) F. Jensen Introduction to Computational Chemistry, John Wiley & Sons (1999) D. Rogers Computational Chemistry Using the PC, 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons (2003) Paul von Ragué Schleyer (Editor-in-Chief). Encyclopedia of Computational Chemistry. Wiley, 1998. ISBN 0-471-96588-X. A. Szabo, N.S. Ostlund, Modern Quantum Chemistry, McGraw-Hill (1982) D. Young Computational Chemistry: A Practical Guide for Applying Techniques to Real World Problems, John Wiley & Sons (2001) David Young's Introduction to Computational Chemistry K.I.Ramachandran, G Deepa and Krishnan Namboori. P.K. Computational Chemistry and Molecular Modeling Principles and applications Springer-Verlag GmbH ISBN 978-3-540-77302-3 External links NIST Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark DataBase - Contains a database of thousands of computational and experimental results for hundreds of systems ACS Division of Computers in Chemistry - ACS Computers in Chemistry Division Computational Chemistry Wiki - Wiki of computational chemistry results CSTB report Mathematical Research in Materials Science: Opportunities and Perspectives - CSTB Report 3.320 Atomistic Computer Modeling of Materials (SMA 5107) Free MIT Course Technology Roadmap for Computational Chemistry APPLICATIONS OF MOLECULAR AND MATERIALS MODELING. Impact of Advances in Computing and Communications Technologies on Chemical Science and Technology CSTB Report | Computational_chemistry |@lemmatized computational:47 chemistry:54 branch:1 use:32 computer:16 assist:3 solve:8 chemical:19 problem:4 result:7 theoretical:6 incorporate:1 efficient:5 program:11 calculate:6 structure:16 property:6 molecule:28 solid:6 normally:1 complement:1 information:1 obtain:5 experiment:2 case:4 predict:5 hitherto:1 unobserved:1 phenomenon:1 widely:2 design:3 new:4 drug:3 material:5 example:4 e:6 expected:1 position:4 constituent:1 atom:6 absolute:1 relative:2 interaction:4 energy:32 electronic:11 charge:2 distribution:1 dipole:1 high:2 multipole:1 moment:1 vibrational:2 frequency:5 reactivity:1 spectroscopic:2 quantity:2 cross:1 section:1 collision:1 particle:1 method:64 employ:4 cover:2 static:1 dynamic:5 situation:1 time:13 resource:1 memory:1 disk:1 space:1 increase:3 rapidly:1 size:3 system:13 study:8 single:5 group:1 range:5 highly:2 accurate:5 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6,399 | Justice | <p> Justice is the concept of moral rightness based on ethics, rationality, law, natural law, fairness, religion and/or equity. Journal of Economic Literature, 41(4), p. 1188. Concept of justice Justice concerns the proper ordering of things and persons within a society. As a concept it has been subject to philosophical, legal, and theological reflection and debate throughout history. A number of important questions surrounding justice have been fiercely debated over the course of western history: What is justice? What does it demand of individuals and societies? What is the proper distribution of wealth and resources in society: equal, meritocratic, according to status, or some other arrangement? There are myriad possible answers to these questions from divergent perspectives on the political and philosophical spectrum. According to most theories of justice, it is overwhelmingly important: John Rawls, for instance, claims that "Justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought." John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (revised edn, Oxford: OUP, 1999), p. 3 : Justice can be thought of as distinct from and more fundamental than benevolence, charity, mercy, generosity or compassion. Justice has traditionally been associated with concepts of fate, reincarnation or divine providence, i.e. with a life in accordance with the cosmic plan. The association of justice with fairness has thus been historically and culturally rare and is perhaps chiefly a modern innovation. Studies at UCLA in 2008 have indicated that reactions to fairness are "wired" into the brain and that, "Fairness is activating the same part of the brain that responds to food in rats... This is consistent with the notion that being treated fairly satisfies a basic need" Brain reacts to fairness as it does to money and chocolate, study shows / UCLA Newsroom . Research conducted in 2003 at Emory University, Georgia, involving Capuchin Monkeys demonstrated that other cooperative animals also possess such a sense and that "inequality aversion may not be uniquely human." Nature 425, 297-299 (18 September 2003) indicating that ideas of fairness and justice may be instinctual in nature. Variations of justice Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism, where punishment is forward-looking. Justified by the ability to achieve future social benefits resulting in crime reduction, the moral worth of an action is determined by its outcome. Retributive justice regulates proportionate response to crime proven by lawful evidence, so that punishment is justly imposed and considered as morally-correct and fully deserved. The law of retaliation (lex talionis) is a military theory of retributive justice, which says that reciprocity should be equal to the wrong suffered; "life for life, wound for wound, stripe for stripe." Exodus 21.xxiii-xxv. Restorative justice is concerned not so much with retribution and punishment as with (a) making the victim whole and (b) reintegrating the offender into society. This approach frequently brings an offender and a victim together, so that the offender can better understand the effect his/her offense had on the victim. Distributive justice is directed at the proper allocation of things - wealth, power, reward, respect - between different people. Oppressive Law exercises an authoritarian approach to legislation which is "totally unrelated to justice", a tyrannical interpretation of law is one in which the population lives under restriction from unlawful legislation. Some theorists, such as the classical Greeks, conceive of justice as a virtue—a property of people, and only derivatively of their actions and the institutions they create. Others emphasize actions or institutions, and only derivatively the people who bring them about. The source of justice has variously been attributed to harmony, divine command, natural law, or human creation. Kinds of justice Justice by Luca Giordano Justice as harmony In his dialogue Republic, Plato uses Socrates to argue for justice which covers both the just person and the just City State. Justice is a proper, harmonious relationship between the warring parts of the person or city. Hence Plato's definition of justice is that justice is the having and doing of what is one's own. A just man is a man in just the right place, doing his best and giving the precise equivalent of what he has received. This applies both at the individual level and at the universal level. A person’s soul has three parts – reason, spirit and desire. Similarly, a city has three parts – Socrates uses the parable of the chariot to illustrate his point: a chariot works as a whole because the two horses’ power is directed by the charioteer. Lovers of wisdom – philosophers, in one sense of the term – should rule because only they understand what is good. If one is ill, one goes to a doctor rather than a quack, because the doctor is expert in the subject of health. Similarly, one should trust one’s city to an expert in the subject of the good, not to a mere politician who tries to gain power by giving people what they want, rather than what’s good for them. Socrates uses the parable of the ship to illustrate this point: the unjust city is like a ship in open ocean, crewed by a powerful but drunken captain (the common people), a group of untrustworthy advisors who try to manipulate the captain into giving them power over the ship’s course (the politicians), and a navigator (the philosopher) who is the only one who knows how to get the ship to port. For Socrates, the only way the ship will reach its destination – the good – is if the navigator takes charge. Plato, Republic trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: OUP, 1984). Justice as divine command Justice as a divine law is commanding , and indeed the whole of morality, is the authoritative command. Killing is wrong and therefore must be punished and if not punished what should be done? There is a famous paradox called the Euthyphro dilemma which essentially asks: is something right because God commands it, or does God command it because it's right? If the former, then justice is arbitrary; if the latter, then morality exists on a higher order than God, who becomes little more than a passer-on of moral knowledge. Some Divine command advocates respond by pointing out that the dilemma is false: goodness is the very nature of God and is necessarily expressed in His commands. Justice as natural law See also: John Locke Justice as human creation In contrast to the understandings canvassed so far, justice may be understood as a human creation, rather than a discovery of harmony, divine command, or natural law. This claim can be understood in a number of ways, with the fundamental division being between those who argue that justice is the creation of some humans, and those who argue that it is the creation of all humans. Justice as authoritative command Injustice by Giotto di Bondone According to thinkers including Thomas Hobbes, justice is created by public, enforceable, authoritative rules, and injustice is whatever those rules forbid, regardless of their relation to morality. Justice is created, not merely described or approximated, by the command of an absolute sovereign power. This position has some similarities with divine command theory (see above), with the difference that the state (or other authority) replaces God. Justice as trickery In Republic, the character Thrasymachus argues that justice is the interest of the strong—merely a name for what the powerful or cunning ruler has imposed on the people. Nietzsche, in contrast, argues that justice is part of the slave-morality of the weak many, rooted in their resentment of the strong few, and intended to keep the noble man down. In Human, All Too Human he states that, "there is no eternal justice." Justice as mutual agreement According to thinkers in the social contract tradition, justice is derived from the mutual agreement of everyone concerned; or, in many versions, from what they would agree to under hypothetical conditions including equality and absence of bias. This account is considered further below, under ‘Justice as fairness’. Justice as a subordinate value According to utilitarian thinkers including John Stuart Mill, justice is not as fundamental as we often think. Rather, it is derived from the more basic standard of rightness, consequentialism: what is right is what has the best consequences (usually measured by the total or average welfare caused). So, the proper principles of justice are those which tend to have the best consequences. These rules may turn out to be familiar ones such as keeping contracts; but equally, they may not, depending on the facts about real consequences. Either way, what is important is those consequences, and justice is important, if at all, only as derived from that fundamental standard. Mill tries to explain our mistaken belief that justice is overwhelmingly important by arguing that it derives from two natural human tendencies: our desire to retaliate against those who hurt us, and our ability to put ourselves imaginatively in another’s place. So, when we see someone harmed, we project ourselves into her situation and feel a desire to retaliate on her behalf. If this process is the source of our feelings about justice, that ought to undermine our confidence in them. John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism in On Liberty and Other Essays ed. John Gray (Oxford: OUP, 1991), Chapter 5. Utilitarianism. Theories of distributive justice Allegory or The Triumph of Justice by Hans von Aachen Theories of distributive justice need to answer three questions: What goods are to be distributed? Is it to be wealth, power, respect, some combination of these things? Between what entities are they to be distributed? Humans (dead, living, future), sentient beings, the members of a single society, nations? What is the proper distribution? Equal, meritocratic, according to social status, according to need, based on property rights and non-aggression? Distributive justice theorists generally do not answer questions of who has the right to enforce a particular favored distribution. On the other hand, property rights theorists argue that there is no "favored distribution." Rather, distribution should be based simply on whatever distribution results from non-coerced interactions or transactions (that is, transactions not based upon force or fraud). This section describes some widely-held theories of distributive justice, and their attempts to answer these questions. Egalitarianism According to the egalitarian, goods should be distributed equally. This basic view can be elaborated in many different ways, according to what goods are to be distributed—wealth, respect, opportunity—and what they are to be distributed equally between—individuals, families, nations, races, species. Commonly-held egalitarian positions include demands for equality of opportunity and for equality of outcome. Giving people what they deserve In one sense, all theories of distributive justice claim that everyone should get what they deserve. Theories disagree on the basis for deserts. The main distinction is between theories that argue the basis of just deserts is held equally by everyone, and therefore derive egalitarian accounts of distributive justice—and theories that argue the basis of just deserts is unequally distributed on the basis of, for instance, hard work, and therefore derive accounts of distributive justice by which some should have more than others. This section deals with some popular theories of the second type. According to meritocratic theories, goods, especially wealth and social status, should be distributed to match individual merit, which is usually understood as some combination of talent and hard work. According to needs-based theories, goods, especially such basic goods as food, shelter and medical care, should be distributed to meet individuals' basic needs for them. Marxism can be regarded as a needs-based theory on some readings of Marx's slogan "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need." Karl Marx, 'Critique of the Gotha Program' in Karl Marx: Selected writings ed. David McLellan (Oxford: OUP, 1977): 564-70, p. 569. According to contribution-based theories, goods should be distributed to match an individual's contribution to the overall social good. Fairness J.L. Urban, statue of Lady Justice at court building in Olomouc, Czech Republic In his A Theory of Justice, John Rawls used a social contract argument to show that justice, and especially distributive justice, is a form of fairness: an impartial distribution of goods. Rawls asks us to imagine ourselves behind a veil of ignorance which denies us all knowledge of our personalities, social statuses, moral characters, wealth, talents and life plans, and then asks what theory of justice we would choose to govern our society when the veil is lifted, if we wanted to do the best that we could for ourselves. We don’t know who in particular we are, and therefore can’t bias the decision in our own favour. So, the decision-in-ignorance models fairness, because it excludes selfish bias. Rawls argues that each of us would reject the utilitarian theory of justice that we should maximize welfare (see below) because of the risk that we might turn out to be someone whose own good is sacrificed for greater benefits for others. Instead, we would endorse Rawls’s two principles of justice: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principle, and attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity. John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (revised edition, Oxford: OUP, 1999), p. 266. This imagined choice justifies these principles as the principles of justice for us, because we would agree to them in a fair decision procedure. Rawls’s theory distinguishes two kinds of goods – (1) liberties and (2) social and economic goods, i.e. wealth, income and power – and applies different distributions to them – equality between citizens for (1), equality unless inequality improves the position of the worst off for (2). Property Rights (non-coercion)/Having the right history Robert Nozick’s influential critique of Rawls argues that distributive justice is not a matter of the whole distribution matching an ideal pattern, but of each individual entitlement having the right kind of history. It is just that a person has some good (especially, some property right) if and only if they came to have it by a history made up entirely of events of two kinds: 1. Just acquisition, especially by working on unowned things; and 2. Just transfer, that is free gift, sale or other agreement, but not theft (i.e. by force or fraud). If the chain of events leading up to the person having something meets this criterion, they are entitled to it: that they possess it is just, and what anyone else does or doesn't have or need is irrelevant. On the basis of this theory of distributive justice, Nozick argues that all attempts to redistribute goods according to an ideal pattern, without the consent of their owners, are theft. In particular, redistributive taxation is theft. Some property rights theorists also take a consequentialist view of distributive justice and argue that property rights based justice also has the effect of maximizing the overall wealth of an economic system. They explain that voluntary (non-coerced) transactions always have a property called pareto efficiency. A pareto efficient transaction is one in which at least one party ends up better off and neither party ends up worse off. The result is that the world is better off in an absolute sense and no one is worse off. Such consequentialist property rights theorists argue that respecting property rights maximizes the number of pareto efficient transactions in the world and minimized the number of non-pareto efficient transactions in the world (i.e. transactions where someone is made worse off). The result is that the world will have generated the greatest total benefit from the limited, scarce resources available in the world. Further, this will have been accomplished without taking anything away from anyone by coercion. Welfare-maximization According to the utilitarian, justice requires the maximization of the total or average welfare across all relevant individuals. This may require sacrifice of some for the good of others, so long as everyone’s good is taken impartially into account. Utilitarianism, in general, argues that the standard of justification for actions, institutions, or the whole world, is impartial welfare consequentialism, and only indirectly, if at all, to do with rights, property, need, or any other non-utilitarian criterion. These other criteria might be indirectly important, to the extent that human welfare involves them. But even then, such demands as human rights would only be elements in the calculation of overall welfare, not uncrossable barriers to action. Theories of retributive justice Theories of retributive justice are concerned with punishment for wrongdoing, and need to answer three questions: why punish? who should be punished? what punishment should they receive? This section considers the two major accounts of retributive justice, and their answers to these questions. Utilitarian theories look forward to the future consequences of punishment, while retributive theories look back to particular acts of wrongdoing, and attempt to balance them with deserved punishment. Utilitarianism According to the utilitarian, as already noted, justice requires the maximization of the total or average welfare across all relevant individuals. Punishment is bad treatment of someone, and therefore can’t be good in itself, for the utilitarian. But punishment might be a necessary sacrifice which maximizes the overall good in the long term, in one or more of three ways: Deterrence. The credible threat of punishment might lead people to make different choices; well-designed threats might lead people to make choices which maximize welfare. Rehabilitation. Punishment might make bad people into better ones. For the utilitarian, all that ‘bad person’ can mean is ‘person who’s likely to cause bad things (like suffering) ’. So, utilitarianism could recommend punishment that changes someone such that they are less likely to cause bad things. Security/Incapacitation. Perhaps there are people who are irredeemable causers of bad things. If so, imprisoning them might maximize welfare by limiting their opportunities to cause harm and therefore the benefit lies within protecting society. So, the reason for punishment is the maximization of welfare, and punishment should be of whomever, and of whatever form and severity, are needed to meet that goal. Worryingly, this may sometimes justify punishing the innocent, or inflicting disproportionately severe punishments, when that will have the best consequences overall (perhaps executing a few suspected shoplifters live on television would be an effective deterrent to shoplifting, for instance). It also suggests that punishment might turn out never to be right, depending on the facts about what actual consequences it has. C. L. Ten, ‘Crime and Punishment’ in Peter Singer ed., A Companion to Ethics (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993): 366-72. Retributivism The retributivist will think the utilitarian's argument disastrously mistaken. If someone does something wrong, we must respond to it, and to him or her, as an individual, not as a part of a calculation of overall welfare. To do otherwise is to disrespect him or her as an individual human being. If the crime had victims, it is to disrespect them, too. Wrongdoing must be balanced or made good in some way, and so the criminal deserves to be punished. Retributivism emphasizes retribution – payback – rather than maximization of welfare. Like the theory of distributive justice as giving everyone what they deserve (see above), it links justice with desert. It says that all guilty people, and only guilty people, deserve appropriate punishment. This matches some strong intuitions about just punishment: that it should be proportional to the crime, and that it should be of only and all of the guilty. However, it is sometimes argued that retributivism is merely revenge in disguise. Ted Honderich, Punishment: The supposed justifications (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1969), Chapter 1. Despite this criticism, there are numerous differences between retribution and revenge: the former is impartial, has a scale of appropriateness and corrects a moral wrong, whereas the latter is personal, unlimited in scale, and often corrects a slight. Institutions The Justices of the United States Supreme Court with President George W. Bush, October 2005 In a world where people are interconnected but they disagree, institutions are required to instantiate ideals of justice. These institutions may be justified by their approximate instantiation of justice, or they may be deeply unjust when compared with ideal standards — consider the institution of slavery. Justice is an ideal which the world fails to live up to, sometimes despite good intentions, sometimes disastrously. The question of institutive justice raises issues of legitimacy, procedure, codification and interpretation, which are considered by legal theorists and by philosophers of law. Another definition of justice is an independent investigation of truth. In a court room, lawyers, the judge and the jury are supposed to be independently investigating the truth of an alleged crime. In physics, a group of physicists examine data and theoretical concepts to consult on what might be the truth or reality of a phenomenon. See also Other pages Criminal justice Ethics Global justice Just war Justice (economics) Morality Social justice Teaching for social justice Justice types Commutative justice Corrective justice Distributive justice Restorative justice Retributive justice Spacial justice References Further reading Anthony Duff & David Garland eds, A Reader on Punishment (Oxford: OUP, 1994). Barzilai Gad, Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003). Brian Barry, Theories of Justice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989). C.L. Ten, Crime, Guilt, and Punishment: A philosophical introduction (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987). Colin Farrelly, An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory (London: Sage, 2004). David Gauthier, Morals By Agreement (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986). James Konow (2003). "Which Is the Fairest One of All? A Positive Analysis of Justice Theories," Journal of Economic Literature, 41(4), pp. 1188-1239. David Schmidtz, Elements of Justice (New York: CUP, 2006). Harry Brighouse, Justice (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004). John Rawls, A Theory of Justice (revised edition, Oxford: OUP, 1999). John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism in On Liberty and Other Essays ed. John Gray (Oxford: OUP, 1991). Nicola Lacey, State Punishment (London: Routledge, 1988). Peter Singer ed., A Companion to Ethics (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), Part IV. Plato, Republic trans. Robin Waterfield (Oxford: OUP, 1994). Robert E. Goodin & Philip Pettit eds, Contemporary Political Philosophy: An anthology (2nd edition, Malden Mass.: Blackwell, 2006), Part III. Robert Nozick, Anarchy, State, and Utopia (Oxford: Blackwell, 1974). Ted Honderich, Punishment: The supposed justifications (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1969). Will Kymlicka, Contemporary Political Philosophy: An introduction (2nd edition, Oxford: OUP, 2002). External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entries: Distributive justice, by Julian Lamont. Justice as a virtue, by Michael Slote. Punishment, by Hugo Adam Bedau. 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