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6,500 | Community_college | A community college is a type of educational institution. The term can have different meanings in different countries. United States <font size=2>Joliet Junior College Main Campus, the first Community College in the US.</font size=2> In the United States, community colleges, sometimes called , junior colleges, technical colleges, or city colleges, are primarily two-year public institutions providing higher education and lower-level tertiary education, granting certificates, diplomas, and associate's degrees. After graduating from a community college, some students transfer to a four-year liberal arts college or university for two to three years to complete a bachelor's degree. Before the 1970s, community colleges in the United States were more commonly referred to as junior colleges, and that term is still used at some institutions. However, the term "junior college" has evolved to describe private two-year institutions, whereas the term "community college" has evolved to describe publicly funded two-year institutions. The name derives from the fact that community colleges primarily attract and accept students from the local community, and are often supported by local tax revenue. Australia Australia has had a system of Technical and Further Education (TAFE) colleges for many years. Training is conducted under the National Training System, the Australian system for vocational education and training (VET) under the Australian Quality Training Framework (AQTF), in which employers, the States of Australia, and the Commonwealth Government, formalise a curriculum available for Registered Training Organisations (RTOs) to teach and assess the competency of students. Courses are part of the Australian Qualifications Framework. TAFEs or their outlying schools are in most large towns, and cities. Canada In Canada, community colleges are usually simply referred to as "colleges" since in common usage a degree granting institution is almost exclusively a university. In the province of Quebec, even when speaking in English, colleges are called Cégeps for Collège d'enseignement général et professionnel, meaning "College of General and Vocational Education". Colleges are educational institution providing higher education and lower-level tertiary education, granting certificates, diplomas, (rarely) associate's degrees, and sometimes limited selections of specialized bachelor's degrees. Canadian Community College Systems Nova Scotia Community College system Ontario Colleges Quebec CEGEPs New Brunswick Community College Malaysia Community colleges in Malaysia are a network of educational institutions whereby vocational and technical skills training could be provided at all levels for school leavers before they entered the workforce. The community colleges also provide an infrastructure for rural communities to gain skills training through short courses as well as providing access to a post-secondary education. At the moment, most community colleges award qualifications up to Level 3 in the Malaysian Qualifications Framework (Certificate 3) in both the Skills sector (Sijil Kemahiran Malaysia or the Malaysian Skills Certificate) as well as the Vocational and Training sector but the number of community colleges that are starting to award Level 4 qualifications (Diploma) are increasing. This is two levels below a Bachelor's degree (Level 6 in the MQF) and students within the system who intend to further their studies to that level will usually seek entry into Advanced Diploma programs in public universities, polytechnics or accredited private providers. Philippines In the Philippines, a community school functions as elementary or secondary school at daytime and towards the end of the day convert into a community college. This type of institution offers night classes under the supervision of the same principal, and the same faculty members who are given part time college teaching load. The concept of community college dates back to the time of the former Minister of Education, Culture and Sports (MECS) that had under its wings the Bureaus of Elementary Education, Secondary Education, Higher Education and Vocational-Technical Education. MECS Secretary, Dr. Cecilio Putong, who in 1971 wrote that a community school is a school established in the community, by the community, an for the community itself. Dr. Pedro T. Orata of Pangasinan shared the same idea, hence the establishment of a Community College, now called the City College of Urdaneta. A community college like the one in Abuyog, Leyte can operate with only PHP 124,000 annual budget in a 2-storey structure housing more than 700 students. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, community college is a name given to, or added on to, a secondary school, usually offering extended services of some sort, for example by having achieved a status as a technology college or by providing adult education courses. Community colleges throughout the countries of the UK teach General Certificates of Secondary Education (GCSEs) courses and if the college incorporates a Sixth Form, A-levels, Scottish Higher, or other vocational qualifications (such as a GNVQ or an HND for example). See also Adult education Adult high school College Continuing education Distance learning E-learning Folk high school Lifelong learning Vocational university Vocational education Higher vocational education Articulation (education) In Australia Technical and Further Education Workers' Educational Association also in the UK In the Philippines Local college and university Association of Local Colleges and Universities In the UK Further Education Notes References Baker, G. A. III (1994). A handbook on the community college in America: Its history, mission, and management. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Cohen, A.M., Brawer, F.B. (2003) The American Community College, 4th edition. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Dougherty, K. J. (1994). The contradictory college: The conflicting origins, impacts, and futures of the community college. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Floyd, D.L., Skolnik, M.L., & Walker, K.P. , eds. (2005). The Community College Baccalaureate: Emerging Trends and Policy Issues. Sterling VA: Stylus Publishing. Frye, J. H. (1992). The vision of the public junior college, 1900-1940. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Kasper, H.T. (2002). The changing role of community college. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 46(4), 14–21. Murray, J.P. (2002). The current state of faculty development in two-year colleges. New Directions for Community Colleges, 118, 89–97. Vaughan, George, Mellander, Gustavo, Beverly Blois (1997). The Community College Presidency. Washington,DC: The American Association of Community Coolleges. External links Association for Community Colleges - a new European movement | Community_college |@lemmatized community:37 college:52 type:2 educational:4 institution:9 term:4 different:2 meaning:1 country:2 united:5 state:6 font:2 size:2 joliet:1 junior:5 main:1 campus:1 first:1 u:1 sometimes:2 call:3 technical:5 city:3 primarily:2 two:6 year:7 public:3 provide:6 high:6 education:22 low:2 level:9 tertiary:2 grant:3 certificate:5 diploma:4 associate:2 degree:6 graduate:1 student:5 transfer:1 four:1 liberal:1 art:1 university:7 three:1 complete:1 bachelor:3 commonly:1 refer:1 still:1 use:1 however:1 evolve:2 describe:2 private:2 whereas:1 publicly:1 fund:1 name:2 derive:1 fact:1 attract:1 accept:1 local:4 often:1 support:1 tax:1 revenue:1 australia:4 system:6 tafe:1 many:1 training:7 conduct:1 national:1 australian:3 vocational:9 vet:1 quality:1 framework:3 aqtf:1 employer:1 commonwealth:1 government:1 formalise:1 curriculum:1 available:1 registered:1 organisation:1 rtos:1 teach:3 assess:1 competency:1 course:4 part:2 qualification:5 tafes:1 outlying:1 school:9 large:1 town:1 canada:2 usually:3 simply:1 referred:1 since:1 common:1 usage:1 almost:1 exclusively:1 province:1 quebec:2 even:1 speak:1 english:1 cégeps:1 collège:1 enseignement:1 général:1 et:1 professionnel:1 mean:1 general:2 rarely:1 limited:1 selection:1 specialized:1 canadian:1 nova:1 scotia:1 ontario:1 cegeps:1 new:4 brunswick:1 malaysia:3 network:1 whereby:1 skill:4 could:1 leaver:1 enter:1 workforce:1 also:3 infrastructure:1 rural:1 gain:1 train:1 short:1 well:2 access:1 post:1 secondary:5 moment:1 award:2 malaysian:2 sector:2 sijil:1 kemahiran:1 number:1 start:1 increase:1 mqf:1 within:1 intend:1 study:1 seek:1 entry:1 advanced:1 program:1 polytechnic:1 accredited:1 provider:1 philippine:3 function:1 elementary:2 daytime:1 towards:1 end:1 day:1 convert:1 offer:2 night:1 class:1 supervision:1 principal:1 faculty:2 member:1 give:2 time:2 load:1 concept:1 date:1 back:1 former:1 minister:1 culture:1 sport:1 mecs:2 wing:1 bureau:1 secretary:1 dr:2 cecilio:1 putong:1 write:1 establish:1 pedro:1 orata:1 pangasinan:1 share:1 idea:1 hence:1 establishment:1 urdaneta:1 like:1 one:1 abuyog:1 leyte:1 operate:1 php:1 annual:1 budget:1 storey:1 structure:1 housing:1 kingdom:2 add:1 extended:1 service:1 sort:1 example:2 achieve:1 status:1 technology:1 adult:3 throughout:1 uk:3 gcse:1 incorporate:1 sixth:1 form:1 scottish:1 gnvq:1 hnd:1 see:1 continue:1 distance:1 learn:3 e:1 folk:1 lifelong:1 higher:1 articulation:1 worker:1 association:4 note:1 reference:1 baker:1 g:1 iii:1 handbook:1 america:1 history:1 mission:1 management:1 westport:2 ct:2 greenwood:2 press:3 cohen:1 brawer:1 f:1 b:1 american:2 edition:1 san:1 francisco:1 jossey:1 bass:1 dougherty:1 k:2 j:3 contradictory:1 conflicting:1 origin:1 impact:1 future:1 albany:1 ny:1 york:1 floyd:1 l:2 skolnik:1 walker:1 p:2 ed:1 baccalaureate:1 emerge:1 trend:1 policy:1 issue:1 sterling:1 va:1 stylus:1 publishing:1 frye:1 h:2 vision:1 kasper:1 change:1 role:1 occupational:1 outlook:1 quarterly:1 murray:1 current:1 development:1 direction:1 vaughan:1 george:1 mellander:1 gustavo:1 beverly:1 blois:1 presidency:1 washington:1 dc:1 coolleges:1 external:1 link:1 european:1 movement:1 |@bigram certificate_diploma:2 bachelor_degree:3 simply_referred:1 almost_exclusively:1 nova_scotia:1 malaysia_malaysian:1 vocational_training:1 vocational_qualification:1 westport_ct:2 ct_greenwood:2 san_francisco:1 francisco_jossey:1 jossey_bass:1 albany_ny:1 occupational_outlook:1 mellander_gustavo:1 washington_dc:1 external_link:1 |
6,501 | Natural_theology | Natural theology is a branch of theology based on reason and ordinary experience. Thus it is distinguished from revealed theology (or revealed religion) which is based on scripture and religious experiences of various kinds; and also from transcendental theology, theology from a priori reasoning. Marcus Terentius Varro (116-27 BC) in his (lost) Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum established a distinction of three kinds of theology: civil (political) (theologia civilis), natural (physical) (theologia naturalis) and mythical (theologia mythica). The theologians of civil theology are "the people", asking how the gods relate to daily life and the state (imperial cult). The theologians of natural theology are the philosophers, asking for the nature of the gods, and the theologians of mythical theology are the poets, crafting mythology. The terminology entered Stoic tradition and is used by Augustine of Hippo. Natural theology, thus, is that part of the philosophy of religion dealing with describing the nature of the gods, or, in monotheism, arguing for or against attributes or non-attributes of God, and especially the existence of God, purely philosophically, that is, without recourse to any special or supposedly supernatural revelation. Key proponents Early literary evidence comes from Hindu sacred texts such as the Upanishads. The Upanishads are metaphysical musings by the ancient sages of India and contain questions like - "Who was there before the creation?" Besides these, the Vedas also delve into scientifically analyzing the concept of God. According to the Vedas creation of the universe is shrouded in mystery. The Rig Veda says: "Then was not non-existence nor existence: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter? Was water there, unfathomed depth of water? Death was not then, nor was there aught immortal: no sign was there, the day's and night's divider. " Marcus Terentius Varro (116–27 BC) in his Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum established a distinction of three kinds of theology: mythical, civil (political) and natural (physical), of which the latter is concerned with the question "what are the gods". Varro's solution is a materialist (Epicurean) reduction of the gods to effects in the physical world (physikos). St. Augustine of Hippo quotes Varro frequently in his De civitate Dei, translating Varro's physikos with Latin naturalis. Plato gives the earliest surviving account of a "natural theology", in his Laws establishing the existence of the gods by rational argument. Aristotle in his Metaphysics argues for the existence of an "unmoved mover", an argument taken up in medieval scholastics. From the 8th century, the Mutazilite school of Islam, compelled to defend their principles against the orthodox Islam of their day, looked for support in philosophy, and are among the first to pursue a rational Islamic theology, called Ilm-al-Kalam (scholastic theology). The teleological argument was presented by the early Islamic philosophers, Alkindus and Averroes (founder of Averroism), while Avicenna (founder of the Avicennism school of Islamic philosophy) presented both the cosmological argument and ontological argument in The Book of Healing (1027). Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–1274), wrote Summa Theologica and Summa Contra Gentiles which both present various versions of the Cosmological argument and Teleological argument, respectively. The Ontological argument is also presented, but rejected in favor of proofs dealing with cause and effect alone. Thomas Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln wrote Execreitationes aliquot metaphysicae de Deo (1637) and spoke often of natural theology during the reign of Charles II. John Ray (1627–1705) also known as John Wray, was an English naturalist, sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. He published important works on plants, animals, and natural theology. William Derham (1657–1735), was a friend and disciple of John Ray. He continued Ray's tradition of natural theology in two of his own works, The Physico-Theology, published in 1713, and the Astro-Theology, 1714. These would later help influence the work of William Paley (see below). In An Essay on the Principle of Population, the first edition published in 1798, Thomas Malthus ended with two chapters on natural theology and population. Malthus—a devout Christian—argued that revelation would "damp the soaring wings of intellect", and thus never let "the difficulties and doubts of parts of the scripture" interfere with his work. (Interestingly, Malthus' work would later be cited as inspiration by both Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.) William Paley gave a well-known rendition of the teleological argument for God. In 1802 he published Natural Theology, or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity collected from the Appearances of Nature. In this he described the Watchmaker analogy, for which he is probably best known. Searing criticisms of arguments like Paley's are found in David Hume's posthumous Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. Thomas Paine wrote the definitive book on the natural religion of Deism, The Age of Reason (1794–1807). In it he uses reason to establish a belief in Nature's Designer who man calls God. He also establishes the many instances that Christianity and Judaism require us to give up our God-given reason in order to accept their claims to revelation. American education reformer and abolitionist, Horace Mann (1796–1859) taught political economy, intellectual and moral philosophy, and natural theology. Professor of chemistry and natural history, Edward Hitchcock also studied and wrote on natural theology. He attempted to unify and reconcile science and religion, focusing on geology. His major work in this area was The Religion of Geology and its Connected Sciences (Boston, 1851). The Gifford Lectures are lectures established by the will of Adam Lord Gifford. They were established to "promote and diffuse the study of Natural Theology in the widest sense of the term—in other words, the knowledge of God." The term natural theology as used by Gifford means theology supported by science and not dependent on the miraculous. The Bridgewater Treatises Debates over the applicability of teleology to scientific questions came to a head in the nineteenth century, as Paley's argument about design came into conflict with radical new theories on the transmutation of species. In order to support the canonical scientific views at the time, which explored the natural world within Paley's framework of a divine designer, The Earl of Bridgewater, a gentleman naturalist, commissioned eight Bridgewater Treatises upon his deathbed to explore 'the Power, Wisdom, and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation.' Robson, John, 'The Fiat and Finger of God: The Bridgewater Treatises', Lightman, Bernard, and Frank Turner ed., Victorian Faith in Crisis: Essays on Continuity and Change in Nineteenth-Century Religious Belief. 1990 They first appeared during the years 1833 to 1840, and afterwards in Bohn's Scientific Library. The treatises are: The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man, by Thomas Chalmers, D. D. On The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man, by John Kidd, M. D. Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Whewell, D. D. The hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design, by Sir Charles Bell. Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with reference to Natural Theology, by Peter Mark Roget. Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Buckland, D.D. The Habits and Instincts of Animals with reference to Natural Theology, by William Kirby. Chemistry, Meteorology, and the Function of Digestion, considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Prout, M.D. In response to the claim in Whewell's treatise that "We may thus, with the greatest propriety, deny to the mechanical philosophers and mathematicians of recent times any authority with regard to their views of the administration of the universe", Charles Babbage published what he called The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, A Fragment. The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise, A Fragment, Charles Babbage As his preface states, this volume was not part of that series, but rather his own reflections on the subject. He draws on his own work on calculating engines to consider God as a divine programmer setting complex laws underlying what we think of as miracles, rather than miraculously producing new species on a Creative whim. There was also a fragmentary supplement to this, posthumously published by Thomas Hill. The works are of unequal merit; several of them took a high rank in apologetic literature, but they attracted considerable criticism. One notable critic of the Bridgewater Treatises was Edgar Allan Poe, who wrote Criticism. Criticism, Edgar Allan Poe, (1850) Robert Knox, the anatomist, referred to them as the "Bilgewater Treatises"; he was an idealist, and disliked the detailed and utilitarian explanations of the Treatises. The joke became commonplace, and can be found in Charles Darwin's correspondence. See also Creation science Deism Epicureanism Existence of God Intelligent design Natural history Natural magic Theistic evolution References Further reading A Bridgewater Treatise for the 21st Century. Science. (Vol 301, p. 1051, 22 August 2003). A review by Robert T. Pennock of philosopher of science Michael Ruse's book Darwin & Design. John Bascom Natural Theology (1880) Stanley Hauerwas With the Grain of the Universe: The Church's Witness and Natural Theology ISBN 1-58743-016-9 External links Apollos.ws A Christian site surveying arguments for the existence of God and responses to common arguments against. Catholic Encyclopedia article Bridgewater Treatises Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion by David Hume Babbage, Charles The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise 2nd edn. 1838, London: John Murray. The Bridgewater Treatises The Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual Condition of Man, by Thomas Chalmers, D. D. On The Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical Condition of Man, by John Kidd, M. D. Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Whewell, D. D. The hand, its Mechanism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design, by Sir Charles Bell. Animal and Vegetable Physiology, Considered with Reference to Natural Theology Animal and Vegetable Physiology considered with reference to Natural Theology, by Peter Mark Roget. Geology and Mineralogy considered with reference to Natural Theology, by William Buckland, D.D. The Habits and Instincts of Animals with reference to Natural Theology, Vol. 2, by William Kirby. 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6,502 | Flying_disc | A player catching a flying disc. Flying discs (commonly called Frisbees) are disc-shaped objects, which are generally plastic and roughly 20 to 25 centimeters (8–10 inches) in diameter, with a lip. The shape of the disc, an airfoil in cross-section, allows it to fly by generating lift as it moves through the air while rotating. The name Frisbee is a registered trademark of the Wham-O toy company, but is often used generically to describe all flying discs. Flying discs are thrown and caught for recreation, and as part of many different flying disc games. A wide range of flying disc variants are available commercially. Disc golf discs are usually smaller but denser and are tailored for particular flight profiles to increase/decrease stability and distance. Disc dog sports use relatively slow flying discs made of more pliable material to better resist a dog's bite and prevent injury to the dog. Ring shaped discs are also available which typically fly significantly farther than any traditional flying disc. There are illuminated discs meant for night time play that use phosphorescent plastic, or battery powered light emitting diodes. There are also discs that whistle when they reach a certain velocity in flight. History A player throwing a flying disc; Mackinaw City, Michigan. The clay target used in trapshooting, almost identical to a flying disc in shape, was designed in the 19th century. The modern day era of flying discs began with the concept of designing and selling a commercially-produced flying disc. The Frisbie Pie Company (1871–1958) of Bridgeport, Connecticut, made pies that were sold to many New England colleges. Hungry college students soon discovered that the empty pie tins could be tossed and caught, providing endless hours of sport. Many colleges have claimed to be the home of "he who was first to fling." A Dartmouth College ex has argued, tongue-in-cheek, that in 1820, an undergraduate named Elihu Frisbie grabbed a collection plate from the chapel and flung it out into the campus, thereby becoming the true inventor of the Frisbee. That tale is dubious, as the "Frisbie's Pies" origin is well-documented. Walter Frederick Morrison claims that it was a popcorn can lid that he tossed with his girlfriend (and later wife) Lu at a 1937 Thanksgiving Day gathering in Los Angeles that inspired his interest in developing a commercially-produced flying disc. In 1946 he sketched out plans for a disc he called the Whirlo-Way, which, co-developed and financed by Warren Franscioni and Erich Drafahl in 1948, became the very first commercially produced plastic flying disc, marketed under the name Pipco Flyin-Saucer. Morrison had just returned to the US after World War II, where he had been a prisoner of war. His partnership with Franscioni, who was also a war veteran, ended in 1950, before their product had achieved any real success. In 1955, Morrison produced a new plastic flying disc called the Pluto Platter, to cash in on the growing popularity of UFOs with the American public. The Pluto Platter became the design basis for later flying discs. In 1957, Wham-O began production of more discs (then still marketed as Pluto Platters). The next year, Morrison was awarded US Design Patent 183,626 for his flying disc. In 1957, Wham-O co-founder Richard Knerr, decided to stimulate sales by giving the discs the additional brand name "Frisbee" (pronounced the same as "Frisbie"), after hearing that East Coast college students were calling the Pluto Platter by that name. The man who was behind the Frisbee's phenomenal success however was "Steady" Ed Headrick, hired in 1964 as Wham-O's new General Manager and Vice President in charge of marketing. Headrick soon redesigned the Pluto Platter by reworking the rim thickness, and top design, creating a more controllable disc that could be thrown accurately. Sales soared for the toy, which was marketed as a new sport. In 1964, the first "professional" model went on sale. Headrick patented the new design as the Frisbee patent, highlighting the “Rings of Headrick” and marketed and pushed the professional model Frisbee and "Frisbee" as a sport. (US Patent 3,359,678). The First Flight of the Frisbee®: The History of the Frisbee Headrick, commonly known as the "Father of Disc Sports" , later founded "The International Frisbee Association (IFA)" and began establishing standards for various sports using the Frisbee such as Distance, Freestyle and Guts. Upon his death, Headrick was cremated, and his ashes, in accordance with his final requests, were put into Frisbees. "Edward "Steady Ed" Headrick" Find A Grave. Flying disc games Crosbee Disc dog Disc golf Dodge disc Durango boot Double disc court Flutterguts Freestyle Fricket, also known as disc cricket, cups, Suzy sticks or crispy wickets Friskee Goaltimate Guts Hot box Kan-jam March to Highfivetown Relay Schtick Ultimate Volleydisc Physics Lift is generated in primarily the same way as a traditional asymmetric airfoil, that is, by accelerating upper airflow such that a pressure difference gives rise to a lifting force. Small ridges near the leading edge act as turbulators, reducing flow separation by forcing the airflow to become turbulent after it passes over the ridges. The rotating flying disc has a vertical angular momentum vector, stabilizing its attitude gyroscopically. Depending on the cross-sectional shape of the airfoil, the amount of lift generated by the front and back parts of the disc may be unequal. If the disc were not spinning, this would tend to make it pitch. When the disc is spinning, however, such a torque would cause it to precess about the roll axis, causing its trajectory to curve to the left or the right. Most discs are designed to be aerodynamically stable, so that this roll is self-correcting for a fairly broad range of velocities and rates of spin. However, many disc golf discs are intentionally designed to be unstable. Higher rates of spin lead to better stability, and for a given rate of spin, there is generally a range of velocities that are stable. Even a slight deformation in a disc (called a "Taco," as extreme cases look like a taco shell) can cause adverse affects when throwing long range. It can be observed by holding the disc horizontally at eye level and looking at the rim while slowly rotating the disc. See also Aerobie Chakram Boomerang Flying disc techniques Genericized trademark Possessed Frisbee References Further reading Stancil. E. D., and Johnson, M. D.; Frisbee, A Practitioner's Manual and Definitive Treatise, Workman Publishing Company, New York (July, 1975); ISBN 978-0-911104-53-0 Norton, Gary; The Official Frisbee Handbook, Bantam Books, Toronto/New York/London (July, 1972); no ISBN Danna, Mark, and Poynter, Dan; Frisbee Players' Handbook, Parachuting Publications, Santa Barbara, California (1978); ISBN 0915516195 Tips, Charles, and Roddick, Dan; Frisbee Sports & Games, Celestial Arts, Millbrae, California (March 1979); ISBN 978-0-89087-233-8 Tips, Charles; Frisbee by the Masters, Celestial Arts, Millbrae, California (March 1977); ISBN 978-0-89087-142-3 Lorenz, Ralph; Spinning Flight: Dynamics of Frisbees, Boomerangs, Samaras and Skipping Stones, Copernicus, New York (September 2006); ISBN 978-0-387-30779-4 External links Frisbee Collective: gallery of over 200 Frisbee from all over the globe World Flying Disc Federation – international sports governing body for flying disc games Official Frisbee website by Wham-O, manufacturer 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6,503 | Herman_Melville | Herman Melville (August 1, 1819 – September 28, 1891) was an American novelist, short story writer, essayist and poet. He is often classified as part of Dark romanticism. His first three books gained much attention, the first becoming a bestseller, but after a fast-blooming literary success in the late 1840s, his popularity declined precipitously in the mid-1850s and never recovered during his lifetime. When he died in 1891, he was almost completely forgotten (despite a vogue for his early sea novels in Great Britain in the 1880s), but his longest novel, Moby-Dick won recognition in the 20th century as one of the chief literary masterpieces of both American and world literature. His posthumous novella Billy Budd, first published in 1924 and then in a revised and corrected text in 1962 based on a close study of the original manuscripts, rivals Moby-Dick in popularity, and in particular has become a key text of the field of law and literature. Melville was the first writer to have his works collected and published by the Library of America. Biography Early life, education, and family Herman Melville was born in New York City on August 1, 1819 Sullivan, Wilson. New England Men of Letters. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1972: 116. ISBN 0027886808 as the third child of Allan and Maria Gansevoort Melvill. After her husband Allan died, Maria added an "e" to the family surname. Part of a well-established and colorful Boston family, Melville's father spent a good deal of time abroad doing business deals as a commission merchant and an importer of French dry goods. The author's paternal grandfather, Major Thomas Melvill, an honored survivor of the Boston Tea Party who refused to change the style of his clothing or manners to fit the times, was depicted in Oliver Wendell Holmes's poem "The Last Leaf". Herman visited him in Boston, and his father turned to him in his frequent times of financial need. The maternal side of Melville's family was Hudson Valley Dutch. His maternal grandfather was General Peter Gansevoort, a hero of the battle of Saratoga; in his gold-laced uniform, the general sat for a portrait painted by Gilbert Stuart. The portrait is mentioned and described in Melville's 1852 novel, Pierre, for Melville wrote out of his familial as well as his nautical background. Like the titular character in Pierre, Melville found satisfaction in his "double revolutionary descent." Herman's younger brother, Thomas Melville, eventually became a governor of Sailors Snug Harbor. Allan Melvill sent his sons to the New York Male School (Columbia Preparatory School). Overextended financially and emotionally unstable, Allan tried to recover from his setbacks by moving his family to Albany in 1830 and going into the fur business. The new venture, however, was unsuccessful: the War of 1812 had ruined businesses that tried to sell overseas and he was forced to declare bankruptcy. He died soon afterward, leaving his family penniless, when Herman was 12. Sullivan, Wilson. New England Men of Letters. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1972: 117. ISBN 0027886808 Although Maria had well-off kin, they were concerned with protecting their own inheritances and taking advantage of investment opportunities rather than settling their mother's estate so Maria's family would be more secure. Melville attended the Albany Academy from October 1830 to October 1831, and again from October 1836 to March 1837, where he studied the classics. Titus, David K., "Herman Melville at the Albany Academy", Melville Society Extracts, May 2003, No. 42, pp. 1, 4-10, found at Titus, Herman Melville at the Albany Academy. Accessed August 4, 2008. Early working life Herman Melville's roving disposition and a desire to support himself independently of family assistance led him to seek work as a surveyor on the Erie Canal. This effort failed, and his brother helped him get a job as a cabin boy on a New York ship bound for Liverpool. He made the voyage, and returned on the same ship. Redburn: His First Voyage (1849) is partly based on his experiences of this journey. Herman Melville The three years after Albany Academy (1837 to 1840) were mostly occupied with school-teaching, except for the voyage to Liverpool in 1839. Near the end of 1840 he once again decided to sign ship's articles. On January 3, 1841, he sailed from New Bedford, Massachusetts on the whaler Acushnet, Miller, Perry. The Raven and the Whale: The War of Words and Wits in the Era of Poe and Melville. New York: Harvest Book, 1956: 5. which was bound for the Pacific Ocean. He was later to comment that his life began that day. The vessel sailed around Cape Horn and traveled to the South Pacific. Melville left little direct information about the events of this 18-month cruise, although his whaling romance, Moby-Dick; or, The Whale, probably gives many pictures of life onboard the Acushnet. Melville deserted the Acushnet in the Marquesas Islands in July 1842. For three weeks he lived among the Typee natives, who were called cannibals by the two other tribal groups on the island -- though they treated Melville very well. His book Typee describes a brief love affair with a beautiful native girl, Fayaway, who generally "wore the garb of Eden" and came to epitomize the guileless noble savage in the popular imagination. We have no independent evidence, however, of Melville's actual activities among the islanders. Melville did not seem to be concerned about repercussions from his desertion from the Acushnet. He boarded another whaler bound for Hawaii and left that ship in Honolulu. While in Honolulu, he became a controversial figure for his vehement opposition to the activities of Christian missionaries seeking to convert the native population. After working as a clerk for four months he joined the crew of the frigate USS United States, which reached Boston in October 1844. These experiences were described in Typee, Omoo, and White-Jacket, which were published as novels mainly because few believed their veracity. Melville completed Typee in the summer of 1845 though he had difficulty getting it published. Delbanco, Andrew. Melville, His World and Work. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005: 66. ISBN 0-375-40314-0 It was eventually published in 1846 in London, where it became an overnight bestseller. The Boston publisher subsequently accepted Omoo sight unseen. Typee and Omoo gave Melville overnight notoriety as a writer and adventurer and he often entertained by telling stories to his admirers. As writer and editor Nathaniel Parker Willis wrote, "With his cigar and his Spanish eyes, he talks Typee and Omoo, just as you find the flow of his delightful mind on paper". The novels, however, did not generate enough royalties for him to live on. Omoo was not as colorful as Typee, and readers began to realize Melville was not just producing adventure stories. Redburn and White-Jacket had no problem finding publishers. Mardi was a disappointment for readers who wanted another rollicking and exotic sea yarn. Marriage and later working life Melville married Elizabeth Shaw (daughter of noted Massachusetts jurist and chief justice of the state's supreme judicial court Lemuel Shaw) on August 4, 1847; the couple honeymooned in Canada. Delbanco, Andrew. Melville, His World and Work. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005: 91–92. ISBN 0-375-40314-0 They had four children, two sons and two daughters. In 1850 they purchased Arrowhead, a farm house in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, now a museum. Here Melville lived for thirteen years, occupied with his writing and managing his farm. While living at Arrowhead, he befriended the author Nathaniel Hawthorne, who lived in nearby Lenox. Melville, an intellectual loner for most of his life, was tremendously inspired and encouraged by his new relationship with Hawthorne In the Essay Melville published on Hawthorne's 'Mosses' in the Literary Review of August 1850 he wrote: "To what infinite height of loving wonder and admiration I may yet be borne, when by repeatedly banquetting on these Mosses, I shall have thoroughly incorporated their whole stuff into my being,--that, I can not tell. But already I feel that this Hawthorne has dropped germinous seeds into my soul. He expands and deepens down, the more I contemplate him; and further, and further, shoots his strong New-England roots into the hot soil of my Southern soul. during the very period that he was writing one of the greatest works in the English language, Moby-Dick (dedicating it to Hawthorne), though their friendship was on the wane only a short time later, when he wrote Pierre there. However, these works did not achieve the popular and critical success of his earlier books. Indeed, The New York Day Book on 8 September 1852 published a venomous attack on Melville and his writings headlined HERMAN MELVILLE CRAZY. The item, offered as a news story, reported, "A critical friend, who read Melville's last book, 'Ambiguities," between two steamboat accidents, told us that it appeared to be composed of the ravings and reveries of a madman. We were somewhat startled at the remark, but still more at learning, a few days after, that Melville was really supposed to be deranged, and that his friends were taking measures to place him under treatment. We hope one of the earliest precautions will be to keep him stringently secluded from pen and ink." Hershel_Parker, Herman Melville 1851-1891: A Biography (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), 131-132). Following this and other scathing reviews of Pierre by critics, publishers became wary of Melville's work. His publisher, Harper & Brothers, rejected his next manuscript, Isle of the Cross which has been lost. On April Fool's Day 1857, Melville published what would be the last full-length novel he published, The Confidence-Man. This novel, subtitled "His Masquerade," has won general acclaim in modern times as a complex and mysterious exploration of issues of fraud and honesty, identity and masquerade, but when it was published, it received reviews ranging from the bewildered to the denunciatory. See generally the collection of reviews of Melville's works edited by Watson G. Branch, Herman Melville: The Critical Heritage (London and New York: Routledge, 1997) (the reviews of The Confidence-Man appear in a section beginning at 369.) To repair his faltering finances, Melville listened to the advice of friends and decided to enter what was for others the lucrative field of lecturing. From 1857 to 1860, he spoke at lyceums, chiefly on the South Seas. Turning to poetry, he gathered a collection of verse that failed to interest a publisher. In 1863, he and his wife resettled, with their four children, in New York City. After the end of the American Civil War, he published Battle Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866), a collection of over seventy poems that generally was ignored by the critics, though a few gave him patronizingly favorable reviews. After a trip to the Holy Land, he spent years writing a 16,000-line epic poem, Clarel -- but the poem failed miserably when his publishers issued it in 1876, and they burned the unsold copies after offering him the chance to buy them at cost, which he could not afford to do. His professional writing career was at an end and his marriage was unhappy, plagued by rumors of his alcoholism and insanity and allegations that he inflicted physical abuse on his wife. Her relatives repeatedly urged her to leave him, and offered to have him committed as insane, but she refused. In 1867 his oldest son, Malcolm, shot himself, perhaps accidentally. To add to his already recurring depression, his second son, Stanwix, died in San Francisco, February 23, 1886. Melville's wife and her relatives used their influence to obtain a position for him as customs inspector for the City of New York (a humble but adequately paying appointment), and he held the post for 19 years. In a notoriously corrupt institution, Melville soon won the reputation of being the only honest employee of the customs house. (The customs house was ironically on Gansevoort St., named after his mother's prosperous family.) In 1876 his uncle, Peter Gansevoort, by a bequest, paid for the publication of the massive epic poem, Clarel. While Melville worked, his wife managed to wean him off alcohol, and he no longer showed signs of agitation or insanity. He retired in 1886, after several of his wife's relatives died and left the couple legacies that Mrs. Melville administered with skill and good fortune. As English readers, pursuing the vogue for sea stories represented by such writers as G. A. Henty, rediscovered Melville's novels, he experienced a modest revival of popularity in England, though not in the United States. Once more he took up his pen, writing a series of poems with prose head notes inspired by his early experiences at sea. He published them in two collections, each issued in a tiny edition of 25 copies for his relatives and friends: John Marr (1888) and Timoleon (1891). One of these poems further intrigued him, and he began to rework the headnote to turn it into at first a short story and then a novella. He worked on it on and off for several years, but when he died in September 1891, he left the piece unfinished, and not until the literary scholar Raymond Weaver published it in 1924 did the book – which we now know as Billy Budd, Sailor – come to light. The grave of Herman Melville and his wife Melville died at his home in New York City early on the morning of September 28, 1891, age 72. The doctor listed "cardiac dilation" on the death certificate. Delbanco, Andrew. Melville, His World and Work. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005: 319. ISBN 0-375-40314-0 His New York Times obituary called him "Henry Melville". He was interred in the Woodlawn Cemetery in The Bronx, New York. From about age thirty-three, Melville ceased to be popular with a broad audience because of his increasingly philosophical, political, and experimental tendencies. His novella Billy Budd, Sailor, unpublished at the time of his death, was published in 1924. Later it was turned into an opera by Benjamin Britten, a play, and a film by Peter Ustinov. In Herman Melville's Religious Journey, Walter Donald Kring detailed his discovery of letters indicating that Melville had been a member of the Unitarian Church of All Souls in New York City. Until this revelation, little had been known of his religious affiliation. Hershel Parker in the second volume of his biography makes it clear that Melville became a nominal member only to placate his wife. Melville despised Unitarianism and its associated "ism", Utilitarianism. (The great English Unitarians were Utilitarians.) See the 2006 Norton Critical Edition of The Confidence-Man for more detail on Melville and religion than in Parker's 2002 volume. Publications and contemporary reactions Title page of the first U.S. edition of Moby-Dick, 1851. Most of Melville's novels were published first in the United Kingdom and then in the U.S. Sometimes the editions contain substantial differences; at other times different printings were either bowdlerized or restored to their pre-bowdlerized state. (For specifics on different publication dates, editions, printings, etc., please see entries for individual novels.) Moby-Dick has become Melville's most famous work and is often considered one of the greatest literary works of all time. It was dedicated to Melville's friend Nathaniel Hawthorne. Cheevers, Susan (2006). American Bloomsbury: Louisa May Alcott, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Margaret Fuller, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Henry David Thoreau; Their Lives, Their Loves, Their Work. Detroit: Thorndike Press. Large print edition. p. 196. ISBN 078629521X. It did not, however, make Melville rich. The book never sold its initial printing of 3,000 copies in his lifetime, and total earnings from the American edition amounted to just $556.37 from his publisher, Harper & Brothers. Melville also wrote Billy Budd, White-Jacket, Typee, Omoo, Pierre, The Confidence-Man and many short stories and works of various genres. Melville is less well known as a poet and did not publish poetry until later in life. After the Civil War, he published Battle Pieces and Aspects of the War, which did not sell well; of the Harper & Bros. printing of 1200 copies, only 525 had been sold ten years later. Collected Poems of Herman Melville, Ed. Howard P. Vincent. Chicago: Packard & Company and Hendricks House (1947), 446. Again tending to outrun the tastes of his readers, Melville's epic length verse-narrative Clarel, about a student's pilgrimage to the Holy Land, was also quite obscure, even in his own time. Among the longest single poems in American literature, Clarel, published in 1876, had an initial printing of only 350 copies. The critic Lewis Mumford found a copy of the poem in the New York Public Library in 1925 "with its pages uncut". In other words, it had sat there unread for 50 years. His poetry is not as highly critically esteemed as his fiction, although some critics place him as the first modernist poet in the United States; others would assert that his work more strongly suggest what today would be a postmodern view. Clarel has won the admiration of no less a critic than Helen Vendler, who read it in preparation for the 1976 Pittsfield Centennial Celebration. Another leading champion of Melville's claims as a great American poet was the poet and novelist Robert Penn Warren, who issued a selection of Melville's poetry prefaced by an admiring and acute critical essay. Critical response Contemporary criticism After the success of travelogues based on voyages to the South Seas and stories based on misadventures in the merchant marine and navy, Melville's popularity declined dramatically. By 1876, all of his books were out of print. Delbanco, Andrew. Melville, His World and Work. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005: 294. ISBN 0-375-40314-0 In the later years of his life and during the years after his death he was recognized, if at all, as only a minor figure in American literature. Melville revival A confluence of publishing events in the 1920s brought about a reassessment now commonly called the Melville Revival. The two books generally considered most important to the Revival were both brought forth by Raymond Weaver: his 1921 biography Herman Melville: Man, Mariner and Mystic and his 1924 version of Melville's last great but never quite finished or properly organized work, Billy Budd, which Melville's granddaughter gave to Weaver when he visited her for research on the biography. The other works that helped fan the Revival flames were Carl Van Doren's The American Novel (1921), D. H. Lawrence's Studies in Classic American Literature (1923), and Lewis Mumford's biography, Herman Melville: A Study of His Life and Vision (1929). Themes of gender and sexuality Although not the primary focus of Melville scholarship, there has been an emerging interest in the role of gender and sexuality in some of Melville's writings. Serlin, David Harley. "The Dialogue of Gender in Melville's The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids". These two writings are separate but often read together for the full effect of Melville's purpose. In both these works many phallic symbols are represented (such as the swords and snuff powder which represented a lack of semen in the bachelors.) Not only this, but in the Tartarus of Maids there was a detailed description of how the main character arrived at the Tartarus of Maids. This decsription was intended to resemble that of the vaginal canal. Modern Language Studies 25.2 (1995): 80-87 James Creech, Closet writing: The case of Melville's Pierre, 1993 Rosenberg, Warren. "'Deeper than Sappho': Melville, Poetry, and the Erotic." Modern Language Studies 14.1 (1984): 70-78. Some critics, particularly those interested in gender studies, have explored the existence of male-dominant social structures in Melville's fiction. see Delblanco, Andrew. American Literary History 1992. For example, Alvin Sandberg claimed that "The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids" offers "an exploration of impotency, a portrayal of a man retreating to an all-male childhood to avoid confrontation with sexual manhood" from which the narrator engages in "congenial" digressions in heterogeneity. Sandberg, Alvin. "Erotic Patterns in 'The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids.' " Literature and Psychology 18.1 (1968): 2-8. In line with this view Warren Rosenberg argues the homosocial "Paradise of Bachelors" is shown to be "superficial and sterile." Rosenberg, Warren. "'Deeper than Sappho': Melville, Poetry, and the Erotic." Modern Language Studies 14.1 (1984): 70-78. David Harley Serlin observes in the second half of Melville's diptych, "The Tartarus of Maids," the narrator gives voice to the oppressed women he observes: "As other scholars have noted, the "slave" image here has two clear connotations. One describes the exploitation of the women's physical labor, and the other describes the exploitation of the women's reproductive organs. Of course, as models of women's oppression, the two are clearly intertwined." Serlin, David Harley. "The Dialogue of Gender in Melville's The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids" Modern Language Studies 25.2 (1995): 80-87 In the end the narrator is never fully able to come to terms with the contrasting masculine and feminine modalities. Issues of sexuality have been observed in other works as well. Rosenberg notes Taji, in "Mardi", and the protagonist in "Pierre" "think they are saving young "maidens in distress" (Yillah and Isabel) out of the purest of reasons but both are also conscious of a lurking sexual motive." Rosenberg, Warren. "'Deeper than Sappho': Melville, Poetry, and the Erotic." Modern Language Studies 14.1 (1984): 70-78. When Taji kills the old priest holding Yillah captive, he states "remorse smote me hard; and like lightning I asked myself whether the death deed I had done was sprung of virtuous motive, the rescuing of a captive from thrall, or whether beneath the pretense I had engaged in this fatal affray for some other selfish purpose, the companionship of a beautiful maid." Melville, Herman. Mardi, ed. Tyrus Hillway. New Haven: College and University Press, 1973. p. 132. In "Pierre" the motive for his self-sacrifice for Isabel is admitted: "womanly beauty and not womanly ugliness invited him to champion the right." Melville, Herman. "Pierre" New York: Grove Press, 1957. p. 151. Rosenberg argues "This awareness of a double motive haunts both books and ultimately destroys their protagonists who would not fully acknowledge the dark underside of their idealism. The epistemological quest and the transcendental quest for love and belief are consequently sullied by the erotic." Rosenberg, Warren. "'Deeper than Sappho': Melville, Poetry, and the Erotic." Modern Language Studies 14.1 (1984): 70-78. Melville fully explores the theme of sexuality in his major poetical work "Clarel." When the narrator is separated from Ruth, with whom he has fallen in love, he is free to explore other sexual (and religious) possibilities before deciding at the end of the poem to participate in the ritualistic order marriage represents. In the course of the poem "he considers every form of sexual orientation - celibacy, homosexuality, hedonism, and heterosexuality-raising the same kinds of questions as when he considers Islam or Democracy." Rosenberg, Warren. "'Deeper than Sappho': Melville, Poetry, and the Erotic." Modern Language Studies 14.1 (1984): 70-78. Other critics have suggested possible homoerotic overtones in some works. Commonly given examples of the latter from Moby Dick are the interpretation of male bonding from what they term the "marriage bed" episode involving Ishmael and Queequeg, and the "Squeeze of the Hand" chapter describing the camaraderie of sailors extracting spermaceti from a dead whale. E. Haviland Miller, Melville, New York 1975. Although some of these critics have speculated that what they perceive to be themes of gender and sexuality in his writings may be reflective of his own personal beliefs, there is no biographical evidence to support these claims. see Delblanco, Andrew. American Literary History 1992. Still others have argued "Ahab's pursuit of the whale, which can be associated with the feminine in its shape, mystery, and in its naturalness, represents the ultimate fusion of the epistemological and sexual quest." Rosenberg, Warren. "'Deeper than Sappho': Melville, Poetry, and the Erotic." Modern Language Studies 14.1 (1984): 70-78. Law and literature In recent years, Billy Budd has become a central text in the field of legal scholarship known as law and literature. In the novel, Billy, a handsome and popular young sailor impressed from the merchant vessel "Rights of Man" to serve aboard H.M.S. "Bellipotent" in the late 1790s, during the war between Revolutionary France and Great Britain and her monarchic allies, excites the enmity and hatred of the ship's master-at-arms, John Claggart. Claggart devises phony charges of mutiny and other crimes to level against Billy, and Captain the Honorable Edward Fairfax Vere institutes an informal inquiry, at which Billy convulsively strikes Claggart because his stammer prevents him from speaking. Vere immediately convenes a drumhead court-martial, at which, after serving as sole witness and as Billy's de facto counsel, Vere then urges the court to convict and sentence Billy to death. The trial is recounted in chapter 21, the longest chapter in the book, and that trial has become the focus of scholarly controversy: was Captain Vere a good man trapped by bad law, or did he deliberately distort and misrepresent the applicable law to condemn Billly to death? Weisberg, Richard H. The Failure of the Word: The Lawyer as Protagonist in Modern Fiction (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), chapters 8 and 9. Bibliography Novels Typee: A Peep at Polynesian Life (1846) Omoo: A Narrative of the South Seas (1847) Mardi: And a Voyage Thither (1849) Redburn: His First Voyage (1849) White-Jacket, or The World in a Man-of-War (1850) Moby-Dick, or The Whale (1851) Pierre: or, The Ambiguities (1852) Isle of the Cross (ca. 1853, since lost) Robert S. Levine, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Herman Melville. Cambridge, England and New York City: Cambridge University Press (1998), xviii. ISBN 0-521-55571-X. Israel Potter: His Fifty Years of Exile (1856) The Confidence-Man: His Masquerade (1857) Billy Budd, Sailor (An Inside Narrative) [Published Posthumously] (1924) Short stories The Piazza Tales (1856) "The Piazza" -- the only story specifically written for the collection. (The other five had previously been published in Putnam's Monthly Magazine.) "Bartleby the Scrivener" "Benito Cereno" "The Lightning-Rod Man" "The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles" "The Bell-Tower" Uncollected "Cock-A-Doodle-Doo!" (Harper's New Monthly Magazine, December 1853) "Poor Man's Pudding and Rich Man's Crumbs" (Harper's New Monthly Magazine, June 1854) "The Happy Failure" (Harper's New Monthly Magazine, July 1854) "The Fiddler" (Harper's New Monthly Magazine, September 1854) "The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids" (Harper's New Monthly Magazine, April 1855) "Jimmy Rose" (Harper's New Monthly Magazine, November 1855) "The 'Gees" (Harper's New Monthly Magazine, March 1856) "I and My Chimney" (Putnam's Monthly Magazine, March 1856) "The Apple-Tree Table" (Putnam's Monthly Magazine, May 1856) Unpublished in Melville's lifetime "The Two Temples" "Daniel Orme" Poetry Collections Battle Pieces and Aspects of the War (1866) Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land (1876) John Marr and Other Sailors (1888) Online edition Timoleon (1891) Online edition Weeds and Wildings, and a Rose or Two (1924) Uncollected or unpublished poems "Epistle to Daniel Shepherd" "Inscription for the Slain at Fredericksburgh" [sic] "The Admiral of the White" "To Tom" "Suggested by the Ruins of a Mountain-temple in Arcadia" "Puzzlement" "The Continents" "The Dust-Layers" "A Rail Road Cutting near Alexandria in 1855" "A Reasonable Constitution" "Rammon" "A Ditty of Aristippus" "In a Nutshell" "Adieu" Essays The following essays were uncollected during Melville's lifetime: "Fragments from a Writing Desk, No. 1" (Democratic Press, and Lansingburgh Advertiser, May 4, 1839) "Fragments from a Writing Desk, No. 2" (Democratic Press, and Lansingburgh Advertiser, May 18, 1839) "Etchings of a Whaling Cruise" (New York Literary World, March 6, 1847) "Authentic Anecdotes of 'Old Zack'" (Yankee Doodle, II, excerpted September 4, published in full weekly from July 24 to September 11, 1847) "Mr Parkman's Tour" (New York Literary World, March 31, 1849) "Cooper's New Novel" (New York Literary World, April 28, 1849) "A Thought on Book-Binding" (New York Literary World, March 16, 1850) "Hawthorne and His Mosses" (New York Literary World, August 17 and August 24, 1850) Other Correspondence, Ed. Lynn Horth. Evanston, IL and Chicago: Northwestern University Press and The Newberry Library (1993). ISBN 0-8101-0995-6 Journals, Ed. Howard C. Horsford with Lynn Horth. Evanston, IL and Chicago: Northwestern Univ. Pr. and The Newberry Library (1989). ISBN 0-8101-0823-2 References Further reading Adler, Joyce Sparer. War in Melville's Imagination. New York: New York University Press, 1981. ISBN 0-8147-0575-8 Bryant, John, ed. A Companion to Melville Studies. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986. ISBN 031323874X Bryant, John. Melville and Repose: The Rhetoric of Humor in the American Renaissance. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0195077822 Beaulieu, Victor-Levy. Monsieur Melville. Toronto: Coach House, 1978, tr. 1985. ISBN 0-88910-239-2 Garner, Stanton. The Civil War World of Herman Melville. Lawrence: UP of Kansas, 1993. ISBN 0-7006-0602-5 Goldner, Loren. Herman Melville: Between Charlemagne and the Antemosaic Cosmic Man. Race, Class and the Crisis of Bourgeois Ideology in an American Renaissance Writer. New York: Queequeg Publications, 2006. ISBN 0-9700-308-2-7. Gretchko, John M. J. "Melvillean Ambiguities" Cleveland, Falk & Bright, 1990. Hayford, Harrison. "Melville's Prisoners." Foreword by Hershel Parker. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8101-1973-0. Levine, Robert S., ed. The Cambridge Companion to Herman Melville. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-521-55571-X Martin, Robert K. Hero, Captain, and Stranger: Male Friendship, Social Critique, and Literary Form in the Sea Novels of Herman Melville. Parker, Hershel. Herman Melville: A Biography (Volume 1, 1819-1851). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. Paperback edition, 2005: ISBN 0-8018-8185-4 Parker, Hershel. Herman Melville: A Biography (Volume 2, 1851-1891). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. Paperback edition, 2005: ISBN 0-8018-8186-2 Renker, Elizabeth. Strike Through the Mask: Herman Melville and the Scene of Writing. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. Reprint (paperback) edition, 1997: ISBN 0-8018-5875-5 Robertson-Lorant, Laurie. Melville: A Biography. New York: Clarkson Potter/Publishers, 1996. ISBN 0-517-59314-9 Rogin, Michael Paul. Subversive Genealogy: The Politics and Art of Herman Melville. New York: Knopf, 1983. ISBN 0-394-50609-X Weisberg, Richard H. ''The Failure of the Word: The Lawyer as Protagonist in Modern Fiction (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989). ISBN 0-300-04592-1 External links Arrowhead—The Home of Herman Melville Physical description of Melville from his 1856 passport application Melville's page at Literary Journal.com-research articles on Melville's works Melville Room at the Berkshire Athenaeum New Bedford Whaling Museum The Life and Works of Herman Melville The Melville Society Melville index entry at Poets' Corner Contemporary views on Herman Melville Herman Melville Poet - The Poetry, Poems, and Prose-and-Verse Writings of Herman Melville | Herman_Melville |@lemmatized herman:33 melville:119 august:7 september:7 american:14 novelist:2 short:5 story:9 writer:6 essayist:1 poet:7 often:4 classify:1 part:2 dark:2 romanticism:1 first:10 three:4 book:13 gain:1 much:1 attention:1 become:10 bestseller:2 fast:1 blooming:1 literary:14 success:3 late:3 popularity:4 decline:2 precipitously:1 mid:1 never:4 recover:2 lifetime:4 die:7 almost:1 completely:1 forget:1 despite:1 vogue:2 early:7 sea:8 novel:15 great:7 britain:2 long:3 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6,504 | Ann_Arbor,_Michigan | Ann Arbor is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Washtenaw County. It is the state's seventh largest city with a population of 114,024 as of the 2000 Census, of which 36,892 (32%) are university or college students. The city, which is part of the Detroit-Ann Arbor-Flint, MI CSA, is named after the spouses of the city's founders and for the stands of trees in the area. Ann Arbor is home to the University of Michigan, which moved from Detroit to Ann Arbor in 1837. As the dominant institution of higher learning in the city and one of the top public universities in the world, the university provides Ann Arbor with a distinct college-town atmosphere. The university shapes Ann Arbor's economy significantly as it employs about 38,000 workers, including about 7,500 in the medical center. The city's economy is also centered on high-technology, with several companies drawn to the area by the university's research and development money, and by its graduates. On the other hand, Ann Arbor has increasingly found itself grappling with the effects of sharply rising land values and gentrification, as well as urban sprawl stretching far into the outlying countryside. History Ann Arbor was founded in 1824 by land speculators John Allen and Elisha Rumsey. On May 25, 1824, the town plat was registered with Wayne County as "Annarbour"; this represents the earliest known use of the town's name. There are various accounts concerning the origin of the settlement's name; one states that Allen and Rumsey decided to name it for their spouses, both named Ann, and for the stands of burr oak in the 640 acres (260 ha) of land they had purchased for $800 from the federal government. Regional Michigan Ojibwa named the settlement kaw-goosh-kaw-nick, after the sound of Allen's saw mill. A view of Ann Arbor toward Liberty and State Streets, showing the Michigan Theater, the Borders bookstore #1, and several buildings of the University of Michigan Ann Arbor became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827, and was incorporated as a village in 1833. The Ann Arbor Land Company, a group of speculators, set aside 40 acres (16 ha) of undeveloped land and offered it to the State of Michigan as the site of the state capital, but lost the bid to Lansing. In 1837, the property was accepted instead as the site of the University of Michigan, forever linking Ann Arbor and its history with the university. The town became a regional transportation hub in 1839 with the arrival of the Michigan Central Railroad, and in 1851 Ann Arbor was chartered as a city. During the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as an important center for liberal politics. Presidential candidate John F. Kennedy unveiled his Peace Corps proposal in 1960 at the University of Michigan, and President Lyndon B. Johnson first called for a "Great Society" as the university's commencement speaker in 1964. The city also became a locus for left-wing activism, and served as a hub for the civil-rights movement and anti-Vietnam War movement, as well as the student movement. The first major meetings of the national left-wing campus group Students for a Democratic Society took place in Ann Arbor in 1960; in 1965, the city was home to the first U.S. teach-in against the Vietnam War. During the ensuing fifteen years, many countercultural and New Left enterprises sprang up and developed strong constituencies within the city. South University Avenue caters to young people. These influences washed into municipal politics during the early and mid-1970s when three members of the local, progressive Human Rights Party (HRP) won city-council seats on the strength of the student vote. During their time on the council, HRP representatives fought for measures including pioneering antidiscrimination ordinances, measures decriminalizing marijuana possession, and a rent-control ordinance; many of these remain in effect in modified form. Alongside these liberal and left-wing efforts, a small group of conservative institutions were born in Ann Arbor. These include Word of God (established in 1967), a charismatic inter-denominational movement of national scope; and the Thomas More Law Center (established in 1999), a leading religious-conservative advocacy group. The economy of Ann Arbor underwent a gradual shift from a manufacturing base to a service and technology base during the 20th century, which accelerated in the 1970s and 1980s. At the same time, the downtown transformed from one dominated by retail establishments dealing in staple goods to one composed mainly of eateries, cafés, bars, clubs, and specialty shops. Over the past several decades, Ann Arbor has increasingly found itself grappling with the effects of sharply rising land values and gentrification, as well as urban sprawl stretching far into the outlying countryside. On November 4, 2003, voters approved a greenbelt plan under which the city government would buy development rights to pieces of land adjacent to Ann Arbor to preserve them from sprawling development. Since then, a vociferous local debate has hinged on how and whether to accommodate and guide development within city limits. Ann Arbor consistently ranks highly in the 'top places to live' lists published by various mainstream media outlets every year. For 2008, it was ranked 27th out of 100 "America's best small cities." http://money.cnn.com/magazines/moneymag/bplive/2008/top100/index2.html Geography and cityscape Ann Arbor's many trees are the result of a reforestation campaign in the early 20th century. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 27.7 square miles (71.7 km²); 27.0 square miles (70.0 km²) is land and 0.7 square miles (1.7 km²) or 2.43% is water, much of which is part of the Huron River. Ann Arbor is about 35 miles (56 km) west of Detroit. Ann Arbor Charter Township is adjacent, on the city's north and east sides. Ann Arbor is situated on the Huron River, in a productive agricultural and fruit-growing region. The landscape of Ann Arbor consists of hills and valleys, with the terrain becoming steeper near the Huron River. The elevation ranges from about 750 feet (230 m) along the Huron River to over 1,000 feet (305 m) on the city's west side near I-94. Generally, the west-central and northwestern parts of the city, and UM's North Campus, are the highest parts of the city; the lowest parts are along the Huron River and in the southeast. The elevation is about 839 feet (256 m) at Ann Arbor Municipal Airport, which is located south of the city at . Ann Arbor's "Tree Town" nickname stems from the dense forestation of its parks and residential areas. The city holds more than 50,000 trees sited along city streets and an equal number in city parks. In recent years, the emerald ash borer has destroyed many of the city's approximately 10,500 ash trees. The city contains 147 municipal parks, ranging from small neighborhood parks to large recreation areas, with several large city parks and a university park bordering sections of the Huron River. The largest are Argo Park, Riverside Park, County Farm Park, and Gallup Park (near the Huron Parkway), while Fuller Recreation Area, near the University Hospital complex, contains sports fields, pedestrian and bike paths, and swimming pools. Nichols Arboretum, which is operated by the University of Michigan (and known locally as "The Arboretum" or simply "The Arb"), is a 123 acre (50 ha) preserve containing hundreds of plant and tree species on the east side of the city near the university's central campus. Washington Street, towards Main Street The Kerrytown Shops, Main Street Business District, the State Street Business District, and the South University Business District are commercial areas in downtown. Three commercial areas south of downtown include the areas near I-94 and Ann Arbor-Saline Road, Briarwood Mall, and the South Industrial area. Other commercial areas include the Arborland/Washtenaw Avenue and Packard Road merchants on the east side, the Plymouth Road area in the northeast, and the Westgate/West Stadium areas on the west side. The downtown contains a mix of 19th and early 20th century structures and modern-style buildings, as well as a farmers' market in the Kerrytown district. The city's commercial districts are composed mostly of two to four-story structures, although the downtown and the area near Briarwood Mall contain a small number of high-rise buildings. Ann Arbor's residential neighborhoods contain a range of architectural styles, from classic 19th and early 20th century designs to ranch-style houses. Contemporary-style houses are farther from the downtown district. Surrounding the University of Michigan campus are houses and apartment complexes occupied primarily by student renters. Tower Plaza, a 26-story condominium building located between the University of Michigan campus and downtown, is the tallest building in Ann Arbor. The 19th century buildings and streetscape of the Old West Side neighborhood have been preserved virtually intact; in 1972, the district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and it is further protected by city ordinances and a nonprofit preservation group. Ann Arbor skyline as seen from Michigan Stadium Climate Ann Arbor typically has a Midwestern humid continental seasonal climate, which is influenced by the Great Lakes. There are four distinct seasons, with winters being cold with moderate snowfall, while summers can be warm and humid. The area experiences lake effect weather, primarily in the form of increased cloudiness during late fall and early winter. The highest average temperature is in July at 83 °F (28 °C), while the lowest average temperature is in January at 16 °F (−9 °C). However, summer temperatures can top 90 °F (32 °C), and winter temperatures can drop below 0 °F (−17 °C). Average monthly precipitation ranges from 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm), with the heaviest occurring during the summer months. Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to April, ranges from 1 to 10 inches (3 to 25 cm) per month. The highest recorded temperature was 105 °F (40.6 °C) on July 24, 1934, and the lowest recorded temperature was −22.0 °F (−30 °C) on January 19, 1994. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 114,024 people, 45,693 households, and 21,704 families residing in the city. The population density was 4,221.1 people per square mile (1,629.9/km²). There were 47,218 housing units at an average density of 1,748.0 per square mile (675.0/km²), making it less dense than inner-ring Detroit suburbs like Oak Park and Ferndale (and than Detroit proper), but denser than outer-ring suburbs like Livonia. The racial makeup of the city was 74.68% White, 8.83% Black or African American, 0.29% Native American, 11.90% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 1.21% from other races, and 3.05% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.34% of the population. 14.9% were of German, 8.5% English and 7.9% Irish ancestry according to Census 2000. 80.6% spoke English, 3.2% Chinese or Mandarin, 3.1% Spanish, 1.9% Korean, 1.2% German, 1.1% Japanese and 1.0% French as their first language. Because of the pull of the university, the city has one of the highest foreign-born population percentages in the state sitting at 16.6%. Out of the 45,693 households, 23.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.8% were married couples living together, 7.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 52.5% were nonfamilies. 35.5% of households were made up of individuals and 6.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.90. The age distribution was 16.8% under 18, 26.8% from 18 to 24, 31.2% from 25 to 44, 17.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% were 65 or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females there were 97.7 males; while for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.4 males. The median income for a household in the city was $46,299, and the median income for a family was $71,293 (these figures had risen to $51,232 and $82,293 respectively as of a 2007 estimate Ann Arbor city, Michigan, 2005-2007 American Community Survey 3-Year Estimates, United States Census Bureau ). Males had a median income of $48,880 versus $36,561 for females. The per capita income for the city was $26,419. About 4.6% of families and 16.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 7.3% of those under age 18 and 5.1% of those age 65 or over. Ann Arbor's crime rate was below the national average in 2000. The violent crime rate was further below the national average than the property crime rate; they were 48% and 11% less, respectively. Economy The University of Michigan shapes Ann Arbor's economy significantly. It employs about 30,000 workers, including about 7,500 in the medical center. Other employers are drawn to the area by the university's research and development money, and by its graduates. High tech, health services and biotechnology are other major components of the city's economy; numerous medical offices, laboratories, and associated companies are located in the city. Automobile manufacturers, such as General Motors, Toyota, Subaru, and Ford, also employ residents. Nickels Arcade interior, looking towards the east Many high-tech companies are located in the city. During the 1980s, Ann Arbor Terminals manufactured a video-display terminal called the Ann Arbor Ambassador. Other high-tech companies in the area include Arbor Networks (provider of Internet traffic engineering and security systems), Arbortext (provider of XML-based publishing software), JSTOR (the digital scholarly journal archive), MediaSpan (provider of software and online services for the media industries), and ProQuest, which includes UMI. Websites and online media companies in or near the city include All Media Guide, the Weather Underground, and Zattoo. Ann Arbor is also the site of the Michigan Information Technology Center (MITC), whose offices house Internet2 and the Merit Network, a not-for-profit research and education computer network. Ann Arbor is also home to the headquarters of Google's AdWords program—the company's primary revenue stream. Pfizer, the city's second largest employer, operated a large pharmaceutical research facility on the northeast side of Ann Arbor. On January 22, 2007, Pfizer announced it would close operations in Ann Arbor by the end of 2008. The facility was previously operated by Warner-Lambert and, before that, Parke-Davis. University of Michigan Board of Regents approved the purchase of Pfizer Inc. at the end of 2008 with an expectation that the facilities will help the University recruit scientists to Ann Arbor. The U-M anticipates hiring 2,000 researchers and the staff supporting research during the next 10 years with the new expansion possibilities through the Pfizer property purchase. The city is the home of other research and engineering centers, including those of General Dynamics and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Other research centers sited in the city are the United States Environmental Protection Agency's National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory and Lotus Engineering and the Toyota Technical Center. The city is also home to NSF International, the non-profit non-governmental organization that develops what are considered the generally accepted standards for a variety of public health related industries and subject areas. Tower Plaza, Ann Arbor's tallest building. Borders Books, originally a two-room shop upstairs above 211 South State, was opened in 1969 with a stock of used books by brothers Tom and Louis Borders. The Borders chain is still based in the city, as is its flagship store. Domino's Pizza's headquarters is near Ann Arbor on Domino's Farms, a 271 acre (109 hectare) Frank Lloyd Wright-inspired complex just northeast of the city. Another Ann Arbor-based company is Zingerman's Delicatessen, which serves sandwiches, and has developed businesses under a variety of brand names. Zingerman's has grown into a family of companies which offers a variety of products (bake shop, mail order, creamery) and services (business education). Flint Ink Corp., another Ann Arbor-based company, was until recently the world's largest privately held ink manufacturer (in October 2005, it was acquired by Stuttgart-based XSYS Print Solutions). AvFuel, the nation's leading independent supplier of aviation fuels and services, is also headquartered in Ann Arbor. Many cooperative enterprises were founded in the city; among those that remain are the People's Food Co-op and the Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan, a student-housing cooperative founded in 1937. The North American Students of Cooperation (NASCO) is an international association of cooperatives headquartered in Ann Arbor. There are also three cohousing communities—Sunward, Great Oak, and Touchstone—located immediately to the west of the city limits. Other companies that employ area residents include machine tool manufacturer Kaydon (a $500 million corporation headquartered in the city), diversified manufacturer Arotech (headquartered and engineering), and up and coming biotech company Aastrom Bioscience. Culture Mural depicting Woody Allen, Edgar Allan Poe, Herman Hesse, Franz Kafka and Anaïs Nin on Liberty Street. Many Ann Arbor cultural attractions and events are sponsored by the University of Michigan. Several performing arts groups and facilities are on the university's campus, as are museums dedicated to art, archaeology, and natural history and sciences (see Museums at the University of Michigan). Regional and local performing arts groups not associated with the university include the Ann Arbor Civic Theatre; the Arbor Opera Theater; the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra; the Ann Arbor Ballet Theater; the Ann Arbor Civic Ballet (established in 1954 as Michigan's first chartered ballet company); and Performance Network, which operates a downtown theater frequently offering new or nontraditional plays. The Ann Arbor Hands-On Museum, located in a renovated and expanded historic downtown fire station, contains more than 250 interactive exhibits featuring science and technology. Multiple art galleries exist in the city, notably in the downtown area and around the University of Michigan campus. Aside from a large restaurant scene in the Main Street, South State Street, and South University Avenue areas, Ann Arbor ranks first among U.S. cities in the number of booksellers and books sold per capita. The Ann Arbor District Library maintains four branch outlets in addition to its main downtown building; in 2008 a new branch building replaced the branch located in Plymouth Mall. This new branch is called the Traverwood Branch, and opened on June 30, 2008. The city is also home to the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library. Several annual events – many of them centered on performing and visual arts – draw visitors to Ann Arbor. One such event is the Ann Arbor Art Fairs, a set of four concurrent juried fairs held on downtown streets, which began in 1960. Scheduled on Wednesday through Saturday in the third week of July, the fairs draw upward of half a million visitors. One event that is not related to visual and performing arts is Hash Bash, held on the first Saturday of April, ostensibly in support of the reform of marijuana laws. It has been celebrated since 1971. E. Liberty St. Ann Arbor has a major scene for college sports, notably at the University of Michigan, a member of the Big Ten Conference. Several well-known college sports facilities exist in the city, including Michigan Stadium, the second largest American football stadium in the world with a 106,201 seating capacity. The stadium is colloquially known as "The Big House." Crisler Arena and Yost Ice Arena play host to the school's basketball and ice hockey teams, respectively. Concordia University, a member of the NAIA, also fields sports teams. A person from Ann Arbor is called an "Ann Arborite", and many long-time residents call themselves "townies". The city itself is often called A² ("A-squared") or A2 ("A two"), and, less commonly, Tree Town. Recently, some youths have taken to calling Ann Arbor Ace Deuce or simply The Deuce. With tongue-in-cheek reference to the city's liberal political leanings, some occasionally refer to Ann Arbor as The People's Republic of Ann Arbor or 25 square miles surrounded by reality, the latter phrase being adapted from Wisconsin Governor Lee Dreyfus's description of Madison, Wisconsin. Ann Arbor sometimes appears on citation indexes as an author, instead of a location, often with the academic degree MI, a misunderstanding of the abbreviation for Michigan. Religion Ann Arbor is home to the Conservative Judaism Beth Israel Congregation. Established in 1916, it is Ann Arbor's oldest synagogue. History, Beth Israel Congregation website, About Us. Accessed February 16, 2008. Media One of 39 downtown fire hydrants painted by students. This hydrant's artist was in elementary school; others were in high school or college. The Ann Arbor News, owned by the Michigan-based Booth Newspapers chain, is the major daily newspaper serving Ann Arbor and the rest of Washtenaw County; the newspaper will end its 174-year print run in July 2009, due to economic difficulties, and be replaced by web-based coverage. "Ann Arbor News to Close in July," Ann Arbor News, 23 Mar. 2009. Accessed 23 Mar. 2009. Other established publications in the city include the Ann Arbor Observer, a monthly magazine with features covering local culture, politics, family life, business and history, as well as a comprehensive calendar of events; Current, an entertainment guide; the Communicator, a local high school paper; and Ann Arbor Paper, a free monthly that has ceased production. The University of Michigan campus area is served by many student publications, including the independent Michigan Daily. The Ann Arbor Business Review covers local business in the area. The Ann Arbor Chronicle is on online newspaper that covers local news, including meetings of the library board, county commission, and DDA. Car and Driver magazine and Automobile Magazine "Vile Gossip", Jean Jennings, Automobile Magazine, November, 2007 are also based in Ann Arbor. Four major AM radio stations based in or near Ann Arbor are WAAM 1600, a news and talk station; WLBY 1290, an Air America Radio affiliate; WDEO 990, Catholic radio; and WTKA 1050, which is primarily a sports station. The city's FM stations include NPR affiliate WUOM 91.7; country station WWWW 102.9; adult-alternative station WQKL 107.1. Freeform station WCBN-FM 88.3 is a local community radio station operated by the students of the University of Michigan featuring noncommercial, eclectic music and public-affairs programming. The city is also served by public and commercial radio broadcasters in Ypsilanti, the Lansing/Jackson area, Detroit, Windsor, and Toledo. WPXD channel 31, an affiliate of the ION Television network, is licensed to the city. Community Television Network (CTN) is a city-provided cable television channel with production facilities open to city residents and nonprofit organizations. Detroit and Toledo-area radio and television stations also serve Ann Arbor, and stations from Lansing and Windsor, Ontario, can be heard in parts of the area. Law and government The Guy C. Larcom, Jr. Municipal Building houses the city hall and police station Ann Arbor has a Council-manager form of government. The mayor, who is elected every even-numbered year, is the presiding officer of the City Council and has the power to appoint all Council committee members as well as board and commission members, with the approval of the City Council. The mayor of Ann Arbor is John Hieftje (Democrat), who has served in that capacity since the 2000 election. The city council has ten members, two from each of the city's five wards, with the mayor wielding the tie-breaking vote. Council members serve two-year terms; half the council is elected in annual elections. City operations are managed by the City Administrator, who is chosen by the city council. Ann Arbor is in the 15th Congressional district, and is represented by Representative John Dingell (Democrat). On the state level, the city is in the 18th district in the Michigan Senate. In the Michigan State House of Representatives, the city of Ann Arbor is in the 53rd district, while northeastern Ann Arbor and Ann Arbor Township are in the 52nd district. As the seat of Washtenaw County, the city is the location of the county's trial, civil, and criminal courts. Ann Arbor is the site of a United States district court for the Eastern District of Michigan courthouse, whose downtown building also houses a post office. Politics Left-wing politics have been particularly strong in municipal government since the 1960s – an orientation evident in the passage of strong antidiscrimination ordinances. Voters also approved charter amendments that have lessened the penalties for possession of marijuana (1974), and that aim to protect access to abortion in the city should it ever become illegal in the State of Michigan (1990). In 1974, Kathy Kozachenko's victory in an Ann Arbor city-council race made her the country's first openly homosexual candidate to win public office. In 1975, Ann Arbor became the first U.S. city to use instant-runoff voting for a mayoral race. Adopted through a ballot initiative sponsored by the local Human Rights Party, which feared a splintering of the liberal vote, the process was repealed in 1976 after use in only one election. As of December 2006, Democrats hold the mayorship and all council seats. Education Higher education Rackham School of Graduate Studies, University of Michigan The University of Michigan is the dominant institution of higher learning in Ann Arbor, providing the city with a distinct college-town atmosphere. Much of the campus is adjacent to and intermixed with the city's downtown district. Because the campus and the city expanded side-by-side, there is often no firm divide between the two, with university buildings scattered through much of the city center. Other local colleges and universities are Concordia University, Ann Arbor, a Lutheran liberal-arts institution, a campus of the University of Phoenix, and Cleary University, a private business school headquartered in Howell, Michigan but with a campus in Ann Arbor; Washtenaw Community College is located in neighbouring Superior Charter Township; and Eastern Michigan University is in the nearby City of Ypsilanti. Ave Maria School of Law, a Roman Catholic law school established by Domino's Pizza founder Tom Monaghan, opened near northeastern Ann Arbor in 2000. There were plans to establish Ave Maria University on land occupied by Domino's Farms. However, due to conflicts with local zoning authorities, the new campus is under construction near Naples, Florida. In February 2007, it was announced that Ave Maria School of Law will move to southwest Florida in 2009. Primary and secondary schools The Ann Arbor Public School District handles local public education. The system – which enrolls 16,974 students (2005/2006 September head count) – consists of twenty-one elementary schools, five middle schools, three traditional high schools (Pioneer, Huron, and Skyline), and three alternative high schools (Community High, Stone School, and Roberto Clemente). The district also operates a K-8 open school program, Ann Arbor Open, out of the former Mack School. This program is open to all families who live within the district. Ann Arbor Public Schools also operates a preschool and family center, with programs starting as early as birth for at-risk infants and other programs for at-risk children before kindergarten. The district has a preschool center with both free and tuition-based programs for preschoolers in the district. Ann Arbor is home to more than 20 private schools, including the Rudolf Steiner School of Ann Arbor, Clonlara School and Greenhills School, a prep school near Concordia University. Ann Arbor is also home to some charter schools, like Washtenaw Technical Middle College, a school where students earn an associate's degree at Washtenaw Community College and a high school diploma at the same time. Health and utilities The University of Michigan Medical Center, the preeminent health facility in the city, took the #13 slot in U.S. News and World Report for best hospitals in the U.S., as of August 2008. The University of Michigan Health System (UMHS) includes University Hospital, C.S. Mott Children's Hospital and Women's Hospital in its core complex. UMHS also operates out-patient clinics and facilities throughout the city. The area's other major medical centers include a large facility operated by the Department of Veterans Affairs in Ann Arbor, and Saint Joseph Mercy Hospital in nearby Superior Township. The city provides sewage disposal and water supply services, with water coming from the Huron River and groundwater sources. There are two water-treatment plants, one main and three outlying reservoirs, four pump stations, and two water towers. These facilities serve the city, which is divided into five water districts. The city's water department also operates four dams along the Huron River, two of which provide hydroelectric power. The city also offers waste management services, with Recycle Ann Arbor's handling recycling service. Other utilities are provided by private entities. Electrical power and gas are provided by DTE Energy. AT&T, the successor to Michigan Bell, Ameritech, and SBC Communications, is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various national wireless companies. Cable TV service is primarily provided by Comcast. Transportation Surface roads The city is belted by three freeways: I-94, which runs along the southern portion of the city; US 23, which primarily runs along the eastern edge of Ann Arbor; and M-14, which runs along the northern edge of the city. Other nearby highways include US 12, M-17, and M-153. The streets in downtown Ann Arbor conform to a grid pattern, though this pattern is less common in the surrounding areas. Major roads branch out from the downtown district like spokes on a wheel to the highways surrounding the city. Several of the major surface arteries lead to the I-94/M-14 juncture in the west, US 23 in the east, and the city's southern areas. The city also has a system of bike routes and paths and includes a section of the planned Washtenaw County Border-to-Border Trail. Bus service An AATA bus, with the blue-roofed Blake Transit Center in the background. The Ann Arbor Transportation Authority (AATA), which brands itself as "The Ride", operates public bus services throughout Ann Arbor and nearby Ypsilanti. AATA has recently introduced hybrid electric buses to its fleet of 69 and is the first public transit operator in the Midwest to state its intention to convert to all hybrid electric buses. A separate zero-fare bus service operates within the University of Michigan campuses, and the AATA runs a free Link Bus connecting central campus and downtown during the school year. A downtown bus depot served by Greyhound Lines provides out-of-town bus service, and is the city's only remaining example of the Streamline Moderne architectural style. Megabus has twice daily direct service to Chicago, Illinois, while a bus service provided by Amtrak connects to East Lansing and Toledo, Ohio, though only for rail passengers making connections. The Michigan Flyer, a service operated by Indian Trails, offers bus service to Detroit Metro Airport, Jackson, and East Lansing. Airports Ann Arbor Municipal Airport is a small general aviation airport located south of I-94. Detroit Metropolitan Airport, the area's large international airport, is about 28 miles (45 km) east of the city, in Romulus. Willow Run Airport east of the city near Ypsilanti serves freight, corporate, and general aviation clients. Railroads The city was a major rail hub, notably for freight traffic between Toledo and ports north of Chicago, Illinois, from 1878 to 1982; however, the Ann Arbor Railroad also sold 1.1 million passenger tickets in 1913. The city was also served by the Michigan Central Railroad starting in 1837. Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti Street Railway, Michigan's first interurban, served the city from 1891 to 1929. Amtrak provides service to Ann Arbor, operating its Wolverine three times daily in each direction between Chicago and Pontiac, via Detroit. Rail service is provided at the Ann Arbor Train Station; the present-day station neighbors the city's old Michigan Central Depot, which was renovated as a restaurant in 1969. There have been plans to build a commuter rail link between Ann Arbor and Detroit, with the U.S. federal government providing $100 million to enable its development. A more recent plan, called "Wally", to provide passenger rail service between Howell and Ann Arbor starting in the summer of 2007 has been delayed for at least a year. Sister cities Ann Arbor has seven sister cities: Ann Arbor City Council Minutes, November 6, 2003 Belize City (Belize) Dakar (Senegal) Hikone, Shiga (Japan) Juigalpa, Chontales (Nicaragua) Peterborough, Ontario (Canada) Remedios (Cuba) Tübingen (Germany) See also List of people from Ann Arbor Metro Detroit References Further reading External links City's official website Ann Arbor Area Convention and Visitor's Bureau ArborUpdate.com—Ann Arbor community news Ann Arbor Chronicle—online newspaper ArborWiki—A wiki for Ann Arbor UmichCrime—Interactive map of incidents reported to the University of Michigan's Department of Public Safety Student Housing, City Politics—Master's thesis on University-City relationship | Ann_Arbor,_Michigan |@lemmatized ann:117 arbor:117 city:106 u:12 state:18 michigan:46 county:10 seat:5 washtenaw:9 seventh:1 large:11 population:5 census:5 university:51 college:10 student:13 part:6 detroit:12 flint:2 mi:2 csa:1 name:7 spouse:2 founder:2 stand:2 tree:7 area:32 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6,505 | Lesotho | Lesotho (; ), officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a landlocked country and enclave — entirely surrounded by the Republic of South Africa. It is the southernmost landlocked country in the world. It is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. The name Lesotho translates roughly into "the land of the people who speak Sesotho". History The earliest inhabitants of the area were Khoisan hunter-gatherers. They were largely replaced by Bantu-speaking tribes during Bantu migrations. The Sotho-Tswana people colonized the general region of South Africa between 200 CE and 1000 CE. The present Lesotho (then called Basutoland) emerged as a single polity under the Great King Moshoeshoe I in 1822. Son of Mokhachane, a minor chief of the Bakoteli lineage, Moshoeshoe formed his own clan and became a chief around 1804. Between 1821 and 1823 he and his followers settled at the Butha-Buthe Mountain, joining with former adversaries in resistance against the Lifaqane associated with the reign of Shaka Zulu from 1818 to 1828. Subsequent evolution of the state hinged on conflicts between British and Dutch colonists leaving the Cape Colony following its seizure from the French-occupied Dutch by the British in 1795, and subsequently associated with the Orange River Sovereignty and subsequent Orange Free State. Missionaries invited by Moshoeshoe I, Thomas Arbousset, Eugene Casalis and Constant Gosselin from the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society, placed at Morija, developed orthography and printed works in the Sotho language between 1837 and 1855. Casalis, acting as translator and providing advice on foreign affairs, helped to set up diplomatic channels and acquire guns for use against the encroaching Europeans and the Korana people. Boer trekkers from the Cape Colony showed up on the western borders of Basutoland and claimed land rights, beginning with Jan de Winnaar, who settled in the Matlakeng area in May-June 1838. As more farmers were moving into the area they tried to colonise the land between the two rivers, even north of the Caledon, 'claiming' that it had been abandoned by the Sotho people. Moshoeshoe subsequently signed a treaty with the British Governor, Sir George Thomas Napier that annexed the Orange River Sovereignty that many Boers had settled. These outraged Boers were suppressed in a brief skirmish in 1848. In 1851 a British force was defeated by the Sotho army at Kolonyama, touching off an embarrassing war for the British. After repulsing another British attack in 1852, Moshoeshoe sent an appeal to the British commander that settled the dispute diplomatically, then defeated the Tloka in 1853. In 1854 the British pulled out of the region, and in 1858 Moshoeshoe fought a series of wars with the Boers in the Free State-Basotho War, losing a great portion of the western lowlands. The last war in 1867 ended when Moshoeshoe appealed to Queen Victoria, who agreed to make Basutoland a British protectorate in 1868. In 1869, the British signed a treaty at Aliwal with the Boers that defined the boundaries of Basutoland and later Lesotho, which by ceding the western territories effectively reduced Moshoeshoe's kingdom to half its previous size. Following the cession in 1869, the British initially transferred functions from Moshoeshoe's capital in Thaba Bosiu to a police camp on the northwest border, Maseru, until administration of Basutoland was transferred to the Cape Colony in 1871. Moshoeshoe died on March 11, 1870, marking the end of the traditional era and the beginning of the colonial era, and was buried at Thaba Bosiu. During their rule between 1871 and 1884, Basutoland was treated similarly to territories that had been forcefully annexed, much to the chagrin of the Basotho. This led to the Gun War in 1881. In 1884, Basutoland was restored its status as a Crown colony, with Maseru again its capital, but remained under direct rule by a governor, though effective internal power was wielded by traditional chiefs. Basutoland gained its independence and became the Kingdom of Lesotho in 1966. In January 1970 the ruling Basotho National Party (BNP) lost the first post-independence general elections, with 23 seats to the Basutoland Congress Party's 36. Prime Minister Leabua Jonathan refused to cede power to the Basotho Congress Party (BCP), declared himself Tona Kholo (Sesotho translation of prime minister), and imprisoned the BCP leadership. BCP began a rebellion and then received training in Libya for its Lesotho Liberation Army (LLA) under the pretence of being Azanian People's Liberation Army (APLA) soldiers of the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC). Deprived of arms and supplies by the Sibeko faction of the PAC in 1978, the 178-strong LLA was rescued from their Tanzanian base by the financial assistance of a Maoist PAC officer but launched the guerrilla war with only a handful of old weapons. The main force was defeated in northern Lesotho and later guerrillas launched sporadic but usually ineffectual attacks. The campaign was severely compromised when BCP's leader, Ntsu Mokhehle, went to Pretoria. In the early 1980s, several Basotho who sympathized with the exiled BCP were threatened with death and attacked by the government of Leabua Jonathan. In September 1981 the family of Benjamin Masilo was attacked. A few days later, Edgar Mahlomola Motuba was taken from his home and murdered. The BCP ruled by decree until January 1986 when a military coup forced it out of office. The Military Council that came to power granted executive powers to King Moshoeshoe II, who was until then a ceremonial monarch. But in 1987 the King was forced into exile after a falling out with the army. His son was installed as King Letsie III. The chairman of the military junta, Major General Justin Metsing Lekhanya, was ousted in 1991 and replaced by Major General Elias Phisoana Ramaema, who handed over power to a democratically elected government of the BCP in 1993. Moshoeshoe II returned from exile in 1992 as an ordinary citizen. After the return to democratic government, King Letsie III tried unsuccessfully to persuade the BCP government to reinstate his father (Moshoeshoe II) as head of state. In August 1994, Letsie III staged a military-backed coup that deposed the BCP government. The new government did not receive full international recognition. Member states of the Southern African Development Community (SADC) engaged in negotiations to reinstate the BCP government. One of the conditions Letsie III put forward for this was that his father should be re-installed as head of state. After protracted negotiations, the BCP government was reinstated and Letsie III abdicated in favor of his father in 1995, but he ascended the throne again when Moshoeshoe II died at the age of fifty-seven in a road accident, when his car plunged off a mountain road during the early hours of 15 January 1996. According to a government statement, Moshoeshoe had set out at 1 a.m. to visit his cattle at Matsieng and was returning to Maseru through the Maluti Mountains when his car left the road. King of Tiny Land Circled by South Africa Dies in Car Plunge, by Donald G. McNeil Jr in The New York Times, 16 January 1996 (accessed 3 November 2007) . In 1997, the ruling BCP split over leadership disputes. Prime Minister Ntsu Mokhehle formed a new party, the Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD), and was followed by a majority of Members of Parliament, which enabled him to form a new government. Pakalitha Mosisili succeeded Mokhehle as party leader and the LCD won the general elections in 1998. Although the elections were pronounced free and fair by local and international observers and a subsequent special commission appointed by SADC, the opposition political parties rejected the results. Opposition protests in the country intensified, culminating in a peaceful demonstration outside the royal palace in August 1998. Exact details of what followed are greatly disputed, both in Lesotho and South Africa. While the Botswana Defence Force troops were welcomed, tensions with South African National Defence Force troops were high, resulting in fighting. Incidences of sporadic rioting intensified when South African troops hoisted a South African flag over the Royal Palace. By the time the SADC forces withdrew in May 1999, much of Maseru lay in ruins, and the southern provincial capital towns of Mafeteng and Mohale's Hoek had seen the loss of over a third of their commercial real estate. A number of South Africans and Basotho also died in the fighting. An Interim Political Authority (IPA), charged with reviewing the electoral structure in the country, was created in December 1998. The IPA devised a proportional electoral system to ensure that the opposition would be represented in the National Assembly. The new system retained the existing 80 elected Assembly seats, but added 40 seats to be filled on a proportional basis. Elections were held under this new system in May 2002, and the LCD won again, gaining 54% of the vote. But for the first time, opposition political parties won significant numbers of seats, and despite some irregularities and threats of violence from Major General Lekhanya, Lesotho experienced its first peaceful election. Nine opposition parties now hold all 40 of the proportional seats, with the BNP having the largest share (21). The LCD has 79 of the 80 constituency-based seats. Although its elected members participate in the National Assembly, the BNP has launched several legal challenges to the elections, including a recount; none has been successful. Politics The Lesotho Government is a constitutional monarchy. The Prime Minister, Pakalitha Bethuel Mosisili, is head of government and has executive authority. The king serves a largely ceremonial function; he no longer possesses any executive authority and is prohibited from actively participating in political initiatives. The Lesotho Congress for Democracy (LCD) controls a majority in the National Assembly (the lower house of parliament) with 62 seats. The All Basotho Convention (ABC), a party formed shortly before the poll under the leadership of former foreign minister Tom Thabane, is the main opposition. The Basotho National Party (BNP), the Alliance of Congress Parties (ACP) and the newly formed Basotho Batho Democratic Party (BBDP) and the Basotho Democratic National Party (BDNP) Lesotho are among the other five opposition parties represented. The ABC has brought a dramatic change in the Lesotho's politics, due to it having won 17, mainly urban, seats out of 80 Constituency seats, only a few months after it was formed in September 2006. Of the 40 Proportional Representation (PR) seats, the National Independent Party (NIP), a parliamentary ally of the ruling party, has the highest number of seats at 21. The Lesotho Workers Party has the next highest number of proportional seats with 10. The BNP is the opposition party with the biggest loss in the February 2007 election with its representation reduced from 21 to 3 seats. A total of 12 political parties are represented in the 120-member parliament. The upper house of parliament, called the Senate, is composed of twenty-two principal chiefs whose membership is hereditary, and eleven appointees of the king, acting on the advice of the prime minister. The constitution provides for an independent judicial system, made up of the High Court, the Court of Appeal, Magistrate's Courts, and traditional courts that exist predominantly in rural areas. All but one of the Justices on the Court of Appeal are South African jurists. There is no trial by jury; rather, judges make rulings alone, or, in the case of criminal trials, with two other judges as observers. The constitution also protects basic civil liberties, including freedom of speech, freedom of association, freedom of the press, freedom of peaceful assembly and freedom of religion. Districts Districts of Lesotho Administratively, Lesotho is divided into ten districts, each headed by a district administrator. Each district has a capital known as a camptown. The districts are further subdivided into 80 constituencies, which consists of 129 local community councils. Geography Landscape of Lesotho. Lesotho covers 30,355 square kilometres (11,720 sq mi). It is the only independent state in the world that lies entirely above 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) in elevation. Its lowest point is 1,400 metres (4,593 ft), and over 80% of the country lies above 1,800 metres (5,900 ft). Lesotho is also landlocked and is entirely contained within the country of South Africa. Climate Due to its altitude, Lesotho remains cooler throughout the year than other regions at the same latitude. Most of the rain falls as summer thunderstorms. Maseru and surrounding lowlands often reach 30 °C (86 °F) in summer. Winters can be cold with the lowlands getting down to −7 °C (19 °F) and the highlands to −18 °C (0 °F) at times. Snow is common in the highlands between May and September; the higher peaks can experience snowfalls year-round. Economy Lesotho's economy is based on diamonds exported all over the world and water sold to South Africa, manufacturing, agriculture, livestock, and to some extent the earnings of laborers employed in South Africa. Lesotho also exports wool, mohair, clothing, and footwear. One of Levi's jeans manufacturing facilities is located there. Also in Lesotho is one of Russell Athletics plants. Lesotho is geographically surrounded by South Africa and economically integrated with it as well. The majority of households subsist on farming or migrant labor, primarily miners who remain in South Africa for 3 to 9 months. The western lowlands form the main agricultural zone. Almost 50% of the population earns some income through crop cultivation or animal husbandry, with over half the country's income coming from the agricultural sector. The Afriski resort in the Maluti Mountains of Lesotho. Water and diamonds are Lesotho's significant natural resources. It is utilised through the 21-year, multi-billion-dollar Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), which began in 1986. The LHWP is designed to capture, store, and transfer water from the Orange River system to South Africa's Free State and greater Johannesburg area, which features a large concentration of South African industry, population, and agriculture. Completion of the first phase of the project has made Lesotho almost completely self-sufficient in the production of electricity and generated approximately $24 million annually from the sale of electricity and water to South Africa. The World Bank, African Development Bank, European Investment Bank, and many other bilateral donors financed the project. Lesotho has taken advantage of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) to become the largest exporter of garments to the US from sub-Saharan Africa. Exports totaled over $320 million in 2002. Employment reached over 50,000, marking the first time that manufacturing sector workers outnumbered government employees. The official currency is the loti (plural: maloti), but can be used interchangeably with the South African rand. Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, and South Africa also form a common currency and exchange control area known as the Common Monetary Area (CMA). The loti is at par with the rand, while one hundred lisente equal one loti. Lesotho is a member of the Southern African Customs Union (SACU), in which tariffs have been eliminated on the trade of goods between other member countries Botswana, Namibia, South Africa, and Swaziland. Lesotho has received economic aid from a variety of sources, including the United States, the World Bank, Ireland, the United Kingdom, the European Union, and Germany. Social Issues Significant levels of child labour exist in Lesotho, and the country is in the process of formulating an Action Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (APEC). Demographics Mosotho horseman. Population Lesotho has a population of approximately 1.881 million, according to 2006 Census. Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Finance and Development Planning. August 2007. 2006 Lesotho Census of Population and Housing: Preliminary Results Report. Maseru: BoS. page 2, Table 2.1 & page 14, Table A4.) The population distribution of Lesotho is 23.8 percent urban and 76.2 percent rural. Population density is lower in the highlands than in the western lowlands. Although the majority of the population—57.6 percent—is between 15 and 64 years of age, Lesotho has a substantial youth population numbering around 37 percent. The annual population growth is -0.46%. Languages Lesotho's ethno-linguistic structure consists almost entirely of the Basotho, a Bantu-speaking people. Basotho subgroups include the Bakuena (Kuena), Batloung (the Tlou), Baphuthi (the Phuti), Bafokeng, Bataung (the Tau), Batšoeneng (the tšoene), Matebele, etc. Sesotho. The main language which is also the first official and administrative language is Sesotho which Basotho speak on an ordinary basis. English languages is also considered the official and administrative language. Religion Education and literacy An estimated 85 percent of the population 15 and over was literate, according to recent estimates. As such, Lesotho boasts one of the highest literacy rates in Africa. According to a study by the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality in 2000, 37 percent of grade 6 pupils in Lesotho (average age 14 years) are at or above reading level 4, "Reading for Meaning" The SACMEQ II Project in Lesotho: A Study of the Conditions of Schooling and the Quality of Education. Harare: SACMEQ. . At this level of literacy, a pupil can read on or reads back in order to link and interpret information located in various parts of the text. Although education is not compulsory, the Government of Lesotho is incrementally implementing a programme for free primary education. Lesotho Ministry of Education and Trainig - Basic Education HIV/AIDS Lesotho is severely afflicted by HIV/AIDS. According to recent estimates, the prevalence is about 29%, one of the highest in the world. The United Nations projects that this will rise to 36% within fifteen years, resulting in a sharp drop in life expectancy. According to the Lesotho Bureau of Statistics, in 2001 life expectancy was estimated at forty-eight years for men and fifty-six for women. Recent statistics estimate about thirty-seven years. Many children have lost parents. Traditionally lavish funerals leave survivors with another burden. CIA World Fact book states that the average life expectancy is 40.97 for men and 39.34 for women. The government of Lesotho was initially slow to recognise the scale of the crisis, and its efforts to date in combating the spread of the disease have had limited success. In 1999, the government finalised its Strategic Plan on HIV/AIDS, a diagram for addressing the education, prevention, counseling, and treatment needs of the populace. In late 2003, the government announced that it was forming a new National AIDS Commission to coordinate society-wide anti-AIDS activities. Also in 2003 the government hosted a SADC Extraordinary Summit on HIV/AIDS. In 2005, programs for the distribution of anti-retrovirals were initiated. One such program is in Hlotse, Leribe at Tsepong Clinic which is part of Motebang Hospital. However, such programs remain limited in resources and have relatively few participants. The government has also started a proactive program called "Know your status" to test for HIV everyone in the country who wants to be tested. The program is funded by the Clinton Foundation and started in June 2006. Bill Clinton and Microsoft chairman Bill Gates visited Lesotho in July 2006 to assess its fight against AIDS. Dubbed "The two Bills" by the media, the two men visited the Mafeteng Hospital which is about 80 kilometres (50 miles) south of the capital, Maseru, to assess progress in public health endeavours funded by their respective foundations. The Apparel Lesotho Alliance to Fight AIDS (ALAFA) is an industry-wide programme providing prevention and treatment, including ARVs when these are necessary, for the 46000 mainly women workers in the Lesotho apparel industry. It was launched in May 2006. The programme is helping to combat two of the key drivers of the HIV/AIDS epidemic: poverty and gender inequality. Surveys within the industry by ALAFA show that 43% of employers are HIV-positive. The Canadian charity Help Lesotho which seeks to reduce the spread of AIDs through abstinence education can be found at http://www.helplesotho.ca. Foreign relations The flag used by Lesotho until October 2006. Lesotho's geographic location makes it extremely vulnerable to political and economic developments in South Africa. It is a member of many regional economic organizations, including the Southern African Development Community (SADC), Lesotho Country profile on the Southern African Development Community website and the Southern African Customs Union (SACU). Southern African Customs Union website It is also active in the United Nations (UN), the African Union, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Commonwealth, and many other international organizations. His Excellency, Prince Seeiso Hirohr Seeiso, is the present High Commissioner of the Kingdom of Lesotho to the Court of St. James's. The UN is represented by a resident mission as well, including UNDP, UNICEF, WHO, FAO, WFP, and UNAIDS. Historically, Lesotho has maintained generally close ties with Ireland. Lesotho also has maintained ties with the United Kingdom (Wales in particular), Germany, the United States and other Western states. Although in 1990 it broke relations with the People's Republic of China (PRC) and re-established relations with the Republic of China (Taiwan), it later restored ties with the PRC. Lesotho also recognizes the State of Palestine. Lesotho US State department In the past, it was a strong public supporter of the end of apartheid in South Africa and granted a number of South African refugees political asylum during the apartheid era. Culture Traditional musical instruments include lekolulo, a kind of flute used by herding boys, setolo-tolo, played by men using their mouth, and the women's stringed thomo. The national anthem of Lesotho is "Lesotho Fatše La Bo-ntata Rona", which literally translates into "Lesotho, Land Of Our Fathers". The traditional style of housing in Lesotho is called a rondavel. Attire revolves around the Basotho blanket, a thick covering made primarily of wool. The blankets are ubiquitous throughout the country during all seasons. The Morija Arts & Cultural Festival is a prominent Sesotho arts and music festival. It is held annually in the historical town of Morija, where the first missionaries arrived in 1833. and List of writers from Lesotho See also Commonwealth of Nations List of Lesotho-related articles List of Lesotho-related topics List of international rankings Outline of Africa Outline of geography Outline of Lesotho United Nations Communications in Lesotho List of Basotho companies Military of Lesotho National University of Lesotho National University of Lesotho International School Transportation in Lesotho Lesotho Scouts Association References External links Government of Lesotho Judgments of the Lesotho High Court Chief of State and Cabinet Members Lesotho from UCB Libraries GovPubs Lesotho Internet Cafe directory be-x-old:Лесота | Lesotho |@lemmatized lesotho:78 officially:1 kingdom:6 landlocked:3 country:12 enclave:1 entirely:4 surround:3 republic:3 south:24 africa:19 southernmost:1 world:7 member:9 commonwealth:3 nation:5 name:1 translate:2 roughly:1 land:5 people:7 speak:2 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6,506 | International_Atomic_Time | International Atomic Time (TAI, from the French name Temps Atomique International) is a high-precision atomic coordinate time standard based on the notional passage of proper time on Earth's geoid. It is the principal realisation of Terrestrial Time, and the basis for Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) which is used for civil timekeeping all over the Earth's surface. , TAI was exactly 34 seconds ahead of UTC: an initial difference of 10 seconds at the start of 1972, plus 24 leap seconds in UTC since 1972 (the last leap second was added on December 31, 2008). Time coordinates on the TAI scales are conventionally specified using traditional means of specifying days, carried over from non-uniform time standards based on the rotation of the Earth. Specifically, both Julian Dates and the Gregorian calendar are used. TAI in this form was synchronised with Universal Time at the beginning of 1958, and the two have drifted apart ever since, due to the changing motion of the Earth. Operation TAI as a frequency standard is a weighted average of the time kept by about 300 atomic clocks in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. The clocks are compared using satellites (see BIPM clock comparisons). Many of these are caesium atomic clocks, which are the standard by which the second is defined. Due to the averaging it is far more stable than any clock would be alone. The participating institutions each broadcast, in real time (in the present), a frequency signal with time codes, which is their estimate of TAI. Time codes are usually published in the form of UTC. The better laboratories' signals are mutually synchronised to within less than 10-7 s, but there are outliers up to 10-5 s out. These time scales are denoted in the form TAI(NPL) (UTC(NPL) for the UTC form), where NPL in this case identifies the National Physical Laboratory, UK. Some laboratories also publish their own atomic time scale, denoted in the form TA(USNO) (USNO identifies the United States Naval Observatory). The clocks at different institutions are regularly compared against each other. The International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) combines these measurements to retrospectively calculate the weighted average that forms the most stable time scale possible. This combined time scale is published monthly in Circular T, and is the canonical TAI. This time scale is expressed in the form of tables of differences UTC-UTC(x) and TAI-TA(x), for each participating institution x. Errors in publication may be corrected by issuing a revision of the faulty Circular T or by errata in a subsequent Circular T. Aside from this, once published in Circular T the TAI scale is not revised. In hindsight it is possible to discover errors in TAI, and to make better estimates of the true proper time scale. Doing so does not create another version of TAI; it is instead considered to be creating a better realisation of Terrestrial Time (TT). See the article on TT for more information. History Atomic timekeeping services started experimentally in 1955, using the first caesium atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory, UK (NPL). The first formalised atomic time scale was the A.1 scale defined by USNO in 1959. A.1 was defined by an epoch at the beginning of 1958: it was set to read Julian Date 2436204.5 (1958-01-01T00:00:00) at the UT2 instant JD 2436204.5 (1958-01-01T00:00:00) as calculated at USNO. This synchronisation was inevitably imperfect, depending as it did on the astronomical realisation of UT2. At the time, UT2 as published by various observatories differed by several centiseconds. A.1 was extrapolated backwards to 1956. In 1961, the Bureau International de l'Heure (BIH) (later superseded by the BIPM and the IERS) constructed an atomic time scale named AM based on three atomic clocks. The clocks were compared by listening to radio time signals based on them. The BIH's time scale was synchronised with A.1's epoch, and extrapolated back to 1955 using time signals from the first caesium clock at NPL. This time scale was soon renamed from AM to A3. Also in 1961, UTC began. UTC is a discontinuous time scale composed from segments that are linear transformations of atomic time, the discontinuities being arranged so that UTC approximates UT1. This was a compromise arrangement for a broadcast time scale: a linear transformation of the BIH's atomic time meant that the time scale was stable and internationally synchronised, while approximating UT1 means that tasks such as navigation which require a source of Universal Time continue to be well served by public time broadcasts. In 1967 the SI second was redefined in terms of the frequency supplied by a caesium atomic clock. More clocks were added to the A3 time scale from 1967, and it was renamed to TA. Finally in 1971 it was renamed TAI. In the 1970s, it became clear that the clocks participating in TAI were ticking at different rates due to gravitational time dilation, and the combined TAI scale therefore corresponded to an average of the altitudes of the various clocks. Starting from Julian Date 2443144.5 (1977-01-01T00:00:00), corrections were applied to the output of all participating clocks, so that TAI would correspond to proper time at mean sea level (the geoid). Because the clocks had been on average well above sea level, this meant that TAI slowed down, by about 10-12. The former uncorrected time scale continues to be published, under the name EAL (Echelle Atomique Libre, meaning Free Atomic Scale). The instant that the gravitational correction started to be applied serves as the epoch for Barycentric Coordinate Time (TCB), Geocentric Coordinate Time (TCG), and Terrestrial Time (TT). All three of these time scales were defined to read JD 2443144.5003725 (1977-01-01T00:00:32.184) exactly at that instant. (The offset is to provide continuity with the older Ephemeris Time.) TAI was henceforth a realisation of TT, with the equation TT(TAI) = TAI + 32.184 s. In the 1990s, annual periodic variations in the rate of some clocks were traced to blackbody radiation that varies with the ambient temperature. It became clear that a correction for this was required. Accordingly, in 1997 the BIPM declared that the definition of the SI second referred to a caesium atom at rest and at absolute zero temperature. Temperature corrections were implemented in TAI from 1995 to 1998, speeding TAI up by about 10-14.3. See also Time and frequency transfer Clock synchronization Network Time Protocol (used to disseminate TAI in the form of UTC) Precision Time Protocol, a related though separate technology Magneto-optical trap References External links Bureau International des Poids et Mesures: TAI Time and Frequency Section - National Physical Laboratory, UK IERS website NIST Time and Frequency FAQs History of time scales NIST cesium fountain standard Optical frequency comb for metrology and timekeeping Japan Standard Time Project, NICT, Japan | International_Atomic_Time |@lemmatized international:5 atomic:14 time:49 tai:24 french:1 name:3 temps:1 atomique:2 high:1 precision:2 coordinate:5 standard:6 base:4 notional:1 passage:1 proper:3 earth:4 geoid:2 principal:1 realisation:4 terrestrial:3 basis:1 universal:3 utc:12 use:7 civil:1 timekeeping:3 surface:1 exactly:2 second:7 ahead:1 initial:1 difference:2 start:4 plus:1 leap:2 since:2 last:1 add:2 december:1 scale:22 conventionally:1 specify:2 traditional:1 mean:5 day:1 carry:1 non:1 uniform:1 rotation:1 specifically:1 julian:3 date:3 gregorian:1 calendar:1 form:8 synchronise:4 beginning:2 two:1 drift:1 apart:1 ever:1 due:3 change:1 motion:1 operation:1 frequency:7 weighted:2 average:5 keep:1 clock:18 national:4 laboratory:6 worldwide:1 compare:3 satellite:1 see:3 bipm:4 comparison:1 many:1 caesium:5 define:4 far:1 stable:3 would:2 alone:1 participate:4 institution:3 broadcast:3 real:1 present:1 signal:4 code:2 estimate:2 usually:1 publish:6 good:3 mutually:1 within:1 less:1 outlier:1 denote:2 npl:5 case:1 identify:2 physical:3 uk:3 also:3 ta:3 usno:4 united:1 state:1 naval:1 observatory:2 different:2 regularly:1 bureau:3 weight:1 measure:1 combine:1 measurement:1 retrospectively:1 calculate:2 possible:2 combined:2 monthly:1 circular:4 canonical:1 express:1 table:1 x:3 error:2 publication:1 may:1 correct:1 issue:1 revision:1 faulty:1 erratum:1 subsequent:1 aside:1 revise:1 hindsight:1 discover:1 make:1 true:1 create:2 another:1 version:1 instead:1 consider:1 tt:5 article:1 information:1 history:2 service:1 experimentally:1 first:3 formalised:1 epoch:3 set:1 read:2 instant:3 jd:2 synchronisation:1 inevitably:1 imperfect:1 depend:1 astronomical:1 various:2 differ:1 several:1 centiseconds:1 extrapolate:2 backwards:1 de:2 l:1 heure:1 bih:3 later:1 supersede:1 iers:2 construct:1 three:2 listen:1 radio:1 back:1 soon:1 rename:3 begin:1 discontinuous:1 compose:1 segment:1 linear:2 transformation:2 discontinuity:1 arrange:1 approximates:1 compromise:1 arrangement:1 internationally:1 approximate:1 task:1 navigation:1 require:2 source:1 continue:2 well:2 serve:1 public:1 si:2 redefine:1 term:1 supply:1 finally:1 become:2 clear:2 tick:1 rate:2 gravitational:2 dilation:1 therefore:1 correspond:2 altitude:1 correction:4 apply:2 output:1 sea:2 level:2 meant:1 slow:1 former:1 uncorrected:1 eal:1 echelle:1 libre:1 free:1 serf:1 barycentric:1 tcb:1 geocentric:1 tcg:1 offset:1 provide:1 continuity:1 old:1 ephemeris:1 henceforth:1 equation:1 annual:1 periodic:1 variation:1 trace:1 blackbody:1 radiation:1 vary:1 ambient:1 temperature:3 accordingly:1 declare:1 definition:1 refer:1 atom:1 rest:1 absolute:1 zero:1 implement:1 speed:1 transfer:1 synchronization:1 network:1 protocol:2 disseminate:1 related:1 though:1 separate:1 technology:1 magneto:1 optical:2 trap:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 poids:1 et:1 mesures:1 section:1 website:1 nist:2 faqs:1 cesium:1 fountain:1 comb:1 metrology:1 japan:2 project:1 nict:1 |@bigram gregorian_calendar:1 weighted_average:2 atomic_clock:5 utc_utc:1 blackbody_radiation:1 ambient_temperature:1 magneto_optical:1 external_link:1 de_poids:1 poids_et:1 et_mesures:1 |
6,507 | Knights_of_the_Lambda_Calculus | The Knights of the Lambda Calculus' recursive emblem celebrates LISP's theoretical foundation, the lambda calculus. Y in the emblem refers to the Fixed point combinator and the reappearance of the picture in itself refers to the recursion. The Knights of the Lambda Calculus is a semi-fictional organization of expert LISP and Scheme hackers. The name refers to the lambda calculus, a mathematical formalism invented by Alonzo Church, with which LISP is intimately connected, and references the Knights Templar. There is no actual organization that goes by the name Knights of the Lambda Calculus; it mostly only exists as a hacker culture in-joke. The concept most likely originated at MIT. For example, in the Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs video lectures, one of the lecturers presents the audience with the button, saying they are now members of this special group. However, a "well-known LISPer" has been known to give out buttons with Knights insignia on them, and some people have claimed to have membership in the Knights. In Serial Experiments Lain A group that evolved from or is similar to them, called The Knights of Eastern Calculus make a major appearance in the cyberpunk anime series Serial Experiments Lain. References to MIT professors and other American computer scientists are prominent in Episode 11 of the series. At one point in the anime, Lain is seen with code displayed on her handheld device that appears to be LISP. Notes References | Knights_of_the_Lambda_Calculus |@lemmatized knight:7 lambda:5 calculus:6 recursive:1 emblem:2 celebrate:1 lisp:4 theoretical:1 foundation:1 refers:3 fix:1 point:2 combinator:1 reappearance:1 picture:1 recursion:1 semi:1 fictional:1 organization:2 expert:1 scheme:1 hacker:2 name:2 mathematical:1 formalism:1 invent:1 alonzo:1 church:1 intimately:1 connect:1 reference:3 templar:1 actual:1 go:1 mostly:1 exist:1 culture:1 joke:1 concept:1 likely:1 originate:1 mit:2 example:1 structure:1 interpretation:1 computer:2 program:1 video:1 lecture:1 one:2 lecturer:1 present:1 audience:1 button:2 say:1 member:1 special:1 group:2 however:1 well:1 know:2 lisper:1 give:1 insignia:1 people:1 claim:1 membership:1 serial:2 experiment:2 lie:2 evolve:1 similar:1 call:1 eastern:1 make:1 major:1 appearance:1 cyberpunk:1 anime:2 series:2 professor:1 american:1 scientist:1 prominent:1 episode:1 lain:1 see:1 code:1 displayed:1 handheld:1 device:1 appear:1 note:1 |@bigram lambda_calculus:5 alonzo_church:1 intimately_connect:1 knight_templar:1 cyberpunk_anime:1 |
6,508 | Demographics_of_Ghana | The Demography of Ghana describes the condition and overview of Ghana's peoples. Demographic topics include basic education, health, and population statistics as well as identified racial and religious affiliations. This article is about the demographic features of the population of Ghana, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. Demographic trends Ghana's first postindependence population census in 1961 counted about 6.7 million inhabitants. By 1970 the national census registered 8.5 million people, about a 27 percent increase, while the most recent official census in 1984 recorded a figure of 12.3 million--almost double the 1960 figure (see table 2, Appendix). The nation's population was estimated to have increased to about 15 million in 1990 and to an estimated 17.2 million in mid-1994. With an annual growth rate of 2.2 percent for the period between 1965 and 1980, a 3.4 percent growth rate for 1981 through 1989, and a 1992 growth rate of 3.2 percent, the country's population is projected to surpass 20 million by the year 2000 and 35 million by 2025.<ref name=population>Owusa-Ansah, David. "Population". A Country Study: Ghana (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> Increasing population is reflected in other statistical representations as well. Between 1965 and 1989, a constant 45 percent of the nation's total female population was of childbearing age. The crude birth rate of 47 per 1,000 population recorded for 1965 dropped to 44 per 1,000 population in 1992. Also, the crude death rate of 18 per 1,000 population in 1965 fell to 13 per 1,000 population in 1992, while life expectancy rose from a 1970 to 1975 average of forty-two years for men and forty-five years for women to fifty-two and fifty-six years, respectively, in 1992. The 1965 infant mortality rate of 120 per 1,000 live births also improved to 86 per 1,000 live births in 1992. With the fertility rate averaging about seven children per adult female and expected to fall only to five children per adult female by the year 2000, the population projection of 35 million in 2025 becomes more credible. A number of factors, including improved vaccination against common diseases, and nutritional education through village and community health-care systems, contributed to the expanding population. The rise in the nation's population generated a corresponding rise in the demand for schools, health facilities, and urban housing. The gender ratio of the population, 97.3 males to 100 females, was reflected in the 1984 figures of 6,063,848 males to 6,232,233 females (see fig. 5). This was slightly below the 1970 figure of 98 males to 100 females, but a reversal of the 1960 ratio of 102.2 males to 100 females. The fall in the proportion of males to females may be partly attributed to the fact that men have left the country in pursuit of jobs. Also significant in the 1984 census figures was the national age distribution. About 58 percent of Ghana's population in 1984 was either under the age of twenty or above sixty-five. Approximately 7 million people were represented in this category, about 4 million of them under the age of ten and, therefore, economically unproductive. The large population of young, economically unproductive individuals appeared to be growing rapidly. In the early 1990s, about half of Ghana's population was under age fifteen. If the under-twenty group and those above the age of sixty are regarded as a dependent group, the social, political, and economic implications for the 1990s and beyond are as grave for Ghana as they are for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. Population distribution Population density increased steadily from thirty-six per square kilometer in 1970 to fifty-two per square kilometer in 1984; in 1990 sixty-three persons per square kilometer was the estimate for Ghana's overall population density. These averages, naturally, did not reflect variations in population distribution. For example, while the Northern Region, one of ten administrative regions, showed a density of seventeen persons per square kilometer in 1984, in the same year Greater Accra Region recorded nine times the national average of fifty-two per square kilometer. As was the case in the 1960 and 1970 figures, the greatest concentration of population in 1984 was to the south of the Kwahu Plateau. The highest concentration of habitation continued to be within the Accra-Kumasi-Takoradi triangle, largely because of the economic productivity of the region. In fact, all of the country's mining centers, timber-producing deciduous forests, and cocoa-growing lands lie to the south of the Kwahu Plateau. The Accra-Kumasi- Takoradi triangle also is conveniently linked to the coast by rail and road systems--making this area an important magnet for investment and labor. Owusa-Ansah, David. "Population Distribution". A Country Study: Ghana (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> By contrast, a large part of the Volta Basin was sparsely populated. The presence of tsetse flies, the relative infertility of the soil, and, above all, the scarcity of water in the area during the harmattan season affect habitation. The far north, on the other hand, was heavily populated. The eighty-seven persons to a square kilometer recorded in the 1984 census for the Upper East Region, for example, was well above the national average. This may be explained in part by the somewhat better soil found in some areas and the general absence of the tsetse fly; however, onchocerciasis, or river blindness, a fly-borne disease, is common in the north, causing abandonment of some land. With the improvement of the water supply through well-drilling and the introduction of intensive agricultural extension services as part of the Global 2000 program since the mid-1980s, demographic figures for the far north could be markedly different by the next census. Another factor affecting Ghana's demography was refugees. At the end of 1994, approximately 110,000 refugees resided in Ghana. About 90,000 were Togolese who had fled political violence in their homeland beginning in early 1993 (see Relations with Immediate African Neighbors , ch. 4). Most Togolese had settled in Volta Region among their ethnic kinsmen. About 20,000 Liberians were also found in Ghana, having fled the civil war in their country (see International Security Concerns , ch. 5). Many were long-term residents. As a result of ethnic fighting in northeastern Ghana in early 1994, at least 20,000 Ghanaians out of an original group of 150,000 were still internally displaced at the end of the year. About 5,000 had taken up residence in Togo because of the strife. Urban-rural disparities Localities of 5,000 persons and above have been classified as urban since 1960. On this basis, the 1960 urban population totalled 1,551,174 persons, or 23.1 percent of total population. By 1970, the percentage of the country's population residing in urban centers had increased to 28 percent. That percentage rose to 32 in 1984 and was estimated at 33 percent for 1992.<ref name=urd>Owusa-Ansah, David. "Urban-Rural Disparities". A Country Study: Ghana (La Verle Berry, editor). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (November 1994). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Like the population density figures, the rate of urbanization varied from one administrative region to another. While the Greater Accra Region showed an 83-percent urban residency, the Ashanti Region matched the national average of 32 percent in 1984. The Upper West Region of the country recorded only 10 percent of its population in urban centers that year, which reflected internal migration to the south and the pattern of development that favored the south, with its minerals and forest resources, over the north. Urban areas in Ghana have customarily been supplied with more amenities than rural locations. Consequently, Kumasi, Accra, and many towns within the southern economic belt attracted more people than the savanna regions of the north; only Tamale in the north has been an exception. The linkage of the national electricity grid to the northern areas of the country in the late 1980s may help to stabilize the north-to-south flow of internal migration. The growth of urban population notwithstanding, Ghana continued to be a nation of rural communities. The 1984 enumeration showed that six of the country's ten regions had rural populations of 5 percent or more above the national average of 68 percent. Rural residency was estimated to be 67 percent of the population in 1992. These figures, though reflecting a trend toward urban residency, were not very different from the 1970s when about 72 percent of the nation's population lived in rural areas. In an attempt to perpetuate this pattern of rural-urban residency and thereby to lessen the consequent socioeconomic impact on urban development, the "Rural Manifesto," which assessed the causes of rural underdevelopment, was introduced in April 1984. Development strategies were evaluated, and some were implemented to make rural residency more attractive. As a result, the Bank of Ghana established more than 120 rural banks to support rural entrepreneurs, and the rural electrification program was intensified in the late 1980s. The government, moreover, presented its plans for district assemblies as a component of its strategy for rural improvement through decentralized administration, a program designed to allow local people to become more involved in planning development programs to meet local needs. Languages More than 50 languages and dialects are spoken in Ghana. Among the more important linguistic groups are the Akans, which include the Fantis along the coast and the Ashantis in the forest region north of the coast; the Guans, on the plains of the Volta River; the Ga- and Ewe-speaking peoples of the south and southeast; and the Mossi-Dagomba-speaking tribes of the northern and upper regions. English, the official and commercial language, is taught in all schools. Hausa is the main lingua franca used amongst Muslim peoples, and is usually spoken alongside their native languages. Hausa at UCLA Education Primary and junior secondary school education is tuition-free and mandatory. The Government of Ghana support for basic education is unequivocal. Article 39 of the Constitution mandates the major tenets of the free, compulsory, universal basic education (FCUBE) initiative. Launched in 1996, it is one of the most ambitious pre-tertiary education programs in West Africa. Since 1987, the Government of Ghana has increased its education budget by 700%. Basic education's share has grown from 45% to 60% of that total. Students begin their 6-year primary education at age six. Under educational reforms implemented in 1987, they pass into a junior secondary school system for 3 years of academic training combined with technical and vocational training. Those continuing move into the 3-year senior secondary school program. Entrance to one of the five Ghanaian universities is by examination following completion of senior secondary school. School enrollment totals almost 3 million. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population: 23, 382, 848 (July 2008 est.); 19,533,560(2001 est.)note:estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected Age structure:0-14 years:37.8% (male 4,470,382/female 4,360,359)(2008 est.); 42% (male 4,120,240; female 4,063,960)(2000 est.)15-64 years:58.7% (male 6,852,363/female 6,866,470)(2008 est.); 55% (male 5,290,675; female 5,391,175)(2000 est.)65 years and over:3.6% (male 386,150/female 447,124) (2008 est.); 3% (male 318,890; female 348,620)(2000 est.) Population growth rate: 1.928% (2008 est.); 2.07% (2006 est.) Birth rate: 29.22 births/1,000 population (2008 est.); 29.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate: 9.39 deaths/1,000 population (2008 est.); 10.22 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate: -0.55 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2008 est.); -0.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.025 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 0.996 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.877 male(s)/female total population: 1.003 male(s)/female (2007 est.) Sex ratio:at birth:at birth: 1.03 male(s)/female (2008 est); 1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)under 15 years:1.02 male(s)/female (2008 est.); 1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)15-64 years:1 male(s)/female (2008 est.); 0.98 male(s)/female (2000 est.)65 years and over:0.86 male(s)/female 0.91 male(s)/female (2000 est.)total population:1 male(s)/female (2008 est.); 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate: 52.31 deaths/1,000 live births (2008 est.); 57.43 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth:total population:59.12 years (2007 est.); 60 yearsmale:58.31 years (2007 est.); 59 yearsfemale:59.95 years (2007 est.) ; 61 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate: 3.89 children born/woman (2007 est.); 3.95 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality:noun:Ghanaian(s)adjective:Ghanaian Ethnic groups: Akan 45.3%, Mole-Dagbon 15.2%, Ewe 11.7%, Ga-Dangme 7.3%, Guan 4%, Gurma 3.6%, Gurunsi 2.6%, Mande-Busanga 1%, other tribes (Hausa, Yoruba, Fulani) 1.4%, other 7.8% (2000 census) Religions: According to a census taken in 2000, Christian make up 68.8% of the population. (Pentecostal/Charismatic 24.1%, Protestant 18.6%, Catholic 15.1%, other 11%) The census noted that Muslims make up 15% of the population, however recent sources indicate that number to be at 30%. Historical Dictionary Of Women In Sub-Saharan Africa By Kathleen E. Sheldon, pg. 109 Other faiths include traditional African religions and Judaism, which is practiced by a particular Sefwi proples. There are also communities of Nichiren Buddhists and Bahá'ís in Ghana. Languages: English (official), African languages (including Akan, Moshi-Dagomba, Ewe, and Ga) Literacy:definition:age 15 and over can read and writetotal population:57,9%male:66,4%female:'' 49,8% (2000 census) References See also Health in Ghana Ghana References | Demographics_of_Ghana |@lemmatized demography:2 ghana:24 describe:1 condition:1 overview:1 people:7 demographic:6 topic:1 include:6 basic:4 education:11 health:5 population:53 statistic:3 well:4 identify:1 racial:1 religious:2 affiliation:2 article:5 feature:1 density:5 ethnicity:1 level:1 populace:1 economic:4 status:1 aspect:1 trend:2 first:1 postindependence:1 census:10 count:1 million:11 inhabitant:1 national:7 register:1 percent:16 increase:6 recent:2 official:3 record:5 figure:9 almost:2 double:1 see:5 table:1 appendix:1 nation:5 estimate:6 mid:2 annual:1 growth:6 rate:16 period:1 country:12 project:1 surpass:1 year:24 ref:4 name:2 owusa:3 ansah:3 david:3 study:3 la:3 verle:3 berry:3 editor:3 library:3 congress:3 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academic:1 training:2 combine:1 technical:1 vocational:1 move:1 senior:2 entrance:1 ghanaian:3 university:1 examination:1 follow:1 completion:1 enrollment:1 cia:2 world:2 factbook:2 following:1 unless:1 otherwise:2 indicate:2 july:1 est:34 note:2 explicitly:1 account:1 effect:1 excess:1 due:1 aid:1 low:2 change:1 sex:2 would:1 structure:1 net:1 migrant:2 yearsmale:1 yearsfemale:1 bear:2 nationality:1 noun:1 adjective:1 mole:1 dagbon:1 dangme:1 gurma:1 gurunsi:1 mande:1 busanga:1 yoruba:1 fulani:1 religion:2 accord:1 christian:1 pentecostal:1 charismatic:1 protestant:1 catholic:1 historical:1 dictionary:1 kathleen:1 e:1 sheldon:1 pg:1 faith:1 traditional:1 judaism:1 practice:1 particular:1 sefwi:1 proples:1 nichiren:1 buddhist:1 bahá:1 ís:1 moshi:1 literacy:1 definition:1 read:1 writetotal:1 reference:2 |@bigram religious_affiliation:2 density_ethnicity:1 ethnicity_education:1 health_populace:1 populace_economic:1 affiliation_aspect:1 la_verle:3 verle_berry:3 childbearing_age:1 life_expectancy:3 infant_mortality:3 mortality_rate:2 fertility_rate:2 health_care:1 male_female:27 sub_saharan:2 saharan_africa:2 square_kilometer:6 kwahu_plateau:2 deciduous_forest:1 volta_basin:1 sparsely_populated:1 tsetse_fly:2 heavily_populate:1 internally_displace:1 lingua_franca:1 vocational_training:1 factbook_demographic:1 demographic_statistic:2 statistic_cia:1 factbook_unless:1 unless_otherwise:1 excess_mortality:1 net_migration:1 rate_migrant:1 est_infant:1 expectancy_birth:1 total_fertility:1 est_nationality:1 nationality_noun:1 hausa_yoruba:1 pentecostal_charismatic:1 nichiren_buddhist:1 bahá_ís:1 literacy_definition:1 |
6,509 | Catholicism | Catholicism is a broad term for the body of the Catholic faith, its theologies and doctrines, its liturgical, ethical, spiritual, and behavioral characteristics, as well as a religious people as a whole. Depending on the understanding of the word "Catholic", it may refer to the Roman Catholic Church, namely the Christians living in communion with the See of Rome. More broadly, it may refer to many churches, including the Roman Catholic Church and others not in communion with it, that claim continuity with the Catholic Church before separation into Greek or Eastern and Latin or Western. Churches that make this claim of continuity include the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Oriental Orthodox churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, the Old Catholic churches and the churches of the Anglican Communion. The claim of continuity may be based on Apostolic Succession, especially in conjunction with adherence to the Nicene Creed. Some interpret Catholicism as adherence to the traditional beliefs that Protestant Reformers denied, as with the Oxford Movement. Catholicism is distinguished from other forms of Christianity in its particular understanding and commitment to tradition, the sacraments, the mediation between God, and communion. Catholicism can include a monastic life, religious orders, a religious appreciation of the arts, a communal understanding of sin and redemption, missionary activity, and, in the Roman Catholic Church, papacy. History of use of "Catholic Church" The earliest recorded evidence of the use of the term "Catholic Church" is the Letter to the Smyrnaeans that Ignatius of Antioch wrote in about 107 to Christians in Smyrna. Saint Ignatius used the term to designate the Christian Church possessing true traditions, excluding heretics, such as those who "confess not the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again." Exhorting Christians to remain closely united with their bishop, he wrote: "Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude [of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church." Yet more explicit was the manner in which Cyril of Jerusalem (circa 315–386) used the term "Catholic Church" precisely to distinguish it from other groups that also claimed the title of "Church." Only slightly later, Saint Augustine of Hippo (354–430) wrote: In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the Apostle Peter, to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15–19), down to the present episcopate. And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house. Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church. —St. Augustine (354–430): Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith. On 27 February 380, by an edict issued in Thessalonica and published in Constantinople, Emperor Theodosius declared Catholic Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire, and defined the term "Catholic" in Roman Imperial law as follows: It is our desire that all the various nations which are subject to our clemency and moderation, should continue the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria, a man of apostolic holiness. According to the apostolic teaching and the doctrine of the Gospel, let us believe in the one Deity of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in equal majesty and in a holy Trinity. We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians; but as for the others, since in our judgment they are foolish madmen, we decree that they shall be branded with the ignominious name of heretics, and shall not presume to give their conventicles the name of churches. They will suffer in the first place the chastisement of divine condemnation and the second the punishment of our authority, in accordance with the will of heaven will decide to inflict. Theodosian Code XVI.i.2 A contemporary of Augustine, St. Vincent of Lerins, wrote in 434 under the pseudonym Peregrinus a work known as the Commonitoria ("Memoranda"). While insisting that, like the human body, Church doctrine develops while truly keeping its identity (sections 54–59, chapter XXIII), he stated: "[I]n the Catholic Church itself, all possible care must be taken, that we hold that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, by all. For that is truly and in the strictest sense 'Catholic,' which, as the name itself and the reason of the thing declare, comprehends all universally. This rule we shall observe if we follow universality, antiquity, consent. We shall follow universality if we confess that one faith to be true, which the whole Church throughout the world confesses; antiquity, if we in no wise depart from those interpretations which it is manifest were notoriously held by our holy ancestors and fathers; consent, in like manner, if in antiquity itself we adhere to the consentient definitions and determinations of all, or at the least of almost all priests and doctors" (section 6, end of chapter II). Divergent interpretations of the term "Catholic" Many individual Christians and Christian denominations consider themselves "catholic" on the basis, in particular, of Apostolic Succession. They fall into five groups: The Western and Eastern Churches of the Roman Catholic Church (which is often referred to simply as "the Catholic Church"). This Church is commonly referred to by this name even by others (see for instance Cultural Portraits: A Synoptic Guide, by Byron P. Palls (AuthorHouse, 2008 ISBN 1434388670) and even by those who are hostile to it mention that it is "commonly called the Catholic Church" (A discourse on the worship of Priapus, and its connection with the mystic theology of the ancients). These understand "Catholic" to involve unity with the Bishop of Rome, and hold that "the one Church of Christ ... subsists in the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him, although many elements of sanctification and of truth are found outside of its visible structure." Those, like the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox, that claim unbroken Apostolic Succession from the early Church and identify themselves as the Catholic Church; they see themselves (along with the See of Rome) as part of a patriarchal structure that developed in the East but never developed in the West. To disassociate the See of Rome from this equalisation of the "five Patriarchal Sees," Benedict XVI dropped the title "Patriarch of the West," seeing the designation as an attempt to Orientalize Western ecclesiology. John Allen, "the 'Patriarch of the West' retires," The National Catholic Reporter April 7, 2006, 21. Joseph Ratzinger, "Sister Churches," The Tablet 9 September, 2000, 1205. Those, like the Old Catholic, Anglican, and some Lutheran and other denominations, that claim unbroken Apostolic Succession from the early Church, and see themselves as a constituent part of the Church. Those who claim to be spiritual descendants of the Apostles but have no discernible institutional descent from the historic Church, and normally do not refer to themselves as catholic. Those who have acknowledged a break in Apostolic Succession, but have restored it in order to be in full communion with bodies that have maintained the practice. Examples in this category include the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada vis-à-vis their Anglican and Old Catholic counterparts. For some confessions listed under category 3, the self-affirmation refers to the belief in the ultimate unity of the universal church under one God and one Saviour, rather than in one visibly unified institution (as with category 1, above). In this usage, "catholic" is sometimes written with a lower-case "c". The Western Apostles' Creed and the Nicene Creed, stating "I believe in ... one holy catholic ... church", are recited in worship services. Among some denominations in category 3, "Christian" is substituted for "catholic" in order to denote the doctrine that the Christian Church is, at least ideally, undivided. Brief organizational history of the Church According to the theory of Pentarchy, the early Catholic Church came to be organised under the three patriarchs of Rome, Alexandria and Antioch, to which later were added the patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem. The Bishop of Rome was at that time recognized as first among them, as is stated, for instance, in canon 3 of the First Council of Constantinople (381)—many interpret "first" as meaning here first among equals—and doctrinal or procedural disputes were often referred to Rome, as when, on appeal by St Athanasius against the decision of the Council of Tyre (335), Pope Julius I, who spoke of such appeals as customary, annulled the action of that council and restored Athanasius and Marcellus of Ancyra to their sees. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils. When the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Rome's influence was sometimes challenged. Nonetheless, Rome claimed special authority because of its connection to Saint Peter. and Saint Paul, who, all agreed, were martyred and buried in Rome, and because the Bishop of Rome saw himself as the successor of Saint Peter. The 431 Council of Ephesus, the Third Ecumenical Council, was chiefly concerned with Nestorianism, which emphasised the distinction between the humanity and divinity of Jesus and taught that, in giving birth to Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary could not be spoken of as giving birth to God. This Council rejected Nestorianism and affirmed that, as humanity and divinity are inseparable in the one person of Jesus Christ, his mother, the Virgin Mary, is thus Theotokos, God-bearer, Mother of God. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council. Those who refused to accept the Council's ruling were largely Persian and are represented today by the Assyrian Church of the East and related Churches, which, however, do not now hold a "Nestorian" theology. They are often called Ancient Oriental Churches. The next major break was after the Council of Chalcedon (451). This Council repudiated Eutychian Monophysitism which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures "without confusion, without change, without division, without separation" and thus is both fully God and fully human. The Alexandrian Church rejected the terms adopted by this Council, and the Christian Churches that follow the tradition of non-acceptance of the Council—they are not Monophysite in doctrine—are referred to as Pre-Chalcedonian or Oriental Orthodox Churches. The next great rift within Christianity was in the 11th century. Longstanding doctrinal disputes, as well as conflicts between methods of Church government, and the evolution of separate rites and practices, precipitated a split in 1054 that divided the Church, this time between a "West" and an "East". England, France, the Holy Roman Empire, Poland, Bohemia, Slovakia, Scandinavia, the Baltic countries, and Western Europe in general were in the Western camp, and Greece, Romania, Russia and many other Slavic lands, Anatolia, and the Christians in Syria and Egypt who accepted the Council of Chalcedon made up the Eastern camp. This division is called the East-West Schism. The fourth major division in the Church occurred in the 16th century with the Protestant Reformation, after which many parts of the Western Church either entirely rejected the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and became known as "Reformed" or "Protestant", or else repudiated Roman papal authority and accepted decisions by the civil ruler in religious matters (e.g., in Anglicanism and parts of the Lutheran Church). A much less extensive rupture occurred when, after the Roman Catholic Church's First Vatican Council, in which it officially proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility, clusters of Catholics in the Netherlands and in German-speaking countries formed the Old-Catholic (Altkatholische) Church. Roman Catholic Church The Roman Catholic Church is the world's largest single religious body and the largest Christian church, comprising over half of all Christians (1.1 billion Christians) and one-sixth of the world's population. It comprises 23 "particular churches" (also popularly called "rites" in the Official Catholic Directory and on Eastern Church parish websites) Official Catholic Directory (New Providence, NJ: P.J.Kenedy, 2009), A-8 , all of which acknowledge a primacy of jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome and are in full communion with the Holy See and each other. These particular churches are the one Latin Rite or Western Church (which uses a number of different liturgical rites, of which the Roman Rite is the best known) and 22 Eastern Catholic churches. Of the latter particular churches, 14 use the Byzantine liturgical rite. Annuario Pontificio, 2007 edition, pages 1169–1170 (ISBN 978-88-209-7908-9). Each Eastern rite is equal to the Latin rite within the Church. Official Catholic Directory, 19. Sui iuris (i.e., self-governing) Churches in communion with the Holy See Of Alexandrian liturgical tradition: Coptic Catholic Church Ethiopic Catholic Church Of Antiochian liturgical tradition: Maronite Church Syrian Catholic Church Syro-Malankara Catholic Church Of Armenian liturgical tradition: Armenian Catholic Church Of Byzantine (Constantinopolitan) liturgical tradition: Albanian Byzantine Catholic Church Belarusian Greek Catholic Church Bulgarian Greek Catholic Church Byzantine Church of the Eparchy of Križevci Greek Byzantine Catholic Church Hungarian Greek Catholic Church Italo-Albanian Catholic Church Macedonian Greek Catholic Church Melkite Greek Catholic Church Romanian Church United with Rome, Greek-Catholic Russian Byzantine Catholic Church Ruthenian Catholic Church Slovak Greek Catholic Church Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church Of Chaldean or East Syrian tradition: Chaldean Catholic Church Syro-Malabar Church Of Western liturgical tradition: Latin Church Eastern Christianity The Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches, as well as the Assyrian Church of the East, each consider themselves to be the universal and true Catholic Church. Each of these three regards the others — since the divisions at the Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedonia (451) — as heretical or at least as schismatic and as having thus left the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. The patriarchs of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches are autocephalous hierarchs, which roughly means that each is independent of the direct oversight of another bishop, although still subject, according to their distinct traditions, either to the synod of bishops of each one’s jurisdiction, or to a common decision of the patriarchs of their own communion. Today, the Orthodox believe that among the five original Patriarchs and ancient Patriarchates (i.e., Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem) a special place of honor belongs to the pope, a "primacy of honor," but not of supremacy. Timothy Ware, The Orthodox Church (London: Penguin Press, 1993), 27. In this context, the Orthodox are willing to concede a primacy of honor to the See of Rome, but not of authority; nor do they accept its claim to universal and immediate jurisdiction. This is similar to the position taken by the Lutheran World Federation, the Anglican Communion, and the Old Catholic Church. There are about 250 million Orthodox, comprising 11.4% of global Christianity. David Barrett, "Christian World Communities: Five Overviews of Global Christianity, AD 1800-2025," in International Bulletin of Missionary Research January, 2009, Vol. 33, No 1, pp. 31. Eastern Christian Churches Eastern Orthodox Churches in communion Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America Finnish Orthodox Church American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese Greek Orthodox Church of Alexandria Church of Antioch Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America Orthodox Church of Jerusalem Russian Orthodox Church Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia Japanese Orthodox Church Ukrainian Orthodox Church - Moscow Patriarchy (UOC-MP) (Ukrainian only) Hungarian Orthodox Church - Moscow Patriarchy (Hungarian and Russian only) Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church Church of Serbia Orthodox Ohrid Archbishopric (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) Romanian Orthodox Church Bulgarian Orthodox Church Church of Cyprus Church of Greece Church of Albania Polish Orthodox Church (Polish only) Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church (Czech or Slovak only) Orthodox Church in America Eastern Orthodox Churches not in communion Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece Macedonian Orthodox Church Oriental Orthodox Churches The Armenian Apostolic Church The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria The British Orthodox Church The Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church The Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church The Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church of the East (also known as the Indian Orthodox Church) The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch (also known as the Syrian Orthodox Church) The Assyrian Church of the East Assyrian Church of the East Other Catholics and Anglicans Within Western Christianity, the churches of the Anglican Communion, the Old Catholics, the Liberal Catholic Church, the Aglipayans (Philippine Independent Church), the Polish National Catholic Church of America, and many Independent Catholic Churches, which emerged directly or indirectly from and have beliefs and practices largely similar to Latin Rite Catholicism, regard themselves as "Catholic" without full communion with the Bishop of Rome, whose claimed status and authority they generally reject. The Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, a division of the People's Republic of China's Religious Affairs Bureau exercising state supervision over mainland China's Catholics, holds a similar position, while attempting, as with Buddhism and Protestantism, to indoctrinate and mobilize for Communist Party objectives. Simon Scott Plummer, "China's Growing Faiths" in The Tablet, March, 2007. Based on a review of Religious Experience in Contemporary China by Kinzhong Yao and Paul Badham (University of Wales Press). Anglicanism Introductory works on Anglicanism, such as The Study of Anglicanism, typically refer to the character of the Anglican tradition as "Catholic and Reformed", which is in keeping with the understanding of Anglicanism articulated in the Elizabethan Settlement and in the works of the earliest standard Anglican divines such as Richard Hooker and Lancelot Andrewes. Yet different strains in Anglicanism, dating back to the English Reformation, have emphasized either the Protestant, Catholic, or "Reformed Catholic" nature of the tradition. Anglican theology and ecclesiology has thus come to be typically expressed in three distinct, yet sometimes overlapping manifestations: Anglo-Catholicism (or "high church"), "Evangelicalism" (or "low church"), and Latitudinarianism (or "broad church"), whose beliefs and practices fall somewhere between the two. Though all elements within the Anglican Communion recite the same creeds, Evangelical Anglicans regard the word catholic in the ideal sense given above. In contrast, Anglo-Catholics regard the communion as a component of the whole Catholic Church, in spiritual and historical union with the Roman Catholic, Old Catholic and several Eastern Churches. Broad Church Anglicans tend to maintain a mediating view, or consider the matter one of adiaphora. These Anglicans, for example, have agreed in the Porvoo Agreement to interchangeable ministries and full eucharistic communion with Lutherans. Anglican-Lutheran agreement signed," The Christian Century 13 November, 1996, 1005. "Two Churches Now Share a Cleric," New York Times, 20 October, 1996, 24. The Catholic nature or strain of the Anglican tradition is expressed doctrinally, ecumenically (chiefly through organisations such as the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission), ecclesiologically (through its episcopal governance and maintenance of the historical episcopate), and in liturgy and piety. Anglicans (except neo-evangelicals) maintain belief in the Seven Sacraments, Anglo-Catholics practice Marian devotion, recite the rosary and the angelus, practice Eucharistic adoration, and seek the intercession of saints. In terms of liturgy, most Anglicans use candles on the altar, many churches use incense and sanctus bells in the Eucharist, which is often referred to by the Latin-derived word "Mass". In a small number of churches the Eucharist is still celebrated facing the altar (often with a tabernacle) by a priest assisted by a deacon and subdeacon. Some Anglicans believe in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. Others don't. Likewise, different Eucharistic prayers contain different, if not necessarily contradictory, understandings of salvation. For this reason, no single strain or manifestation of Anglicanism can speak for the whole, even in ecumenical statements (as issued, for example, by the Anglican Roman Catholic International Commission). Rowan A. Greer," "Anglicanism as an ongoing argument," The Witness May, 1998, 23. Matt Cresswell, "Anglican conservatives say 'second reformation' is already under way," The Tablet 28 June, 2008, 32. Philip Jenkins, "Defender of the Faith," The Atlantic Monthly Novermber, 2003, 46-9. This "ecumenical inconsistency," to quote ecumenist, Edward Yarnold, is especially true in recent agreements made between parts of the Anglican Communion and different Lutheran Churches, where decisions (pertaining to traditions and doctrines dating back to the churches of the first millennium) are entrusted to local and national Anglican church bodies. Edward Yarnold, S.J., "A word in due season," The Tablet 18, July, 1998, 935-6. Yarnold, a Jesuit ecumenist and former member of the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission, says this: "The recent agreements made between parts of the Anglican Communion and different Lutheran Churches are a case in point [of this inconsistency] -- in Germany (Meissen), in northern Europe (Provoo), and in the United States (though the Lutherans failed to ratify this third scheme). Each of these documents involves not only the mutual participation of Anglican and Lutheran bishops in future ordinations, but in the interim recognizes orders as they stand, even though there was an acknowledged breach in the episcopal succession. Yet when Anglicans are talking to Catholics, a different principle is accepted: both the Final Report of the first Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) and the Clarifications to that report affirm the need for ordination to take place within an unbroken episcopal succession. I am glad to acknowledge that the drafters of Porvoo made an effort not to contradict ARCIC, but although I have looked again and again, I cannot see that they were successful. The problem once again illustrates the impossibility of deciding which voice speaks for the Anglican Communion." The growth of Anglo-Catholicism is strongly associated with the Oxford Movement of the nineteenth century. Two of its leading lights, John Henry Newman and Henry Edward Manning, both priests, ended up joining the Roman Catholic Church, becoming cardinals. Others, like John Keble, Edward Bouverie Pusey, and Charles Gore became influential figures in the Anglican Church. The current Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, is a patron of the Anglican organisation, Affirming Catholicism, a liberal movement within catholic Anglicanism. Conservative catholic groups also exist within the tradition, such as Forward in Faith. There are about 80 million Anglicans in the world, comprising 3.6% of global Christianity. Provinces of the Anglican Communion As in Orthodoxy, all thirty-eight provinces of the Anglican Communion are independent, each with its own primate and governing structure. These provinces may take the form of national churches (such as in Canada, Uganda, or Japan) or a collection of nations (such as the West Indies, Central Africa, or Southeast Asia). All are in union with the see of Canterbury. The 38 provinces include: In addition, there are six extraprovincial churches, five of which are under the metropolitical authority of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Anglican Church of Bermuda (extraprovincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) Iglesia Episcopal de Cuba (Episcopal Church of Cuba) (under a metropolitan council) The Parish of the Falkland Islands (extraprovincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) The Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church of Portugal (extraprovincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) The Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church (extraprovincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) The Church of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) (extraprovincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury) Protestant churches There are Catholic groups among the Protestant churches. For example, The 20th century "High Church Lutheranism" movement developed an Evangelical Catholicity, combining justification by faith with Catholic doctrine on sacraments, in some cases also restoring lacking Apostolic Succession, especially in Germany. In Reformed churches there is a Scoto-Catholic grouping within the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Such groups point to their churches' continuing adherence to the 'Catholic' doctrine of the early Church Councils. The Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland of 1921 defines that church legally as 'part of the Holy Catholic or Universal Church'. However, as with the Anglican Church, the Roman Catholic Church does not accept that these other churches are Catholic, as it views communion with the Bishop of Rome as being an indispensable part of what it means to be Catholic; the maintenance of Apostolic Succession is also necessary to be considered a Church. Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger, 1206. Ratzinger put it this way (in discussing "Sister Churches"), in much more explicit terms: "Finally, it must also be borne in mind that the expression Sister Churches in the proper sense, as attested by the common Tradition of East and West, may only be used for those ecclesial communities that have preserved a valid episcopate and Eucharist." He specifically singles out "the Anglican Communion and non-Catholic ecclesial communities" in this regard. Distinctive beliefs and practices Due to the divergent interpretations of the word "Catholicism," any listing of beliefs and practices that distinguish Catholicism from other forms of Christianity must be preceded by an indication of the sense employed. If Catholicism is understood as the Roman Catholic Church understands it, identification of beliefs is relatively easy, though preferred expressions of the beliefs vary, especially between the Latin Church, the Eastern Catholic Churches of Greek tradition, and the other Eastern Catholic Churches. Liturgical and canonical practices vary between all these particular Churches constituting the Roman Catholic Church. In the understanding of another Church that identifies Catholicism with itself, such as the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches, clear identification of certain beliefs may sometimes be more difficult, because of the lack of a central authority like that of the Roman Catholic Church. On the other hand, practices are more uniform, as indicated, for instance, in the single liturgical rite employed, in various languages, within the Eastern Orthodox Church, in contrast to the variety of liturgical rites in the Roman Catholic Church. In all these cases the beliefs and practices of Catholicism would be identical with the beliefs and practices of the Church in question. If Catholicism is extended to cover all who consider themselves spiritual descendants of the Apostles, a search for beliefs and practices that distinguish it from other forms of Christianity would be meaningless. Only if Catholicism is understood in the sense given to the word by those who use it to distinguish their position from a Calvinistic or Puritan form of Protestantism is it meaningful to attempt to draw up a list of common characteristic beliefs and practices of Catholicism. In this interpretation, evidently by no means shared by all, Catholicism includes the Roman Catholic Church, the various Churches of Eastern Christianity, the Old Catholic Church, Anglicanism, and at least some of the "independent Catholic Churches". The beliefs and practices of Catholicism, as thus understood, include: Direct and continuous organizational descent from the original church founded by Jesus , who, according to tradition, designated the Apostle Peter as its first leader. "And I tell you, you are Peter [Πετρός, meaning "rock"], and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not prevail against it." (Mt 16:18) Belief that Jesus Christ is Divine, a doctrine officially clarified in the First Council of Nicea and expressed in the Nicene Creed. Belief that the Eucharist is really, truly, and objectively the Body and Blood of Christ, through the Real Presence. Many Catholics additionally believe that adoration and worship is due to the Eucharist, as the body and blood of Christ. Possession of the "threefold ordained ministry" of Bishops, Priests and Deacons. All ministers are ordained by, and subject to, Bishops, who pass down sacramental authority by the "laying-on of hands", having themselves been ordained in a direct line of succession from the Apostles (see Apostolic Succession). Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and the Apostles from which the Scriptures were formed. This teaching is preserved in both written scripture and in unwritten tradition, neither being independent of the other. A belief in the necessity and efficacy of sacraments. The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship. Veneration of Mary, the mother of Jesus as the Blessed Virgin Mary or Theotokos (i.e., "God-bearer" or "Mother of God"), and veneration of the saints. A distinction between adoration (latria) for God, and veneration (dulia) for saints. The term hyperdulia is used for a special veneration accorded to the Virgin Mary among the saints. The use of prayer for the dead. Requests to the departed saints for intercessory prayers. Sacraments or Sacred Mysteries Churches in the Catholic tradition administer seven sacraments or "sacred mysteries": Baptism, Confirmation or Chrismation, Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and Matrimony." In some Catholic churches this number is regarded as a convention only. In Catholicism, a sacrament is considered to be an efficacious visible sign of God's invisible grace. While the word mystery is used not only of these rites, but also with other meanings with reference to revelations of and about God and to God's mystical interaction with creation, the word sacrament (Latin: a solemn pledge), the usual term in the West, refers specifically to these rites. Baptism - the first sacrament of Christian initiation, the basis for all the other sacraments. Churches in the Catholic tradition consider baptism conferred in most Christian denominations "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit" (cf. ) to be valid, since the effect is produced through the sacrament, independently of the faith of the minister, though not of the minister's intention. This is not necessarily the case in other churches. As stated in the Nicene Creed, Baptism is "for the forgiveness of sins", not only personal sins, but also of original sin, which it remits even in infants who have committed no actual sins. Expressed positively, forgiveness of sins means bestowal of the sanctifying grace by which the baptized person shares the life of God. The initiate "puts on Christ" (Galatians 3:27), and is "buried with him in baptism ... also raised with him through faith in the working of God" (Colossians 2:12). Confirmation or Chrismation - the second sacrament of Christian initiation, the means by which the gift of the Holy Spirit conferred in baptism is "strengthened and deepened" (see, for example, Catechism of the Catholic Church, §1303) by a sealing. In the Western tradition it is usually a separate rite from baptism, bestowed, following a period of education called catechesis, on those who have at least reached the age of discretion (about 7) and sometimes postponed until an age when the person is considered capable of making a mature independent profession of faith. It is considered to be of a nature distinct from the anointing with chrism (also called myrrh) that is usually part of the rite of baptism and that is not seen as a separate sacrament. In the Eastern tradition it is usually conferred in conjunction with baptism, as its completion, but is sometimes administered separately to converts or those who return to Orthodoxy. Some theologies consider this to be the outward sign of the inner "Baptism of the Holy Spirit," the special gifts (or charismata) of which may remain latent or become manifest over time according to God's will. Its "originating" minister is a validly consecrated bishop; if a priest (a "presbyter") confers the sacrament (as is permitted in some Catholic churches) the link with the higher order is indicated by the use of chrism blessed by a bishop. (In an Eastern Orthodox Church, this is customarily, although not necessarily, done by the primate of the local autocephalous church.) Eucharist - the sacrament (the third of Christian initiation) by which the faithful receive their ultimate "daily bread," or "bread for the journey," by partaking of and in the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ and being participants in Christ's one eternal sacrifice. The bread and wine used in the rite are, according to Catholic faith, in the mystical action of the Holy Spirit, transformed to be Christ's Body and Blood—his Real Presence. This transformation is interpreted by some as transubstantiation or metousiosis, by others as consubstantiation or Sacramental Union. Penance (also called Confession and Reconciliation) - the first of the two sacraments of healing. It is also called the sacrament of conversion, of forgiveness, and of absolution. It is the sacrament of spiritual healing of a baptized person from the distancing from God involved in actual sins committed. It involves the penitent's contrition for sin (without which the rite does not have its effect), confession (which in highly exceptional circumstances can take the form of a corporate general confession) to a minister who has the faculty to exercise the power to absolve the penitent, and absolution by the minister. In some traditions (such as the Roman Catholic), the rite involves a fourth element — satisfaction — which is defined as signs of repentance imposed by the minister. In early Christian centuries, the fourth element was quite onerous and generally preceded absolution, but now it usually involves a simple task (in some traditions called a "penance") for the penitent to perform, to make some reparation and as a medicinal means of strengthening against further sinning. Anointing of the Sick (or Unction) - the second sacrament of healing. In it those who are suffering an illness are anointed by a priest with oil consecrated by a bishop specifically for that purpose. In past centuries, when such a restrictive interpretation was customary, the sacrament came to be known as "Extreme Unction", i.e. "Final Anointing", as it still is among traditionalist Catholics. It was then conferred only as one of the "Last Rites". The other "Last Rites" are Penance (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, at least absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given), and the Eucharist, which, when administered to the dying, is known as "Viaticum", a word whose original meaning in Latin was "provision for a journey". The Sacrament of Holy Orders - that which integrates someone into the Holy Orders of bishops, priests (presbyters), and deacons, the threefold order of "administrators of the mysteries of God" (1 Corinthians 4:1), giving the person the mission to teach, sanctify, and govern. Only a bishop may administer this sacrament, as only a bishop holds the fullness of the Apostolic Ministry. Ordination as a bishop makes one a member of the body that has succeeded to that of the Apostles. Ordination as a priest configures a person to Christ the Head of the Church and the one essential Priest, empowering that person, as the bishops' assistant and vicar, to preside at the celebration of divine worship, and in particular to confect the sacrament of the Eucharist, acting "in persona Christi" (in the person of Christ). Ordination as a deacon configures the person to Christ the Servant of All, placing the deacon at the service of the Church, especially in the fields of the ministry of the Word, service in divine worship, pastoral guidance and charity. Deacons may later be further ordained to the priesthood, but only if they do not have a wife. In some traditions (such as those of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches), while married men may be ordained, ordained men may not marry. In others (such as the Anglican), clerical marriage is permissible as is the ordination of women to the priesthood and episcopacy. In regard to the ordination of women to the episcopacy, one cannot underestimate the chasm that is currently developing between the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental and Roman Catholic Chuches, on the one hand, and the Lutheran, Anglican and Independent Catholic Churches, on the other hand. Cardinal Walter Kasper, President of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, for example, noted this when he addressed some Anglican bishops in 2006. Quoting St. Cyprian of Carthage (d. 258), he said the episcopate is one, which means that "each part of it is held by each one for the whole"; that bishops were instruments of unity not only within the contemporary Church, but also across time, within the universal Church. This being the case, he continued, "the decision for the ordination of women to the Episcopal office ... must not in any way involve a conflict between the majority and the minority." Such a decision should be made "with the consensus of the ancient Churches of the East and West." To do otherwise "would spell the end" to any kind of unity. James Roberts, "Women bishops 'would spell the end of unity hopes'" in The Tablet, 10 June, 2006, 34. Russia's Orthodox Church went even further than simply raise concerns. It offered, for example, to restore relations with those Anglican dioceses in the US that refused to recognize the election of Katharine Jefferts Schori as their Church's presiding bishop. Johnthan Luxmoore, "Orthodox overture to Episcopalians," The Tablet, 2 September, 2006, 33. Marriage (or Holy Matrimony) - is the sacrament of joining a man and a woman (according to the churches' doctrines) for mutual help and love (the unitive purpose), consecrating them for their particular mission of building up the Church and the world, and providing grace for accomplishing that mission. Western tradition sees the sacrament as conferred by the canonically expressed mutual consent of the partners in marriage; Eastern and some recent Western theologians not in communion with the see of Rome view the blessing by a priest as constituting the sacramental action. See also One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church Religious Orders Anglican Catholic Church Anglican Church in North America Arianism Evangelical Catholic Global Anglican Future Conference Neo-Lutheranism Porvoo Agreement Traditionalist Catholic References Further reading Without Roots: The West, Relativism, Christianity, Islam by Pope Benedict XVI, formerly Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (Basic Books, 0465006345, 2006). Catechism of the Catholic Church English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1-57455-110-8 H. W. Crocker III, Triumph—The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History (Prima Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0-7615-2924-1 Leo J. Trese, The Faith Explained Third Edition (Fides/Claretian, 2001). ISBN 1-889334-29-4 Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0-300-09165-6 K. O. Johnson, Why Do Catholics Do That? (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0-345-39726-6 Ludwig von Pastor, History of the Popes from the Close of the Middle Ages; Drawn from the Secret Archives of the Vatican and other original sources, 40 vols. St. Louis, B.Herder 1898 Basic Catechism Seventh Revised Edition (Pauline Books & Media, 1999). ISBN 0-8198-0623-4 Peter Lynch, The Church's Story: A History of Pastoral Care and Vision (Pauline Books & Media, 2005). ISBN 0-8198-1575-6 External links Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople A library of public domain Catholic writings be-x-old:Каталіцтва | Catholicism |@lemmatized catholicism:19 broad:3 term:11 body:10 catholic:137 faith:14 theology:5 doctrine:10 liturgical:11 ethical:1 spiritual:5 behavioral:1 characteristic:2 well:3 religious:8 people:4 whole:5 depend:1 understanding:6 word:10 may:12 refer:9 roman:30 church:228 namely:1 christian:27 live:1 communion:25 see:20 rome:19 broadly:1 many:12 include:7 others:8 claim:9 continuity:3 separation:2 greek:13 eastern:25 latin:9 western:13 make:9 orthodox:53 oriental:9 assyrian:5 east:12 old:9 anglican:44 base:2 apostolic:16 succession:12 especially:5 conjunction:2 adherence:3 nicene:4 creed:6 interpret:3 traditional:1 belief:19 protestant:6 reformer:1 deny:1 oxford:2 movement:4 distinguish:5 form:8 christianity:12 particular:8 commitment:1 tradition:28 sacrament:25 mediation:1 god:17 monastic:1 life:2 order:10 appreciation:1 art:1 communal:1 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vision:1 external:1 library:1 public:1 domain:1 writing:1 x:1 каталіцтва:1 |@bigram eastern_orthodox:11 oriental_orthodox:7 anglican_communion:10 apostolic_succession:8 nicene_creed:4 protestant_reformer:1 ignatius_antioch:1 saviour_jesus:1 jesus_christ:6 augustine_hippo:1 emperor_theodosius:1 holy_spirit:5 theodosian_code:1 authorhouse_isbn:1 benedict_xvi:2 joseph_ratzinger:2 evangelical_lutheran:2 vi_à:1 à_vi:1 apostle_creed:1 creed_nicene:1 patriarch_constantinople:1 marcellus_ancyra:1 ecumenical_council:2 virgin_mary:4 council_chalcedon:2 protestant_reformation:1 dogma_papal:1 papal_infallibility:1 liturgical_rite:4 ecumenical_patriarchate:2 patriarchate_constantinople:2 orthodox_archdiocese:1 antiochian_orthodox:1 republic_macedonia:1 czech_slovak:2 armenian_apostolic:1 coptic_orthodox:1 syriac_orthodox:2 malankara_orthodox:1 directly_indirectly:1 lancelot_andrewes:1 deacon_subdeacon:1 eucharistic_prayer:1 nineteenth_century:1 archbishop_canterbury:7 rowan_williams:1 west_indie:1 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6,510 | M81_Group | The M81 Group is a group of galaxies in the constellation Ursa Major that contains the well-known galaxies Messier 81 and Messier 82 as well as several other galaxies with high apparent brightnesses. The approximate center of the group is located at a distance of 3.6 Mpc, making it one of the nearest groups to the Local Group. The group is estimated to have a total mass of (1.03 ± 0.17)M☉. The M81 Group, the Local Group, and other nearby groups all lie within the Virgo Supercluster (i.e. the Local Supercluster). Members The table below lists galaxies that have been identified as associated with the M81 Group by I. D. Karachentsev. +Members of the M81 Group Name Type R.A. (J2000) Dec. (J2000) Redshift (km/s) Apparent Magnitude Arp's Loop 99 16.1 DDO 78 Im 55 ± 10 15.8 F8D1 dE 13.9 FM1 dSph 17.5 HIJASS J1021+6842 46 20 HS 117 I -37 16.5 Holmberg I IAB(s)m 139 ± 0 13.0 Holmberg II Im 142 ± 1 11.1 Holmberg IX Im 46 ± 6 14.3 IC 2574 SAB(s)m 57 ± 2 13.2 IKN 17.0 KKH 57 dSph 18.5 Messier 81 SA(s)ab -34 ± 4 7.9 Messier 81 Dwarf A I 113 ± 0 16.5 Messier 82 I0 203 ± 4 9.3 NGC 2366 IB(s)m 80 ± 1 11.4 NGC 2403 SAB(s)cd 131 ± 3 8.9 NGC 2976 SAc pec 3 ± 5 10.8 NGC 3077 I0 pec 14 ± 4 10.6 NGC 4236 SB(s)dm 0 ± 4 10.1 PGC 28529 Im -40 17.1 PGC 28731 dE -135 ± 30 15.6 PGC 29231 dE 16.7 PGC 31286 dSph 16.7 PGC 32667 Im 116 ± 1 14.9 UGC 4459 Im 20 ± 0 14.5 UGC 4483 156 ± 0 15.1 UGC 5428 Im -129 ± 0 18 UGC 5442 Im -18 ± 14 18 UGC 5692 13.5 56 ± 3 13.5 UGC 6456 Pec -103 ± 0 14.5 UGC 7242 Scd 68 ± 2 14.6 UGC 8201 Im 31 ± 0 12.8 UGCA 133 Im 15.6 Note that the object names used in the above table differ from the names used by Karachentsev. NGC, IC, UGC, and PGC numbers have been used in many cases to allow for easier referencing. Interactions within the group Messier 81, Messier 82, and NGC 3077 are all strongly interacting with each other . The gravitational interactions have stripped some hydrogen gas away from all three galaxies, leading to the formation of filamentary gas structures within the group. Moreover, the interactions have also caused some interstellar gas to fall into the centers of Messier 82 and NGC 3077, which has led to strong starburst activity (or the formation of many stars) within the centers of these two galaxies. External links M81 Group @ SEDS M81 Group from An Atlas of The Universe References | M81_Group |@lemmatized group:15 galaxy:6 constellation:1 ursa:1 major:1 contain:1 well:2 know:1 messier:3 messy:5 several:1 high:1 apparent:2 brightness:1 approximate:1 center:3 locate:1 distance:1 mpc:1 make:1 one:1 near:1 local:3 estimate:1 total:1 mass:1 nearby:1 lie:1 within:4 virgo:1 supercluster:2 e:1 member:2 table:2 list:1 identify:1 associate:1 karachentsev:2 name:3 type:1 r:1 dec:1 redshift:1 km:1 magnitude:1 arp:1 loop:1 ddo:1 im:10 de:3 dsph:3 hijass:1 h:1 holmberg:3 iab:1 ii:1 ix:1 ic:2 sab:2 ikn:1 kkh:1 sa:1 ab:1 dwarf:1 ngc:8 ib:1 cd:1 sac:1 pec:3 sb:1 dm:1 pgc:6 ugc:9 scd:1 ugca:1 note:1 object:1 use:3 differ:1 number:1 many:2 case:1 allow:1 easy:1 referencing:1 interaction:3 strongly:1 interact:1 gravitational:1 strip:1 hydrogen:1 gas:3 away:1 three:1 lead:2 formation:2 filamentary:1 structure:1 moreover:1 also:1 cause:1 interstellar:1 fall:1 strong:1 starburst:1 activity:1 star:1 two:1 external:1 link:1 seds:1 atlas:1 universe:1 reference:1 |@bigram constellation_ursa:1 ursa_major:1 apparent_magnitude:1 messy_ngc:2 external_link:1 |
6,511 | Arbeit_macht_frei | Arbeit Macht Frei gate at KZ SachsenhausenDetail of the Arbeit Macht Frei inscription on the gate at DachauArbeit Macht Frei at Auschwitz, with the inverted BArbeit Macht Frei at concentration camp Terezín (Theresienstadt) in the Czech Republic "Arbeit macht frei" is a German phrase meaning "work brings freedom" or "work shall set you free/will free you" or "work liberates" and, literally in English, "work makes (one) free". The slogan is known for being placed at the entrances to a number of Nazi concentration camps. Origin In 1872 the German nationalist author Lorenz Diefenbach used the expression "" as the title for a novel, causing the expression to become well-known in nationalist circles. It was adopted in 1928 by the Weimar government as a slogan extolling the effects of their desired policy of large-scale public works programmes to end unemployment, and mocking the Medieval slogan "" ("City air brings freedom"). It was continued in this usage by the NSDAP (Nazi Party) when it came to power in 1933. Nazi use The slogan "Arbeit macht frei" was placed at the entrances to a number of Nazi concentration camps "as a kind of mystical declaration that self-sacrifice in the form of endless labor does in itself bring a kind of spiritual freedom." Although it was common practice in Germany to post inscriptions of this sort at entrances to institutional properties and large estates, the slogan's use in this instance was ordered by SS General Theodor Eicke, inspector of concentration camps and first commandant of Dachau Concentration Camp. The slogan can still be seen at several sites, including the entrance to Auschwitz I—although, according to Auschwitz: a New History, by BBC historian Laurence Rees, it was placed there by commandant Rudolf Höß, who believed that doing menial work during his own imprisonment under the Weimar Republic had helped him through the experience. At Auschwitz, the upper bowl in the "B" in "ARBEIT" is wider than the lower bowl, appearing to some as upside-down. Several geometrically constructed sans-serif typefaces of the 1920s experimented with this variation. The slogan can also be seen at the Dachau concentration camp, Gross-Rosen, Sachsenhausen, and the Theresienstadt Ghetto-Camp. At Buchenwald, however, "Jedem das Seine" ("To each his own") was used instead. In 1938 the Austrian political cabaret writer Jura Soyfer and the composer Herbert Zipper, while prisoners at Dachau Concentration Camp, wrote the "Dachaulied" (The Dachau Song). They had spent weeks marching in and out of the camp's gate to daily forced labour, and considered the motto "Arbeit macht frei" over the gate an insult. The song repeats the phrase cynically as a "lesson" taught by Dachau. (The first verse is translated in the article on Jura Soyfer.) See also The Holocaust Jedem das Seine Stadtluft macht frei References External links Rudy Brueggemann's Photos of Arbeit Macht Frei slogans at Nazi camps | Arbeit_macht_frei |@lemmatized arbeit:7 macht:9 frei:9 gate:4 kz:1 sachsenhausendetail:1 inscription:2 dachauarbeit:1 auschwitz:4 inverted:1 barbeit:1 concentration:7 camp:10 terezín:1 theresienstadt:2 czech:1 republic:2 german:2 phrase:2 meaning:1 work:6 bring:3 freedom:3 shall:1 set:1 free:3 liberates:1 literally:1 english:1 make:1 one:1 slogan:8 know:2 place:3 entrance:4 number:2 nazi:5 origin:1 nationalist:2 author:1 lorenz:1 diefenbach:1 use:4 expression:2 title:1 novel:1 cause:1 become:1 well:1 circle:1 adopt:1 weimar:2 government:1 extol:1 effect:1 desired:1 policy:1 large:2 scale:1 public:1 programme:1 end:1 unemployment:1 mock:1 medieval:1 city:1 air:1 continue:1 usage:1 nsdap:1 party:1 come:1 power:1 kind:2 mystical:1 declaration:1 self:1 sacrifice:1 form:1 endless:1 labor:1 spiritual:1 although:2 common:1 practice:1 germany:1 post:1 sort:1 institutional:1 property:1 estate:1 instance:1 order:1 ss:1 general:1 theodor:1 eicke:1 inspector:1 first:2 commandant:2 dachau:5 still:1 see:3 several:2 site:1 include:1 accord:1 new:1 history:1 bbc:1 historian:1 laurence:1 rees:1 rudolf:1 höß:1 believe:1 menial:1 imprisonment:1 help:1 experience:1 upper:1 bowl:2 b:1 wide:1 low:1 appear:1 upside:1 geometrically:1 construct:1 sans:1 serif:1 typeface:1 experiment:1 variation:1 also:2 gross:1 rosen:1 sachsenhausen:1 ghetto:1 buchenwald:1 however:1 jedem:2 da:1 seine:2 instead:1 austrian:1 political:1 cabaret:1 writer:1 jura:2 soyfer:2 composer:1 herbert:1 zipper:1 prisoner:1 write:1 dachaulied:1 song:2 spend:1 week:1 march:1 daily:1 force:1 labour:1 consider:1 motto:1 insult:1 repeat:1 cynically:1 lesson:1 taught:1 verse:1 translate:1 article:1 holocaust:1 das:1 stadtluft:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 rudy:1 brueggemann:1 photo:1 |@bigram arbeit_macht:6 macht_frei:9 concentration_camp:7 czech_republic:1 dachau_concentration:3 rudolf_höß:1 weimar_republic:1 sans_serif:1 external_link:1 |
6,512 | Airbus_A300 | The Airbus A300 is a short- to medium-range widebody aircraft. Launched in 1972 as the world's first twin-engined widebody, it was the first product of the Airbus consortium of European aerospace companies, wholly owned today by EADS. The A300 ceased production in July 2007, along with the smaller A310. Freighter sales for which the A300 competed are to be fulfilled by a new A330-200F derivative. Development history The mission requirements were given in 1966 by Frank Kolk, an American Airlines executive, for a Boeing 727 replacement on busy short- to medium-range routes such as US transcontinental flights. His brief included a passenger capacity of 250 to 300 seated in a twin-aisle configuration and fitted with two engines, with the capability of carrying full passengers without penalty from high-altitude airports like Denver. American manufacturers responded with widebody trijets, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 Tristar, as twinjets were banned from many routes by the FAA. American Airlines A300 In September 1967, the British, French, and German governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to start development of the 300-seat Airbus A300. An earlier announcement had been made in July 1967, but at that time the announcement had been clouded by the British Government's support for the Airbus, which coincided with its refusal to back British Aircraft Corporation's (BAC) proposed competitor, a development of the BAC 1-11 — despite a preference for the latter expressed by British European Airways (BEA). In the months following this agreement, both the French and British governments expressed doubts about the aircraft. Another problem was the requirement for a new engine to be developed by Rolls-Royce, the RB207. In December 1968, the French and British partner companies (Sud Aviation and Hawker Siddeley) proposed a revised configuration, the 250-seat Airbus A250. Renamed the A300B, the aircraft would not require new engines, reducing development costs. To attract potential US customers, American General Electric CF6-50 engines powered the A300 instead of the British RB207. The British government was upset and withdrew from the venture; however, the British firm Hawker-Siddeley stayed on as a contractor, developing the wings for the A300, which were pivotal in later versions' impressive performance from short domestic to long intercontinental flights. (Years later, through British Aerospace, the UK re-entered the consortium.) Airbus A300B4-600 Airbus Industrie was formally set up in 1970 following an agreement between Aérospatiale (France), the antecedents to Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) . They were to be joined by the Spanish CASA in 1971. Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly items. In 1972 the A300 made its maiden flight. The first production model, the A300B2, entered service in 1974. Initially the success of the consortium was poor, but by 1979 there were 81 aircraft in service. It was the launch of the A320 in 1981 that established Airbus as a major player in the aircraft market — the aircraft had over 400 orders before it first flew, compared to 15 for the A300 in 1972. The A300 was the first airliner to use just-in-time manufacturing techniques. Complete aircraft sections were manufactured by consortium partners all over Europe. These were airlifted to the final assembly line at Toulouse-Blagnac by a fleet of Boeing 377-derived Aero Spacelines Super Guppy aircraft. Originally devised as a way to share the work among Airbus's partners without the expense of two assembly lines, it turned out to be a more efficient way of building airplanes (more flexible and reduced costs) as opposed to building the whole airplane at one site. This fact was not lost on Boeing, which, over thirty years later, decided to manufacture the Boeing 787 in this manner, using outsized 747s to ferry wings and other parts from Japan. The A300 cemented European cooperation in aviation. Its first flight was commemorated on a French three franc stamp. Technology Airbus A300 fuselage cross-section, showing the passenger compartment above and the baggage area below. On display in the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany. Egypt Air Airbus A300-600R Airbus partners employed the latest technology, some derived from the Concorde. On entry into service in 1974, the A300 was very advanced and influenced later subsonic airliner designs. The technological highlights include: Advanced wings by de Havilland (later BAE Systems) with: supercritical airfoil section for economical performance advanced aerodynamically efficient flight controls 222-inch diameter circular fuselage section for 8-abreast passenger seating and wide enough for 2 LD3 cargo containers side-by-side Structures made from metal billets, reducing weight First airliner to be fitted with wind shear protection Advanced autopilots capable of flying the aircraft from climb-out to landing Electrically controlled braking system Later A300s incorporate other advanced features such as: 2-man crew by automating the flight engineer's functions, an industry first Glass cockpit flight instruments Extensive use of composites for an aircraft of its era Center-of-gravity control by shifting around fuel Wingtip fences for better aerodynamics (first introduced on the A310-300). All these made the A300 a substitute for the widebody trijets such as McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and Lockheed L-1011 for short to medium routes. On the early versions, Airbus used the same engines and similar major systems as the DC-10. In-service After the launch, sales of the A300 were weak for some years, with most orders going to airlines that had an obligation to favor the domestically made product — notably Air France and Lufthansa. At one stage, Airbus had 16 "whitetail" A300s – completed but unsold aircraft – sitting on the tarmac. Indian Airlines was the world's first domestic airline to purchase the A300. These have now been retired. In 1977, U.S. carrier Eastern Air Lines leased four A300s as an in-service trial. Frank Borman, ex-astronaut and the then CEO, was impressed that the A300 consumed 30% less fuel than his fleet of Tristars and then ordered 23 of the type. This was followed by an order from Pan Am. From then on, the A300 family sold rather well, eventually reaching the current total of 858 on order or delivered. The aircraft found particular favour with Asian airlines, being bought by Japan Air System, Korean Air, Thai Airways International, Singapore Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Philippine Airlines, Garuda Indonesia, China Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, Indian Airlines, Trans Australia Airlines and many others. As Asia did not have restrictions similar to the FAA 60-minutes rule for twin-engine airliners which existed at the time, Asian airlines used A300s for routes across the Bay of Bengal and South China Sea. DHL A300B4-200 takes off. In 1977, the A300B4 became the first “ETOPS compliant” aircraft – its high performance and safety standards qualified it for Extended Twin Engine Operations over water, providing operators with more versatility in routing. By 1981, Airbus was growing rapidly, with over 300 aircraft sold and options for 200 more planes for over forty airlines. Alarmed by the success of the A300, Boeing responded with the new Boeing 767. The A300 provided Airbus the experience of manufacturing and selling airliners competitively. The basic fuselage of the A300 was later stretched (A330 and A340), shrunk (A310), or modified into derivatives (A300-600ST Beluga Super Transporter). The A300 has reached the end of production, and the last A300 freighter has been completed and delivered. The largest freight operator of the A300 is FedEx Express, which, as of January 2006, had 95 A300/310 aircraft. UPS Airlines also operates freighter versions of the A300. The final version was the A300-600R and is rated for 180-minute ETOPS. The A300 has enjoyed renewed interest in the secondhand market for conversion to freighters. The freighter versions – either new-build A300-600s or converted ex-passenger A300-600s, A300B2s and B4s – account for most of the world freighter fleet after the Boeing 747 freighter. In March 2006 Airbus announced the closure of the A300/A310 line making them the first Airbus aircraft to be discontinued. The final production A300 made its initial flight on 18 April 2007 and was delivered on 12 July 2007. It was an A300F freighter for FedEx. Airbus has announced a support package to keep A300s flying commercially until at least 2025. Variants This A300B1 was the second A300 ever built and one of the first to enter service with an airline in late 1974. It has been used as a fire brigade training structure at Brussels Airport since 1990 and was destroyed on 9 July 2003. Islandsflug Cargo A300C4-605R A300-ZERO-G A300B1 Only two were built: the first prototype, and a second aircraft which was later sold for airline service (to Air Algérie) and has now been scrapped. It has accommodation for 259 passengers with a maximum weight of 132,000 kg and two General Electric CF6-50A engines of 220 kN thrust. A300B2 The first production version. Powered by General Electric CF6 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D engines of between 227 and 236 kN thrust, it entered service with Air France in May 1974. A300B2-100: 137 Metric Ton MTOW A300B2-200: 142 Metric Ton MTOW, with Kruger flaps A300B2-300: increased Maximum Landing Weight/Maximum Zero Fuel Weight A300B4 The major production version. Features a center fuel tank for increased fuel capacity (47,500 kg). Production of the B2 and B4 totaled 248. A300B4-100: 157.5 Metric Ton MTOW A300B4-200: 165 Metric Ton MTOW A300B4-200FF: An A300 with a "forward-facing" crew compartment. The world's first 2-crew widebody airliner. Includes some of the A310's and A300-600's digital avionics. First saw service with Garuda in 1982, further customers were VASP, Tunisair and Kar-Air/Finnair. A300B4-600: Referred to as the A300-600. See Below. A300C4: Convertible freighter version, with a large cargo door on the port side. First delivered to South African Airways in October 1982. A300F4-203: Freighter version of the A300B4-200. First delivery occurred in 1986, but only very few were built as the A300F4-200 was soon replaced by the more capable A300-600F (official designation: A300F4-600F). A300-600: Officially designated A300B4-600, this version is the same length as the B2 and B4 but has increased space because it uses the A310 rear fuselage and tail. It has higher power CF6-80 or Pratt & Whitney PW4000 engines and entered service in 1983 with Saudi Arabian Airlines. A total of 313 A300-600s (all versions) have been sold. The A300-600 also has the same cockpit as the A310, eliminating the need for a flight engineer. A300-600: (Official designation: A300B4-600) The baseline model of the -600 series. A300-620C: (Official designation: A300C4-620) A convertible freighter version. First delivery December 1985. A300-600F: (Official designation: A300F4-600) The freighter version of the baseline -600. A300-600R: (Official designation: A300B4-600R) The increased range -600, achieved by an additional trim fuel tank in the tail. First delivery in 1988 to American Airlines; all A300s built since 1989 (freighters included) are -600Rs. Japan Air System(Later merged in Japan Air Lines) took delivery of the last new-built passenger A300, an A300-622R, in November 2002. A300-600RF: (Official designation: A300F4-600R) The freighter version of the -600R. All A300s delivered between November 2002 and 12 July 2007 (last ever A300 delivery) were A300-600RFs. A300-600ST: Commonly referred to as the Beluga or "Airbus Super Transporter," these five airframes are used by Airbus to ferry parts between the company's disparate manufacturing facilities, thus enabling workshare distribution. They replaced the four Aero Spacelines Super Guppys previously used by Airbus. A300B10 (A310) Introduced a shorter fuselage, a new, higher aspect ratio wing, smaller tail and two crew operation. It is available in standard -200 and the Extended range -300 with 9,600 km range in both passenger and full cargo versions. It is also available as a military tanker/transport serving the Canadian Forces and Luftwaffe. Sales total 260, although five of these (ordered by Iraqi Airways) were never built. Specifications MeasurementA300B4A300-600RA300-600FTypical Passenger Seating 266 (2-Class) 15 (21) palletsLength 54.08 m or 177' 3"Wing Span 44.85 m or 147' 2"Wing Area 260 m² (2,800 ft²)Height 16.62 m or 54' 6"Max cabin width 5.28 m or 17' 4"Fuselage diameter 5.64 m or 18' 6"Typical Operating Weight Empty 90,060 kg or 198,132 lbs 90,900 kg or 200,400 lbs 81,900 kg or 180,700 lbsMTOW 165,000 kg or 364,980 lbs 171,700 kg or 378,500 lbs 170,500 kg or 375,100 lbsTake-off Run at MTOW N/A 2,324 mCruising speed mach 0.78 (829 km/h, 515 mph, 447 knots at 35,000 ft)Maximum speed mach 0.82 (871 km/h, 541 mph, 470 knots at 35,000 ft)Range fully loaded 6,670 km or 3,600 nm 4,850 km or 2,650 nmMax. fuel capacity 62,900 litres 18,000 USG or 68,150 litresEngines CF6-50C2 or JT9D-59A CF6-80C2 or PW4158Cockpit Crew Three Two Engines Model Date EnginesA300B2-1A 1974 General Electric CF6-50AA300B2-1C 1975 General Electric CF6-50CA300B2K-3C 1976 General Electric CF6-50CRA300B4-2C 1976 General Electric CF6-50CA300B4-103 1979 General Electric CF6-50C2A300B2-203 1980 General Electric CF6-50C2A300B4-203 1981 General Electric CF6-50C2A300B4-601 1988 General Electric CF6-80C2A1A300B4-603 1988 General Electric CF6-80C2A3A300B4-620 1983 Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7R4H1A300B4-622 2003 Pratt & Whitney PW4158A300B4-605R 1988 General Electric CF6-80C2A5A300B4-622R 1991 Pratt & Whitney PW4158A300F4-605R 1994 General Electric CF6-80C2A5 or 2A5FA300F4-622R 2000 Pratt & Whitney PW4158A300C4-605R 2002 General Electric CF6-80C2A5 A300 Deliveries <font color=#FFFFFF> 2007 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2006 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2005 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2004 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2003 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2002 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2001 <font color=#FFFFFF> 2000 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1999 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1998 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1997 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1996 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1995 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1994 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1993 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1992 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1991 69912891188136141723222225<font color=#FFFFFF> 1990 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1989 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1988 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1987 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1986 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1985 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1984 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1983 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1982 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1981 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1980 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1979 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1978 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1977 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1976 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1975 <font color=#FFFFFF> 1974 19241711101619194638392615151384 Incidents 27 June 1976: Air France Flight 139, originating in Tel Aviv, Israel and carrying 248 passengers and a crew of 12 took off from Athens, Greece, headed for Paris, France. The flight was hijacked by terrorists, and was eventually flown to Entebbe Airport (now known as Entebbe International Airport) in Uganda. 18 December 1983: Malaysia Airlines Flight 684, an Airbus A300B4 leased from Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), registration OY-KAA, crashed short of the runway at Kuala Lumpur in bad weather while attempting to land on a flight from Singapore. All 247 persons aboard escaped unharmed but the aircraft was destroyed in the resulting fire. 3 July 1988: Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by the USS Vincennes in the Persian Gulf after being mistaken for an attacking Iranian F-14 Tomcat, killing all 290 passengers and crew. 28 September 1992: PIA Flight 268 a Pakistan International Airlines A300B4 crashed on approach near Kathmandu, Nepal. All 12 crew and 155 passengers were killed The Airbus A300 26 April 1994: China Airlines Flight 140 (Republic of China) crashed at the end of runway at Nagoya, Japan, killing all 15 crew and 249 of 264 passengers on board. 26 September 1997: Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 crashed while landing at Medan, Indonesia killing 234 aboard. 16 February 1998: China Airlines Flight 676 (Republic of China) crashed into residential area close to CKS international airport near Taipei, Taiwan. All 196 people onboard were killed, including Taiwan's central bank president. Six people on the ground were also killed. 24 December 1999: Indian Airlines Flight IC 814 from Kathmandu, Nepal to New Delhi was hijacked to Kandahar, Afghanistan. 1 fatality. 12 November 2001: American Airlines, Flight 587 crashed into the Belle Harbor neighborhood of Queens, New York shortly after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport. All 260 people on board were killed, along with 5 people on the ground. 22 November 2003: European Air Transport OO-DLL, operating on behalf of DHL Aviation, was hit by an SA-7 'Grail' missile after take-off from Baghdad International Airport. The airplane lost hydraulic pressure and thus the controls. After extending the landing gear to create more drag, the crew piloted the plane using differences in engine thrust and landed the plane with minimal further damage. The plane was repaired and offered for sale (incident summary and photos). See also References External links Official site Pictures Aircraft-Info.net - Airbus A300-600 Airbus A300 Production List A300 2-man crew modifications Certificated A300 variants worldwide | Airbus_A300 |@lemmatized airbus:26 short:5 medium:3 range:6 widebody:5 aircraft:20 launch:3 world:4 first:21 twin:4 engined:1 product:2 consortium:4 european:4 aerospace:3 company:4 wholly:1 today:1 eads:1 cease:1 production:8 july:6 along:2 small:2 freighter:14 sale:4 compete:1 fulfil:1 new:9 derivative:2 development:4 history:1 mission:1 requirement:2 give:1 frank:2 kolk:1 american:6 airline:26 executive:1 boeing:7 replacement:1 busy:1 route:4 u:3 transcontinental:1 flight:20 brief:1 include:5 passenger:13 capacity:3 seat:4 aisle:1 configuration:2 fit:2 two:6 engine:12 capability:1 carry:2 full:2 without:2 penalty:1 high:4 altitude:1 airport:7 like:1 denver:1 manufacturer:1 respond:2 trijets:2 mcdonnell:2 douglas:2 dc:3 lockheed:2 l:2 tristar:1 twinjet:1 ban:1 many:2 faa:2 september:3 british:10 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6,513 | Emanuel_Leutze | Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze (May 24, 1816 – July 18, 1868) was a German American history painter best-known for his painting Washington Crossing the Delaware. Leutze was born to a Jewish family in Schwäbisch Gmünd, Württemberg (Germany), was brought to America as a child, and then returned to Germany as a adult " German Americans also have influenced greatly our artistic heritage. Emanuel Leutze's 1851 painting, "Washington Crossing the Delaware River," depicting the December 25, 1976 event when George Washington crossed the Delaware River leading the Continental army into the battle with the Hessian troops in the Battle of Trenton remains a cherished and recognized symbol of American courage and determination." . His parents settled first in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, then at Fredericksburg, Va. He received his first instruction in art from J. A. Smith, a portrait painter in Philadelphia. In 1840 one of his pictures attracted attention and procured him several orders, which enabled him to go to Düsseldorf, where he studied with Lessing. In 1842 he went to Munich, studying the works of Cornelius and Karlbach, and the following year he visited Venice and Rome. In 1845 he returned to Düsseldorf and was married, making his home there for 14 years. Washington Crossing the Delaware Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way Washington rallying the troops at Monmouth His first work, Columbus before the Council of Salamanca was purchased by the Düsseldorf Art Union. A strong supporter of Europe's Revolutions of 1848, Leutze decided to paint an image that would encourage Europe's liberal reformers with the example of the American Revolution. Using American tourists and art students as models and assistants, Leutze finished Washington Crossing the Delaware in 1850. It is owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. In 1854, Leutze finished his depiction of the Battle of Monmouth, "Washington rallying the troops at Monmouth," commissioned by an important Leutze patron, banker David Leavitt of New York City and Great Barrington, Massachusetts. "Washington at Monmouth," American Heritage Magazine, June 1965, AmericanHeritage.com In 1859, Leutze painted a portrait of Chief Justice Roger Brooke Taney which hangs in the Harvard Law School. In a 1992 opinion, Justice Antonin Scalia described the portrait of Taney, made two years after Taney's infamous decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford, as showing Taney "in black, sitting in a shadowed red armchair, left hand resting upon a pad of paper in his lap, right hand hanging limply, almost lifelessly, beside the inner arm of the chair. He sits facing the viewer and staring straight out. There seems to be on his face, and in his deep-set eyes, an expression of profound sadness and disillusionment." Leutze also executed other portraits, including one of fellow painter William Morris Hunt. That portrait was owned by Hunt's brother Leavitt Hunt, a New York attorney and sometime Vermont resident, and was shown at an exhibition devoted to William Morris Hunt's work at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston in 1878. Exhibition of the Works of William Morris Hunt, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, John C. Dalton, Alfred Mudge & Son, Boston, 1879 In 1860 Leutze was commissioned by the U.S. Congress to decorate a stairway in the Capitol Building in Washington, DC, for which he painted a large composition, Westward the Course of Empire Takes Its Way, which is also commonly known as Westward Ho!. Late in life, he became a member of the National Academy of Design. He was also a member of the Union League Club of New York, which has a number of his paintings. He died in Washington, D.C. in his 53rd year. Leutze's portraits are known less for their artistic quality than for their patriotic emotionalism. Washington Crossing the Delaware firmly ranks among the American national iconography, and is thus often caricatured. References New International Encyclopedia External links Leutze Gallery at MuseumSyndicate Emanuel Leutze Introduction to Washington's Crossing by David Hackett Fischer at the Oxford University Press blog, discusses Leutze's most famous painting. | Emanuel_Leutze |@lemmatized emanuel:3 gottlieb:1 leutze:14 may:1 july:1 german:2 american:7 history:1 painter:3 best:1 know:3 paint:4 washington:12 cross:6 delaware:6 bear:1 jewish:1 family:1 schwäbisch:1 gmünd:1 württemberg:1 germany:2 bring:1 america:1 child:1 return:2 adult:1 also:4 influence:1 greatly:1 artistic:2 heritage:2 painting:3 river:2 depict:1 december:1 event:1 george:1 lead:1 continental:1 army:1 battle:3 hessian:1 troop:3 trenton:1 remain:1 cherished:1 recognized:1 symbol:1 courage:1 determination:1 parent:1 settle:1 first:3 philadelphia:2 pennsylvania:1 fredericksburg:1 va:1 receive:1 instruction:1 art:6 j:1 smith:1 portrait:6 one:2 picture:1 attract:1 attention:1 procure:1 several:1 order:1 enable:1 go:2 düsseldorf:3 study:2 lessing:1 munich:1 work:4 cornelius:1 karlbach:1 following:1 year:4 visit:1 venice:1 rome:1 marry:1 make:2 home:1 westward:3 course:2 empire:2 take:2 way:2 rally:2 monmouth:4 columbus:1 council:1 salamanca:1 purchase:1 union:2 strong:1 supporter:1 europe:2 revolution:2 decide:1 image:1 would:1 encourage:1 liberal:1 reformer:1 example:1 use:1 tourist:1 student:1 model:1 assistant:1 finish:2 metropolitan:1 museum:3 new:5 york:4 depiction:1 commission:2 important:1 patron:1 banker:1 david:2 leavitt:2 city:1 great:1 barrington:1 massachusetts:1 magazine:1 june:1 americanheritage:1 com:1 chief:1 justice:2 roger:1 brooke:1 taney:4 hang:2 harvard:1 law:1 school:1 opinion:1 antonin:1 scalia:1 describe:1 two:1 infamous:1 decision:1 dred:1 scott:1 v:1 sandford:1 show:2 black:1 sit:2 shadowed:1 red:1 armchair:1 leave:1 hand:2 rest:1 upon:1 pad:1 paper:1 lap:1 right:1 limply:1 almost:1 lifelessly:1 beside:1 inner:1 arm:1 chair:1 face:2 viewer:1 star:1 straight:1 seem:1 deep:1 set:1 eye:1 expression:1 profound:1 sadness:1 disillusionment:1 execute:1 include:1 fellow:1 william:3 morris:3 hunt:5 brother:1 attorney:1 sometime:1 vermont:1 resident:1 exhibition:2 devote:1 fine:2 boston:3 john:1 c:2 dalton:1 alfred:1 mudge:1 son:1 u:1 congress:1 decorate:1 stairway:1 capitol:1 building:1 dc:1 large:1 composition:1 commonly:1 ho:1 late:1 life:1 become:1 member:2 national:2 academy:1 design:1 league:1 club:1 number:1 die:1 less:1 quality:1 patriotic:1 emotionalism:1 firmly:1 rank:1 among:1 iconography:1 thus:1 often:1 caricature:1 reference:1 international:1 encyclopedia:1 external:1 link:1 gallery:1 museumsyndicate:1 introduction:1 crossing:1 hackett:1 fischer:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 blog:1 discuss:1 famous:1 |@bigram philadelphia_pennsylvania:1 americanheritage_com:1 antonin_scalia:1 washington_dc:1 external_link:1 |
6,514 | Audi | AUDI AG, (Xetra: NSU) is a German company which produces cars under the Audi brand, (). It is part of the Volkswagen Group. The name Audi is based on a Latin translation of the last name of the founder August "Horch", itself the German word for “hear." Audi is headquartered in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany and has been an almost wholly-owned (99.55%) subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group (Volkswagen AG) since 1964. Volkswagen Group relaunched the Audi name when it was acquired as part of Volkswagen's purchase of the Auto Union and NSU Motorenwerke AG (NSU) assets. Audi's corporate tagline is Vorsprung durch Technik, meaning "Advantage through Technology". The German-language tagline is used in many European countries, including the United Kingdom, and in other markets, such as Latin America, Oceania and parts of Asia including Japan. A few years ago, the North American tagline was "Innovation through technology", but in Canada the German tagline Vorsprung durch Technik was used in advertising. More recently, however, Audi has updated the tagline to "Truth in Engineering" in the U.S. History Birth of the company and its name The company traces its origins back to 1899 and August Horch. The first Horch automobile was produced in 1901 in Zwickau. Audi website http://www.audi.com/audi/com/en2/about_audi_ag/history/chronicle/chronicle_1899_1914.html In 1909, Horch was forced out of the company he had founded. He then started a new company in Zwickau and continued using the Horch brand. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement and a German court determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company. August Horch was barred from using his own family name in his new car business, so he called a meeting at the apartment of Franz Fikentscher to come up with a new name for his company. During this meeting Franz's son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Several times he looked like he was on the verge of saying something but would just swallow his words and continue working, until he finally blurted out, "Father audiatur et altera pars... wouldn't it be a good idea to call it audi instead of horch?". "Horch!" in German means "Hark!" or "listen", which is "Audi" in Latin (compare audible). The idea was enthusiastically accepted by everyone attending the meeting. It is sometimes (incorrectly) believed that AUDI is a backronym which stands for "Auto Union Deutschland Ingolstadt". Audi started with a 2,612 cc (2.6 litre) four cylinder model followed by a 3564 cc (3.6 L) model, as well as 4680 cc (4.7 L) and 5720 cc (5.7L) models. These cars were successful even in sporting events. The first six cylinder model, 4655 cc (4.7 L) appeared in 1924. August Horch left the Audi company in 1920. In September 1921, Audi became the first German car manufacturer to present a production car with left-hand drive, the Audi Type K. Audi website http://www.audi.com/audi/com/en2/about_audi_ag/history/chronicle/chronicle_1915_1929.html Left-hand drive spread and established dominance during the 1920s because it provided a better view of oncoming traffic, making overtaking maneuvers safer. The Auto Union era In August 1928 Jørgen Rasmussen, the owner of DKW, acquired the majority of shares in Audiwerke AG. Audi website http://www.audi.com/audi/com/en2/about_audi_ag/history/chronicle/chronicle_1930_1944.html In the same year, Rasmussen bought the remains of the US automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker, including the manufacturing equipment for eight cylinder engines. These engines were used in Audi Zwickau and Audi Dresden models that were launched in 1929. At the same time, six cylinder and four cylinder (licensed from Peugeot) models were manufactured. Audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork. In 1932, Audi merged with Horch, DKW and Wanderer, to form Auto Union. Before World War II, Auto Union used the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today, representing these four brands. This badge was used, however, only on Auto Union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems. The technological development became more and more concentrated and some Audi models were propelled by Horch or Wanderer built engines. The four-ring logo The Audi emblem is four overlapping rings that represent the four marques of Auto Union. The Audi emblem symbolizes the amalgamation of Audi with DKW, Horch and Wanderer: the first ring represents Audi, the second represents DKW, third is Horch, and the fourth and last ring Wanderer. Second World War period The build up and onset of World War II encouraged the development and production of special vehicles for military purposes in the 1930s. The Auto Union became an important supplier of vehicles to Germany's armed forces. Following the outbreak of war, civilian production was interrupted in May 1940. After this, the company produced exclusively for military purposes. During World War II, the Auto Union produced the Sd-Kfz 222 armored car, which was used in the German army during the war. It was powered by an Horch/Auto Union V8 engine and reached a top speed of 50 miles per hour on the road. Another vehicle which was used in World War II to shuttle German military officials safely was known as the Kraftfahrzeug (KFZ 11) or the Horch Type 80. The military used it as a light transport vehicle. The Auto Union plants were heavily bombed and severely damaged within the last two years of the war. Post-War period The Saxonian plants of Auto Union was located in what was the Soviet occupied zone of Germany. In 1945 on the orders of the Soviet military administration in Germany, they were dismantled as part of war reparations. Audi website http://www.audi.com/audi/com/en2/about_audi_ag/history/chronicle/chronicle_1945_1959.html Following this, the company’s entire assets were expropriated without compensation. On 17 August 1948 Auto Union AG of Chemnitz was deleted from the commercial register. These actions had the effect of liquidating Germany's Auto Union AG. The remains of the Audi plant of Zwickau became the VEB (for "People Owned Enterprise") Automobilwerk Zwickau, AWZ for short (which translates into English as Automobile factory Zwickau). A new Auto Union was launched in Ingolstadt, Bavaria with loans from the Bavarian state government and Marshall Plan aid. The reformed company was launched 3 September, 1949 and continued DKW's tradition of producing front-wheel drive vehicles with two-stroke engines. This included production of a small but sturdy 125 cc motorcycle and a DKW delivery van, the DKW F 89 L, also known as DKW-Schnelllaster. Many employees of the destroyed factories in Zwickau came to Ingolstadt and restarted the production. In 1950, after a former Rheinmetall gun factory in Düsseldorf was established as a second assembly facility the company's first post-war car went into production: the DKW Meisterklasse F 89 P, available as a saloon and a four-seater Karmann convertible. The van and sedan were based on the DKW F8 and the DKW F9 pre-war constructions. The former Audi factory in Zwickau, now under Soviet control, restarted assembly of the pre-war-models in 1949. Those models were renamed to IFA F8 and IFA F9 and were similar to the West German versions. West German and East German models were equipped with the traditional and renowned DKW two-stroke engines. In 1958, Daimler-Benz acquired 87% of Auto Union and in the next year 100%. In 1964, Volkswagen acquired the factory in Ingolstadt and the trademark rights of the Auto Union. Two-stroke engines became less popular towards the middle of the 1960s as customers were more attracted to the comfortable four-stroke engines. In September 1965, the last DKW model, the DKW F102, got a four-stroke engine implanted and some front and rear styling changes. Volkswagen dumped the brand DKW because of its two-stroke smell, relaunching the Audi brand. The new model was classified internally as the F103 and sold as simply the "Audi" (the name being a model designation rather than the manufacturer, which was still officially Auto Union) but later came to be known as the Audi 72. Developments of the model were named for their horsepower ratings and sold as the Audi 60, 75, 80, and Super 90. These models sold until 1972. In 1969, Auto Union merged with NSU, based in Neckarsulm, near Stuttgart. In the 1950s, NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of motorcycles, but had moved on to produce small cars like the NSU Prinz, the TT and TTS versions of which are still popular as vintage race cars. NSU then focused on new rotary engines based on the ideas of Felix Wankel. In 1967, the new NSU Ro 80 was a space-age car, well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics, light weight, and safety but teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of NSU. Today the Neckarsulm plant is used to produce the larger Audi models A6 and A8. The Neckarsulm factory is also home of the quattro GmbH, this subsidiary is responsible for development and production of the Audi high performance cars: the R8 and the "RS" model range. The mid-sized car that NSU had been working on, the K70, was intended to slot between the rear-engined Prinz models and the futuristic NSU Ro 80. However, Volkswagen took the K70 for its own range, spelling the end of NSU as a separate brand. The modern era of Audi The new merged company was known as Audi NSU Auto Union AG, and saw the emergence of Audi as a separate brand for the first time since the pre-war era. Volkswagen introduced the Audi brand to the United States for the 1970 model year. The first new car of this regime was the Audi 100 of 1968. This was soon joined by the Audi 80/Fox (which formed the basis for the 1973 Volkswagen Passat) in 1972 and the Audi 50 (later rebadged as the Volkswagen Polo) in 1974. The Audi 50 was a seminal design in many ways, because it was the first incarnation of the Golf/Polo concept, one that led to a hugely successful world car. The Audi image at this time was a conservative one, and so, a proposal from chassis engineer Jörg Bensinger was accepted to develop the four-wheel drive technology in Volkswagen's Iltis military vehicle for an Audi performance car and rally racing car. The performance car, introduced in 1980, was named the "Audi Quattro," a turbocharged coupé which was also the first German large-scale production vehicle to feature permanent all-wheel drive through a center differential. Commonly referred to as the "Ur-Quattro" (the "Ur-" prefix is a German augmentative used, in this case, to mean "original" and is also applied to the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 sport sedans, as in "UrS4" and "UrS6"), few of these vehicles were produced (all hand-built by a single team), but the model was a great success in rallying. Prominent wins proved the viability of all-wheel drive racecars, and the Audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology. In 1985, with the Auto Union and NSU brands effectively dead, the company's official name was now shortened to simply Audi AG. In 1986, as the Passat-based Audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of "grandfather's car" image, the type 89 was introduced. This completely new development sold extremely well. However, its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine, and its base package was quite spartan (even the passenger-side mirror was an option.) In 1987, Audi put forward a new and very elegant Audi 90, which had a much superior set of standard features. In the early 1990s, sales began to slump for the Audi 80 series, and some basic construction problems started to surface. This decline in sales was not helped in the United States by a 60 Minutes report which purported to show that Audi automobiles suffered from "unintended acceleration". The 60 Minutes report was based on customer reports of acceleration when the brake pedal was pushed. Independent investigators concluded that this was most likely due to a close placement of the accelerator and brake pedals (unlike American cars), and the inability, when not paying attention, to distinguish between the two. (In race cars, when manually downshifting under heavy braking, the accelerator has to be used in order to match revs properly, so both pedals have to be close to each other to be operated by the right foot at once, toes on the brake, heel on the accelerator; a driving technique called heel-and-toe). This did not become an issue in Europe, possibly due to more widespread experience among European drivers with manual transmissions. The report immediately crushed Audi sales, and Audi renamed the affected model (The 5000 became the 100/200 in 1989, as it was elsewhere). Audi had contemplated withdrawing from the American market until sales began to recover in the mid-1990s. The turning point for Audi was the sale of the new A4 in 1996, and with the release of the A4/A6/A8 series, which was developed together with VW and other sister brands (so called "platforms"). In the early part of the 21st century, Audi set forth on a German racetrack to claim and maintain several World Records, such as Top Speed Endurance. This effort was in-line with the company's heritage from the 1930s racing era "Silver Arrows". Currently, Audi's sales are growing strongly in Europe. 2004 marked the 11th straight increase in sales, selling 779,441 vehicles worldwide. Record figures were recorded from 21 out of about 50 major sales markets. The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe (+19.3%), Africa (+17.2%) and the Middle East (+58.5%) . In March 2005, Audi built its first two dealerships in India following its high increase in sales in the region. Their 2007 worldwide sales have been released as 964,151 vehicles sold, yet another record for the brand. In 2008, Audi has achieved the 13th record year in a row passing the 1 million unit mark with 1,003,400 sold units. Audi Q7 Audi Q5 Audi R8 Audi TT Audi A4 Audi A3 Audi A5 Audi A8 2007-Present 2009- Present 2006-Present 1999-Present 1996- Present 1996- Present 2007- Present 1994- Present Note: This Excludes the S Models, and the Hybrids Technology Bodyshells Audi produces 100% galvanized cars to prevent corrosion, Audi website http://www.audiusa.com/audi/us/en2/tools/glossary/chassis_body/corrosion_protection.html and was the first mass-market vehicle to do so, following introduction of the process by Porsche, c.1975. Along with other precautionary measures,the full-body zinc coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust. The body's resulting durability even surpassed Audi's own expectations, causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10-year warranty against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years (except for Aluminum bodies which don't rust). An all-aluminium car was brought forward by Audi, and in 1994 the Audi A8 was launched, which introduced aluminum space frame technology (called Audi Space Frame). Audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-nineties and continues to pursue leading-edge technology and high performance. Prior to that effort, Audi used examples of the Type 44 chassis fabricated out of aluminum as test-beds for the technique. Drive layout In all its post Volkswagen-era models, Audi has firmly refused to adopt the traditional rear-wheel drive layout favoured by its two arch rivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW, favouring either front-wheel drive or four-wheel drive. To achieve this, Audi has usually engineered its cars with a longitudinally front mounted engine, in an "overhung" position, over the front wheels in front of the axle line. While this allows for equal length driveshafts (therefore combatting torque steer), and the easy adoption of four-wheel drive, it goes against the ideal 50:50 weight distribution (as do all front wheel drive cars). Audi has recently applied the quattro badge to models such as the A3 and TT which do not actually use the Torsen-based system as in prior years, with a mechanical centre differential, but with the Swedish Haldex Traction electro-mechanical clutch 4WD system. Engines In the 1980s, Audi, along with Volvo, was the champion of the inline 5 cylinder, 2.1/2.2 L engine as a longer lasting alternative to more traditional 6 cylinder engines. This engine was used not only in production cars but also in their race cars. The 2.1 L inline 5 cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the 1980s, providing well over 400 horsepower (298 kW) after modification. Before 1990, there were engines produced with a displacement between 2.0 L and 2.3 L. This range of engine capacity was a good combination of good fuel economy (which was on the mind of every motorist in the 1980s) and, of course, a good amount of power. Luxury competitors Through the early 1990s, Audi began to move more towards the position of being a real competitor in its target market against global luxury leaders Mercedes-Benz and BMW. This began with the release of the Audi V8 in 1990. It was essentially a new engine fitted to the Audi 100/200, but with noticeable bodywork differences. Most obvious was the new grille that was now incorporated in the bonnet. By 1991, Audi had the 4 cylinder Audi 80, the 5 cylinder Audi 90 and Audi 100, the turbocharged Audi 200 and the Audi V8. There was also a coupe version of the 80/90 with both 4 and 5 cylinder engines. Although the five cylinder engine was a successful and very robust powerplant, it was still a little too different for the target market. With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992, Audi introduced a 2.8L V6 engine. This engine was also fitted to a face-lifted Audi 80 (all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the USA), giving this model a choice of 4, 5 and 6 cylinder engines, in saloon/sedan, coupé and Cabriolet body styles. The 5 cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice; however, a turbocharged 230 hp (169 kW) version remained. The engine, initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20V of 1991, was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro. It was fitted to the Audi Coupé, and named the S2 and also to the Audi 100 body, and named the S4. These two models were the beginning of the mass-produced S series of performance cars. Audi Space Frame The Audi A8 replaced the V8 in 1994, with a revolutionary aluminium space frame, known as the "Audi Space Frame" (ASF), to save weight. The weight reduction was offset by the quattro four-wheel drive system. It meant the car had similar performance to its rivals, but superior roadholding. The Audi A2 and Audi R8 also use Audi Space Frame designs. A4 The next major model change was in 1995 when the Audi A4 replaced the Audi 80. The new nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 (with a minor facelift). This also meant the S4 became the S6 and a new S4 was introduced in the A4 body. The S2 was discontinued. The Audi Cabriolet continued on (based on the Audi 80 platform) until 1999, gaining the engine upgrades along the way. A new A3 hatchback model (sharing the Volkswagen Golf Mk4's platform) was introduced to the range in 1996, and the radical Audi TT coupé and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings. Another interesting model introduced was the Mercedes-Benz A-Class competitor, the Audi A2. The model sold relatively well in Europe, however, the A2 was discontinued in 2005 and Audi decided not to develop an immediate replacement. The engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4L, 1.6L and 1.8L 4 cylinder, 1.8L 4-cylinder turbo, 2.6L and 2.8L V6, 2.2L turbo-charged 5 cylinder and the 4.2L V8 engine. The V6s were replaced by new 2.4L and 2.8L 30V V6s in 1998, with marked improvement in power, torque and smoothness. Further engines were added along the way, including a 3.7L V8 and 6.0L W12 engine for the A8. DSG At the turn of the century, Volkswagen introduced the Direct-Shift Gearbox, or DSG, an automated manual transmission, drivable like a conventional automatic transmission. Based on the gearbox found in the Group B S1, the system includes dual electrohydraulically controlled clutches instead of a torque converter. This is implemented in some VW Golfs, Audi A3 and TT models where DSG is called S-tronic. FSI New models of the A3, A4, A6 and A8 have been introduced, with the aging 1.8 litre engine now having been replaced by new Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) engines. Nearly every petrol engined model in the range now incorporates this fuel-saving technology, including the following: Petrol engines: 1.6 litre 4 cylinder 2.0 litre 4 cylinder (Slowly being phased out in order to make way for TSI engines see section below) 2.0 litre turbocharged 4 cylinder 3.0 litre supercharged v6 - 3.1 litre V6 4.2 litre V8 4.2 litre V8 5.2 litre V10 - 5.2 litre biturbo V10 6.0 litre W12 Other engines on sale and featuring in products of the Audi brand include: 1.6 litre 4 cylinder 1.9 litre TDI 4 cylinder 2.0 litre TDI 4 cylinder 2.0 litre TDI 4 cylinder 2.7 litre TDI V6 3.0 litre TDI V6 4.2 litre TDI V8 6.0 litre TDI V12 /1750 rpm (All TDI models are turbodiesels.) First choice Volkswagen Group technologies are frequently first introduced to the mass market in Audi vehicles to boost its image, mainly because the brand still lacks the prestige of BMW and Mercedes-Benz. Recent examples of this include a number of the FSI engines mentioned above, as well as the quick-shifting DSG dual-clutch gearbox option. Electric technology Audi is planning an alliance with the Japanese electronic giant Sanyo to develop a pilot hybrid electric project for the Volkswagen Group. The alliance could result in Sanyo batteries and other electronic components being used in future models of the Volkswagen group. http://www6.lexisnexis.com/publisher/EndUser?Action=UserDisplayFullDocument&orgId=101846&topicId=103840033&docId=l:788745336 Hybrid electric vehicles includes: Audi A1 Sportback Concept. Audi A4 TDI Concept E. LED Daytime Running Lights Since the end of 2006 Audi has started using the latest white LED daytime running light (DRL) technology as their new trademark for their new models. The style was first introduced in the R8, and is now being orientated to suit the whole Audi model range. As of 2009, LED DRLs are available throughout the current Audi model range. Multi Media Interface (MMI) Audi has recently started offering a computerised control system for its cars called Multi Media Interface (MMI). This comes amid criticism of BMW's iDrive control, essentially a rotating control knob designed to control radio, satellite navigation, TV, heating and car controls with a screen. MMI was widely reported to be a considerable improvement on BMW's iDrive, although BMW has since made their iDrive more user-friendly. MMI has been generally well-received, as it requires less menu-surfing with its mass of buttons around a central knob, with shortcuts to the radio or phone functions. The screen, either colour or monochrome, is mounted on the upright dashboard, and on the A4 (new), A5, A6, A8, and Q7, the controls are mounted horizontally. However, an "MMI-like" system is also available on the Audi A3 and A4 models when equipped with the optional Audi Navigation System Plus (RNS-E). Motorsports Audi has competed in numerous forms of motorsports. Audi's rich tradition in motorsport began with their former company Auto Union in the 1930s. In the 1990s, Audi dominated the Touring and Super Touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing in North America. Rallying In 1980, Audi released the Quattro, a four-wheel drive turbocharged car that went on to win rallies and races worldwide. It is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then-recently changed rules which allowed the use of four-wheel drive in competition racing. Many critics doubted the viability of four-wheel drive racers, thinking them to be too heavy and complex, yet the Quattro was to become a successful car. Leading its first rally it went off the road, however the rally world had been served notice 4WD was the future. The Quattro went on to achieve much success in the World Rally Championship. It won the 1983 (Hannu Mikkola) and the 1984 (Stig Blomqvist) drivers' titles, and brought Audi the manufacturers' title in 1982 and 1984. In 1984, Audi launched the short-wheelbase Sport Quattro which dominated races in Monte Carlo and Sweden, with Audi taking all podium places, but succumbed to problems further into WRC contention. In 1985, after another season mired in mediocre finishes, Walter Röhrl finished the season in his Sport Quattro S1, and helped place Audi second in the manufacturers' points. Audi also received rally honors in the Hong Kong to Beijing rally in that same year. Michèle Mouton, the first and only female driver to win a round of the World Rally Championship and a driver for Audi, took the Sport Quattro S1, now simply called the "S1", and raced in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb. The climb race pits a driver and car to drive up a 4,302 meter high mountain in Colorado and in 1985, Michèle Mouton set a new record of 11:25.39, and being the first woman to set a Pikes Peak record. In 1986, Audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in Portugal involving driver Joaquim Santos in his Ford RS200. Santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road, and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side, killing three and injuring 30. Bobby Unser used an Audi in that same year to claim a new record for the Pikes Peak Hill Climb at 11:09.22. In 1987, Walter Röhrl claimed the title for Audi setting a new Pikes Peak International Hill Climb record of 10:47.85 in his Audi S1 which he retired from the WRC two years earlier. The Audi S1 employed Audi's time-tested 5-cylinder turbo charged engine, with the final version generating . The engine was mated to a 6-speed gearbox and ran on Audi's famous all-wheel drive system. All of Audi's top drivers drove this car; Hannu Mikkola, Stig Blomqvist, Walter Röhrl and Michèle Mouton. This Audi S1 started the S-series of cars for Audi which now represents an increased level of sports options and quality in the Audi line-up. Motorsports in the USA As Audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing, they chose to move first into America with the Trans-Am in 1988. In 1989, Audi moved to IMSA GTO with the Audi 90, however as they avoided the two major endurance events (Daytona and Sebring) despite winning on a regular basis, they would lose out on the title. Touring cars In 1990, having completed their objective to market cars in the United States, Audi returned to Europe, turning first to the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM) series with the Audi V8, then in 1993, being unwilling to build cars for the new formula, they turned their attention to the fast growing Supertouring series, which took place nationally, first in the French Supertourisme and Italian Superturismo. In the following year, Audi would switch to the German Super Tourenwagen (known as STW) and then to British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) the year after that. The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), having difficulty regulating the quattro four wheel drive system, and the impact it had on the competitors, would eventually ban all four wheel drive cars from competing in 1998, by then Audi switched all their works efforts to sports car racing. By 2000, Audi would still compete in the US with their RS4 for the SCCA Speed World GT Challenge, through dealer/team Champion Racing competing against Corvettes, Vipers, and smaller BMWs (where it is one of the few series to permit 4WD cars). In 2003, Champion Racing entered an RS6. Once again, the quattro four wheel drive was superior and Champion Audi won the championship. They returned in 2004 to defend their title but a newcomer, Cadillac with the new Omega Chassis CTS-V, gave them a run for their money. After four victories in a row, the Audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car's performance. Namely, added ballasts and Champion Audi deciding to go with different tires and backing off the turbos boost pressure. In 2004, after years of competing with the TT-R in the revitalized DTM series, with privateer team Abt Racing/Christian Abt taking the 2002 title with Laurent Aïello, Audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory supported Joest Racing Audi A4s. Sports Car racing Beginning in 1999, Audi built the Audi R8R (open-top prototype) and the Audi R8C (GT-Prototype) to compete in sports car racing, including the Le Mans Prototype LMP900 class at the 24 Hours of Le Mans. For the 2000 season, Audi focussed mainly on the new Audi R8, due to favorable rules for open-top prototypes. The factory-supported Joest Racing team won at Le Mans three times in a row with the Audi R8 (2000 — 2002), as well as winning every race in the American Le Mans Series in its first year. Audi also sold the car to customer teams such as Champion Racing. In 2003, two Bentley Speed 8s, with engines designed by Audi, and driven by Joest drivers loaned to the fellow Volkswagen Group company, competed in the GTP class, and finished the race in the top two positions, while the Champion Racing R8 finished third overall and first in the LMP900 class. Audi returned to the winner's circle at the 2004 race, with the top three finishers all driving R8s: Audi Sport Japan Team Goh finished first, Audi Sport UK Veloqx second, and Champion Racing third. At the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans, Champion Racing entered two R8s along with an R8 from the Audi PlayStation Team Oreca. The R8s (which were built to old LMP900 regulations) received a narrower air inlet restrictor, reducing power, and an additional of weight compared to the newer LMP1 chassis. On average, the R8s were about 2–3 seconds off pace compared to the Pescarolo-Judd. But with a team of excellent drivers and experience, both Champion R8s were able to take first and third while the ORECA team took fourth. The Champion team was also the first American team to win Le Mans since the Gulf Ford GT's in 1967. This also ends the long era of the R8; however, its replacement for 2006, called the Audi R10 TDI, was unveiled on 13 December 2005. The R10 TDI employs many new features, including a twin-turbocharged diesel engine. Its first race was the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring as a race-test for the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans, which it later went on to win. Audi has been on the forefront of sports car racing, claiming a historic win in the first ever diesel sports car at 12 Hours of Sebring. As well as winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 2006 making history, the R10 TDI has also shown its capabilities by beating the Peugeot 908 HDi FAP in 2007, and beating Peugeot again in 2008. Sponsorships Audi Medcup: sailing regatta located in Spain, France, Italy, and Portugal. Audi Sydney Harbour Regatta. Audi Hamilton Island Race. See also Audi Driving Experience Audi Centre of Excellence quattro GmbH Audi Channel Volkswagen list of German cars Cultural references In the 1998 Ronin (film) The professional driver requests an Audi S8 as the Getaway car. In in the 2004 Layer Cake (film) a 2003 Audi RS6 Avant (wagon) is used by the primary characters throughout the film. On August 22 2004 a Black Audi A6/S6 wagon was used as the getaway car for the Munch Museum heist where both the Scream and the Madonna paintings were stolen. The Audi A8 W12 was featured in the 2005 film Transporter 2 and 2008 film Transporter 3 Taken (film) has a silver A3 as the rental car of choice for the main character while he is in France. The movie I, Robot (film) features a prototype Audi RSQ driven by actor Will Smith. November 25 2008, an ATM heist went wrong when the explosives used for the ATM took out the Thieves Silver late model A6 Getaway car. In the 2008 movie "Iron Man", Tony Stark drives an Audi R8 to the Fireman's Benefit dinner. In the 2009 show airing on BBC and BBC America, Titiled, "Ashes To Ashes", Philip Gensinger,(D.I. Gene Hunt) Drives an Audi Quattro, and signifies it with his famous quote, "Fire up the Quattro!". References External links Audi.com global corporate portal Audi.co.uk UK corporate portal Audi glossary Audi in motorsport Audi (Auto Union) Sales Brochure 1939 Audi technical specifications be-x-old:Audi | Audi |@lemmatized audi:200 ag:8 xetra:1 nsu:14 german:17 company:18 produce:11 car:59 brand:14 part:5 volkswagen:20 group:8 name:14 base:13 latin:4 translation:1 last:4 founder:1 august:7 horch:16 word:2 hear:1 headquarter:1 ingolstadt:5 bavaria:2 germany:5 almost:1 wholly:1 subsidiary:2 since:5 relaunched:1 acquire:4 purchase:1 auto:23 union:23 motorenwerke:1 asset:2 corporate:3 tagline:5 vorsprung:2 durch:2 technik:2 mean:5 advantage:2 technology:11 language:1 use:26 many:5 european:2 country:1 include:11 united:4 kingdom:1 market:8 america:4 oceania:1 asia:1 japan:2 year:16 ago:1 north:2 american:5 innovation:1 canada:1 advertising:1 recently:4 however:10 update:1 truth:1 engineering:1 u:4 history:6 birth:1 trace:1 origin:1 back:2 first:29 automobile:5 zwickau:8 website:5 http:6 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6,515 | Kansas_City_Chiefs | {{NFL team | name = Kansas City Chiefs | logo = Kansas City Chiefs logo.svg | founded = 1960 | city = Kansas City, Missouri | misc = Based in Kansas City since 1963 | uniform = File:AFCW-Uniform-KC.PNG| | colors = Red, gold, white | coach = Todd Haley | owner = The Hunt Family(Clark Hunt, chairman) | general manager = Scott Pioli | mascot = K. C. Wolf (1989–present) Warpaint (1963–1988) | nicknames = | hist_yr = 1963 | hist_misc = Dallas Texans (1960–1962) | affiliate_old = American Football League (1960–1969) Western Division (1960–1969) | NFL_start_yr = 1970 | division_hist = American Football Conference (1970–present) AFC West (1970–present) | no_league_champs = 3 | no_sb_champs = 0 | no_div_champs = 7 | league_champs = AFL Championships (3)1962, 1966, 1969 | no_pre1970sb_champs = 1 | pre1970sb_champs = 1969 (IV) | sb_champs = | div_champs = AFL West: 1962, 1966 AFC West: 1971, 1993, 1995, 1997, 2003 | playoff_appearances = AFL: 1962, 1966, 1968, 1969NFL: 1971, 1986, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2003, 2006 | no_playoff_appearances = 15 | stadium_years = Cotton Bowl (1960–1962) Municipal Stadium (1963–1971) Arrowhead Stadium (1972–present) | team_owners = Lamar Hunt (1959–2006) The Hunt Family (2006–present)}} The Kansas City Chiefs are a professional American football team based in Kansas City, Missouri. The Chiefs are a member of the Western Division of the American Football Conference (AFC) in the National Football League (NFL). Originally named the Dallas Texans, the club was founded by Lamar Hunt in 1960 as a charter member of the American Football League (AFL). In 1963, the team moved to Kansas City, Missouri and were renamed the Kansas City Chiefs. The team is legally and corporately registered as Kansas City Chiefs Football Club, Incorporated and according to Forbes is valued at just over USD $1 billion. From 1960 to 1969, the Chiefs were a successful franchise in the AFL, winning three league championships (1962, 1966, 1969) and having an all-time AFL record of 92–50–5. The Chiefs were the second AFL team (after the New York Jets) to defeat an NFL franchise in an AFL–NFL World Championship Game when they defeated the Minnesota Vikings in Super Bowl IV. Despite their early success, the team's victory on January 11, 1970 in Super Bowl IV remains the club's last championship to date. Franchise history 1960–1988 In 1959, Lamar Hunt began discussions with other businessmen to establish a professional football league that would rival the National Football League. Hunt's desire to secure a football team was heightened after watching the 1958 NFL Championship Game between the New York Giants and Baltimore Colts. Althaus, p. 35 After unsuccessful attempts to purchase and relocate the NFL's Chicago Cardinals to his hometown of Dallas, Texas, Hunt established the American Football League and started his own team, the Dallas Texans to begin play in 1960. Hunt hired a little-known assistant coach from the University of Miami football team, Hank Stram, to be the team's head coach. Hunt chose Stram after the offer was denied by Bud Wilkinson and Tom Landry. The Texans shared the Cotton Bowl with the NFL's cross-town competition Dallas Cowboys for three seasons. While the team averaged a league-best 24,500 at the Cotton Bowl, the Texans gained less attention due to the league's relatively unknown existence. In the franchise's first two seasons, the team managed only a 14–14 record. In their third season, the Texans strolled to an 11–3 record and a berth in the team's first American Football League Championship Game against the Houston Oilers. The game was broadcast nationally on ABC and the Texans defeated the Oilers 20–17 in double overtime. The game lasted 77 minutes and 54 seconds, which still stands as the longest championship game in professional football history. Despite having a championship team in the Texans and a Cowboys team that managed only a 9–28–3 record in their first three seasons, the Dallas–Fort Worth media market could not sustain two professional football franchises. Hunt became interested in moving the Texans to either Atlanta, Georgia or Miami, Florida for the 1963 season. Mayor of Kansas City Harold Roe Bartle extended an invitation to Hunt to move the Texans to Missouri. Gruver, p. 103 Bartle promised to triple the franchise's season ticket sales and expand seats at Municipal Stadium to accommodate the team. Gruver, p. 103 Hunt agreed to move the team to Kansas City on May 22, 1963 and on May 26 the team was renamed the Kansas City Chiefs. Gruver, p. 103 Hunt and head coach Hank Stram initially planned on retaining the Texans name, but a fan contest determined the new "Chiefs" name in honor of Mayor Bartle's nickname. Gruver, p. 103 A total of 4,866 entries were received with 1,020 different names being suggested, including a total of 42 entrants who selected "Chiefs." The two names that received the most popular votes were "Mules" and "Royals." The franchise became one of the strongest teams in the now thriving American Football League, with the most playoff appearances for an AFL team (tied with the Oakland Raiders), and the most AFL Championships (three). The team's dominance helped Lamar Hunt become a central figure in negotiations with NFL Commissioner Pete Rozelle to agree on an AFL–NFL merger. Maske, p. 325 In the meetings between the two leagues, a merged league championship game was agreed to be played in January 1967 following the conclusion of the leagues' respective 1966 seasons. Hunt insisted on calling the game the "Super Bowl" after seeing his children playing with a popular toy at the time, a Super Ball. Maske, p. 325 While the first few games were designated the "AFL–NFL World Championship Game," the Super Bowl name became its officially licensed title in years to come. The Chiefs cruised to an 11–2–1 record in 1966, and defeated the defending AFL Champion Buffalo Bills in the AFL Championship Game. Gruver, p. 167 The Chiefs were invited to play the NFL's league champion Green Bay Packers in the first AFL–NFL World Championship Game. Kansas City and Green Bay played a close game for the first half, but Green Bay took control in the final two quarters, winning the game by a score of 35–10. The Chiefs lost the game but gained the respect of several Packers opponents following the game. Gruver, p. 179 The Chiefs' interleague match-up with the Packers was not the last time that they would face an NFL opponent, especially on the championship stage. The following August, Kansas City hosted the NFL's Chicago Bears in the 1967 preseason and won the game 66–24. Despite losing to the division rival Oakland Raiders twice in the regular season in 1969, the two teams met for a third time in the AFL Championship Game where Kansas City won 17–7. Backup quarterback Mike Livingston engineered a five-game winning streak after Len Dawson suffered a leg injury which kept him out of most of the season's games. While getting plenty of help from the club's defense, Dawson returned from the injury and led the Chiefs to Super Bowl IV. Against the NFL's heavily-favored Minnesota Vikings, who were favored by 12½, the Chiefs dominated the game 23–7 to claim the team's first Super Bowl championship. Dawson was named the game's Most Valuable Player after completing 12-of-17 passes for 142 yards and one touchdown, with 1 interception. The following season, the Chiefs and the rest of the American Football League merged with the National Football League after the AFL–NFL merger became official. The Chiefs were placed in the American Football Conference's West Division. In 1970, the Chiefs won only seven games in their first season in the NFL and missed the playoffs. The following season, the Chiefs tallied a 10–3–1 record and won the AFC West Division. Head coach Hank Stram considered his 1971 Chiefs team as his best, but they failed to capture their championship dominance from 1969. Most of the pieces of the team which won Super Bowl IV two years earlier were still in place for the 1971 season. The Chiefs tied with the Miami Dolphins for the best record in the AFC Conference, and both teams met in a Christmas Day playoff game which the Chiefs lost 27–24 in double overtime. The Dolphins outlasted the Chiefs with a 37-yard field goal. The game surpassed the 1962 AFL Championship Game as the longest ever at 82 minutes and 40 seconds. The game was also the final football game at Kansas City's Municipal Stadium. In 1972, the Chiefs moved into the newly constructed Arrowhead Stadium at the Truman Sports Complex outside of Downtown Kansas City. The team's first game at Arrowhead was against the St. Louis Cardinals, a game which the Chiefs won 24–14. Linebacker Willie Lanier and quarterback Len Dawson won the NFL Man of the Year Award in 1972 and 1973, respectively. The Chiefs would not return to the post-season for the remainder of the 1970s, and the 1973 season was the team's last winning effort for seven years. Hank Stram was fired following a 5–9 season in 1974, and many of the Chiefs' future Hall of Fame players would depart by the middle of the decade. From 1975 to 1988, the Chiefs had become a laughing stock of the NFL and provided Chiefs fans with nothing but futility. Althaus, p. 97 Althaus, p. 101 Five head coaches struggled to achieve the same success as Stram, compiling an 81–121–1 record. Althaus, p. 97 In 1981, running back Joe Delaney rushed for 1,121 yards and was named the AFC Rookie of the Year. The Chiefs finished the season with a 9–7 record and entered the 1982 season with optimism. However, the NFL Players Association strike curbed the Chiefs' chances of returning to the postseason for the first time in over a decade. By employing replacement players, the Chiefs tallied a 3–6 record and in the off-season, Joe Delaney died while trying to save several children from drowning in a pond near his home in Louisiana. The Chiefs made a mistake in drafting quarterback Todd Blackledge over future greats such as Jim Kelly and Dan Marino in the 1983 NFL Draft. Althaus, p. 167 Blackledge never started a full season for Kansas City while Kelly and Marino played Hall of Fame careers. While the Chiefs struggled on offense in the 1980s, the Chiefs had a strong defensive unit consisting of Pro Bowlers such as Bill Maas, Albert Lewis, Art Still and Deron Cherry. John Mackovic took over head coaching duties for the 1983 season after Marv Levy was fired. Over the next four seasons, Mackovic coached the Chiefs to a 30–34 record, but took the team to its first post-season appearance in 15 years in the 1986 NFL playoffs. Following the team's loss to the New York Jets in the playoffs, Mackovic was fired. Frank Gansz served as head coach for the next two seasons, but won only eight of 31 games. 1989–2008 On December 19, 1988, owner Lamar Hunt hired Carl Peterson as the team's new president, general manager, and chief executive officer. Peterson fired head coach Frank Gansz two weeks after taking over and hired Marty Schottenheimer as the club's seventh head coach. In the 1988 and 1989 NFL Drafts, the Chiefs selected both defensive end Neil Smith and linebacker Derrick Thomas, respectively. The defense that Thomas and Smith anchored in their seven seasons together was a big reason why the Chiefs reached the postseason in six straight years. Althaus, p. 63 In Schottenheimer's tenure as head coach (1989–1998), the Chiefs became a perennial playoff contender. The team recorded a 101–58–1 record, and clinched seven playoff berths. The Chiefs' 1993 season was the franchise's most successful in 22 years. With newly-acquired quarterback Joe Montana and running back Marcus Allen—two former Super Bowl champions and MVP's—the Chiefs once again returned to relevance in the NFL. The 11–5 Chiefs defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers and Houston Oilers on their way to the franchise's first and to date only AFC Championship Game appearance against the Buffalo Bills. The Chiefs were overwhelmed by the Bills and lost the game by a score of 30–13. The Chiefs' victory on January 14, 1994 against the Oilers remains the franchise's last post-season victory to date. In the 1995 NFL playoffs, the 13–3 Chiefs hosted the Indianapolis Colts in a cold, damp night game at Arrowhead Stadium. Kansas City lost the game 10–7 against the underdog Colts after kicker Lin Elliot missed three field goal attempts and quarterback Steve Bono threw three interceptions. The Chiefs selected tight end Tony Gonzalez with the 13th overall selection in the 1997 NFL Draft, a move which some considered to be a gamble being that Gonzalez was primarily a basketball player at California. During a 1997 season full of injuries to starting quarterback Elvis Grbac, backup quarterback Rich Gannon took the reins of the Chiefs' offense as the team headed to another 13–3 season. Head coach Marty Schottenheimer chose Grbac to start the playoff game against the Denver Broncos despite Gannon's successes in previous weeks. Grbac's production in the game was lacking, and the Chiefs lost to the Broncos 14–10. Coach Schottenheimer announced his resignation from the Chiefs following the 1998 season, and defensive coordinator Gunther Cunningham took over coaching duties for the next two seasons, compiling a 16–16 record. By the end of the Chiefs' decade of regular-season dominance, Gannon had signed with the Oakland Raiders, Neil Smith signed with the Denver Broncos, and Derrick Thomas was paralyzed from a car accident on January 23, 2000. Thomas died from complications of his injury weeks later. After allegedly reading online that he would be relieved of duties, head coach Gunther Cunningham was fired. Looking to change the Chiefs' game plan which relied on a tough defensive strategy for the past decade, Carl Peterson contaced Dick Vermeil about the Chiefs' head coaching vacancy for the 2001 season. Vermeil previously led the St. Louis Rams to a victory in Super Bowl XXXIV. Vermeil was hired on January 12. The Chiefs then traded a first round draft pick in the 2001 NFL Draft to St. Louis for quarterback Trent Green and signed free agent running back Priest Holmes to be the team's cornerstones on offense. In 2003, Kansas City began the season with nine consecutive victories, a franchise record. They finished the season with a 13–3 record and the team's offense led the NFL in several categories. Running back Priest Holmes surpassed Marshall Faulk's single-season touchdown record by scoring his 27th rushing touchdown against the Chicago Bears in the team's regular season finale. Althaus, p. 65 The team clinched the second seed in the 2004 NFL playoffs and hosted the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Divisional Playoffs. In a game where neither team punted, the Chiefs lost the shoot-out 38–31. After a disappointing 7–9 record in 2004, the 2005 Chiefs finished with a 10–6 record but no playoff berth. They were the fourth team since 1990 to miss the playoffs with a 10–6 record. Running back Larry Johnson started in place of the injured Priest Holmes and rushed for 1,750 yards in only nine starts. Prior to the Chiefs' final game of the season, head coach Dick Vermeil announced his retirement. The Chiefs won the game 37–3 over the playoff-bound Cincinnati Bengals. Within two weeks of Vermeil's resignation, the Chiefs returned to their defensive roots with the selection of its next head coach. The team introduced Herman Edwards, a former Chiefs scout and head coach of the New York Jets, as the team's tenth head coach after trading a fourth-round selection in the 2006 NFL Draft to the Jets. Quarterback Trent Green suffered a severe concussion in the team's season opener to the Cincinnati Bengals which left him out of play for eight weeks. Backup quarterback Damon Huard took over in Green's absence and led the Chiefs to a 5–3 record. Kansas City was awarded a Thanksgiving game against the Denver Broncos in response to owner Lamar Hunt's lobbying for a third Thanksgiving Day game. The Chiefs defeated the Broncos 19–10 in the first Thanksgiving Day game in Kansas City since 1969. Hunt was hospitalized at the time of the game and died weeks later on December 13 due to complications with prostate cancer. Maske, p. 325 The Chiefs honored their owner for the remainder of the season, as did the rest of the league. Trent Green returned by the end of the season, but struggled in the final stretch, and running back Larry Johnson set an NFL record with 416 carries in a season. Kansas City managed to clinch their first playoff berth in three seasons with a 9–7 record and a bizarre sequence of six losses from other AFC teams on New Year's Eve, culminating with a Broncos loss to the 49ers. The Indianapolis Colts hosted the Chiefs in the Wild Card playoffs and defeated Kansas City 23–8. In 2007, Trent Green was traded to the Miami Dolphins leaving the door open for either Damon Huard or Brodie Croyle to become the new starting quarterback. After starting the season with a 4–3 record, the Chiefs lost the remaining nine games when running back Larry Johnson suffered a season-ending foot injury and the quarterback position lacked stability with Huard and Croyle. Despite the team's 4–12 record, tight end Tony Gonzalez broke Shannon Sharpe's NFL record for touchdowns at the position (63) and defensive end Jared Allen led the NFL in quarterback sacks with 15.5. The Chiefs began their 2008 season with the youngest team in the NFL. The starting lineup had an average of 25.5 years of age. By releasing several veteran players such as cornerback Ty Law and wide receiver Eddie Kennison and trading defensive end Jared Allen, the Chiefs began a youth movement. The Chiefs had a league-high thirteen selections in the 2008 NFL Draft and chose defensive tackle Glenn Dorsey and offensive lineman Branden Albert in the first round. Analysts quickly called Kansas City's selections as the best of the entire draft. Entering the season, the Chiefs were unsure if injury-prone quarterback Brodie Croyle, who was the incumbent starter, could be their quarterback in the long-term. Croyle was injured in the team's first game of the season and Damon Huard started in Croyle's absence. Tyler Thigpen become the third Chiefs starting quarterback in as many games for a start against the Atlanta Falcons. After a poor performance by Thigpen, in which he threw three interceptions against the Falcons defense, Huard was retained as the starting quarterback. The Chiefs struggled off the field as much as on as tight end Tony Gonzalez demanded a trade and running back Larry Johnson was involved in legal trouble. Croyle returned for the Chiefs' game against the Tennessee Titans, but both he and Damon Huard suffered season-ending injuries in the game. The Chiefs reorganized their offense to a new spread offense game plan focused around Tyler Thigpen. The Chiefs' new offense was implemented to help Thigpen play to the best of his abilities and also following the absence of Larry Johnson, who was suspended for his off-field conduct. The Chiefs made a huge gamble by using the spread offense, as most in the NFL believe that it cannot work in professional football, and also head coach Herman Edwards was traditionally in favor of more conservative, run-oriented game plans. 2009–present The 2008 season ended with a franchise worst 2–14 record. The team lost two games by 24 point margins against the Falcons and Titans, a 34–0 shut-out to the Carolina Panthers, and allowed a franchise-high 54 points against the Buffalo Bills. The team's general manager, chief executive officer, and team president Carl Peterson resigned at the end of the season, and former New England Patriots vice president of player personnel Scott Pioli was hired as his replacement for 2009. On January 23, 2009 Herman Edwards was fired as head coach, and two weeks later Todd Haley signed a four-year contract to become Edwards' successor. On February 28, 2009 the Chiefs traded a second round pick for New England Patriots quarterback Matt Cassel and linebacker Mike Vrabel and in April, Tony Gonzalez was traded to the Atlanta Falcons. Season-by-season records This is a partial list of the last five seasons (2003–2008) completed by the Chiefs. For the full season-by-season franchise results, see Kansas City Chiefs seasons.Note: The Finish, Wins, Losses, and Ties columns list regular season results and exclude any postseason play.Super Bowl Champions (1970–present)Conference ChampionsDivision ChampionsWild Card BerthRecord as of the end of the 2008 NFL season {| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 95%; width:98%;" |- !rowspan="2" style="width:5%;"|Season !rowspan="2" style="width:5%;"|Team !rowspan="2" style="width:5%;"|League !rowspan="2" style="width:5%;"|Conference !rowspan="2"|Division !colspan="4"|Regular season !rowspan="2" style="width:27%;"|Post Season Results !rowspan="2" style="width:30%;"|Awards |- !Finish !Wins !Losses !Ties |- !align="center"| |align="center"|2004 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|AFC |align="center"|West |align="center"|3rd |align="center"|7 |align="center"|9 |align="center"|0 | | |- !align="center"| |align="center"|2005 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|AFC |align="center"|West |align="center"|2nd |align="center"|10 |align="center"|6 |align="center"|0 | | |- !align="center"| |align="center"|2006 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|AFC |align="center"|West |align="center" bgcolor="#96CDCD"|2nd |align="center"|9 |align="center"|7 |align="center"|0 | Lost Wild Card Playoffs (Colts) 23–8 | |- !align="center"|2007 |align="center"|2007 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|AFC |align="center"|West |align="center"|3rd |align="center"|4 |align="center"|12 |align="center"|0 | |Dwayne Bowe (ROTW x2) |- !align="center"| |align="center"|2008 |align="center"|NFL |align="center"|AFC |align="center"|West |align="center"|4th |align="center"|2 |align="center"|14 |align="center"|0 | | |- !align="center" rowSpan="3" colSpan="6"|Total |align="center"|381 |align="center"|347 |align="center"|12 |colSpan="2"|(1960–2008, includes only regular season)|- |align="center"|8 |align="center"|13 |align="center"|0 |colSpan="2"|(1960–2008, includes only playoffs)|- !align="center"|389 !align="center"|360 !align="center"|12 |colSpan="2"|(1960–2008, includes both regular season and playoffs; 3 AFL Championships, 1 Super Bowl Championship) Logos and uniforms When the Texans began playing in 1960, the team's logo consisted of the state of Texas in white with a yellow star marking the location of the city of Dallas. Originally, Hunt chose Columbia blue and orange for the Texans' uniforms, but Bud Adams chose the colors for his Houston Oilers franchise. Hunt reverted to red and gold for the Texans' uniforms, which even after the team relocated to Kansas City, remain as the franchise's colors to this day. The state of Texas on the team's helmet was replaced by an arrowhead design originally sketched by Lamar Hunt on a napkin. Hunt's inspiration for the interlocking "KC" design was the "SF" inside of an oval on the San Francisco 49ers helmets. Unlike the 49ers' logo, Kansas City’s overlapping initials appear inside a white arrowhead instead of an oval and are surrounded by a thin black outline. From 1960 to 1973, the Chiefs had grey facemask bars on their helmets, but changed to white bars in 1974. The Chiefs' uniform design has essentially remained the same throughout the club's history. It consists of a red helmet, and either red or white jerseys with the opposite color numbers and names. White pants were used with both jerseys from 1960–1967 and 1989–1999. After a brief disappearance, the Chiefs re-introduced the all-white uniform combinations for the 2006 season. When the Chiefs wear their red uniforms, they always wear white pants. The Chiefs have never worn an alternate jersey in a game, although custom jerseys are sold for retail. In 2007, the Kansas City Chiefs honored the Lamar Hunt and the AFL with a special patch. It features the AFL's logo from the 1960s with Hunt's "LH" initials inside the football. In 2008, the patch became permanently affixed to the left chest of both Kansas City's home and away jerseys. In select games for the 2009 season, the Chiefs—as well as the other founding teams of the American Football League—will wear "throwback" uniforms to celebrate the AFL's 50th anniversary and the 1962 Dallas Texans team that won the AFL Championship. Arrowhead Stadium Arrowhead Stadium has been the Chiefs' home field since 1972 and has a capacity of 79,451. The stadium is currently undergoing a $325 million renovation, which includes new luxury boxes, wider concourses and enhanced amenities. The stadium is being paid for by $250 million in taxpayer money and $125 million from the Hunt Family. The stadium cost $53 million to build in 1972, and an average ticket in 2008 costs $74. Centerplate serves as the stadium's concession provider and Sprint Nextel, Anheuser-Busch and Gatorade are major corporate sponsors. As of the end of the 2008 season, Arrowhead Stadium has a consecutive sell-out record of 149 games (18 seasons) dating back to the Chiefs' home opener in 1990. Arrowhead has been called one of the world's finest stadiums and has long held a reputation for being one of the toughest and loudest outdoor stadiums for opposing players to play in. All noise is directly attributed to its fans and was once measured at 116 decibels by the Acoustical Design Group of Mission, Kansas. By way of comparison, take-off of aircraft may lead to a sound level of 106 decibels at the ground. Sports Illustrated named Arrowhead Stadium the "toughest place to play" for opposing teams in 2005. The tailgate party environment outside the stadium on gameday has been compared to a "college football" atmosphere. Arrowhead Stadium features frequent fly-overs from a B-2 Spirit stealth bomber from nearby Whiteman Air Force Base. Since the 1994 NFL season, the stadium has had a natural grass playing surface. From 1972 to 1993, the stadium had an artificial AstroTurf surface. Culture Fan base Chiefs fans are considered one of the most loyal and devoted fanbases in the NFL. The fans are often called the 'Green Bay of the AFC' for it's small-town feel and devotion. Kansas City is the sixth-smallest media market with an NFL team, but they have had the second-highest attendance average over the last decade. Studies by Bizjournals in 2006 gave the Chiefs high marks for consistently drawing capacity crowds in both good seasons and bad. The Chiefs have averaged 77,300 fans per game since 1996. The franchise has an official fan club called Chiefs Nation which gives members opportunities to ticket priority benefits and VIP treatment. At the end of "The Star-Spangled Banner" at home games, Chiefs fans intentionally yell "and the home of the CHIEFS!" where traditionally "the brave" is sung. McKenzie, p. 132 In 1996, general manager Carl Peterson said "We all look forward, not only at Arrowhead, but on the road, too, to when we get to that stanza of the National Anthem... Our players love it." McKenzie, p. 132 After the September 11, 2001 attacks, Chiefs fans refrained from doing so in honor of those who lost their lives in the tragedy and continued to do so for the remainder of the 2001 season. At the Chiefs' September 23, 2001 home game against the New York Giants, fans gave the opposing Giants a standing ovation. This was one of the few known times in Chiefs history where the home crowd welcomed an opposing team onto the field without booing. After every Chiefs touchdown at home games, fans chant while pointing in the direction of the visiting team and fans, "We're gonna beat the hell outta you...you...you, you, you, you!" over the song "Rock and Roll Part 2." The chant starts after the third "hey!" in the song. The version of the song by Gary Glitter was previously used until the NFL banned all things his music from its facilities in 2006, following the British rocker's conviction on sexual abuse charges in Vietnam. A cover version of the song played by Tube Tops 2000 has been played since 2006 at every home game. The chant has been said to have originated from a similar chant (excluding profanity) from Wichita State University's fans at their now-defunct football program's games. Chiefs fans also make occasional use of "The War Chant" and "Tomahawk Chop" during games. McKenzie, p. 133 Tony DiPardo From various periods between 1963 to the 2008 season, trumpeter Tony DiPardo and The T.D. Pack Band played live music at every Chiefs home game. Althaus, p. 86 McKenzie, p. 137 The band was known as The Zing Band when the team was located at Municipal Stadium. DiPardo was honored by head coach Hank Stram in 1969 with a Super Bowl ring for the team's victory in Super Bowl IV. Althaus, p. 86 When his health was declining, DiPardo took a leave of absence from the band from 1983 to 1988. McKenzie, p. 137 DiPardo's daughter took over as bandleader in 1989, by which time DiPardo returned to the band by popular demand. McKenzie, p. 137 Althaus, p. 100 For the 2009 season, due to renovations at Arrowhead Stadium, the band will not return. Radio and television + Kansas City Chiefs radio play-by-play announcers Herb, Kuhbander, Looney, and Moris, p. 51 1960–1962Charlie Jones1963Merle Harmon1964–1970Tom Hedrick1971–1973Dick Carlson1974–1975Ray Scott1976Al Wisk1977Tom Hopkins1978–1984Wayne Larrivee1985–1993Kevin Harlan1994–Mitch Holthus Since 1989, KCFX, a.k.a "101 The Fox", has broadcast all Chiefs games on FM radio under the moniker of The Chiefs Fox Football Radio Network. Since 1994, Mitch Holthus has served as play-by-play announcer and former Chiefs quarterback Len Dawson serves as color commentator. Herb, Kuhbander, Looney, and Moris, p. 51 Former Chiefs longsnapper Kendall Gammon serves as the field reporter. Former Chiefs broadcasters Bill Grigsby and Bob Gretz also contribute to the broadcasts. KCFX holds broadcast rights to Chiefs games through the 2009 season. The Chiefs and KCFX hold the distinction of being the longest FM radio broadcast partnering tenure in the NFL. The Chiefs Radio Network extends throughout the six-state region of Missouri, Kansas, Iowa, Nebraska, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, with 61 affiliate stations. KCTV Channel 5 (CBS) broadcasts all games when the Chiefs host an AFC opponent or plays at an AFC or NFC opponent. KCTV also broadcasts all Chiefs pre-season games. WDAF Channel 4 (Fox) broadcasts games in which the Chiefs host an NFC opponent. KHSB Channel 41 (NBC) broadcasts all games in which the Chiefs play on NBC Sunday Night Football or NBC's NFL playoffs coverage. Mascots and cheerleaders The Chiefs' mascot was Warpaint, a nickname given to several different breeds of pinto horse, and served as the team's mascot from 1963 to 1988. Althaus, p. 35 McKenzie, p. 141 The first Warpaint (born in 1955, died in 1992) was ridden bareback by rider Bob Johnson who wore a full Native American headdress. Althaus, p. 35 Warpaint circled the field at the beginning of each Chiefs home game and performed victory laps following each Chiefs touchdown. Althaus, p. 35 In the mid-1980s, the Chiefs featured a short-lived unnamed "Indian man" mascot which was later scrapped in 1988. Since 1989 the cartoon-like K. C. Wolf, portrayed by Dan Meers in a wolf costume, has served as the team's mascot. Althaus, p. 35 The mascot was named after the Chiefs' "Wolfpack," a group of rapid fans from the team's days at Municipal Stadium. K. C. Wolf is one of the most popular NFL mascots and was the league's first mascot inducted into the Mascot Hall of Fame in 2006. The Chiefs have employed a cheerleading squad since the team's inception in 1960. McKenzie, p. 140 In the team's early days, the all-female squad was referred to as the Chiefettes. From 1986 to 1992, the cheerleader squad featured a mix of men and women. McKenzie, p. 140 Since 1993, the all-female squad has been known as the Chiefs Cheerleaders. McKenzie, p. 140 Training camp When the team was based in Dallas, the team conducted their inaugural training camp at the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, New Mexico. They moved camp to Southern Methodist University, owner Lamar Hunt's alma mater, for 1961 and continued to practice there until 1965. From 1966 to 1971, the Chiefs practiced in Swope Park in Kansas City, Peterson, p. 176 and from 1972 to 1991 held camp at William Jewell College in Clay County, Missouri–where Lamar Hunt had extensive business dealings including Worlds of Fun, Oceans of Fun and SubTropolis. Since 1991 the Chiefs have conducted summer training camp at the University of Wisconsin-River Falls in River Falls, Wisconsin. The Chiefs' 2007 training camp was documented in the HBO/NFL Films documentary reality television series, Hard Knocks. Following the passage of a $25 million state tax credit proposal, the Chiefs will move their training camp to Missouri Western State University in St. Joseph, Missouri in 2010. The bulk of the tax credits will go for improvements to Arrowhead Stadium with $10 million applied to the move to Missouri Western. Notable players Current roster Pro Football Hall of Fame enshrinees Retired numbers Chiefs Hall of Fame The Chiefs are one of 16 organizations that honor their players, coaches and contributors with a team Hall of Fame or Ring of Honor. Established in 1970, the Chiefs Hall of Fame has inducted a new member in an annual ceremony with the exception of the 1983 season. Several of the people's names are featured at Arrowhead Stadium in the stadium's architecture. The requirements for induction are that a player, coach, or contributor must have been with the Chiefs for four seasons and been out of the NFL for four seasons at the time of induction. There are some exceptions, such as Joe Delaney, who was with the team for only two seasons before his death. The Chiefs have the second-most enshrinees of any NFL team in their team hall of fame behind the Green Bay Packers, who have enshrined over 100 players and team contributors over the years in the Green Bay Packers Hall of Fame.1970s1970 Lamar Hunt, team founder and owner 1971 #36 Mack Lee Hill, Running back 1972 #75 Jerry Mays, Defensive tackle 1973 #84 Fred Arbanas, Tight end 1974 #42 Johnny Robinson, Safety 1975 #88 Chris Burford, Wide receiver 1976 #55 E.J. Holub, Center/Linebacker 1977 #77 Jim Tyrer, Offensive tackle 1978 #21 Mike Garrett, Running back 1979 #16 Len Dawson, Quarterback1980s1980 #78 Bobby Bell, Linebacker 1981 #86 Buck Buchanan, Defensive tackle 1982 #89 Otis Taylor, Wide receiver 1983 No induction 1984 #71 Ed Budde, Guard 1985 #63 Willie Lanier, Linebacker 1986 #18 Emmitt Thomas, Cornerback 1987 Hank Stram, Coach 1988 #44 Jerrel Wilson, Punter 1989 #14 Ed Podolak, Running back |-1990s1990 #51 Jim Lynch, Linebacker 1991 #28 Abner Haynes, Running back 1992 #3 Jan Stenerud, Kicker 1993 #69 Sherrill Headrick, Linebacker 1994 #58 Jack Rudnay, Center 1995 #32 Curtis McClinton, Running back 1996 #20 Deron Cherry, Safety 1997 #73 Dave Hill, Offensive tackle 1998 #67 Art Still, Defensive end 1999 #34 Lloyd Burruss, Safety2000s'2000 #35 Christian Okoye, Running back 2001 #58 Derrick Thomas, Linebacker 2002 #76 John Alt, Offensive tackle 2003 #59 Gary Spani, Linebacker 2004 #37 Joe Delaney, Running back 2005 Jack Steadman, team administrator 2006 #90 Neil Smith, Defensive end 2007 #29 Albert Lewis, Cornerback 2008 #61 Curley Culp, Defensive tackle 2009 #8 Nick Lowery, Kicker Head coaches Ten head coaches have served the Texans/Chiefs franchise since their first season in 1960. Hank Stram, the team's first head coach, led the Chiefs to three AFL championship victories and two appearances in the Super Bowl. Stram was the team's longest-tenured head coach, holding the position from 1960 to 1974. Marty Schottenheimer was hired in 1989 and led Kansas City to seven playoff appearances in his ten seasons as head coach. Schottenheimer had the best winning percentage (.634) of all Chiefs coaches. Gunther Cunningham has been on the Chiefs' coaching staff in various positions since 1995, serving as the team's head coach in between stints as the team's defensive coordinator. Dick Vermeil coached the team to a franchise-best 9–0 start in the 2003 season. Of the ten Chiefs coaches, Hank Stram and Marv Levy have been elected into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Herman Edwards served as the team's head coach from 2006 to 2008, compiling a 15–33 record and a franchise worst 6–26 record over a two-year span. Todd Haley will begin his first season with the team as head coach in 2009. Ownership and administration The franchise was founded in 1959 by Lamar Hunt after a failed attempt by Hunt to purchase an NFL franchise and relocate them to Texas. Herb, Kuhbander, Looney, and Moris, p. 4 Hunt purchased the team for $25,000 in 1960. Hunt remained the team's owner until his death in 2006. The Hunt family kept ownership of the team following Lamar's death and Clark Hunt, Lamar's son, represents the family's interests. Herb, Kuhbander, Looney, and Moris, p. 6 While Hunt's official title is Chairman of the Board, he serves as the franchise's de facto owner. According to Forbes, the team is valued at $1 billion and ranks 17th among NFL teams in 2008. Owner Lamar Hunt served as the team's president from 1960 to 1976. Herb, Kuhbander, Looney, and Moris, p. 411 He promoted general manager Jack Steadman to become the team's president in 1977. Steadman held the job until Carl Peterson was hired by Hunt in 1988 to replace him. Peterson resigned the title as team president in 2008. Denny Thum became the team's interim president following Peterson's departure and was officially given the full position in May 2009. Don Rossi served as the team's general manager for half of the 1960 season, resigning in November 1960. Jack Steadman assumed duties from Rossi and served in the position until 1976. Steadman was promoted to team president in 1976 and despite being relieved of those duties in 1988, he remained with the franchise until 2006 in various positions. Jim Schaaf took over for Steadman as general manager until being fired in December 1988. Carl Peterson was hired in 1988 to serve as the team's general manager, chief executive officer and team president. Peterson remained in the position for 19 years until he announced his resignation from the team in 2008. Denny Thum served as interim general manager until January 13, 2009 when the Chiefs named New England Patriots executive Scott Pioli the team's new general manager. Current staff Notes References Althaus, Bill (2007). The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly: Kansas City Chiefs: Heart-Pounding, Jaw-Dropping, and Gut-Wrenching Moments in Kansas City Chiefs History, Triumph Books. ISBN 1-57243-928-9 Gruver, Ed (1997). The American Football League: A Year-by-year History, 1960-1969, McFarland Publishing. ISBN 0-78640-399-3 Herb, Patrick, Kuhbander, Brad, Looney, Josh, and Moris, Pete, eds (2008). 2008 Kansas City Chiefs Media Guide, Kansas City Chiefs Football Club, Inc. Hoskins, Alan (1999). Warpaths: The Illustrated History of the Kansas City Chiefs, Taylor Publishing Company. ISBN 0-87833-156-5 Maske, Mark (2007). War Without Death: A Year of Extreme Competition in Pro Football's NFC East, Penguin Group. ISBN 1-59420-141-2 McKenzie, Michael (1997). Arrowhead: Home of the Chiefs, Addax Publishing Group. ISBN 1-886110-11-5 Peterson, John E. (2003). The Kansas City Athletics: A Baseball History, 1954–1967, McFarland. ISBN 0-78641-610-6 Stallard, Mark (2004). Kansas City Chiefs Encyclopedia. 2nd Edition. Sports Publishing, LLC. ISBN 1-58261-834-8 See also American Football League Chiefs–Raiders rivalry External links Kansas City Chiefs Official Website Kansas City Chiefs at the National Football League Official Website Kansas City Chiefs at the Kansas City Star'' Official Website Kansas City Chiefs at Sports E-Cyclopedia.com Kansas City Chiefs News at the Chiefs Report | Kansas_City_Chiefs |@lemmatized nfl:54 team:97 name:14 kansa:21 city:49 chief:144 logo:6 svg:1 found:3 missouri:9 misc:1 base:5 kansas:28 since:15 uniform:9 file:1 afcw:1 kc:2 png:1 color:5 red:5 gold:2 white:8 coach:37 todd:4 haley:3 owner:9 hunt:38 family:5 clark:2 chairman:2 general:10 manager:10 scott:3 pioli:3 mascot:10 k:4 c:3 wolf:4 present:7 warpaint:4 nicknames:1 dallas:9 texan:16 american:14 football:34 league:25 western:4 division:6 conference:6 afc:17 west:10 afl:24 championship:23 iv:6 cotton:3 bowl:17 municipal:5 stadium:26 arrowhead:17 lamar:15 professional:5 member:4 national:5 originally:3 club:8 charter:1 move:9 rename:2 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6,516 | Indoor_rower | A row of Concept2 "Model C" indoor rowers An indoor rower, or rowing machine, is a machine used to simulate the action of watercraft rowing for the purpose of exercise or training for rowing. Indoor Rowing has become established as a sport in its own right. The term also refers to a participant in this sport. Modern indoor rowers are also sometimes known as ergometers (colloquially erg or ergo), an ergometer being a device which measures the amount of work performed. The indoor rower is calibrated to measure the amount of energy the rower is generating. Ergometer comes from the Greek words ergon (ἔργον), meaning work, and metron (μέτρον), meaning measure. "Ergometer", therefore, literally means "work measurer". A bike, fitted with mechanical work measurement devices is also an ergometer. History Machines using linear pneumatic resistance were commonplace around 1900, but they did not simulate actual rowing very accurately. In the 1950s and 1960s, rowing coaches in many countries began using specially made rowing machines for training and power measurement. The normal design was a large, heavy, solid iron wheel with a mechanical brake on it. They were considered something of a torture device, and were extremely unpopular among rowers of the time. http://www.worldrowing.com/index.php?pageid=44 Around 1980, air resistance rowing machines were introduced, and, in 1988, a hydraulic flywheel rowing machine design was released. Many modern rowing-machine designs are a hybrid of these earlier designs. Common variations of the rowing machine include kayak trainers, and sculling trainers. Layout of the machine The most common rowing-machine design consists of a flywheel connected to a chain and handle. The rower pushes his body backwards with the legs, then pivots his back, and pulls on the handle, causing the flywheel to spin. The flywheel has a braking mechanism applied (using either pneumatic, hydraulic or magnetic damping) that is intended to simulate the feel of an oar moving through water. Depending on the machine the rower either moves back and forth as part of the rowing action, or the rower remains stationary and the flywheel mechanism moves. Some machines calculate the user's power by measuring the speed of the flywheel during the stroke and then recording the rate at which it decelerates during the recovery. Using this and the known moment of inertia of the flywheel the computer calculates everything else. Exercise Indoor rowing primarily works the cardiovascular systems with typical workouts consisting of steady pieces of 20-40 minutes. Like other forms of cardio focused exercise, interval training is also commonly used in indoor rowing. While cardio focused, rowing also stresses many muscle groups throughout the body anaerobically, thus rowing is often referred to as a strength-endurance sport. Unlike high impact exercises, which can damage knees and the connective tissues of the lower body, rowing's most common injury site is the lower back. Proper technique is a necessity for staying injury free, with a focus on both mechanics and breathing, as correct rhythm, exhaling on the drive and inhaling on the recovery, is a stabilizing force for the upper body. Non-rowers commonly overemphasize the muscles of the upper body, while correct technique uses the large muscle of the thighs to drive much of the stroke. Also, good technique requires that the angle of the upper body is never too far forward, nor too far back, both of which jeopardize the lower back and compression injuries on the knees and hip flexor muscles. In addition to the high levels of fitness attained, rowing is an intense calorie-burning exercise. Although rowers with less ability and training will burn fewer calories, the ergometer is an excellent tool for use in a weight-loss program. The standard measurement of speed on an ergometer is generally known as the "split," or the amount of time in minutes and seconds required to travel 500 meters at the current pace. For example, a 2:00 split would correspond to a 2:00 time for a 500 meter race, or an 8:00 time for a 2 kilometer race. The split does not necessarily correspond to how many strokes the rower takes (the "rating") since strokes can vary in power. Ergometer Testing Ergometer tests are used by rowing coaches to evaluate rowers and is part of athlete selection for many senior and junior national rowing teams. During a test, rowers will row a set distance and try to clock the fastest time possible. The most common distances for ergo tests are 2000, 5000, 6000 or 10000 meters. Results of these tests are an objective measure of an athlete's fitness; however, technique and team coordination also impact performance in boat, thus assembling a crew based purely on ergo scores is not an optimal strategy. Rower Variety Piston Resistance comes from hydraulic cylinders that are attached to the handles of the rowing machine. The length of the rower handles on this class of rower is typically adjustable, however, during the row the handle length is fixed which in turn fixes the trajectory that the hands must take on the stroke and return, thus making the stroke less accurate than is possible on the other types of resistance models where it is possible to emulate the difference in hand height on the stroke and return. Furthermore, many models in this class have a fixed seat position that eliminates the leg drive which is the foundation of competitive on water rowing technique. Because of the compact size of the pistons and mechanical simplicity of design, these models are typically not as large or as expensive as the others types. Braked Flywheel resistance models comprise magnetic, air and water resistance rowers. These machines are mechanically similar since all three types use a handle connected to a flywheel by rope, chain, or strap to provide resistance to the user – the types differ only in braking mechanism. Because the handle is attached to the resistance source by rope or similarly flexible media, the trajectory of the hands in the vertical plane is free making it possible for the rower to emulate the hand height difference between the stroke and the return. Most of these models have the characteristic sliding seat typical of competitive on-the-water boats. Magnetic Resistance models control resistance by means of electromagnets that engage a mechanical brake with the flywheel. The magnetic braking system is quieter than the other braked flywheel types. The braking resistance is adjustable and energy can be accurately measured on this type of rower. Air Resistance models use fanlike air-fins on the flywheel to provide the flywheel braking needed to generate resistance. As the flywheel is spun faster, the air resistance increases. Due to the fact that the resistance mechnism is essentially a fan, this class of rowers tend to be as loud as a floor standing fan of wattage similar to what the user is pulling. A damper can be used to adjust the airflow with respect to the air fins and thus change the feel of the stroke, however, the resistance level itself is a function of how hard and how often the user pulls and it is possible to achieve low or high resistance regardless of where the damper is set. The energy dissipated can be accurately calculated given the known mass of the flywheel and speed sensors to measure the deceleration of the flywheel. Air resistance rowing machines are most often used by off-season on-the-water rowers and competitive indoor rowers. Water Resistance use a finned "flywheel" submerged in a tank of water to provide the resistance. As the flywheel is stroked, the fins drag in the water to dissipate the energy. Water level in the tank can be used to adjust the feel of the stroke, however, the level of resistance is ultimately a function of how hard and how often the user strokes. Calculation of energy dissipated is inherently less accurate than the air or magnetic models because the bulk of mass undergoing acceleration/deceleration is not accelerating/decelerating in a uniform manner thus rendering the flywheel speed needed to calculate energy dissipated unmeasureable. Competitions A large number of indoor rowing competitions are held all over the world, including the indoor rowing world championships (also known as CRASH-B Sprints) held in Boston, Massachusetts, United States in February and the British Indoor Rowing Championships held in Birmingham, England in November. The core event for most competitions is the individual 2,000m; less common are the mile (eg., Evesham), the 2500m (eg., Basingstoke - also the original distance of the CRASH-B Sprints). Many competitions also include a sprint event (100m-500m) and sometimes team relay events. The machines used are consistent although the resistance may be adjusted. The resistance adjustment does not affect the energy measurement so a result on one machine can be fairly compared with results on other machines regardless of resistance level. Most competitions are organized into categories based on sex, age, and weight class. While the fastest times are generally achieved by rowers between 20 and 40 years old, teenagers and rowers over 90 are common at competitions. There is a nexus between performance on-water and performance on the ergometer, with open events at the World Championships often being dominated by elite on-water rowers. Former men's Olympic single scull champions Pertti Karppinen and Rob Waddell and five-time Gold Medalist Sir Stephen Redgrave have all won world championships or set world records in indoor rowing. In addition to live venue competitions, many erg racers compete by internet, either offline by posting scores to challenges, or live online races facilitated by computer connection. See also Rowbike Rowing References External links The World Rowing Network Crash-B Sprints - Internationally recognized competition US Rowing - Official US Rowing organization Article of the effects of weight on ergo times | Indoor_rower |@lemmatized row:24 model:9 c:1 indoor:12 rower:26 machine:18 use:16 simulate:3 action:2 watercraft:1 rowing:11 purpose:1 exercise:5 training:4 become:1 establish:1 sport:3 right:1 term:1 also:11 refer:2 participant:1 modern:2 sometimes:2 know:3 ergometer:10 colloquially:1 erg:2 ergo:4 device:3 measure:7 amount:3 work:5 perform:1 calibrate:1 energy:7 generate:2 come:2 greek:1 word:1 ergon:1 ἔργον:1 meaning:2 metron:1 μέτρον:1 therefore:1 literally:1 mean:2 measurer:1 bike:1 fit:1 mechanical:4 measurement:4 history:1 linear:1 pneumatic:2 resistance:24 commonplace:1 around:2 actual:1 accurately:3 coach:2 many:8 country:1 begin:1 specially:1 make:3 power:3 normal:1 design:6 large:4 heavy:1 solid:1 iron:1 wheel:1 brake:8 consider:1 something:1 torture:1 extremely:1 unpopular:1 among:1 time:8 http:1 www:1 worldrowing:1 com:1 index:1 php:1 pageid:1 air:8 introduce:1 hydraulic:3 flywheel:19 release:1 hybrid:1 early:1 common:6 variation:1 include:3 kayak:1 trainer:2 scull:2 layout:1 consist:2 connect:2 chain:2 handle:7 push:1 body:6 backwards:1 leg:2 pivot:1 back:5 pull:3 cause:1 spin:1 mechanism:3 apply:1 either:3 magnetic:5 damping:1 intend:1 feel:3 oar:1 move:3 water:11 depend:1 forth:1 part:2 remain:1 stationary:1 calculate:4 user:5 speed:4 stroke:12 record:2 rate:1 decelerate:1 recovery:2 known:2 moment:1 inertia:1 computer:2 everything:1 else:1 primarily:1 cardiovascular:1 system:2 typical:2 workout:1 steady:1 piece:1 minute:2 like:1 form:1 cardio:2 focus:3 interval:1 commonly:2 stress:1 muscle:4 group:1 throughout:1 anaerobically:1 thus:5 often:5 strength:1 endurance:1 unlike:1 high:3 impact:2 damage:1 knee:2 connective:1 tissue:1 low:4 injury:3 site:1 proper:1 technique:5 necessity:1 stay:1 free:2 mechanic:1 breathing:1 correct:2 rhythm:1 exhale:1 drive:3 inhale:1 stabilize:1 force:1 upper:3 non:1 overemphasize:1 thigh:1 much:1 good:1 require:2 angle:1 never:1 far:2 forward:1 jeopardize:1 compression:1 hip:1 flexor:1 addition:2 level:5 fitness:2 attain:1 intense:1 calorie:2 burning:1 although:2 less:4 ability:1 burn:1 excellent:1 tool:1 weight:3 loss:1 program:1 standard:1 generally:2 split:3 second:1 travel:1 meter:3 current:1 pace:1 example:1 would:1 correspond:2 race:3 kilometer:1 necessarily:1 take:2 rating:1 since:2 vary:1 test:5 evaluate:1 athlete:2 selection:1 senior:1 junior:1 national:1 team:3 set:3 distance:3 try:1 clock:1 fast:2 possible:5 result:3 objective:1 however:4 coordination:1 performance:3 boat:2 assemble:1 crew:1 base:2 purely:1 score:2 optimal:1 strategy:1 variety:1 piston:2 cylinder:1 attach:2 length:2 class:4 typically:2 adjustable:2 fix:2 turn:1 trajectory:2 hand:4 must:1 return:3 accurate:2 type:6 emulate:2 difference:2 height:2 furthermore:1 fixed:1 seat:2 position:1 eliminate:1 foundation:1 competitive:3 compact:1 size:1 simplicity:1 expensive:1 others:1 comprise:1 mechanically:1 similar:2 three:1 rope:2 strap:1 provide:3 differ:1 source:1 similarly:1 flexible:1 medium:1 vertical:1 plane:1 characteristic:1 sliding:1 control:1 electromagnet:1 engage:1 braking:1 quiet:1 fanlike:1 fin:3 need:2 spun:1 faster:1 increase:1 due:1 fact:1 mechnism:1 essentially:1 fan:2 tend:1 loud:1 floor:1 stand:1 wattage:1 damper:2 adjust:3 airflow:1 respect:1 change:1 function:2 hard:2 achieve:2 regardless:2 dissipate:4 give:1 mass:2 sensor:1 deceleration:2 season:1 finned:1 submerge:1 tank:2 drag:1 ultimately:1 calculation:1 inherently:1 bulk:1 undergoing:1 acceleration:1 accelerate:1 decelerating:1 uniform:1 manner:1 render:1 unmeasureable:1 competition:8 number:1 hold:3 world:6 championship:3 crash:3 b:3 sprint:4 boston:1 massachusetts:1 united:1 state:1 february:1 british:1 birmingham:1 england:1 november:1 core:1 event:4 individual:1 mile:1 eg:2 evesham:1 basingstoke:1 original:1 relay:1 consistent:1 may:1 adjustment:1 affect:1 one:1 fairly:1 compare:1 organize:1 category:1 sex:1 age:1 year:1 old:1 teenager:1 nexus:1 open:1 championships:1 dominate:1 elite:1 former:1 men:1 olympic:1 single:1 champion:1 pertti:1 karppinen:1 rob:1 waddell:1 five:1 gold:1 medalist:1 sir:1 stephen:1 redgrave:1 win:1 live:2 venue:1 racer:1 compete:1 internet:1 offline:1 post:1 challenge:1 online:1 facilitate:1 connection:1 see:1 rowbike:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 network:1 internationally:1 recognize:1 u:2 official:1 organization:1 article:1 effect:1 |@bigram indoor_rower:5 http_www:1 index_php:1 moment_inertia:1 everything_else:1 strength_endurance:1 connective_tissue:1 boston_massachusetts:1 gold_medalist:1 external_link:1 |
6,517 | Arnold_Schwarzenegger | Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger (German ; born July 30, 1947) is an American and Austrian bodybuilder, actor, businessman, and politician, currently serving as the 38th Governor of the state of California. Schwarzenegger began weight-training at fifteen. He was awarded the title of Mr. Universe at age 22 and went on to win the Mr. Olympia contest a total of seven times. Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent face in the bodybuilding sport long after his retirement, and has written several books and numerous articles on the sport. Schwarzenegger gained worldwide fame as a Hollywood action film icon, noted for his lead role in films such as Conan the Barbarian and The Terminator. He was nicknamed the "Austrian Oak" and the "Styrian Oak" in his bodybuilding days, "Arnold Strong" and "Arnie" during his acting career, and more recently the "Governator" (a portmanteau of Governor and the Terminator, one of his film roles). As a Republican, he was first elected on October 7, 2003, in a special recall election to replace then-Governor Gray Davis. Schwarzenegger was sworn in on November 17, 2003, to serve the remainder of Davis's term. Schwarzenegger was then re-elected on November 7, 2006, in California's 2006 gubernatorial election, to serve a full term as governor, defeating Democrat Phil Angelides, who was California State Treasurer at the time. Schwarzenegger was sworn in for a second term on January 5, 2007. In May 2004 and 2007, he was named as one of the Time 100 people who help shape the world. Schwarzenegger is married to Maria Shriver and has four children. Early life Schwarzenegger was born in Thal, Austria, a small village bordering the Styrian capital Graz, and was christened Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger. His parents were the local police chief Gustav Schwarzenegger (1907 – 1972), and his wife, Aurelia Jadrny (1922 – 1998). They were married on October 20, 1945 Gustav was 38, and Aurelia was a 23-year-old widow with a son named Meinhard. According to Schwarzenegger, both of his parents were very strict: "Back then in Austria it was a very different world, if we did something bad or we disobeyed our parents, the rod was not spared." He grew up in a Roman Catholic family who attended church service every Sunday. Gustav had a preference for Meinhard, the elder of the two sons. His favoritism was "strong and blatant," which stemmed from unfounded suspicion that Arnold was not his child. Schwarzenegger has said his father had "no patience for listening or understanding your problems… there was a wall; a real wall." Schwarzenegger had a good relationship with his mother, and kept in touch with her until her death. In later life, Schwarzenegger commissioned the Simon Wiesenthal Center to research his father's wartime record, which came up with no evidence of atrocities despite Gustav's membership in the Nazi Party and SA. At school, Schwarzenegger was apparently in the middle, but stood out for his "cheerful, good-humored and exuberant" character. Money was a problem in the household; Schwarzenegger has recalled that one of the highlights of his youth was when the family bought a refrigerator. As a boy, Schwarzenegger played many sports—heavily influenced by his father. He picked up his first barbell in 1960, when his football coach took his team to a local gym. At the age of 14, Schwarzenegger chose bodybuilding over football (soccer) as a career. Schwarzenegger has responded to a question asking if he was age 13 when he started weightlifting: "I actually started weight training when I was fifteen, but I'd been participating in sports, like soccer, for years, so I felt that although I was slim, I was well-developed, at least enough so that I could start going to the gym and start Olympic lifting." However, his official website biography claims: "At 14, he started an intensive training program with Dan Farmer, studied psychology at 15 (to learn more about the power of mind over body) and at 17, officially started his competitive career." During a speech in 2001, he said, "My own plan formed when I was 14 years old. My father had wanted me to be a police officer like he was. My mother wanted me to go to trade school." Schwarzenegger took to visiting a gym in Graz, where he also frequented the local movie theaters to see bodybuilding idols such as Reg Park, Steve Reeves and Johnny Weissmuller on the big screen. "I was inspired by individuals like Reg Park and Steve Reeves." When Reeves died in 2000, Schwarzenegger fondly remembered him: "As a teenager, I grew up with Steve Reeves. His remarkable accomplishments allowed me a sense of what was possible, when others around me didn't always understand my dreams ... Steve Reeves has been part of everything I've ever been fortunate enough to achieve." In 1961, Schwarzenegger met former Mr. Austria Kurt Marnul, who invited him to train at the gym in Graz. He was so dedicated as a youngster that he was known to break into the local gym on weekends, when it was usually closed, so that he could train. "It would make me sick to miss a workout … I knew I couldn't look at myself in the mirror the next morning if I didn't do it." When Schwarzenegger was asked about his first movie experience as a boy, he replied, "I was very young, but I remember my father taking me to the Austrian theaters and seeing some newsreels. The first real movie I saw, that I distinctly remember, was a John Wayne movie." In 1971, his brother Meinhard died in a car accident. Meinhard had been drinking and was killed instantly, and Schwarzenegger did not attend his funeral. Meinhard was due to marry Erika Knapp, and the couple shared a three-year-old son Patrick. Schwarzenegger would pay for Patrick's education and a life in the United States. Gustav died the following year from a stroke. In Pumping Iron, Schwarzenegger claimed that he did not attend his father's funeral because he was training for a bodybuilding contest. Later, he and the film's producer both said this story was taken from another bodybuilder for the purpose of showing the extremes that some would go to for their sport, and to make Schwarzenegger's image more cold and machine-like in order to fan controversy for the film. Interview in Pumping Iron 25th Anniversary Edition DVD extras Barbara Baker, his first serious girlfriend, has said he informed her of his father's death without emotion and that he never spoke of his brother. Over time, he has given at least three versions of why he did not attend his father's funeral. In an interview with Fortune magazine in 2004, Schwarzenegger told how he suffered what "would now be called child abuse" at the hands of his father: Early adulthood Schwarzenegger served in the Austrian army in 1965 to fulfill the one year of service required at the time of all 18-year-old Austrian males. He won the Junior Mr. Europe contest in 1965. Schwarzenegger went AWOL during basic training so he could take part in the competition and spent a week in an army jail: "Participating in the competition meant so much to me that I didn't carefully think through the consequences." He won another bodybuilding contest in Graz, at Steirer Hof Hotel (where he had placed second). He was voted best built man of Europe, which made him famous. "The Mr. Universe title was my ticket to America the land of opportunity, where I could become a star and get rich." Schwarzenegger made his first plane trip in 1966, attending the NABBA Mr. Universe competition in London. He would come in second in the Mr. Universe competition, not having the muscle definition of American winner Chester Yorton. Charles "Wag" Bennett, one of the judges at the 1966 competition, was impressed with Schwarzenegger and offered to coach him. As Schwarzenegger had little money, Bennett invited him to stay in his crowded family home above one of his two gyms in Forest Gate, London, England. Yorton's leg definition had been judged superior, and Schwarzenegger, under a training program devised by Bennett, concentrated on improving the muscle definition and power in his legs. Staying in the East End of London helped Schwarzenegger improve his rudimentary grasp of the English language. Staff. Obituary:Wag Bennett: bodybuilder who helped Arnold Schwarzenegger, The Times, October 2, 2008. Page 66 Staff, Arnold Schwarzenegger: Made in Britain, British Film Institute. Retrieved 2008-10-03. "Wag and Dianne Bennett, an East End couple who gave Arnie a home for three years," The training paid off and, in 1967, Schwarzenegger won the title for the first time, becoming the youngest ever Mr. Universe at the age of 20. He would go on to win the title a further four times. Schwarzenegger then flew back to Munich, training for four to six hours daily, attending business school and working in a health club (Rolf Putzinger's gym where he worked and trained from 1966-1968), returning in 1968 to London to win his next Mr. Universe title. He frequently told Roger C. Field, a friend in Munich at that time, "I'm going to become the greatest actor!" Move to the U.S. Schwarzenegger with President Ronald Reagan in 1984. Schwarzenegger moved to the United States in September 1968 at the age of 21, speaking little English. "Naturally, when I came to this country, my accent was very bad, and my accent was also very strong, which was an obstacle as I began to pursue acting." There he trained at Gold's Gym in Santa Monica, California, under Joe Weider. From 1970 to 1974, one of Schwarzenegger's weight training partners was Ric Drasin, a professional wrestler who designed the original Gold's Gym logo in 1973. Jennings, Randy (2003, October 21). Ric Drasin: Arnold's lifting partner! The Farting Fans Website. Retrieved on April 18, 2008. Schwarzenegger also became good friends with professional wrestler "Superstar" Billy Graham. In 1970, at age 23, he captured his first Mr. Olympia title in New York, and would go on to win the title a total of seven times. Schwarzenegger may have been an illegal immigrant at some point in the late 1960s or early 1970s due to violations in the terms of his visa. In 1969, Schwarzenegger met Barbara Outland Baker, an English teacher he lived with until 1974. Schwarzenegger talked about Barbara in his memoir in 1977: "Basically it came down to this: she was a well-balanced woman who wanted an ordinary, solid life, and I was not a well-balanced man, and hated the very idea of ordinary life." Baker has described Schwarzenegger as "a joyful personality, totally charismatic, adventurous, and athletic" but claims towards the end of the relationship he became "insufferable classically conceited the world revolved around him". Baker published her memoir in 2006, entitled Arnold and Me: In the Shadow of the Austrian Oak. Although Baker, at times, painted an unflattering portrait of her former lover, Schwarzenegger actually contributed to the tell-all book with a foreword, and also met with Baker for three hours. Baker claims, for example, that she only learned of his being unfaithful after they split, and talks of a turbulent and passionate love life. Schwarzenegger has made it clear that their respective recollection of events can differ. The couple first met six to eight months after his arrival in the U.S. their first date was watching the first Apollo Moon landing on television. They shared an apartment in Santa Monica for three and a half years, and having little money, would visit the beach all day, or have barbecues in the back yard. Although Baker claims that when she first met him, he had "little understanding of polite society" and she found him a turn-off, she says, "He's as much a self-made man as it's possible to be he never got encouragement from his parents, his family, his brother. He just had this huge determination to prove himself, and that was very attractive ... I'll go to my grave knowing Arnold loved me." Schwarzenegger met his next love, Sue Moray, a Beverly Hills hairdresser's assistant, on Venice Beach in July 1977. According to Moray, the couple led an open relationship: "We were faithful when we were both in LA...but when he was out of town, we were free to do whatever we wanted." Schwarzenegger met Maria Shriver at the Robert F. Kennedy Tennis Tournament in August 1977, and went on to have a relationship with both women until August 1978, when Moray (who knew of his relationship with Shriver) issued an ultimatum. Schwarzenegger has said his big dream from the age of 10 was to move to the U.S. He questioned what he was doing "on the farm" in Austria, and believed bodybuilding was his "ticket to America": "I’m sure I can go to America if I win Mr. Universe." LA Weekly said in 2002 that Schwarzenegger is the most famous immigrant in America, who "overcame a thick Austrian accent and transcended the unlikely background of bodybuilding to become the biggest movie star in the world in the 1990s." Bodybuilding career Schwarzenegger is considered among the most important figures in the history of bodybuilding, and his legacy is commemorated in the Arnold Classic annual bodybuilding competition. Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent face in the bodybuilding sport long after his retirement, in part because of his ownership of gyms and fitness magazines. He has presided over numerous contests and awards shows. For many years, he wrote a monthly column for the bodybuilding magazines Muscle & Fitness and Flex. Shortly after being elected Governor, he was appointed executive editor of both magazines, in a largely symbolic capacity. The magazines agreed to donate $250,000 a year to the Governor's various physical fitness initiatives. The magazine MuscleMag International has a monthly two-page article on him, and refers to him as "The King." One of the first competitions he won was the Junior Mr. Europe contest in 1965. He won Mr. Europe the following year, at age 19. He would go on to compete in and win many bodybuilding contests, as well as some powerlifting contests, including five Mr. Universe (4 NABBA [England], 1 IFBB [USA]) wins, and seven Mr. Olympia wins, a record which would stand until Lee Haney won his eighth consecutive Mr. Olympia title in 1991. Competition Weight: 240 lbs (top 250 lbs) Off Season Weight: 260 lbs Strongman In 1967, Schwarzenegger competed in and won the Munich stone-lifting contest, in which a stone weighing 508 German pounds (254 kg/560 lbs.) is lifted between the legs while standing on two foot rests. Schwarzenegger has said the following on his size: "During the peak of my career, my calves were 20 inches, thighs 28.5 inches, waist 34 inches, chest 57 inches, and 22-inch arms." In a full squat (buttocks close to ground) Schwarzenegger had a personal record of 181 kg/400lbs, for twelve repetitions. Mr. Olympia Schwarzenegger's goal was to become the greatest bodybuilder in the world, which meant becoming Mr. Olympia. His first attempt was in 1969, when he lost to three-time champion Sergio Oliva. However, Schwarzenegger came back in 1970 and won the competition, making him the youngest ever Mr. Olympia at the age of 23, a record he holds to this day. He continued his winning streak in the 1971 – 1974 competitions. In 1975, Schwarzenegger was once again in top form, and won the title for the sixth consecutive time, beating Franco Columbu. After the 1975 Mr. Olympia contest, Schwarzenegger announced his retirement from professional bodybuilding. Months before the 1975 Mr. Olympia contest, filmmakers George Butler and Robert Fiore persuaded Schwarzenegger to compete, in order to film his training in the bodybuilding documentary called Pumping Iron. Schwarzenegger had only three months to prepare for the competition, after losing significant weight to appear in the film Stay Hungry with Jeff Bridges. Lou Ferrigno proved not to be a threat, and a lighter-than-usual Schwarzenegger convincingly won the 1975 Mr. Olympia. Schwarzenegger came out of retirement, however, to compete in the 1980 Mr. Olympia. Schwarzenegger was training for his role in Conan, and he got into such good shape because of the running, horseback riding and sword training, that he decided he wanted to win the Mr. Olympia contest one last time. He kept this plan a secret, in the event that a training accident would prevent his entry and cause him to lose face. Schwarzenegger had been hired to provide color commentary for network television, when he announced at the eleventh hour that while he was there: "Why not compete?" Schwarzenegger ended up winning the event with only seven weeks of preparation. After being declared Mr. Olympia for a seventh time, Schwarzenegger officially retired from competition. Steroid use Schwarzenegger has admitted to using performance-enhancing anabolic steroids while they were legal, writing in 1967 that "steroids were helpful to me in maintaining muscle size while on a strict diet in preparation for a contest. I did not use them for muscle growth, but rather for muscle maintenance when cutting up." He has called the drugs "tissue building." In 1999, Schwarzenegger sued Dr. Willi Heepe, a German doctor who publicly predicted an early death for the bodybuilder, based on a link between steroid use and later heart problems. Because the doctor had never examined him personally, Schwarzenegger collected a DM20,000 ($12,000 USD) libel judgment against him in a German court. In 1999, Schwarzenegger also sued and settled with The Globe, a U.S. tabloid which had made similar predictions about the bodybuilder's future health. Schwarzenegger was born with a bicuspid aortic valve, an aortic valve with only two leaflets (a normal aortic valve has three leaflets). As late as 1996, a year before Schwarzenegger's open heart surgery to replace this aortic valve with a human homograft valve, Schwarzenegger publicly defended his use of anabolic steroids during his bodybuilding career. Acting career Schwarzenegger wanted to move from bodybuilding into acting, finally achieving it when he was chosen to play the role of Hercules in 1970's Hercules in New York. Credited under the name "Arnold Strong," his accent in the film was so thick that his lines were dubbed after production. His second film appearance was as a deaf and mute hit-man for the mob in director Robert Altman's The Long Goodbye (1973), which was followed by a much more significant part in the film Stay Hungry (1976), for which he was awarded a Golden Globe for New Male Star of the Year. Schwarzenegger has discussed his early struggles in developing his acting career. "It was very difficult for me in the beginning I was told by agents and casting people that my body was 'too weird,' that I had a funny accent, and that my name was too long. You name it, and they told me I had to change it. Basically, everywhere I turned, I was told that I had no chance." Schwarzenegger drew attention and boosted his profile in the bodybuilding film Pumping Iron (1977), elements of which were dramatized. In 1991, Schwarzenegger purchased the rights to the film, its outtakes, and associated still photography. Schwarzenegger auditioned for the title role of The Incredible Hulk, but did not win the role due to his height. Later, Lou Ferrigno got the part of Dr. David Banner's alter ego. Schwarzenegger appeared with Kirk Douglas and Ann-Margret in the 1979 comedy The Villain. In 1980 he starred in a biopic of the 1950s actress Jayne Mansfield as Mansfield's husband, Mickey Hargitay. Schwarzenegger's breakthrough film was the sword-and-sorcery epic Conan the Barbarian in 1982, which was a box-office hit. This was followed by a sequel, Conan the Destroyer in 1984, although its box-office performance was disappointing. In 1983, Schwarzenegger starred in the promotional video "Carnival in Rio". Arnold Schwarzenegger's star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame In 1984, he made the first of three appearances as the titular character and what some would say was the signature role in his acting career in director James Cameron's science-fiction thriller film The Terminator. Following The Terminator, Schwarzenegger made Red Sonja in 1985, which "sank without a trace." During the 1980s, audiences had a large appetite for action films, with both Schwarzenegger and Sylvester Stallone becoming international stars. Schwarzenegger's roles reflected his droll, often self-deprecating sense of humor (including sometimes famously bad puns), separating his roles from more serious action hero fare. His alternative-universe comedy/thriller Last Action Hero featured a poster of the movie Terminator 2: Judgment Day which, in the fictional alternate universe, had Sylvester Stallone as its star. Following his arrival as a Hollywood superstar, he made a number of successful films: Commando (1985), Raw Deal (1986), The Running Man (1987), and Red Heat (1988). In Predator (1987), another successful film, Schwarzenegger led a cast which included future Minnesota Governor Jesse Ventura (Ventura also appeared in The Running Man and Batman & Robin with Schwarzenegger) and future Kentucky Gubernatorial candidate Sonny Landham. Twins (1988), a comedy with Danny DeVito, was a change of pace, and also proved successful. Total Recall (1990) netted Schwarzenegger $10 million and 15% of the gross, and was a widely praised, science-fiction script directed by Paul Verhoeven, based on the Philip K. Dick short story, "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale". Kindergarten Cop (1990) reunited him with director Ivan Reitman, who directed him in Twins. Schwarzenegger had a brief foray into directing, first with a 1990 episode of the TV series Tales from the Crypt, entitled "The Switch," and then with the 1992 telemovie Christmas in Connecticut. He has not directed since. Footprints and handprints of Arnold Schwarzenegger in front of the Grauman's Chinese Theatre Schwarzenegger's commercial high-water mark was his return as the title character in 1991's Terminator 2: Judgment Day, which was the highest-grossing film of 1991. In 1993, the National Association of Theatre Owners named him the "International Star of the Decade." His next film project, the 1993 self-aware action comedy spoof Last Action Hero was released opposite Jurassic Park, with the box office suffering accordingly. His next film, the action comedy True Lies (1994) was a highly popular send-up of spy films, and saw Schwarzenegger, reunited with The Terminator director James Cameron, appearing opposite Jamie Lee Curtis. Shortly thereafter came the comedy Junior (1994), the last of his three collaborations with Ivan Reitman and again co-starring Danny DeVito. This film brought Schwarzenegger his second Golden Globe nomination, this time for Best Actor Musical or Comedy. It was followed by the action thriller Eraser (1996) and the comic book-based Batman & Robin (1997), where he played the villain Mr. Freeze. This was his final film before taking time to recuperate from a back injury. Following the critical failure of Batman & Robin, Schwarzenegger's film career and box office prominence went into decline. Several film projects were announced with Schwarzenegger attached to star, including the remake of Planet of the Apes, a new film version of I Am Legend, and a World War II film scripted by Quentin Tarantino that would have seen Schwarzenegger play an Austrian for the third time (after Junior and Kindergarten Cop). Instead, he returned after a hiatus with the supernatural thriller End of Days (1999), later followed by the action films The 6th Day (2000) and Collateral Damage (2002) all of which failed to do well at the box office. In 2003, he made his third appearance as the title character in Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines, which went on to earn over $150 million domestically. In tribute to Schwarzenegger in 2002, Forum Stadtpark, a local cultural association, proposed plans to build a 25-meter (82-foot) tall Terminator statue in a park in central Graz. Schwarzenegger reportedly said he was flattered, but thought the money would be better spent on social projects and the Special Olympics. His latest film appearances included a 3-second cameo appearance in The Rundown (AKA, Welcome to the Jungle) with The Rock, and the 2004 remake of Around the World in 80 Days, where he appeared onscreen with action star Jackie Chan for the first time. Schwarzenegger voiced Baron von Steuben in Episode 24 ("Valley Forge") of Liberty's Kids. In 2005 he appeared as himself in the film The Kid & I. Schwarzenegger had been rumored to be appearing in Terminator Salvation as the original T-800 model, alongside Roland Kickinger. But in an interview, Schwarzenegger denied his involvement. It was later revealed that he would not be shooting new footage, but that his image would be inserted into the movie from an earlier film. Political career Vice President Dick Cheney meets with Schwarzenegger for the first time at the White House Early politics Schwarzenegger has been a registered Republican for many years. As an actor, his political views were always well-known as they contrasted with those of many other prominent Hollywood stars, who are generally considered to be a liberal and Democratic-leaning community. At the 2004 Republican National Convention, Schwarzenegger gave a speech and explained why he was a Republican: In 1985, Schwarzenegger appeared in Stop the Madness, an anti-drug music video sponsored by the Reagan administration. He first came to wide public notice as a Republican during the 1988 Presidential election, accompanying then-Vice President George H.W. Bush at a campaign rally. Schwarzenegger's first political appointment was as chairman of the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports, on which he served from 1990 to 1993. He was nominated by George H. W. Bush, who dubbed him "Conan the Republican". He later served as Chairman for the California Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports under Governor Pete Wilson. Yet, political analysts have identified Schwarzenegger as a liberal, as he has become more left-leaning since his election. Between 1993 and 1994, Schwarzenegger was a Red Cross ambassador (a mostly ceremonial role fulfilled by celebrities), recording several television/radio public service announcements to give blood. A small amount of interest was garnered by his wearing of a white t-shirt with the Red Cross on it, while posing with a flexed arm; the image made it into several celebrity magazines. In an interview with Talk magazine in late 1999, Schwarzenegger was asked if he thought of running for office. He replied, "I think about it many times. The possibility is there, because I feel it inside." The Hollywood Reporter claimed shortly after that Schwarzenegger sought to end speculation that he might run for governor of California. Following his initial comments, Schwarzenegger said, "I'm in show business I am in the middle of my career. Why would I go away from that and jump into something else?" Governor of California President George W. Bush meets with Schwarzenegger after his successful election to the California Governorship Schwarzenegger announced his candidacy in the 2003 California recall election for Governor of California on the August 6, 2003 episode of The Tonight Show with Jay Leno. As a candidate in the recall election, Schwarzenegger had the most name recognition in a crowded field of candidates, but he had never held public office and his political views were unknown to most Californians. His candidacy immediately became national and international news, with media outlets dubbing him the "Governator" (referring to The Terminator movies, see above) and "The Running Man" (the name of another one of his films), and calling the recall election "Total Recall" (yet another Schwarzenegger starrer). Schwarzenegger declined to participate in several debates with other recall replacement candidates, and appeared in only one debate on September 24, 2003. On October 7, 2003, the recall election resulted in Governor Gray Davis being removed from office with 55.4% of the Yes vote in favor of a recall. Schwarzenegger was elected Governor of California under the second question on the ballot with 48.6% of the vote to choose a successor to Davis. Schwarzenegger defeated Democrat Cruz Bustamante, fellow Republican Tom McClintock, and others. His nearest rival, Bustamante, received less than 32% of the vote. In total, Schwarzenegger won the election by about 1.3 million votes. Under the regulations of the California Constitution, no runoff election was required. Schwarzenegger was the first foreign-born governor of California since Irish-born Governor John G. Downey in 1862. As soon as Schwarzenegger was elected governor, Willie Brown said he would start a drive to recall the governor. Schwarzenegger was equally entrenched in what he considered to be his mandate in cleaning up gridlock. Building on a catchphrase from a sketch partly parodying his bodybuilding career, Schwarzenegger called the Democratic State politicians "girlie men," (a reference from a Saturday Night Live sketch called "Hans and Franz"). The Governor's office in the California State Capitol Schwarzenegger enjoyed a large degree of success and victories in his early governorship, LA Times article including repealing an unpopular increase in the vehicle registration fee as well as preventing driver's licenses being given out to illegal immigrants, but later began to feel the backlash when powerful state unions began to oppose his various initiatives. Key among his reckoning with political realities was a special election he called in November 2005, in which four ballot measures he sponsored were defeated. Schwarzenegger accepted personal responsibility for the defeats and vowed to continue to seek consensus for the people of California. He would later comment that "no one could win if the opposition raised 160 million dollars to defeat you." Schwarzenegger then went against the advice of fellow Republican strategists and appointed a Democrat, Susan Kennedy, as his Chief of Staff. Schwarzenegger gradually moved towards a more politically moderate position, determined to build a winning legacy with only a short time to go until the next gubernatorial election. He has appeared alongside his fellow actor from Around the World in 80 Days, Jackie Chan, in a government advertisement to combat copyright infringement. Schwarzenegger ran for re-election against Democrat Phil Angelides, the California State Treasurer, in the 2006 elections, held on November 7, 2006. Despite a poor year nationally for the Republican party, Schwarzenegger won re-election with 56.0% of the vote compared with 38.9% for Angelides, a margin of well over one million votes. The election further enhanced his political credentials. In recent years, many commentators have seen Schwarzenegger as moving away from the right and towards the center or center-left of the political spectrum. After hearing a speech by Schwarzenegger at the 2006 Martin Luther King, Jr. breakfast, San Francisco mayor Gavin Newsom said that, "he's becoming a Democrat again [...] He's running back, not even to the center. I would say center-left." It is rumored that Schwarzenegger may run for the United States Senate in 2010, as his governorship will be term-limited by that time. With Schwarzenegger and Senator Dianne Feinstein behind him, President George W. Bush comments on wildfires and firefighting efforts in California, October 2007 Wendy Leigh, who wrote an unofficial biography on Schwarzenegger, claims he plotted his political rise from an early age using the movie business and bodybuilding as building blocks to escape a depressing home. Leigh portrays Schwarzenegger as obsessed with power and quotes him as saying, "I wanted to be part of the small percentage of people who were leaders, not the large mass of followers. I think it is because I saw leaders use 100% of their potential I was always fascinated by people in control of other people." Schwarzenegger has said that it was never his intention to enter politics, but he says, "I married into a political family. You get together with them and you hear about policy, about reaching out to help people. I was exposed to the idea of being a public servant and Eunice and Sargent Shriver became my heroes." Eunice Kennedy Shriver was sister of John F. Kennedy, and mother-in-law to Schwarzenegger, Sargent Shriver is husband to Eunice and father-in-law to Schwarzenegger. According to the 2005 Year-in-Review issue of Time magazine, supporters of Schwarzenegger are hoping to amend the Constitution so that he can run for President of the United States; he currently cannot run because he is not a natural born citizen of the United States. Indeed, in The Simpsons Movie, Schwarzenegger is portrayed as the President and in the Sylvester Stallone movie Demolition Man, it is revealed there was an amendment to the constitution that allowed him to become President. Schwarzenegger is a dual Austria/United States citizen. He holds Austrian citizenship by birth and has held U.S. citizenship since becoming naturalized in 1983. Being Austrian and thus European he was able to win the 2007 European Voice campaigner of the year award for taking action against climate change with the California Global Warming Solutions Act of 2006 and plans to introduce an emissions trading scheme with other US states and possibly with the EU. Still, Schwarzenegger has always identified with his American citizenship, and has shown great affinity for the state of California beyond his foreign birth. Schwarzenegger does not accept his governor's salary of $175,000 per year, and instead donates it to charities. Schwarzenegger's endorsement in the Republican primary of the 2008 U.S. Presidential election was highly sought; despite being good friends with candidates Rudy Giuliani and Senator John McCain, Schwarzenegger remained neutral throughout 2007 and early 2008. Giuliani dropped out of the Presidential race on January 30, 2008, largely because of a poor showing in Florida, and endorsed McCain. Later that night, Schwarzenegger was in the audience at a Republican debate at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. The following day, he endorsed McCain, joking, "It's Rudy's fault!" (in reference to his friendships with both candidates and that he could not make up his mind). Schwarzenegger's endorsement was thought to be a boost for Senator McCain's campaign; both spoke about their concerns for the environment and economy. Amendment of Three Strikes Law Governor Schwarzenegger played a significant role in opposing Proposition 66, a proposed amendment of the Californian Three Strikes Law, in November 2004. This amendment would have required the third felony to be either violent and/or serious in order to mandate a 25-years-to-life sentence. In the last week before the ballot, Schwarzenegger launched an intensive campaign TV-commercial of Arnold Schwarzenegger against Proposition 66 against Proposition 66. Megan Garvey and Robert Salladay "Prop. 66 in Tough Fight", LAtimes.com He stated that "it would release 26,000 dangerous criminals and rapists". Electoral history Environmental record On September 27, 2006 Schwarzenegger signed a bill creating the nation’s first cap on greenhouse gas emissions. The law set new regulations on the amount of emissions utilities, refineries and manufacturing plants are allowed to release into the atmosphere. Schwarzenegger also signed a second global warming bill that prohibits large utilities and corporations in California from making long-term contracts with suppliers who do not meet the state’s greenhouse gas emission standards. The two bills are part of a plan to reduce California’s emissions by 25 percent to 1990’s levels by 2020. In 2005, Schwarzenegger issued an executive order calling to reduce greenhouse gases to 80 percent below 1990 levels by 2050. "Schwarzenegger Signs Global Warming Bill" Washington Post. September 27, 2008. Accessed May 15, 2008. Schwarzenegger signed another executive order on October 17, 2006 allowing California to work with the Northeast’s Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative. They plan to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by issuing a limited amount of carbon credits to each power plant in participating states. Any power plants that exceed emissions for the amount of carbon credits they have will have to purchase more credits to cover the difference. The plan is set to be in effect in 2009. "Cal Joins Northeast Global Warming Fight" Fox News. October 17, 2006. Accessed May 15, 2008 In addition to using his political power to fight global warming, the governor has taken steps at his home to reduce his personal carbon footprint. Schwarzenegger has adapted one of his Hummers to run on hydrogen and another to run on biofuels. He has also installed solar panels to heat his home. "The Governator's green agenda" Fortune Magazine. March 23, 2007. Accessed May 15, 2008. In respect of his contribution to the direction of the US motor industry, Schwarzenegger was invited to open the 2009 SAE World Congress in Detroit, on April 20, 2009. "SAE 2009 World Congress Special Opening Ceremonies to Feature Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger" SAE. March 10, 2009. Accessed April 6, 2009. Personal life Schwarzenegger with his wife Maria Shriver at the 2007 Special Olympics in Shanghai, China In 1977, Schwarzenegger's autobiography/weight-training guide Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder was published and became a huge success. After taking English classes at Santa Monica College in Santa Monica, California, he earned a B.A. by correspondence from the University of Wisconsin-Superior, where he graduated Business and International Economics, in 1979. On April 26, 1986, Schwarzenegger married television journalist Maria Shriver, niece of the past President of the United States John F. Kennedy, in Hyannis, Massachusetts. The Rev. John Baptist Riordan performed the ceremony at St. Francis Xavier Roman Catholic Church. They have four children: Katherine Eunice Shriver Schwarzenegger (born December 13, 1989 in Los Angeles, California); Christina Maria Aurelia Schwarzenegger (born July 23, 1991 in Los Angeles, California); Patrick Arnold Schwarzenegger (born September 18, 1993 in Los Angeles, California); and Christopher Sargent Shriver Schwarzenegger (born September 27, 1997 in Los Angeles, California). Schwarzenegger and his family currently live in their 11,000-square-foot (1 022 m²) home in Brentwood. They used to own a home in the Pacific Palisades. The family owns vacation homes in Sun Valley, Idaho and Hyannis Port, Massachusetts. Schwarzenegger does not have a home in Sacramento. However, whenever he is in the state capital, he lives in the Hyatt Regency hotel suite. The suite costs about $65,000 a year. On Sundays, the family attends Mass at St. Monica's Catholic Church. Schwarzenegger has said he believes the secret of a good marriage is love and respect. "If you have the ultimate love for your wife and she has it for you, I think you have a great head start … That's not to say it won't be difficult sometimes. You go through your ups and downs but you work through it." Schwarzenegger has talked about parenthood in 2000: "One of the best things you can do with your children is play with them. At the same time, I act very silly. Many times I do a lot of sports with them. I play games with them. Act out parts. We do little plays, sometimes." His official height of 6'2" (188 cm) has been brought into question by several articles. In his bodybuilding days in the late 1960s, he was measured to be 6'1.5", a height confirmed by his fellow bodybuilders. In 1988 both the Daily Mail and Time Out magazine mentioned that Schwarzenegger appeared noticeably shorter than this publicised figure. Andrews, N: "True Myths: The life and times of Arnold Schwarzenegger," page 157. Bloomsbury, 2003 More recently, before running for Governor, Schwarzenegger's height was once again questioned in an article by the Chicago Reader. As Governor, Schwarzenegger engaged in a light-hearted exchange with Assemblyman Herb Wesson over their heights. At one point Wesson made an unsuccessful attempt to, in his own words, "settle this once and for all and find out how tall he is." by using a tailor's tape measure on the Governor. Schwarzenegger later retaliated by placing a pillow stitched with the words "Need a lift?" on the five-foot-five (165 cm) Wesson’s chair before a negotiating session in his office. Bob Mulholland also claimed Arnold was 5'10" and that he wore risers in his boots. http://www.arnoldwatch.org/articles/articles_000488.php3 The debate on Schwarzenegger's height has spawned a website solely dedicated to it, and his page remains one of the most active on CelebHeights.com, a website which discusses the heights of celebrities. In 2005, Peter Pilz, from the Austrian Green Party, demanded that parliament revoke Schwarzenegger's Austrian citizenship. This demand was based on Article 33 of the Austrian Citizenship Act that states: A citizen, who is in the public service of a foreign country, shall be deprived of his citizenship, if he heavily damages the reputation or the interests of the Austrian Republic. Pilz claimed that Schwarzenegger's actions in support of the death penalty (prohibited in Austria under Protocol 13 of the European Convention on Human Rights) had indeed done damage to Austria's reputation. Schwarzenegger explained his actions by referring to the fact that his only duty as Governor of California was to prevent an error in the judicial system. In honor of its most famous son, Schwarzenegger's home town of Graz had its soccer stadium named The Arnold Schwarzenegger Stadium. It is the home of both Grazer AK and Sturm Graz. Following the Stanley Williams execution and after street protests in his hometown, several local politicians began a campaign to remove Schwarzenegger's name from the stadium. Schwarzenegger responded, saying that "to spare the responsible politicians of the city of Graz further concern, I withdraw from them as of this day the right to use my name in association with the Liebenau Stadium," and set a tight deadline of just a couple of days to remove his name. Graz officials removed Schwarzenegger's name from the stadium in December 2005. It is now officially titled UPC-Arena. The Sun Valley Resort has a short ski trail called Arnold's Run, named after Schwarzenegger (It was named after him in 2001). The trail is categorized as a black diamond, or most difficult, for its terrain. He bought the first Hummer manufactured for civilian use in 1992, a model so large, 6,300 lb (2900 kg) and 7 feet (2.1 m) wide, that it is classified as a large truck and U.S. fuel economy regulations do not apply to it. During the Gubernatorial Recall campaign he announced that he would convert one of his Hummers to burn hydrogen. The conversion was reported to have cost about US$21,000. After the election, he signed an executive order to jump-start the building of hydrogen refueling plants called the California Hydrogen Highway Network, and gained a U.S. Department of Energy grant to help pay for its projected US$91,000,000 cost. California took delivery of the first H2H (Hydrogen Hummer) in October 2004. People in Thal celebrated Schwarzenegger's 60th birthday by throwing a party. Officials proclaimed A Day for Arnold on July 30, 2007. Thal 145, the number of the house where Schwarzenegger was born, belonged to Schwarzenegger and nobody will ever be assigned to that number. Accidents and medical issues Schwarzenegger broke his right femur while skiing in Sun Valley, Idaho with his family on December 23, 2006. He tripped over his ski pole on Lower Warm Springs run on Bald Mountain, an 'easy' or green level run. He is an expert level skier. On December 26, 2006, he underwent a 90-minute operation in which cables and screws were used to wire the broken bone back together. He was released from the St. John's Health Center on December 30, 2006. Schwarzenegger did not delay his second oath of office on January 5, 2007, although he was still on crutches at the time. Schwarzenegger has twice crashed motorcycles on public highways, injuring himself in the process. On January 8, 2006, while riding his Harley Davidson motorcycle in Los Angeles, with his son Patrick in the sidecar, another driver backed into the street he was riding on, causing him and his son to collide with the car at a low speed. While his son and the other driver were unharmed, the governor sustained a minor injury to his lip, forcing him to get 15 stitches. "No citations were issued" said Officer Jason Lee, a Los Angeles Police Department spokesman. Schwarzenegger, who famously rode motorcycles in the Terminator movies, has never obtained an M-1 or M-2 endorsement on his California driver's license that would allow him to legally ride a motorcycle without a sidecar on the street. Previously, on December 9, 2001, he broke six ribs and was hospitalized for four days after a motorcycle crash in Los Angeles. Schwarzenegger opted in 1997 for a replacement heart valve made of his own transplanted tissue; medical experts predict he will require heart valve replacement surgery in the next two to eight years as his current valve degrades. Schwarzenegger apparently opted against a mechanical valve, the only permanent solution available at the time of his surgery, because it would have sharply limited his physical activity and capacity to exercise. He saved a drowning man's life in 2004 while on vacation in Hawaii by swimming out and bringing him back to shore. Business career Schwarzenegger has also had a highly successful business career. Following his move to the United States, Schwarzenegger became a "prolific goal setter" and would write his objectives at the start of the year on index cards, like starting a mail order business or buying a new car and succeed in doing so. By the age of 30, Schwarzenegger was a millionaire, well before his career in Hollywood. His financial independence came from a series of successful business ventures and investments. In 1968, Schwarzenegger and fellow bodybuilder Franco Columbu started a bricklaying business. The business flourished thanks to the pair's marketing savvy and an increased demand following a major Los Angeles earthquake in 1971. Schwarzenegger and Columbu used profits from their bricklaying venture to start a mail order business, selling bodybuilding and fitness-related equipment and instructional tapes. Schwarzenegger rolled profits from the mail order business and his bodybuilding competition winnings into his first real estate venture: an apartment building he purchased for $10,000. He would go on to invest in a number of real estate holding companies. In 1992, Schwarzenegger and his wife opened a restaurant in Santa Monica called Schatzi On Main. Schatzi literally means "little treasure," colloquial for "honey" or "darling" in German. In 1998, he sold his restaurant. He invested in a shopping mall in Columbus, Ohio. He has talked about some of those who have helped him over the years in business: "I couldn't have learned about business without a parade of teachers guiding me... from Milton Friedman to Donald Trump... and now, Les Wexner and Warren Buffett. I even learned a thing or two from Planet Hollywood, such as when to get out! And I did!" He has significant ownership in Dimensional Fund Advisors, an investment firm. Planet Hollywood Schwarzenegger was a founding celebrity investor in the Planet Hollywood chain of international theme restaurants (modeled after the Hard Rock Cafe) along with Bruce Willis, Sylvester Stallone, and Demi Moore. Schwarzenegger severed his financial ties with the business in early 2000. Schwarzenegger said the company had not had the success he had hoped for, claiming he wanted to focus his attention on "new US global business ventures" and his movie career. Net worth Schwarzenegger's net worth has been conservatively estimated at $100 – $200 million. Over the years, he invested his bodybuilding and movie earnings in an array of stocks, bonds, privately controlled companies, and real estate holdings in the U.S. and worldwide, so his fortune is sometimes estimated as high as $800 million. In June 1997, Schwarzenegger spent $38 million of his own money on a private Gulfstream Jet. Schwarzenegger once said of his fortune, "Money doesn't make you happy. I now have $50 million, but I was just as happy when I had $48 million." "I've made many millions as a businessman many times over." Allegations of sexual and personal misconduct Code Pink protesting against Schwarzenegger During his initial campaign for governor, allegations of sexual and personal misconduct were raised against Schwarzenegger (dubbed Gropegate). Within the last five days before the election, news reports appeared in the Los Angeles Times recounting allegations of sexual misconduct from several individual women, six of whom eventually came forward with their personal stories. Three of the women claimed he had grabbed their breasts, a fourth said he placed his hand under her skirt on her buttock. A fifth woman claimed Schwarzenegger tried to take off her bathing suit in a hotel elevator, and the last says he pulled her onto his lap and asked her about a particular sex act. Schwarzenegger admitted that he has "behaved badly sometimes" and apologized, but also stated that "a lot of [what] you see in the stories is not true." This came after an interview in adult magazine Oui from 1977 surfaced, in which Schwarzenegger discussed attending sexual orgies and using substances like marijuana. Schwarzenegger is shown smoking a marijuana joint after winning Mr. Olympia in the 1975 documentary film Pumping Iron. In an interview with GQ magazine in October 2007, Schwarzenegger said, "[Marijuana] is not a drug. It's a leaf. My drug was pumping iron, trust me." His spokesperson later said the comment was meant to be a joke. British television personality Anna Richardson settled a libel lawsuit in August 2006 against Schwarzenegger and two of his top aides, Sean Walsh and publicist Sheryl Main. A joint statement read: "The parties are content to put this matter behind them and are pleased that this legal dispute has now been settled." Richardson claimed they tried to tarnish her reputation by dismissing her allegations that Schwarzenegger touched her breast during a press event (for The 6th Day) in London. She claimed Walsh and Main libeled her in a Los Angeles Times article when they contended she encouraged his behavior. See also Arnold Schwarzenegger filmography Notes Bibliography Interviews Interview in Oui magazine, August 1977 at thesmokinggun.com Excerpts from Time Out (London) interview, 1977 at time.com Schwarzenegger Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos Film "Arnold Schwarzenegger Hollywood Hero" DVD ~ Todd Baker "Pumping Iron" (25th Anniversary Special Edition) DVD ~ George Butler External links Official State of California Office of Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger Arnold Schwarzenegger's Official Website (Non-Political) Arnold Schwarzenegger's Official Political Website Arnold Schwarzenegger on Twitter Arnold Schwarzenegger at the National Governors Association Complete text, audio, video of Governor Schwarzenegger's 2004 Republican National Convention AddressAmericanRhetoric.com Complete text and audio of Governor Schwarzenegger's Speech to the United Nations on Global Climate ChangeAmericanRhetoric.com 3D timeline of Arnold Schwarzenegger Election websites Official VoteCircle Profile Nonpartisan Follow the Money Arnold Schwarzenegger (Committee 1) 2006 campaign contributions Follow the Money Arnold Schwarzenegger (Committee 2) 2006 campaign contributions Unofficial Arnold Schwarzenegger Bodybuilding Gallery (Gallery of Arnold Schwarzenegger's Competitive Years) | Arnold_Schwarzenegger |@lemmatized arnold:34 alois:2 schwarzenegger:235 german:5 bear:6 july:4 american:3 austrian:14 bodybuilder:9 actor:5 businessman:2 politician:4 currently:3 serve:6 governor:32 state:23 california:33 begin:5 weight:7 training:10 fifteen:2 award:4 title:13 mr:27 universe:10 age:11 go:19 win:29 olympia:14 contest:13 total:5 seven:4 time:36 remain:4 prominent:3 face:3 bodybuilding:26 sport:9 long:5 retirement:4 write:5 several:8 book:3 numerous:2 article:8 gain:2 worldwide:2 fame:2 hollywood:10 action:13 film:35 icon:1 note:2 lead:3 role:11 conan:5 barbarian:2 terminator:12 nickname:1 oak:3 styrian:2 day:17 strong:4 arnie:2 act:11 career:17 recently:2 governator:3 portmanteau:1 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6,518 | Battle_of_Stalingrad | Operation Blau: German advances from 7 May 1942 to 18 November 1942 The Battle of Stalingrad was a World War II battle between Nazi Germany and its allies and the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad in southern Russia. The battle took place between 17 July 1942 and 2 February 1943. "Battle of Stalingrad." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 06 May. 2009. It is often cited as one of the turning points of the war. The battle was the bloodiest in modern history, with combined casualties estimated at nearly two million. The battle involved more participants than any other in history, and was marked by brutality and disregard for military and civilian casualties by both sides. The German offensive to take Stalingrad, the battle inside the city, and the Soviet counter-offensive which eventually trapped and destroyed the German 6th Army and other Axis forces around the city, was the first large-scale German defeat of World War II. Blanning, T. C. W. The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern Europe, p.219 Roberts, Geoffrey. Stalin's Wars p.154 Soviet and Russian studies identify ten campaigns, strategic and operational level operations. Background On June 22, 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa (Unternehmen Barbarossa). The armed forces of Germany and its allies invaded the Soviet Union, quickly advancing deep into Soviet territory. During December, having suffered multiple defeats during the summer and autumn, Soviet forces counter-attacked during the Battle of Moscow and successfully drove the German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) from the environs of Moscow. By spring 1942, the Germans had stabilized their new front in a line running roughly from Leningrad in the north to Rostov in the south. There were a number of salients in the line where Soviet offensives had pushed the Germans back, notably to the northwest of Moscow and south of Kharkov, but neither was particularly threatening. In the far south, the Germans were in control of most of the Ukraine and much of the Crimea, although Sevastapol remained in Soviet hands along with a small portion of the Kerch Peninsula. The Germans were confident they could master the Red Army when winter weather no longer impeded their mobility. There was some substance to this belief: while the German Army Group Centre (Heeresgruppe Mitte) had suffered heavy punishment, 65% of its infantry had not been engaged during the winter fighting, and had been rested and reequipped. A.J.P Taylor & Alan Clark 1974, p. 144. Army Groups North and South had not been particularly hard pressed over the winter. Importance of Stalingrad The capture of Stalingrad was important to Hitler for two primary reasons. First, it was a major industrial city on the Volga River – a vital transport route between the Caspian Sea and northern Russia. As a result, the German capture of the city would effectively sever the transportation of resources and goods to the north. Second, its capture would secure the left flank of the German armies as they advanced into the oil-rich Caucasus region – with the strategic goal of cutting off fuel to Stalin's war machine. The fact that the city bore the name of the leader of the USSR, Joseph Stalin, would make its capture an ideological and propaganda coup. The Soviets realized this and, though they were under tremendous constraints of time and resources, ordered that anyone strong enough to hold a rifle be sent to defend the city. McDonald 1986, p. 94. The Red Army, at this stage of the war, was less capable of highly mobile operations than the German Army; however, the prospect of combat inside a large urban area, which would be dominated by hand-held small arms rather than armored and mechanized tactics, minimized the Red Army's disadvantages. Operation Blau / Blue Army Group South was selected for a sprint forward through the southern Russian steppes into the Caucasus to capture the vital Soviet oil fields there. Instead of focusing his attention on Moscow as his general staff advised, Hitler continued to send forces and supplies to the eastern Ukraine. The planned summer offensive was code-named Fall Blau ("Case Blue"). It was to include the German Sixth, Seventeenth, Fourth Panzer and First Panzer Armies. Army Group South had overrun the Ukrainian SSR in 1941. Poised in the Eastern Ukraine, it was to spearhead the offensive. Hitler intervened, however, ordering the Army Group to be split in two. Army Group South (A), under the command of Wilhelm List, was to continue advancing south towards the Caucasus as planned with the Seventeenth Army and First Panzer Army. Army Group South (B), including Friedrich Paulus’ Sixth Army and Hermann Hoth's Fourth Panzer Army, was to move east towards the Volga and Stalingrad. Army Group B was commanded initially by Field Marshal Fedor von Bock and later by General Maximilian von Weichs. The start of Operation Blau had been planned for late May 1942. However, a number of German and Romanian units that were involved in Blau were then in the process of besieging Sevastopol on the Crimean Peninsula. Delays in ending the siege pushed back the start date for Blau several times, and the city did not fall until the end of June. A smaller action was taken in the meantime, pinching off a Soviet salient in the Second Battle of Kharkov, which resulted in the pocketing of a large Soviet force on 22 May. Blau finally opened as Army Group South began its attack into southern Russia on June 28, 1942. The German offensive started well. Soviet forces offered little resistance in the vast empty steppes and started streaming eastward in disarray. Several attempts to re-establish a defensive line failed when German units outflanked them. Two major pockets were formed and destroyed: the first, northeast of Kharkov, on July 2, and a second, around Millerovo, Rostov Oblast, a week later. Meanwhile, the Hungarian Second Army and the German 4th Panzer Army had launched an assault on Voronezh, capturing the city on 5 July. The initial advance of the Sixth Army was so successful that Hitler intervened and ordered the Fourth Panzer Army to join Army Group South (A) to the south. A massive traffic jam resulted when the Fourth Panzer and the Sixth both required the few roads in the area. Both armies were stopped dead while they attempted to clear the resulting mess of thousands of vehicles. The delay was long, and it is thought that it cost the advance at least one week. With the advance now slowed, Hitler changed his mind and re-assigned the Fourth Panzer Army back to the attack on Stalingrad. By the end of July, the Germans had pushed the Soviets across the Don River. At this point, the Don and Volga Rivers were only 40 miles apart, and the Germans left their main supply depots west of the Don, which was to have important implications later in the course of the battle. The Germans began using the armies of their Italian, Hungarian, and Romanian allies to guard their left (northern) flank. The Italians are not often credited with bravery in the fighting, but they won several accolades in official German communiques. The German Sixth Army was only a few dozen kilometers from Stalingrad, and Fourth Panzer Army, now to their south, turned northwards to help take the city. To the south, Army Group A was pushing far into the Caucasus, but their advance slowed as supply lines grew overextended. The two German army groups were not positioned to support one another due to the great distances involved. After German intentions became clear in July, Stalin appointed Marshall Andrei Yeremenko as commander of the Southeastern Front on August 1, 1942. Yeremenko and Commissar Nikita Krushchev were tasked with planning the defense of Stalingrad. Craig, William (1973). Enemy at the Gates: the Battle for Stalingrad. New York: Penguin Books (ISBN 0-14-200000-0 & ISBN 1-56852-368-8). The eastern border of Stalingrad was the wide Volga River, and over the river, additional Soviet units were deployed. These units became the newly formed 62nd Army, which Yeremenko placed under the command of Lt. Gen. Vasiliy Chuikov on September 11, 1942. The 62nd Army's mission was to defend Stalingrad at all costs. Chuikov's generalship during the battle earned him one of his two Hero of the Soviet Union awards. Beginning of the battle Infantry and a supporting StuG III assault gun advance towards the city center. The Soviets had enough of a warning of the Germans' advance to ship virtually all the city's grain, cattle, and railroad rolling stock across the Volga and out of harm's way. This "harvest victory" left the city short of food even before the German attack began. Production continued in some factories, particularly the one producing T-34 tanks. Before the Wehrmacht reached the city itself, the Luftwaffe had rendered the Volga River, vital for bringing supplies into the city, unusable to Soviet shipping. Between 25 and 31 July, 32 Soviet ships were sunk, with another nine crippled. The battle began with the heavy bombing of the city by the Generaloberst von Richthofen's Luftflotte 4, which in the summer and autumn of 1942 was the mightiest single air squadron in the world. Some 1,000 tons of bombs were dropped. The city was quickly turned to rubble, although some factories continued production whilst workers joined in the fighting. The Croatian 369th Reinforced Infantry Regiment was the only non-German unit Pojić, Milan. Hrvatska pukovnija 369. na Istočnom bojištu 1941. - 1943.. Croatian State Archives. Zagreb, 2007. selected by the Wehrmacht to enter Stalingrad city during assault operations. Stalin rushed all available troops to the east bank of the Volga, some from as far away as Siberia. All the regular ferries were quickly destroyed by the Luftwaffe, which then targeted troop barges being towed slowly across the river by tugs. Stalin prevented civilians from leaving the city in the belief that their presence would encourage greater resistance from the city's defenders. Civilians, including women and children, were put to work building trenchworks and protective fortifications. A massive German air bombardment on August 23 caused a firestorm, killing thousands and turning Stalingrad into a vast landscape of rubble and burnt ruins. Ninety percent of the living space in the Voroshilovskiy area was destroyed. Between 23 and 26 August, Soviet reports indicate 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded as a result of the bombing. Casualties of 40,000 were exaggerated, Hayward 2001, p. 188-189. and after 25 August, the Soviets did not record civilian and military casualties as a result of air raids. Bergström quotes: Soviet Reports on the effects of air raids between 23-26 August 1942. This indicates 955 people were killed and another 1,181 wounded Germans rush through Stalingrad. The Soviet Air Force, the Voenno-Vozdushnye Sily (VVS), was swept aside by the Luftwaffe. The VVS assembly in the immediate area lost 201 aircraft between 23-31 August, and despite meager reinforcements of some 100 aircraft in August, it was left with just 192 serviceable aircraft, 57 of which were fighters. The Soviets continued to pour aerial reinforcements into the Stalingrad area in late September, but continued to suffer appalling losses; the Luftwaffe had complete control of the skies. However, due to the relocation of Soviet industry in 1941, Soviet aircraft production reached 15,800 in the second half of 1942. It was able to preserve significant strength and build up a strategic reserve that would eventually overpower the Luftwaffe later on. The burden of the initial defense of the city fell on the 1077th Anti-Aircraft (AA) Regiment, a unit made up mainly of young female volunteers who had no training for engaging ground targets. Despite this, and with no support available from other Soviet units, the AA gunners stayed at their posts and took on the advancing Panzers. The German 16th Panzer Division reportedly had to fight the 1077th’s gunners "shot for shot" until all 37 AA batteries were destroyed or overrun. The German 16th Panzer Division was also shocked to find that it had been fighting female soldiers, due to Soviet manpower shortages. stalingrad1942 In the beginning, the Soviets relied extensively on "Workers' militias" composed of workers not directly involved in war production. For a short time, tanks continued to be produced and then manned by volunteer crews of factory workers. They were driven directly from the factory floor to the front line, often without paint or even gunsights. By the end of August, Army Group South (B) had finally reached the Volga, north of Stalingrad. Another advance to the river south of the city followed. By September 1, the Soviets could only reinforce and supply their forces in Stalingrad by perilous crossings of the Volga, under constant bombardment by German artillery and aircraft. On September 5, the Soviet 24th and 66th Armies organised a massive attack against XIV Panzerkorps. The Luftwaffe helped the German forces repulse the offensive by subjecting Soviet artillery positions and defensive lines to heavy attack. The Soviets were forced to withdraw at midday after only a few hours. Of the 120 tanks the Soviets had committed, 30 were lost to air attack. Street fighting in Stalingrad. Soviet operations were constantly hampered by the Luftwaffe. On 18 September, the Soviet 1st Guards and 24th Army launched an offensive against VIII Armeekorps at Kotluban. VIII Fliegerkorps dispatched wave after wave of Stuka dive-bombers to prevent a breakthrough. The offensive was repulsed, and the Stukas claimed 41 of the 106 Soviet tanks knocked out that morning, while escorting Bf 109s destroyed 77 Soviet aircraft. Amid the debris of the wrecked city, the Soviet 62nd and 64th Armies, which included the Soviet 13th Guards Rifle Division, anchored their defense lines with strongpoints in houses and factories. Fighting within the ruined city was fierce and desperate. Lieutenant General Alexander Rodimtsev was in charge of the 13th Guards Rifle Division, and was awarded one of two "Heroes of the Soviet Union" for his actions in the battle. The life expectancy of a newly-arrived Soviet private in the city dropped to less than 24 hours, while that of a Soviet officer was about three days. Stalin's Order No. 227 of July 27, 1942 decreed that all commanders who ordered unauthorized retreat would be subject to a military tribunal. “Not a step back!” was the slogan. The Germans pushing forward into Stalingrad suffered heavy casualties. German military doctrine was based on the principle of combined-arms teams and close cooperation between tanks, infantry, engineers, artillery, and ground-attack aircraft. To counter this, Soviet commanders adopted the tactic of always keeping the front lines as close to the Germans as physically possible; Chuikov called this "hugging" the Germans. This forced the German infantry to either fight on their own or risk taking casualties from their own supporting fire; it neutralized German close air support and weakened artillery support. The Soviets understood that, in Stalingrad, the best defense would depend on anchoring their defense lines in numerous buildings overseeing strategically important streets and squares. Such a strategy would hold for as long as possible all the ground the Soviets could take in the city. Thus, they converted multi-floored apartment blocks, factories, warehouses, street corner residences, and office buildings into strongholds bristling with machine guns, anti-tank rifles, mortars, mines, barbed wire, snipers, and small 5- to 10-man units of submachine gunners and grenadiers prepared for house-to-house combat. Bitter fighting raged for every ruin, street, factory, house, basement, and staircase. The sewers were the sites of labyrinthine firefights. The Germans, calling this unseen urban warfare Rattenkrieg ("Rat War"), bitterly joked about capturing the kitchen but still fighting for the living room. In such desperate chaos, all battle lines vanished, and the major, armor-supported mobility to which the German soldiers were accustomed degenerated into vicious, fast-paced skirmishes ranging through bombed-out debris of residential neighborhoods, office blocks, basements, and apartment high-rises. Some of the taller buildings, blasted into roofless shells by earlier German aerial bombardment, saw floor-by-floor, close-quarters combat, with the Germans on one level, Soviets on the next, Germans on the next, etc., firing at each other through holes in the floors. Soviet troops amid the rubble. Fighting on Mamayev Kurgan, a prominent hill above the city, was particularly merciless, and the position changed hands many times. By 12 September, the Soviet 62nd Army had been reduced to 90 tanks, 700 mortars and just 20,000 men. The 13th Guards Rifle Division, assigned to retake Mamayev Kurgan and Railway Station No. 1 on September 13, suffered particularly heavy losses. Over 30 percent of its soldiers were killed in the first 24 hours, and just 320 out of the original 10,000 survived the entire battle. Both objectives were retaken, but only temporarily. The railway station changed hands 14 times in six hours. By the following evening, the 13th Guards Rifle Division did not exist, but its men had killed approximately an equal number of Germans. Combat raged there for weeks near the giant grain silo. When German soldiers finally took the position, only forty dead Soviet fighters were found, though the Germans had thought there were many more due to the ferocious resistance. The Soviets burned heaps of grain during their retreat. In another part of the city, a Soviet platoon under the command of Yakov Pavlov turned an apartment building that oversaw a square in the city center into an impenetrable fortress, later called "Pavlov's House". The soldiers surrounded it with minefields, set up machine-gun positions at the windows, and breached the walls in the basement for better communications. The soldiers found about ten Soviet civilians hiding in the basement, whom they armed and forced to fight. They were not relieved, and not significantly reinforced, for two months. Well after the battle, Chuikov liked to joke that more Germans died trying to capture Pavlov's House than died capturing Paris. According to Beevor, after each wave, throughout the second month, of the Germans' repeated, persistent assaults against the building, the Soviets had to run out and kick down the piles of German corpses in order for the machine and anti-tank gunners in the building to have clear firing lines across the square. The building was labeled Festung ("Fortress") on German maps. Sgt. Pavlov was awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union for his actions. With no end in sight, the Germans started transferring heavy artillery to the city, including the gigantic 800 mm railroad gun nicknamed Dora, but made no attempt to send a force across the Volga, allowing the Soviets to build up a large number of artillery batteries on the east side. This artillery continued to bombard the German positions, and the Soviet defenders used the resulting ruins as defensive positions. German tanks became useless amid heaps of rubble up to eight meters high. When they were able to move forward, they came under Soviet antitank fire from wrecked buildings. Panoramic view of Stalingrad from the east bank of the Volga during the siege. Soviet snipers also successfully used the ruins to inflict heavy casualties on the Germans. The most successful, and most famous, sniper was Vasily Zaytsev WW2 Snipers Snipers with 242 confirmed kills during the battle and a grand total of more than 300; he was also said to have killed a, possibly fictional, specially-sent German sniper known by the names Erwin König and Heinz Thorvald. Zaytsev was one of a whole corps of snipers and had over 30 students, who were credited with killing over 3,000 German soldiers. Zaytsev fixed a standard Mosin-Nagant (PEM) rifle scope to a Soviet PTRD-41 14.5 mm anti-tank rifle PTRD for use against Germans hiding behind walls when not firing from windows above: the heavy 14.5 mm rounds penetrated the brick walls. Zaytsev was awarded the "Hero of the Soviet Union", primarily for his actions during the battle. Soviet infantry storming a factory in Stalingrad. For both Stalin and Hitler, Stalingrad became a matter of prestige over and above its actual strategic significance. The Soviet command moved the Red Army's strategic reserves from the Moscow area to the lower Volga, and transferred aircraft from the entire country to the Stalingrad region. The strain on both military commanders was immense: Paulus developed an uncontrollable tic in his eye, which eventually afflicted the left side of his face, while Chuikov experienced an outbreak of eczema that required him to have his hands completely bandaged. Troops on both sides faced the constant strain of close-range combat. Determined to crush Soviet resistance, Luftflotte 4'''s Stukawaffe flew 700 individual sorties against Soviet positions at the Dzerzhinskiy Tractor Factory on 5 October. Several Soviet regiments were wiped out; the entire staff of the Soviet 339th Infantry Regiment were killed the following morning during an air raid. In mid-October, the Luftwaffe intensified its efforts against remaining Red Army positions holding the west bank. By now, Soviet aerial resistance had ceased to be effective. Luftflotte 4 flew 2,000 sorties on 14 October and 600 tons of bombs were dropped while German infantry surrounded the three factories. Stukageschwader 1, 2, and 77 had largely silenced Soviet artillery on the eastern bank of the Volga before turning their attention to the shipping that was once again trying to reinforce the narrowing Soviet pockets of resistance. The 62nd Army had been cut in two, and, due to intensive air attack on its supply ferries, was now being paralyzed. With the Soviets forced into a strip of land on the western bank of the Volga, over 1,208 Stuka missions were flown in an effort to eliminate them. Despite the heavy air bombardment (Stalingrad suffered heavier bombardment than Sedan or Sevastopol), the Soviet 62 Army, with just 47,000 men and 19 tanks, prevented the VI Armee and IV Panzerarmee from taking the west bank. The Luftwaffe retained air superiority into early November and Soviet daytime aerial resistance was nonexistent, but after flying 20,000 individual sorties, its original strength of 1,600 serviceable aircraft had fallen to 950. The Kampfwaffe (bomber force) had been hardest hit, having only 232 out of a force of 480 left. Despite enjoying qualitative superiority against the VVS and possessing eighty percent of the Luftwaffe's resources on the Eastern Front, Luftflotte 4 could not prevent Soviet aerial power from growing. By the time of the counter-offensive, the Soviets outnumbered them. The Soviet bomber force, the Aviatsiya Dal'nego Deystviya (ADD), having taken crippling losses over the past 18 months, was restricted to flying at night. The Soviets flew 11,317 night sorties over Stalingrad and the Don-bend sector between 17 July and 19 November. These raids caused little damage and were of nuisance value only. Golovanov 2004, p. 265. The situation for the Luftwaffe was now becoming increasingly difficult. On 8 November, substantial units from Luftflotte 4 were withdrawn to combat the Allied landings in North Africa. The German air arm found itself spread thinly across Europe, and struggling to maintain its strength in the other southern sectors of the Soviet-German front. 8,314 German aircraft were produced from July-December 1942, but this could not keep pace with a three-front aerial war of attrition After three months of carnage and slow and costly advance, the Germans finally reached the river banks, capturing 90% of the ruined city and splitting the remaining Soviet forces into two narrow pockets. Ice floes on the Volga now prevented boats and tugs from supplying the Soviet defenders. Nevertheless, the fighting, especially on the slopes of Mamayev Kurgan and inside the factory area in the northern part of the city, continued as fiercely as ever. The battles for the Red October Steel Factory, the Dzerzhinsky tractor factory, and the Barrikady gun factory became world-famous. While Soviet soldiers defended their positions, factory workers repaired damaged Soviet tanks and weapons close to the battlefield, sometimes on the battlefield itself. These civilians also volunteered as tank crews to replace the dead and wounded, though they had no combat training. Soviet counter-offensives Stalingrad Strategic Offensive Operation 19 November 1942 - 2 February 1943 Recognizing that German troops were ill prepared for offensive operations during the winter and that most of them were redeployed elsewhere on the southern sector of the Eastern Front, the Stavka decided to conduct a number of offensive operations. Soviet forces advance through the ruins. Seen in post-war history as a pivotal strategic period of war that began the Second Period of the Great Patriotic War (19 November 1942 - 31 December 1943), these operations opened the Winter Campaign of 1942-1943 (19 November 1942 - 3 March 1943), which involved some 15 Armies operating on several fronts. Soviet order of battle Southwestern, Don, Stalingrad Fronts Operation Uranus 19 November 1942 - 30 November 1942 Southwestern Front 1st Guards, 21st, 5th Tank, 17th Air Armies, and the 25th Tank Corps Don Front 24th, 65th, 66th, 16th Air Armies Stalingrad Front 28th, 51st, 57th, 62nd, 64th, 8th Air Armies Kotelnikovo Offensive Operation 12 December 1942 - 31 December 1942 Stalingrad Front 2nd Guards, 5th Shock, 51st, 8th Air Armies Middle Don Offensive Operation (Operation Little Saturn) 16 December 1942 - 30 December 1942 Southwestern Front Don Front Operation Koltso (English: Operation Ring) 10 January 1943 - 2 February 1943 Don Front 21st, 24th, 57th, 62nd, 64th, 65th, 66th, 16th Air Armies German order of battle German exhaustion prior to Operation Uranus The German offensive to take Stalingrad had been halted by a combination of stubborn Red Army resistance inside the city and local weather conditions. The Soviet counter-offensive planning used deceptive measures that eventually trapped and destroyed the 6th Army and other Axis forces around the city, becoming the second large scale defeat of the German Army during the Second World War. pp.108-119, Glantz, Soviet Military Deception During the siege, the German and allied Italian, Hungarian, and Romanian armies protecting Army Group B's flanks had pressed their headquarters for support. pp.209-211, Haupt, Army Group South The Hungarian Second Army, consisting of mainly ill-equipped and ill-trained units, was given the task of defending a 200 km section of the front north of Stalingrad between the Italian Army and Voronezh. This resulted in a very thin line, with some sectors where 1–2 km stretches were being defended by a single platoon. Soviet forces held several bridgeheads on the western bank of the river and presented a potentially serious threat to Army Group B. Similarly, on the southern flank of the Stalingrad sector the front south-west of Kotelnikovo was held only by the Romanian VII Corps, and beyond it a single German 16th Motorized Infantry Division. However, Hitler was so focused on the city itself that requests from the flanks for support were refused. The chief of the Army General Staff, Franz Halder, expressed concerns about Hitler's preoccupation with the city, pointing out that if the situation on the weak German flanks was not rectified then 'there would be a disaster'. Hitler told Halder that Stalingrad would be captured and the weakened flanks would be held with 'national socialist ardour, clearly I cannot expect this of you (Halder)', and replaced him with General Kurt Zeitzler in mid-October. Operation Uranus: The Soviet Offensive The Soviet counter-attack at Stalingrad In autumn the Soviet generals Aleksandr Vasilyevskiy and Georgy Zhukov, responsible for strategic planning in the Stalingrad area, concentrated massive Soviet forces in the steppes to the north and south of the city. The German northern flank was particularly vulnerable, since it was defended by Italian, Hungarian, and Romanian units that suffered from inferior training, equipment, and morale when compared with their German counterparts. This weakness was known and exploited by the Soviets, who preferred to face off against non-German troops whenever possible, just as the British preferred attacking Italian troops instead of German ones in North Africa. The plan was to keep pinning the Germans down in the city, then punch through the overstretched and weakly defended German flanks and surround the Germans inside Stalingrad. During the preparations for the attack, Marshal Zhukov personally visited the front, which was rare for such a high-ranking general. The operation was code-named “Uranus” and launched in conjunction with Operation Mars, which was directed at Army Group Center. The plan was similar to Zhukov's victory at Khalkin Gol three years before, where he had sprung a double envelopment and destroyed the 23rd Division of the Japanese army. Leavenworth Papers No. 2 Nomonhan: Japanese-Soviet Tactical Combat, 1939; MAPS Zhukov and Vasilyevskiy were awarded the "Hero of the Soviet Union" for their generalship. On November 19, the Red Army unleashed Uranus. The attacking Soviet units under the command of Gen. Nikolay Vatutin consisted of three complete armies, the 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank Army, and 21st Army, including a total of 18 infantry divisions, eight tank brigades, two motorized brigades, six cavalry divisions and one anti-tank brigade. The preparations for the attack could be heard by the Romanians, who continued to push for reinforcements, only to be refused again. Thinly spread, outnumbered and poorly equipped, the Romanian Third Army, which held the northern flank of German Sixth Army, was shattered. On November 20, a second Soviet offensive (two armies) was launched to the south of Stalingrad, against points held by the Romanian IV Corps. The Romanian forces, made up primarily of infantry, collapsed almost immediately. Soviet forces raced west in a pincer movement, and met two days later near the town of Kalach, sealing the ring around Stalingrad. This was not filmed at the time; the Russians re-enacted the link-up for a propaganda film, which achieved worldwide fame. The Sixth Army Encircled Because of the Soviet pincer attack, about 290,000 German and Romanian soldiers, von Manstein, Erich; Powell, Anthony G.; Hart, B. H. Liddell; Blumenson, Martin (2004) the Croatian 369th Reinforced Infantry Regiment, and other volunteer subsidiary troops, found themselves trapped inside the resulting pocket. Inside the pocket (, literally "cauldron") there were also the surviving Soviet civilians—around 10,000, and several thousand Soviet soldiers the Germans had taken captive during the battle. Not all German soldiers from the Sixth Army were trapped; 50,000 were brushed aside outside the pocket. The encircling Red Army units immediately formed two defensive fronts: a circumvallation facing inward, to defend against any breakout attempt, and a contravallation facing outward, to defend against any relief attempt. Adolf Hitler had declared in a public speech (in the Berlin Sportpalast) on September 30 that the German army would never leave the city. At a meeting shortly after the Soviet encirclement, German army chiefs pushed for an immediate breakout to a new line on the west of the Don. But Hitler was at his Bavarian retreat of Obersalzberg in Berchtesgaden with the head of the Luftwaffe, Göring. When asked by Hitler, Göring replied, after being convinced by Hans Jeschonnek, that the Luftwaffe could supply the Sixth Army with an "air bridge". This would allow the Germans in the city to fight on while a relief force was assembled. A similar plan had been used successfully a year earlier at the Demyansk Pocket, albeit on a much smaller scale: it had been an army corps at Demyansk rather than an entire army. Also, Soviet fighter forces had improved considerably in both quality and quantity in the intervening year. But the mention of the successful Demyansk air supply operation reinforced Hitler's own views, and was endorsed by Hermann Göring several days later. The head of the Fourth Air Fleet (Luftflotte 4), Wolfram von Richthofen, tried unsuccessfully to have this decision overturned. The Sixth Army, the largest unit of this type in the world and almost twice as large as a regular German army, together with a corps of the Fourth Panzer Army also trapped, would be supplied by air. It should have been clear that supplying the pocket by air was impossible – the maximum 117.5 tons they could deliver a day was far less than the minimum 7-800 tons needed. Shirer p.926 says that "Paulus radioed that they would need a minimum of 750 tons of supplies day flown in," while Craig p.206-207 quotes Zeitzler as pressing Goering about his boast that the Luftwaffe could airlift the needed supplies: "Are you aware ... how many daily sorties the army in Stalingrad will need? ... Seven hundred tons! Every day!" To supplement the limited number of Junkers Ju 52 transports, the Germans used aircraft wholly inadequate for the role, such as the He-177 bomber (some bombers performed adequately – the Heinkel He-111 proved to be quite capable and was much faster than the Ju 52). But Hitler backed Göring's plan and reiterated his order of "no surrender" to his trapped armies. The air supply mission failed. Appalling weather conditions, technical failures, heavy Soviet anti-aircraft fire and fighter interceptions led to the loss of 488 German aircraft. The Luftwaffe failed to achieve even the daily supply of 117 tons that it had aircraft for. An average of 94 tons of supplies per day was delivered to the trapped German Army. The supplies that did get through were often useless: one aircraft arrived with 20 tonnes of vodka and summer uniforms. The transport aircraft that did land safely were used to evacuate technical specialists and sick or wounded men from the besieged enclave (some 42,000 were evacuated in all). The Sixth Army slowly starved. Pilots were shocked to find the troops too exhausted and hungry to unload. General Zeitzler, moved by the troops' plight at Stalingrad, began to limit himself to their slim rations at meal times. After a few weeks of such a diet he became so emaciated that Hitler, annoyed, personally ordered him to start eating regular meals again. The expense to the Transportgruppen was heavy. Some 266 Junkers Ju 52s were destroyed, one-third of the fleet's strength on the Soviet-German front. The He 111 gruppen lost 165 aircraft in transport operations. Other losses included 42 Junkers Ju 86s, nine Fw 200 "Condors", five He 177 bombers and a Ju 290. The Luftwaffe also lost close to 1,000 highly experienced bomber crew personnel. So heavy were the Luftwaffe's losses that four of Luftflotte 4s transport units (KGrzbV 700, KGrzbV 900, I./KGrzbV 1 and II./KGzbV 1) were "formally dissolved". Operation Saturn Soviet forces consolidated their positions around Stalingrad, and fierce fighting to shrink the pocket began. Operation Wintergewitter (Operation Winter Storm), a German attempt to relieve the trapped army from the South, was successfully fended off by the Soviets in December. The full impact of the harsh Russian winter set in. The Volga froze solid, allowing the Soviets to supply their forces more easily. The trapped Germans rapidly ran out of heating fuel and medical supplies, and thousands started to die of frostbite, malnutrition, and disease. On December 16, the Soviets launched a second offensive, Operation Saturn, which attempted to punch through the Axis army on the Don and take Rostov. If successful, this offensive would have trapped the remainder of Army Group South, one third of the entire German Army in Russia, in the Caucasus. The Germans set up a "mobile defense" in which small units were to hold towns until supporting armor could arrive. From the Soviet bridgehead at Mamon, fifteen divisions supported by at least 100 tanks attacked the Italian Cosseria and Ravenna Divisions, and although outnumbered 9 to 1, the Italians resisted until December 19 when ARMIR headquarters finally ordered the battered divisions to withdraw. A Military History of Italy, Ciro Paoletti, Page 177, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008 The Soviets never got close to Rostov, but the fighting forced von Manstein to extract Army Group A from the Caucasus and re-establish the frontline some 250 km away from the city. The Tatsinskaya Raid also caused significant losses to Luftwaffe’s transport fleet. The Sixth Army now was beyond all hope of German reinforcement. The German troops in Stalingrad were not told this, however, and continued to believe that reinforcements were on their way. Some German officers requested that Paulus defy Hitler’s orders to stand fast and instead attempt to break out of the Stalingrad pocket. Paulus refused, as he abhorred the thought of disobeying orders. Also, while a motorised breakout might have been possible in the first few weeks, Sixth Army now had insufficient fuel, and the German soldiers would have faced great difficulty breaking through the Soviet lines on foot in harsh winter conditions. The Soviet victory 759,560 Soviet personnel were awarded this medal for the defence of Stalingrad from 22 December 1942. Red Army soldier waves flag after victory The Germans inside the pocket retreated from the suburbs of Stalingrad to the city itself. The loss of the two airfields, at Pitomnik on January 16, and Gumrak on either January 25 or the night of January 21-22, Gefr. Michael Deiml Meine Stalingradeinsätze. Einsätze des Bordmechanikers Gefr. Michael Deiml. meant an end to air supplies and to the evacuation of the wounded. MacDonald 1986, p. 98. The third and last serviceable runway was at the Stalingradskaja flight school, which reportedly had the last landings and takeoffs on the night of January 22-23. After daybreak on January 23, there were no more reported landings except for continuous air drops of ammunition and food until the end. The Germans were now not only starving, but running out of ammunition. Nevertheless they continued to resist stubbornly, in part because they believed the Soviets would execute any who surrendered. In particular, the so-called "HiWis", Soviet citizens fighting for the Germans, had no illusions about their fate if captured. The Soviets were initially surprised by the number of Germans they had trapped, and had to reinforce their encircling troops. Bloody urban warfare began again in Stalingrad, but this time it was the Germans who were pushed back to the banks of the Volga. They fortified their positions in the factory districts and the Soviets encountered almost the same tooth-and-nail ferocity that they themselves displayed a month earlier. The Germans adopted a simple defense of fixing wire nets over all windows to protect themselves from grenades. The Soviets responded by fixing fish hooks to the grenades so they stuck to the nets when thrown. The Germans now had no usable tanks in the city. Those tanks which still functioned could at best be used as stationary cannons. The Soviets did not bother employing tanks in areas where the urban destruction ruined their mobility. A Soviet envoy made Paulus a generous offer on honourable terms: if he surrendered within 24 hours, he would receive a guarantee of safety for all prisoners, medical care for the sick and wounded, prisoners allowed to keep their personal belongings, "normal" food rations, and repatriation to whatever country they wished to go to after the war—but Paulus, ordered not to surrender by Adolf Hitler, did not respond, ensuring the destruction of the 6th Army. Clark 1995, p. 283. Generalfeldmarschall Friedrich Paulus (right) and his aides, Generalleutnant Arthur Schmidt (middle) and Wilhelm Adam (left) after their surrender. On January 30, 1943, the 10th anniversary of his coming to power, Hitler promoted Paulus to Generalfeldmarschall. Since no German Field Marshal had ever been taken prisoner, Hitler assumed that Paulus would fight on or take his own life. However, when Soviet forces closed in on his headquarters in the ruined GUM department store the next day, Paulus surrendered. The remnants of the Axis forces in Stalingrad surrendered on February 2; 91,000 tired, ill, and starving prisoners were taken, including 3,000 Romanians, the survivors of the 20th Infantry Division, 1st Cavalry Division and “Col.Voicu” Detachment. The Battle of Stalingrad - 1942 To the delight of the Soviet forces and the dismay of the Third Reich, the prisoners included 22 generals. Hitler was furious and confided that Paulus "could have freed himself from all sorrow and ascended into eternity and national immortality, but he prefers to go to Moscow." The German public was not officially told of the disaster until the end of January 1943, though positive media reports had stopped in the weeks before the announcement. Stalingrad marked the first time that the Nazi goverment publicly acknowledged a failure in its war effort; it was not the first major setback of the German military, but the crushing defeat at Stalingrad was unmatched in scale and was deemed too great to keep hidden. On January 31, regular programming on German state radio was replaced by a broadcast of the somber Adagio movement from Anton Bruckner's Seventh Symphony, followed by the announcement of the defeat at Stalingrad. Lee Sandlin - "Losing the War" On February 18, Minister of Propaganda Joseph Goebbels gave his famous Sportpalast speech in Berlin, encouraging the Germans to accept a total war which would claim all resources and efforts from the entire population. Red Army soldier marches a German soldier into captivity. According to the German documentary film Stalingrad, over 11,000 soldiers refused to lay down their arms at the official surrender, presumably believing that fighting to the death was better than what seemed like a slow end in Soviet camps. They continued to resist, hiding in cellars and sewers, but by early March 1943, the remaining small and isolated pockets of resistance had surrendered. According to Soviet intelligence documents shown in the documentary, 2,418 of the men were killed and 8,646 captured. Of the more than 500,000 Germans, Italians, Romanians, and Hungarians taken prisoner, few ever returned to their homes. Of the 91,000 German prisoners, only about 5,000 ever returned. Already weakened by disease, starvation and lack of medical care during the encirclement, they were sent to labour camps all over the Soviet Union, where most of them died of disease (particularly typhus), cold, overwork, mistreatment, and malnutrition. Some were kept in the city to help with rebuilding. In March 1943, 40,000 Germans were buried in a mass grave, victims of a typhus epidemic. A handful of senior officers were taken to Moscow and used for propaganda purposes, and some of them joined National Committee for a Free Germany. Some, including Paulus, signed anti-Hitler statements which were broadcast to German troops. Paulus lived in the Soviet Union until 1952, then moved to Dresden in East Germany, where he spent the remainder of his days defending his actions at Stalingrad and was quoted as saying that Communism was the best hope for postwar Europe. General Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach offered to raise an anti-Hitler army from the Stalingrad survivors, but the Soviets did not accept. It was not until 1955 that the last of the handful of survivors were repatriated after a plea to the Politburo by Konrad Adenauer. Legacy Casualties Various scholars have estimated the Axis suffered 850,000 casualties (killed, disabled, captured) among all branches of the German armed forces and its allies, many of them POWs who died in Soviet captivity between 1943 and 1955. 400,000 Germans, 120,000 Romanians, 120,000 Hungarians, and 120,000 Italians were killed, wounded or captured.A German soldier once said that they were losing around 2,000 troops a day. Of the 91,000 German POW's taken at Stalingrad 27,000 died within weeks Rayfield 2004, p.396. and only 5,000 returned to Germany in 1955. The remainder of the POWs died in Soviet captivity. J W. Baird, 1969, pp. 196. Jorg Bernig, 1997, pp. 36 In the whole Stalingrad area the Axis lost 1.5 million killed, wounded or captured Сталинградская битва . 50,000 ex-Soviets Hiwis (local volunteers incorporated into the German forces in supporting capacities) were killed or captured by the Red Army. According to archival figures, the Red Army suffered a total of 1,129,619 total casualties; 478,741 men killed and captured and 650,878 wounded. These numbers are for the whole Stalingrad Area; in the city itself 750,000 were killed, captured, or wounded. The Soviet authorities executed approximately 13,500 soviet soldiers during the battle, equivalent to an entire division. Also, more than 40,000 Soviet civilians died in Stalingrad and its suburbs during a single week of aerial bombing as the German Fourth Panzer and Sixth armies approached the city; the total number of civilians killed in the regions outside the city is unknown. In all, the battle resulted in an estimated total of 1.7 million to 2 million Axis and Soviet casualties. The scope of the battle The aftermath of the Battle of Stalingrad At different times, the Germans had held up to 90% of the city, yet the Soviet forces fought on fiercely. At the end of the battle, the Soviet armies had encircled and besieged the Sixth Army. Some elements of the German Fourth Panzer Army also suffered casualties in operations around Stalingrad during the Soviet counter-offensive. German mobility had been a significant factor in the Wehrmacht's earlier victories. Before Stalingrad, the Soviets had been able to amass their forces in sufficient numbers to achieve victory only around Moscow. Stalingrad, which had limited military value and had already been stripped of its assets, could have been bypassed and invested by Sixth Army in its drive to the Caucasus with Army Group A. Instead, Hitler chose to sacrifice many of his most experienced troops in vicious street fighting among urban rubble, which favoured the defenders and gave the Soviet Union time to amass and concentrate its forces for its pincer movement. Some Germans felt Hitler had sacrificed one of his largest and finest armies for prestige. Sixth Army was reconstituted in time for the Battle of Kursk, but was made up mostly of conscripts, and was never the force it had once been. Besides being a turning point in the war, Stalingrad revealed the discipline and determination of both the German Wehrmacht and the Soviet Red Army. The Soviets first defended Stalingrad against a fierce German onslaught. So great were Soviet losses that at times, the life expectancy of a newly arrived soldier was less than a day, and the life expectancy of a Soviet officer was three days. Their sacrifice is immortalized by one of General Rodimtsev's soldiers, about to die, who scratched on the wall of the main railway station – which changed hands 15 times during the battle – “Rodimtsev’s Guardsmen fought and died here for their Motherland.” The 85-meter-tall statue of Mother Motherland crowns the Mamayev Kurgan. For the heroism of the Soviet defenders of Stalingrad, the city was awarded the title Hero City in 1945. Twenty-four years after the battle, in October 1967, a colossal monument, Mother Motherland, was erected on Mamayev Kurgan, the hill overlooking the city. The statue forms part of a War memorial complex which includes ruined walls deliberately left the way they were after the battle. The Grain Silo, as well as Pavlov's House, the apartment building whose defenders eventually held out for two months until they were relieved, can still be visited. Even today, one may find bones and rusty metal splinters on Mamayev Kurgan, symbols of both the human suffering during the battle and the successful yet costly resistance. On the other side, the German Army showed remarkable discipline after being surrounded. It was the first time that it had operated under adverse conditions on such a scale. During the latter part of the siege, short of food and clothing, many German soldiers starved or froze to death. Yet, discipline was maintained until the very end, when resistance no longer served any useful purpose. Friedrich Paulus obeyed Hitler's orders, against many of Hitler's top generals' counsel and advice, including that of von Manstein, and did not attempt to break out of the city. German ammunition, supplies, and food became all too scarce. Paulus knew that the airlift had failed and that Stalingrad was lost. He asked for permission to surrender to save the life of his troops, but Hitler refused and instead promoted him to the rank of Generalfeldmarschall. No German officer of this rank had ever surrendered, and the implication was clear. If Paulus surrendered, he would shame himself and would become the highest ranking German officer ever to be captured. Hitler believed that Paulus would either fight to the last man or commit suicide. Choosing to live, Paulus surrendered, commenting that, "I have no intention of shooting myself for that Austrian corporal". In popular culture The extreme conditions of the battle, including the paralyzing Soviet winter that precipitated massive German fatalities due to starvation and freezing, have been immortalized in several films of German, Russian, British and American origin. The struggle is also remembered and reflected upon in numerous books, for its significance in thwarting the German invasion, as well as its significance as a landmark of military barbarism and human suffering in which the loss of life was unprecedented. See also Romanian Armies in the Battle of Stalingrad Italian war in Soviet Union, 1941-1943 Hungary during World War II Hungarian Second Army List of officers and commanders in the Battle of Stalingrad Barmaley Fountain Battle of Stalingrad German Order of Battle References Notes Bibliography Baird, Jay W, (1969), Journal of Contemporary History, The Myth of Stalingrad, Sage Publications, Ltd. Bernig,Jorg (1997). Eingekesselt: Die Schlacht um Stalingrad im deutschsprachigen Roman nach 1945: (German Life and Civilization Journal No 23), : Peter Lang publishers. Clark, Alan (1965). Barbarossa: the Russian-German conflict Craig, William (1973). Enemy at the Gates: The Battle for Stalingrad New York: Penguin Books (paperback, ISBN 0-14-20000-0-0) Dibold, Hans (2001) Doctor at Stalingrad. Littleton, CO: Aberdeen, (hardcover, ISBN 0-9713852-1-1). Einsiedel, Heinrich Graf von; Wieder, Joachim. Stalingrad: Memories and Reassessments. New York: Sterling Publishing, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 1-85409-460-2); London: Cassell, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-304-36338-3). Erickson, John. The Road to Stalingrad: Stalin's War with Germany, Vol. 1. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984 (hardcover, ISBN 0-86531-744-5); New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1985 (hardcover, ISBN 0-586-06408-7); New Haven, CT; London: Yale University Press, 1999 (paperback, ISBN 0-300-07812-9); London: Cassell, 2003 (paperback, ISBN 0-304-36541-6). Golovanov, A.Ye.(2004) Dalnyaya bombardirovochnaya. Delta NB, Moscow. Holl, Adelbert. (2005) An Infantryman In Stalingrad: From 24 September 1942 to 2 February 1943. Pymble, NSW, Australia: Leaping Horseman Books (hardcover, ISBN 0-9751076-1-5). Hoyt, Edwin Palmer. (1999) 199 Days: The Battle for Stalingrad. New York: A Forge Book, (paperback, ISBN 0-312-86853-7). Jones, Michael K. (2007) Stalingrad: How the Red Army Survived the German Onslaught. Drexel Hill, PA: Casemate, (hardcover, ISBN 978-1-932033-72-4) Mayer, SL & Taylor, AJP (1974). History of World War II. London: Octopus Books. ISBN 0706403991 & ISBN 978-0706403992 MacDonald, John. (1986) Great Battles of World War II. London: Michael Joseph books. Raus, Erhard. Panzer Operations: The Eastern Front Memoir of General Raus, 1941–1945, compiled and translated by Steven H. Newton. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 2003 (hardcover, ISBN 0-306-81247-9); 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0-306-81409-9). Rayfield, Donald. Stalin and His Hangmen: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him. New York: Random House, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-375-50632-2); 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0375757716). Reviewed by David R. Snyder in The Journal of Military History, Vol. 69, No. 1. (2005), pp. 265–266. Roberts, Geoffrey. (2002) Victory at Stalingrad: The Battle that Changed History. New York: Longman, (paperback, ISBN 0-582-77185-4). Samsonov A.M., (1989) Stalingrad Battle, 4th ed. re-edited and added-to, Moscow, Science publishing. (in Russian) Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany New York: Simon & Schuster. Taylor, A.J.P. and Mayer, S.L., eds. (1974) A History Of World War Two. London: Octopus Books. ISBN 0-70640-399-1. von Manstein, Erich; Powell, Anthony G.; Hart, B. H. Liddell; Blumenson, Martin (2004). Lost Victories: The War Memoirs of Hitler's Most Brilliant General''. Zenith Press. ISBN 0-7603-2054-3 External links Stalingrad Original reports from The Times Detailed summary of campaign Story of the Stalingrad battle with pictures, maps, video and other primary and secondary sources Stalingrad Battle 1942–1943 Information, Photos, and Original Maps of the Battle Stalingrad-info.com, many Pictures from the battle and the city Volgograd State Panoramic Museum official homepage The Battle of Stalingrad in Film and History Written with strong Socialist/Communist political under and overtones. Soviet Artilleryman's Story Of Stalingrad: Isaak Kobylyanskiy Roberts, Geoffrey. "Victory on the Volga", The Guardian, February 28, 2003 Operation Blau Battle of Stalingrad The Soviet counter-offensive: Operation Uranus Disaster of 6th Army The Great Battle on the Volga on Google Video Stalingrad - Bilder einer erbitterten Schlacht (German) | Battle_of_Stalingrad |@lemmatized operation:32 blau:8 german:142 advance:14 may:5 november:11 battle:52 stalingrad:91 world:10 war:26 ii:6 nazi:3 germany:8 ally:4 soviet:149 union:11 control:3 city:53 southern:6 russia:4 take:19 place:2 july:9 february:7 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 online:1 often:4 cite:1 one:16 turn:7 point:5 bloody:2 modern:2 history:12 combined:2 casualty:11 estimate:2 nearly:1 two:17 million:4 involve:5 participant:1 mark:2 brutality:1 disregard:1 military:11 civilian:9 side:5 offensive:23 inside:8 counter:9 eventually:5 trap:7 destroy:9 army:112 axis:7 force:38 around:9 first:11 large:8 scale:5 defeat:5 blanning:1 c:1 w:3 oxford:1 illustrate:1 europe:3 p:13 robert:3 geoffrey:3 stalin:10 russian:7 study:1 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6,520 | Hominidae | The Hominidae (anglicized Hominids, also known as great apes "Great ape" is a common name rather than a taxonomic label and there are differences in usage. Subtly, it may seem to exclude human beings ("humans and the great apes") or to include them ("humans and non-human great apes"). ) form a taxonomic family, including four extant genera: chimpanzees, gorillas, humans and orangutans. A number of known extinct genera are grouped with humans in the Hominina subtribe, others with orangutans in the Ponginae subtribe. The most recent common ancestor of the Hominidae lived some 13 million years ago, when the ancestors of the orangutans speciated from the ancestors of the other three genera. The ancestors of the Hominidae family in turn speciated from those of the Hylobatidae family some 15 million years ago. History On July 19, 2001, a 7 million year old fossil skull nicknamed "Toumaï" by its discoverers, and formally classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis, was discovered in Chad and is possibly the earliest hominid fossil ever found. In addition to its age, Toumaï, unlike the 3 – 4 million year younger gracile australopithecine dubbed "Lucy", has a relatively flat face without the prominent snout seen on other pre-Homo hominids. Some researchers have made the suggestion that this previously unknown species may in fact be a direct ancestor of modern humans (or at least closely related to a direct ancestor). Others contend that one fossil is not enough to make such a claim because it would overturn the conclusions of over 100 years of anthropological study. A report on this finding was published in the journal Nature on July 11, 2002. While some scientists claim that it is merely the skull of a female gorilla ancestor, others have called it the most important hominin fossil since Australopithecus. Orangutan In addition to the Toumaï fossil, some experts use evidence from the genome to argue that the species associated with the chimpanzees and proto-humans split interbred over a long period of time, swapping genes, before making a final separation. A paper, whose authors include David Reich and Eric Lander (Harvard and MIT), was published in the journal Nature in May 2006. It is generally believed that the Pan/Homo split occurred about 6.5–7.4 million years ago, but the molecular clock (a method of calculating evolution based on the speed at which genes mutate) suggests the genera split 5.4–6.3 million years ago. Previous studies looked at average genetic differences between human and chimp. The new study compares the ages of key sequences of genes of modern humans and modern chimps. Some sequences are younger than others, indicating that chimps and humans gradually split apart over a period of 4 million years. The youngest human chromosome is the X chromosome which is about 1.2 million years more recent than the 22 autosomes. The X sex chromosome is known to be vulnerable to selective pressure. Its age suggests there was an initial split between the two species, followed by gradual divergence and interbreeding that resulted in younger genes, and then a final separation. An alternative minority viewpoint is that Homo diverged from a common ancestor with Pongo perhaps as early as 13 million years ago while Pan is more closely related to Gorilla. This alternative is supported by characteristics uniquely shared between humans and orangutans such as dental structure, thick enamel, shoulder blade structure, thick posterior palate, single incisive foramen, high estriol production, and beard and mustache. There are at least 28 well corroborated such features compared with perhaps as little as one unique feature shared between humans and chimpanzees. It is widely believed that these physical features are misleading, but an alternative possibility is that orangutans have undergone more genetic change than humans and African apes have since their split from the common ancestor. If this had happened, then the apparent genetic similarity between humans and chimpanzees would not necessarily be due to a close evolutionary relationship. Schwartz, J.H. (2005) The Red Ape. Westview Press. Grehan, J.R. (2006) Mona Lisa Smile: The morphological enigma of human and great ape evolution. Anatomical Record 289B: 139-157. This theory has been proposed as an explanation as to why early hominids such as the australopiths not only look more like orangutans than either African ape, but also share characters unique to orangutans and their close fossil relatives such as a thickened posteror palate and anterior zygomatic roots. Schwartz, J.H. (2004) Barking up the wrong ape - australopiths and the quest for chimpanzee characters in hominid fossils. Colloquim Antropologicum Supplement 28: 87-100. Taxonomic history Humans are one of the four extant hominid genera This classification of the great apes has been revised several times in the last few decades. Originally, the group was restricted to humans and their extinct relatives, with the other great apes being placed in a separate family, the Pongidae. This definition is still used by many anthropologists and by lay persons. However, that definition makes Pongidae paraphyletic because at least one great ape species appears to be more closely related to humans than other great apes. Most taxonomists nowadays encourage monophyletic groups so this would require the use of Pongidae to be restricted to one of the great ape groups only. Thus many biologists consider Hominidae to include Pongidae as the subfamily Ponginae, or restrict the latter to the orangutans and their extinct relatives like Gigantopithecus. The taxonomy shown here follows the monophyletic groupings according to the two theories of human and great ape relationships. Especially close human relatives form a subfamily, the Homininae. Some researchers go so far as to include chimpanzees and gorillas Relationship Humans-Gorillas. in the genus Homo along with humans, but it is more commonly accepted to describe the relationships as shown here. Alternatively, those fossil relatives that are more closely related to humans than the nearest living great ape species represent members of Hominidae without necessarily assigning subfamily or tribal categories. If the orangutan is the closest living relative of humans, there would be a sister group relationship between Hominidae and Pongidae, with the African apes comprising a separate family (Panidae) according to the morphological evidence. Schwartz, J.H. (1986) Primate systematics and a classification of the order. Comparative primate biology volume 1: Systematics, evolution, and anatomy (ed. by D.R. Swindler, and J. Erwin), pp. 1-41, Alan R. Liss, New York. Grehan, J.R. (2006) Mona Lisa Smile: The morphological enigma of human and great ape evolution. Anatomical Record 289B: 139-157. Many extinct hominids have been studied to help understand the relationship between modern humans and the other extant hominids. Some of the extinct members of this family (as defined to encompass humans and chimpanzees) include Gigantopithecus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus, Kenyanthropus, and the australopithecines Australopithecus and Paranthropus. In the orangutan model of human origin the Hominidae would include the australopiths, and possibly Orrorin and Kenyanthropus, but not Ardipithecus and Sahelanthropus that lack features necessary to provide strong corroboration as hominids. Schwartz, J.H. (2004b) Issues in hominid systematics. Zona Arqueología 4, 360-371. The exact criteria for membership in the Homininae under the chimpanzee theory of human origins are not clear, but the subfamily generally includes those species that share more than 97% of their DNA with the modern human genome, and exhibit a capacity for language or for simple cultures beyond the family or band. The theory of mind including such faculties as mental state attribution, empathy and even empathetic deception is a controversial criterion distinguishing the adult human alone among the hominids. Humans acquire this capacity at about four and a half years of age, whereas it has neither been proven nor disproven that gorillas and chimpanzees develop a theory of mind. This is also the case for some New World monkeys outside the family of great apes, as, for example, the capuchin monkeys. However, without the ability to test whether early members of the Homininae (such as Homo erectus, Homo neanderthalensis, or even the australopithecines) had a theory of mind, it is difficult to ignore similarities seen in their living cousins. Orangutans have also been shown to have culture comparable to that of chimpanzees Van Schaik, C.P. et al. (2003) Orangutan cultures and the evolution of material culture. Science 299: 102-105. and some say that the orangutan may also satisfy these criteria. These scientific debates take on political significance for advocates of Great Ape personhood. Classification Hominoid family tree Skulls of an orangutan and a gorilla The seven living species of great ape are classified in four genera. The following classification is commonly accepted: Family Hominidae: humans and other great apes; extinct genera and species excluded. Subfamily Ponginae Genus Pongo Bornean Orangutan, Pongo pygmaeus Pongo pygmaeus pygmaeus Pongo pygmaeus morio Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii Sumatran Orangutan, Pongo abelii Subfamily Homininae Tribe Gorillini Genus Gorilla Western Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla Western Lowland Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla Cross River Gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli Eastern Gorilla, Gorilla beringei Mountain Gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei Eastern Lowland Gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri Tribe Hominini Genus Pan Common Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes Central Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes troglodytes West African Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes verus Nigerian Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes vellerosus Eastern Chimpanzee, Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Bonobo (Pygmy Chimpanzee), Pan paniscus Genus Homo Human, Homo sapiens sapiens In addition to the extant species and subspecies above, archaeologists, paleontologists, and anthropologists have discovered numerous extinct great ape species. The list below are some of the genera of those discoveries. Subfamily Ponginae (or Pongidae) Gigantopithecus† Sivapithecus† Lufengpithecus† Ankarapithecus† Ouranopithecus† Subfamily Homininae (or Hominidae) Homo – immediate ancestors of modern humans Homo habilis† Homo rudolfensis† Homo ergaster† Homo georgicus† Homo erectus† Homo cepranensis† Homo antecessor† Homo heidelbergensis† Homo rhodesiensis† Homo neanderthalensis† Homo sapiens Homo sapiens idaltu† Archaic Homo sapiens (Cro-magnon)† Homo floresiensis† Oreopithecus† Paranthropus† Australopithecus† Sahelanthropus†(hominid status highly problematic) Orrorin† Ardipithecus† (hominid status highly problematic) Kenyanthropus† Physical description The great apes are large, tailless primates, with the smallest living species being the Bonobo at 30 – 40 kilograms in weight, and the largest being the gorillas, with males weighing 140 – 180 kilograms. In all great apes, the males are, on average, larger and stronger than the females, although the degree of sexual dimorphism varies greatly among species. Although most living species are predominantly quadrupedal, they are all able to use their hands for gathering food or nesting materials, and, in some cases, for tool use. Most species are omnivorous, but fruit is the preferred food among all but humans. Chimpanzees and orangutans primarily eat fruit. When gorillas run short of fruit at certain times of the year or in certain regions, they resort to eating shoots and leaves, often of bamboo, a type of grass. Gorillas have extreme adaptations for chewing and digesting such low-quality forage, but they still prefer fruit when it is available, often going miles out of their way to find especially preferred fruits. In contrast, humans consume a large proportion of highly processed, low fiber foods, unusual proportions of grains (only very recently) and vertebrate flesh, as well as a wide variety of other foodstuffs. The teeth are similar to those of the Old World monkeys and gibbons, although they are especially large in gorillas. The dental formula is: Human teeth and jaws are markedly smaller for their size than those of other apes. Some scholars have surmised that humans' small teeth and jaws are adaptations to eating cooked food for possibly as long as a million years or more. This idea remains controversial. Gorilla Gestation in great apes lasts 8–9 months, and results in the birth of a single offspring, or, rarely, twins. The young are born helpless, and the mother must care for them for long periods of time. Compared with most other mammals, great apes have a remarkably long adolescence, not being weaned for several years, and not becoming fully mature for 8–13 years in most species (longer in humans). As a result, females typically give birth only once every few years. There is no distinct breeding season. Gorillas and chimpanzees live in family groups of around five to ten individuals, although much larger groups are sometimes noted. Chimpanzees live in larger groups that break up into smaller groups when fruit becomes less available. When small groups of female chimpanzees go off in separate directions to forage for fruit, the dominant male(s) can no longer control them and the females often mate with other subordinate males, whether by choice or not. In contrast, groups of gorillas stay together regardless of the availability of fruit. When fruit is hard to find, they resort to eating leaves and shoots. Because gorilla groups stay together, the male is able to monopolize the females in his group. This fact is related to gorillas' greater sexual dimorphism than chimpanzees'. In both chimpanzees and gorillas, the groups include at least one dominant male, and females leave the group at maturity. By contrast, orangutans are generally solitary. The social structure of humans is complex and highly variable. DNA studies suggest that, as in other apes, female humans are the sex that leaves the group at maturity, or at least has done so over evolutionary time. Legal status Due to the close genetic relationship between humans and other great apes, certain animal rights organizations, such as the Great Ape Project, argue that non-human great apes are persons and should be given basic human rights. Some countries have instituted a research ban to protect great apes from any kind of scientific testing. On 25 June 2008, the Spanish parliament gave support for a new law that would make "keeping apes for circuses, television commercials or filming" illegal under Spain's penal code. See also Great ape language The Mind of an Ape Primate cognition List of non-human apes – notable individual apes Ape extinction Great Apes Survival Project Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes Evolution of Homo sapiens Graphical timeline of human evolution Notes References External links Additional information on great apes NPR News: Toumaï the Human Ancestor Hominid Species at TalkOrigins Archive For more details on Hominid species, including excellent photos of fossil hominids New Scientist 19 May 2003 – Chimps are human, gene study implies Scientific American Magazine (April 2006 Issue) Why Are Some Animals So Smart? | Hominidae |@lemmatized hominidae:9 anglicized:1 hominid:16 also:6 know:2 great:31 ape:41 common:5 name:1 rather:1 taxonomic:3 label:1 difference:2 usage:1 subtly:1 may:5 seem:1 exclude:2 human:51 include:11 non:3 form:2 family:11 four:4 extant:4 genus:13 chimpanzee:22 gorilla:34 orangutan:19 number:1 known:1 extinct:7 group:16 hominina:1 subtribe:2 others:4 ponginae:4 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news:1 talkorigins:1 archive:1 detail:1 excellent:1 photo:1 implies:1 american:1 magazine:1 april:1 smart:1 |@bigram chimpanzee_gorilla:3 sahelanthropus_tchadensis:1 closely_relate:4 westview_press:1 mona_lisa:2 lisa_smile:2 subfamily_ponginae:3 genus_homo:2 gorilla_chimpanzee:2 capuchin_monkey:1 homo_erectus:2 erectus_homo:2 homo_neanderthalensis:2 et_al:1 bornean_orangutan:1 pongo_pygmaeus:4 sumatran_orangutan:1 gorilla_gorilla:10 lowland_gorilla:2 gorilla_beringei:3 chimpanzee_pan:6 pan_troglodyte:4 homo_sapiens:5 sapiens_sapiens:1 homo_habilis:1 habilis_homo:1 homo_rudolfensis:1 homo_ergaster:1 ergaster_homo:1 homo_georgicus:1 homo_antecessor:1 homo_heidelbergensis:1 sapiens_homo:1 archaic_homo:1 cro_magnon:1 homo_floresiensis:1 weigh_kilogram:1 sexual_dimorphism:2 varies_greatly:1 male_female:1 penal_code:1 external_link:1 talkorigins_archive:1 |
6,521 | Edlin | Edlin is a line editor included with MS-DOS and later Microsoft operating systems. It provides rudimentary capabilities for editing plain text files through a command-driven interface. Line numbers are specified using numerals, and operations are specified using single-character alphabetic commands (e.g. "5d" instructs the program to delete the 5th line of the file). It was the only text editor provided with MS-DOS before version 5.0 of that system, when it was superseded by the full screen MS-DOS Editor. It was removed in version 6. However, Edlin is included in 32-bit versions of Windows NT since NTVDM's DOS support is based on MS-DOS version 5.0. Unlike most other external DOS commands, it has not been transformed into a native, Win32 program. Its persistence can probably be explained by the fact that it can be invoked to automatically perform small modifications on text files, by piping a script of commands to it through standard input. Edlin was created by Tim Paterson in two weeks in 1980, and was expected to have a six-month shelf life. A Short History of MS-DOS Edlin was actually originally written for Seattle Computer Products's 86-DOS (QDOS), which Microsoft acquired and sold as MS-DOS. MS-DOS actually did contain another visual editor: GW-BASIC, Microsoft BASIC's interpreter and development environment. Unsurprisingly, the EDIT editor in MS-DOS versions 5.0 till 6.22 actually invoked QBasic, which over time replaced GW-BASIC and had a more modern user interface. Although seldom used in modern times, Edlin may sometimes be used as an Edlin-script interpreter, in environments where no other editors exist. Scripts may look like Edlin command sequences and they may be run as: edlin < script Long filenames support Use of Microsoft's Edlin in today's environments is somewhat limited as it does not support long filenames. For example, attempting to edit an existing file named "longfilename.txt" results in Microsoft's Edlin creating a new file named "longfile.txt". This is related to limitations of the MS-DOS operating system prior to version 7.0 and not Microsoft's Edlin per se; long file names were added to MS-DOS and MS-Windows long after Microsoft's Edlin was written. FreeDOS Edlin Gregory Pietsch has written a GPL-licenced clone of Edlin that includes long filename support. The clone is available for download as part of the FreeDOS project, and runs on operating systems such as Linux or Unix as well as MS-DOS. The clone's outputted messages can also be customized for a variety of European languages or Japanese and can be compiled with a variety of C compilers. FreeDOS Edlin 2.10 See also List of DOS commands ed, the Unix equivalent References External links MS-DOS edlin command help | Edlin |@lemmatized edlin:16 line:3 editor:6 include:3 later:1 microsoft:7 operate:2 system:4 provide:2 rudimentary:1 capability:1 edit:3 plain:1 text:3 file:6 command:7 driven:1 interface:2 number:1 specify:2 use:5 numeral:1 operation:1 single:1 character:1 alphabetic:1 e:1 g:1 instruct:1 program:2 delete:1 ms:5 version:6 supersede:1 full:1 screen:1 remove:1 however:1 bit:1 window:2 nt:1 since:1 ntvdm:1 dos:3 support:4 base:1 unlike:1 external:2 transform:1 native:1 persistence:1 probably:1 explain:1 fact:1 invoke:1 automatically:1 perform:1 small:1 modification:1 pip:1 script:4 standard:1 input:1 create:2 tim:1 paterson:1 two:1 week:1 expect:1 six:1 month:1 shelf:1 life:1 short:1 history:1 actually:3 originally:1 write:3 seattle:1 computer:1 product:1 qdos:1 acquire:1 sell:1 contain:1 another:1 visual:1 gw:2 basic:3 interpreter:2 development:1 environment:3 unsurprisingly:1 till:1 invoked:1 qbasic:1 time:2 replace:1 modern:2 user:1 although:1 seldom:1 may:3 sometimes:1 exist:2 look:1 like:1 sequence:1 run:2 long:5 filenames:2 today:1 somewhat:1 limited:1 example:1 attempt:1 name:3 longfilename:1 txt:2 result:1 new:1 longfile:1 relate:1 limitation:1 operating:1 prior:1 per:1 se:1 add:1 freedos:3 gregory:1 pietsch:1 gpl:1 licence:1 clone:3 filename:1 available:1 download:1 part:1 project:1 linux:1 unix:2 well:1 output:1 message:1 also:2 customize:1 variety:2 european:1 language:1 japanese:1 compile:1 c:1 compiler:1 see:1 list:1 ed:1 equivalent:1 reference:1 link:1 help:1 |@bigram window_nt:1 tim_paterson:1 user_interface:1 per_se:1 external_link:1 |
6,522 | Flowering_plant | The flowering plants or angiosperms (Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group of land plants. The flowering plants and the gymnosperms are the only extant groups of seed plants. The flowering plants are distinguished from other seed plants by a series of apomorphies, or derived characteristics. Angiosperm derived characteristics Flowers The flowers, which are the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from other seed plants. Flowers aid angiosperms by enabling a wider range of evolutionary relationships and broadening the ecological niches open to them. This has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial ecosystems. Stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also become modified through time to prevent self-fertilization, which has permitted further diversification, allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches. Reduced male parts, three cells The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in size compared to those of gymnosperm seed plants. The smaller pollen decreases the time from pollination – the pollen grain reaching the female plant – to fertilization of the ovary; in gymnosperms fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, while in angiosperms the fertilization begins very soon after pollination. The shorter time leads to angiosperm plants setting seeds sooner and faster than gymnosperms, which is a distinct evolutionary advantage. Closed carpel enclosing the ovules (carpel or carpels and accessory parts may become the fruit) The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes and controls. This helps to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilized, the carpel and some surrounding tissues develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed-dispersing animals. The resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to angiosperms in the process of dispersal. Reduced female gametophyte, seven cells with eight nuclei The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduced male gametophyte, may be an adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set, eventually leading to such flowering plant adaptations as annual herbaceous life cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even more niches. Endosperm Endosperm formation generally begins after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes for the seedling when it first appears. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to humans. The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest. Evolution Malus sylvestris or crab apple flowers. Land plants have existed for about 425 million years . Early land plants reproduced by spores, like their aquatic counterparts. Marine organisms can easily scatter copies of themselves to float away and grow elsewhere. Land plants soon found it advantageous to protect their copies from hazards such as drying out. They did this by enclosing them in a case, the seed. The first seed bearing plants, like the ginkgo, and conifers (such as pines and firs), did not produce flowers. The earliest fossil of an angiosperm, or flowering plant, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 million years BP (the Cretaceous period) NOVA - First Flower - Flowers Modern and Ancient- PBS . Pollen, considered directly linked to flower development, has been found in the fossil record perhaps as long ago as 130 million years. While the fossil evidence so far shows us such flowers existing only about 130 million years ago, there is some circumstantial evidence that they may have existed 250 million years ago. A chemical used by plants to defend their flowers, oleanane, has been detected in fossil plants from that age. This includes gigantopterids Oily Fossils Provide Clues To The Evolution Of Flowers - ScienceDaily (Apr. 5, 2001) , which evolved at that time and bear many of the traits of modern, flowering plants (though they are not known to be flowering plants themselves because only their stems and prickles have been found preserved in detail). The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin. Darwin's abominable mystery: Insights from a supertree of the angiosperms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. T. Jonathan Davies, Timothy G. Barraclough, Mark W. Chase, Pamela S. Soltis, Douglas E. Soltis, and Vincent Savolainen. Published (online) February 6, 2004. However, the fossil record has grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, particularly seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia, have been suggested. Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms during the late Triassic (245-202 million years ago). The relationship of the earlier gigantopterids to flowering plants is still enigmatic. A close relationship between Angiosperms and Gnetophytes, suggested on the basis of morphological evidence, has been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest Gnetophytes are more closely related to other gymnosperms. Recent DNA analysis (molecular systematics) NOVA - Transcripts - First Flower - PBS Airdate: April 17, 2007 Amborella not a "basal angiosperm"? Not so fast -- Soltis and Soltis 91 (6): 997 -- American Journal of Botany show that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants, and morphological studies South Pacific plant may be missing link in evolution of flowering plants - Public release date: 17-May-2006 suggest that it has features which may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). However, a study in 2007 estimated that the division of the five most recent (the genus Ceratophyllum, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots) of the eight main groups occurred around 140 million years ago. Using plastid genome-scale data to resolve enigmatic relationships among basal angiosperms- Communicated by David L. Dilcher, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, August 28, 2007 (received for review June 15, 2007) — PNAS By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have become the predominant group of land plants, and many fossil plants recognizable as belonging to modern families (including beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) appeared. However, some authors have proposed an earlier origin for angiosperms, sometime in the Paleozoic (251 million years ago or more). A theory of much earlier angiosperm origin and proliferation (360 mya) is offered by Harry Levin at http://www.flwildflowers.com Clair Ossian, Geological Evidence for the origin of the Orchidaceae. 14th World Orchid Conference, Glasgow, Scotland, April 29-March 5, 1993 Two Bees on a Creeping Thistle Cirsium arvense It is generally assumed that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and thus reproduce more efficiently. Island genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical adaptations which seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated setting like an island or island chain, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example). Such a relationship, with a hypothetical wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could result in both the plant(s) and their partners developing a high degree of specialization. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, which apparently evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is frequently a seed-dispersal tool which attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it contains (see frugivory). While many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading (whatever its origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots. Age-Old Question On Evolution Of Flowers Answered - 15-Jun-2001 The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection. Human Affection Altered Evolution of Flowers - By Robert Roy Britt, LiveScience Senior Writer (posted: 26 May 2005 06:53 am ET) Classification The current phylogeny of the flowering plants. There are eight groups of living angiosperms: Amborella - a single species of shrub from New Caledonia Nymphaeales - about 80 species - water lilies and Hydatellaceae Austrobaileyales - about 100 species of woody plants from various parts of the world Chloranthales - several dozen species of aromatic plants with toothed leaves Ceratophyllum - about 6 species of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants magnoliids - about 9,000 species, characterized by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually branching-veined leaves - for example magnolias, bay laurel, and black pepper eudicots - about 175,000 species, characterized by 4- or 5- merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and usually branching-veined leaves - for example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples and oaks monocots - about 70,000 species, characterized by trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leaves - for example grasses, orchids, and palms The exact relationship between these eight groups is not yet clear, although it has been determined that the first three groups to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales. History of classification From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification. Auxanometer: device for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants. The botanical term "Angiosperm", from the Ancient Greek αγγείον, angeíon (receptacle, vessel) and σπέρμα, spérma (seed), was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Carolus Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope only became possible after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, and applied to them the name Gymnosperms. From that time onwards, so long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is used today. In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae (Angiosperms), with Anthophyta ("flowering plants") a second choice. These names are not linked to any rank. The Wettstein system and the Engler system use the name Angiospermae, at the assigned rank of subdivision. The Reveal system treated flowering plants as subdivision Magnoliophytina (Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, Phytologia 79: 70 1996), but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat this group at the rank of division, leading to the name Magnoliophyta (from the family name Magnoliaceae). The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat this group at the rank of class, leading to the name Magnoliopsida. However, the APG system, of 1998, and the APG II system, of 2003 , do not treat it as a formal taxon but rather treat it as a clade without a formal botanical name and use the name angiosperms for this clade. The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used, but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A general consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge, through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, who published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. An update incorporating more recent research was published as APG II in 2003. A monocot (left), and dicot Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups, which in the Cronquist system are called Magnoliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Magnoliacae) and Liliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Liliaceae). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In English a member of either group may be called a dicotyledon (plural dicotyledons) and monocotyledon (plural monocotyledons), or abbreviated, as dicot (plural dicots) and monocot (plural monocots). These names derive from the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy nor reliable character. Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form holophyletic or monophyletic group; this clade is given the name monocots. However, the dicots are not (they are a paraphyletic group). Nevertheless, within the dicots a monophyletic group does exist, called the eudicots or tricolpates, and including most of the dicots. The name tricolpates derives from a type of pollen found widely within this group. The name eudicots is formed combining dicot with the prefix eu- (from Greek, for "well," or "good," botanically indicating "true"), as the eudicots share the characters traditionally attributed to the dicots, such as flowers with four or five parts (four or five petals, four or five sepals). Separating this group of eudicots from the rest of the (former) dicots leaves a remainder, which sometimes are called informally palaeodicots (Greek prefix "palaeo-" means "old"). As this remnant group is not monophyletic this is a term of convenience only. Flowering plant diversity Various flower colors and shapes The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000. > The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II (2003) it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in this system is 402. The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%) and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining 5 clades contain a little over 250 species in total, i.e., less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among 9 families. The most diverse families of flowering plants, in their APG circumscriptions, in order of number of species, are: Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 23,600 species Orchidaceae (orchid family): 21,950 species Fabaceae or Leguminosae (pea family): 19,400 Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,183 Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 10,035 Lamiaceae or Labiatae (mint family): 7,173 Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,735 Myrtaceae (myrtle family): 4,620 Melastomataceae (melastome family): 4,570 Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,350 In the list above (showing only the 10 largest families), the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, and Cyperaceae are monocot families; the others are dicot families. Vascular anatomy The amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of Gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings. In the Dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium; by the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium) a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings. Among the Monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases. The flower, fruit, and seed Flowers A collection of flowers forming an inflorescence. The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf. Occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence. The reproductive cells produced by flowers are of two kinds. Microspores which will divide to become pollen grains, are the "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls). The "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to become the egg-cell (megagametogenesis), are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is generally white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans. While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both male and female parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self- and non-self pollen grains. In other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers. Fertilization and embryogenesis Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize two cells in the ovary. The pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the carpel (female reproductive structure) and grows a pollen tube that penetrates the ovum through a tiny pore called a micropyle. Two sperm cells are released into the ovary through this tube. One of the two sperm cells fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid zygote or embryo, also called the ovule. The other sperm cell fuses with two haploid polar nuclei in the center of the embryo sac. The resulting cell is triploid (3n). This triploid cell divides through mitosis and forms the endosperm, a nutrient-rich tissue inside the fruit. When seed develops without fertilization, the process is known as apomixis. Fruit and seed The fruit of the Aesculus or Horse Chestnut tree. As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo-sac, the sac wall enlarges and combines with the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) and the integument to form the seed-coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed. Frequently the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, e.g. the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry and others. The character of the seed-coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, the fruit generally provides protection for of the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed-coat is only slightly developed. If the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is exposed, the seed-coat is generally well developed, and must discharge the functions otherwise executed by the fruit. Economic importance A mature wheat field in northern Israel. Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, either directly or indirectly through livestock feed. Of all the families plants, the Poaceae, or grass family, is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, corn (maize), wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others), the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (also including pumpkins and melons), the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and cabbage), and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family, and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc). In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses, for example the coconut (Cocos nucifera) on Pacific atolls, and the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean region. Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among others), medicines (digitalis, camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many other uses. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants is timber production. See also List of flowers References External links Angiosperms – Tree of Life Web Project Angiosperms - UC Berkeley video lecture Cronquist, Arthur. (1981) An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. Dilcher, D. 2000. Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record. PNAS [Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America] 97: 7030-7036 (available online here) Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes, William J. Cromie, Harvard Gazette, December 16, 1999. L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. Simpson, M.G. Plant Systematics. Elsevier Academic Press. 2006. Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. W.H. 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6,523 | Friction | Friction is the force resisting the relative lateral (tangential) motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, or material elements in contact. It is usually subdivided into several varieties: Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is also subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces. Lubricated friction or fluid friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces separated by a layer of gas or liquid. Fluid friction is also used to describe the friction between layers within a fluid that are moving relative to each other. Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a solid body through a fluid. Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation. Friction is not a fundamental force, as it is derived from electromagnetic force between charged particles, including electrons, protons, atoms, and molecules, and so cannot be calculated from first principles, but instead must be found empirically. When contacting surfaces move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, or heat. Contrary to earlier explanations, kinetic friction is now understood not to be caused by surface roughness but by chemical bonding between the surfaces. Surface roughness and contact area, however, do affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces. Persson, Bo N. J., Sliding Friction History Several famous scientists and engineers contributed to our understanding of friction. They include Leonardo da Vinci, Guillaume Amontons, John Theophilus Desaguliers, Leonard Euler, and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. Their findings are codified into these laws: The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load. (Amontons 1st Law) The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact. (Amontons 2nd Law) Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity. (Coulomb's Law of Friction) Coulomb friction Coulomb friction, named after Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, is a model used to calculate the force of dry friction. It is governed by the equation: where is the force exerted by friction (in the case of equality, the maximum possible magnitude of this force). is the coefficient of friction, which is an empirical property of the contacting materials, is the normal force exerted between the surfaces. For surfaces at rest relative to each other , where is the coefficient of static friction. This is usually larger than its kinetic counterpart. The Coulomb friction may take any value from zero up to , and the direction of the frictional force against a surface is opposite to the motion that surface would experience in the absence of friction. Thus, in the static case, the frictional force is exactly what it must be in order to prevent motion between the surfaces; it balances the net force tending to cause such motion. In this case, rather than providing an estimate of the actual frictional force, the Coulomb approximation provides a threshold value for this force, above which motion would commence. For surfaces in relative motion , where is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The Coulomb friction is equal to , and the frictional force on each surface is exerted in the direction opposite to its motion relative to the other surface. This approximation mathematically follows from the assumptions that surfaces are in atomically close contact only over a small fraction of their overall area, that this contact area is proportional to the normal force (until saturation, which takes place when all area is in atomic contact), and that frictional force is proportional to the applied normal force, independently of the contact area (you can see the experiments on friction from Leonardo Da Vinci). Such reasoning aside, however, the approximation is fundamentally an empirical construction. It is a rule of thumb describing the approximate outcome of an extremely complicated physical interaction. The strength of the approximation is its simplicity and versatility – though in general the relationship between normal force and frictional force is not exactly linear (and so the frictional force is not entirely independent of the contact area of the surfaces), the Coulomb approximation is an adequate representation of friction for the analysis of many physical systems. Coefficient of friction The coefficient of friction (COF), also known as a frictional coefficient or friction coefficient, symbolized by the Greek letter μ, is a dimensionless scalar value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction. Coefficients of friction range from near zero to greater than one – under good conditions, a tire on concrete may have a coefficient of friction of 1.7. When the surfaces are conjoined, Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for example, adhesive tape resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative normal force). In this case, the frictional force may depend strongly on the area of contact. Some drag racing tires are adhesive in this way. However, despite the complexity of the fundamental physics behind friction, the relationships are accurate enough to be useful in many applications. The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a curling stone sliding along the ice experiences a kinetic force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road. The coefficient of friction is an empirical measurement – it has to be measured experimentally, and cannot be found through calculations. Rougher surfaces tend to have higher effective values. Most dry materials in combination have friction coefficient values between 0.3 and 0.6. Values outside this range are rarer, but teflon, for example, can have a coefficient as low as 0.04. A value of zero would mean no friction at all, an elusive property – even magnetic levitation vehicles have drag. Rubber in contact with other surfaces can yield friction coefficients from 1 to 2. Occasionally it is maintained that µ is always < 1, but this is not true. While in most relevant applications µ < 1, a value above 1 merely implies that the force required to slide an object along the surface is greater than the normal force of the surface on the object. For example, silicone rubber or acrylic rubber-coated surfaces have a coefficient of friction that can be substantially larger than 1. Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in contact; their values are usually approximately determined experimentally. For a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is usually larger than that of kinetic friction; in some sets the two coefficients are equal, such as teflon-on-teflon. In the case of kinetic friction, the direction of the friction force may or may not match the direction of motion: a block sliding atop a table with rectilinear motion is subject to friction directed along the line of motion; an automobile making a turn is subject to friction acting perpendicular to the line of motion (in which case it is said to be 'normal' to it). The direction of the static friction force can be visualized as directly opposed to the force that would otherwise cause motion, were it not for the static friction preventing motion. In this case, the friction force exactly cancels the applied force, so the net force given by the vector sum, equals zero. It is important to note that in all cases, Newton's first law of motion holds. While it is often stated that the COF is a "material property," it is better categorized as a "system property." Unlike true material properties (such as conductivity, dielectric constant, yield strength), the COF for any two materials depends on system variables like temperature, velocity, atmosphere and also what are now popularly described as aging and deaging times; as well as on geometric properties of the interface between the materials. For example, a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a COF that varies from 0.6 at low speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds when the copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of course, does not determine the COF uniquely; if the pin diameter is increased so that the frictional heating is removed rapidly, the temperature drops, the pin remains solid and the COF rises to that of a 'low speed' test. The normal force Block on a ramp (top) and corresponding free body diagram of just the block (bottom). The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together; and its direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where . In this case, the magnitude of the friction force is the product of the mass of the object, the acceleration due to gravity, and the coefficient of friction. However, the coefficient of friction is not a function of mass or volume; it depends only on the material. For instance, a large aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the magnitude of the friction force itself depends on the normal force, and hence the mass of the block. If an object is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horizontal, the normal force between the object and the surface is just its weight, which is equal to its mass multiplied by the acceleration due to earth's gravity, g. If the object is on a tilted surface such as an inclined plane, the normal force is less, because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the plane. Therefore, the normal force, and ultimately the frictional force, is determined using vector analysis, usually via a free body diagram. Depending on the situation, the calculation of the normal force may include forces other than gravity. Approximate coefficients of friction Materials Static friction, Dry & clean Lubricated Aluminum Steel 0.61 Copper Steel 0.53 Brass Steel 0.51 Cast iron Copper 1.05 Cast iron Zinc 0.85 Concrete (wet) Rubber 0.30 Concrete (dry) Rubber 1.0 Copper Glass 0.68 Glass Glass 0.94 Polythene Steel 0.2 0.2 Steel Steel 0.80 0.16 Steel Teflon 0.04 0.04 Teflon Teflon 0.04 0.04 The slipperiest solid known, discovered in 1999, dubbed BAM (for the elements boron, aluminum, and magnesium), has an approximate coefficient of friction of 0.02, about half that of Teflon. Static friction Static friction is friction between two solid objects that are not moving relative to each other. For example, static friction can prevent an object from sliding down a sloped surface. The coefficient of static friction, typically denoted as μs, is usually higher than the coefficient of kinetic friction. The static friction force must be overcome by an applied force before an object can move. The maximum possible friction force between two surfaces before sliding begins is the product of the coefficient of static friction and the normal force: . When there is no sliding occurring, the friction force can have any value from zero up to . Any force smaller than attempting to slide one surface over the other is opposed by a frictional force of equal magnitude and opposite direction. Any force larger than overcomes the force of static friction and causes sliding to occur. The instant sliding occurs, static friction is no longer applicable and kinetic friction becomes applicable. An example of static friction is the force that prevents a car wheel from slipping as it rolls on the ground. Even though the wheel is in motion, the patch of the tire in contact with the ground is stationary relative to the ground, so it is static rather than kinetic friction. The maximum value of static friction, when motion is impending, is sometimes referred to as limiting friction, although this term is not used universally. Kinetic friction Kinetic (or dynamic) friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as μk, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction for the same materials. Examples of kinetic friction: Kinetic friction is when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting a book flat on a desk and moving it around is an example of kinetic friction. Fluid friction is the interaction between a solid object and a fluid (liquid or gas), as the object moves through the fluid. The skin friction of air on an airplane or of water on a swimmer are two examples of fluid friction. This kind of friction is not only due to rubbing, which generates a force tangent to the surface of the object (such as sliding friction). It is also due to forces that are orthogonal to the surface of the object. These orthogonal forces significantly (and mainly, if relative velocity is high enough) contribute to fluid friction. Fluid friction is the classic name of this force. This name is no longer used in modern fluid dynamics. Since rubbing is not its only cause, in modern fluid dynamics the same force is typically referred to as drag or fluid resistance, while the force component due to rubbing is called skin friction. Notice that a fluid can in some cases exert, together with drag, a force orthogonal to the direction of the relative motion of the object (lift). The net force exerted by a fluid (drag + lift) is called fluidodynamic force (aerodynamic if the fluid is a gas, or hydrodynamic if the fluid is a liquid). Angle of friction For certain applications it is more useful to define static friction in terms of the maximum angle before which one of the items will begin sliding. This is called the angle of friction or friction angle. It is defined as: where is the angle from horizontal and is the static coefficient of friction between the objects. This formula can also be used to calculate from empirical measurements of the friction angle. Friction at the atomic level Determining the forces required to move atoms past each other is a challenge in designing nanomachines. In 2008 scientists for the first time were able to move a single atom across a surface, and measure the forces required. Using ultrahigh vacuum and nearly-zero temperature (5°K), they used a modified atomic force microscope to drag a cobalt atom, and a carbon monoxide molecule, across surfaces of copper and platinum. Measuring Atomic Friction, Chemical & Engineering News, 86, 51 (22 Dec. 2008), p. 12, or Science, 2008, 316, p. 1066 Other types of friction Rolling resistance Rolling resistance is the force that resists the rolling of a wheel or other circular object along a surface caused by deformations in the object and/or surface. Generally the force of rolling resistance is less than that associated with kinetic friction. Benjamin Silliman, Principles of Physics, Or Natural Philosophy, Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor & company publishers, 710 pages {1871) Typical values for the coefficient of rolling resistance are 0.001. Hans-Jürgen Butt, Karlheinz Graf, Michael Kappl, Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces, Wiley Publishers, 373 pages, ISBN 3527404139 (2006) One of the most common examples of rolling resistance is the movement of motor vehicle tires on a road, a process which generates heat and sound as by-products. C. Michael Hogan, Analysis of Highway Noise, Journal of Soil, Air and Water Pollution, Springer Verlag Publishers, Netherlands, Volume 2, Number 3 / September, 1973 Triboelectric effect Rubbing dissimilar materials against one another can cause a build-up of electrostatic charge, which can be hazardous if flammable gases or vapours are present. When the static build-up discharges, explosions can be caused by ignition of the flammable mixture. Reducing friction Devices Devices such as wheels, ball bearings, air cushion or roller bearing can change sliding friction into a much smaller type of rolling friction. Many thermoplastic materials such as nylon, HDPE and PTFE are commonly used for low friction bearings. They are especially useful because the coefficient of friction falls with increasing imposed load. Lubricants A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives. Superlubricity, a recently-discovered effect, has been observed in graphite: it is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated. Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as graphite and talc; acoustic lubrication actually uses sound as a lubricant. Another way to reduce friction between two parts is to superimpose micro-scale vibration to one of the parts. This can be sinusoidal vibration as used in ultrasound-assisted cutting or vibration noise, known as dither. Energy of friction According to the law of conservation of energy, no energy is destroyed due to friction, though it may be lost to the system of concern. Energy is transformed from other forms into heat. A sliding hockey puck comes to rest because friction converts its kinetic energy into heat. Since heat quickly dissipates, many early philosophers, including Aristotle, wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a driving force. When an object is pushed along a surface, the energy converted to heat is given by: where is the normal force, is the coefficient of kinetic friction, is the coordinate along which the object transverses. Work of friction In the reference frame of the interface between two surfaces, static friction does no work, because there is never displacement between the surfaces. In the same reference frame, kinetic friction is always in the direction opposite the motion, and does negative work. However, friction can do positive work in certain frames of reference. One can see this by placing a heavy box on a rug, then pulling on the rug quickly. In this case, the box slides backwards relative to the rug, but moves forward relative to the frame of reference in which the floor is stationary. Thus, the kinetic friction between the box and rug accelerates the box in the same direction that the box moves, doing positive work. The work done by friction can translate into deformation, wear, and heat that can affect the contact surface properties (even the coefficient of friction between the surfaces). This can be beneficial as in polishing. The work of friction is used to mix and join materials such as in the process of friction welding. Excessive erosion or wear of mating surfaces occur when work due frictional forces rise to unacceptable levels. Harder corrosion particles caught between mating surfaces (fretting) exacerbates wear of frictional forces. Bearing seizure or failure may result from excessive wear due to work of friction. As surfaces are worn by work due to friction, fit and surface finish of an object may degrade until it no longer functions properly. See also Angle of repose Drag (physics) Factor of adhesion Pin on disc tester Equipment used to measure kinetic friction of surfaces Rolling resistance Tire Traction (engineering) Triboelectric effect Tribology Wear References External links MIT Physics video lecture on friction Coefficients of Friction - tables of coefficients, plus many links Physclips: Mechanics with animations and video clips from the University of New South Wales CRC Handbook of Chemistry & Physics - Values for Coefficient of Friction Characteristic Phenomena in Conveyor Chain Atomic-scale Friction Research and Education Synergy Hub (AFRESH) an Engineering Virtual Organization for the atomic-scale friction community to share, archive, link, and discuss data, knowledge and tools related to atomic-scale friction. | Friction |@lemmatized friction:147 force:85 resist:5 relative:15 lateral:3 tangential:1 motion:22 solid:10 surface:57 fluid:19 layer:3 material:15 element:3 contact:15 usually:7 subdivide:2 several:2 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6,524 | Mohammed_Zahir_Shah | Mohammed Zahir Shah (15 October 1914 – 23 July 2007) was the last King (Shah) of Afghanistan, reigning for four decades, from 1933 until he was ousted by a coup in 1973. Following his return from exile he was given the title "Father of the Nation" in 2002 which he held until his death. Encyclopedia Britannica, Mohammad Zahir Shah Family background and early life Zahir Shah was born in Kabul, Afghanistan. He was the son of Mohammed Nadir Shah, a senior member of the Barakzai royal family and commander in chief of the Afghan army under former king Amanullah Khan. Nadir Shah assumed the throne after the execution of Habibullah Ghazi on 10 October 1929. Encyclopedia Britannica, Afghanistan Mohammad Nader Shah (1929–33) Mohammed Zahir's father was born in Dehradun, India, after his family having been exiled following the second Anglo-Afghan war. Nadir Shah was a descendant of Sardar Mohammad Yusuf Khan Telai, half-brother of Dost Mohammad Khan. His great grandfather Mohammad Yahya Khan was responsible for the mediation between Yaqub Khan and the British leading to the Gandamak Treaty. After the British invasion following the killing of Sir Louis Cavagnari in 1879, Yaqub Khan and Yahya Khan were seized by the British and transferred under custody to India, where they forcibly remained until invited back to Afghanistan by Emir Abdur Rahman Khan in the last year of his reign (1901). Zahir Shah was educated in a special class for princes at Habibia High School in Kabul. He continued his education in France where his father had been sent as a diplomatic envoy, studying at the Pasteur Institute and the University of Montpellier. When he returned to Afghanistan he helped his father and uncles restore order and reassert government control during a period of lawlessness in the country. He was later enrolled at an Infantry School and appointed a privy counsellor. Zahir Shah served in the government positions of deputy war minister and minister of education. Zahir Shah was fluent in Pashto, Persian, and French. Rule Portrait of Zahir Shah Zahir Khan was proclaimed King (Shah) on 8 November 1933, after the assassination of his father Mohammed Nadir Shah. Following his ascension to the throne he was given the regnal title "confident in God, follower of the firm religion of Islam". For the first thirty years he did not effectively rule, ceding power to his paternal uncles, Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan and Sardar Shah Mahmud Khan. This period fostered a growth in Afghanistan's relations with the international community as in 1934, Afghanistan joined the League of Nations while also receiving formal recognition from the United States. Throughout the 1930s, agreements on foreign assistance and trade had been reached with many countries, most notably Germany, Italy, and Japan. Dupree, Louis: "Afghanistan", pages 477-478. Princeton University Press, 1980 Following the end of the Second World War, Zahir Shah recognised the need for the modernisation of Afghanistan and recruited a number of foreign advisers to assist with the process. During this period Afghanistan's first modern university was founded. During his reign a number of potential advances and reforms were derailed as a result of factionalism and political infighting. Zahir Shah was able to govern on his own in 1963 and despite the factionalism and political infighting a new constitution was introduced in 1964 which turned Afghanistan into a modern democratic state by introducing free elections, a parliament, civil rights, liberation for women and universal suffrage. By the time he returned to Afghanistan in the twenty-first century, his rule was characterized by a lengthy span of peace, but with no significant progress. Exile In 1973, while Mohammed Zahir Shah was in Italy undergoing eye surgery as well as therapy for lumbago, his cousin and former Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud Khan staged a coup d'état and established a republican government. As a former prime minister, Daoud Khan had been forced to resign by Zahir Shah a decade earlier. In the August following this coup, Zahir Shah abdicated rather than risk an all-out civil war. Zahir Shah lived in exile in Italy for twenty-nine years in a modest four-bedroom villa in the affluent gated community of Olgiata on Via Cassia, north of the city of Rome where he spent his time playing golf, chess and tending to his garden. He was barred from returning to Afghanistan during Soviet-backed Communist rule in the late 1970s. In 1983 during the Soviet war in Afghanistan, Zahir Shah was cautiously involved in plans to head a government in exile. Ultimately these plans failed because he could not reach a consensus with the powerful Islamist factions. In 1991, Zahir Shah survived an attempt on his life by a knife-wielding assassin who pretended to be a Portuguese journalist. Return In April 2002, while the country was under NATO occupation, he returned to Afghanistan to open the Loya Jirga, which met in June 2002. After the fall of the Taliban, there were open calls for a return to the monarchy. Zahir Shah himself let it be known that he would accept whatever responsibility was placed on him by the Loya Jirga. However he was obliged to publicly step aside at the behest of the United States as a majority of delegates of Loya Jirga were prepared to vote for Zahir Shah and block the US backed Hamid Karzai. While he was prepared to become head of state he made it known that it would not necessarily be as monarch: "I will accept the responsibility of head of state if that is what the Loya Jirga demands of me, but I have no intention to restore the monarchy. I do not care about the title of king. The people call me Baba and I prefer this title." He was given the ceremonial title "Father of the Nation" in the current Constitution of Afghanistan symbolizing his role in Afghanistan's history as a nonpolitical symbol of national unity. The title of the 'Father of the Nation' dissolved with his death. "The late King was always fondly referred to by all Afghans, cutting across ethnic boundaries, as "Baba-e-Millat" or 'Father of the Nation', a position given to him in the country's Constitution passed in January 2004, about two years after the collapse of Taliban rule. The title of the 'Father of the Nation' dissolves with his death." Hamid Karzai, a prominent figure from the Popalzai clan, became the president of Afghanistan and Zahir Shah's relatives and supporters were handed key posts in the transitional government. He moved back into his old palace. In an October 2002 visit to France, he slipped in a bathroom, bruising his ribs, and on 21 June 2003, while in France for a medical check-up, he broke his femur. Mohammed Zahir Shah, seen sitting down at the far right, during Karzai's swearing in ceremony on 7 December 2004. On 3 February 2004, Shah was flown from Kabul to New Delhi, India, for medical treatment after complaining of an intestinal problem. He was hospitalized for two weeks and remained in New Delhi under observation. On 18 May 2004, he was brought to a hospital in the United Arab Emirates because of nose bleeding caused by heat. Zahir Shah attended the 7 December 2004 swearing in of Hamid Karzai as President of Afghanistan. In his final years, he was frail and required a microphone pinned to his collar so that his faint voice could be heard. In January 2007, Shah was reported to be seriously ill and bedridden. On 23 July 2007, he died in the compound of the presidential palace in Kabul after prolonged illness. His death was announced on national television by President Karzai. Barry Bearak, Former King of Afghanistan Dies at 92, The New York Times, 23 July 2007. His funeral was held on 24 July. It began on the premises of the presidential palace, where political figures and dignitaries paid their respects; his coffin was then taken to a mosque before being moved to his tomb on Maranjan Hill. "Afghanistan's King Mohammad Zahir Shah Laid to Rest", Associated Press (Fox News), 24 July 2007. Family He married Humaira Begum (1918-2002) on 7 November 1931 and had six sons and two daughters: Princess Bilqis Begum (born 17 April 1932) Crown Prince Muhammed Akbar Khan (4 August 1933 - 26 November 1942) Crown Prince Ahmad Shah (born 23 September 1934) Princess Maryam Begum (born 2 November 1936) Prince Muhammed Nadir Khan (born 21 May 1941) Prince Shah Mahmoud Khan (15 November 1946 - 7 December 2002) Prince Muhammed Daoud Pashtunyar Khan (born 14 April 1949) Prince Mir Wais Khan (born 7 January 1957) See also Kingdom of Afghanistan References External links Encyclopedia Britannica - Mohammad Zahir Shah Robert Fisk on Zahir Shah: The last king of Afghanistan Profile from The Observer Genealogy of Mohammed Zahir Shah |- | Mohammed_Zahir_Shah |@lemmatized mohammed:8 zahir:26 shah:36 october:3 july:5 last:3 king:8 afghanistan:23 reign:3 four:2 decade:2 oust:1 coup:3 follow:6 return:7 exile:5 give:4 title:7 father:9 nation:6 hold:2 death:4 encyclopedia:3 britannica:3 mohammad:8 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6,525 | Actinophryid | The actinophryids are small,familiar group of heliozoan protists. They are the most common heliozoa in fresh water, and are especially frequent in lakes and rivers, but a few are found in marine and soil habitats as well. Each actinophryid are unicellular and roughly spherical in shape, without any shell or test, and with many pseudopodia supported by axopods radiating outward from the cell body, which adhere to passing prey and allows it to roll or float about. The outer portion of the cell, or ectoplasm, is distinct and is filled with many tiny vacuoles, which assist in flotation. This is very similar to the process of osmosis. The movement of water from inside the cell to the outside is not because of water concentration in this case. It is the cell pushing the excess water out. A few contractile vacuoles around the periphery of the cell expel excess water, and are visible as clear bulges when full. There are two genera included here. Actinophrys have a single, central nucleus. Most are around 40-50 μm in diameter, with axopods up to 100 μm in length, though this varies. Actinosphaerium are several times larger, from 200-1000 μm in diameter, with many nuclei, and are found exclusively in fresh water. Two other genera, Echinosphaerium and Camptonema, have been described but appear to be synonyms. Reproduction takes place by fission, with open mitosis. Under unfavourable conditions, the organism will form a cyst, which is multi-walled and covered in spikes. While encysted it may undergo a peculiar process of autogamy or self-fertilization, where it goes through meiosis and divides to form two gametes, which then fuse together again. This is the only form of sexual reproduction that occurs within the group, though it is really more genetic reorganization than reproduction. The axopods are supported by microtubules arranged in a unique and characteristic double-coil pattern. In Actinophrys, these arise from the nuclear membrane, while in Actinosphaerium some do and others don't. Other heliozoa where the microtubules arise from the nucleus have been considered possible relatives, and it now appears that the actinophryids developed from axodines such as Pedinella. These are specialized heterokont algae, related to golden algae, diatoms, brown algae, and the like, which have microtubule-supported tentacles. As far as the diet of the Actinophyrys goes, the protist feeds on small flagellates, diminutive cilates, microscopic algae, etc. | Actinophryid |@lemmatized actinophryids:2 small:2 familiar:1 group:2 heliozoan:1 protist:2 common:1 heliozoa:2 fresh:2 water:6 especially:1 frequent:1 lake:1 river:1 find:2 marine:1 soil:1 habitat:1 well:1 actinophryid:1 unicellular:1 roughly:1 spherical:1 shape:1 without:1 shell:1 test:1 many:3 pseudopodium:1 support:2 axopods:3 radiate:1 outward:1 cell:5 body:1 adhere:1 pass:1 prey:1 allow:1 roll:1 float:1 portion:1 ectoplasm:1 distinct:1 fill:1 tiny:1 vacuole:2 assist:1 flotation:1 similar:1 process:2 osmosis:1 movement:1 inside:1 outside:1 concentration:1 case:1 push:1 excess:2 contractile:1 around:2 periphery:1 expel:1 visible:1 clear:1 bulge:1 full:1 two:3 genus:2 include:1 actinophrys:2 single:1 central:1 nucleus:3 μm:3 diameter:2 length:1 though:2 varies:1 actinosphaerium:2 several:1 time:1 large:1 exclusively:1 echinosphaerium:1 camptonema:1 describe:1 appear:2 synonyms:1 reproduction:3 take:1 place:1 fission:1 open:1 mitosis:1 unfavourable:1 condition:1 organism:1 form:3 cyst:1 multi:1 wall:1 cover:1 spike:1 encysted:1 may:1 undergo:1 peculiar:1 autogamy:1 self:1 fertilization:1 go:2 meiosis:1 divide:1 gamete:1 fuse:1 together:1 sexual:1 occur:1 within:1 really:1 genetic:1 reorganization:1 microtubule:3 arrange:1 unique:1 characteristic:1 double:1 coil:1 pattern:1 arise:2 nuclear:1 membrane:1 others:1 consider:1 possible:1 relative:1 develop:1 axodines:1 pedinella:1 specialized:1 heterokont:1 algae:4 relate:1 golden:1 diatom:1 brown:1 like:1 supported:1 tentacle:1 far:1 diet:1 actinophyrys:1 feed:1 flagellate:1 diminutive:1 cilates:1 microscopic:1 etc:1 |@bigram radiate_outward:1 contractile_vacuole:1 μm_diameter:2 sexual_reproduction:1 |
6,526 | Cable_television | Coaxial cable is often used to transmit cable television into the house. The term RG-59 comes from an obsolete military term Radio Grade, the number referring to the grade of the cable. Cable television is a system of providing television to consumers via radio frequency signals transmitted to televisions through fixed optical fibers or coaxial cables as opposed to the over-the-air method used in traditional television broadcasting (via radio waves) in which a television antenna is required. FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephony, and similar non-television services may also be provided. The abbreviation CATV is often used to mean "Cable TV". It originally stood for Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes. It is most commonplace in North America, Europe, Australia and East Asia, though it is present in many other countries, mainly in South America and the Middle East. Cable TV has had little success in Africa, as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated areas. So-called "wireless cable" or microwave-based systems are used instead. Cable television deployments Asia Mongolia There are several cable tv providers in Mongolia. The main three are "SuperVision", "Hiimori" and "Sansar CATV". All three cover approximately 10 national channels and 40 foreign channels, such as CNN, BBC, NHK. Among them "SuperVision" is known for its superior quality and gives much more interesting channels, such as National Geographic and Discovery. "Sansar" and "Hiimori" and other smaller companies fill their channel list with Chinese and Indian channels. Maldives There over 100 cable TV operators across the country. As the population of the Maldives is separated across around 200 inhabited islands, there is a cable TV operator for nearly every island. Media Net Pvt. Ltd. is the country's largest cable TV operator. Media Net is a Male-based cable TV operator that provides cable and MMDS service to five islands near Male. Media Net holds the license of distribution for 41 channels and distributes channels to nearly all the operators of the country. In Maldives, cable TV subscribers can get most premium channels available in Asia. Central America Panamá From 2000, Cable TV adoption has been impulsed with the fusion of Cable Onda and Corporación Medcom. Several companies compete for the Panamanian market, such as CTV, Cable Onda, Cablevision, and others. Cable Onda is the largest. The penetration of CableTV in Panamá is at 40%. Europe United Kingdom When the infant BBC Television service was started in 1932, Rediffusion, which had supplied cable radio services since 1928, started providing "Pipe TV" to its customers who had difficulties tuning into the weak TV broadcast signal A short history of Redifffusion by Russ J Graham . Suspended during World War II, the BBC service was re-established in June 1946, and had only one transmitter, at Alexandra Palace, which served the London area. From the end of 1949, new transmitters were steadily opened to serve other major conurbations, and then smaller areas of population. The areas on the fringes of the transmitter coverage provided an opportunity for Rediffusion and other commercial companies to expand cable systems to enlarge the viewing audience for the one BBC television channel which then existed. The first was in Gloucester in 1950 and the process gathered pace over the next few years, especially after a second television channel, ITV, was launched in 1955 to compete with the BBC. By the late 1970s, two and a half million British homes received their television service via cable. By law, these cable systems were restricted to the relay of the public broadcast channels, which meant that as the transmitter network became more comprehensive the incentive to subscribe to cable was reduced and they began to lose customers. In 1982, a radical liberalisation of the law on cable was proposed by the Information Technology Advisory Panel, for the sake of promoting a new generation of broadband cable systems leading to the wired society. After setting up and receiving the conclusions of the Hunt Inquiry into Cable Expansion and Broadcasting Policy, the Government decided to proceed with liberalisation and two pieces of legislation: the Cable and Broadcasting Act and the Telecommunications Act, were enacted in 1984. The result was that cable systems were permitted to carry as many new television channels as they liked, as well as providing a telephone service and interactive services of many kinds (as since made familiar by the Internet). To maintain the momentum of the perceived commercial interest in this new investment opportunity, in 1983 the Government itself granted eleven interim franchises for new broadband systems each covering a community of up to around 100,000 homes, but the competitive franchising process was otherwise left to the new regulatory body, the Cable Authority, which took on its powers from 1 January 1985. The franchising process proceeded steadily, but the actual construction of new systems was slow, as doubts about an adequate payback from the substantial investment persisted. By the end of 1990 almost 15 million homes had been included in franchised areas, but only 828,000 of these had been passed by broadband cable and only 149,000 were actually subscribing. Thereafter, however, construction accelerated and take-up steadily improved. The first new television channels launched for carriage on cable systems (going live in March 1984) were Sky Channel, Screensport, Music Box and TEN - the Movie Channel. Others followed, some were merged or closed down, but the range expanded. A similar flux was seen among the operators of cable systems: franchises were granted to a host of different companies, but a process of consolidation saw the growth of large multiple system operators, until by early in the 2000s virtually the whole industry was in the hands of two companies, NTL and Telewest. In 2005 it was announced that NTL and Telewest would merge, after a period of co-operation in the preceding few years. This merger was completed on 3 March 2006 with the company being named ntl Incorporated. For the time being the two brand names and services were marketed separately. However, following NTL's acquisition of Virgin Mobile, the NTL and Telewest services were rebranded Virgin Media on 2007-02-08 creating a single cable operator covering more than 95% of the UK cable market. There are a small number of other surviving cable television companies in the UK outside of NTL including WightCable (Isle of Wight) and Smallworld (Ayrshire, Carlisle and Lancashire). Cable TV faces intense competition from British Sky Broadcasting's Sky Digital satellite television service. Most channels are carried on both platforms. However, cable often lacks "interactive" features (e.g. text services, and extra video-screens), especially on BSkyB owned channels, and the satellite platform lacks services requiring high degrees of two-way communication, such as true video on demand. However, subscription-funded digital terrestrial television proved less of a competitive threat. The first system, ITV Digital, went into liquidation in 2002. Top Up TV later replaced it, however this service is shrinking as the DVB-T multiplex owners are finding FTA broadcasting more profitable. Another potential source of competition in the future will be TV over broadband internet connections; this is known as IPTV. Some IPTV services are currently available in London, while services operated in Hull ceased in April 2006. As the speed and availability of broadband connections increase, more TV content can be delivered using protocols such as IPTV. However, its impact on the market is yet to be measured, as is consumer attitude toward watching TV programmes on computers instead of television sets. At the end of 2006, BT (the UK's former state owned monopoly phone company) started offering BT Vision, which combines the digital free-to-air standard Freeview through an aerial, and on-demand IPTV, delivered over a BT Broadband connection through the Vision set-top box (BT have chosen to deploy Microsoft's Mediaroom platform for this.) North America USA Consumers may be concerned by how businesses and government get on. The US cable industry spends millions of dollars annually on government relationships. Spinwatch - Anatomy of a Lobbying Blitz Cable industry enlists diverse crowd in high-level i http://projects.publicintegrity.org/telecom/search/profile.aspx?id=M000018 http://www.nashvillecitypaper.com/index.cfm?news_id=56172 http://www.sdreader.com/php/cover.php?mode=article&showpg=1&id=20001005 Regularly this industry employs the spouses, sons and daughters of influential mayors, councilmen, commissioners, and other officials to assure its continued local monopoly and preferred market allocations, many of which have been questioned as unethical. California Fair Political Practices Commission - Enforcement Pages: Ch-Cz The monopoly on cable television has historically been enforced by local governments. Cable maintains thousands of such de facto monopolies. In order to provide service to individual homes, a cable provider must place its cable wiring along and across local streets or other rights-of-way. To do so, the provider must get permission from the local government(s) that own those streets via rights-of-way permits. Operational permission comes in the form of a document called a local franchise agreement. Most of local government(s) chose to grant permission to only one company, however, recently states have developed broader franchising laws to drive more investment and competition. Changes in the federal law in 1992 had forced local governments to grant permission to other companies to provide service, however the U.S. Government found in 2006 that only 2% of U.S. households had a competitive choice. In some cases Comcast, with municipal government approval, had entered into market allocation schemes. By agreeing to not compete head to head, consumers thus are perpetually locked into a single monopoly cable provider with annual price escalations reaching 93% in the past decade. San Francisco Bay Guardian News Law.com: Motion to Dismiss Fails in Closely-Watched Comcast Antitrust Suit http://hraunfoss.fcc.gov/edocs_public/attachmatch/FCC-06-179A1.pdf Customer Surveys A recent third party survey of citizens found approximately 62% of the respondents were very dissatisfied (along with another 25% who were dissatisfied) with the cost of cable television service. A majority of the respondents were satisfied with the friendliness and courtesy of customer service personnel, however, approximately 30% of the respondents rated the cable company's performance as poor. With regard to open-ended comments, respondents felt that the cost of the cable service was too high, a need for cable competition existed and the desire for a basic cable package offering was desired. Although respondents cited these critical issues, the local monopoly structure could be considered to preserve the status quo of poor customer service, limited product choices, no direct competition and uncontrollable annual cable TV price increases. Relief for consumers is being created by state level a multi jurisdictional franchise and service process that will spur investment and competition; thus driving economic development sought by state and local government leaders. Cable Franchise: City of Fort Collins The industry strongly lobbies against federal "family tier" and "a la carte cable television" bills that would give consumers the option to purchase individual channels rather than a broad tier of programming. These anti-consumer issues continue to garner attention from state governments, Congress and FCC Chairman Martin. Other cable-based services Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion of the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This leaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as broadband internet and cable telephony. Broadband internet is achieved over coaxial cable by using cable modems to convert the network data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog telephone modem to provide for the upstream connection. This limited the upstream speed to 31.2k and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus allowing for greater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are expensive. In North America, Australia and Europe many cable operators have already introduced cable telephone service, which operates just like existing fixed line operators. This service involves installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that converts the analog signals from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the local loop (replacing the analog last mile, or POTS) to the company's switching center, where it is connected to the PSTN. The biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for nearly 100% reliable service for emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, PacketCable, seems to be the most promising and able to work with the Quality of Service demands of traditional analog POTS service. The biggest advantage to digital cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable TV, namely that data can be compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a VoIP network providing cheap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. Note that in many cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from cable modem service being offered by many cable companies and does not rely on IP traffic or the Internet. Beginning in 2004 in the United States, the traditional cable television providers and traditional telecommunication companies increasingly compete in providing voice, video and data services to residences. The combination of TV, telephone and Internet access is commonly called triple play regardless of whether CATV or telcos offer it. Consumer issues Using a cable service naturally requires that access to a cable network be installed at the customer location. Laying and maintaining this cable has costs. From the consumer's viewpoint, having a choice of who provides this service may be deemed desirable, however from a business viewpoint it may be undesirable as this would require multiple companies investing in laying many generally identical cables to the same location. Altogether that could mean greater costs, since there is more physical cable in existence. Therefore the idea of a natural monopoly may apply, whereby in most places only one cable provider is preferable (seemingly for all concerned). Competition in one place may therefore come in the form of terrestrial or satellite providers. As with all situations where competition is in some way limited, there is a potential for consumers to feel they are unfairly treated by the market. Market regulators may therefore tend to limit such consumer concerns by broadening the consumers choice from a single provider, for instance in expecting them to offer variously priced channel selections, improving service other times (for instance, by making use of technological progress) and measures such as providing free-for-all (public) TV. See also DVB-C North American cable television frequencies Broadband References External links All European Cable TV Operators ThisIsCable.com Cable Mergers and Monopolies: Market Power in Digital Media and Communications Networks | Cable_television |@lemmatized coaxial:6 cable:86 often:3 use:11 transmit:2 television:26 house:1 term:2 rg:1 come:3 obsolete:1 military:1 radio:5 grade:2 number:2 refer:1 system:14 provide:14 consumer:12 via:4 frequency:2 signal:8 fixed:1 optical:1 fiber:1 oppose:1 air:3 method:1 traditional:4 broadcasting:3 wave:1 antenna:3 require:4 fm:1 programming:1 high:4 speed:4 internet:8 telephony:3 similar:3 non:1 service:39 may:7 also:2 abbreviation:1 catv:3 mean:3 tv:21 originally:1 stand:1 community:3 origin:1 area:6 reception:1 limit:4 mountainous:1 terrain:1 large:6 construct:1 run:1 individual:3 home:6 commonplace:1 north:4 america:5 europe:3 australia:2 east:2 asia:3 though:2 present:1 many:9 country:4 mainly:1 south:1 middle:1 little:1 success:1 africa:1 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6,527 | Mathias_Rust | Rust in a Moscow courtroom Mathias Rust (born 1968 in Wedel, West Germany) is a German man known for his illegal landing near Red Square in Moscow in 1987. As an amateur aviator, he flew from Finland to Moscow, being tracked several times by Soviet air defence and interceptors, which never received permission to shoot him down, and several times mistaken for a friendly aircraft, he landed on Vasilevski Spusk next to Red Square near the Kremlin in the capital of the USSR. Rust's flight had a great impact on the Soviet military and his successful flight through a supposedly impregnable air defense system led to the firing of many senior officers. The incident enabled Mikhail Gorbachev to speed his reforms and helped bring an end to the Cold War. Flight profile After leaving Uetersen near Hamburg on May 13 Rust refueled his rented Reims Cessna F172P D-ECJB in the morning of May 28, 1987 at Helsinki-Malmi Airport. He told air traffic control that he was going to Stockholm, but right after his final communication with traffic control he turned his plane to the east. Traffic controllers tried to contact him as he was moving around the busy Helsinki-Moscow route, but Rust turned off all communications equipment aboard. Rust disappeared from the Finnish traffic control radar near Sipoo. Traffic control presumed an emergency, and a rescue effort was organized, including a Finnish Border Guard patrol boat. They found an oil patch near the place where Rust disappeared from radar and performed an underwater search with no results. Rust was later charged about $100,000 for this effort. The origin of the oil patch remains unknown. In the meantime, Rust crossed the Baltic coastline in Estonia and turned towards Moscow. At 14:29 he appeared on air defense radar and, after failure to answer to an IFF signal, was assigned combat number 8255. Three SAM divisions tracked him for some time, but failed to obtain permission to launch at him. All air defenses were brought to readiness and two interceptors were sent to investigate. At 14:48 near the city of Gdov one of the pilots observed a white sport plane "like Yak-12" and asked for permission to engage, but was denied. Soon after, fighters lost contact with Rust, and while they were directed back to him, he disappeared from radars near Staraya Russa. The then West German magazine Bunte speculated that he might have landed there for a time, citing that he changed his clothes somewhere during his flight, and that he took too much time to fly to Moscow considering his plane's speed and weather conditions. Air defense re-established contact with Rust's plane several times, but confusion followed all of these events. The PVO system had shortly before been divided into several districts, which simplified management but created additional overhead for tracking officers at the districts' borders. The local air regiment near Pskov was on maneuvers, and, due to inexperienced pilots' tendency to forget correct IFF designator settings, local control officers assigned all traffic in the area friendly status, including Rust. Mathias Rust's Cessna 172, resting in Red Square some time after his landing. Near Torzhok there was a similar situation, as increased air traffic was created by a rescue effort for an air crash that had happened the previous day. Rust, flying a slow propeller-driven aircraft, was confused with one of the helicopters taking part in the rescue. Afterwards, he was spotted several more times, but given false friendly recognition twice; he was considered as a domestic training plane defying regulations, and was issued least priority. Several interesting events coincided with the final stretch of his route. The control system of the Central Air Defence District was unexpectedly turned down for unscheduled maintenance, and all flights around Sheremetyevo airport were forbidden for about twenty minutes — just for the time Rust was above it. The origins of these events are still unknown. Around 7:00 p.m. Rust appeared above the Moscow center. He had initially intended to land in the Kremlin, but due to lack of proper landing space reverted to Red Square. Heavy pedestrian traffic didn't allow him to land there either, so after circling about the square one more time, he finally was able to land on a bridge by St. Basil's Cathedral. After taxiing past the Cathedral he finally stopped about 100 meters from the square, where he was greeted by curious passersby. He was arrested soon afterwards. Aftermath Rust's trial started in Moscow on September 2, 1987. He was sentenced to four years following light regime terms for hooliganism, disregard of aviation laws and breaching of the Soviet border. After serving 432 days at the Lefortovo jail in Moscow, he was released on parole. He returned to West Germany on August 3, 1988 after former long-time foreign minister Andrei Gromyko, acting as president of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, signed the document that enabled Rust to regain his freedom. William E. Odom, former director of the National Security Agency and author of The Collapse of the Soviet Military, says that Rust’s flight irreparably damaged the reputation of the Soviet military. This enabled Gorbachev to remove many of the strongest opponents to his reforms. The Soviet defense minister and the Soviet air defense chief were fired along with hundreds of other officers. This was the biggest turnover in the Soviet military since Stalin’s purges fifty years earlier. Later turbulent life While doing his obligatory community service (Zivildienst) in a West German hospital in 1989, Rust stabbed a female co-worker who had rejected him. The injuries were life-threatening and he was sentenced to four years in prison for attempted murder and was released after having served fifteen months. April 1994: He returned to Russia and visited points of interest such as the site where he landed in 1987. 1996: He became engaged to a daughter of a rich Indian tea merchant and converted to Hinduism German daredevil grounded by court Guardian Unlimited - April 21, 2001 . 2001: He was convicted for stealing a cashmere pullover. He was ordered to pay 10,000 Marks; the sentence was later reduced to 600 Marks. 2003 August: Rust launched an internet site promoting a "think tank" called Orion & Isis which endeavored to "work on issues which contain non-violent solutions to resolve conflicts between government, ethnic or religious institutions." Applicants needed to be in possession of an administrative position with the connected powers of attorney or in possession of major influence from any other level. After not gaining much publicity, the site disappeared. 2004 July: Living in Berlin married to his second wife Athena. 2005: He was convicted of fraud, had to pay € 1,500 for stolen goods WZ Newsline 25 May 2007 Influence on popular culture Because Rust's flight seemed to be a blow to the authority of the Soviet regime, it was the source of numerous jokes and urban legends. Very soon after the incident, SubLogic, the original publishers of the Flight Simulator franchise, issued a scenery disk that expanded the original program's coverage area to include Eastern Europe. A challenge in the program was to land in Red Square like Rust had just done. Scenery Disk "Western European Tour" Moby Games article about the Flight Simulator addon disk. The American band Wampeters included a song on their Hey Judas CD that celebrates Mathias as a "hero or a scourge." The French software house Cobra Soft published the videogame Cessna over Moscow for the Amstrad CPC computer, inspired by Rust. The couplet The rumour had it () by Estonian band Talong includes the verses Once landed a bastard from Devil-knows-where // in Kremlin's rayone straight out of the blue. // Press of the world was filled with lust // when marshalls lost face o'er Mathias Rust. The Norwegian pop/folk band D.D.E. wrote a song about hope, called "Det umulige e mulig" ("The impossible is possible") with numerous references to Rust's famous flight - "a small plane landed on the Red Square". Det umulige e mulig DDE's official homepage Estonian President Lennart Meri named his wolfhound in honour of Rust. Estonian newspaper article about Meri has mention about dog The final track of the 2004 album La Increíble Aventura by Spanish band Migala is called Lecciones de Vuelo con Mathias Rust (Flying Lessons With Mathias Rust). Media about Mathias Rust Following the 20th anniversary of his flight on May 28, 2007, the international media interviewed Rust about the flight and its aftermath. The Washington Post and German Bild both have online editions of their interviews. The most comprehensive video interview online is produced by The Danish Broadcasting Corporation. In their interview Rust in Red Square, recorded in May 2007, Mathias Rust gives a full recount of the flight in English. References External links Rust in Red Square (English) about the flight and the aftermath. Interview clips are embedded in a flash presentation. (Oct 2007) TV Interview 2007 on YouTube English interview in Danish news cast eng/eng subs (May 28, 2007) Smithsonian's Air & Space Magazine: "The Notorious Flight of Mathias Rust" Comprehensive article about the flight and the political aftermath in Gorbachev's USSR (July 1, 2005) Guardian: interview with Mathias Rust Where Are They Now?: Mathias Rust Recent photo of Rust's plane in Japan Novaya Gazeta: РУСТ — ЭТО ПО-НАШЕМУ Washington Post: A Dubious Diplomat Washington Post article on Rust incident, aftermath, and Rust's life today. 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6,528 | Kylie_Minogue | Kylie Ann Minogue, OBE, (born 28 May 1968), is an Australian pop singer, songwriter, and occasional actress. She rose to prominence in the late 1980s through her role in the Australian television soap opera Neighbours, before commencing her career as a recording artist in 1987. Signed to a contract by English songwriters and producers Stock, Aitken & Waterman in 1987, she achieved a string of hit records throughout the world. Her popularity waned during the early 1990s, leading her to part company from Stock, Aitken & Waterman in 1992. During the mid to late 1990s, Minogue distanced herself from her earlier work and attempted to establish herself as a credible and independent performer and songwriter. Her projects were widely publicised, but her albums failed to attract a substantial audience and resulted in the lowest sales of her career at the time. She returned to popularity as a pop artist in 2000, and became well-known for her elaborate music videos and expensively mounted stage shows. Diagnosed with breast cancer in 2005, Minogue returned to performing and recording in late 2006 after a period of convalescence. Although she was dismissed by some critics during her early career, she has achieved longevity as a pop music artist. She has sold in excess of 60 million records, Webster, Philip. Kylie Minogue and Michael Parkinson lead list with heroes of summer floods. The Times, 2007-12-29. Retrieved on 2008-03-26. and has achieved her greatest successes in Australia, Europe, Asia and Latin America. She was awarded an OBE in 2008 for services to music. Childhood and beginnings of a music career Kylie Ann Minogue was born 28 May 1968 at 11:00am AEST at Bethlehem Private Hospital in Caulfield South, Melbourne, Australia, the first child of Ronald Charles Minogue, an accountant of Irish ancestry "Why we love Kylie - By three of the people who know her best". The Daily Mail, 2007-11-09. Retrieved on 2008-05-30 and Carol Ann (nee Jones), a former dancer from Maesteg, Wales. "Family shock at Kylie's illness". BBC News, 2005-05-18. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. Her sister, Dannii, is also a pop singer, Bright, Spencer. "Why we love Kylie - By three of the people who know her best". The Daily Mail, 2007-11-09. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. and her brother, Brendan, works as a news cameraman in Australia. Freeman, Simon. "Kylie finishes 'successful' breast cancer treatment". The Times, 2006-01-13. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. Minogue attended classes at Camberwell High School in Melbourne along with her sister Dannii. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/kylie-minogue-goddess-of-the-moment-661725.html Raised in the inner Melbourne suburb of Surrey Hills, the Minogue sisters began their careers as children on Australian television, and from the age of twelve, Kylie appeared in small roles in soap operas such as The Sullivans and Skyways, before being cast in one of the lead roles in The Henderson Kids. Wearring, Myles. "Kylie's life on screen". news.com.au, 2008-05-28. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. She gave her first singing performance in 1983, on the weekly music programme Young Talent Time which featured Dannii as a regular performer. Dannii's success in this program overshadowed Kylie's acting achievements, until Kylie was cast in the soap opera Neighbours in 1986. In Neighbours Minogue played the character of Charlene Mitchell, a schoolgirl turned garage mechanic. "Birthday Girls: Kylie Minogue". The Daily Telegraph, 2008-05-14. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. As stated in The Guardian, "Her appeal at first lay in her unapologetic ordinariness...she played an oil-smudged mechanic with no desire to better herself. Charlene was happy to spend her life grappling with the intestines of greasy cars." A story arc that created a romance and eventual marriage between her character and that played by Jason Donovan culminated in a wedding episode in 1987 that attracted an audience of 20 million viewers. Simpson, Aislinn. "Kylie Minogue celebrates 40th birthday". The Daily Telegraph, 2008-05-27. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. Her popularity in Australia was demonstrated when she became the first person to win four Logie Awards in one event, including the "Gold Logie" as the country's "Most Popular Television Performer", with the result determined by public vote. Recording and performing career Stock, Aitken and Waterman: 1987–1992 "I Should Be So Lucky" (1987) was one of the early music videos that presented Minogue as a "girl-next-door". During a Fitzroy Football Club benefit concert with other Neighbours cast members, Minogue performed "The Loco-Motion" and was signed to a recording contract with Mushroom Records in 1987. Released as a single, the Australian recording spent seven weeks at number one on the Australian music charts, "Kylie: the history". Metro, 2007-01-03. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. and was the highest-selling single in Australia for the 1980s. Maley, Jacqueline. "20 years at the top: she should be so lucky". The Sydney Morning Herald, 2007-08-05. Retrieved on 2008-05-31. Its success resulted in Minogue traveling to London with Mushroom Records executive Gary Ashley to work with Stock, Aitken & Waterman. They knew little of Minogue and had forgotten that she was arriving; as a result, they wrote "I Should Be So Lucky" while she waited outside the studio. The song reached number one in the UK and Australia and was a hit in many parts of the world. Her debut album Kylie, a collection of dance-oriented pop tunes spent more than a year on the British album charts, including several weeks at number one. It sold over seven million copies worldwide, with most sales occurring in Europe and Asia, and it contained six successful singles. In the United States and Canada, the album did not sell strongly, however the re-recorded and correctly titled version of "The Loco-Motion" reached number three on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart, "Flop in the USA: Kylie's bid to crack States fails as album bombs". The Daily Mail, 2008-04-11. Retrieved 2008-04-11. and number one on the Canadian Singles Chart. "It's No Secret", released only in the U.S., peaked at number thirty-seven in early 1989, Billboard charts, Kylie Minogue and "Turn It Into Love" was released as a single in Japan, where it reached number one. In late 1988 Minogue left Neighbours to concentrate fully on her music career. Jason Donovan commented "When viewers watched her on screen they no longer saw Charlene the local mechanic, they saw Kylie the pop star." A duet with Donovan, titled "Especially for You", sold over one million copies in the UK in early 1989. The critic Kevin Killian wrote that it was "majestically awful...makes the Diana Ross, Lionel Richie "Endless Love" sound like Mahler." She was sometimes referred to as "the Singing Budgie" by her detractors over the coming years, however Chris True's comment about the album Kylie for Allmusic suggests that Minogue's appeal transcended the limitations of her music, by noting that "her cuteness makes these rather vapid tracks bearable." Her follow up album Enjoy Yourself (1989) was a success in the United Kingdom, Europe, Asia and Australia, and contained several successful singles (including the UK number one "Hand on Your Heart"), but it failed throughout North America, and Minogue was dropped by her American record label Geffen Records. White, Dave. "Take this, America! With a sultry new record, the Aussie dance goddess seals her hold on us". The Advocate, 2004-04-02. Retrieved from findarticles.com on 2008-05-31. She embarked on her first concert tour, the Enjoy Yourself Tour, in the United Kingdom, Europe, Asia and Australia, where Melbourne's The Herald Sun wrote that it was "time to ditch the snobbery and face facts — the kid's a star." Rhythm of Love (1990) presented a more sophisticated and adult style of dance music and also marked the first signs of Minogue's rebellion against her production team and the "girl-next-door" image. Determined to be accepted by a more mature audience, Minogue took control of her music videos, starting with "Better the Devil You Know", and presented herself as a sexually aware adult. Pete Waterman reflected that the song was a milestone in her career and that it made her "the hottest, hippest dance act on the scene and nobody could knock it as it was the best dance record around at the time." The singles from Rhythm of Love sold well in Europe and Australia and were popular in British nightclubs. When "Shocked" reached the British Top 10 in 1991, she became the first recording artist to place their first thirteen single releases in the Top 10. "Kylie Minogue Special". abc.net.au, 2002-08-03. Retrieved on 2008-05-31. In May 1990, Minogue performed her band's arrangement of The Beatles's "Help!" before a crowd of 25,000 at the John Lennon: The Tribute Concert on the banks of the River Mersey in Liverpool. Yoko Ono and Sean Lennon offered Minogue their thanks for her support of The John Lennon Fund, while the media commented positively on her performance. The Sun wrote "The soap star wows the Scousers — Kylie Minogue deserved her applause". After recording a fourth album, Let's Get to It (1991), Minogue had fulfilled the requirements of her contract and elected not to renew it. She had often expressed the viewpoint that she was stifled by Stock, Aitken and Waterman, and later compared the experience to her time with Neighbours, saying all they required her to do was "learn your lines...perform your lines, no time for questions, promote the product". Deconstruction: 1993–1998 Minogue's subsequent signing with Deconstruction Records was highly touted in the music media as the beginning of a new phase in her career, but the eponymous Kylie Minogue (1994) received mixed reviews. It sold well in Europe and Australia, where the single "Confide in Me" spent five weeks at number one. Subsequent singles, "Put Yourself in My Place" and "Where Is the Feeling?" were top twenty hits in the UK. The music video for "Where the Wild Roses Grow" (1995) (left) was inspired by John Everett Millais' Ophelia (1851/52) (right). Australian artist Nick Cave had been interested in working with Minogue since hearing "Better the Devil You Know", saying it contained "one of pop music's most violent and distressing lyrics" and "when Kylie Minogue sings these words, there is an innocence to her that makes the horror of this chilling lyric all the more compelling". They collaborated on "Where the Wild Roses Grow" (1995), a brooding ballad whose lyrics narrated a murder from the points of view of both the murderer (Cave), and his victim (Minogue), and its success demonstrated that Minogue could be accepted outside of her established genre as a pop artist. It received widespread attention in Europe, where it reached the top 10 in several countries, and acclaim in Australia where it reached number two, and won ARIA Awards for "Song of the Year" and "Best Pop Release". Following concert appearances with Cave, Minogue recited the lyrics to "I Should Be So Lucky" as poetry in London's Royal Albert Hall "Poetry Jam", at the suggestion of Cave, and later credited him with giving her the confidence to express herself artistically, saying: "He taught me to never veer too far from who I am, but to go further, try different things, and never lose sight of myself at the core. For me, the hard part was unleashing the core of myself and being totally truthful in my music". In 1997, French photographer Stephane Sednaoui described Minogue as a combination of "geisha and manga superheroine". He began taking photographs of her that downplayed her glamour, with the aim of attracting a more diverse audience, and she drew inspiration from artists such as Shirley Manson and Garbage, Björk, Tricky and U2, and Japanese pop musicians such as Pizzicato Five and Towa Tei, with whom she would later collaborate on the singles "GBI: German Bold Italic" and "Sometime Samurai". Impossible Princess, named after a poetry collection by artist Billy Childish, featured collaborations with musicians such as James Dean Bradfield and Sean Moore of the Manic Street Preachers. Largely a dance album, its style was not represented by its first single "Some Kind of Bliss", and Minogue countered questions that she was trying to become an indie artist. She told Music Week, "I have to keep telling people that this isn't an indie-guitar album. I'm not about to pick up a guitar and rock." Billboard magazine described the album as "stunning" and concluded that "it's a golden commercial opportunity for a major [record company] with vision and energy [to release it in the United States]. A sharp ear will detect a kinship between Impossible Princess and Madonna's hugely successful album, Ray of Light". In the UK, Music Week gave a negative assessment, commenting that "Kylie's vocals take on a stroppy edge...but not strong enough to do much". Retitled Kylie Minogue in the UK following the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, it became the lowest selling album of her career. In Australia, Impossible Princess became her highest selling album since Kylie in 1988, with sales boosted by a live tour. In reviewing her show, The Times wrote of her ability to "mask her thin, often nondescript voice with musical diversity and brittle charisma and genuinely great pop songs by any standard", and a live album recorded during her tour, titled Intimate and Live, was successful in Australia. She maintained her high profile in Australia with live performances, including the 1998 Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras, the opening of Fox Studios in Sydney in 1999, where she performed Marilyn Monroe's "Diamonds Are a Girl's Best Friend", and a Christmas concert in Dili, East Timor in association with the United Nations Peace-Keeping Forces. Parlophone and middle career: 1999–2005 William Baker has cited the 1940s "Vargas Girl" pinups of Alberto Vargas as an influence, as demonstrated in the music video for "Spinning Around". (2000) Minogue and Deconstruction Records parted company and following a duet with the Pet Shop Boys' on their Nightlife album, she signed with Parlophone in April 1999. Her album Light Years (2000) was strongly influenced by 1970s disco artists, such as Donna Summer and Village People and included several songs written by Guy Chambers and Robbie Williams who imbued their lyrics with humour. New Musical Express wrote: "Kylie's capacity for reinvention is staggering" and summarised the album as "sheer joy" and "what she does best". It generated strong reviews for Minogue and quickly became a success throughout Asia, Australia and Europe, selling over two million copies worldwide. The single "Spinning Around" became her first UK number one in ten years, and its accompanying video, which featured Minogue in revealing gold hot pants, received widespread television airplay. "Kids", a duet with Robbie Williams, was also a substantial hit, peaking at number two in the UK. In 2000 Minogue performed a cover version of ABBA's "Dancing Queen" and her single "On a Night like This" at the 2000 Sydney Olympics closing ceremony, Sydney says goodbye. BBC News, 2000-10-01. Retrieved on 2008-03-26. an event watched by an estimated 2.1 billion people in 220 countries. Afterwards, she embarked upon a concert tour, On A Night like This Tour, which played to sell-out crowds in Australia and the United Kingdom. Her ticket sales in Australia exceeded 200,000 and set a record for a female artist. Her six initial planned shows were increased to twenty-two due to public demand. Minogue was inspired by the style of Broadway shows such as 42nd Street and films such as Anchors Aweigh, South Pacific and the Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers musicals of the 1930s. Describing Bette Midler as a "heroine", she also incorporated some of the "camp and burlesque" elements of Midler's live performances. The show featured elaborate sets, and Minogue was praised for her new material and her reinterpretations of some of her greatest successes, turning "I Should Be So Lucky" into a torch song and "Better the Devil You Know" into a 1940s big band number. She won a "Mo Award" for Australian live entertainment as "Performer of the Year". Following the tour she was asked by a Seattle Post-Intelligencer journalist what she thought was her greatest strength, and replied, "That I am an all-rounder. If I was to choose any one element of what I do, I don't know if I would excel at any one of them. But put all of them together, and I know what I'm doing." Fever, released in 2001, retained some disco elements and combined them with 1980s electropop. It reached number one in Australia, the UK, and throughout Europe, eventually achieving worldwide sales in excess of 6 million. "Can Kylie get her groove back?". The Age, 2004-01-31. Retrieved on 2008-05-31. Its lead single "Can't Get You out of My Head" became the biggest success of her career, reaching number one in over twenty countries. Gibb, Megan. "Happy Birthday Kylie: 40 milestones to mark 40 years (+photos)". New Zealand Herald, 2008-05-28. Retrieved 2008-05-31. Following extensive airplay by North American radio, Capitol Records released it in the United States in 2002. Billboard.com, Fever release date The album debuted on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart at number three, Goodman, Dean. "Kylie Minogue album a flop in the U.S.". Reuters, 2008-04-11. Retrieved on 2008-04-12. and the single reached number seven on the Hot 100. The subsequent singles "In Your Eyes", "Love at First Sight" and "Come into My World" were substantial successes throughout the world, and Minogue established a presence in the mainstream North American market, achieving particular success on the club scene. In 2003 she received a Grammy Award nomination for "Best Dance Recording" for "Love at First Sight", Grammy Awards: Best Dance Recording and the following year won the same award for "Come into My World". Minogue's former stylist and creative director William Baker explained that the music videos for the Fever album were inspired by science fiction films—specifically those by Stanley Kubrick—and accentuated the electropop elements of the music by using dancers in the style of Kraftwerk. Alan MacDonald, the designer of the 2002 KylieFever tour, brought those elements into the stage show which drew inspiration from Minogue's past incarnations. The show opened with Minogue as a space age vamp, which she described as "Queen of Metropolis with her drones", through to scenes inspired by Kubrick's A Clockwork Orange, followed by the various personas of Minogue's career. Minogue said that she was finally able to express herself the way she wanted, and that she had always been "a showgirl at heart". Her next album, Body Language (2003), was released following an invitation-only concert, titled Money Can't Buy, at the Hammersmith Apollo in London. The event marked the presentation of a new visual style, designed by Minogue and Baker, inspired in part by Brigitte Bardot, about whom Minogue commented: "I just tended to think of BB as, well, she's a sexpot, isn't she? She's one of the greatest pinups. But she was fairly radical in her own way at that time. And we chose to reference the period, which was...a perfect blend of coquette and rock and roll." Body Language Live documentary, album launch press conference. The show attracted mixed reviews, with the main criticisms being that nothing substantially new was presented, and that the new songs did not match the appeal of her previous hits. Despite this, the concert was made into a television special that drew high ratings. The album downplayed the disco style and Minogue said she was inspired by 1980s artists such as Scritti Politti, Human League, Adam and the Ants and Prince, blending their styles with elements of hip hop. It received positive reviews with Billboard Magazine writing of "Minogue's knack for picking great songs and producers". All Music described it as "a near perfect pop record... Body Language is what happens when a dance-pop diva takes the high road and focuses on what's important instead of trying to shock herself into continued relevance". Sales of Body Language were lower than anticipated after the success of Fever, though the first single, "Slow", was a UK number-one hit. Guinness Book of British Hit Singles & Albums and UK Top 40 Hit Database After reaching number one on the US club chart, "Slow" received a Grammy Award nomination in the Best Dance Recording category. Minogue performing during her Showgirl tour (2005). Minogue released her second official greatest hits album in November 2004, entitled Ultimate Kylie, along with her music videos on a DVD compilation of the same title. The album introduced her singles "I Believe in You", co-written with Jake Shears and Babydaddy from the Scissor Sisters, and "Giving You Up". Both songs reached the British top ten, and with a tally of twenty-nine top ten singles, Minogue became the second most successful woman on the British singles charts, behind Madonna. "I Believe in You" reached the U.S. Hot Dance Club Play top three, and Minogue was nominated for a Grammy Award for the fourth consecutive year when the song was nominated in the category of "Best Dance Recording". "The Complete List of Grammy Nominations". The New York Times, 2005-12-08. Retrieved 2008-05-31. Early in 2005, "Kylie : the Exhibition" opened in Melbourne. The free exhibition featured costumes and photographs spanning Minogue's career and went on to tour Australian capital cities receiving over 300,000 visitors. It was then exhibited at the Victoria and Albert Museum in London in February 2007. Minogue commenced her Showgirl - The Greatest Hits Tour, which was intended to be the most extensive of her career, and anticipated a total audience of more than 700,000. The show was a success in the United Kingdom, however shortly after Minogue arrived in Melbourne to begin the Australian shows, she was diagnosed with breast cancer. Showgirl: Homecoming, X and KylieX2008: 2006–2008 In November 2006, Minogue resumed her Showgirl - Homecoming Tour with a performance in Sydney. She had told journalists prior to the concert that she would be highly emotional, and she cried before dedicating the song "Especially for You" to her father, a survivor of prostate cancer. Although her dance routines had been reworked to accommodate her medical condition, and slower costume changes and longer breaks being introduced between sections of the show to conserve her strength, "Two UK gigs as Kylie resumes tour". BBC News, 2006-07-17. Retrieved on 2008-05-31. the media reported that Minogue performed energetically, with the Sydney Morning Herald describing the show as an "extravaganza" and "nothing less than a triumph". The following night, Minogue was joined by Bono, who was in Australia as part of U2's Vertigo tour, for the duet "Kids", but Minogue was forced to cancel a subsequent planned appearance at U2's show, because of exhaustion. During her last two shows, she was joined on stage by sister Dannii Minogue for the duet, their first performance together since the late 1980s. Houghton, Matt. "Kylie and Dannii perform together in Oz". Digital Spy, 2006-12-18. Retrieved on 2008-05-31. Minogue's shows throughout Australia continued to draw positive reviews, and after spending Christmas with her family, she resumed the European leg of her tour with six sold-out shows in Wembley Arena, before taking her tour to Manchester for a further six shows. On 31 December 2006, she saw in the new year with an extra sell-out show at London's Wembley Arena, where she was supported by ABBA tribute band Bjorn Again. Minogue released X, her tenth studio album and much-discussed "comeback" album, in November 2007. The electro-styled album included contributions from Guy Chambers, Cathy Dennis, Bloodshy & Avant and Calvin Harris. For the overarching visual look of X, including the music video for first single "2 Hearts", Minogue and William Baker developed a combination of the style of Kabuki theatre and the aesthetics originating from London danceclubs including BoomBox. The album was criticised for its subject matter in light of Minogue's experiences with breast cancer; she responded by highlighting the album's personal nature in comparison to her previous few albums, and saying "My conclusion is that if I'd done an album of personal songs it'd be seen as Impossible Princess 2 and be equally critiqued." She later said, "In retrospect we could definitely have bettered it [the album], I'll say that straight up. Given the time we had, it is what it is. I had a lot of fun doing it." In Australia and the UK, X initially attracted lukewarm sales, which were attributed to the single "2 Hearts", although its commercial performance eventually improved. In the U.S., where X was released in April 2008, it debuted outside the top 100 on the albums chart despite some promotion. Critics blamed the low sales on the choice of the single, "All I See", which was not tested in Britain, where Minogue has had much success. Minogue called the U.S. market "notoriously difficult...You have so many denominations with radio. To know where I fit within that market is sometimes difficult", though she did not rule out the possibility of returning to promote her music there. X was nominated for the 2009 Grammy Award for Best Electronic/Dance Album, http://content.grammy.com/Grammy_Awards/51st_show/list.aspx#02 Minogue's fifth Grammy Award nomination. In December 2007, Minogue participated in the Nobel Peace Prize Concert in Oslo, Norway with a variety of artists, "Kylie heats up Oslo in sexy PVC number to honour Al Gore". The Daily Mail. Retrieved on 2007-12-12. and later performed in the final of UK talent show The X Factor with the eventual winner, Leon Jackson, whose mentor was Dannii Minogue. "Kylie and Jason sing on X Factor". BBC News. Retrieved 2007-12-13. From May 2008, Minogue promoted X with a European tour, KylieX2008, which is her most expensive tour to date with production costs of £10 million. "Kylie's tour to kick off in Paris". The Daily Telegraph, 2008-04-29. Retrieved 2008-05-26. Although she described the rehearsals as "grim" and the set list went through several overhauls, the tour was generally acclaimed and sold well, including in the UK, where it was reported that tickets for the eight shows scheduled sold out within 30 minutes of them going on sale. Williams, Owen. "Kylie Minogue’s concert tickets sell-out in 30 minutes". Showbiz Spy, 2007-12-04. Retrieved on 2007-12-09. It was announced in late December 2007 that Minogue was to be among those honoured in Queen Elizabeth II's 2008 New Years Honours list, with an OBE for services to music. Minogue commented "I am almost as surprised as I am honoured. I feel deeply touched to be acknowledged by the UK, my adopted home, in this way." Gammell, Caroline. "Kylie awarded OBE in New Year Honours list". The Daily Telegraph, 2007-12-29. Retrieved 2007-12-29. She received the OBE officially from The Prince of Wales in July 2008. Shortly after, Minogue was voted and named as the 's Best Loved Celebrity by a tabloid newspaper. Also in 2008, Minogue won best International Female Solo Artist award at the 2008 BRIT Awards, Take That scoop Brit Award double. BBC News, 2008-02-21. Retrieved on 2008-03-26. and received the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres in May, this being France's highest cultural honour. "Kylie receives top French honour". ABC News, 2008-05-06. Retrieved on 2008-05-07. On 15 September 2008 it was announced that Minogue will star at what is being touted as the most expensive private party ever staged - a £16 million ($35 million) soiree at a new luxury hotel in Dubai. British newspapers reported that Minogue will be paid £2 million ($4.4 million) to perform in front of 2000 guests at the opening of the Atlantis Hotel on the man-made island of Palm Jumeirah. On 1 November Minogue recommenced her KylieX2008 tour, taking the show to cities across South America, Asia and Australia. Making the tour Minogue's longest tour of her career clocking in at 74 concerts and 1 exclusive set. The tour was an overall success at the boxoffice with released boxscore totalling at 34 Million US$ for the 36 concerts that data was made available http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KylieX2008#Box_office_score_data . It was announced via Minogue's website that the total ticket sales took a total of US$70 Million. The tour ended in Minogue's hometown, Melbourne on the 22nd December. Touring and new album: 2009-present 2009 began with a new Parlophone remix album release, Boombox, across the world. The album had received a preliminary release in Japan on 17 December. http://www.cdjapan.co.jp/detailview.html?KEY=TOCP-66839 It was released in Europe, Australia and the Americas in January and February. "A Boombox of Remixes from Kylie!". Kylie.com. 14 November 2008. Retrieved 15 November 2009. Minogue will be performing for the first time in her career in Poland, Portugal and Morocco in mid-2009. http://kylie.com/news/1760418/0 Amongst the release of the festival appearances it was announced that Minogue will embark on her first ever North American concert tour, kicking off on 30 September in Oakland, California. The tour so far has nine planned concerts in the United States and Canada and will be promoted with a TV appearance by Minogue on 8 May on the Today Show. The concerts are planned to finish on 13 October in New York City. http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/news/kylie-minogue-plans-first-north-american-1003969732.story Minogue has began work on her eleventh album. In an interview with Billboard she gave a few details about her next album: "It will be pop, dance, that's my thing," she said. "I'd love to find a slightly new style, something that's the next step for me. I kind of have an idea but I can't really tell you. I'm working on it." http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/news/kylie-minogue-dreams-of-movie-roles-not-1003971648.story Film and television career Kylie Minogue and David Tennant in Voyage of the Damned. In 1989, Minogue starred in The Delinquents, which told the story of a young girl growing up in Australia during the late 1950s. Its release coincided with her popularity in Neighbours, and while both the film and Minogue's performance received poor reviews, it was a commercial success. She appeared as Cammy in the action film Street Fighter (1994), based on the fighting game series of the same name. The film received poor reviews by critics, with The Washington Post'''s Richard Harrington calling her "the worst actress in the English-speaking world." She starred as Dr. Petra von Kant along with Pauly Shore in the 1996 movie Bio-Dome. Australian film director Baz Luhrmann cast Minogue in Moulin Rouge! (2001) where she played the part of Absinthe, the Green Fairy, singing a line from The Sound of Music. Smith, Neil. "Moulin Rouge (2001) review". BBC, 2001-06-22. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. On 6 October 2001, Minogue duetted with Kermit the Frog of The Muppets in a special broadcast on British channel ITV, singing a version of her song "Especially For You". In 2002, she provided the voice of a young girl named Florence in the animated film The Magic Roundabout, released in 2005. She also sang the title song in the movie and was one of the two starring actors not replaced when the film was released in North America. In April 2007, News of the World reported that Minogue had been cast as a 'sexy Cyberwoman' in the 2007 Doctor Who Christmas special episode entitled "Voyage of the Damned". This was denied by the show's executive producer, Russell T Davies, in the magazine Ariel, "Davies dismisses Kylie rumour". Outpost Gallifrey, 2007-04-27. Retrieved on 2007-07-01. but a statement by Minogue indicated that she would be in the episode, but not as a villain as previously reported. "Kylie confirms 'Doctor Who' role", Digital Spy. Retrieved on 2007-07-02. It was officially announced by the BBC on 3 July 2007 that Minogue was to feature in the episode as Astrid Peth, a waitress on a spacefaring version of the Titanic, following rumours in the press and sightings of her filming. "Step Back In Time". BBC, 2007-07-03. Retrieved on 2007-12-09 The episode aired on 25 December 2007, with 13.31 million viewers, the show's highest viewing figures since 1979. "Titanic Success!". BBC, 2007-12-26. Retrieved 2007-12-26. In another television venture, The Kylie Show was broadcast in the UK on ITV1 on 10 November 2007. The programme featured highly stylised set-piece song performances from Minogue as well as sketches showing her backstage, most notably ones featuring Jason Donovan failing to recognise Minogue, and a catfight sequence with her sister, Dannii Minogue. "Kylie and Dannii recreate infamous Dynasty catfight for TV special". The Daily Mail. Retrieved on 2007-11-18. The show secured strong viewing figures of 5.03 million. "Weekly Viewing Summary (see w.e 11/11/07)". BARB. Retrieved 2007-12-11. Minogue was also featured in the film documentary, White Diamond, which she made with friend and stylist, William Baker during August 2006 and March 2007. White Diamond documents Minogue's return to the world stage with her 2006 Showgirl Homecoming Tour. White Diamond premiered at Vue cinemas across the UK on 16 October 2007, with a DVD release in December 2007. Kylie thanks fans at film launch. BBC News. Retrieved 2007-10-28. She has appeared in guest roles in television series such as The Vicar of Dibley and Men Behaving Badly in the UK, and Kath & Kim in Australia, which capitalised on her celebrity status and image for comedic effect. In the latter she played Kim's grown up daughter Epponnee-Rae on her wedding day (the episode is set in the future), referencing her role as Charlene in Neighbours. On 18 February 2009, Minogue hosted the 2009 BRIT Awards with James Corden and Mathew Horne. http://www.mirror.co.uk/celebs/columnists/zoe/2008/11/16/kylie-minogue-to-host-brit-awards-115875-20900473/ She will be starring in Blue, the biggest budget Bollywood film ever made, to be released in August 2009, for which she also recorded a song with A.R. Rahman. http://www.kylie.com/news/1757054 Personal life In 1990 Minogue was in a relationship with INXS lead singer Michael Hutchence, which furthered her attempts to gain acceptance as a mature performer, with Hutchence saying his favourite hobby was "corrupting Kylie", and writing the INXS hit song "Suicide Blonde" in reference to her. By 1997 Minogue was involved in a relationship with French photographer Stephane Sednaoui. Her relationships, including her now finished relationship with French actor Olivier Martinez, have been extensively reported. In February 2008, there was media speculation about the relationship between Minogue and Martinez when they were seen together in Paris. Kylie back with 'love-rat'. The Daily Telegraph, 2007-07-22. Retrieved on 2008-03-26. The couple reportedly talked about reuniting and starting a family but the singer later dismissed the reports. Minogue was later quoted as saying "I had dinner with my ex-boyfriend and next thing I know there's a debate about whether we're having a family. We didn't even talk about that." Kylie denies Olivier baby plans. news.com.au. Retrieved on 2008-02-06. Kylie is currently dating Spanish model Andrés Velencoso, with whom she has been seen several times. Breast cancer Minogue's breast cancer diagnosis in 2005 led to the postponement of the remainder of her Showgirl - The Greatest Hits Tour and her withdrawal from the Glastonbury Festival. "Kylie Minogue has breast cancer". BBC News, 2005-05-17. Retrieved on 2008-05-28. Her hospitalisation and treatment in Melbourne resulted in a brief but intense period of media coverage, particularly in Australia, where the Prime Minister John Howard issued a statement supporting Minogue. As media and fans began to congregate outside the Minogue residence in Melbourne, the Victorian Premier Steve Bracks warned the international media that any disruption of the Minogue family's rights under Australian privacy laws would not be tolerated. His comments became part of a wider criticism of the media's overall reaction, with particular criticism directed towards paparazzi. Minogue underwent surgery on 21 May 2005 at the private Catholic Cabrini Hospital in Malvern. Friends such as Olivia Newton-John (who had overcome her own battle against the illness several years earlier) urged the media and fans to respect Minogue's privacy. Soon after, Minogue commenced chemotherapy as part of her treatment regimen. Minogue issued a public statement, thanking her fans for their support and urging them not to worry. On 8 July 2005, she made her first public appearance after her surgery, when she visited a children's cancer ward at Melbourne's Royal Children's Hospital. She returned to France where she completed her chemotherapy treatment at the Institut Gustave-Roussy in Villejuif, near Paris. In December 2005, Minogue released a digital-only single, "Over the Rainbow", a live recording from her Showgirl tour. During the early months of 2006, media began reporting Minogue's upcoming projects and the general improvement in her health. In June 2006, she was reported to be recording material for a new album, collaborating with Scissor Sisters, Steve Anderson, Richard Stannard, Johnny Douglas, Ash Thomas, and Teddy Riley while also making preparations to continue her newly renamed Showgirl Homecoming tour. Her children's book, The Showgirl Princess, written during her period of convalescence, was published in October 2006, and her perfume, "Darling", was launched in November. On her return to Australia for her concert tour, she likened her cancer battle and chemotherapy to experiencing a nuclear bomb, and expressed her determination to resume her career. Whilst appearing on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in the United States, Minogue spoke of how her cancer had originally been misdiagnosed, and stated "Because someone is in a white coat and using big medical instruments doesn't necessarily mean they're right", "Kylie says 'I was misdiagnosed'". BBC News, 2008-04-08. Retrieved 2008-04-11. but she later spoke of her respect for doctors. "Kylie has 'respect' for doctors". BBC News, 2008-04-09. Retrieved on 2008-04-11. Image and celebrity status Throughout her professional life, Minogue has been the subject of media interest in the United Kingdom and Australia, which remained constant even while her success as a recording artist had temporarily fluctuated. Her efforts to be taken seriously as a musician have sometimes been hindered by her high profile as noted by The Australian, who wrote in 1997, "When you have to lug around an image the size of Kylie's, it's difficult for any music you produce to match the hype—especially in a country that gives scant credibility to pop". Minogue is regarded as a gay icon, which she encourages with comments such as "I am not a traditional gay icon. There's been no tragedy in my life, only tragic outfits." While part of her appeal lies in her flamboyant costumes and her confident sexual posturing, she acknowledges the gay community throughout the world by performing at gay venues and events, and by openly supporting AIDS charities and gay rights causes. Her male dancers have often displayed overt homosexual attires and attitudes. She has said that she believes gay fans responded to her apparent distress when the news media began heavily criticising her in 1989, and that those fans have remained loyal, explaining, "My gay audience has been with me from the beginning... they kind of adopted me". After playing the "girl next door" in her early music videos, Minogue began to touch on adult themes: a mature relationship in "Better the Devil You Know", lesbian posturing and drag queens in "What Do I Have to Do", telephone sex in "Confide in Me", and prostitution in "On a Night like This". She performed a slow strip tease in the Barbarella-inspired "Put Yourself in My Place" and wore revealing costumes in many of her videos, most notably "Spinning Around" and "Can't Get You Out of My Head". She satirised her image in the video for "Did It Again", in which the four major incarnations of her career, "Indie Kylie", "Dance Kylie", "Sex Kylie", and "Cute Kylie" battled for supremacy. Her evolving image and often overt sexuality led to some critical comparisons to Madonna. In 1993, Baz Luhrmann introduced Minogue to the photographer Bert Stern, notable for his work with Marilyn Monroe. Stern photographed her in Los Angeles and, comparing her to Monroe, commented that she had a "similar vulnerability and awareness of the camera". During her career she has chosen photographers who attempt to create a new "look" for her, and the resulting photographs have appeared in a variety of magazines, from the cutting edge The Face to the more traditionally sophisticated Vogue and Vanity Fair, making the Minogue face and name known to a broad group of people. Stylist William Baker has suggested that this is part of the reason she has entered in the mainstream pop culture of Europe more successfully than many other pop singers who concentrate simply on selling records. Despite her commercial success, and her acceptance by a large audience as a contemporary sex symbol, her critics describe her willingness to display her body as an attempt to disguise a lack of talent. Her detractors, such as those discussed in the book La La La, have described her as a "one dimensional performer" and "pretty, but mindless and talentless". Miki Berenyi of the group Lush said "I have a massive problem with her because she epitomises the acceptable role ... it's a shame she gets so much credibility when there are so many women worth a hundred times that. It's war—you shouldn't stick up for Kylie, she should be fought at every turn". At the 2007 Q Music Awards, at which Minogue won the Q Idol Award, Ian Brown, former lead singer of the Stone Roses savaged Minogue, saying "I don't know what Kylie's doing at a music awards to be honest. I don't think she's cute. I don't think she's good looking. Her music's rubbish - she makes music for little kids. I'm sorry if it sounds like I'm putting her down, but there's a lot of great minds out there making music and she's not one of them." "Ian Brown in Kylie outburst". Manchester Evening News. Retrieved on 2007-12-09. Minogue has often spoken of the stability of the team she works with. Her parents, Ron and Carol Minogue, are actively involved in her career; her father, an accountant, is her financial advisor and her mother has joined her on each of her tours. She has been managed by Terry Blamey since 1987 and the close network, along with her Stock, Aitken and Waterman origins, have led to comments that she is "manufactured", an assessment which Minogue has admitted is partly accurate, saying, "if you're part of a record company, I think to a degree it's fair to say that you're a manufactured product. You're a product and you're selling a product. It doesn't mean that you're not talented and that you don't make creative and business decisions about what you will and won't do and where you want to go... Ultimately, yes, it's my name and I have to deliver the goods. But it doesn't happen without a team. So I try and work with the best people I can and take from them what I can. Hopefully I enhance what they do as well" William Baker has described her status as a sex symbol as a "double edged sword" observing that "we always attempted to use her sex appeal as an enhancement of her music and to sell a record. But now it has become in danger of eclipsing what she actually is: a pop singer". In January 2007 Madame Tussaud's in London unveiled a new waxwork of Minogue. This is her fourth waxwork and only Queen Elizabeth II has had more models created. "New Waxwork for Kylie as London shows end in Triumph". Hello!, 2007-01-22. Retrieved on 2007-12-11. On 23 November 2007 a bronze statue of Minogue by sculptor Peter Corlett was unveiled at Melbourne Docklands for permanent display. "Kylie and her famous rear immortalised in bronze (but its posed by a body double)". The Daily Mail, 2007-11-23. Retrieved on 2007-12-09. The sculpture took 3 months to create with the assistance of a waitress with the same dimensions as Minogue. Fashion Minogue has gained credibility by her association with people such as fashion designer Jean Paul Gaultier, photographer Stephane Sednaoui, and designer John Galliano, who described her as a "blend of Lolita and Barbarella". In 2000, Minogue performed at the Sydney Olympic Games closing ceremony. Designed by Michael Wilkinson, Minogue's costume featured a pink silk beaded corset and diamante headdress. It is now housed at the Powerhouse Museum, Sydney. - {{cite news - | last = - | first = - | title = 'Kylie Showgirl' costume worn by Kylie Minogue - | publisher = Power House Museum - | date = - | url = http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection/database/?irn=10755 - | accessdate = 2007-08-21 - }} - Tours Discography 1988: Kylie1989: Enjoy Yourself1990: Rhythm of Love1991: Let's Get to It1994: Kylie Minogue1997: Impossible Princess2000: Light Years2001: Fever2003: Body Language2007: X2010: TBA http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/news/kylie-minogue-plans-first-north-american-1003969732.story See also List of honorific titles in popular music Notes and references Notes References The Complete Kylie, Simon Sheridan, Reynolds & Hearn Books (April 2008). ISBN 10-1905287607 Kylie: La La La, William Baker and Kylie Minogue, Hodder and Stoughton, 2002. ISBN 0-340-73440-X. Paperback version. Model's wait for Kylie's man'', Daily Telegraph (Australia), 2007-03-15. External links Kylie.com — owned and maintained by EMI and represents Kylie Minogue. 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6,529 | Aarhus | Aarhus (: ) also commonly known by its contemporary Danish spelling Århus, is the second largest city and the principal port of Denmark, situated on the peninsula of Jutland. Aarhus is the seat of the council of Aarhus municipality with 303,318 inhabitants and claims the unofficial title "Capital of Jutland". Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia. Columbia University. p. 11. Geography The city lies roughly at the geographical centre of Denmark on the peninsula of Jutland. Forests reach from the south into the city to within a kilometre (0.6 mi) of the city centre, because the city has grown around the forest, and some areas are completely surrounded by the city, such as Risskov. The city is built mostly around the harbour, which is predominantly industrial, although a large recreational marina is situated south of it as an extension. Aerial view of Aarhus from the north. While some of the highest points in Denmark are close to the city, the general landscape is typically hilly, interspersed with forests and meadows; the city itself is very hilly north of the centre (for Danish standards, that is; see Highest hill, Denmark). The coastline consists mainly of sandy beaches, but stony areas are not uncommon. The immediate coastal regions are not heavily populated due to a national policy of keeping residences inland rather than crowding the coast. The city lies at the junction of railway lines from all parts of the country. To the south west (about , by rail) lies a picturesque region that contains the Gudenå. Several larger lakes extend West from the Skanderborg railway junction and rise to heights exceeding at Himmelbjerget. The railway traverses this district of moorland and woodland to Silkeborg. Transport Århus Citybikes. Aarhus Airport, a local airport of Aarhus, is located north-east of Aarhus, in Tirstrup. As the number of available destinations leaving from Aarhus Airport is low, residents also use the bigger Billund Airport, situated south-west of Aarhus. There have been plans for constructing a new, bigger airport for a long time, but so far, the plans have not been realized. Aarhus is served by commuter rail that connects the city itself with neighbouring towns. The main station in Aarhus is Århus Central Station, which is located in the city centre. Most city bus lines go through the inner city and pass through either Park Alle or Banegårdspladsen (lit. English: "Central Station Square", German: Bahnhof Platz) or both. County and Inter-city buses terminate at Aarhus Bus Terminal which is located 900 meters north-west of Banegårdspladsen, in front of the Radisson SAS Scandinavia hotel located at Margrethepladsen 1, 8000 Århus C). History Interlacing knotwork designs and stylized dragon ridge plates on a reconstruction of an early church at Moesgaard Museum The bishopric of Aarhus dates back to at least 951, and archaeological findings date back some 1300 years to Viking times. The city itself is presumably older than 770 AD, making Aarhus the oldest big city in Scandinavia. The favorable central position of the city within Denmark afforded it trade from Germany, the Baltic countries, the greater peninsula of Jutland and the communities on the many smaller islands in its vicinity, which meant that trade always had a great significance to the town - a significance which is still true today. The Aarhus city seal from 1421 and 1608. The city did not expand outwards until the late 19th century, and Aalborg remained the largest city on the peninsula until the 1920s. The relatively fast, albeit late, growth of the city can be ascribed to the general tendencies of a population moving from rural to urban areas during the industrial revolution. Industrialisation meant that proximity to trade routes became more important, giving the harbour city some advantages over other nearby cities as new industries came into existence. Name During the Middle Ages the city was called Arus, and in Icelandic chronicles, it was known as Áróss. It is a compound of the two words ār, genitive of ā ("river", Modern Danish å) and ōss ("mouth", obsolete in Modern Danish; in Modern Icelandic this word is still used for "river delta"). The city is located on the mouth of the small river, Århus Å (Å being the Danish word for a small river). Through regular sound development, Medieval Danish Arus became Aars or Oes, a form which persisted in the dialects of the surrounding parishes until the 20th century. In 1406 Aarhus became prevalent in the written sources, and gradually became the norm in the 17th century. Aarhus is probably a remodelling after the numerous Low German place names in -husen, possibly as a result of the influence of German merchants. The city is mentioned for the first time by Adam of Bremen who states that "Reginbrand, bishop of the church of Aarhus (Harusa)" participates in a church meeting in the city of Ingelham in Germany. Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae 2.4. Aarhus Cathedral; rebuilt to its current size in 1500, with the longest nave in Denmark Viking Age and before fortified Viking Town Aros (Aarhus) 950 AD fortified Viking Town Aros The oldest archaeological findings in Aarhus are glass pearls, which date to the end of the 7th century. Half buried Long houses, used both as homes and workshops for the Vikings have also been found. Hans Skov, "Aros 700-1000", in: Vikingernes Aros Århus 2005, 15-39. In the houses and the adjoining archaeological layers, combs, jewelry and basic multi-purpose tools have been found that indicate the settlement is from approximately year 900. Digs in the spring of 2005 revealed a so-called city-ditch from the year 850 which might have marked the trade centre upon which the city is built. The finding of six runestones in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around year 1000 as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them. Gundhild Øeby Nissen, "Runesten", in: Vikingernes Aros Århus 2005, 46-51. The center of Aarhus was once a pagan burial site until Aarhus' first church, Holy Trinity Church, a timber structure, was built upon it during the reign of Frode, King of Jutland, around 900. Damm, Annette. Viking Aros (2005) ISBN 87-87334-63-1 17th-18th centuries During the wars of the 17th century, it is probable that the city suffered in a significant way. Fortifications still exist south of the city as a reminder of the German imperial campaigns between 1627 and 1629. In 1644, Sweden taxed the city harshly and between 1657 and 1659, it was occupied by Swedish troops on several occasions. In spite of these and other misfortunes, such as plague and city-wide fires, Aarhus was still quite a significant city in Denmark due to its favourable geographical position which was of significant importance for trading. Trade came mainly from the inland of Jutland but also from Norway, Lübeck, Amsterdam, England, France and Spain. In the middle of the 18th century the trade fleet consisted of approximately 100 ships. 19th century In the 19th century, the city gained more independence from the dominance of Copenhagen and Hamburg. While it had been the third largest city in Jutland during the early 19th century, its population surpassed Randers in 1840 and in 1850, Ålborg, thus becoming the largest city in Jutland and the second largest in Denmark. The city's material prosperity continued to increase as the harbour expanded and the railway network grew. Culturally, it marketed itself as the "Capital of Jutland" and expanded many of its cultural institutions like the national library, universities, the Aarhus Theatre and hospitals. Main sights Århus Domkirke; begun in the 12th C., restored in Gothic architectural style Århus Domkirke, the tallest and longest cathedral in Denmark. Church of Our Lady, a large church. Århus City Hall (City Hall of Århus). Aarhus Universitet (University of Århus). Statsbiblioteket (State library). Den Gamle By, an open air museum. Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium (The Juttish music conservatory). Botanisk Have (Botanical garden). Tivoli Friheden, amusement park. ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the main Århus arts museum. Frontal view of the Aarhus Theatre. Aarhus Kunstbygning, an arts museum. Marselisborg Palace, the royal castle of Århus. Aarhus Theatre, the official theater of the city. Telecommunication Tower Aarhus, a 325 meter tall concrete tower with guyed mast on its top Skejby Sygehus, the second largest hospital in Denmark Atletion, a combinated sport venue Kvindemuseet i Danmark. Women's Museum Den Permanente a popular closed beach area, also providing views of Helgenæs and Samsø across Århus Bay. Moesgård Museum Viking Museum Demographics More than 300,000 people live within the city limits of Aarhus, Aarhus Kommunes Statistiske Årbog, 2005 while an additional 500,000 live in the surrounding local area of the East Jutland region. Aarhus is also a major part of the larger East Jutland metropolitan area with 1,200,000 inhabitants that makes East Jutland the second most-populated area in Denmark, after the Copenhagen area. Danmarks Statistik 2006a Aarhus is divided into several districts and suburbs with its own postal code (Postdistrikter). Districts (boroughs) inside the 2nd city beltway: Århus C Århus N Århus V Åbyhøj Viby 65,000 of the population of Aarhus are under 18 years of age. Aarhus has been growing at a steady rate of about 1% per year since 1950, when the city had about 150,000 inhabitants. The University of Aarhus estimates an increase of around 20,000 more students in the next six years, with attendant concerns over a lack of housing. In response, the city council has already initiated a large range of building projects in order to house some 100,000 new citizens before 2030 so the city population will rise to almost 400,000 inhabitants. The population of Aarhus is both younger and better-educated than the national average, which is often attributed to the high concentration of educational institutions and facilities in the area. Nearly 12% of the population are immigrants, which is high for Denmark, but modest when compared to some other European cities. The largest immigrant groups (January 1, 2008) are Lebanese (4,644), Turks (4,089), Somalis (3,476), Iraqis (3,140), Vietnamese (2,382), and Iranians (2,199). These groups live mainly in the western parts of Aarhus, where the Gellerup area is famous for its high concentration of immigrants (88%, 2006). The vast majority of the immigrants in Gellerup are Arabs, Turks and Somalis. Other large immigrant groups in Aarhus include Germans (1,573), Poles (1,555), Norwegians (1,050), Afghans (958), and Britons (763). Culture The Old Town open air museum; one of two museums in the area, and four in Denmark, with open air displays of period architecture. See The Old Town, Aarhus Aarhus is a centre for education on the peninsula of Jutland drawing students from a large area, especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula. The relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities and there are many cafes and restaurants as well as discothèques, cinemas, museums, amusement parks and various other venues of entertainment. Each year the town hosts several festivals and concerts including Aarhus International Jazz Festival and Aarhus Festuge the biggest festival in Scandinavia. The Vestereng park facility is also a site for large popular music concerts. One major tourist attraction in Aarhus is The Old Town (), which is not actually an old part of the city itself, but a collection of historic Danish buildings gathered from all around the country. The city also hosts the Tivoli Friheden amusement park as well as the Deer Park situated in the large nearby public forest. The iconic late Viking Age Mask Stone found in Aarhus, housed at the Moesgård Museum. Architecturally impressive sights include the 13th century cathedral in the centre of the city; Århus Domkirke is the tallest cathedral in Denmark, as well as the second tallest in Northern Europe, being only shorter than its counterpart in Trondheim. The Aarhus City Hall is a uniquely designed building drawn by renowned architect Arne Jacobsen, located in the city centre. The city hall is included in the national educational canon for culture as an example of important architectural work. There are many museums scattered around the city with ARoS being the newest and largest featuring daily exhibits of contemporary art. Other museums include Aarhus Kunstbygning also featuring mostly contemporary art, Frihedsmuseet focusing on the occupation and resistance movement during World War II and Kvindemuseet mainly showcasing feminist history and culture. Being a comparably large Danish city, Aarhus has received a fair share of immigrants from various other cultures and is as such also home to one of the few ghettos in Denmark, Gellerup. The international cultures present in the community are an obvious and visible part of the city's daily life and contribute to many cultural flavours uncommon for the North, such as the Arabic themed Bazar West, a market with shopkeepers predominantly of foreign descent. The city has an active and visible gay and lesbian community which the city officially attempts to promote and nurture. Homo i Århus at Aarhus.dk The Aarhus Festuge festival usually includes several exhibits, concerts or events specifically designed for these communities. There are several clubs, discos and cafes aimed at gays and lesbians: Danish D-lite (sports), Diskotek Blender (disco) G bar(disco) or Gaia Vandreklub (hiking club) are a few examples. It is common for tourist brochures and local politicians to refer to the town with the tongue-in-cheek slogan "The world's smallest big city" Holiday Djursland and Mols reflecting the fact that the city has everything a city needs while its not a metropolis as London. Another popular, and perhaps better known phrase to describe the city, is "City of Smiles" - a slogan first coined by the city council in the 1930s as an advertising slogan, and which subsequently is used widely in popular culture today. Sports Aerial photo of the Atletion Stadium. In the southern-Aarhus Marselisborg Park, the sports center named Atletion is located comprises athletics, the football NRGi Park and the indoor sports NRGi Arena. Several sport clubs have their home ground in Atletion, including Aarhus Gymnastikforening, the Danish superliga football team, and Aarhus GF handball team, the 1960 European Cup runner-up. Although basketball is a minor sport in Denmark, Aarhus is considered the main Danish hub of the sport , with the local team Bakken Bears being the most successful team in Denmark for the past decade. Aarhus (and especially Atletion) has served or will serve as the host of many sport events in recent years including: 2002 European Women's Handball Championship 2005 European Table Tennis Championships Denmark Open in badminton UCI Women's Road Cycling World Cup 2006 World Orienteering Championships 2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships GF World Cup; the world's largest handball tournament for women DanceSport IDSF World Standard 2006 Education The University of Aarhus. The town is home to the University of Aarhus, Aarhus School of Business, Aarhus Technical College, The Danish School of Journalism, the Royal Academy of Music in Aarhus and the Engineering College of Aarhus and several other high-end education centres. It is possible to receive higher education in many areas, from engineering and dentistry to language and theology. The University of Aarhus has approximately 40,000 students in the city and 30,000 students at the university with approximately 5,000 new students per year. BESTAND AF STUDERENDE, OKTOBER 2005, Aarhus Universitet, November 21, 2005 Politics The city council consists of 31 members elected for 4-year terms. Anybody eligible to vote and residing in Aarhus municipality can run for a seat on the city council. After elections have determined the members of the city council, the council elects a mayor, 2 deputy mayors and 5 councilmen. Byråd, Aarhus Municipality, July 15 2003 The current Mayor of Aarhus is Nicolai Wammen of the Social Democrats elected by the city council after the 2005 municipal elections. The city is divided into 6 minor administrative bodies which together constitute the magistrate led by the mayor and the 5 elected councilmen as political and administrative directors. The 6 magistrate departments of the city are the “Mayor’s Magistrate”, “Social and Employment Magistrate”, “Technology and Environment Magistrate”, “Health and Social Magistrate”, “Culture and Service Magistrate” and “Children and Youth Magistrate” and handle all the day-to-day operations of the city. Aarhus is the seat of Aarhus Municipality. Until the 2007 Danish Municipal Reform, which replaced the Danish counties with five regions, it was also the seat of Aarhus County, which has now been disbanded in favor of the new Region Midtjylland, its seat located in Viborg. Aarhus has twinning agreements with Gothenburg, Turku, Bergen, Harbin, Saint Petersburg and Julianehåb; Århus Kommune: Twinned towns and has a connection with Swansea. Suburbs Industry and business The harbour is one of the largest industrial harbours in Northern Europe and the largest in Denmark . The facilities are very modern and handle approximately 12 million tonnes of cargo (2006) and are therefore among the 100 biggest containerports in the world. XII.Godsomsætning, Århus Havn, 2000 Much agricultural produce is exported, while coal and iron are among the chief imports. The harbour itself is maintained by Århus Stevedore Kompagni A/S originally based in Aarhus but currently operating several harbours around the world. The region is a major producer of agricultural products with many large farms in the outlying districts. Cattle, pork and grain are the main products with a sizable related refinement industry present. Computer and technology heavy industries are mainly focused in the urban areas with an abundance of small and medium sized IT and service companies dotting the city centre. The Ceres Brewery, part of Royal Unibrew, was originally founded in Aarhus. Royal Unibrew has recently announced the closure of Ceres, which will take effect by the end of 2008. Famous people Politics H. C. Hansen, prime minister Hans Hedtoft, prime minister Science Ole Barndorff-Nielsen, statistician Lene Hau, physicist Ole Rømer, astronomer Jens Christian Skou, Nobel laureate Bjarne Stroustrup, computer scientist Ole Worm, physician, scholar and antiquarian Sports Camilla Martin, badminton world champion Flemming Povlsen, footballer Marc Rieper, footballer Stig Tøfting, footballer Music and culture Gabriel Axel, actor and director Ida Corr, singer Tina Dickow, singer Thomas Helmig, singer Gitte Hænning, singer and film star Michael Learns to Rock, soft rock band Kaare Norge, guitarist Jørgen Leth, poet, director, author and journalist Pictures References External links Official websites Kommune'', official city portal Commercial websites Visit Aarhus Aarhus City Info Virtual Aarhus (newer) Virtual Aarhus (older) | Aarhus |@lemmatized aarhus:79 also:11 commonly:1 know:3 contemporary:3 danish:14 spelling:1 århus:23 second:5 large:23 city:77 principal:1 port:1 denmark:19 situate:4 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6,530 | Blindness_in_literature | Different cultures through history have depicted blindness in a variety of ways; among the Greeks, for example, it was a punishment from the gods, for which the afflicted individual was often granted compensation in the form of artistic genius. Judeo-Christian literature positioned blindness as a flaw; only through a cure could God’s love be made manifest, when the scales would fall away from the eyes of an afflicted individual upon contact with a holy man or relic. Almost without exception in early literature, blind people could bring this condition down upon themselves through sin or trespasses against the gods, but were never the sole instruments of its reversal. Blind people in literature written by visually-able authors It is impossible to make a blanket generalization about how the blind were treated in literature beyond that point - they were marvelous, gifted, evil, malicious, ignorant, wise, helpless, innocent, or burdensome depending upon who wrote the story - except to say that blindness is perceived to be such a loss that it leaves an indelible mark on a person’s character. Even pioneers in training the blind, such as Dorothy Harrison Eustis, harboured negative stereotypes about them. Blind people had, in her opinion, grown so accustomed to waiting on others as to be passive and 'whiney.' Father Thomas Carroll, who founded the Carroll Centre for the Blind, wrote Blindness: What It Is, What It Does and How to Live with It in 1961. In it, he characterized blindness in terms of 20 losses, and as the ‘death’ of the sighted individual. "The Country of the Blind", a short story by H. G. Wells, is one of the most well-known stories featuring sightless characters. A sighted man finds himself in a country that has been isolated from the rest of the world for centuries, wherein all the inhabitants are blind even as their ancestors had been. These people are depicted as self-sufficient, having developed their other senses, but they are ultimately closed-minded and insular to the point of xenophobia. As they themselves have no sight, they wish to deprive the traveler of his own eyes in this allegorical tale of stagnation. Literature by blind people While blind and visually impaired people had contributed to the body of common literature for centuries, one notable example being the author of 'Paradise Lost', John Milton, the creation of autobiographical materials, or materials specific to blindness, is relatively new. Most people are familiar with Helen Keller, who was both blind and deaf, but there has been considerable progress since the publication of her work. Blind author Tom Sullivan has written several inspirational books, including If You Could See What I Hear, about his life and accomplishments. Jorge Luis Borges, who suffered from a congenital condition that caused him to become blind by middle age, discussed his condition in many autobiographical and semi-autobiographical works. Stephen Kuusisto wrote about his experiences as a visually impaired person in Planet of the Blind, and his upcoming memoir, Eavesdropping: A Life By Ear. John Hull, a university lecturer, wrote about going blind in Touching the Rock: An Experience of Blindness. Georgina Kleege, visually impaired since age 11, wrote about her life and how it was affected by cultural perceptions of blindness in Sight Unseen. Sally Hobart Alexander became blind when she was about 25 and a schoolteacher, during the 1970s, because of an eye disease. Wrote at least three autobiographical books about adapting to blindness. French author Jacques Lusseyran, who was visually impaired at the age of 7 when he injured his eyes on the sharp corner of a teacher's desk, became part of the French resistance during World War II. He spent a year in concentration camps, surviving the experience and writing several books. "And There Was Light" chronicles his experiences from early childhood until his liberation from a concentration camp. See also Blindness and education :Category:Blindness organizations Nico (also known as Nicholas), a TV series for educating children about blind people (considering television a sort of literature) External links An Overview of the Blind in Literature and Movies Blindness: Is Literature Against Us? The Country of the Blind and Other Stories, by H. G. Wells | Blindness_in_literature |@lemmatized different:1 culture:1 history:1 depict:2 blindness:12 variety:1 way:1 among:1 greek:1 example:2 punishment:1 god:3 afflicted:2 individual:3 often:1 grant:1 compensation:1 form:1 artistic:1 genius:1 judeo:1 christian:1 literature:9 position:1 flaw:1 cure:1 could:3 love:1 make:2 manifest:1 scale:1 would:1 fall:1 away:1 eye:4 upon:3 contact:1 holy:1 man:2 relic:1 almost:1 without:1 exception:1 early:2 blind:19 people:8 bring:1 condition:3 sin:1 trespass:1 never:1 sole:1 instrument:1 reversal:1 write:9 visually:5 able:1 author:4 impossible:1 blanket:1 generalization:1 treat:1 beyond:1 point:2 marvelous:1 gift:1 evil:1 malicious:1 ignorant:1 wise:1 helpless:1 innocent:1 burdensome:1 depend:1 story:4 except:1 say:1 perceive:1 loss:2 leave:1 indelible:1 mark:1 person:2 character:2 even:2 pioneer:1 train:1 dorothy:1 harrison:1 eustis:1 harbour:1 negative:1 stereotype:1 opinion:1 grow:1 accustomed:1 wait:1 others:1 passive:1 whiney:1 father:1 thomas:1 carroll:2 found:1 centre:1 live:1 characterize:1 term:1 death:1 sighted:2 country:3 short:1 h:2 g:2 well:3 one:2 know:2 feature:1 sightless:1 find:1 isolate:1 rest:1 world:2 century:2 wherein:1 inhabitant:1 ancestor:1 self:1 sufficient:1 develop:1 sens:1 ultimately:1 closed:1 mind:1 insular:1 xenophobia:1 sight:2 wish:1 deprive:1 traveler:1 allegorical:1 tale:1 stagnation:1 impaired:2 contribute:1 body:1 common:1 notable:1 paradise:1 lose:1 john:2 milton:1 creation:1 autobiographical:4 material:2 specific:1 relatively:1 new:1 familiar:1 helen:1 keller:1 deaf:1 considerable:1 progress:1 since:2 publication:1 work:2 tom:1 sullivan:1 several:2 inspirational:1 book:3 include:1 see:2 hear:1 life:3 accomplishment:1 jorge:1 luis:1 borges:1 suffer:1 congenital:1 cause:1 become:3 middle:1 age:3 discuss:1 many:1 semi:1 stephen:1 kuusisto:1 experience:4 planet:1 upcoming:1 memoir:1 eavesdropping:1 ear:1 hull:1 university:1 lecturer:1 go:1 touch:1 rock:1 georgina:1 kleege:1 impair:2 affect:1 cultural:1 perception:1 unseen:1 sally:1 hobart:1 alexander:1 schoolteacher:1 disease:1 least:1 three:1 adapt:1 french:2 jacques:1 lusseyran:1 injure:1 sharp:1 corner:1 teacher:1 desk:1 part:1 resistance:1 war:1 ii:1 spend:1 year:1 concentration:2 camp:2 survive:1 light:1 chronicle:1 childhood:1 liberation:1 also:2 education:1 category:1 organization:1 nico:1 nicholas:1 tv:1 series:1 educate:1 child:1 consider:1 television:1 sort:1 external:1 link:1 overview:1 movie:1 u:1 |@bigram judeo_christian:1 blind_visually:1 visually_impaired:2 helen_keller:1 jorge_luis:1 luis_borges:1 semi_autobiographical:1 visually_impair:2 concentration_camp:2 external_link:1 |
6,531 | Chagas_disease | Chagas disease (, , mal de Chagas in both languages; also called American trypanosomiasis) is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. T. cruzi is commonly transmitted to humans and other mammals by an insect vector, the blood-sucking assassin bugs of the subfamily Triatominae (family Reduviidae) most commonly species belonging to the Triatoma, Rhodnius, and Panstrongylus genera. The disease may also be spread through blood transfusion and organ transplantation, ingestion of food contaminated with parasites, and from a mother to her fetus. The symptoms of Chagas disease vary over the course of an infection. In the early, acute stage, symptoms are mild and usually produce no more than local swelling at the site of infection. As the disease progresses, over the course of many years, serious chronic symptoms can appear, such as heart disease and malformation of the intestines. If untreated, the chronic disease is often fatal. Current drug treatments are generally unsatisfactory; available medications are highly toxic and often ineffective, particularly those used to treat the chronic stage of the disease. Chagas disease occurs exclusively in the Americas, particularly in poor, rural areas of Mexico, Central America, and South America; very rarely, the disease has originated in the Southern United States. The insects that spread the disease are known by various local names, including vinchuca in Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay, barbeiro (the barber) in Brazil, Pito in Colombia, chipo, chupança, chinchorro, and "the kissing bug". It is estimated that as many as 8 to 11 million people in Mexico, Central America, and South America have Chagas disease, most of whom do not know they are infected. Large-scale population movements from rural to urban areas of Latin America and to other regions of the world have increased the geographic distribution of Chagas disease. Control strategies have mostly focused on eliminating the triatomine vector and preventing transmission from other sources. History Carlos Chagas The disease was named after the Brazilian physician and infectologist Carlos Chagas, who first described it in 1909, but the disease was not seen as a major public health problem in humans until the 1960s (the outbreak of Chagas disease in Brazil in the 1920s went widely ignored ). He discovered that the intestines of Triatomidae harbored a flagellate protozoan, a new species of the Trypanosoma genus, and was able to prove experimentally that it could be transmitted to marmoset monkeys that were bitten by the infected bug. Later studies showed that squirrel monkeys were also vulnerable to infection. Chagas named the pathogenic parasite Trypanosoma cruzi and later that year as Schizotrypanum cruzi, both honoring Oswaldo Cruz, the noted Brazilian physician and epidemiologist who fought successfully epidemics of yellow fever, smallpox, and bubonic plague in Rio de Janeiro and other cities in the beginning of the 20th century. Chagas’ work is unique in the history of medicine because he was the only researcher so far to describe solely and completely a new infectious disease: its pathogen, vector, host, clinical manifestations, and epidemiology. Trypanosoma cruzi in monkey heart. Histopathology. Nevertheless, he believed (falsely) until 1925 that the main infection route is by the bite of the insect—and not by its feces, as was proposed by his colleague Emile Brumpt in 1915 and assured by Silveira Dias in 1932, Cardoso in 1938, and Brumpt himself in 1939. Chagas was also the first to unknowingly discover and illustrate the parasitic fungal genus Pneumocystis, later infamously to be linked to PCP (Pneumocystis pneumonia in AIDS victims). Confusion between the two pathogens' life-cycles led him to briefly recognize his genus Schizotrypanum, but following the description of Pneumocystis by others as an independent genus, Chagas returned to the use of the name Trypanosoma cruzi. In Argentina the disease is called Mal de Chagas-Mazza http://www.drwebsa.com.ar/alcha/hist4.htm Mal de Chagas-Mazza , in honor of Salvador Mazza, the Argentine doctor who in 1926 began investigating the disease and over the years became the principal researcher of this disease in the country. The importance of the work of Salvador Mazza lay in pointing out that the disease was an important issue and to preach in the faculties of Medicine. However, this would only be widely accepted since the 1960s, along with the great impact of the disease to public health. It has been hypothesized that Charles Darwin might have suffered from Chagas disease as a result of a bite of the so-called Great Black Bug of the Pampas (vinchuca) (see Charles Darwin's illness). The episode was reported by Darwin in his diaries of the Voyage of the Beagle as occurring in March 1835 to the east of the Andes near Mendoza. Darwin was young and generally in good health, though six months previously he had been ill for a month near Valparaiso, but in 1837, almost a year after he returned to England, he began to suffer intermittently from a strange group of symptoms, becoming incapacitated for much of the rest of his life. Attempts to test Darwin's remains at the Westminster Abbey by using modern PCR techniques were met with a refusal by the Abbey's curator. Transmission Life cycle and transmission of T. cruzi. Source: CDC In Chagas-endemic areas, the main mode of transmission is through a insect vector called a triatomine bug. A triatomine becomes infected with T. cruzi by feeding on the blood of an infected person or animal. During the day, triatomine hide in crevices in the walls and roofs. The bugs emerge at night, when the inhabitants are sleeping. Because they tend to feed on people’s faces, triatomine bugs are also known as “kissing bugs.” After they bite and ingest blood, they defecate on the person. Triatomine pass T. cruzi parasites (called trypomastigotes) in feces left near the site of the bite wound. Scratching the site of the bite causes the trypomastigotes to enter the host through the wound, or through intact mucous membranes, such as the conjunctiva. Once inside the host the trypomastigotes invade cells, where they differentiate into intracellular amastigotes. The amastigotes multiply by binary fission and differentiate into trypomastigotes, which are then released into the bloodstream. This cycle is repeated in each newly infected cell. Replication resumes only when the parasites enter another cell or are ingested by another vector. T. cruzi can also be transmitted through blood transfusions, organ transplantation, breast milk, and by accidental laboratory exposure. Chagas disease can also be spread congenitally (from a pregnant woman to her baby) through the placenta, and accounts for approximately 13% of stillborn deaths in parts of Brazil. Retrieved February 22, 2007 through JSTOR. In 1991 farm workers in the state of Paraíba, Brazil, were infected by eating contaminated food; transmission has also occurred via contaminated açaí palm fruit juice and sugar cane juice. Despite many warnings in the press and by health authorities, this source of infection continues unabated. Clinical manifestations The human disease occurs in two stages: an acute stage, which occurs shortly after an initial infection, and a chronic stage that develops over many years. Gross anatomy of a heart that has been damaged by chronic Chagas Disease. See also: Chagas heart, radiology The acute phase lasts for the first few weeks or months of infection. It usually occurs unnoticed because it is symptom free or exhibits only mild symptoms and signs that are not unique to Chagas disease. The symptoms noted by the patient can include fever, fatigue, body aches, headache, rash, loss of appetite, diarrhea, and vomiting. The signs on physical examination can include mild enlargement of the liver or spleen, swollen glands, and local swelling (a chagoma) where the parasite entered the body. The most recognized marker of acute Chagas disease is called Romaña's sign, which includes swelling of the eyelids on the side of the face near the bite wound or where the bug feces were deposited or accidentally rubbed into the eye. Even if symptoms develop during the acute phase, they usually resolve spontaneously within 3–8 weeks in approximately 90% of individuals. Carlier Y (27 February 2003). Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis). eMedicine. Retrieved on 11 September 2008. Although the symptoms resolve, the infection, if untreated, persists. Rarely, young children (<5%), or adults die from severe inflammation/infection of the heart muscle (myocarditis) or brain (meningoencephalitis). The acute phase also can be severe in people with weakened immune systems. In about 10% of infections the symptoms do not completely resolve and result in a so-called chronic latent or indeterminate asymptomatic phase of the disease. Several years or even decades after initial infection, an estimated 30% of infected people will develop medical problems from Chagas disease over the course of their lives. The symptomatic chronic stage affects the nervous system, digestive system and heart. About two thirds of people with chronic symptoms have cardiac damage, including cardiomyopathy, which causes heart rhythm abnormalities and may result in sudden death. About one third of patients go on to develop digestive system damage, resulting in dilation of the digestive tract (megacolon and megaesophagus), accompanied by severe weight loss. Swallowing difficulties may be the first symptom of digestive disturbances and may lead to malnutrition. Secondary achalasia may arise from Chagas's disease. Twenty to fifty percent of individuals with intestinal involvement also exhibit cardiac involvement. A small percentage of individuals develop various neurological disorders, including dementia. The clinical manifestations of Chagas disease are due to cell death in the target tissues that occurs during the infective cycle, by sequentially inducing an inflammatory response, cellular lesions, and fibrosis. For example, intracellular amastigotes destroy the intramural neurons of the autonomic nervous system in the intestine and heart, leading to megaintestine and heart aneurysms, respectively. If left untreated, Chagas disease can be fatal, in most cases due to heart muscle damage. Diagnosis Photomicrograph of Giemsa-stained Trypanosoma cruzi (CDC) The presence of T. cruzi is diagnostic of Chagas disease. It can be detected by Microscopic examination of fresh anti-coagulated blood, or its buffy coat, for motile parasites; or by preparation of thin and thick blood smears stained with Giemsa, for direct visualization of parasites. Microscopically, T. cruzi can be confused with Trypanosoma rangeli, which is not known to be pathogenic in humans. Isolation of T. cruzi can occur by inoculation into mice, by culture in specialized media (e.g., NNN, LIT); and by xenodiagnosis, where uninfected Reduviidae bugs are fed on the patient's blood, and their gut contents examined for parasites. Various immunoassays for T. cruzi are available and can be used to distinguish among strains (zymodemes of T.cruzi with divergent pathogenicities). These tests include: detecting complement fixation, indirect hemagglutination, indirect fluorescence assays, radioimmunoassays, and ELISA. Alternatively diagnosis and strain identification can be made using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Treatment Chagas megaesophagus There are two approaches to treating Chagas disease, antiparasitic treatment, to kill the parasite; and symptomatic treatment, to manage the symptoms and signs of infection. Antiparasitic treatment is most effective early in the course of infection but is not limited to cases in the acute phase. Drugs of choice include azole or nitro derivatives such as benznidazole or nifurtimox. However, resistance to these drugs has been reported. Moreover, a 10-year study of chronic administration of antiparasitic drugs in Brazil has revealed that current drug treatment regimens do not fully remove parasitemia. In the chronic stage, treatment involves managing the clinical manifestations of the disease. For example, pacemakers and medications for irregular heartbeats may be life saving for some patients with chronic cardiac disease, while surgery may be required for megaintestine. The disease cannot be cured in this phase, however. Chronic heart disease caused by Chagas disease is now a common reason for heart transplantation surgery. Until recently, however, Chagas disease was considered a contraindication for the procedure, since the heart damage could recur as the parasite was expected to seize the opportunity provided by the immunosuppression that follows surgery. It was noted that survival rates in Chagas patients could be significantly improved by using lower dosages of the immunosuppressant drug cyclosporin. Recently, direct stem cell therapy of the heart muscle using bone marrow cell transplantation has been shown to dramatically reduce risks of heart failure in Chagas patients. Several experimental treatments have shown promise in animal models. These include inhibitors of oxidosqualene cyclase and squalene synthase, Scientific Working Group on Chagas Disease [April 2005] (July 2007). Guhl F, Lazdins-Helds JK (eds.): Reporte del grupo de trabajo científico sobre la enfermedad de Chagas (in Spanish). Geneva: WHO. Retrieved on August 29, 2008. Executive summary in English cysteine protease inhibitors, dermaseptins collected from frogs in the genus Phyllomedusa (P. oreades and P. distincta), the sesquiterpene lactone dehydroleucodine (DhL) which affects the growth of cultured epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi, inhibitors of purine uptake, and inhibitors of enzymes involved in trypanothione metabolism. It is hoped that new drug targets may be revealed following the sequencing of the T. cruzi genome. Prevention Awareness and prevention campaign poster in Cayenne, French Guiana, 2008 There is currently no vaccine against Chagas disease and prevention is generally focused on fighting the vector Triatoma by using sprays and paints containing insecticides (synthetic pyrethroids), and improving housing and sanitary conditions in rural areas. For urban dwellers, spending vacations and camping out in the wilderness or sleeping at hostels or mud houses in endemic areas can be dangerous; a mosquito net is recommended. A number of potential vaccines are currently being tested. Vaccination with Trypanosoma rangeli has produced positive results in animal models. More recently, the potential of DNA vaccines for immunotherapy of acute and chronic Chagas disease is being tested by several research groups. Blood transfusion is the second most common transmission route of Chagas disease in many Latin American countries. In 1993 a series of serologic surveys, looking for antibodies against T. cruzi in blood donors, revealed that the probability of receiving a potentially infected transfusion unit in each country varied from 1.4% to 18% in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, and can be up to 48% in Bolivia. Suggesting that in this region there is a high risk of transfusion acquired Chagas; much higher than the risks reported for other infections acquired through blood such as hepatitis (0.1%) and AIDS (0.1%) in the same region. The likelihood of being infected when receiving an infected transfusion unit were assumed to be 20% for T. cruzi. Vector control efforts have, however, led to a reduction in infection rates; the prevalence of T. cruzi infection in the Brazilian blood bank system was 0.96% in 1996, down from 2% in the 1970s. In most countries where Chagas disease is endemic, testing of blood donors is already mandatory, since this can be an important route of transmission. The United States FDA has recently licensed a test for antibodies against T. cruzi for use on blood donors but has not yet mandated its use. The American Association of Blood Banks recommends that past recipients of blood components from donors found to be infected be notified and themselves tested. In the past, donated blood was mixed with 0.25 g/L of gentian violet, which kills T. cruzi parasites. The antifungal agent amphotericin B has been proposed as a second-line treatment, but the high cost and relatively high toxicity of the drug have limited its use. Epidemiology Chagas disease affects 16–18 million people as of 2008, with some 100 million (25% of the Latin American population) at risk of acquiring the disease, killing around 20,000 people annually. The disease is present in 18 countries on the American continent, ranging from the southern United States to southern Argentina. Chagas exists in two different ecological zones. In the Southern Cone region the main vector lives in and around human homes. In Central America and Mexico the main vector species lives both inside dwellings and in uninhabited areas. In both zones Chagas occurs almost exclusively in rural areas, where triatomine breed and feed on the over 150 species from 24 families of domestic and wild mammals, as well as humans, that are the natural reservoirs of T.cruzi. Although Triatominae bugs feed on birds, they appear to be immune against infection and therefore are not considered to be a T. cruzi reservoir. Even when colonies of insects are eradicated from a house and surrounding domestic animal shelters, they can re-emerge from plants or animals that are part of the ancient, sylvatic (referring to wild animals) infection cycle. This is especially likely in zones with mixed open savannah, with clumps of trees interspersed by human habitation. Vector insect Triatoma infestans (Kissing Bug) Dense vegetation (such as that of tropical rainforests) and urban habitats are not ideal for the establishment of the human transmission cycle. However, in regions where the sylvatic habitat and its fauna are thinned by economical exploitation and human habitation, such as in newly deforested areas, piassava palm culture areas, and some parts of the Amazon region, a human transmission cycle may develop as the insects search for new food sources. The primary wildlife reservoirs for Trypanosoma cruzi in the United States include opossums, raccoons, armadillos, squirrels, woodrats and mice. Opossums are particularly important as reservoirs because the parasite can complete its life cycle in the anal glands of the animal without having to re-enter the insect vector. Recorded prevalence of the disease in opossums in the U.S. ranges from 8.3% up to 37.5%. Studies on raccoons in the Southeast have yielded infection rates ranging from 47% to as low as 15.5%. Armadillo prevalence studies have been described in Louisiana and range from a low of 1.1% up to 28.8%. Additionally small rodents including squirrels, mice and rats are important in the sylvatic transmission cycle because of their importance as bloodmeal sources for the insect vectors. A Texas study revealed 17.3% percent T. cruzi prevalence in 75 specimens comprised of four separate small rodent species. Chagas in Latin America (A:Endemic zones) Chronic Chagas disease remains a major health problem in many Latin American countries, despite the effectiveness of hygienic and preventive measures, such as eliminating the transmitting insects, which have reduced to zero new infections in at least two countries of the region. With increased population movements, however, the possibility of transmission by blood transfusion has become more substantial in the United States. Approximately 500,000 infected people live in the United States, which is likely the result of immigration from Latin American countries. Several landmarks have been achieved in the fight against Chagas disease in Latin America including a reduction by 72% of the incidence of human infection in children and young adults in the countries of the Southern Cone Initiative, and at least two countries (Uruguay, in 1997, and Chile, in 1999) have been certified free of vectorial and transfusional transmission. In Argentina vectorial transmission has been interrupted in 13 of the 19 endemic provinces. Brazil has also been certified free of T. infestans transmission, although other vectors, particularly T. brasiliensis and T. pseudomaculata, account for most transmission in the Northeast Region. Some stepstones of vector control: A yeast trap has been tested for monitoring infestations of certain species of triatomine bugs (Triatoma sordida, Triatoma brasiliensis, Triatoma pseudomaculata, and Panstrongylus megistus). Promising results were gained with the treatment of vector habitats with the fungus Beauveria bassiana. Targeting the symbionts of Triatominae through paratransgenesis. See also Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative References Further reading A Special issue of the Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, covering all aspects of Chagas Disease External links CDC site | Chagas_disease |@lemmatized chaga:39 disease:55 mal:3 de:6 language:1 also:13 call:7 american:8 trypanosomiasis:2 tropical:2 parasitic:2 cause:4 flagellate:2 protozoan:2 trypanosoma:10 cruzi:27 commonly:2 transmit:3 human:11 mammal:2 insect:10 vector:15 blood:18 suck:1 assassin:1 bug:13 subfamily:1 triatominae:3 family:2 reduviidae:2 specie:6 belong:1 triatoma:6 rhodnius:1 panstrongylus:2 genus:6 may:9 spread:3 transfusion:7 organ:2 transplantation:4 ingestion:1 food:3 contaminate:3 parasite:12 mother:1 fetus:1 symptom:13 vary:2 course:4 infection:21 early:2 acute:8 stage:7 mild:3 usually:3 produce:2 local:3 swell:1 site:4 progress:1 many:6 year:7 serious:1 chronic:14 appear:2 heart:15 malformation:1 intestine:3 untreated:3 often:2 fatal:2 current:2 drug:9 treatment:10 generally:3 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6,532 | Kyanite | Kyanite from Brazil Kyanite, whose name derives from the Greek word kyanos, meaning blue, is a typically blue silicate mineral, commonly found in aluminium-rich metamorphic pegmatites and/or sedimentary rock. Kyanite in metamorphic rocks generally indicates pressures higher than 4 kilobars. Although potentially stable at lower pressure and low temperature, the activity of water is usually high enough under such conditions that it is replaced by hydrous aluminosilicates such as muscovite, pyrophyllite, or kaolinite. Kyanite is a member of the aluminosilicate series, which also includes the polymorph andalusite and the polymorph sillimanite. Kyanite is strongly anisotropic, in that its hardness varies depending on its crystallographic direction. While this is a feature of almost all minerals, in kyanite this anisotropism can be considered an identifying characteristic. At temperatures above 1100 °C, kyanite decomposes into mullite and vitreous silica via the following reaction: 3(Al2O3·SiO2) → 3Al2O3·2SiO2 + SiO2. This transformation results in an expansion. Uses of kyanite Kyanite is used primarily in refractory and ceramic products, including porcelain plumbing fixtures and dishware. It is also used in electrical insulators and abrasives. Kyanite has been used as a gemstone, though this use is limited by its anisotropism and perfect cleavage. Kyanite is one of the index minerals that are used to estimate the temperature, depth, and pressure at which a rock undergoes metamorphism. Finally, as with most minerals, kyanite is a collector's mineral. Associated minerals Kyanite is usually found in association with its polymorphs, as well as other silicate minerals. These include: andalusite, Al2SiO5 sillimanite, Al2SiO5 quartz, SiO2 staurolite, Fe2Al9Si4O22(OH)2 micas, AB2-3(X, Si)4O10(O,F,OH)2 garnets, A3B2(SiO4)3 Alternative names Kyanite has several alternative names, including disthene, munkrudite and cyanite. White-grey kyanite is also called rhaeticite. Notes for identification Kyanite's elongated, columnar crystals are usually a good first indication of the mineral, as well as its color (when the specimen is blue). Associated minerals are useful as well, especially the presence of the polymorphs or staurolite, which occur frequently with kyanite. However, the most useful characteristic in identifying kyanite is its anisotropism. If one suspects a specimen to be kyanite, verifying that it has two distinctly different hardnesses on perpendicular axes is a key to identification. References WebMineral Listing MinDat Listing Mineral Galleries Catalog Mineralov | Kyanite |@lemmatized kyanite:19 brazil:1 whose:1 name:3 derive:1 greek:1 word:1 kyanos:1 mean:1 blue:3 typically:1 silicate:2 mineral:10 commonly:1 find:2 aluminium:1 rich:1 metamorphic:2 pegmatite:1 sedimentary:1 rock:3 generally:1 indicate:1 pressure:3 high:2 kilobars:1 although:1 potentially:1 stable:1 low:2 temperature:3 activity:1 water:1 usually:3 enough:1 condition:1 replace:1 hydrous:1 aluminosilicates:1 muscovite:1 pyrophyllite:1 kaolinite:1 member:1 aluminosilicate:1 series:1 also:3 include:4 polymorph:4 andalusite:2 sillimanite:2 strongly:1 anisotropic:1 hardness:2 varies:1 depend:1 crystallographic:1 direction:1 feature:1 almost:1 anisotropism:3 consider:1 identifying:1 characteristic:2 c:1 decomposes:1 mullite:1 vitreous:1 silica:1 via:1 following:1 reaction:1 transformation:1 result:1 expansion:1 us:1 use:5 primarily:1 refractory:1 ceramic:1 product:1 porcelain:1 plumbing:1 fixture:1 dishware:1 electrical:1 insulator:1 abrasive:1 gemstone:1 though:1 limit:1 perfect:1 cleavage:1 one:2 index:1 estimate:1 depth:1 undergoes:1 metamorphism:1 finally:1 collector:1 associate:2 association:1 well:3 quartz:1 staurolite:2 oh:2 mica:1 x:1 si:1 f:1 garnet:1 alternative:2 several:1 disthene:1 munkrudite:1 cyanite:1 white:1 grey:1 call:1 rhaeticite:1 note:1 identification:2 elongate:1 columnar:1 crystal:1 good:1 first:1 indication:1 color:1 specimen:2 useful:2 especially:1 presence:1 occur:1 frequently:1 however:1 identify:1 suspect:1 verify:1 two:1 distinctly:1 different:1 perpendicular:1 ax:1 key:1 reference:1 webmineral:1 list:2 mindat:1 gallery:1 catalog:1 mineralov:1 |@bigram silicate_mineral:2 sedimentary_rock:1 metamorphic_rock:1 electrical_insulator:1 |
6,533 | February_29 | February 29 in the Gregorian calendar, the most widely used today, is a date that occurs only once every four years, in years evenly divisible by 4, such as 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012 or 2016 (with the exception of century years not divisible by 400, such as 1900). These are called leap years. February 29 is the 60th day of the Gregorian calendar in such a year, with 306 days remaining until the end of that year. It is also known as Leap Day. Leap years Although the modern calendar counts a year as 365 days, a complete revolution around the sun takes approximately 365 days and 6 hours. Every four years, as an extra 24 hours have accumulated, one extra day is added to keep the count coordinated with the sun's apparent position. It is however slightly inaccurate to calculate an additional 6 hours each year as the time actually taken for the earth to complete a revolution around the sun is in fact 365 days, 5 hours and 49 minutes. To compensate for the 11 minutes difference, a century year that ends in two zeros is not a leap year unless it is also evenly divisible by 400. This means that 1600 and 2000 were leap years, as will be 2400 and 2800, but 1800 and 1900 were not, and neither will 2100 and 2200 be. To correct the remaining error (which amounts to one day every 3236 years) it has been proposed that years evenly divisible by 4,000 should not be leap years; but this rule has not been officially adopted. The Gregorian calendar repeats itself every 400 years, which is exactly 20871 weeks including 97 leap days. Over this period February 29 falls 13 times on a Sunday, Tuesday or Thursday; 14 times on a Friday or Saturday; and 15 times on a Monday or Wednesday. The concepts of the leap year and leap day are distinct from the leap second, which results from changes in the Earth's rotational speed. The leap day was introduced as part of the Julian reform. The day following the Terminalia (February 23) was doubled, forming the so-called "bis sextum"—literally 'double sixth', since as dates were described in the Roman calendar February 23 was 'the sixth day before the Kalends of March'. The first day of the bis sextum (February 24) came to be regarded as the intercalated or "bissextile" day. February 29 came to be regarded as the leap day when the Roman system of numbering days was replaced by sequential numbering in the late Middle Ages. An English law of 1256 decreed that in leap years, the leap day and the day before are to be reckoned as one day for the purpose of calculating when a full year has passed. Thus, in England and Wales a person born on February 29 legally reaches the age of 18 or 21 on February 28 of the relevant year. In the European Union, February 29 officially became the leap day only in 2000. There is a tradition that women may make a proposal of marriage to men only in leap years, further restricted in some cases to only February 29. There is a tradition that in 1288 the Scottish parliament under Queen Margaret legislated that any woman could propose in Leap Year; few parliamentary records of that time exist, and none concern February 29. Clarissa Bye, "Take the Leap Today, Girls," Sydney Morning Herald, February 29, 2004. Retrieved July 27, 2007. Another component of this tradition was that if the man rejects the proposal, he should soften the blow by providing a kiss, one pound currency, and a pair of gloves (some later sources say a silk gown). There were similar notions in France and Switzerland. Generally, these traditions are considered urban legends (see Urban Legends Reference Pages: February 29 Proposal ). In France, there is a humorous periodical called La Bougie du Sapeur (The Sapper's Candle) published every February 29 since 1980. The name is a reference to the sapper Camembert. Events 1504 – Christopher Columbus uses his knowledge of a lunar eclipse that night to convince Native Americans to provide him with supplies. 1704 – Queen Anne's War: French forces and Native Americans stage a raid on Deerfield, Massachusetts, killing 100 men, women, and children. 1712 – February 29 is followed by February 30 in Sweden, in a move to abolish the Swedish calendar for a return to the Old style. 1720 – Queen Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden abdicates in favour of her husband, who becomes King Frederick I. 1864 – American Civil War: Kilpatrick-Dahlgren Raid fails – plans to free 15,000 Union soldiers being held near Richmond, Virginia are thwarted. 1892 – St. Petersburg, Florida is incorporated. 1916 – Child labor: In South Carolina, the minimum working age for factory, mill, and mine workers is raised from twelve to fourteen years old. 1932 – TIME magazine features eccentric American politician William "Alfalfa" Murray on its cover after Murray stated his intention to run for President of the United States. 1936 – Baby Snooks, played by Fanny Brice, debuts on the radio program The Ziegfeld Follies of the Air. 1940 – For her role as Mammy in Gone with the Wind, Hattie McDaniel becomes the first African American to win an Academy Award. 1940 – Finland initiates Winter War peace negotiations 1940 – In a ceremony held in Berkeley, California, because of the war, physicist Ernest Lawrence receives the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physics from Sweden's Consul General in San Francisco. 1944 – World War II: The Admiralty Islands are invaded in Operation Brewer led by American General Douglas MacArthur. 1952 – The island of Heligoland is restored to German authority. 1956 – U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower announces to the nation that he is running for a second term. 1960 – An earthquake in Morocco kills over 3,000 people and nearly destroys Agadir in the southern part of the country. 1960 – Family Circus makes its debut. 1964 – In Sydney, Australian swimmer Dawn Fraser sets a new world record in the 100-meter freestyle swimming competition (58.9 seconds). 1972 – Vietnam War: Vietnamization – South Korea withdraws 11,000 of its 48,000 troops from Vietnam. 1972 – Hank Aaron becomes the first player in the history of Major League Baseball to sign a $200,000 contract. 1980 – Gordie Howe of the then Hartford Whalers makes NHL history as he scores his 800th goal. 1984 – Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau announces he will retire as soon as the Liberals can elect another leader. 1988 – South African archbishop Desmond Tutu is arrested along with 100 clergymen during a five-day anti-apartheid demonstration in Cape Town 1988 – Svend Robinson becomes the first member of the Canadian House of Commons to come out as gay. 1996 – A Peruvian Boeing 737 crashes in the Andes, killing 123 people. 2004 – Jean-Bertrand Aristide resigns as President of Haiti following popular rebel uprising. Births A person who was born on February 29 may be called a "leapling". In non-leap years they may celebrate their birthday on February 28 or March 1. For legal purposes, their legal birthdays depend on how different laws count time intervals. In England and Wales the legal birthday of a leapling is February 28 in common years (see Leap Years, above). In Taiwan the legal birthday of a leapling is also February 28 in common years. In both cases, a person born on February 29, 1992 would have legally reached 18 years old on February 28, 2010. "If a period fixed by weeks, months, and years does not commence from the beginning of a week, month, or year, it ends with the ending of the day which proceeds the day of the last week, month, or year which corresponds to that on which it began to commence. But if there is no corresponding day in the last month, the period ends with the ending of the last day of the last month. Article 121 of the Civil Code Part I General Principles of the Republic of China in effect in Taiwan. " There are many instances in children's literature where a person's claim to be only a quarter of their actual age turns out to be based on counting their leap-year birthdays. A similar device is used in the plot of Gilbert and Sullivan's 1879 comic opera The Pirates of Penzance: As a child, Frederic was apprenticed to a band of pirates until the age of 21. Now, having passed his 21st year, he leaves the pirate band and falls in love. However, it turns out that the pirate indenture says that his apprenticeship does not end until his 21st birthday, and since he was born on February 29, that day will not arrive until he is in his eighties, and so he must leave his fiancée and return to the pirates. The only notable person known to have both been born and died on February 29 was Sir James Wilson (1812-1880), Premier of Tasmania. 1468 – Pope Paul III (d. 1549) 1692 – John Byrom, English poet (d. 1763) 1724 – Eva Marie Veigel, ballet dancer and wife of actor David Garrick (d. 1822) 1736 – Ann Lee, American founder of Quakers (d. 1784) 1792 – Gioacchino Rossini, Italian composer (d. 1868) 1812 – Sir James Wilson, Premier of Tasmania (d. 1880) 1840 – John Philip Holland, Irish inventor (d. 1914) 1852 – Frank Gavan Duffy, Australian judge (d. 1936) 1860 – Herman Hollerith, American statistician (d. 1929) 1896 – Morarji Desai, Prime Minister of India (d. 1995) 1896 – William A. Wellman, American film director (d. 1975) 1904 – Jimmy Dorsey, American bandleader (d. 1957) 1904 – Pepper Martin, baseball player (d. 1965) 1904 – Rukmini Devi Arundale, Indian dancer and founder of Kalakshetra (d. 1986) 1908 – Balthus, French-Polish painter (d. 2001) 1908 – Dee Brown, American writer (d. 2002) 1908 – Alf Gover, English cricketer (d. 2001) 1916 – Dinah Shore, American singer and actress (d. 1994) 1920 – Arthur Franz, American actor (d. 2006) 1920 – James Mitchell, American actor 1920 – Michèle Morgan, French actress 1920 – Howard Nemerov, American poet (d. 1991) 1920 – Ivan Petrov, Russian operatic bass (d. 2003) 1924 – Al Rosen, American baseball player 1924 – David Beattie, New Zealand Governor-General (d. 2001) 1924 – Carlos Humberto Romero, President of El Salvador 1928 – Joss Ackland, English actor 1928 – Terry Lewis, Australian police commissioner 1928 – Tempest Storm, American burlesque performer 1932 – Jaguar, Brazilian cartoonist 1932 – Gene Golub, American mathematician (d. 2007) 1932 – Masten Gregory, American F1 Driver (d. 1985) 1932 – Reri Grist, African-American coloratura soprano 1936 – Jack Lousma, American astronaut 1936 – Henri Richard, Canadian ice hockey player 1936 – Alex Rocco, American actor 1940 – Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I of Constantinople 1940 – William H. Turner, Jr. American horse trainer 1944 – Phyllis Frelich, American actress 1944 – Dennis Farina, American actor 1944 – Paolo Eleuteri Serpieri, Italian illustrator 1944 – Ene Ergma, Estonian politician 1948 – Jirō Akagawa, Japanese novelist 1952 – Sharon Dahlonega Raiford Bush, American television personality 1952 – Tim Powers, American writer 1952 – Raisa Smetanina, Russian cross-country skier 1952 – Bart Stupak, American congressman 1956 – Jonathan Coleman, Anglo-Australian entertainer 1956 – Bob Speller, Canadian politician 1956 – Aileen Wuornos, American serial killer (d. 2002) 1956 – J. Randy Taraborrelli, American celebrity journalist 1956 – Jerry Fry, Baseball player 1960 – Ian McKenzie Anderson, British musician 1960 – Khaled, Algerian raï musician 1960 – Richard Ramirez, American serial killer 1960 – Tony Robbins, American motivational speaker 1964 – Lyndon Byers, Canadian hockey player and Boston radio personality 1968 – Suanne Braun, South African actress 1968 – Chucky Brown, American basketball player 1968 – Pete Fenson, American curler 1968 – Naoko Iijima, Japanese actress 1968 – Gonzalo Lira, Chilean-American novelist 1968 – Bryce Paup, American football player 1968 – Wendi Peters, British actress 1968 – Eugene Volokh, American law professor 1968 – Frank Woodley, Australian comedian 1972 – Antonio Sabàto, Jr., Italian-born actor 1972 – Dave Williams, American singer (Drowning Pool) (d. 2002) 1972 – Saul Williams, American rapper, poet, and actor 1972 – Pedro Zamora, Cuban-born American Real World housemate and AIDS activist (d. 1994) 1972 – Iván García, Cuban athlete 1976 – Ja Rule, American rapper and actor 1976 – Emma Barton, English actress 1976 – Terrence Long, American baseball player 1980 – Simon Gagné, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Taylor Twellman, American soccer player 1980 – Clinton Toopi, New Zealand rugby league footballer 1980 – Chris Conley, American musician 1980 – Ruben Plaza, Spanish cyclist 1980 – Michail Mouroutsos, Greek Olympic taekwondo gold medalist 1984 – Cam Ward, Canadian ice hockey player 1984 – Darren Ambrose, English footballer 1984 – Adam Sinclair, Indian field hockey player 1984 – Cullen Jones, American swimmer 1988 – Scott Golbourne, English footballer Deaths 1528 – Patrick Hamilton, Scottish religious reformer (martyred) (b. 1504) 1592 – Alessandro Striggio, Italian composer (b. 1540) 1604 – John Whitgift, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1530) 1740 – Pietro Ottoboni, Italian cardinal (b. 1667) 1744 – John Theophilus Desaguliers, French philosopher (b. 1683) 1820 – Johann Joachim Eschenburg, German literary critic (b. 1743) 1868 – Ludwig I of Bavaria (b. 1786) 1880 – Sir James Wilson, Premier of Tasmania (b. 1812, also on 29 February) 1908 – Pat Garrett, U.S. gunslinger 1908 – John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow, first Governor-General of Australia (as Lord Hopetoun) 1928 – Ina Coolbrith, first poet laureate of California (b. 1841) 1940 – Edward Frederic Benson, English writer (b. 1867) 1944 – Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, President of Finland (b. 1861) 1956 – Elpidio Quirino, President of the Philippines (b. 1890) 1964 – Frank Albertson, American actor (b. 1909) 1968 – Tore Ørjasæter, Norwegian poet (b. 1886) 1980 – Gil Elvgren, American artist (b. 1914) 1992 – Ruth Pitter, English poet (b. 1897) 1992 – Earl Scheib, American car repainter (b. 1908) 1996 – Shams Pahlavi, Persian princess (b. 1917) 2000 – Dennis Danell, American artist (b. 1961) 2004 – Jerome Lawrence, American playwright (b. 1915) 2008 – Janet Kagan, American author (b. 1946) Holidays and observances Bahá'í Faith – Day 4 of Ayyám-i-Há (Intercalary Days) (in leap years only) – days in the Bahá'í calendar devoted to service and gift giving. Discordianism – St. Tib's Day. February 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) External links BBC: On This Day On This Day in Canada Notes be-x-old:29 лютага | February_29 |@lemmatized february:27 gregorian:3 calendar:7 widely:1 use:3 today:2 date:2 occur:1 every:5 four:2 year:35 evenly:3 divisible:4 exception:1 century:2 call:4 leap:22 day:33 remain:2 end:7 also:4 know:2 although:1 modern:1 count:4 complete:2 revolution:2 around:2 sun:3 take:3 approximately:1 hour:4 extra:2 accumulate:1 one:4 add:1 keep:1 coordinate:1 apparent:1 position:1 however:2 slightly:1 inaccurate:1 calculate:2 additional:1 time:7 actually:1 earth:2 fact:1 minute:2 compensate:1 difference:1 two:1 zero:1 unless:1 mean:1 neither:1 correct:1 error:1 amount:1 propose:2 rule:2 officially:2 adopt:1 repeat:1 exactly:1 week:4 include:1 period:3 fall:2 sunday:1 tuesday:1 thursday:1 friday:1 saturday:1 monday:1 wednesday:1 concept:1 distinct:1 second:3 result:1 change:1 rotational:1 speed:1 introduce:1 part:3 julian:1 reform:1 follow:3 terminalia:1 double:2 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6,534 | Gordon_Brown | James Gordon Brown MP (born 20 February 1951) is the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Labour Party, and one of the 35 current Vice-Presidents of the Socialist International. Brown became Prime Minister in June 2007, after the resignation of Tony Blair and three days after becoming Leader of the governing Labour Party. Before this, he served as Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Labour government from 1997 to 2007 under Blair. Brown has a PhD in history from the University of Edinburgh and spent his early career working as a TV journalist. He has been a Member of Parliament since 1983; first for Dunfermline East and since 2005 for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath. As Prime Minister, he also holds the positions of First Lord of the Treasury and the Minister for the Civil Service. Brown's time as Chancellor was marked by major reform of Britain's monetary and fiscal policy architecture, transferring interest rate setting powers to the Bank of England, by a wide extension of the powers of the Treasury to cover much domestic policy, and by largely benign economic conditions. His most controversial moves were the abolition of Advance Corporation Tax (ACT) relief in his first budget - a move that received criticism for effectively wiping out defined benefit or final salary pension schemes in the UK. - and removal of the 10p tax rate in his final 2007 budget. His time as Prime Minister has been of mixed fortune, facing repercussions of the credit crunch and the associated nationalisation of Northern Rock, the 10p tax rate row, rising oil and petrol prices, and increased inflation. Brown has also suffered as a result of investigations into improper party donation accusations, a costly political battle over 42 day detention and heavy by-election defeats, notably Glasgow East. Despite an initial increase in personal and Labour popularity following his appointment as Leader, Brown has presided over a dramatic decline in poll approval ratings, both personally and for the party. See also: During the summer of 2008 speculation arose of a potential challenge to Brown's leadership, See also: See also: See also: but the threat of a contest receded during October following the Labour Party Conference, the emergence of the financial crisis Brown critic 'ends hostilities', BBC News, 7 October 2008 and Labour's win in Glenrothes after a number of by-election losses. Early life and career before parliament Gordon Brown was born in Govan, Glasgow, Scotland. See also: Famous Folk, Kirkcaldy Civic Society. Though media have occasionally given his place of birth as Giffnock, Renfrewshire, where his parents were living at the time. See also: His father was John Ebenezer Brown (1914–1998), a minister of the Church of Scotland and a strong influence on Gordon. His mother Jessie Elizabeth Souter, known as Bunty, died in 2004 aged 86. She was the daughter of John Souter, a timber merchant. Gordon was brought up with his brothers John and Andrew Brown in a manse in Kirkcaldy — the largest town in Fife, Scotland across the Firth of Forth from Edinburgh. In common with many other notable Scots, he is therefore often referred to as a "son of the manse". Brown was educated first at Kirkcaldy West Primary School where he was selected for an experimental fast stream education programme, which took him two years early to Kirkcaldy High School for an academic hothouse education taught in separate classes. At age 16 he wrote that he loathed and resented this "ludicrous" experiment on young lives. He was accepted by the University of Edinburgh to study history at the age of only 16. He suffered a retinal detachment after being kicked in the head during an end-of-term rugby union match at his old school. He was left blind in his left eye, despite treatment including several operations and lying in a darkened room for weeks at a time. Later at Edinburgh, while playing tennis, he noticed the same symptoms in his right eye. Brown underwent experimental surgery at Edinburgh Royal Infirmary and his eye was saved. Brown graduated from Edinburgh with First Class Honours MA in 1972, and stayed on to complete his PhD (which he gained in 1982), titled The Labour Party and Political Change in Scotland 1918-29. See also: In 1972, while still a student and with strong connections with the previous Dean of Admissions, Brown was elected Rector of the University of Edinburgh, the convener of the University Court. Brown's first taste of power BBC News 15 July 2005 Brown served as Rector until 1975, and he also edited The Red Paper on Scotland. About The Red Paper on Scotland Red Paper on Scotland website. From 1976 to 1980 he was employed as a lecturer in Politics at Glasgow College of Technology - in the 1979 general election, Brown stood for the Edinburgh South constituency and lost to the Conservative candidate, Michael Ancram. From 1980 he worked as a journalist at Scottish Television, later serving as current affairs editor until his election to parliament in 1983. "Brown's Journey from Reformism to Neoliberalism" John Newsinger International Socialism 115 (summer 2007) Election to parliament and opposition Gordon Brown was elected to Parliament on his second attempt as a Labour MP for Dunfermline East in 1983 general election and became opposition spokesman on Trade and Industry in 1985. In 1986, he published a biography of the Independent Labour Party politician James Maxton, the subject of his PhD thesis. Brown was Shadow Chief Secretary to the Treasury from 1987 to 1989 and then Shadow Secretary of State for Trade and Industry, before becoming Shadow Chancellor in 1992. Having led the Labour Movement Yes campaign, refusing to join the cross-party Yes for Scotland campaign, during the 1979 Scottish devolution referendum, while other senior Labour politicians - including Robin Cook, Tam Dalyell and Brian Wilson - campaigned for a No vote, Brown was subsequently a key participant in the Scottish Constitutional Convention, signing the Claim of Right for Scotland in 1989. After the sudden death of Labour leader John Smith in May 1994, Brown was tipped as a potential party leader, but did not contest the leadership after Tony Blair became favourite. It has long been rumoured a deal was struck between Blair and Brown at the former Granita restaurant in Islington, in which Blair promised to give Brown control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the leadership election. See also: Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown has been central to the fortunes of "New Labour", and they have mostly remained united in public, despite reported serious private rifts. As Shadow Chancellor, Brown worked to present himself as a fiscally competent Chancellor-in-waiting, to reassure business and the middle class that Labour could be trusted to run the economy without fuelling inflation, increasing unemployment, or overspending — legacies of the 1970s. He publicly committed Labour to following the Conservatives' spending plans for the first two years after taking power. Following a reorganisation of parliamentary constituencies in Scotland, Brown became MP for Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath at the 2005 election. Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown speaking at the annual World Bank/IMF meeting in 2002 Brown's ten years and two months as Chancellor of the Exchequer made him the longest-serving Chancellor in modern history. The Prime Minister's website singles out three achievements in particular from Brown's decade as Chancellor: presiding over "the longest ever period of growth", making the Bank of England independent and delivering an agreement on poverty and climate change at the G8 summit in 2005. However, critics of Brown's record as Chancellor point out that he was fortunate to inherit a strong economy from the Conservatives. The UK's longest-serving chancellor - dour or dashing? BBC News, 15 June 2004 Acts as chancellor Bank of England independence: On taking office as Chancellor of the Exchequer Brown gave the Bank of England operational independence in monetary policy, and thus responsibility for setting interest rates through the Bank's Monetary Policy Committee. Five years on: Rating the MPC, BBC News, 6 June 2002 He also changed the inflation measure from Retail Price Index to Consumer Price Index and transferred responsibility for banking supervision to the Financial Services Authority. Spending: Once the two-year period of following the Conservatives' spending plans was over, Brown's 2000 Spending Review outlined a major expansion of government spending, particularly on health and education. In his April 2002 budget, Brown raised national insurance to pay for health spending. Brown changed tax policy in other ways, such as the working tax credits. More get tax credit overpayments BBC News, 31 May 2006 The impact of tax and benefit changes between April 2000 and April 2003 on parents' labour supply Blundell, R., M. Brewer and A. Shepherd, Institute for Fiscal Studies, Briefing Note No. 52, 2004 Growth: An OECD report shows UK economic growth averaged 2.7% between 1997 and 2006, higher than the Eurozone's 2.1%, though lower than in any other English-speaking country. UK unemployment is 7.1%, up from 7% in 1997 but lower than the Eurozone's average of 8.1%. Euro: In October 1997, Brown took control of the United Kingdom's membership of the European single currency issue by announcing the Treasury would set five economic tests to ascertain whether the economic case had been made. In June 2003 the Treasury indicated the tests had not been passed. UK 'not yet ready for the euro' BBC, 9 June 2003 Gordon Brown meeting Russian President Vladimir Putin in 2006 Gold sales: Between 1999 and 2002 Brown sold 60% of the UK's gold reserves at $275 an ounce. It was later attacked as a "disastrous foray into international asset management" Brown's gold sale losses pile up as bullion price surges Scotsman.com website 28 November 2005extrac as he had sold at close to a 20-year low. He pressured the IMF to do the same, but it resisted. The gold sales have earned him the pejorative nickname "Golden Brown", after the song by The Stranglers. Spectrum auctions: Under Brown, telecom radio frequency auctions gathered £22.5 billion for the government. By using a system of sealed bids and only selling a restricted number of licences, they extracted high prices from the telecom operators. Germany at this time applied a similar auction; these together caused a severe recession in the European telecoms development industry (2001 Telecoms crash) with the loss of 100,000 jobs across Europe, 30,000 of those in the UK. Spectrum pricings uncertain future, Electronics World, Vol 108. September pp.24-25 Debt relief and development: Brown believes it is appropriate to remove much of the unpayable Third World debt but does not think all debt should be wiped out. On 20 April 2006, in a speech to the United Nations Ambassadors, Brown outlined a "Green" view of global development. Tax In the 1997 election and subsequently, Brown pledged to not increase the basic or higher rates of income tax. Over his Chancellorship, he reduced the basic rate from 23% to 20%. However, in all but his final budget, Brown increased the tax thresholds in line with inflation, rather than earnings, resulting in fiscal drag. Corporation tax fell under Brown, from a main rate of 33% to 28%, and from 24% to 19% for small businesses. Adam, S. and J. Browne: (Google cache HTML), Institute for Fiscal Studies, Briefing note No. 9, March 2006 In 1999, Brown introduced a lower tax band of 10%. He abolished this in his last budget in 2007 to reduce the basic rate from 22% to 20%, increasing tax for 5 million people, and, according to the Institute for Fiscal Studies calculations leaves those earning between £5,000 and £18,000 as the biggest losers. Analysis of policies as chancellor Growth: Brown states that his chancellorship had seen the longest period of sustained economic growth in the history of the United Kingdom. The details in Brown's growth figures have been challenged. Anti-poverty: The Centre for Policy Studies found that the poorest fifth of households, which accounted for 6.8% of all taxes in 1996–7, accounted for 6.9% of all taxes paid in 2004-5. Meanwhile, their share of state benefit payouts dropped from 28.1% to 27.1% over the same period. Tax: According to the OECD UK taxation has increased from a 39.3% share of gross domestic product in 1997 to 42.4% in 2006, going to a higher level than Germany. OECD: General Government Outlays as percentage of GDP (Microsoft Office Excel table) This increase has mainly been attributed to active government policy, and not simply to the growing economy. Pensions: Conservatives have accused Brown of imposing "stealth taxes". A commonly reported example resulted in 1997 from a technical change in the way corporation tax is collected, the indirect effect of which was for the dividends on stock investments held within pensions to be taxed, thus lowering pension returns and contributing to the demise of most of the final salary pension funds in the UK. The Treasury contend that this tax change was crucial to long-term economic growth. Other policy stances as chancellor Higher education: In 2000, Brown started a political row about higher education (referred to as the Laura Spence Affair) when he accused the University of Oxford of elitism in its admissions procedures, describing its decision not to offer a place to state school pupil Laura Spence as "absolutely outrageous". Lord Jenkins, then Oxford Chancellor and himself a former Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer, said "nearly every fact he used was false." Links with nuclear power industry A link was reported between Brown's brother Andrew and one of the main nuclear lobbyists, EDF Energy, The powerful business of promoting a nuclear future, Terry Macalister 11 July 2006, The Guardian given the finding that the government did not carry a proper public consultation on the use of nuclear power in its 2006 Energy Review. Nuclear review 'was misleading', BBC News, 15 February 2007 Attention has also been drawn to the fact Labour and the nuclear lobby, Analysis, Brian Wheeler, BBC News, 23 May 2007 that the father-in-law of Brown's closest adviser Ed Balls, Tony Cooper (father of the Labour minister Yvette Cooper) has close links with the nuclear industry. Cooper was described as an "articulate, persuasive and well-informed advocate of nuclear power over the last ten years" by the Nuclear Industry Association on his appointment as Chairman of the British Nuclear Industry Forum in June 2002. He is also a member of the Nuclear Decommissioning Authority and was appointed to the Energy Advisory Panel by the previous Conservative administration. Tony Cooper is new Chairman of BNIF, 28 June 2002, Nuclear Industry Association Run up to succeeding Blair Main articles Labour Party leadership election, 2007 and Timeline for the Labour Party leadership elections, 2007 In October 2004 Tony Blair announced he would not lead the party into a fourth general election, but would serve a full third term. Political controversy over the relationship between Brown and Blair continued up to and beyond the 2005 election, which Labour won with a reduced parliamentary majority and reduced vote share. The two campaigned together but the British media remained full of reports on their mutual acrimony. Blair, under pressure from within his own party, announced on 7 September 2006 that he would step down within a year. Brown was the clear favourite to succeed Blair for several years with experts and the bookmakers; he was the only candidate spoken of seriously in Westminster. Appearances and news coverage leading up to the handover were interpreted as preparing the ground for Brown to become Prime Minister, in part by creating the impression of a statesman with a vision for leadership and global change. Blair famously described Brown as the "great clunking fist", supposedly as a warning to his political opponents. Sceptics have said Blair's description was a deliberate attempt to label Brown as an unsubtle and one-dimensional political operator. Brown is the first prime minister from a Scottish constituency since the Conservative/SUP Sir Alec Douglas-Home in 1964. He is also one of only five prime ministers who attended a university other than Oxford or Cambridge, along with the Earl of Bute (Leiden), Lord John Russell (Edinburgh), Andrew Bonar Law (University of Glasgow), and Neville Chamberlain (Mason Science College, later Birmingham). On 9 September 2006 Charles Clarke said in an interview that the Chancellor had "psychological" issues he must confront and accused him of being a "control freak" and "totally uncollegiate". Brown was also "deluded", Clarke said, to think Blair can and should anoint him as his successor now. Environment Secretary David Miliband stressed his support for Brown. From January 2007 the media reported Brown had now "dropped any pretence of not wanting, or expecting, to move into Number 10 in the next few months" — although he and his family use the more spacious 11 Downing Street. This enabled Brown to signal the most significant priorities for his agenda as Prime Minister; speaking at a Fabian Society conference on 'The Next Decade' in January 2007, he stressed education, international development, narrowing inequalities (to pursue 'equality of opportunity and fairness of outcome'), renewing Britishness, restoring trust in politics, and winning hearts and minds in the war on terror as key priorities. In March 2007 Brown's character was attacked by Lord Turnbull who worked for Brown as Permanent Secretary at the Treasury from 1998 to 2002. Turnbull accused Brown of running the Treasury with "Stalinist ruthlessness" and treating Cabinet colleagues with "more or less complete contempt". This was especially picked-up on by the British media as the comments were made on the eve of Brown's budget report. Prime Minister Brown ceased to be Chancellor and, upon the approval of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, became the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on 27 June 2007. Like all modern Prime Ministers, Brown concurrently serves as the First Lord of the Treasury and the Minister for the Civil Service, and is a member of the Cabinet of the United Kingdom and, hence, also a Privy Counsellor. He is also Leader of the Labour Party and Member of Parliament for the constituency of Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath. He is the sixth post-war prime minister, of a total of 12, to assume the role without having won a general election. Policies Brown has proposed moving some traditional prime ministerial powers conferred by royal prerogative to the realm of Parliament, such as the power to declare war and approve appointments to senior positions. Brown wants Parliament to gain the right to ratify treaties and have more oversight into the intelligence services. He has also proposed moving some powers from Parliament to citizens, including the right to form "citizens' juries", easily petition Parliament for new laws, and rally outside Westminster. He has asserted that the attorney general should not have the right to decide whether to prosecute in individual cases, such as in the loans for peerages scandal. During his Labour leadership campaign, Brown proposed some policy initiatives, suggesting that a Brown-led government would introduce the following: End to corruption: Following the cash for honours scandal, Brown emphasised cracking down on corruption. Brown has announced a new Ministerial Code which sets out clear standards of behaviour for ministers. Constitutional reform: Brown has not stated whether he proposes a U.S.-style written constitution — something the UK has never had — or a looser bill of rights. He said in a speech when announcing his bid that he wants a “better constitution” that is “clear about the rights and responsibilities of being a citizen in Britain today”. He plans to set up an all-party convention to look at new powers for Parliament. This convention may also look at rebalancing powers between Whitehall and local government. Brown has said he will give Parliament the final say on whether British troops are sent into action in future. Housing: House planning restrictions are likely to be relaxed. Brown said he wants to release more land and ease access to ownership with shared equity schemes. He backed a proposal to build new eco-towns, each housing between 10,000 and 20,000 homeowners — up to 100,000 new homes in total. Health: Brown intends to have doctors' surgeries open at the weekends, and GPs on call in the evenings. Doctors were given the right of opting out of out-of-hours care two years ago, under a controversial pay deal, signed by then-Health Secretary John Reid, which awarded them a 22% pay rise in 2006. Brown stated that the NHS was his "top priority", yet he had just cut the capital budget of the English NHS from £6.2bn to £4.2bn. The Brown government was involved in controversy in April 2008 over the decision to scrap the 10p Income Tax Band and he was forced into making concessions. In the local elections on 1 May 2008, Labour suffered their worst results in 40 years finishing in third place with a projected 24% share of the national vote. Subsequently the party has seen the loss of by-elections in Nantwich and Crewe and Henley as well as slumps in the polls. A by election in Glasgow East triggered by the resignation of David Marshall saw the Labour party struggle to appoint a candidate, eventually settling for a 5th choice, a sitting MSP in the Scottish Parliament Margaret Curran. The SNP, Conservatives and Liberal Democrats have all derided the party for their disorganised nature with Alex Salmond commenting "This is their 'lost weekend' - they don't have a leader in Scotland, they don't have a candidate in Glasgow East, and they have a prime minister who refuses to come to the constituency". A former Labour spin doctor has commented that the loss of a safe seat in Glasgow (one of the safest Labour seats in the country) would indicate to Gordon Brown that any MP with a majority of less than 13,500 would be unsafe and his position as Prime Minister would be untenable. The unthinkable result became a reality when the seat experienced a massive swing of 22.54% in one of Labours safest heartland areas, and the constituency was lost to the Scottish National Party's John Mason who took 11,277 votes with Labour just 365 behind. Foreign policy Gordon Brown with Raila Odinga (later to be Prime Minister) touring the slums of Nairobi, Kenya in 2005 Brown remains committed to the Iraq War, but said in a speech in June 2007 that he would "learn the lessons" from the mistakes made in Iraq. Brown made his first overseas trip as Prime Minister to Berlin, where he spoke with German Chancellor Angela Merkel. In a speech given to the Labour Friends of Israel in April 2007, Brown stated: Many of you know my interest in Israel and in the Jewish community has been long-standing…My father was the chairman of the Church of Scotland's Israel Committee. Not only as I've described to some of you before did he make visits on almost two occasions a year for 20 years to Israel — but because of that, although Fife, where I grew up, was a long way from Israel with no TV pictures to link us together — I had a very clear view from household slides and projectors about the history of Israel, about the trials and tribulations of the Jewish people, about the enormous suffering and loss during the Holocaust, as well as the extraordinary struggle that he described to me of people to create this magnificent homeland. Jonny Paul: Background: New British PM will likely be friend to Israel, Jerusalem Post, 27 June 2007 Brown said in a letter published 17 March 2008 that the United Kingdom will hold an inquiry into the Iraq war -- but not soon. Brown agrees to Iraq war probe -- one day, CNN, 17 March 2008 British Prime Minister Gordon Brown skipped the opening ceremony of the 2008 Summer Olympics, on 8 August 2008 in Beijing. He attended the closing ceremony instead, on 24 August 2008. Brown had been under intense pressure from human rights campaigners to send a message to China, concerning the 2008 Tibetan unrest. His decision not to attend the opening ceremony was not an act of protest, rather made several weeks in advance and not intended as a stand on principle. UK's Brown to skip Olympics opening, CNN, 10 April 2008 Diplomatic relationship with the U.S. Brown with then-U.S. President George W. Bush There has been widespread speculation on the nature of the UK's relationship with the United States under Brown's government. A Washington, D.C. speech by Brown's close aide Douglas Alexander was widely reported as both a policy shift and a message to the U.S: "In the 21st century, strength should be measured on what we can build together…we need to demonstrate by our deeds, words and our actions that we are internationalist, not isolationist, multilateralist, not unilateralist, active and not passive, and driven by core values, consistently applied, not special interests." However Downing Street's spokesman strongly denied the suggestion that Alexander was trying to distance Britain from U.S. foreign policy and show that Britain would not necessarily, in Tony Blair's words, stand "shoulder to shoulder" with George W. Bush over future military interventions: "I thought the interpretation that was put on Douglas Alexander's words was quite extraordinary. To interpret this as saying anything at all about our relationship with the U.S. is nonsense." Brown personally clarified his position; "We will not allow people to separate us from the United States of America in dealing with the common challenges that we face around the world. I think people have got to remember that the relationship between Britain and America and between a British prime minister and an American president is built on the things that we share, the same enduring values about the importance of liberty, opportunity, the dignity of the individual. I will continue to work, as Tony Blair did, very closely with the American administration." The "non-election" Gordon Brown caused controversy during September and early October 2007 by letting speculation continue on whether he would call a snap general election. Following the negative reaction to his visit to British troops in Iraq during the Conservative Conference, David Cameron's 'off the cuff' speech and an opinion poll showing Labour 6% behind the Conservative Party in key marginal seats, he finally announced that there would be no election in the near future and seemed to rule out an election in 2008. He was subsequently accused by his political opponents as being a ditherer and indecisive. Cameron accused Brown of "bottling" the election because of opinion polls, which Brown denied. Military covenant November 2007 saw Brown face intense criticism of not adhering to the 'military covenant', a convention within British politics stating that in exchange for them putting their lives at risk for the sake of national security, the armed forces should in turn be suitably looked after by the government. Criticism has come from several former Chiefs of Defence, including General Lord Guthrie, Admiral Lord Boyce, Marshal of the Royal Air Force Lord Craig, Field Marshal Lord Bramall and Field Marshal Lord Inge. Poor housing, lack of equipment and adequate healthcare provisions are some of the major issues Brown has been accused of neglecting. European Union Brown has continued to be dogged by controversy about not holding a referendum on the EU Treaty of Lisbon. On the morning of 13 December 2007, Foreign Secretary David Miliband had to stand in for the Prime Minister at the official signing ceremony in Lisbon of the EU Reform Treaty, which was attended by all other European heads of government. Brown was otherwise engaged at the House of Commons, appearing before the Liaison Committee, and travelled to Portugal to sign the treaty in the afternoon which the EU leaders had signed in the morning. Brown came under heavy fire from opponents on both sides of the House and in the press, who suggested that neither Brown nor Labour had a mandate to ratify the treaty without public assent. Conservative leader David Cameron pointed to Labour's 2005 manifesto, which had pledged to give British public a referendum on the original EU Constitution. Brown argued that the Treaty significantly differed from the Constitution, and as such did not require a referendum. He also responded with plans for a lengthy debate on the topic, and stated that he believed the document to be too complex to be decided by referendum. 42-Day Detention Following the rejection of a previous bill under Tony Blair's government to allow for terror suspects to be detained for up to 90 days without charge, Brown championed a new bill extending this pre-charge detention period to 42 days. The bill was met with opposition on both sides of the House and, facing a growing backbench rebellion, it is alleged that a number of deals were done behind the scenes to ensure a victory for Brown in the vote on this issue. In the end, the bill passed with just 9 votes. Many commentators view this as a pyrrhic victory as Brown had to rely upon the support of a renegade Conservative MP, Ann Widdecombe, and the votes of a handful of Democratic Unionist MPs. In a session of Prime Ministers' Questions some weeks later, David Cameron challenged Brown to concede on record that "no deals were done" in ensuring the bill was passed. Brown stood up before the House and gave a one-word response of "Yes". To uproar, Cameron proceeded to quote from a letter written by Geoff Hoon, Labour's Chief Whip, to the Chairman of the Home Affairs Committee, Keith Vaz, in which Hoon expressed deep thanks for Vaz's support and in addition signed off the letter with the line "I trust that you will be appropriately rewarded." Hoon has claimed that this was just a joke between friends but others have viewed this letter as proof that deals were indeed done behind the scenes and that Brown was lying when he went on record as stating that no such deals were done. See also: The House of Lords defeated the bill, with Lords characterising it as "fatally flawed, ill thought through and unnecessary", stating that "it seeks to further erode [...] fundamental legal and civil rights". Jacqui Smith creates 'emergency bill' after 42-day detention defeat, The Daily Telegraph, 14 October 2008 Plots against leadership The first signs of internal disquiet towards Brown's policies surfaced as early as May 2008. Brown, in his 2007 budget, his last as Chancellor, abolished the 10% income tax rate for the lowest earners (5.1 million people), increasing their rate to the next highest, 20%. Earners who fell within the 22% tax rate band had their rate reduced to 20%, and tax allowances were also made for over-65s. These measures came into effect in April 2008. The "10p tax rate cut" as it was commonly referred to, was sharply criticised by Frank Field and several other backbenchers. Field also made comments saying that Brown did not seem to be enjoying his job. Health Secretary Alan Johnson believed that Field was motivated primarily by a personal dislike of Brown, and Field later apologised, saying that he had regretted allowing his campaign to "become personal". In the face of protests such as this though, Chancellor Alistair Darling cut the tax rate for 22 million people, and borrowed around £2.7 bn to reimburse those on lower and middle incomes who had suffered. In the summer of 2008, Brown's leadership was presented with a fresh challenge as a large number of senior MPs openly called for him to resign. This event was dubbed the 'Lancashire Plot', as two backbenchers from North West England urged him to step down and a third questioned his chances of holding on to the Labour Party leadership. Several MPs argued that if Brown did not recover in the polls by early 2009, he should call for a leadership contest. However, certain prominent MPs, such as Jacqui Smith and Bill Rammell, suggested that Brown was the right person to lead Britain through its economic crisis. A second assault upon Brown's premiership was launched in the autumn of that year, when Siobhain McDonagh, a MP who during her time in office had never voted against the government, spoke of the need for discussion over Brown's position. McDonagh, a junior government whip, was sacked from her role shortly afterwards, on September 12. Whilst McDonagh did not state that she wanted Brown deposed, she implored the Labour party to hold a leadership election. McDonagh spoke of a "huge number" of Labour MPs who wanted a leadership election; her views were somewhat substantiated in the following days when several Labour MPs, including Field, Joan Ryan (who applied, as McDonagh had, for leadership nomination papers, and became the second rebel to be fired from her job), Jim Dowd, Greg Pope, and a string of others who had previously held positions in government, made clear their desire for a contest. In an unrelated incident, 12 backbenchers signed their names to a letter criticising Brown in Progress magazine. Eric Joyce, one of the MPs who signed this letter, said that Brown's future hinged on his performance at the upcoming Labour party conference. A Downing Street source responded to these revelations by stating that, "The Blairites have been talking up the idea of loads of ministers resigning. But the best they can come up with is an assistant government whip." Tony Lloyd, chairman of the parliamentary Labour Party, labelled the rebellion a "bit of a sideshow", and Emily Thornberry MP called Brown the "best qualified" to lead Britain through the economic crisis of 2008. The Labour party admitted that it had received letters from a small number of MPs querying why no nomination papers had been released. In the face of this growing speculation over Brown's future, the majority of his ministers also backed him to lead the party, and two, Harriet Harman and David Miliband, vigorously denied that they were preparing leadership bids. After the shock loss that Labour suffered in the Glasgow East by-election in July, Harman, the deputy leader of the party, suppressed rumours regarding her intentions, saying that Brown was the "solution", not the "problem"; Home Secretary Smith, Justice Secretary Jack Straw, Schools Secretary Ed Balls and Cabinet Office Minister Ed Miliband all re-affirmed their support for Brown. The deputy Prime Minister under Blair, John Prescott, also pledged his support. Foreign Secretary David Miliband was then forced to deny that he was plotting a leadership bid, when on July 30, an article written by him in The Guardian was interpreted by a large number in the media as an attempt to undermine Brown. In the article, Miliband outlined the party's future, but neglected to mention the Prime Minister. Miliband, who had been forced to quell rumours that he would run against Brown in the leadership election of 2007, responded to this by saying that he was confident Brown could lead Labour to victory in the next general election, and that his article was an attack against the fatalism that had dogged the party since the loss of Glasgow-East. Miliband continued to show his support for Brown in the face of the challenge that emerged in September, as did Business Secretary John Hutton, Environment Secretary Hilary Benn, and Chief Whip Geoff Hoon. YouTube video Brown has come under intense criticism for his 'YouTube fightback' video http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/politics/article6229529.ece http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TTE6cTBrGcA http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2009/apr/22/hoggart-brown-expenses-video-smile where he explains his plans to reform MPs' salaries while smiling randomly and seemingly inexplicably throughout the video. Brown's smile has widely been mocked, even by John Prescott, the Labour ex-Deputy Prime Minister. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/gordon-brown/5277760/John-Prescott-mocks-Gordon-Browns-smile.html http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1177540/Smile-face-tiger--Prescott-savages-Browns-YouTube-grimaces.html http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/blog/2009/may/05/brown-smile-prescott Makeup incident On 11 May 2009, one of Brown's aides left a bag containing sensitive information on a taxi. The cab driver gave the bag to The Sun, who returned the bag to his staff, and published the story, including a set of instructions on how his makeup should be applied. Although it is well known that male public figures use makeup, that aspect of the story is considered to be embarrassing to Brown. It is also seen as a significant security breach, since the bag also contained discussions on how to handle the expenses scandal as well as a schedule for Mr Brown’s trip to Yorkshire, including details of his and the Home Secretary's itineraries. Expenses claims Gordon Brown allegedly paid his brother in excess of £6,000 for cleaning services and claimed for the same plumbing repair bill twice. Downing Street responded by saying that Brown paid his brother, who in turn paid the cleaner as the cleaner worked for them both but preferred to be paid by a single person for National Insurance reasons. The cleaner was hired by the Prime Minister's sister-in-law to clean his brother's flat, but then expanded her duties to include cleaning the Prime Minister's London flat. Meanwhile, the Commons Fees Office stated that the double payment for a repair bill was a mistake on their part and that Brown had repaid it in full. Depictions in popular culture Brown's reputed dourness while holding a high public office comes across in the way he is portrayed on both the screen — where he was played by David Morrissey in the Stephen Frears directed TV movie The Deal and by Peter Mullan in the TV movie The Trial of Tony Blair — and stage: he features as a character in the 2007 Musical TONY! The Blair Musical, written by Chris Bush and Ian McCluskey. During its run in York, he was played by Bush, and then by Michael Slater at the 2007 Edinburgh Festival Fringe and subsequently at the Pleasance Theatre in Islington, London. Also drawing on this perception, radio presenter Nick Abbot plays a sound effect of Darth Vader because of the way Gordon Brown's jaw appears to detach as he breathes in. In keeping with its tradition of having a comic strip for every Prime Minister, Private Eye features a comic strip, The Broonites (itself a parody of The Broons), parodying Brown's government. The Eye has also started a column titled Prime Ministerial Decree, a parody of statements that would be issued by Communist governments in the former Eastern Bloc. This is in reference to a criticism of Brown having "Stalinist tendencies". Assinder, Nick. Brown's Budget trick, BBC News, 21 March 2007. Gordon Brown is generally depicted in newspaper cartoons as being fat - something which he takes offence at. Gordon Brown was depicted in Season 12 of South Park sitting at a table of world leaders opposite Nicolas Sarkozy in the episode "Canada on Strike". Brown makes an appearance in the first issue of Marvel Comics' Captain Britain and MI: 13, overseeing Britain's response to the Skrull invasion of Earth. Captain Britain and MI: 13 #1 Have no fear, SuperGordon is here to help save the world - but only in new comic book 'Captain Britain', Daily Mail, 2 June 2008. Prime Minister turns comic book hero, The Sunday Mail 1 June 2008. Personal life and family Brown's early girlfriends included the journalist Sheena McDonald The Gordon Brown Story BBC News , Marion Caldwell The Gordon Brown Story BBC News and Princess Margarita, the eldest daughter of exiled King Michael of Romania. She has said about their relationship: "It was a very solid and romantic story. I never stopped loving him but one day it didn't seem right any more, it was politics, politics, politics, and I needed nurturing." Private Eye Issue 584 4 May 1984 Brown married Sarah Macaulay in a private ceremony at his home in North Queensferry, Fife, on 3 August 2000. On 28 December 2001, a daughter, Jennifer Jane, was born prematurely and died on 8 January 2002. Gordon Brown commented at the time that their recent experiences had changed him and his wife: I don't think we'll be the same again, but it has made us think of what's important. It has made us think that you've got to use your time properly. It's made us more determined. Things that we feel are right we have got to achieve, we have got to do that. Jennifer is an inspiration to us. Losing baby has changed us forever, says Brown, The Telegraph 6 February 2002 Accessed 10 June 2007 They have two children, John Macaulay and James Fraser. In November 2006, James Fraser was diagnosed with cystic fibrosis. Sarah Brown generally keeps a low profile, rarely making official appearances either with or without her husband, in contrast to Cherie Blair. She is inevitably much sought after to give interviews, although is reluctant to do so. However, she is patron of several charities, and has written articles for national newspapers related to this. At the 2008 Labour Party Conference, Mrs Brown caused surprise by taking to the stage to introduce her husband for his keynote address. Despite predictions to the contrary, the Browns have fallen in love with Chequers. They spend most weekends there, the house often being filled with friends, editors, sportsmen and actors, as well as politicians. They have even entertained the Beckhams and local dignitaries like Sir Leonard Figg, revealing a certain "obsession" with the place. He is also a big fan of heavy metal music, as revealed in the music documentary Anvil, produced by Brown's brother-in-law. He is a friend of Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling, who says of Brown "I know him as affable, funny and gregarious, a great listener, a kind and loyal friend." Of his two brothers, John Brown is an independent public relations and communications consultant. He was formerly Head of Public Relations in the Glasgow City Council, and a producer/journalist with Scottish Television. His brother Andrew Brown has been Head of Media Relations in the UK for the French-owned utility company EDF Energy since 2004. He was previously director of media strategy at the world's largest public relations firm Weber Shandwick from June 2003 to 2004. Previously he was editor of the Channel 4 political programme Powerhouse from 1996 to 2003, and worked at the BBC from the late 1970s to early 1980s. Andrew Brown to head media team at EDF Energy, EDF Energy, 13 September 2004 Titles and honours Styles Mr. James Gordon Brown (1951–1982) Dr. James Gordon Brown (1982–1983) Dr. James Gordon Brown MP (1983–1997) The Rt Hon Dr. James Gordon Brown MP (1997–present) Honours Privy Councillor (1997) See also Electoral history: UK general elections: 1983, 1987, 1992, 1997, 2001, 2005 Notes References Works Biographies Others External links 10 Downing Street - Prime Minister: The Rt Hon Gordon Brown MP Audio and Transcript of Gordon Brown’s First Speech as Labour Party Leader 24 June 2007 Prime Minister Brown's address to the 63rd session of the United Nations General Assembly, September 26, 2008 Gordon Brown - full access article in Encyclopaedia Britannica Guardian Unlimited Politics - Special Report: Gordon Brown TheyWorkForYou.com - Gordon Brown BBC News - Gordon Brown in Africa January 2005 trip about his 'Marshall plan for Africa' Observer: How Gordon Brown become the most powerful Chancellor in history Transcript of Gordon Brown's acceptance speech Triple A accessible version Brown's Journey from Reformism to Neoliberalism, International Socialism'' — a left wing perspective on Brown's political evolution Gordon Brown news and information |- |- |- |- ! colspan="3" style="background:#cfc;" | Order of precedence Scotland & Northern Ireland be-x-old:Гордан Браўн | Gordon_Brown |@lemmatized james:7 gordon:33 brown:184 mp:19 born:1 february:3 prime:32 minister:38 united:11 kingdom:6 leader:12 labour:47 party:31 one:11 current:2 vice:1 president:4 socialist:1 international:5 become:12 june:15 resignation:2 tony:11 blair:21 three:2 day:9 govern:1 serve:7 chancellor:23 exchequer:5 government:19 phd:3 history:7 university:7 edinburgh:10 spend:2 early:8 career:2 work:9 tv:4 journalist:4 member:4 parliament:13 since:6 first:13 dunfermline:2 east:7 kirkcaldy:7 cowdenbeath:3 also:32 hold:8 position:6 lord:12 treasury:9 civil:3 service:5 time:8 mark:1 major:3 reform:4 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audio:1 transcript:2 assembly:1 encyclopaedia:1 britannica:1 unlimited:1 theyworkforyou:1 africa:2 observer:1 acceptance:1 triple:1 accessible:1 version:1 wing:1 perspective:1 evolution:1 colspan:1 cfc:1 order:1 precedence:1 ireland:1 x:1 гордан:1 браўн:1 |@bigram prime_minister:30 vice_president:1 tony_blair:8 chancellor_exchequer:5 monetary_fiscal:1 credit_crunch:1 approval_rating:1 speculation_arose:1 bbc_news:11 glasgow_scotland:1 firth_forth:1 rugby_union:1 darkened_room:1 royal_infirmary:1 phd_thesis:1 parliamentary_constituency:1 vladimir_putin:1 income_tax:3 gross_domestic:1 pension_fund:1 edf_energy:4 sir_alec:1 alec_douglas:1 andrew_bonar:1 neville_chamberlain:1 david_miliband:4 queen_elizabeth:1 privy_counsellor:1 royal_prerogative:1 liberal_democrat:1 raila_odinga:1 nairobi_kenya:1 chancellor_angela:1 angela_merkel:1 trial_tribulation:1 summer_olympics:1 closing_ceremony:1 w_bush:2 opinion_poll:2 pyrrhic_victory:1 ann_widdecombe:1 geoff_hoon:2 fatally_flaw:1 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6,535 | Cellular_digital_packet_data | Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) uses unused bandwidth normally used by AMPS mobile phones between 800 and 900 MHz to transfer data. Speeds up to 19.2 kbit/s are possible. Developed in the early 1990s, CDPD was large on the horizon as a future technology. However, it had difficulty competing against existing slower but less expensive Mobitex and DataTac systems, and never quite gained widespread acceptance before newer, faster standards such as GPRS became dominant. CDPD had very limited consumer offerings. AT&T Wireless first offered the technology in the United States under the PocketNet brand. It was one of the first consumer offerings of wireless web service. A company named Omnisky provided service for Palm V devices. Cingular Wireless later offered CDPD under the Wireless Internet brand (not to be confused with Wireless Internet Express, their brand for GPRS/EDGE data). PocketNet was generally considered a failure with competition from 2G services such as Sprint's Wireless Web. After the four phones AT&T Wireless had offered to the public (two from Panasonic, one from Mitsubishi and the Ericsson R289LX), AT&T Wireless eventually refused to activate the devices. Despite its limited success as a consumer offering, CDPD was adopted in a number of enterprise and government networks. It was particularly popular as a first-generation wireless data solution for telemetry devices (machine to machine communications) and for public safety mobile data terminals. In 2004, major carriers in the United States announced plans to shut down CDPD service. In July 2005, the AT&T Wireless and Cingular Wireless CDPD networks were shut down. External links CIO CDPD article History and Development Detailed Description About CDPD | Cellular_digital_packet_data |@lemmatized cellular:1 digital:1 packet:1 data:5 cdpd:9 use:2 unused:1 bandwidth:1 normally:1 amp:1 mobile:2 phone:2 mhz:1 transfer:1 speed:1 kbit:1 possible:1 develop:1 early:1 large:1 horizon:1 future:1 technology:2 however:1 difficulty:1 compete:1 exist:1 slow:1 less:1 expensive:1 mobitex:1 datatac:1 system:1 never:1 quite:1 gain:1 widespread:1 acceptance:1 new:1 faster:1 standard:1 gprs:2 become:1 dominant:1 limited:2 consumer:3 offering:3 wireless:11 first:3 offer:3 united:2 state:2 pocketnet:2 brand:3 one:2 web:2 service:4 company:1 name:1 omnisky:1 provide:1 palm:1 v:1 device:3 cingular:2 later:1 internet:2 confuse:1 express:1 edge:1 generally:1 consider:1 failure:1 competition:1 sprint:1 four:1 public:2 two:1 panasonic:1 mitsubishi:1 ericsson:1 eventually:1 refuse:1 activate:1 despite:1 success:1 adopt:1 number:1 enterprise:1 government:1 network:2 particularly:1 popular:1 generation:1 solution:1 telemetry:1 machine:2 communication:1 safety:1 terminal:1 major:1 carrier:1 announce:1 plan:1 shut:2 july:1 external:1 link:1 cio:1 article:1 history:1 development:1 detail:1 description:1 |@bigram mobile_phone:1 gprs_edge:1 external_link:1 |
6,536 | Chaos | Chaos (from the Ancient Greek Χάος) refers to unpredictability, and is the antithetical concept of cosmos. Chaos may also refer to: Chaos theory, a branch of mathematics and physics that deals with the behavior of certain nonlinear dynamical systems Chaos (amoeba), a type of giant amoeba Chaos (Chinese god), a god from Chinese mythology Chaos (mythology) (also khaos), the primordial god from which the universe sprang in Greek mythology Chaos: Making a New Science, a book by James Gleick that was nominated for a Pulitzer prize Polynomial chaos, an expansion in probability theory, invented by Norbert Wiener 19521 Chaos, a Trans-Neptunian asteroid Operation CHAOS, a domestic espionage project conducted by the CIA Operation Chaos (Palestine), a supposed British operation to prevent orderly transfer of power Chaos magic, a branch of occultism cAos Linux, an RPM based distribution of Linux combining aspects of Debian, Red Hat/Fedora, and FreeBSD CHAOS (Linux distribution), small (6 Megabytes) and designed for creating ad hoc computer clusters A month in the Discordian calendar The Chaos, poem by Gerard Nolst Trenité which illustrates English spelling and pronunciation In entertainment: Chaos (Sesame Park character), a fictional character from the TV show Sesame Park Chaos (Sailor Moon), a major enemy in the Sailor Moon manga, and the final enemy in the Sailor Moon anime Chaos! Comics, a cult comic book producer and publisher Chaos (Dragonlance), a supreme god in the fantasy world of Dragonlance Chaos, a fictional tenth planet of the solar system Exosquad Chaos, a series of cards in the Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game Choas, the trading card game from the manga King of Cards Chaotic, a trading card game and television show Chaos (Warhammer), in the Warhammer Fantasy games, a force representing the antithesis of civilization Operation Chaos (novel), a 1971 science fiction/fantasy fixup novel by Poul Anderson Chaos (book), a book of photography by Josef Koudelka Chaos (Kinnikuman), a major character in the manga series Kinnikuman Nisei: Ultimate Choujin Tag Arc Chaos (performer), a performer in Pin Up Girls burlesque-cabaret company, certified yoga instructor Chaos, a creature of liquid energy appearing in the Sonic the Hedgehog universe Films: Chaos (2000 film), a Japanese film directed by Hideo Nakata Chaos (2001 film), a French film directed by Coline Serreau Chaos (2005 film), about the rape and murder of two teenagers, directed by David DeFalco Chaos (2006 film), starring Jason Statham, Ryan Phillippe and Wesley Snipes, directed by Tony Giglio Chaos (2007 film), by Youssef Chahine and Khaled Youssef. In music: Captain Chaos (band), U.S. band Chaos U.K., a British punk/UK82 band. Chaos C.H., a Japanese hardcore punk group. Chaos, a song on the album Psyence Fiction by UNKLE Chaos, a song by Mute Math from their self-titled debut album Khaos, a single by the Japanese solo artist Közi part of a two disc set. In Cultural festivals: Chaos, The cultural festival of Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad In video games: Chaos, a character in the Battle Arena Toshinden fighting game series Chaos Control (games), an FMV-based shooter for the CD-i, Sega Saturn and 3DO Chaos Emeralds, fictional gems in the Sonic the Hedgehog video games, comic books, and cartoons Chaos (Sonic the Hedgehog), a character in the Sonic the Hedgehog video game franchise Chaos (Final Fantasy), an enemy in Final Fantasy Chaos (Loom), a villain in the LucasArts adventure game Loom Chaos (video game), a 1985 computer game for the Sinclair ZX Spectrum chaos (Xenosaga), a fictional character from the Xenosaga video game series ZGMF-X24S Chaos Gundam, a stolen mobile suit in Gundam Seed Destiny Nrvnqsr Chaos, a villain in the visual novel Tsukihime. See also CHAOS Xaos KAOS CAOS, the scripting language used by the Creatures series of games K-os, a Canadian musician be-x-old:Хаос | Chaos |@lemmatized chaos:48 ancient:1 greek:2 χάος:1 refers:1 unpredictability:1 antithetical:1 concept:1 cosmos:1 may:1 also:3 refer:1 theory:2 branch:2 mathematics:1 physic:1 deal:1 behavior:1 certain:1 nonlinear:1 dynamical:1 system:2 amoeba:2 type:1 giant:1 chinese:2 god:4 mythology:3 khaos:2 primordial:1 universe:2 sprang:1 make:1 new:1 science:2 book:5 james:1 gleick:1 nominate:1 pulitzer:1 prize:1 polynomial:1 expansion:1 probability:1 invent:1 norbert:1 wiener:1 trans:1 neptunian:1 asteroid:1 operation:4 domestic:1 espionage:1 project:1 conduct:1 cia:1 palestine:1 supposed:1 british:2 prevent:1 orderly:1 transfer:1 power:1 magic:1 occultism:1 caos:2 linux:3 rpm:1 base:2 distribution:2 combine:1 aspect:1 debian:1 red:1 hat:1 fedora:1 freebsd:1 small:1 megabyte:1 design:1 create:1 ad:1 hoc:1 computer:2 cluster:1 month:1 discordian:1 calendar:1 poem:1 gerard:1 nolst:1 trenité:1 illustrate:1 english:1 spelling:1 pronunciation:1 entertainment:1 sesame:2 park:2 character:6 fictional:4 tv:1 show:2 sailor:3 moon:3 major:2 enemy:3 manga:3 final:3 anime:1 comic:3 cult:1 producer:1 publisher:1 dragonlance:2 supreme:1 fantasy:5 world:1 tenth:1 planet:1 solar:1 exosquad:1 series:5 card:5 yu:1 gi:1 oh:1 trading:3 game:14 choas:1 king:1 chaotic:1 television:1 warhammer:2 force:1 represent:1 antithesis:1 civilization:1 novel:3 fiction:2 fixup:1 poul:1 anderson:1 photography:1 josef:1 koudelka:1 kinnikuman:2 nisei:1 ultimate:1 choujin:1 tag:1 arc:1 performer:2 pin:1 girl:1 burlesque:1 cabaret:1 company:1 certify:1 yoga:1 instructor:1 creature:2 liquid:1 energy:1 appear:1 sonic:4 hedgehog:4 film:8 japanese:3 direct:4 hideo:1 nakata:1 french:1 coline:1 serreau:1 rape:1 murder:1 two:2 teenager:1 david:1 defalco:1 star:1 jason:1 statham:1 ryan:1 phillippe:1 wesley:1 snipe:1 tony:1 giglio:1 youssef:2 chahine:1 khaled:1 music:1 captain:1 band:3 u:2 k:2 punk:2 c:1 h:1 hardcore:1 group:1 song:2 album:2 psyence:1 unkle:1 mute:1 math:1 self:1 title:1 debut:1 single:1 solo:1 artist:1 közi:1 part:1 disc:1 set:1 cultural:2 festival:2 indian:1 institute:1 management:1 ahmedabad:1 video:5 battle:1 arena:1 toshinden:1 fighting:1 control:1 fmv:1 shooter:1 cd:1 sega:1 saturn:1 emerald:1 gem:1 cartoon:1 franchise:1 loom:2 villain:2 lucasarts:1 adventure:1 sinclair:1 zx:1 spectrum:1 xenosaga:2 zgmf:1 gundam:2 steal:1 mobile:1 suit:1 seed:1 destiny:1 nrvnqsr:1 visual:1 tsukihime:1 see:1 xaos:1 kaos:1 scripting:1 language:1 use:1 canadian:1 musician:1 x:1 old:1 хаос:1 |@bigram james_gleick:1 pulitzer_prize:1 norbert_wiener:1 trans_neptunian:1 ad_hoc:1 sailor_moon:3 yu_gi:1 gi_oh:1 science_fiction:1 poul_anderson:1 sonic_hedgehog:4 jason_statham:1 hardcore_punk:1 sega_saturn:1 sinclair_zx:1 zx_spectrum:1 suit_gundam:1 |
6,537 | Letter_(message) | A famous letter from Albert Einstein and Leo Szilárd to U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt suggesting an atomic bomb project. Click here for page 2. A letter is a written message from one person to another. The role of letters in communication has changed significantly since the 19th century. Historically, letters (in paper form) were the only reliable means of communication between two persons in different locations. As communication technology has diversified, letters have become less important as routine communication. The development of the telegraph, telephone, fax and the Internet have all had an impact on the writing and sending of letters. In modern industrialized nations, the exchange of personal letters has become less common, being replaced by technologies such as the telephone and also e-mail. With the advent of the compact cassette, tape letters became a novelty. By analogy, the term letter is sometimes used for e-mail messages with a formal letter-like format. Historically, letters exist from the time of ancient India, ancient Egypt and Sumer, through Rome, Greece and China, up to the present day. Letters make up several of the books of the Bible. Archives of correspondence, whether for personal, diplomatic, or business reasons, serve as primary sources for historians. Advantages Letters are still used, particularly by companies and advertisers. This is because of three main advantages: No special device needed - almost everybody has a home, which means that they are easy to reach. A mailbox is all that the intended recipient needs - not like e-mail or phone calls where the intended recipient needs access to a computer and a telephone respectively. "Catch-all" advertising- unlike e-mails, where the recipient needs an individual e-mail address to receive messages, addresses are not chosen (per se), and so with the help of a postal service, delivering an advertisement to all homes in a particular area is not hard. Physical record - important messages that need to be retained (e.g. receipts) can be kept more easily and securely. The letter-delivering process Vintage German letter balance for home use Here is how a letter gets from the sender to the recipient: Sender writes letter and places it in an envelope on which the recipient's address is written. Sender buys a postage stamp and attaches it to the front of the envelope. Sender puts their letter in a mailbox and does nothing more. The National Postal Service for the sender's country (e.g. the Royal Mail in the UK or the U.S. Postal Service in the U.S.) empties the postbox and takes all the contents to the regional sorting office. The sorting office then sorts each letter by address and postcode, and delivers the letters belonging to a particular area to that area's post office. Letters belonging to a different region are sent to that region's sorting office, to be sorted further. The local post office dispatches the letters to their delivery personnel who deliver them to the appropriate addresses. This whole process, depending on how far the sender is from the recipient, can take anywhere from a day to 3-4 weeks. International mail is sent via trains and planes to other countries. Letter layout United Kingdom, Canada, and Australia The following is a common way to set out a letter: Sender's address here 24 Lambert Street Stoke-on-Trent ST4 4WE Date here Formal: 3 February 2008 Informal: 03/02/2008 Recipient's name and address here Mr Boris Johnson 25 Lambkin Street Stoke-on-Trent ST3 9WR Main body Formal: Dear Sir or Madam, Acquaintance: Dear Mr Johnson, Informal: Dear Boris, Content Formal: Yours faithfully, Acquaintance: Yours sincerely, Informal: Best wishes, Sender's Name Formal: Sender's Occupation and Enclosures Informal: Nothing (optional: P.S. / Post Scriptum = Afterthought) United States The following is the modified block format for a business letter, common in the United States: May 20, 2008 your Address date Mrs. Jane Doe 25 First Street Anytown, VA 10005 Dear Ms. Doe: This is an example of a modified block letter. The difference between it and a full block letter style is that the date begins at the center point of the page; therefore, if a letter has a 6 inch line of type, the date begins approximately over 3 inches from the left margin. The closing block also begins half-way across the page. The complimentary close and the keyed signature (first and last name of the writer) begin at the same point as the date - approximately 3 inches from the left margin. Sincerely, Anthony Ferris Sales Representative jtp (the typist's initials appear at the left margin) See also Address Carbon copy E-Mail Letter Envelope Historical Documents Letter box Mail Manuscript Pen pal Postmaster Postmaster General Post office Postage stamp Private Express Statutes Salutation Secrecy of letters Snail mail Stationery Typography Universal Postal Union Valediction Types of letters {| style="background-color: transparent; width:100%" | Application letter Business letter Cease and desist letter Chain letter Cover letter Epistle E-Mail Letter Hate mail Introduction letter Letter of credence Letter of credit Letter of inquiry Letter of intent Letter of marque Letters patent Letter of resignation Love letter Open letter Poison pen letter Query letter Recommendation letter Reference letter Rejection Letter Sales Letter Thank you letter Unbound Report Reservation letter External links High Quality Letter Writing Guide Web form to Letter (PDF) generator University of Wisconsin Writing Center Guide Purdue University Online Writing Lab How to Write a Letter Sample Letters | Letter_(message) |@lemmatized famous:1 letter:60 albert:1 einstein:1 leo:1 szilárd:1 u:3 president:1 franklin:1 roosevelt:1 suggest:1 atomic:1 bomb:1 project:1 click:1 page:3 write:7 message:4 one:1 person:2 another:1 role:1 communication:4 change:1 significantly:1 since:1 century:1 historically:2 paper:1 form:2 reliable:1 mean:2 two:1 different:2 location:1 technology:2 diversify:1 become:3 less:2 important:2 routine:1 development:1 telegraph:1 telephone:3 fax:1 internet:1 impact:1 writing:1 sending:1 modern:1 industrialize:1 nation:1 exchange:1 personal:2 common:3 replace:1 also:3 e:9 mail:12 advent:1 compact:1 cassette:1 tape:1 novelty:1 analogy:1 term:1 sometimes:1 use:3 formal:5 like:2 format:2 exist:1 time:1 ancient:2 india:1 egypt:1 sumer:1 rome:1 greece:1 china:1 present:1 day:2 make:1 several:1 book:1 bible:1 archive:1 correspondence:1 whether:1 diplomatic:1 business:3 reason:1 serve:1 primary:1 source:1 historian:1 advantage:2 still:1 particularly:1 company:1 advertiser:1 three:1 main:2 special:1 device:1 need:5 almost:1 everybody:1 home:3 easy:1 reach:1 mailbox:2 intended:2 recipient:7 phone:1 call:1 access:1 computer:1 respectively:1 catch:1 advertise:1 unlike:1 individual:1 address:9 receive:1 choose:1 per:1 se:1 help:1 postal:4 service:3 deliver:3 advertisement:1 particular:2 area:3 hard:1 physical:1 record:1 retain:1 g:2 receipt:1 keep:1 easily:1 securely:1 delivering:1 process:2 vintage:1 german:1 balance:1 get:1 sender:9 place:1 envelope:3 buy:1 postage:2 stamp:2 attach:1 front:1 put:1 nothing:2 national:1 country:2 royal:1 uk:1 empty:1 postbox:1 take:2 content:2 regional:1 sorting:1 office:6 sort:4 postcode:1 belong:2 post:4 region:2 send:2 far:2 local:1 dispatch:1 delivery:1 personnel:1 appropriate:1 whole:1 depend:1 anywhere:1 week:1 international:1 via:1 train:1 plane:1 layout:1 united:2 kingdom:1 canada:1 australia:1 following:2 way:2 set:1 lambert:1 street:3 stoke:2 trent:2 date:5 february:1 informal:4 name:3 mr:3 boris:2 johnson:2 lambkin:1 body:1 dear:4 sir:1 madam:1 acquaintance:2 faithfully:1 sincerely:2 best:1 wish:1 occupation:1 enclosures:1 optional:1 p:1 scriptum:1 afterthought:1 unite:1 state:2 modified:2 block:4 may:1 jane:1 doe:2 first:2 anytown:1 va:1 example:1 difference:1 full:1 style:2 begin:4 center:2 point:2 therefore:1 inch:3 line:1 type:2 approximately:2 left:3 margin:3 closing:1 half:1 across:1 complimentary:1 close:1 keyed:1 signature:1 last:1 writer:1 anthony:1 ferris:1 sale:2 representative:1 jtp:1 typist:1 initial:1 appear:1 see:1 carbon:1 copy:1 historical:1 document:1 box:1 manuscript:1 pen:2 pal:1 postmaster:2 general:1 private:1 express:1 statute:1 salutation:1 secrecy:1 snail:1 stationery:1 typography:1 universal:1 union:1 valediction:1 background:1 color:1 transparent:1 width:1 application:1 cease:1 desist:1 chain:1 cover:1 epistle:1 hate:1 introduction:1 credence:1 credit:1 inquiry:1 intent:1 marque:1 patent:1 resignation:1 love:1 open:1 poison:1 query:1 recommendation:1 reference:1 rejection:1 thank:1 unbound:1 report:1 reservation:1 external:1 link:1 high:1 quality:1 guide:2 web:1 pdf:1 generator:1 university:2 wisconsin:1 purdue:1 online:1 lab:1 sample:1 |@bigram albert_einstein:1 franklin_roosevelt:1 atomic_bomb:1 compact_cassette:1 cassette_tape:1 intended_recipient:2 per_se:1 sender_recipient:2 postage_stamp:2 stoke_trent:2 pen_pal:1 universal_postal:1 cease_desist:1 desist_letter:1 external_link:1 |
6,538 | Commandant_of_the_Marine_Corps | The Commandant of the Marine Corps (CMC) is the highest ranking officer in the United States Marine Corps and is a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Joint Chiefs of Staff: composition; functions. The CMC reports directly to the Secretary of the Navy but not to the Chief of Naval Operations. The CMC is responsible for ensuring the organization, policy, plans, and programs for the Marine Corps as well as advising the President, the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of the Navy on matters involving the Marine Corps. Under the authority of the Secretary of the Navy, the CMC also designates Marine personnel and resources to the commanders of Unified Combatant Commands. Combatant commands: administration and support. The commandant also performs all other functions prescribed in Section 5043 in Title 10 of the United States Code Commandant of the Marine Corps. or delegates those duties and responsibilities to other officers in his administration in his name. As with the other joint chiefs, the commandant is an administrative position and has no operational command authority over United States Marine Corps forces. The Commandant is nominated by the President and must be confirmed by majority vote from the Senate. By statute, the commandant is appointed as a four-star general. "The Commandant is directly responsible to the Secretary of the Navy for the total performance of the Marine Corps. This includes the administration, discipline, internal organization, training, requirements, efficiency, and readiness of the service. The Commandant also is responsible for the operation of the Marine Corps material support system." Since 1801, the home of the Commandant is located in Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C. Responsibilities The responsibilities of the Commandant are outlined in Title 10, Section 5043 the U.S. Code of Law: "Subject to the authority, direction, and control of the Secretary of the Navy, the Commandant shall — preside over the Headquarters, Marine Corps; transmit the plans and recommendations of the Headquarters, Marine Corps, to the Secretary and advise the Secretary with regard to such plans and recommendations; after approval of the plans or recommendations of the Headquarters, Marine Corps, by the Secretary, act as the agent of the Secretary in carrying them into effect; exercise supervision, consistent with the authority assigned to commanders of unified or specified combatant commands under chapter 6 of this title, over such of the members and organizations of the Marine Corps and the Navy as the Secretary determines; perform the duties prescribed for him by section 171 of this title and other provisions of law; perform such other military duties, not otherwise assigned by law, as are assigned to him by the President, the Secretary of Defense, or the Secretary of the Navy. List of Commandants As of 2008, there have been thirty-four (34) Marine Corps Commandants: #PictureNameRankStart of TenureEnd of Tenure 1 NicholasSamuel Nicholas 0304Captain / Major 1775 November 28 1783 August 27 2 BurrowsWilliam W. Burrows 0405Major / Lieutenant Colonel 1798 July 12 1804 March 6 3.03 WhartonFranklin Wharton 0500Lieutenant Colonel 1804 March 7 1818 September 1 3.5 Henderson1Archibald Henderson (acting) 0500Lieutenant Colonel 1818 September 16 1819 March 2 4 GaleAnthony Gale 0500Lieutenant Colonel 1819 March 3 1820 October 8 5 Henderson2Archibald Henderson 050607Lieutenant Colonel / Colonel / Brevet Brigadier General 1820 October 17 1859 January 6 6 HarrisJohn Harris 0606Colonel 1859 January 7 1864 May 1 7 ZeilinJacob Zeilin 0607Colonel / Brigadier General 1864 June 10 1876 October 31 8 McCawleyCharles G. McCawley 0600Colonel 1876 November 1 1891 January 29 9 HeywoodCharles Heywood 0708Brigadier General / Major General 1891 June 30 1903 October 2 10 ElliottGeorge F. Elliott 0708Brigadier General / Major General 1903 October 3 1910 November 30 11 BiddleWilliam P. Biddle 0800Major General 1911 February 3 1914 February 24 12 BarnettGeorge Barnett 0800Major General 1914 February 25 1920 June 30 13 LejeuneJohn A. Lejeune 0800Major General 1920 July 1 1929 March 4 14 NevilleWendall C. Neville 0800Major General 1929 March 5 1930 July 8 15 FullerBen H. Fuller 0800Major General 1930 July 9 1933 February 28 16 RussellJohn H. Russell, Jr. 0800Major General 1934 March 1 1936 November 30 17 HolcombThomas Holcomb 0809Major General / Lieutenant General 1936 December 1 1943 December 31 18 VandegriftAlexander A. Vandegrift 0910Lieutenant General / General 1944 January 1 1947 December 31 19 CatesClifton B. Cates 10General 1948 January 1 1951 December 31 20 ShepherdLemuel C. Shepherd, Jr. 10General 1952 January 1 1955 December 31 21 PateRandolph M. Pate 10General 1956 January 1 1959 December 31 22 ShoupDavid M. Shoup 10General 1960 January 1 1963 December 31 23 GreeneWallace M. Greene, Jr. 10General 1965 January 1 1967 December 31 24 ChapmanLeonard F. Chapman, Jr. 10General 1968 January 1 1971 December 31 25 CushmanRobert Everton Cushman, Jr. 10General 1972 January 1 1975 June 30 26 WilsonLouis H. Wilson, Jr. 10General 1975 July 1 1979 June 30 27 BarrowRobert H. Barrow 10General 1979 July 1 1983 June 30 28 KelleyPaul X. Kelley 10General 1983 July 1 1987 June 30 29 GrayAlfred M. Gray, Jr. 10General 1987 July 1 1991 June 30 30 MundyCarl E. Mundy, Jr. 10General 1991 July 1 1995 June 30 31 KrulakCharles C. Krulak 10General 1995 July 1 1999 June 30 32 JonesJames L. Jones 10General 1999 July 1 2003 January 12 33 HageeMichael W. Hagee 10General 2003 January 13 2006 November 13 34 ConwayJames T. Conway 10General 2006 November 14 Incumbent See also Headquarters Marine Corps Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps References | Commandant_of_the_Marine_Corps |@lemmatized commandant:14 marine:18 corp:14 cmc:4 high:1 ranking:1 officer:2 united:3 state:3 member:2 joint:3 chief:4 staff:2 composition:1 function:2 report:1 directly:2 secretary:13 navy:7 naval:1 operation:2 responsible:3 ensure:1 organization:3 policy:1 plan:4 program:1 well:1 advise:2 president:3 defense:2 matter:1 involve:1 authority:4 also:4 designate:1 personnel:1 resource:1 commander:2 unified:2 combatant:3 command:4 administration:3 support:2 perform:3 prescribe:2 section:3 title:4 code:2 delegate:1 duty:3 responsibility:2 name:1 administrative:1 position:1 operational:1 corps:2 force:1 nominate:1 must:1 confirm:1 majority:1 vote:1 senate:1 statute:1 appoint:1 four:2 star:1 general:17 total:1 performance:1 include:1 discipline:1 internal:1 training:1 requirement:1 efficiency:1 readiness:1 service:1 material:1 system:1 since:1 home:1 locate:1 barrack:1 washington:1 c:4 responsibilities:1 outline:1 u:1 law:3 subject:1 direction:1 control:1 shall:1 preside:1 headquarters:3 transmit:1 recommendation:3 regard:1 approval:1 act:2 agent:1 carry:1 effect:1 exercise:1 supervision:1 consistent:1 assign:3 specify:1 chapter:1 determines:1 provision:1 military:1 otherwise:1 list:1 thirty:1 picturenamerankstart:1 tenureend:1 tenure:1 nicholassamuel:1 nicholas:1 major:4 november:6 august:1 burrowswilliam:1 w:2 burrow:1 lieutenant:2 colonel:6 july:11 march:7 whartonfranklin:1 wharton:1 september:2 henderson:2 galeanthony:1 gale:1 october:5 brevet:1 brigadier:2 january:13 harrisjohn:1 harris:1 may:1 zeilinjacob:1 zeilin:1 june:10 mccawleycharles:1 g:1 mccawley:1 heywoodcharles:1 heywood:1 elliottgeorge:1 f:2 elliott:1 biddlewilliam:1 p:1 biddle:1 february:4 barnettgeorge:1 barnett:1 lejeunejohn:1 lejeune:1 nevillewendall:1 neville:1 fullerben:1 h:4 fuller:1 russelljohn:1 russell:1 jr:8 holcombthomas:1 holcomb:1 december:9 vandegriftalexander:1 vandegrift:1 catesclifton:1 b:1 cat:1 shepherdlemuel:1 shepherd:1 paterandolph:1 pate:1 shoupdavid:1 shoup:1 greenewallace:1 greene:1 chapmanleonard:1 chapman:1 cushmanrobert:1 everton:1 cushman:1 wilsonlouis:1 wilson:1 barrowrobert:1 barrow:1 kelleypaul:1 x:1 kelley:1 grayalfred:1 gray:1 mundycarl:1 e:1 mundy:1 krulakcharles:1 krulak:1 jonesjames:1 l:1 jones:1 hageemichael:1 hagee:1 conwayjames:1 conway:1 incumbent:1 see:1 headquarter:1 sergeant:1 assistant:1 reference:1 |@bigram commandant_marine:3 marine_corp:14 chief_staff:2 marine_corps:2 lieutenant_colonel:1 brigadier_general:2 |
6,539 | Mendelian_inheritance | Mendelian inheritance (or Mendelian genetics or Mendelism) is a set of primary tenets relating to the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parent organisms to their children; it underlies much of genetics. They were initially derived from the work of Gregor Mendel published in 1865 and 1866 which was "re-discovered" in 1900, and were initially very controversial. When they were integrated with the chromosome theory of inheritance by Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1915, they became the core of classical genetics. History The laws of inheritance were derived by Gregor Mendel, a 19th century monk conducting hybridization experiments in garden peas (Pisum sativum). Between 1856 and 1863, he cultivated and tested some 29,000 pea plants. From these experiments he deduced two generalizations which later became known as Mendel's Laws of Heredity or Mendelian inheritance. He described these laws in a two part paper, "Experiments on Plant Hybridization" that he read to the Natural History Society of Brno on February 8 and March 8, 1865, and which was published in 1866. See Mendel's paper in English: Mendel's conclusions were largely ignored. Although they were not completely unknown to biologists of the time, they were not seen as generally applicable, even by Mendel himself, who thought they only applied to certain categories of species or traits. A major block to understanding their significance was the importance attached by 19th Century biologists to the apparent blending of inherited traits in the overall appearance of the progeny, now known to be due to multigene interactions, in contrast to the organ-specific binary characters studied by Mendel. In 1900, however, his work was "re-discovered" by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak. The exact nature of the "re-discovery" has been somewhat debated: De Vries published first on the subject, mentioning Mendel in a footnote, while Correns pointed out Mendel's priority after having read De Vries's paper and realizing that he himself did not have priority. De Vries may not have acknowledged truthfully how much of his knowledge of the laws came from his own work, or came only after reading Mendel's paper. Later scholars have accused Von Tschermak of not truly understanding the results at all. Regardless, the "re-discovery" made Mendelism an important but controversial theory. Its most vigorous promoter in Europe was William Bateson, who coined the term "genetics", "gene", and "allele" to describe many of its tenets. The model of heredity was highly contested by other biologists because it implied that heredity was discontinuous, in opposition to the apparently continuous variation observable for many traits. Many biologists also dismissed the theory because they were not sure it would apply to all species, and there seemed to be very few true Mendelian characters in nature. However later work by biologists and statisticians such as R.A. Fisher showed that if multiple Mendelian factors were involved in the expression of an individual trait, they could produce the diverse results observed. Thomas Hunt Morgan and his assistants later integrated the theoretical model of Mendel with the chromosome theory of inheritance, in which the chromosomes of cells were thought to hold the actual hereditary material, and create what is now known as classical genetics, which was extremely successful and cemented Mendel's place in history. Mendel's findings allowed other scientists to predict the expression of traits on the basis of mathematical probabilities. A large contribution to Mendel's success can be traced to his decision to start his crosses only with plants he demonstrated were true-breeding. He also only measured absolute (binary) characteristics, such as color, shape, and position of the offspring, rather than quantitative characteristics. He expressed his results numerically and subjected them to statistical analysis. His method of data analysis and his large sample size gave credibility to his data. He also had the foresight to follow several successive generations (f2, f3) of his pea plants and record their variations. Finally, he performed "test crosses" (back-crossing descendants of the initial hybridization to the initial true-breeding lines) to reveal the presence and proportion of recessive characters. Without his careful attention to procedure and detail, Mendel's work could not have had the impact it made on the world of genetics. Mendel's Laws The principles of heredity were written by the Augustinian monk Gregor Mendel in 1865. Mendel discovered that by crossing white flower and purple flower plants, the result was not a hybrid offspring. Rather than being a mix of the two, the offspring was purple flowered. He then conceived the idea of heredity units, which he called "factors", one which is a recessive characteristic and the other dominant. Mendel said that factors, later called genes, normally occur in pairs in ordinary body cells, yet segregate during the formation of sex cells. Each member of the pair becomes part of the separate sex cell. The dominant gene, such as the purple flower in Mendel's plants, will hide the recessive gene, the white flower. After Mendel self-fertilized the F1 generation and obtained the 3:1 ratio, he correctly theorized that genes can be paired in three different ways for each trait; AA, aa, and Aa. The capital A represents the dominant factor and lowercase a represents the recessive. Mendel stated that each individual has two factors for each trait, one from each parent. The two factors may or may not contain the same information. If the two factors are identical, the individual is called homozygous for the trait. If the two factors have different information, the individual is called heterozygous. The alternative forms of a factor are called alleles. The genotype of an individual is made up of the many alleles it possesses. An individual's physical appearance, or phenotype, is determined by its alleles as well as by its environment. An individual possesses two alleles for each trait; one allele is given by the female parent and the other by the male parent. They are passed on when an individual matures and produces gametes: egg and sperm. When gametes form, the paired alleles separate randomly so that each gamete receives a copy of one of the two alleles. The presence of an allele doesn't promise that the trait will be expressed in the individual that possesses it. In heterozygous individuals the only allele that is expressed is the dominant. The recessive allele is present but its expression is hidden. Mendel summarized his findings in two laws; the Law of Segregation and the Law of Independent Assortment. Law of Segregation (The "First Law") The Law of Segregation states that when any individual produces gametes, the copies of a gene separate, so that each gamete receives only one copy. A gamete will receive one allele or the other. The direct proof of this was later found when the process of meiosis came to be known. In meiosis the paternal and maternal chromosomes get separated and the alleles with the characters are segregated into two different gametes. Law of Independent Assortment (The "Second Law") The Law of Independent Assortment, also known as "Inheritance Law", states that alleles of different genes assort independently of one another during gamete formation. While Mendel's experiments with mixing one trait always resulted in a 3:1 ratio (Fig. 1) between dominant and recessive phenotypes, his experiments with mixing two traits (dihybrid cross) showed 9:3:3:1 ratios (Fig. 2). But the 9:3:3:1 table shows that each of the two genes are independently inherited with a 3:1 ratio. Mendel concluded that different traits are inherited independently of each other, so that there is no relation, for example, between a cat's color and tail length. This is actually only true for genes that are not linked to each other. Independent assortment occurs during meiosis I in eukaryotic organisms, specifically metaphase I of meiosis, to produce a gamete with a mixture of the organism's maternal and paternal chromosomes. Along with chromosomal crossover, this process aids in increasing genetic diversity by producing novel genetic combinations. Of the 46 chromosomes in a normal diploid human cell, half are maternally-derived (from the mother's egg) and half are paternally-derived (from the father's sperm). This occurs as sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes (the egg and sperm) to produce a new organism having the full complement of chromosomes. During gametogenesis - the production of new gametes by an adult - the normal complement of 46 chromosomes needs to be halved to 23 to ensure that the resulting haploid gamete can join with another gamete to produce a diploid organism. An error in the number of chromosomes, such as those caused by a diploid gamete joining with a haploid gamete, is termed aneuploidy. In independent assortment the chromosomes that end up in a newly-formed gamete are randomly sorted from all possible combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes. Because gametes end up with a random mix instead of a pre-defined "set" from either parent, gametes are therefore considered assorted independently. As such, the gamete can end up with any combination of paternal or maternal chromosomes. Any of the possible combinations of gametes formed from maternal and paternal chromosomes will occur with equal frequency. For human gametes, with 23 pairs of chromosomes, the number of possibilities is 2^23 or 8,388,608 possible combinations. The gametes will normally end up with 23 chromosomes, but the origin of any particular one will be randomly selected from paternal or maternal chromosomes. This contributes to the genetic variability of progeny. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%" |- |Figure 1: Dominant and recessive phenotypes.(1) Parental generation. (2) F1 generation. (3) F2 generation. Dominant (red) and recessive (white) phenotype look alike in the F1 (first) generation and show a 3:1 ratio in the F2 (second) generation |[[Image:Dihybrid cross.png|thumb|center|280px|Figure 2: The genotypes of two independent traits show a 9:3:3:1 ratio in the F2 generation. In this example, coat color is indicated by B (brown, dominant) or b (white) while tail length is indicated by S (short, dominant) or s (long). When parents are homozygous for each trait (SSbb and ssBB''), their children in the F1 generation are heterozygous at both loci and only show the dominant phenotypes. If the children mate with each other, in the F2 generation all combination of coat color and tail length occur: 9 are brown/short (purple boxes), 3 are white/short (pink boxes), 3 are brown/long (blue boxes) and 1 is white/long (green box).]] |Figure 3: The color alleles of Mirabilis jalapa are not dominant or recessive.(1) Parental generation. (2) F1 generation. (3) F2 generation. The "red" and "white" allele together make a "pink" phenotype, resulting in a 1:2:1 ratio of red:pink:white in the F2 generation. |} Background The reason for these laws is found in the nature of the cell nucleus. It is made up of several chromosomes carrying the genetic traits. In a normal cell, each of these chromosomes has two parts, the chromatids. A reproductive cell, which is created in a process called meiosis, usually contains only one of those chromatids of each chromosome. By merging two of these cells (usually one male and one female), the full set is restored and the genes are mixed. The resulting cell becomes a new embryo. The fact that this new life has half the genes of each parent (23 from mother, 23 from father for total of 46) is one reason for the Mendelian laws. The second most important reason is the varying dominance of different genes, causing some traits to appear unevenly instead of averaging out (whereby dominant doesn't mean more likely to reproduce - recessive genes can become the most common, too). There are several advantages of this method (sexual reproduction) over reproduction without genetic exchange: Instead of nearly identical copies of an organism, a broad range of offspring develops, allowing more different abilities and evolutionary strategies. There are usually some errors in every cell nucleus. Copying the genes usually adds more of them. By distributing them randomly over different chromosomes and mixing the genes, such errors will be distributed unevenly over the different children. Some of them will therefore have only very few such problems. This helps reduce problems with copying errors somewhat. Genes can spread faster from one part of a population to another. This is for instance useful if there's a temporary isolation of two groups. New genes developing in each of the populations don't get reduced to half when one side replaces the other, they mix and form a population with the advantages of both sides. Sometimes, a mutation (e. g. sickle cell anemia) can have positive side effects (in this case malaria resistance). The mechanism behind the Mendelian laws can make it possible for some offspring to carry the advantages without the disadvantages until further mutations solve the problems. Mendelian trait A Mendelian trait''' is one that is controlled by a single locus and shows a simple Mendelian inheritance pattern. In such cases, a mutation in a single gene can cause a disease that is inherited according to Mendel's laws. Examples include sickle-cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disease, cystic fibrosis and xeroderma pigmentosa. A disease controlled by a single gene contrasts with a multi-factorial disease, like arthritis, which is affected by several loci (and the environment) as well as those diseases inherited in a non-Mendelian fashion. The Mendelian Inheritance in Man database is a catalog of, among other things, genes in which Mendelian traits causes disease. See also non-Mendelian inheritance Dominance relationship Particulate inheritance theory Mendelian error List of Mendelian traits in humans References | Mendelian_inheritance |@lemmatized mendelian:16 inheritance:10 genetics:6 mendelism:2 set:3 primary:1 tenet:2 relate:1 transmission:1 hereditary:2 characteristic:4 parent:7 organism:6 child:4 underlie:1 much:2 initially:2 derive:4 work:5 gregor:3 mendel:26 publish:3 discover:3 controversial:2 integrate:2 chromosome:20 theory:5 thomas:2 hunt:2 morgan:2 become:5 core:1 classical:2 history:3 law:19 century:2 monk:2 conduct:1 hybridization:3 experiment:5 garden:1 pea:3 pisum:1 sativum:1 cultivate:1 test:2 plant:6 deduce:1 two:18 generalization:1 later:6 know:5 heredity:5 describe:2 part:4 paper:4 read:3 natural:1 society:1 brno:1 february:1 march:1 see:3 english:1 conclusion:1 largely:1 ignore:1 although:1 completely:1 unknown:1 biologist:5 time:1 generally:1 applicable:1 even:1 think:2 apply:2 certain:1 category:1 specie:2 trait:21 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6,540 | Nintendo_64 | The , often abbreviated as N64, is Nintendo's third home video game console for the international market. Named for its 64-bit CPU, it was released on June 23, 1996 in Japan, September 29, 1996 in North America, March 1, 1997 in Europe and Australia, September 1, 1997 in France and December 10, 1997 in Brazil. It is Nintendo's last home console to use cartridges to store games (Nintendo switched to a MiniDVD-based format for the Nintendo GameCube, then to standard DVD-sized discs for the Wii). The N64 was released with two launch games, Super Mario 64 and Pilotwings 64, and a third in Japan, Saikyō Habu Shōgi. The N64's suggested retail price was US$199 at its launch and it was later marketed with the slogan "Get N, or get Out!". The N64 sold 32.93 million units worldwide. The Nintendo 64 was released in at least eight variants with different colors and sizes. An assortment of limited edition controllers were sold or used as contest prizes during the N64's lifespan. Of the consoles in the fifth generation, the Nintendo 64 was the most technologically-advanced in many aspects; however, the hardware had limitations, such as limited space—a cartridge had only a fraction of the capacity of the CD format used in competing consoles. Another technical drawback was its limited texture cache, which could only hold textures of small dimensions and reduced color depth, which had to be stretched to cover larger in-game surfaces. History Nintendo 64 was the culmination of work by Nintendo, Silicon Graphics (SGI) and MIPS Technologies. The SGI-based system design that ended up in the Nintendo 64 was originally offered to Clinton Theodore McGuire, then CEO of Sega of America, by James H. Clark, founder of Silicon Graphics. SGI had recently purchased MIPS Technologies and the two companies had worked together to create a low-cost CPU/3D GPU combination that they thought would be useful for consoles. A hardware team from Sega of Japan evaluated the chip's capabilities and they found faults, which MIPS subsequently solved; however, Sega of Japan ultimately decided against SGI's design. In the early stages of development, the Nintendo 64 was referred to by the code name "Project Reality". This moniker came from the speculation within Nintendo that the console could produce CGI on par with then-current supercomputers. In 1994, the console was given the name Nintendo Ultra 64 in the West. The console's design was shown for the first time in late Spring 1994. The first picture of the console ever shown featured the Nintendo Ultra 64 logo and showed a ROM cartridge, but no controller. The final console was identical to this, but with a different logo. When the system, together with the controller, was fully unveiled in a playable form to the public on November 24, 1995 at the 7th Annual Shoshinkai Software Exhibition in Japan, the console was introduced as the "Nintendo 64" in Japan, contrary to speculation that it would be called "Ultra Famicom". Photos of the event were disseminated on the web by Game Zero magazine two days later. Official coverage by Nintendo followed later via the Nintendo Power website and print magazine. During this stage of development, two companies, Rareware (UK) and Midway (USA), created the arcade games Killer Instinct and Cruis'n USA, which claimed to use the Ultra 64 hardware. Each game had vastly different hardware, although Killer Instinct did use a MIPS R4600 CPU. Killer Instinct was the most advanced game of its time graphically, featuring pre-rendered movie backgrounds that were streamed off the hard drive and animated as the characters moved horizontally. In February 1996, Nintendo of America announced a delay of Nintendo Ultra 64 until September 1996 in North America. It was also announced that Nintendo had adopted a new global branding strategy, calling the console Nintendo 64 everywhere. Nintendo dropped "Ultra" from the name on May 1, 1996, months before its Japanese debut, because the word "Ultra" was trademarked by another company, Konami, for its Ultra Games division. Despite the name change, the official prefix for the Nintendo 64's model numbering scheme is "NUS-", a reference to the console's original name, "Nintendo Ultra Sixty-Four". The console was finally released in Japan on June 23, 1996, but the PAL introduction was further delayed, finally being released in Europe on March 1, 1997. Sales The North American version of the Nintendo 64 officially launched on September 29, 1996 with 500,000 units sold in the first four months. Benimaru Itoh, a developer for EarthBound 64 and friend of Shigeru Miyamoto, speculated in 1997 that the N64's lower popularity in Japan was due to the lack of role-playing video games. As of March 31, 2005, the N64 had sold 5.54 million units in Japan, 20.63 million in the Americas, and 6.75 million in other regions, for a total of 32.93 million units. The system was frequently marketed as the world's first 64-bit gaming system. A few years prior, though, Atari had claimed to have made the first 64-bit game console with their Atari Jaguar. However, the Jaguar actually only used a 64-bit RISC architecture "Object Processor" and a 64-bit RISC "Blitter" in conjunction with two 32-bit processors and a 16-bit Motorola 68000. Hardware The standard Nintendo 64 controller has one analog stick, two shoulder buttons, one digital cross pad, six face buttons, a "Start" button and a digital trigger (Z). Central processing unit The Nintendo 64's central processing unit (CPU) is a MIPS R4300i-based NEC VR4300. The CPU is 64-bit with a core clock speed of 93.75 MHz. It is connected to the rest of the system through a 32-bit data bus. VR4300 is a RISC 5-stage scalar in-order execution processor with an integrated floating point unit. This was by far the most powerful CPU used in a game console of its generation; however, the cost-reduced NEC VR4300 CPU used in the console has a 32-bit system bus whereas more powerful MIPS CPUs are equipped with a 64-bit system bus. Many games took advantage of the chip's 32-bit processing mode as the greater data precision available with 64-bit data types is not typically required by 3D games, as well as the fact that processing 64-bit data uses twice as much RAM, cache, and bandwidth, thereby reducing the overall system performance. This was later taken advantage of by emulators such as UltraHLE and Project64, which had to run on 32-bit PCs. These emulators performed most calculations at 32-bit precision, and trapped the few OS subroutines that actually made use of 64-bit instructions. The CPU has an internal 24 KB direct-mapped L1 cache (16KB for instructions, 8KB for data), but no L2 cache. It was built by NEC on a 0.35 µm process and consists of 4.6 million transistors. The CPU is cooled passively by an aluminum heatspreader that makes contact with a steel heat sink above. Reality Co-Processor The Nintendo 64's graphics and audio duties are performed by the 64-bit SGI coprocessor, named the "Reality Co-Processor" . The RCP is a 62.5 MHz chip split internally into two major components, the "Reality Signal Processor" (RSP) and the "Reality Display Processor" (RDP), also called the "Reality Drawing Processor". Each area communicates with the other by way of a 128-bit internal data bus that provides 1.0 GB/s bandwidth. The RSP is a MIPS R4000-based 8-way 16-bit integer vector processor which performs all 3D manipulations and audio functions. The RSP was programmable through microcode (µcode). By altering the microcode run on the device, it could perform different operations, create new effects, and be better tuned for speed or quality; however, Nintendo was unwilling to share the microcode tools with developers until the end of the Nintendo 64's life-cycle. Programming RSP microcode was said to be quite difficult because the Nintendo 64 µcode tools were very basic, with no debugger and poor documentation. As a result, it was very easy to make mistakes that would be hard to track down; mistakes that could cause seemingly random bugs or glitches. Some developers noted that the default SGI microcode ("Fast3D") was poorly profiled for use in games (it was too accurate), and performance suffered as a result. Several companies were able to create custom microcode programs that ran their software far better than SGI's generic software, such as Factor 5, Boss Game Studios and Rare. Two of the SGI microcodes Fast3D microcode: < ~100,000 high accuracy polygons per second. Turbo3D microcode: 500,000–600,000 normal accuracy polygons per second. However, due to the graphical degradation, Nintendo asked that developers not use it. The RSP also frequently performs audio functions (although the CPU can be tasked with this as well). It can play back most types of audio (dependent on software codecs) including uncompressed PCM, MP3, MIDI, and tracker music. The RSP is capable of a maximum of 100 channels of PCM at a time, but this is with 100% system utilization for audio. It has a maximum sampling rate of 48 kHz with 16-bit audio; however, storage limitations caused by the cartridge format limited audio size (and thus quality). The RDP is the machine's rasterizer and performs the bulk of actual image creation before output to the display. The Nintendo 64 has a maximum color depth of 16.8 million colors (32,768 on-screen) and can display resolutions of 256 × 224, 320 × 240 and 640 × 480 pixels. The RCP also provides the CPU's access to main system memory via a 250 MB/s bus. Unfortunately, this link does not allow direct memory access for the CPU. The RCP, like the CPU, is passively cooled by an aluminum heatspreader that makes contact with a steel heat sink above. Memory The final major component in the system is the memory, also known as RAM. The Nintendo 64 was the first console to implement a unified memory subsystem, instead of having separate banks of memory for CPU, audio, and video, for example. The memory itself consists of 4 megabyte of RAMBUS RDRAM (expandable to 8 MB with the Expansion Pak) with a 9-bit data bus at 500 MHz providing the system with 562.5 MB/s peak bandwidth. RAMBUS was quite new at the time and offered Nintendo a way to provide a large amount of bandwidth for a relatively low cost. The narrow bus makes board design easier and cheaper than the higher width data buses required for high bandwidth out of slower-clocked RAM types (such as VRAM or EDO DRAM); however, RDRAM, at the time, came with a very high access latency, and this caused grief for the game developers because of limited hardware performance. Video The system provides both composite video and S-video through the MULTI-OUT connection on the back. The MULTI-OUT connector was also used on the earlier SNES and later GameCube consoles; however, the Nintendo 64 removed certain pin connections for providing RGB video, despite having the capability built-in. A composite cable was available for purchase from Nintendo of America. This cable was also compatible with the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. In the United Kingdom, the N64 was instead shipped with a coaxial adapter and cable, but was still fully compatible with the other connectors. Hardware color variations The standard Nintendo 64 is dark gray, nearly black, and the controller is light gray. A Jungle Green colored console was first available with the Donkey Kong 64 bundle. The Funtastic Series used brightly-colored, translucent plastic with six colors: Fire Orange, Grape Purple, Ice Blue, Jungle Green, Smoke Grey and Watermelon Red. Nintendo released a yellow banana-like Nintendo 64 controller for the debut of Donkey Kong 64 in the United States. The Millennium 2000 controller, available exclusively as part of a Nintendo Power promotional contest in the United States, was a silver controller with black buttons. A gold controller was released in a contest by Nintendo Power magazine as part of a drawing. In late 1997 through 1998, a few gold Nintendo 64 controller packages were released worldwide; in the United Kingdom there was a limited edition GoldenEye 007 console pack which came with a standard gray console and a copy of GoldenEye. Also, a limited edition gold controller with a standard gray console were released in Australia and New Zealand in early 1998, endorsed by an advertising campaign which featured footage of N64 games including Top Gear Rally and ended with Australian swimmer Michael Klim wearing the gold controller as a medal around his neck. Nintendo released a gold controller for the debut of The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time in Japan. Soon after, bundle packs of the game, controller, and gold Nintendo 64 were released for the US and PAL markets. The Pokémon Edition Nintendo 64, with a Pokémon sticker on the left side, included the "Pokémon: I Choose You" video. The Pokémon Pikachu Nintendo 64 had a large, yellow Pikachu model on a blue Nintendo 64. It has a different footprint than the standard Nintendo 64 console, and the Expansion Pak port is covered. It also shipped with a blue Pokémon controller; orange in Japan. A Limited Edition Star Wars bundle, available during the time of the release of the film Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace came bundled with Star Wars: Episode I Racer and a standard gray console. The majority of Nintendo 64 game cartridges were gray in color; however, some games were released on a colored cartridge. Fourteen games had black cartridges, while other colors (such as green, blue, red, yellow and gold) were each used for six or fewer games. Several games, such as The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time were released both in standard gray and in colored, limited edition versions. Accessories Programming difficulties The Nintendo 64 had weaknesses that were caused by a combination of oversight on the part of the hardware designers, limitations on 3D technology of the time, and manufacturing capabilities. One major flaw was the limited texture cache of 4 KB. This made it difficult to load anything but small, low color depth textures into the rendering engine. This small texture limitation caused blurring due to developers stretching small textures to cover a surface, and then the console's bilinear filtering would blur them further. To make matters worse, due to the design of the renderer, if mipmapping was used, the texture cache was effectively halved to 2 KB. Towards the end of Nintendo 64's lifetime, creative developers managed to use tricks, such as multi-layered texturing and heavily-clamped, small texture pieces, to simulate larger textures. Conker's Bad Fur Day is possibly the best example of this ingenuity. Games often also used plain colored Gouraud shading instead of texturing on certain surfaces, especially in games with themes not targeting realism (e.g., Super Mario 64). There were other challenges for developers to work around. Z-buffering significantly crippled the RDP's fill rate. Thus, for maximum performance, most Nintendo 64 games were actually fill-rate limited, not geometry limited, which is ironic considering the great concern for the Nintendo 64's low polygon per second rating of only about 100,000; however, some of the most polygon-intense Nintendo 64 games, such as World Driver Championship, frequently pushed past the Sony PlayStation's typical in-game polygon counts. The unified memory subsystem of Nintendo 64 was another critical weakness for the machine. The RDRAM had very high access latency, which nearly negated its high bandwidth advantage. In addition, game developers commented that the Nintendo 64's memory controller setup was poor. The R4300 CPU was severely limited at memory access since it had to go through the RCP to access main memory, and could not use DMA to do so. One of the best examples of custom microcode on the Nintendo 64 was Factor 5's N64 port of the Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine PC game. The Factor 5 team aimed for the high resolution mode (640 × 480) because of the crispness it added to the visuals. The machine was taxed to the limit running at 640 × 480, so they needed performance beyond the standard SGI microcode. The Z-buffer could not be used because it alone consumed the already-constrained texture fill-rate. To work around the 4 KB texture cache, the programmers came up with custom texture formats and tools to let the artists use the best possible textures. Each texture was analyzed and fitted to best texture format for performance and quality. They took advantage of the cartridge as a texture streaming source to squeeze as much detail as possible into each environment and work around RAM limitations. They wrote microcode for real-time lighting, since the SGI code was poor for this task and they wanted to have even more lighting than the PC version had used. Factor 5's microcode allowed almost unlimited real-time lighting and significantly boosted the polygon count. In the end, the game was more feature-filled than the PC version, and unsurprisingly, was one of the most advanced games for Nintendo 64. Factor 5 again used custom microcode with games such as Star Wars: Rogue Squadron and Star Wars: Battle for Naboo. In Star Wars: Rogue Squadron, the team tweaked the microcode for a landscape engine to create the alien worlds. For Star Wars: Battle for Naboo, they used what they learned from Rogue Squadron and made the game run at 640 × 480, also implementing enhancements for particles and the landscape engine. Battle for Naboo had a long draw distance and large amounts of snow and rain, despite the high resolution. Cartridges Nintendo 64 games were ROM cartridge based. Cartridge size varied from 4 MB (32 Mbit) (e.g. Automobili Lamborghini and Dr. Mario 64) to 64 MB (512 Mbit) for Resident Evil 2 and Conker's Bad Fur Day. Some of the cartridges included internal EEPROM or battery-backed-up RAM for saved game storage. Otherwise, game saves were put onto a separate memory card, marketed by Nintendo as a Controller Pak. The selection of the cartridge for the Nintendo 64 was a key factor in Nintendo's being unable to retain its dominant position in the gaming market. Most of the cartridge's advantages did not manifest themselves prominently and they were nullified by the cartridge's shortcomings, which turned off customers and developers alike. Especially for the latter, it was costly and difficult to develop for ROM cartridges, as their limited storage capacity constrained the game's content. Most third-party developers switched to the PlayStation, such as Square and Enix, whose Final Fantasy VII and Dragon Quest VII were initially pre-planned for the N64, while some who remained released fewer games to the Nintendo 64. Konami was the biggest example of this, releasing only thirteen N64 games but over fifty on the PlayStation. New Nintendo 64 game releases were infrequent while new games were coming out rapidly for the PlayStation. Most of the N64's biggest successes were developed by either Nintendo itself or by second-parties of Nintendo, such as Rareware. Despite the difficulties with third-parties, the N64 still managed to support popular games such as GoldenEye 007 and The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, giving it a long shelf-life. Much of this success was credited to Nintendo's strong first-party franchises, such as Mario and Zelda, which had strong name brand appeal, yet appeared exclusively on Nintendo platforms. The N64 also secured its share of the mature audience, due to GoldenEye 007, Nightmare Creatures, Perfect Dark, Doom 64, Resident Evil 2, Shadow Man, Conker's Bad Fur Day, Duke Nukem 64, Duke Nukem: Zero Hour, Mortal Kombat 4, Turok: Dinosaur Hunter, Turok 2: Seeds of Evil and Quake II. Nintendo cited several advantages for making the N64 cartridge-based. Primarily cited was the ROM cartridges' very fast load times in comparison to disc-based games, as contemporary CD-ROM drives rarely had speeds above 4×. This can be observed from the loading screens that appear in many PlayStation games but are typically non-existent in N64 versions. ROM carts were much faster than the 2× CD-ROM drives in other consoles that developers could stream data in real-time from them. This was done in Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine, for example, to make the most of the limited RAM in the N64. Also, ROM cartridges are difficult and expensive to duplicate, thus resisting piracy, albeit at the expense of lowered profit margin for Nintendo. While unauthorized interface devices for the PC were later developed, these devices are rare when compared to a regular CD drive and popular mod chips used on the PlayStation. Compared to the N64, piracy was rampant on the PlayStation. The cartridges are also far more durable than compact discs, the latter which must be carefully used and stored in protective cases. It also prevents accidental scratches and subsequent read errors. It is possible to add specialized I/O hardware and support chips (such as co-processors) to ROM cartridges, as was done on some SNES games (including Star Fox, using the Super FX chip). ROM cartridges also have disadvantages associated with them. While game cartridges are more resistant than CDs to physical damage, they are sometimes less resistant to long-term environmental damage, particularly oxidation or wear of their electrical contacts causing a blank or frozen screen, or static electricity. Console cartridges are usually larger and heavier than optical discs, requiring greater storage space. They also have a more complex manufacturing processes; cardridge-based games were usually more expensive to manufacture than their optical counterparts. The cartridges held a maximum of 64 MB of data, whereas CDs held over 650 MB. As fifth generation games became more complex in content, sound and graphics, it pushed cartridges to the limits of their storage capacity. Games ported from other media had to use data compression or reduced content to be released on the N64. Extremely large games could be made to span across multiple discs on CD-based systems, while cartridge games had to be contained within one unit as using an additional cartridge was prohibitively expensive (and was never tried). Due to the cartridge's space limitations, full motion video was not usually feasible for use in cut scenes. The cut scenes of some games used graphics generated by the CPU in real-time. Graphics Graphically, results of the Nintendo cartridge system were mixed. The N64's graphics chip was capable of bilinear filtering, which allowed textures to look very smooth compared to the Sega Saturn or the PlayStation. This was due to latter two using nearest-neighbor interpolation, resulting in textures that were pixelated. However, the smaller storage size of ROM cartridges limited the number of available textures, resulting in games that had blurry graphics. This was caused by the liberal use of stretched, low-resolution textures, and was compounded by the N64's 4096-byte limit on a single texture. Some games, such as Super Mario 64, use a large amount of Gouraud shading or very simple textures to produce a cartoon-like image. This fit the themes of many games, and allowed this style of imagery a sharp look. Cartridges for some later games, such as Resident Evil 2 and Sin & Punishment: Successor of the Earth, featured more ROM space, allowing for more detailed graphics. Production This era's competing systems from Sony and Sega (the PlayStation and Saturn, respectively) used CD-ROM discs to store their games. These discs are much cheaper to manufacture and distribute, resulting in lower costs to third-party game publishers. As a result, game developers who had traditionally supported Nintendo game consoles were now developing games for the competition because of the higher profit margins found on CD-based platforms. Cartridges took longer to manufacture than CDs, with each production run (from order to delivery) taking two weeks or more. By contrast, extra copies of a CD based game could be ordered with a lead time of a few days. This meant that publishers of N64 titles had to attempt to predict demand for a game ahead of its release. They risked being left with a surplus of expensive cartridges for a failed game or a weeks-long shortage of product if they underestimated a game's popularity. The cost of producing an N64 cartridge was far higher than producing a CD. Publishers had to pass these higher expenses to the consumer and as a result, N64 games tended to sell for higher prices than PlayStation games. While most PlayStation games rarely exceeded US$50, N64 games could reach US$79.99, such as the first pressing of The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time. Games in Sony's line of PlayStation Greatest Hits budget line retailed for US$19.95, while Nintendo's equivalent Player's Choice line retailed for US$29.95. In the United Kingdom, N64 games were priced £54.95 at their time of release, while PlayStation games were priced at £44.95. Cartridge-copy counter-measures Each Nintendo 64 cartridge contains a lockout chip (similar to the 10NES) to prevent manufacturers from creating unauthorized copies of games and discourage production of unlicensed games. Unlike previous versions, the N64 lockout chip contains a seed value which is used to calculate a checksum of the game's boot code. To discourage playing of copied games by piggybacking on a real cartridge, Nintendo produced five different versions of the chip. During the boot process, and occasionally while the game is running, the N64 computes the checksum of the boot code and verify it with the lockout chip in the game cartridge, failing to boot if the check fails. Games The Nintendo 64 game library included a number of critically acclaimed and widely sold games. The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time was critically acclaimed on release and has led many polls for best game ever. Super Mario 64 was the console's best selling game (selling over eleven million copies) and also received praise from critics. Marc Russo quoted The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time as one of the greatest games of all time, and, in his words, remains "to this day ... the finest game I've ever played across any platform or genre." Emulation References External links Nintendo 64 at Nintendo.com (archived versions at the Internet Archive Wayback Machine) Coverage of the official unveiling of the Nintendo Ultra 64 at the 7th Annual Shoshinkai Software Exhibition, in Japan Nintendo 64 Promotion Video from 1997 | Nintendo_64 |@lemmatized often:2 abbreviate:1 nintendo:81 third:5 home:2 video:10 game:87 console:30 international:1 market:6 name:8 bit:22 cpu:17 release:21 june:2 japan:12 september:4 north:3 america:6 march:3 europe:2 australia:2 france:1 december:1 brazil:1 last:1 use:34 cartridge:39 store:3 switch:2 minidvd:1 base:11 format:5 gamecube:2 standard:9 dvd:1 size:5 disc:7 wii:1 two:10 launch:3 super:6 mario:6 pilotwings:1 saikyō:1 habu:1 shōgi:1 suggest:1 retail:3 price:4 u:6 later:6 slogan:1 get:2 n:2 sell:7 million:8 unit:8 worldwide:2 least:1 eight:1 variant:1 different:6 color:13 assortment:1 limited:12 edition:6 controller:17 contest:3 prize:1 lifespan:1 fifth:2 generation:3 technologically:1 advance:1 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6,541 | Gheorghe_Hagi | Gheorghe Hagi ( in Romanian; born February 5, 1965 in Săcele), is a Romanian former football player. He was famous for his passing, close control, long shots and was regarded as one of the best attacking midfielders in Europe during the 1980s and 1990s. Nicknamed "The Maradona of the Carpathians", he is considered a hero in his homeland as well as in Turkey. He has won his country's "Player of the Year" award six times, and was recently named Romanian football player of the century. He played for the Romanian national team in three World Cups in 1990, 1994 and 1998, as well as in three European Football Championships in 1984, 1996 and 2000. He won a total of 125 caps for Romania, being ranked second after Dorinel Munteanu, and scored 35 goals, being ranked first. In November 2003, to celebrate UEFA's Jubilee, he was selected as the Golden Player of Romania by the Romanian Football Federation as their most outstanding player of the past 50 years. Hagi is one of the few footballers to have played for both the Spanish rival clubs Real Madrid and FC Barcelona. In March 2004, he was named among the top 125 living footballers by Pelé. Club career He started his career playing for the youth teams of Farul Constanţa in the 1970s, before being selected by the Romanian Football Federation to join the squad of Luceafărul Bucureşti in 1980 for two years. In 1982 he returned to Constanţa, but one year later, aged 18, he was prepared to make the step to a top team. He was originally directed to Universitatea Craiova, but chose Sportul Studenţesc of Bucharest instead. In the winter of 1987 Hagi was transferred to Romanian giants Steaua Bucureşti as the team prepared their European Super Cup final against FC Dynamo Kyiv. The original contract was for one game only, the final. However after winning the trophy, Hagi scoring the only goal of the final, Steaua did not want to release him back to Sportul Studenţesc and retained him for the next years. During his Steaua years, (1987 - 1990), Hagi played 97 Liga I games, scoring 76 goals. He and the team reached the European Cup semifinal in 1988 and the final in the following year, champions of Romania in 1987, 1988 and 1989 and winning the Romania Cup in 1987, 1988 and 1989. After the 1990 World Cup, he was signed by Real Madrid. The La Liga side paid $4.3 million to Steaua for him. Hagi played two seasons with Real Madrid and then was sold to Brescia Calcio. Hagi helped Brescia Calcio win the Italian Serie B and get promoted to Serie A, but in the next season the club relegated back to Serie B, and after performing memorably on the 1994 World Cup, Hagi was signed by FC Barcelona. After two years at FC Barcelona, sitting more on bench half season because of injuries. Hagi signed for Galatasaray S.K.. at Galatasaray, he was both successful and highly popular among the Turkish supporters of the Istanbul side. Hagi and manager Fatih Terim built a team that would win four league titles. In 2000 was Hagi and Galatasaray's best year, with the Turkish side, lead by Hagi, managed to win the UEFA Cup after defeating Arsenal and then the European Super Cup Hagi's former club, Real Madrid. and win it, for the first time in Turkey's history. The mass hysteria caused by this win in Istanbul raised Hagi's popularity even further with the fans and made French ex-international Luis Fernández to say that "Hagi is like wine, the older it gets, the better it is". At 35 years of age, Hagi was living his career's best, winning every possible trophy with Galatasaray in 2000. When he retired in 2001, he remained one of the most beloved players in the Turkish and Romanian championships. National team Hagi made his debut for the Romania national team at the age of 18 in 1983 in a game against Norway played in Oslo. He was part of the Romanian team until 2000. Hagi led the Romanian team to its best ever international performance at the 1994 World Cup, where the team reached the quarterfinals before Sweden ended their run after winning the penalty shoot-out. Hagi scored three times in the tournament, including a memorable goal in their 3-2 surprise defeat of South American powerhouse and previous runners-up Argentina. In the first of Romania's group stage matches, against Colombia, Hagi scored one of the most memorable goals of that tournament, curling in a 40-yard lob over Colombian goalkeeper Oscar Córdoba who was caught out of position. He was named in the Team of the Tournament. Four years later, after the 1998 World Cup, Hagi decided to retire from the national team, only to change his mind after few months and play at the 2000 European Football Championship. Hagi retired from professional football in 2001, age 36, in a game called "Gala Hagi" on the 24th of April. He still holds the record as Romanian national team top scorer. International goals Scores and results list Romania's goal tally first. "Score" column indicates the score after the player's goal. # Date Venue Opponent Score Result Competition1 12 September 1984 Windsor Park, Belfast, Northern Ireland 1–1 2–3 FIFA World Cup 1986 Qualifying2 30 January 1985 Estádio José Alvalade, Lisbon, Portugal 3–2 3–2 Friendly3 3 April 1985 Stadionul Central, Craiova, Romania 1–0 3–0 FIFA World Cup 1986 Qualifying4 6 June 1985 Helsinki Olympic Stadium, Helsinki, Finland 1–0 1–1 FIFA World Cup 1986 Qualifying5 28 August 1985 Stadionul 1 Mai, Timişoara, Romania 1–0 2–0 FIFA World Cup 1986 Qualifying6 23 April 1986 Stadionul 1 Mai, Timişoara, Romania 1–0 2–1 Friendly7 20 August 1986 Ullevaal Stadion, Oslo, Norway 2–0 2–2 Friendly8 10 September 1986 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 4–0 4–1 UEFA Euro 1988 Qualifying9 11 March 1987 Karaiskakis Stadium, Piraeus, Greece 1–1 1–1 Friendly10 25 March 1987 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 3–1 5–1 UEFA Euro 1988 Qualifying11 20 September 1988 Stadionul 1 Mai, Constanţa, Romania 2–0 3–0 Friendly12 2 November 1988 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 2–0 3–0 FIFA World Cup 1990 Qualifying13 3 August 1990 Stadion Allmend, Lucerne, Switzerland 1–0 1–2 Friendly14 25 April 1990 Kiryat Eliezer Stadium, Haifa, Israel 2–04–1 Friendly15 27 March 1991 Stadio Olimpico, Serravalle, San Marino 1–0 3–1 UEFA Euro 1992 Qualifying16 16 October 1991 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 1–0 1–0 UEFA Euro 1992 Qualifying17 6 May 1992 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 2–0 7–0 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying18 20 May 1992 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 1–0 5–1 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying19 20 May 1992 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 5–0 5–1 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying20 29 November 1992 Neo GSZ Stadium, Larnaca, Cyprus 3–1 4–1 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying21 17 November 1993 Cardiff Arms Park, Cardiff, Wales 1–0 2–1 FIFA World Cup 1994 Qualifying22 14 June 1994 Trabuco Hills Stadium, Mission Viejo, United States 1–11–1 Friendly23 19 June 1994 Rose Bowl, Pasadena, United States 2–0 3–1 World Cup 1994 Group A24 22 June 1994 Pontiac Silverdome, Pontiac, United States 1–1 1–4 World Cup 1994 Group A25 19 June 1994 Rose Bowl, Pasadena, United States 3–1 3–2 World Cup 1994 Round of 1626 12 November 1994 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 2–0 3–2 UEFA Euro 1996 Qualifying27 15 October 1995 Všešportový areál, Košice, Slovakia 1–0 2–0 UEFA Euro 1996 Qualifying28 9 October 1996 Laugardalsvöllur, Reykjavík, Iceland 2–0 4–0 World Cup 1998 Qualifying29 29 March 1997 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 4–0 8–0 World Cup 1998 Qualifying30 10 September 1997 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 1–0 4–0 World Cup 1998 Qualifying31 10 September 1997 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 4–0 4–0 World Cup 1998 Qualifying32 11 October 1997 Lansdowne Road, Dublin, Republic of Ireland 1–0 1–1 World Cup 1998 Qualifying33 3 June 1997 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 3–2 3–2 Friendly34 4 September 1999 Tehelné pole, Bratislava, Slovakia 2–1 5–1 UEFA Euro 2000 Qualifying35 8 September 1999 Stadionul Ghencea, Bucharest, Romania 1–0 1–1 UEFA Euro 2000 Qualifying Career as coach In 2001 Hagi was named the manager of Romania, replacing Ladislau Bölöni, who left the squad to coach Sporting Clube de Portugal. However, after failing to qualify the team for the World Cup, Hagi was sacked. His only notable achievement during the six months as Romania's manager was the win in Budapest against Hungary, the first of this kind for the Romania national football team. In 2003, Hagi took over as coach of Turkish first division side Bursaspor, but left the club after a disappointing start to the season. He then became manager of Galatasaray in 2004, leading the team to the Turkish Cup in 2005 with 5-1 as a score vs. their rivals Fenerbahçe SK Romanian team Steaua Bucureşti wanted to hire him in the summer of 2005, but Hagi's requested wage could not be met by the Romanian champions. Hagi became manager of FCU Politehnica Timişoara instead, and after a string of bad results and disagreements with the management, he left the club after a few months. Constanţa's main stadium used to bear his name, but the name was changed after Hagi signed with FCU Politehnica Timişoara. From June 2007 to September 20, Hagi coached Steaua Bucuresti, had a mediocre start in the internal championship mainly due to the large number of unavailable injured players, managed to qualify the team for the second time in line to Champions League Groups passing two qualifying rounds. He resigned due to a long series of conflicts with the team's owner Gigi Becali, which also happens to be his godson. The main reason for resigning was the owner's policy of imposing players, making the team's strategy and threats. Hagi's resignation happened just a few hours after Steaua's first Champions League game in the actual season with Slavia Prague in Prague, Czech Republic, lost with 2-1. He also worked as an Eastern Europe scout for Scottish Premier League team Inverness Caledonian Thistle. He got Marius Niculae for the club but found no other players. For the last years he is known in developing young talents and youth centers across the country... Honours Sportul Studenţesc Liga 1: Runner-up 1986 Steaua Bucureşti Liga 1: 1987, 1988, 1989 Romanian Cup: 1987, 1988, 1989 UEFA Super Cup: 1987 UEFA Champions League: Runner-up 1989 Real Madrid Supercopa de España: 1990 La Liga: Runner-up 1992 Copa del Rey: Runner-up 1992 Brescia Anglo-Italian Cup: 1994 FC Barcelona Supercopa de España: 1994 Copa del Rey: Runner-up 1996 Galatasaray UEFA Cup: 2000 UEFA Super Cup: 2000 Turkish Super League: 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000 Turkish Cup: 1999, 2000 Manager Turkish Cup: 2005 (as Galatasaray coach) Individual Romanian League: Top Scorer 1985, 1986 European Cup: Top Scorer 1988 Romanian Footballer of the Year: 1985, 1987, 1993, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2000 FIFA World Cup All-Star Team: 1994 Turkish Super League: Achievement Award 2001 FIFA 100 |- |1982-83||Farul Constanţa||Liga I||18||7|||||||| |- |1983-84||rowspan="3"|Sportul Studenţesc||rowspan="3"|Liga I||31||2|||||||| |- |1984-85||30||20|||||||| |- |1985-86||31||31|||||||| |- |1986-87||rowspan="4"|Steaua Bucureşti||rowspan="4"|Liga I||14||10|||||||| |- |1987-88||31||26|||||||| |- |1988-89||30||31|||||||| |- |1989-90||22||18|||||||| |- |1990-91||rowspan="2"|Real Madrid||rowspan="2"|La Liga||29||3|||||||| |- |1991-92||35||12|||||||| |- |1992-93||rowspan="2"|Brescia||Serie A||31||5|||||||| |- |1993-94||Serie B||30||9|||||||| |- |1994-95||rowspan="2"|Barcelona||rowspan="2"|La Liga||19||3|||||||| |- |1995-96||5||0|||||||| |- |1996-97||rowspan="5"|Galatasaray||rowspan="5"|Turkcell Super League||30||14|||||||| |- |1997-98||30||8|||||||| |- |1998-99||28||14|||||||| |- |1999-00||19||12|||||||| |- |2000-01||20||7|||||||| 207||145|||||||| 88||18|||||||| 61||14|||||||| 127||55|||||||| 483||232|||||||| |} References External links Gheorghe Hagi's official website UEFA.com - 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6,542 | Dave_Brubeck | David Warren Brubeck (born December 6, 1920 Reception honors Concord native son, jazz great Dave Brubeck, ci.concord.ca.us, retrieved on 2007-01-15 ), better known as Dave Brubeck, is an American jazz pianist. Regarded as a jazz icon, he has written a number of jazz standards, including "In Your Own Sweet Way" and "The Duke". Brubeck's style ranges from refined to bombastic, reflecting his mother's attempts at classical training and his improvisational skills. His music is known for employing unusual time signatures, and superimposing contrasting rhythms, meters, and tonalities. His long-time musical partner, alto saxophonist Paul Desmond, wrote the Dave Brubeck Quartet's most famous piece, "Take Five", which is in 5/4 time and has endured as a jazz classic. Brubeck experimented with time signatures through much of his career, recording "Pick Up Sticks" in 6/4, "Unsquare Dance" in 7/4, and "Blue Rondo à la Turk" in 9/8. He is also a respected composer of orchestral and sacred music, and wrote soundtracks for television such as Mr. Broadway and the animated miniseries This Is America, Charlie Brown. Early life and career Brubeck was born in Concord, California. His father was a cattle rancher, and his mother, who had studied piano in England and intended to become a concert pianist, taught piano for extra money. Brubeck did not originally intend to become a musician (his two older brothers, Henry and Howard, were already on that track), but took lessons from his mother. He could not read sheet music during these early lessons, attributing this difficulty to poor eyesight, but "faked" his way through, well enough that this deficiency went mostly unnoticed. An Hour With Dave Brubeck, WNYC Intending to work with his father on their ranch, Brubeck entered the College of the Pacific (now the University of the Pacific) intending to be a veterinarian, but transferred thanks to the urging of the head of zoology, Dr. Arnold, who told him "Brubeck, your mind's not here. It's across the lawn in the conservatory. Please go there. Stop wasting my time and yours." It's About Time: The Dave Brubeck Story, by Fred M. Hall. Later, Brubeck was nearly expelled when one of his professors discovered that he could not read music. Several of his professors came forward, arguing that his ability with counterpoint and harmony more than compensated. The college was still afraid that it would cause a scandal, and only agreed to let Brubeck graduate once he promised never to teach piano. Rediscovering Dave Brubeck, PBS After graduating in 1942, Brubeck was drafted into the army and served overseas in George Patton's Third Army. He was spared from service in the Battle of the Bulge when he volunteered to play piano at a Red Cross show; he was such a hit he was ordered to form a band. Thus he created one of the armed forces' first integrated bands, "The Wolfpack". While serving, Brubeck met Paul Desmond in early 1944. Liner notes to the album "25th Anniversary Reunion", by The Dave Brubeck Quartet He returned to college after serving nearly four years in the army, this time attending Mills College and studying under Darius Milhaud, who encouraged him to study fugue and orchestration but not classical piano. After completing his studies under Milhaud, Brubeck helped found Berkeley, California's Fantasy Records. He worked with an octet (the recording bears his name only because Brubeck was the most well-known member at the time), and later a trio which included Cal Tjader and Ron Crotty. Highly experimental, the group made few recordings and got even fewer paying jobs. The trio was often joined by Paul Desmond on the bandstand, at Desmond's prodding. Down Beat artists profile The Dave Brubeck Quartet era Following a near-fatal swimming accident which incapacitated him for several months, Brubeck organized The Dave Brubeck Quartet in 1951, with Desmond on saxophone. They took up a long residency at San Francisco's Black Hawk nightclub and gained great popularity touring college campuses, recording a series of albums with such titles as Jazz at Oberlin (1953), Jazz at College of the Pacific (1953), and Brubeck's debut on Columbia Records, Jazz Goes to College (1954). In that same year, he was featured on the cover of Time magazine, the second jazz musician to be so honored (the first was Louis Armstrong on February 21, 1949. Time magazine cover: Louis Armstrong - 21 February 1949 ) Early bassists for the group included Ron Crotty, Bob Bates, and Bob's brother Norman Bates; Lloyd Davis and Joe Dodge held the drum chair. In 1956, Brubeck hired Joe Morello, who had been working with Marian McPartland; Morello's presence made possible the rhythmic experiments that were to come. In 1958 Eugene Wright joined for the group's U.S. State Department tour of Europe and Asia; Wright would become a permanent member in 1959, making the "classic" Quartet's personnel complete. Wright is African-American; in the late 1950s and early 1960s Brubeck canceled several concerts because the club owners or hall managers resisted the idea of an integrated band on their stages. He also canceled a television appearance when he found out that the producers intended to keep Wright off-camera. In 1959, the Dave Brubeck Quartet recorded Time Out, an album their label was enthusiastic about but nonetheless hesitant to release. Featuring the album art of Neil Fujita, the album contained all original compositions, almost none of which were in common time. Nonetheless, on the strength of these unusual time signatures (the album included "Take Five", "Blue Rondo à la Turk", and "Three To Get Ready"), it quickly went platinum. During this time, Dave Brubeck and his wife Iola were developing a jazz musical, The Real Ambassadors, which was based in part on experiences they and their colleagues had during foreign tours on behalf of the U.S. State Department. The soundtrack album, which featured Louis Armstrong, Lambert, Hendricks & Ross, and Carmen McRae was recorded in 1961, and the musical itself was performed at the 1962 Monterey Jazz Festival. Dave Brubeck Quartet 1967. From left to right: Joe Morello, Eugene Wright, Brubeck and Paul Desmond. The quartet followed up the success of Time Out with several more albums in the same vein, including Time Further Out: Miro Reflections (1961), Countdown: Time in Outer Space (dedicated to John Glenn) (1962), Time Changes (1963), and Time In (1965). These albums were also known for using contemporary paintings as cover art, featuring the work of Joan Miró on Time Further Out, Franz Kline on Time in Outer Space, and Sam Francis on Time Changes, though the fifth album, Time In, did not feature an artist's work. A high point for the group was their classic 1963 live album At Carnegie Hall, described by critic Richard Palmer as "arguably Dave Brubeck's greatest concert". Apart from the Jazz Goes to College and the 'Time' series, Brubeck recorded several records featuring his compositions based on the group's travels, and the local music they encountered. Jazz Impressions of the USA (1956, Morello's debut with the group), Jazz Impressions of Eurasia (1958), Jazz Impressions of Japan (1964), and Jazz Impressions of New York (1964) are less well-known albums, but all are brilliant examples of the quartet's studio work, and they produced Brubeck standards such as "Summer Song," "Brandenburg Gate," "Koto Song," and "Theme From Mr. Broadway." (Brubeck wrote, and the Quartet performed, the theme song for the Craig Stevens CBS drama series; the music from the series became material for the "New York" album.) In 1961 Dave Brubeck appeared briefly in the British Jazz/Beat film All Night Long starring Patrick McGoohan and Richard Attenborough. Brubeck is credited in the film as playing himself, and is seen playing piano in one or more scenes which include closeups of his playing style. One of these scenes is a performance of Brubeck's "It's a Raggy Waltz" from the Time Further Out album. Also in the movie is a brief excerpt of his duet with bassist Charles Mingus, "Non-Sectarian Blues." In the early 1960s Dave Brubeck was the program director of WJZZ-FM radio (now WEZN). He achieved his vision of an all jazz format radio station along with his friend and neighbor John E. Metts, one of the first African Americans in senior radio management. The final studio album for Columbia by the Desmond/Wright/Morello quartet was Anything Goes (1966) featuring Cole Porter songs. A few concert recordings followed, and The Last Time We Saw Paris (1967) was the "Classic" Quartet's swansong. Later career Dave Brubeck (1990) Brubeck's disbanding of the Quartet at the end of 1967 allowed him more time to compose the longer, extended orchestral and choral works that were occupying his attention. February 1968 saw the premiere of The Light in the Wilderness for baritone solo, choir, organ, the Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra conducted by Erich Kunzel, and Brubeck improvising on certain themes within. The piece is an oratorio on Jesus's teachings. The next year, Brubeck produced The Gates of Justice, a cantata mixing Biblical scripture with the words of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. Further works followed, including the 1971 cantata Truth Is Fallen, dedicated to the memory of the Kent State shootings and Jackson State killings of May 1970. The work was premiered in Midland, Michigan on May 1, 1971 and released on LP in 1972. Composers Datebook: 5/01/02-5/04/02 Of course, Brubeck's jazz playing did not cease. He was quickly prevailed upon by Newport Jazz Festival producer George Wein to tour with Gerry Mulligan. A Brubeck "Trio" was soon formed: Jack Six on bass, and Alan Dawson on drums. From 1968 until 1973, The Dave Brubeck Trio featuring Gerry Mulligan performed extensively, releasing several concert albums (including one with guest Desmond) and one studio album. In 1973 Brubeck formed another group with three of his sons, Darius on keyboards, Dan on drums, and Chris on electric bass or bass trombone. This group often included Perry Robinson, clarinet, and Jerry Bergonzi, saxophone. Brubeck would record and tour with this "Two Generations of Brubeck" group until 1978. Brubeck and Desmond recorded an album of duets in 1975, then the Classic Quartet reassembled for a 25th anniversary reunion in 1976. Desmond died in 1977. Brubeck's Quartet has remained vital, a primary creative outlet for the pianist. Bergonzi became a member and remained with the band until 1982. This version featured Chris Brubeck, and Randy Jones on drums. Jones joined in 1979 and is still with the band after almost 30 years. Replacing Bergonzi was Brubeck's old friend Bill Smith, who knew Brubeck at Mills College and was a member of Brubeck's Octet in the late 1940s; he remained in the group through the '80s and recorded with it off and on until 1995. The best recording of this Smith/Brubeck/Jones Quartet is probably their remarkable Moscow Night concert of 1987, released on Concord Records. The Quartet currently includes alto saxophonist and flautist Bobby Militello, bassist Michael Moore (who replaced Alec Dankworth), and Randy Jones. In 1994, Brubeck was inducted into the Down Beat Jazz Hall of Fame. Brubeck continues to write new works, including orchestral and ballet scores. He has worked extensively with the London Symphony Orchestra and tours about 80 cities each year. At the 49th Monterey Jazz Festival in September 2006, Brubeck debuted his commissioned work, Cannery Row Suite, a jazz opera drawn from the characters in John Steinbeck's American classic writing about Monterey's roots as a sardine fishing and packing town. Iola (née Whitlock), Brubeck's wife since 1942, is his personal secretary, manager and lyricist, and co-authored the Cannery Row Suite with Dave. His performance of this as well as a number of jazz standards with his current quartet was the buzz of the Festival (an event Brubeck helped launch in 1958). On April 3, 2009, Brubeck was scheduled to play the album Time Out in its entirety to commemorate its 50th anniversary at the annual Brubeck Festival, but was not able to due to being hospitalized with a viral infection. His son Darius filled in on piano with the rest of his quartet. "Ailing Jazz Icon Brubeck Cancels Festival Appearance", contactmusic.com, 4 March 2009. Personal life Dave Brubeck in 2005 Four of Brubeck's six children are professional musicians. Darius, the eldest, is an accomplished pianist, producer, educator and performer. Dan is a renowned percussionist, Chris is a multi-instrumentalist and composer. Matthew, the youngest, is a versatile cellist with an impressive list of composing and performance credits. Brubeck's children often join with him in concerts and in the recording studio. Brubeck believed the casualties of World War II contradicted the Ten Commandments, and the war evoked a spiritual awakening. He became a Catholic in 1980, shortly after completing the Mass To Hope which had been commissioned by Ed Murray, editor of the national Catholic weekly Our Sunday Visitor. Although he had spiritual interests before then he said, "I didn't convert to Catholicism, because I wasn't anything to convert from. I just joined the Catholic Church." Rediscovering Dave Brubeck, PBS In 1996, he received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. In 2006, Brubeck was awarded the University of Notre Dame's Laetare Medal, the oldest and most prestigious honor given to American Catholics, during the University's commencement. He performed "Travellin' Blues" for the graduating class of 2006. Brubeck founded the Brubeck Institute with his wife at their alma mater, the University of the Pacific in 2000. What began as a special archive, consisting of the personal document collection of the Brubecks has since expanded to provide fellowships and educational opportunities in jazz for students. Brubeck Summer Jazz Colony - University of the Pacific On April 8, 2008 US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice presented Brubeck with a "Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy" for offering an American "vision of hope, opportunity and freedom" through his music. "As a little girl I grew up on the sounds of Dave Brubeck because my dad was your biggest fan," said Rice. "Whatever Happened to Cultural Diplomacy?", All About Jazz, April 19, 2008. The State Department said in a statement that "as a pianist, composer, cultural emissary and educator, Dave Brubeck's life's work exemplifies the best of America's cultural diplomacy." At the ceremony Brubeck played a brief recital for the audience at the State Department. "I want to thank all of you because this honor is something that I never expected. Now I am going to play a cold piano with cold hands," Brubeck stated. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver announced on May 28, 2008 that Brubeck will be inducted into the California Hall of Fame, located at The California Museum for History, Women and the Arts. The induction ceremony occurred December 10, and he was inducted alongside eleven other legendary Californians. Selected discography Brubeck Trio with Cal Tjader, Volume 1 (1949) Brubeck Trio with Cal Tjader, Volume 2 (1949) Brubeck/Desmond (1951) Stardust (1951) Dave Brubeck Quartet (1951) Jazz at the Blackhawk (1952) Dave Brubeck/Paul Desmond (1952) Jazz at Storyville (live) (1952) featuring Paul Desmond In Concert (live) (1953) Jazz at Oberlin (1953) Dave Brubeck & Paul Desmond at Wilshire Ebell (1953) Two Knights at the Black Hawk (1953) Jazz at the College Volume 1 (1953) Jazz at the College Volume 2 (1953) Dave Brubeck at Storyville 1954 (live) (1954) Brubeck Time (1954) Jazz: Red Hot And Cool (1955) Jazz Impressions of the U.S.A. (1956) Plays and Plays and ... (1957) Reunion (1957) Jazz goes to Junior College (live) (1957) Dave Digs Disney (1957) Dave Brubeck Plays Solo (1958) Gone with the Wind (1959) Tonight Only (1960) Southern Scene (1960) Take Five Live (1961) Angel Eyes (1962) Dave Brubeck in Berlin (1964) Jazz Impressions of Japan (1964) Awards Connecticut Arts Award (1987) National Medal of Arts, National Endowment for the Arts (1994) DownBeat Hall of Fame (1994) Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award (1996) Doctorate honoris causa University of Fribourg, Switzerland (2004) Laetare Medal (University of Notre Dame) (2006) BBC Jazz Lifetime Achievement Award (2007) Benjamin Franklin Award for Public Diplomacy (2008) "Jazz great Brubeck wins US public diplomacy award", AFP, 8 April 2008. Inducted into California Hall of Fame (2008) References Photographs, documents, and video clips of oral history interviews from the Brubeck Collection are available at the University of the Pacific Library's Digital Collections. External links Dave Brubeck.com 2004 WNYC Interview with Brubeck Dave Brubeck Collection at the University of the Pacific Library's Holt-Atherton Special Collections Rediscovering Dave Brubeck, PBS, 16 December 2001 documentary Dave Brubeck Discography Project The Brubeck Institute Biography, photos, CDs and concert review of Dave Brubeck by cosmopolis.ch Discography at SonyBMG Masterworks Dave Brubeck Quartet Discography at SonyBMG Masterworks | Dave_Brubeck |@lemmatized david:1 warren:1 brubeck:98 born:1 december:3 reception:1 honor:3 concord:4 native:1 son:3 jazz:39 great:4 dave:35 ci:1 ca:1 u:6 retrieve:1 good:1 know:6 american:6 pianist:5 regard:1 icon:2 write:6 number:2 standard:3 include:11 sweet:1 way:2 duke:1 style:2 range:1 refine:1 bombastic:1 reflect:1 mother:3 attempt:1 classical:2 training:1 improvisational:1 skill:1 music:7 employ:1 unusual:2 time:29 signature:3 superimpose:1 contrast:1 rhythm:1 meter:1 tonality:1 long:4 musical:3 partner:1 alto:2 saxophonist:2 paul:7 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6,543 | James_Cagney | James Francis Cagney, Jr. (July 17, 1899 – March 30, 1986) was an American film star. Although he won acclaim and major awards for a wide variety of roles, he is best remembered for playing "tough guys." McGilligan, page 11 In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked him eighth among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time. For his first performing role, he danced dressed as a woman in the chorus line of the 1919 revue Every Sailor. After several years in vaudeville, Cagney continued as a hoofer and comedian until his first major acting role in 1925. He secured several other roles, receiving good reviews before landing the lead role the 1929 play Penny Arcade. After rave reviews for his acting, Warners signed him on an initial $500 a week, three week contract to reprise his role, which was quickly extended to a seven year contract. Cagney's seventh film, The Public Enemy, became one of the most influential gangster movies of the period. Notable for its famous grapefruit scene, the film thrust Cagney into the spotlight, making him one of Warners' and Hollywood's biggest stars. In 1938 he received his first Academy Award for Best Actor nomination for Angels with Dirty Faces, before winning in 1942 for his portrayal of George M. Cohan in Yankee Doodle Dandy. He was nominated a third time in 1955 for Love Me or Leave Me. Cagney retired for 20 years in 1961, spending time on his farm before returning for a part in Ragtime mainly to aid his recovery from a stroke. Cagney walked out on Warners several times over his career, each time coming back on improved personal and artistic terms. In 1935 he sued Warners for breach of contract and won; this marked one of the first times an actor had beaten the studios on a contract issue. He worked for an independent film company for a year while the suit was settled, and also established his own production company, Cagney Productions in 1942 before returning to Warners again four years later. Jack Warner called him "The Professional Againster", in reference to Cagney’s refusal to be pushed around. Cagney also made numerous morale-boosting tours of troops before and during World War II, and was President of the Screen Actors Guild for two years. He married Frances "Billie" Vernon in 1922, and they remained together until his death in 1986. They had two children, Jim Jr. and Cathleen. Cagney generally kept his private life to himself; he enjoyed farming, and had a love of horses, cattle, sailing and painting. As he got older, his politics moved from liberal to "arch-conservative", and he contributed time and funds to campaigns for both Democrats and Republicans. Early life Cagney was born on the Lower East Side of Manhattan in New York City on the corner of Avenue D and 8th Street. His father, James Sr. was an Irish American bartender and amateur boxer; Cagney was born in a room above his father’s saloon. His mother, Carolyn Nelson, was half Irish, half Norwegian; her father was a Norwegian ships captain while her mother was Irish American. The family moved twice when he was still young, first to East 79th Street, and then to East 96th Street. Cagney, page 3 Cagney was the second of seven children, two of whom died within months of birth; he himself had been very sick as a young child, so much so that his mother feared he would die before being christened. He later attributed his sickness to the level of poverty in which they grew up. Cagney, page 2 Warren, page 4 The red-haired, blue-eyed Cagney graduated from Stuyvesant High School in New York City in 1918, and attended Columbia College of Columbia University where he intended to major in art. McGilligan, page 16 He also took German and joined the Student Army Training Corps, Cagney, page 23 but dropped out after one semester, returning home upon the death of his father during the 1918 flu pandemic. He had a range of jobs early in his life, and gave all his earnings to the family: junior architect, copy boy for the New York Sun, book custodian at the New York Public Library, bellhop, draughtsman and a night doorman. McGilligan, page 15 Cagney believed in hard work, later stating: "It was good for me. I feel sorry for the kid who has too cushy a time of it. Suddenly he has to come to face-to-face with the realities of life without any mama or papa to do his thinking for him." He started tap dancing as a boy (a skill that would eventually contribute to his Academy Award) and was nicknamed "Cellar-Door Cagney" after his habit of dancing on slanted cellar doors. He was a good street fighter, defending his older brother Harry, a medical student, against all-comers when it was required. Cagney, page 8 He engaged in amateur boxing, and was a runner-up in the New York State lightweight title. His coaches encouraged him to turn professional, but his mother would not allow it. Warren, pages 23–24 He also played semi-professional baseball for a local team, and entertained dreams of playing in the Major Leagues. Warren, page 22 His introduction to films was unusual; when visiting an aunt in Brooklyn who lived opposite Vitagraph Studios, Cagney would climb over the fence to watch the filming of John Bunny films. He became involved in amateur dramatics, starting as a scenery boy for a Chinese pantomime at the London Hill Settlement House, where his brother, Harry, performed. He was initially content working behind the scenes, and had no interest in performing. One night, however Harry became ill, and although James was not an understudy, his photographic memory of rehearsals allowed him to stand in for his brother without making a single mistake. Warren, page 33 Afterward, he joined a number of companies as a performer in a variety of roles. McGilligan, page 18 Early career (1919–1930) While working at Wanamaker's Department Store in 1919, Cagney learned (from a colleague who had seen him dance) of a role in the upcoming production Every Sailor. A war-time play in which the chorus is made up of servicemen dressed as women, it was originally titled Every Woman. Cagney auditioned for the role of a chorus-girl, despite considering it a waste of time; he only knew one dance step, the complicated Peabody, which he knew perfectly. Warren, page 36 This skill, however, was enough to convince the producers that he could dance, and he copied the other dancers' moves while waiting to go on. Cagney, page 27 He did not find it odd to play a woman, nor was he embarrassed. He later recalled how he was able to shed his own natural shy persona when he stepped onto the stage: "For there I am not myself. I am not that fellow, Jim Cagney, at all. I certainly lost all consciousness of him when I put on skirts, wig, paint, powder, feathers and spangles." McGilligan, page 19 Had Cagney's mother had her way, his stage career would have ended when he quit Every Sailor after two months; proud as she was of his performance, she preferred that he get an education. Warren, page 37 Cagney appreciated the $35 a week that he received from performing, which he called "a mountain of money for me in those worrisome days." Warren, page 36 In deference to his mother's worries, he got employment as a brokerage house runner. This did not stop him looking for more stage work, however, and he went on to successfully audition for a chorus part in Pitter Patter, for which he earned $55 a week—he sent $40 a week back to his mother. Cagney, page 28 So strong was his habit of working more than one job at a time, he also worked as a dresser for one of the leads, portered the casts' luggage, and understudied for the lead. Among the chorus line performers was 16 year-old Frances Willard "Billie" Vernon, whom he would marry in 1922. The show began Cagney's 10 year association with vaudeville and Broadway. Pitter Patter was not hugely successful, but it did well enough to run for 32 weeks, allowing Cagney to join the vaudeville circuit. He and Vernon toured separately with a number of different troupes, reuniting as Vernon and Nye to do simple comedy routines and musical numbers. The Nye was a rearrangement of the last syllable of Cagney's surname. McGilligan, page 20 Warren, page 46 One of the troupes that Cagney joined was Parker, Rand and Leach, taking over the latter position when Archie Leach—who would later change his name to Cary Grant—left. Cagney, page 29 Warren, page 48 After years of touring, performing and struggling to make money, Cagney and Vernon moved to Hawthorne, California in 1924. They moved there partly for Cagney to meet his new mother-in-law who had just moved there from Chicago, and partly to investigate breaking into the movies. Their train fares were paid for by a friend, the press officer of Pitter Patter who was also desperate to act. Warren, pages 52–54 They were not very successful at first; the dance studio Cagney set up had few clients and folded, and he and Vernon toured the studios but garnered no interest. Eventually they borrowed some money and headed back to New York via Chicago and Milwaukee, enduring failure along the way when they attempted to make money on the stage. Cagney and Gloria Stuart in 's Here Comes the Navy. The movie was filmed on the ill-fated, USS Arizona. Cagney's long film career would see him in Naval uniform on more than one occasion. Cagney secured his first significant non-dancing role in 1925. He played a young tough guy in the three act play Outside Looking In by Maxwell Anderson, earning $200 a week. As with Pitter Patter, Cagney went to the audition with little confidence of getting the part; he had had no experience with drama until this point. Warren 55 Cagney felt that he only got the role because he was one of only two red-headed performers in New York, and assumed he got it because his hair was more red than Alan Bunce's. Cagney, page 32 Both the play and Cagney received good reviews; Life magazine wrote, "Mr. Cagney, in a less spectacular role [than his co-star] makes a few minutes silence during his mock-trial scene something that many a more established actor might watch with profit". Burns Mantle wrote that it "contained the most honest acting now to be seen in New York". McGilligan, page 22 Following the show's four month run, Cagney went back to vaudeville for the next couple of years. He achieved varied success, but after appearing in Outside Looking In, the Cagneys were more financially secure. During this period, he met George M. Cohan, whom he would go on to portray in Yankee Doodle Dandy, though they never spoke. Warren, page 57 Cagney secured the lead role in the 1926–27 season West End production of Broadway by George Abbott. The show's management insisted that he copy Broadway lead Lee Tracy's performance, despite Cagney's discomfort in doing so but the day before the show sailed for England, the management decided that Cagney should be replaced. Cagney, page 34 Warren, page 57 This was a devastating turn of events for Cagney; apart from the logistical difficulties this presented—their luggage was in the hold of the ship and the couple had given up their apartment—he almost quit show business. As Billie recalled, "Jimmy said that it was all over. He made up his mind that he would get a job doing something else." Warren, page 60 The Cagneys had run-of-the-play contracts—their contracts lasted as long as the play did: Billie was in the chorus line of the show, and with help from the Actors’ Equity Association, Cagney took up the understudy role to Tracy on the Broadway show, providing them with a desperately needed steady income. Cagney also established a dance school for professionals, then picked up another role in the play Women Go On Forever, directed by John Cromwell, that ran for four months. By the end of the run, Cagney was exhausted after acting and running the dance school. He had built a reputation as an innovative teacher, and so when he was cast as the lead in Grand Street Follies of 1928 he was also appointed the choreographer. The show received rave reviews Warren, page 61 and was followed by Grand Street Follies of 1929. These roles led to a part in George Kelly's Maggie the Magnificent, a play generally not liked by the critics, although Cagney's performance was. Cagney saw this role (and Women Go on Forever) as significant because of the talent that directed them; he learned "what a director was for and what a director could do. They were directors who could play all the parts in the play better than the actors cast for them." Cagney, pages 36–37 Warner Bros. (1930–1935) Playing opposite Cagney in Maggie the Magnificent was Joan Blondell, who would star again with him a few months later in Marie Baumer's new play Penny Arcade. McGilligan, page 24 While the critics panned Penny Arcade, Cagney and Blondell were both highly praised. Al Jolson, sensing a potential film success, bought the rights for $20,000. He then sold the play to Warner Brothers, with the stipulation that Cagney and Blondell be cast in the film version. Retitled Sinners' Holiday, the film was released in 1930. Cagney was given a $500-a-week, three-week contract. Warren, page 65 In the film, he portrays Harry Delano, a tough guy who becomes a killer but generates sympathy because of his unfortunate upbringing. This role of the sympathetic "bad" guy would be a reoccurring character-type for Cagney throughout his career. McGilligan, page 25 During filming of Sinners' Holiday, he also demonstrated the stubbornness that would characterize his work demeanor. He later recalled an argument he had with director John Adolfi about a line: "There was a line in the show where I was supposed to be crying on my mother's breast... [The line] was 'I'm your baby, ain't I?' I refused to say it. Adolfi said 'I'm going to tell Zanuck.' I said 'I don't give a shit what you tell him, I'm not going to say that line'". They took the line out. Warren, page 67 Despite this outburst, the studio liked him, and before his three-week contract was up—while the film was still shooting Cagney, page 39 —they gave Cagney a three-week extension, which was followed by a full seven-year contract at $400 a week. The contract, however, allowed Warners to drop him at the end of any 40-week period, effectively guaranteeing him 40 weeks income, after which there would be no further guarantees. As when he was growing up, Cagney shared his income with his family. With the good reviews that Cagney received, he immediately starred in another gangster role in Doorway to Hell. The film was a financial hit, helping cement Cagney's growing reputation. McGilligan, page 26 He made four more movies before his breakthrough role. Cagney smashes a grapefruit into Mae Clarke's face in a famous scene from Cagney's breakthrough movie, The Public Enemy () Warner Brothers′ succession of gangster movie hits, in particular Little Caesar with Edward G. Robinson, Warren, page 76 culminated with the 1931 film The Public Enemy. Due to the strong reviews in his short film career, Cagney was cast as nice-guy Matt Doyle, opposite Edward Woods' role of Tom Powers. However, after the initial rushes, the two were swapped. The film cost only $151,000 to make, but it became one of the first low budget films to gross $1 million. Warren, page 80 Cagney received widespread praise for his role. The New York Herald Tribune described his performance as "the most ruthless, unsentimental appraisal of the meanness of a petty killer the cinema has yet devised." McGilligan, page 32 He received top billing after the film, Cagney, page 46 but while he acknowledged the importance of the role to his career, he always disputed that it changed the way heroes and leading men were portrayed; he cited Clark Gable's slapping of Barbara Stanwyck six months earlier (in Night Nurse) as more important. McGilligan, pages 25–36 Nevertheless, the scene in which Cagney smashes a grapefruit into Mae Clarke's face is viewed by many critics as a one of the most famous moments in movie history. Warren, pages 79–80 McGilligan, page 33 The scene itself was a very late addition, and who originally thought of the idea is a matter of debate; producer Darryl Zanuck claimed he thought of it in a script conference, Director William Wellman claimed that the idea came to him when he saw the grapefruit on the table during the shoot, and writers Glasmon and Bright claimed the scene was based on the real life of small-time gangster Hymie Weiss, who threw an omelet into the face of his girlfriend. Cagney himself usually cited the writers' version, but the fruit's victim, Clarke, agreed that it was Wellman's idea, saying "I'm sorry I ever agreed to do the grapefruit bit. I never dreamed it would be shown in the movie. Director Bill Wellman thought of the idea suddenly. It wasn't even written into the script." McGilligan, page 34 The impact of the scene was such that filmmakers have mimicked it many times throughout cinema history; the scene from The Big Heat in which Lee Marvin's character throws scalding coffee into the face of Gloria Grahame, and Richard Widmark pushing an old lady down a flight of stairs in Kiss of Death, were influenced by Cagney's portrayal of Tom Powers. McGilligan, page 35 Cagney himself was offered grapefruit in almost every restaurant he visited for years after, and Clarke claimed it virtually ruined her career due to typecasting. Cagney's stubbornness was starting to become well known behind the scenes, not least after his refusal to join in a 100% participation charity drive that was being pushed by Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.. Donating money to charity was not the issue, being forced to was. Already he had acquired the nickname "The Professional Againster". Warren, page 81 Along with George Raft, Edward G. Robinson and Humphrey Bogart, Warner Bros. actors all, Cagney defined what a movie gangster was. In G Men (), though, he played a lawyer who joins the FBI. Warners was quick to combine its two rising gangster stars—Cagney and Robinson—for the 1931 film Smart Money. So keen was the studio to follow up the success of Robinson's Little Caesar that Cagney actual shot Smart Money (for which he received second billing) at the same time as The Public Enemy. Warren, page 82 As in The Public Enemy, Cagney was required to be physically violent to a woman on screen, a signal that Warners was keen to keep Cagney in the public eye; this time he slapped co-star Evalyn Knapp. McGilligan, page 37 With the introduction of the United States Motion Picture Production Code of 1930, and particularly its edicts concerning on-screen violence, Warners decided to allow Cagney a change of pace. They cast him in the comedy Blonde Crazy, again opposite Blondell. As he completed filming, The Public Enemy was filling cinemas with all-night showings. Cagney began to compare his pay with his peers, thinking his contract allowed for salary adjustments based on the success of his films. Warners disagreed, however, and refused to a pay raise. The studio heads also insisted that Cagney continue promoting their films, even the ones he was not in, something he was opposed to. Not wanting to be bullied, Cagney and Billie moved back to New York, leaving their apartment to his brother Bill for looking after. Warren, page 85 While the Cagneys were in New York, William, who had effectively become James' agent, angled for a substantial pay rise and more personal freedom for his brother. Warners' hand was forced by the success of The Public Enemy and of Blonde Crazy, and they eventually offered Cagney an improved contract of $1000 a week. Warren, page 89 Cagney's first film upon returning from New York was 1932's Taxi!. The film is notable for not only being the first time that Cagney danced on screen, but it was also the last time he would allow himself to be shot at with live ammunition, a common occurrence at the time before blank cartridges and squibs were perfected. He had experienced being shot at in The Public Enemy, but during filming for Taxi!, he was almost hit. Warren, page 90 In his opening scene, Cagney spoke fluent Yiddish, a language he picked up during his boyhood in New York City. The film was again praised by critics, and it was swiftly followed by The Crowd Roars and Winner Takes All. Taxi! was the source of one of Cagney's most misquoted lines; he never actually said, "MMMmmm, you dirty rat!", a line commonly used by impressionists. The closest he got to it in the film was: "Come out and take it, you dirty, yellow-bellied rat, or I'll give it to you through the door!" Despite his success, Cagney was not satisfied with his contract. He wanted more money for his successful films, but he also offered to take a smaller salary should his star wane in the future. Warren, page 93 McGilligan, page 45 Warners refused, and so Cagney once again walked out. He was holding out for $4000 a week, the same amount as Edward G. Robinson, Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., and Kay Francis. Warners refused to cave in this time, and suspended Cagney. Cagney announced that he would do his next three pictures for free if Warners canceled the remaining five years on his contract. He also threatened to quit Hollywood and go back to Columbia University to follow his brothers into medicine. After six months of suspension, a deal was brokered by Frank Capra that gave the actor an improved salary of around $3000 a week, a guarantee of no more than four films a year, and top billing. Warren, pages 94–95 Having learned about the block-booking studio system that almost guaranteed them huge profits, Cagney was determined to spread the wealth. Warren, page 95 Cagney, page 52 He would send money and goods to old friends from his neighborhood, though he did not generally make this known. Warren, page 96 His insistence on no more than four films a year was based on his having witnessed actors—even teenagers—regularly working 100 hours a week in order to turn out more films. This experience would also be an integral part of his involvement in the formation of the Screen Actors Guild, which came into existence in 1933. Cagney and Joan Blondell in Footlight Parade () Cagney returned to the studio and made Hard to Handle in 1933. This was followed by a steady stream of films, including the highly regarded Footlight Parade, Warren, page 101 which gave Cagney the chance to return to his song-and-dance roots. It is thought of as one of his best early films, and includes show-stopping scenes in the Busby Berkeley choreographed routines. McGilligan, page 49 His next notable film was 1934's Here Comes the Navy which paired him with Pat O'Brien for the first time; the two would continue to have a long friendship. Warren, page 100 1935 was an important year for Cagney. He was listed as one of the Top Ten Moneymakers in Hollywood for the first time, Warren, page 114 and was cast more frequently outside of gangster roles; he played a lawyer who joins the FBI in G-Men, and he also took on his first, and only, Shakespearean role, as Nick Bottom in A Midsummer Night's Dream. The film features Mickey Rooney as Puck, but it was not critically well received. Warren, page 117 Cagney's last movie in 1935 was Ceiling Zero, his third film with Pat O'Brien. Significantly though, O'Brien received top billing, which was a clear breach of Cagney's contract. This, combined with the fact that Cagney had made five movies in 1934, again against his contract terms, forced him to bring legal proceedings against Warners for breach of contract. Warren, pages 120–121 The dispute dragged on for several months. Cagney received calls from David Selznick and Sam Goldwyn, but neither felt in a position to offer him work while the dispute went on. Meanwhile, while being represented by his brother William in court, James and Billie went back to New York to search for a country property where he could indulge in his passion for farming. Independent years (1936–1937) Cagney spent most of the next year on his farm, and only went back to work when Edward L. Alperson from Grand National films, a newly established, independent studio, approached him to make movies at $100,000 a film and 10% of the profits. Warren, page 122 Cagney made two films for Grand National: Great Guy and Something to Sing About. He received good reviews for both, McGilligan, page 66 McGilligan, page 70 but overall the production quality was not up to Warner standards and the films did not do well. A third film was planned (Dynamite) but Grand National ran out of money. Warren, page 123 Humphrey Bogart with Cagney and Jeffrey Lynn in The Roaring Twenties (), the last film Bogart and Cagney made together. The timing was fortunate for Cagney, as the courts decided the Warners lawsuit in Cagney's favor. He had done what many thought unthinkable in that he had taken on the studios and won. Not only did he win the suit, but Warners knew that he was still a star, and invited him back for a 5-year, $150,000 a film deal, with no more than 2 films a year. Cagney would also have full say over what films he did and did not make. Warren, page 124 Additionally, William Cagney was guaranteed a deal as an assistant producer for the films his brother would star in. Cagney had established the power of the walkout as keeping the studios to their word. He later explained his reasons, saying: "I walked out because I depended on the studio heads to keep their word on this, that or other promise, and when the promise was not kept, my only recourse was to deprive them of my services." Cagney, page 51 Cagney himself acknowledged the importance of the walkout for other actors in breaking the dominance of the studio system. Normally when stars walked out, the time they were absent was added on to the end of their already long contract, as happened with Olivia de Havilland and Bette Davis. Cagney, however, walked out and came back with an improved contract. Many in Hollywood watched the case closely for hints of how future contracts might be handled. McGilligan, page 63 Artistically, the Grand National experiment was a success for Cagney, who was able to move away from his traditional Warners tough guy roles to more sympathetic characters. McGilligan, page 71 How far he could have experimented and developed can never be known, but certainly back in the Warners fold he was back playing tough guys. Return to Warner Bros. (1938–1942) Cagney with his pal Pat O'Brien inAngels with Dirty Faces (), the sixth of nine feature films they would make together. Cagney's two films of 1938, Boy Meets Girl and Angels with Dirty Faces, both co-starred Pat O'Brien. The former saw Cagney in a comedy role, and received mixed reviews. Warners had allowed Cagney his change of pace, Warren, page 127 but was keen to get him back to playing tough guys, which was more lucrative. Ironically, the script for Angels was one that Cagney had hoped to do while with Grand National, but the studio had been unable to secure funding. Cagney starred as Rocky Sullivan, a gangster fresh out of jail and looking for his former associate, played by Humphrey Bogart, who owes him money. Whilst revisiting his old haunts, he runs into his old friend Jerry Connolly who is now a priest looking after the Dead End Kids. The kids idolize Rocky, much to Connolly's concern. After a messy shoot-out, Sullivan is eventually captured by the police and sentenced to death by electric chair. Connolly pleads with Rocky to "turn yellow" on his way to the chair so that the Kids lose their respect for him, and hopefully avoid a life of crime. Sullivan refuses, but on his way to the chair he begs for his life. The film is ambiguous as to whether this cowardice is real or just for the Kids' benefit. Cagney himself refused to say, insisting he liked the ambiguity. Cagney, page 76 The film is regarded by many as one of Cagney's finest, McGilligan, page 73 and garnered him an Academy Award for Best Actor nomination for 1938. He lost to Spencer Tracy in Boys Town, a role which Cagney had been considered for, but lost out on due to his typecasting. Warren, page 163 Cagney did, however, win that year's New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor. His earlier insistence on not filming with live ammunition proved to be a good decision; having been told while filming Angels with Dirty Faces that he would do a scene with real machine gun bullets, Cagney refused and insisted the shots be superimposed afterwards. As it turned out, a ricocheting bullet passed through exactly where his head would have been. Warren, page 129 Cagney, page73 During his first year back at Warners, Cagney became the studio's highest earner, earning $324,000. Warren, page 130 He completed his first decade of movie-making in 1939 with The Roaring Twenties, his first film with Raoul Walsh, and his last with Bogart. It was also his last gangster film for ten years. Cagney again received good reviews; Graham Greene stated that "Mr. Cagney, of the bull-calf brow, is as always a superb and witty actor". McGilligan, page 79 The Roaring Twenties was the last film in which a character's violence was explained by poor upbringing, or their environment, as was the case in The Public Enemy. From that point on, violence was attached to mania, as in White Heat. In 1939, Cagney was second to only Gary Cooper in the national wage stakes, earning $368,333. Warren, page 135 Cagney as George M. Cohan performing "The Yankee Doodle Boy" from Yankee Doodle Dandy () His next notable career role was playing George M. Cohan in Yankee Doodle Dandy, a film Cagney himself "took great pride in" Cagney, page 107 and considered his best. Warren, page 154 Producer Hal Wallis said that having seen Cohan in I'd Rather Be Right, he never considered anyone other than Cagney for the role. Warren, page 150 Cagney himself, on the other hand, insisted that Fred Astaire had been the first choice and turned it down. Cagney, page 104 Filming began the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor, and the cast and crew worked in a "patriotic frenzy" as the US's early involvement in World War II gave the cast and crew a feeling that "they might be sending the last message from the free world", according to actress Rosemary DeCamp. Warren, page 149 Cohan was given a private showing of the film shortly before his death, and thanked Cagney "for a wonderful job". Warren, page 152 A paid première, with seats ranging from $25 to $25,000, raised $5,750,000 in war bonds for the US treasury. McGilligan, page 94 Warren, pages 154–155 Many critics of the time and since have declared it to be Cagney's best film, drawing parallels between Cohan and Cagney; they both began their careers in vaudeville, had years of struggle before reaching the peak of their profession, were surrounded with family and married early, and both had a wife who was happy to sit back while he went on to stardom. McGilligan, page 92 Warren, page 151 The film was nominated for 8 Academy Awards (winning 3) and Cagney won the Best Actor Oscar. In his acceptance speech, Cagney said: "I've always maintained that in this business, you're only as good as the other fellow thinks you are. It's nice to know that you people thought I did a good job. And don't forget that it was a good part, too." Warren, page 165 Cagney had lost out on Boys' Town to Spencer Tracy, and also lost the role of Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne in Knute Rockne, All American to his friend Pat O'Brien, both because of the hard-man image that Warners had developed for him. Warren, page 163 Cagney announced in March 1942 that he and brother William were setting up Cagney Productions to release films though United Artists. Warren, pages 164–165 Independent again (1942–1948) Free of Warners again, Cagney spent some time relaxing on his farm in Martha's Vineyard before volunteering to join the USO. He spent several weeks touring the US, entertaining troops with vaudeville routines and scenes from Yankee Doodle Dandy. Warren, page 164 In September 1942 he was elected president of the Screen Actors Guild. Almost a year after the creation of his new production company, Cagney Productions produced its first film, Johnny Come Lately, in March 1943. While the main studios were producing patriotic war movies, Cagney was determined to continue dispelling his tough guy image, Warren, page 167 so he produced a movie that was a "complete and exhilarating exposition of the Cagney 'alter-ego' on film". McGilligan, page 99 According to Cagney, the film "made money but it was no great winner", and reviews varied from excellent (Time) to poor (New York's PM). Warren, pages 167–168 Following the film's completion, Cagney went back to the USO and toured US military bases in the UK. He refused to do any interviews with the UK press, preferring to concentrate on rehearsals and performances. He gave several shows a day for the Army Signal Corps; called The American Cavalcade of Dance, the show consisted of a history of American dance, from the earliest days to Fred Astaire, and culminated with dances from Yankee Doodle Dandy. The second movie Cagney's company produced was Blood On the Sun. Insisting on doing his own stunts, Cagney required judo training from expert Ken Kuniyuki and Jack Halloran, a former policeman. Warren, page 170 The Cagneys had hoped that an action film would appeal more to more audiences, but it fared worse at the box office than Johnny Come Lately. At this time, Cagney heard of young war hero Audie Murphy, who appeared on the front of Life magazine. Cagney thought that the young man had the looks to be a movie star, and suggested that he come to Hollywood. Murphy, however, could not act, and his contract was loaned out and then sold. Warren, page 171 While negotiating the rights for their third independent film, Cagney starred in 20th Century Fox's 13 Rue Madeleine at $300,000 for two months of work. Warren, page 178 The film was a success, and Cagney was keen to begin production of his new project, an adaptation of William Saroyan's Broadway play The Time of Your Life. Saroyan himself loved the film, but it was a commercial disaster, costing the company half a million dollars to make, Warren, page 180 and audiences again struggled to accept Cagney out of tough guy roles. McGilligan, page 112 Cagney Productions was in serious trouble; poor returns from the produced films, and a legal dispute with Sam Goldwyn Studio over a rental agreement forced Cagney back to Warners. He signed a distribution-production deal with the studio for the film White Heat, effectively making Cagney Productions a unit of Warner Brothers. Back to Warners (1949–1955) Cagney as "Cody Jarrett", the psychopathic killer of White Heat () Cagney's portrayal of Cody Jarrett in the 1949 film White Heat is one of his most memorable. Cinema had changed in the ten years since Walsh last directed Cagney (in The Roaring Twenties), and the actor's portrayal of gangsters had also changed. Unlike Tom Powers in The Public Enemy, Jarrett has little or no sympathetic characteristics. McGilligan, pages 112–114 In the 18 intervening years, Cagney's hair had begun to gray, and he developed a paunch for the first time. He was no longer a romantic commodity, and this was reflected in his portrayal of Jarrett. Cagney himself had the idea of playing Jarrett as a psychotic; he later stated that "it was essentially a cheapie one-two-three-four kind of thing, so I suggested we make him nuts. It was agreed so we put in all those fits and headaches Warren, page 181 The film has a number of memorable scenes and lines. Cagney's closing lines of the film—"Made it, Ma! Top of the world!"—before his character explodes in a huge fireball, was voted the 18th greatest movie line by the American Film Institute. Likewise, Jarrett's explosion of rage in prison on being told his mother's death is one of Cagney's most memorable performances. McGilligan, pages 114–116 Some of the extras on set actually became terrified of the actor because of his violent portrayal. Cagney attributed the performance to his father's alcohol induced rages that he had seen as a child, as well as someone that he had seen on a visit to a mental hospital. The film was a critical success, though some critics wondered about the social impact of a character that they saw as sympathetic. McGilligan, page 116 Cagney was still struggling against his gangster typecasting. He said to a journalist, "It's what the people want me to do. Some day, though, I'd like to make another movie that kids could go and see." Warren, page 182 However, Warners, perhaps searching for another Yankee Doodle Dandy gave Cagney a musical for his next picture, 1950's The West Point Story with Doris Day, an actress he admired. Warren, page 183 His next film, Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye, was another gangster movie, which was the first by Cagney Productions since its being acquired by Warners. While compared unfavorably to White Heat by critics, it was fairly successful at the box office, with $500,000 going straight to Cagney Productions' bankers to pay off their losses. Warren, page 184 Cagney Productions was not a great success, however, and in 1953, after William Cagney produced his last film, A Lion Is In The Streets, the company ended. Cagney in Love Me or Leave Me () Cagney's next notable role was the 1955 film Love Me or Leave Me, and his third with Day. Cagney played Martin "Moe the Gimp" Snyder, a lame Jewish-American gangster from Chicago, a role Spencer Tracy turned down. Cagney, page 135 Cagney described the script as "that extremely rare thing, the perfect script". Warren, page 189 When the film was released, Snyder reportedly asked how Cagney had so accurately copied his limp, but Cagney himself insisted he had not, having made it up based on personal observation of other people when they limped: "What I did was very simple. I just slapped my foot down as I turned it out while walking. That's all". His performance earned him another Best Actor Academy Award nomination, 17 years after his first. Reviews were strong, and the film is considered to be one of the best of his later career. In Day he had found a co-star he could build a rapport with such as he had had with Blondell at the start of his career. McGilligan, page 135 Day herself was full of praise for Cagney, stating that he was "the most professional actor I've ever known. He was always 'real'. I simply forgot we were making a picture. His eyes would actually fill up when we were working on a tender scene. And you never needed drops to make your eyes shine when Jimmy was on the set." Cagney's next film was Mister Roberts, directed by John Ford and slated to star Spencer Tracy. It was Tracy's involvement that ensured that Cagney accepted the minor role, though in the end Tracy did not take part. Warren, page 190 Cagney had worked with Ford before on What Price Glory?, and they had got on fairly well. However, as soon as Ford met Cagney at the airport, the director warned that they would "tangle asses", which caught Cagney by surprise. He later said: "I would have kicked his brains out. He was so goddamned mean to everybody. He was truly a nasty old man." Warren, page 191 The next day, Cagney was slightly late on set, and Ford became incensed. Cagney cut short the imminent tirade, saying "When I started this picture, you said that we would tangle asses before this was over. I'm ready now – are you?" Ford walked away and he and Cagney had no more problems, even if he never particularly liked Ford. Cagney's skill at noticing tiny details in other actor's performances reappeared during the shooting of Mister Roberts. When watching the Kraft Music Hall anthology television show some months before, Cagney had noticed Jack Lemmon performing left-handed. The first thing that Cagney asked Lemmon when they met was if he was still using his left hand. Lemmon was shocked; he had done it on a whim, and thought no-one else had noticed. He said of his costar, "his powers of observation must be absolutely incredible, in addition to the fact that he remembered it. I was very flattered." The film was a success, securing three Oscar nominations, including Best Picture, Best Sound Recording and Best Supporting Actor for Lemmon, who won. Whilst Cagney was not nominated, he had thoroughly enjoyed the production. Filming on Midway Island and in a more minor role meant that he had time to relax and engage in his hobby of painting. He also drew caricatures of the cast and crew. Warren, page 192 Later career (1955–1961) Cagney worked with MGM on the Western film Tribute to a Bad Man, a role that had originally been written for Spencer Tracy. He received praise for his performance, and the studio liked his work enough to offer him These Wilder Years with Barbara Stanwyck. The two stars got on well; they had both previously worked in vaudeville, and they entertained the cast and crew off-screen by singing and dancing. Warren, pages, 196–197 In 1956, Cagney undertook one of his very rare television roles, starring in Robert Montgomery's Soldiers From the War Returning. This was a favor to Montgomery, who needed a strong fall season opener to stop the network from dropping his series. Cagney's appearance ensured that it was a success. The actor made it clear to reporters afterwards that television was not his medium: "I do enough work in movies. This is a high-tension business. I have tremendous admiration for the people who go through this sort of thing every week, but it's not for me." Warren, page 197 Cagney's most significant film of 1956 was Man of a Thousand Faces, in which he played Lon Chaney. His performance received excellent reviews, with the New York Journal American rating it one of his best performances, and the film, made for Universal, was a box office hit. Again, Cagney's skills of mimicry, combined with a physical similarity to Chaney, allowed him to generate empathy for his character. McGilligan, page 141 Warren, page 198 In 1957, Cagney ventured behind the camera for the first (and only) time to direct Short Cut to Hell, a remake of the 1941 Alan Ladd film This Gun for Hire, which in turn was based on the Graham Greene novel A Gun for Sale. Cagney had long been told by friends that he would be an excellent director, Warren, page 198 so when he was approached by his friend producer A. C. Lyles, he instinctively said yes. He refused all offers of payment, saying he was an actor, not a director. The film was low budget, and shot quickly. As Cagney recalled: "We shot it in twenty days, and that was long enough for me. I find directing a bore, I have no desire to tell other people their business". Warren, page 199 Cagney as Admiral "Bull" Halsey inThe Gallant Hours, with Dennis Weaver Cagney's next film was over a year later, in 1959, when he traveled to Ireland to film Shake Hands with the Devil, directed by Michael Anderson. While in Ireland, Cagney had hoped to spend some time tracing his ancestry, but time constraints and poor weather meant that he was unable to fulfil this wish. The overriding message of violence inevitably leading to violence attracted Cagney to the role of an Irish Republican Army commander, and resulted in what some critics would regard as the finest performance of his final years. Warren, pages 199–200 Cagney's career began winding down, and he made only one film in 1960, the critically acclaimed The Gallant Hours in which he played Admiral William F. "Bull" Halsey. The film, although set during the Guadalcanal Campaign in the Pacific Ocean during World War II, was not a war film but instead focused on the effect of command. Cagney Productions, which shared the production credit with Robert Montgomery's company, made a brief return in name only. The film was a success, and The New York Times''' Bosley Crowther singled its star out for praise: "It is Mr. Cagney's performance, controlled to the last detail, that gives life and strong, heroic stature to the principal figure in the film. There is no braggadocio in it, no straining for bold or sharp effects. It is one of the quietest, most reflective, subtlest jobs that Mr. Cagney has ever done." Warren, page 205 McGilligan, page 150 Cagney's penultimate film was a comedy. He was hand-picked by Billy Wilder to play a Coca-Cola executive in the film One, Two, Three. Warren, page 202 Cagney had concerns with the script, remembering back 23 years to Boy Meets Girl where scenes were re-shot to make them funnier by speeding up the pacing with the opposite effect. Cagney received assurances from Wilder that the script was balanced. Filming did not go well, though, with one scene requiring 50 takes, something Cagney was unaccustomed to. McGilligan, page 151 In fact, the filming was one of the worst experiences of Cagney's long career. One of the only positive outcomes was his friendship with Pamela Tiffin, to whom he gave acting guidance, including the secret that he'd learned over his career: "You walk in, plant yourself squarely on both feet, look the other fella in the eye, and tell the truth." During the filming of One, Two, Three, for the first time in his career, Cagney considered walking out of a film before completion. He felt he had worked too many years inside studios, and combined with a visit to Dachau concentration camp during filming, he decided that he'd had enough, and retired. Warren, page 204 Retirement (1961–1984) Cagney remained in retirement for twenty years, conjuring up images of Jack Warner every time he was tempted to return, which soon dispelled the notion. After he had turned down the offer to play Alfred Doolittle in My Fair Lady, Warren, page 207 Cagney, page 197 he found it easier to rebuff others, including a part in The Godfather Part II. He made few public appearances, preferring to spend the winters in Los Angeles, and the summers either at his Martha's Vineyard farm, or at Verney Farms in New York. When in New York, he and Billie held numerous parties at the Silver Horn restaurant, where they got to know Marge Zimmermann, the proprietress. Warren, page 210 Cagney was diagnosed with glaucoma and began taking eye-drops, but he continued to have problems with his vision. On Zimmerman's recommendation, he visited a different doctor, who identified that the glaucoma was a misdiagnosis, and that Cagney was actually diabetic. Zimmerman then took it upon herself to look after Cagney, preparing his meals to reduce his blood triglyceride level which had reached alarming proportions. Such was her success, that by the time Cagney made a rare public appearance at his AFI Lifetime Achievement award ceremony in 1974 he had lost 20 pounds and his vision had drastically improved. Warren, page 211 Opened by Charlton Heston and introduced by Frank Sinatra, the ceremony was attended by so many Hollywood stars—said to be more than for any event in history—that one columnist wrote at the time that a bomb in the dining room would have brought about the end of the movie industry. During his acceptance speech, Cagney lightly chastised impressionist Frank Gorshin, saying, "Oh, Frankie, I never said 'MMMMmmmm, you dirty rat!' What I actually said was 'Judy, Judy, Judy!" which was itself one of Cary Grant's most famous misquotations. Warren, page 209 Whilst at Coldwater Canyon in 1977, Cagney had a minor stroke. After two weeks in hospital, Zimmerman became his full-time carer, traveling with him and Billie wherever they went. Warren, page 212 After the stroke, Cagney was no longer able to undertake many of his favorite pastimes, including horse riding and dancing, and as he became more depressed, he even gave up his beloved hobby of painting. Encouraged by his wife and Zimmerman, Cagney accepted an offer from Miloš Forman to star in the 1981 film Ragtime. The film was shot mainly at Shepperton Studios in London, and on his arrival at Southampton after the trip on the Queen Elizabeth 2, Cagney was mobbed by hundreds of fans. Cunard officials, who were responsible for the security at the dock, said they had never seen anything like it, although they had experienced past visits by Marlon Brando and Robert Redford. Despite being his first film for twenty years, Cagney was immediately at ease. Fluffed lines and mis-queues were all done by his co-stars, many of whom were in awe of Cagney. Howard Rollins, who received a Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination for his performance, said: "I was frightened to meet Mr. Cagney. I asked him how to die in front of camera. He said 'Just die!'. It worked. Who would know more about dying than him?" Cagney also repeated the advice he had given to Pamela Tiffin, Joan Leslie and Lemmon. As filming progressed, Cagney's sciatica worsened, but he continued the nine week shoot. He and co-star Pat O'Brien appeared on the Parkinson talk show, and Cagney made a surprise appearance at the Queen Mother's command birthday performance at the London Palladium. His appearance on-stage prompted the Queen Mother to rise to her feet, the only time she did during the whole show, and she later broke protocol to go backstage to speak with Cagney directly. Warren, page 215 Cagney made a rare TV appearance in Terrible Joe Moran in 1984, before finally retiring completely. Personal life The crypt of James Cagney in Gate of Heaven Cemetery On September 28, 1922, Cagney married dancer Frances Willard "Billie" Vernon with whom he remained for the rest of his life. They met on the chorus line of Pitter Patter. They adopted a son, James Cagney Jr (Jim) in 1941, and had a daughter, Cathleen "Casey" Cagney. Cagney was a very private man, and whilst he was more than willing to give the press photographs when necessary, he generally spent his private time out of the public eye. Cagney, page 80 As a young man, Cagney had always been interested in farming—an interest sparked by an soil conservation lecture he attended—and during his first walkout from Warners found a 100 acre farm in Martha's Vineyard; owning a farm had long been a dream of his. Cagney, page 69 Cagney loved the fact that there were no concrete roads surrounding the property, only dirt-tracks. The house itself was rather run-down and ramshackle, Billie was initially reluctant to move in, but soon came to love the place as well. After getting inundated by movie fans, Cagney sent out a rumor that he had hired a gunman as security. This ruse proved so successful that when Spencer Tracy came to visit, his taxi driver refused to drive up to the house, saying "I hear they shoot!", forcing Tracy to walk. Warren, page 122 In 1955, having shot three films on the trot, Cagney bought a 120 acre farm in Dutchess County, Stanfordville, New York, for $100,000. Cagney named the farm Verney Farm, taking the first syllable from Billie's maiden name, and the second from his own surname. Cagney did not just live on the farm, but turned it back into working order by selling some of the existing dairy cattle and replacing them with beef cattle. Warren, page 195 Cagney, page 176 He expanded the farm over the years to a 750 acre site. Such was Cagney's enthusiasm for farming, that when he was awarded an honorary degree from Rollins College, he surprised the staff by writing a paper on soil conservation, rather than just "turning up with Ava Gardner on my arm", as he put it. Since a little boy sitting on the horses of the local delivery riders and riding horse-drawn streetcars with his mother, he had loved horses. He raised horses on his farms, off and on, specializing in Morgans, a breed of which he was particularly fond. Cagney, page 175 Cagney was a keen sailor, owning boats on both the Eastern and Western coasts of the USA, Warren, pages 194–195 though he did suffer from seasickness on random occasions, sometimes not suffering in a heavy sea, but then being ill on a calm day. Cagney, page 174 He also enjoyed painting, his most favorite of hobbies, Warren, page 220 and claimed in his autobiography that he may have been happier as a painter than a movie star, if somewhat poorer. Cagney, page 170 One of his teachers in later life was Sergei Bongart, who went on to own two of Cagney's paintings. Cagney himself refused to sell his paintings, considering himself an amateur and novice. He signed and sold only one painting, which was bought by Johnny Carson, and benefited a charity. Political views In his autobiography, Cagney stated that as a young man he had no political views, since he was simply more concerned with where the next meal was coming from. Cagney, page 183 Fanzines in the 1930s, however, described his politics as "radical". McGilligan, page 193 This somewhat exaggerated view was enhanced by his public contractual wranglings with Warners at the time, his joining of the Screen Actors Guild in 1933 and his involvement in the revolt against the so-called Merriam tax. During the 1934 Californian gubernatorial campaign this tax was levied by the studio heads automatically taking a day's pay of their biggest earning stars and would help raise half a million dollars for Merriam. Cagney (and Jean Harlow) refused to pay. McGilligan, page 192 Cagney, pages 185–186 He supported Thomas Mooney's defense fund, but was repelled by the behavior of some of Mooney's supporters at a rally. Around the same time, he gave money for a Spanish Republican Army ambulance during the Spanish Civil War, which he put down to being "a soft touch", and an action which enhanced his liberal reputation. He also became involved in a "liberal group...with a leftist slant", along with Ronald Reagan. However, when he and Reagan saw the direction the group was heading in, they resigned the same night. Cagney, page 184 Cagney was accused of being a Communist sympathizer in 1934, and again in 1940. The 1934 accusation stemmed from a letter from a local communist official found by police alleging that Cagney would be bringing other Hollywood stars to meetings. Cagney denied this, and Lincoln Steffens, husband of the letter-writer, backed up this denial, asserting that the accusation stemmed solely from Cagney's donation to striking cotton workers in San Joaquin Valley. William Cagney claimed this donation to be the root of the 1940 charges. McGilligan, page 194 Cagney was cleared by U.S. Representative Martin Dies, Jr. on the House Un-American Activities Committee. Cagney became President of the Screen Actors Guild in 1942 for a two year term. He took an active role in the Guild's work against the Mafia, which had taken an active interest in the movie industry. Having failed to scare Cagney and the Guild off—having on one occasion phoned Billie to tell her that Cagney was dead Warren, page 166 —Cagney alleged that they sent a hit man to kill him by dropping a heavy light onto his head. On hearing about the rumor of the hit, George Raft made a call, and the hit was canceled. Cagney, page 108 During the war, he took part in racing exhibitions at the Roosevelt Raceway to raise war bonds. He also allowed the Army to practice maneuvers at his Martha's Vineyard farm, McGilligan, page 195 and sold seats for the premiere of Yankee Doodle Dandy to raise money for war bonds. Warren, page 155 After the war, Cagney's politics started to change. Cagney had worked on Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidential campaigns, including the 1940 presidential election against Wendell Willkie. However, by the time of the 1948 election, he had become disillusioned with Harry S. Truman, and voted for Thomas E. Dewey, his "first non-Democratic vote". Cagney, page 185 By 1980, Cagney was contributing financially to the Republican party, supporting his friend Reagan's bid for the Presidency in the Presidential election. As he got older, he became more and more conservative, referring to himself in his autobiography as "arch-conservative". He regarded his move away from liberal politics as "a totally natural reaction once I began to see undisciplined elements in our country stimulating a breakdown of our system... Those functionless creatures, the hippies ... just didn't appear out of a vacuum." Cagney, page 186 Death James Cagney died at his Dutchess County farm in Stanfordville, New York, aged 86, of a heart attack. He is interred in the Cemetery of the Gate of Heaven in Hawthorne, New York. His pallbearers included boxer Floyd Patterson, Mikhail Baryshnikov (who had hoped to play Cagney on Broadway), actor Ralph Bellamy and director Miloš Forman. His close friend President Ronald Reagan gave the eulogy at the funeral. Honors and legacy In 1974, Cagney received the Lifetime Achievement Award of the American Film Institute. Charlton Heston, in announcing that Cagney was to be awarded, called him "One of the most significant figures of a generation when American film was dominant, Cagney, that most American of actors, somehow communicated eloquently to audiences all over the world …and to actors as well." He received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1980, and in 1984 Ronald Reagan awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Cagney was among Stanley Kubrick's favorite actors, and was declared by Orson Welles as "maybe the greatest actor to ever appear in front of a camera." Warner Brothers would arrange private screenings of Cagney films for Winston Churchill. Filmography {| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;" |-style="background:#B0C4DE;" ! Year ! Film ! Role ! Notes |- |rowspan="2"| | The Doorway to Hell|Steve Mileaway | |- |Sinners' Holiday|Harry Delano | |- |rowspan="6"| |How I Play Golf, by Bobby Jones No. 11: 'Practice Shots'|Himself |uncredited |- |Blonde Crazy|Bert Harris | |- |Smart Money|Jack | |- |The Millionaire|Schofield, Insurance Salesman | |- |The Public Enemy|Tom Powers | |- |Other Men's Women|Ed "Eddie" Bailey | |- |rowspan="3"| | Winner Take All|Jim "Jimmy" Kane | |- | The Crowd Roars|Joe Greer | |- | Taxi!|Matt Nolan | |- |rowspan="5"| | Lady Killer|Dan Quigley | |- | Footlight Parade|Chester Kent | |- | The Mayor of Hell|Richard "Patsy" Gargan | |- | Picture Snatcher|Danny Kean | |- | Hard to Handle|Myron C. "Lefty" Merrill | |- |rowspan="5"| | The St. Louis Kid|Eddie Kennedy | |- | The Hollywood Gad-About|Himself |short subject |- | Here Comes the Navy|Chester "Chesty" J. O'Conner | |- | He Was Her Man|Flicker Hayes, aka Jerry Allen | |- | Jimmy the Gent|"Jimmy" Corrigan | |- |rowspan="8"| | Mutiny on the Bounty|Extra |uncredited |- | A Midsummer Night's Dream|Bottom, the weaver | |- | The Irish in Us|Danny O'Hara | |- | G Men|"Brick" Davis | |- | Devil Dogs of the Air|Thomas Jefferson "Tommy" O'Toole | |- | Trip Thru a Hollywood Studio|Himself |short subject |- | A Dream Comes True|Himself |short subject |- |Frisco Kid|Bat Morgan | |- |rowspan="2"| | Great Guy|Johnny "Red" Cave | |- | Ceiling Zero|Dizzy Davis | |- | | Something to Sing About|Terrence "Terry" Rooney |stage name of Thadeus McGillicuddy |- |rowspan="3"| | Angels with Dirty Faces|Rocky Sullivan |Nominated - Academy Award for Best Actor |- | Boy Meets Girl|Robert Law | |- | For Auld Lang Syne|Himself - Introducing arriving celebrities |short subject |- |rowspan="4"| | The Roaring Twenties|Eddie Bartlett | |- | Each Dawn I Die|Frank Ross | |- | Hollywood Hobbies|Himself |short subject |- | The Oklahoma Kid|Jim Kincaid | |- |rowspan="3"| | City for Conquest|Danny Kenny (Young Samson) | |- | Torrid Zone|Nick "Nicky" Butler | |- | The Fighting 69th|Jerry Plunkett | |- |rowspan="2"| | The Bride Came C.O.D.|Steve Collins | |- | The Strawberry Blonde|T. L. "Biff" Grimes | |- |rowspan="2"| | Yankee Doodle Dandy|George M. Cohan |Academy Award for Best Actor |- | Captains of the Clouds|Brian MacLean (bush pilot) | |- |rowspan="2"| | Johnny Come Lately|Tom Richards | |- | You, John Jones!|John Jones |short subject |- | | Battle Stations|Narrator |short subject |- | | Blood on the Sun|Nick Condon | |- | | 13 Rue Madeleine|Robert Emmett "Bob" Sharkey aka Gabriel Chavat | |- | | The Time of Your Life|Joseph T. (who observes people) | |- | | White Heat|Arthur "Cody" Jarrett | |- |rowspan="2"| | The West Point Story|Elwin "Bix" Bixby | |- | Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye|Ralph Cotter | |- |rowspan="2"| | Starlift|Himself |Cameo |- | Come Fill the Cup|Lew Marsh | |- | | What Price Glory?|Capt. Flagg | |- | | A Lion Is in the Streets|Hank Martin | |- |rowspan="4"| | Mister Roberts|Capt. Morton | |- | The Seven Little Foys|George M. Cohan | |- | Love Me or Leave Me|Martin Snyder |Nominated - Academy Award for Best Actor |- | Run for Cover|Matt Dow | |- |rowspan="2"| | These Wilder Years|Steve Bradford | |- | Tribute to a Bad Man|Jeremy Rodock | |- |rowspan="2"| | Short-Cut to Hell|Himself |in pre-credits sequence, also director |- | Man of a Thousand Faces|Lon Chaney | |- |rowspan="2"| | Shake Hands with the Devil|Sean Lenihan | |- | Never Steal Anything Small|Jake MacIllaney | |- | | The Gallant Hours|Fleet Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr. |also producer |- | | One, Two, Three|C.R. MacNamara | |- | | Arizona Bushwhackers|Narrator | |- | |Ragtime|Commissioner Rhinelander Waldo | |} TelevisionThe Ballad of Smokey the Bear () - voice, narratorTerrible Joe Moran'' () References Notes Bibliography External links | James_Cagney |@lemmatized james:6 francis:2 cagney:292 jr:7 july:1 march:3 american:14 film:109 star:28 although:5 win:9 acclaim:2 major:4 award:15 wide:1 variety:2 role:41 best:18 remember:3 play:33 tough:8 guy:12 mcgilligan:39 page:156 institute:3 rank:1 eighth:1 among:3 great:8 male:1 time:44 first:28 performing:2 dance:16 dress:2 woman:8 chorus:7 line:15 revue:1 every:7 sailor:4 several:6 year:39 vaudeville:7 continue:6 hoofer:1 comedian:1 act:6 secure:6 receive:21 good:12 review:12 land:1 lead:9 penny:3 arcade:3 rave:2 acting:2 warner:39 sign:3 initial:2 week:22 three:12 contract:21 reprise:1 quickly:2 extend:1 seven:4 seventh:1 public:17 enemy:11 become:16 one:40 influential:1 gangster:13 movie:25 period:3 notable:5 famous:4 grapefruit:6 scene:18 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6,544 | Foreign_relations_of_the_Cayman_Islands | The foreign relations of the Cayman Islands are largely managed from the United Kingdom, as the islands remain an overseas territory of the UK. However, the Government of the Cayman Islands often resolves important issues with foreign governments alone, without intervention from Britain. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands' most important relationships were with Britain and Jamaica, in recent years, this has shifted, and they now rely more so on the United States. Though the Cayman Islands are involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and money laundering. In an attempt to address this, the Government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty of 1986 with the United States, in order to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to cooperate with foreign investigators. Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands have no representation either on the United Nations, or in most other international organizations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being a full member of the Central Development Bank and International Olympic Committee, an associate member of Caricom and UNESCO, and a member of a subbureau of Interpol. See also Cayman Islands | Foreign_relations_of_the_Cayman_Islands |@lemmatized foreign:3 relation:1 cayman:7 island:5 largely:1 manage:1 united:4 kingdom:1 remain:1 overseas:2 territory:3 uk:2 however:2 government:3 islands:3 often:1 resolve:1 important:2 issue:1 alone:1 without:1 intervention:1 britain:2 although:1 early:1 day:1 relationship:1 jamaica:1 recent:2 year:2 shift:1 rely:1 state:2 though:1 involve:1 major:1 international:4 dispute:1 come:1 criticism:1 due:2 use:2 narcotic:1 traffic:1 money:2 laundering:2 attempt:1 address:1 enter:1 narcotics:1 agreement:1 mutual:1 legal:1 assistance:1 treaty:1 order:1 reduce:1 facility:1 associate:2 activity:1 step:1 fight:1 limit:1 banking:1 secrecy:1 introduce:1 requirement:1 customer:1 identification:1 record:1 keep:1 require:1 bank:2 cooperate:1 investigator:1 status:1 representation:1 either:1 nation:1 organization:1 still:1 participates:1 organisation:1 full:1 member:3 central:1 development:1 olympic:1 committee:1 caricom:1 unesco:1 subbureau:1 interpol:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram cayman_islands:3 money_laundering:2 |
6,545 | Cloning | Cloning in biology is the process of producing populations of genetically-identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments (molecular cloning), cells (cell cloning), or organisms. More generally, the term refers to the production of multiple copies of a product such as digital media or software. Etymology The term clone is derived from κλών, the Greek word for "twig, branch", referring to the process whereby a new plant can be created from a twig. In horticulture, the spelling clon was used until the twentieth century; the final e came into use to indicate the vowel is a "long o" instead of a "short o" . Since the term entered the popular lexicon in a more general context, the spelling clone has been used exclusively. Molecular cloning Molecular cloning refers to the process of making multiple copies of a defined DNA sequence. Cloning is frequently used to amplify DNA fragments containing whole genes, but it can also be used to amplify any DNA sequence such as promoters, non-coding sequences and randomly fragmented DNA. It is used in a wide array of biological experiments and practical applications ranging from genetic fingerprinting to large scale protein production. Occasionally, the term cloning is misleadingly used to refer to the identification of the chromosomal location of a gene associated with a particular phenotype of interest, such as in positional cloning. In practice, localization of the gene to a chromosome or genomic region does not necessarily enable one to isolate or amplify the relevant genomic sequence. In practice, in order to amplify any DNA sequence in a living organism, that sequence must be linked to an origin of replication, which is a sequence of DNA capable of directing the propagation of itself and any linked sequence. However, a number of other features are needed and a variety of specialised cloning vectors (small piece of DNA into which a foreign DNA fragment can be inserted) exist that allow protein expression, tagging, single stranded RNA and DNA production and a host of other manipulations. Cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves four steps fragmentation - breaking apart a strand of DNA ligation - gluing together pieces of DNA in a desired sequence transfection - inserting the newly formed pieces of DNA into cells screening/selection - selecting out the cells that were successfully transfected with the new DNA Although these steps are invariable among cloning procedures a number of alternative routes can be selected, these are summarized as a cloning strategy’. Initially, the DNA of interest needs to be isolated to provide a DNA segment of suitable size. Subsequently, a ligation procedure is used where the amplified fragment is inserted into a vector (piece of DNA). The vector (which is frequently circular) is linearised using restriction enzymes, and incubated with the fragment of interest under appropriate conditions with an enzyme called DNA ligase. Following ligation the vector with the insert of interest is transfected into cells. A number of alternative techniques are available, such as chemical sensitivation of cells, electroporation and biolistics. Finally, the transfected cells are cultured. As the aforementioned procedures are of particularly low efficiency, there is a need to identify the cells that have been successfully transfected with the vector construct containing the desired insertion sequence in the required orientation. Modern cloning vectors include selectable antibiotic resistance markers, which allow only cells in which the vector has been transfected, to grow. Additionally, the cloning vectors may contain colour selection markers which provide blue/white screening (α-factor complementation) on X-gal medium. Nevertheless, these selection steps do not absolutely guarantee that the DNA insert is present in the cells obtained. Further investigation of the resulting colonies is required to confirm that cloning was successful. This may be accomplished by means of PCR, restriction fragment analysis and/or DNA sequencing. Cellular cloning Cloning cell-line colonies using cloning rings Cloning a cell means to derive a population of cells from a single cell. In the case of unicellular organisms such as bacteria and yeast, this process is remarkably simple and essentially only requires the inoculation of the appropriate medium. However, in the case of cell cultures from multi-cellular organisms, cell cloning is an arduous task as these cells will not readily grow in standard media. A useful tissue culture technique used to clone distinct lineages of cell lines involves the use of cloning rings (cylinders) . According to this technique, a single-cell suspension of cells which have been exposed to a mutagenic agent or drug used to drive selection is plated at high dilution to create isolated colonies; each arising from a single and potentially clonally distinct cell. At an early growth stage when colonies consist of only a few of cells, sterile polystyrene rings (cloning rings), which have been dipped in grease are placed over an individual colony and a small amount of trypsin is added. Cloned cells are collected from inside the ring and transferred to a new vessel for further growth. Cloning in stem cell research Somatic cell nuclear transfer can also be used to create a clonal embryo. The most likely purpose for this is to produce embryos for use in research, particularly stem cell research. This process is also called "research cloning" or "therapeutic cloning." The goal is not to create cloned human beings, but rather to harvest stem cells that can be used to study human development and to potentially treat disease. While a clonal human blastocyst has been created, stem cell lines are yet to be isolated from a clonal source. Organism cloning Organism cloning refers to the procedure of creating a new multicellular organism, genetically identical to another. In essence this form of cloning is an asexual method of reproduction, where fertilization or inter-gamete contact does not take place. Asexual reproduction is a naturally occurring phenomenon in many species, including most plants (see vegetative reproduction) and some insects. Horticultural The term clone is used in horticulture to mean all descendants of a single plant, produced by vegetative reproduction or apomixis. Many horticultural plant cultivars are clones, having been derived from a single individual, multiplied by some process other than sexual reproduction. As an example, some European cultivars of grapes represent clones that have been propagated for over two millennia. Other examples are potato and banana. Grafting can be regarded as cloning, since all the shoots and branches coming from the graft are genetically a clone of a single individual, but this particular kind of cloning has not come under ethical scrutiny and is generally treated as an entirely different kind of operation. Many trees, shrubs, vines, ferns and other herbaceous perennials form clonal colonies. Parts of a large clonal colony often become detached from the parent, termed fragmentation, to form separate individuals. Some plants also form seeds asexually, termed apomixis, e.g. dandelion. Parthenogenesis Clonal derivation exists in nature in some animal species and is referred to as parthenogenesis (reproduction of an organism by itself without a mate). An example is the "Little Fire Ant" (Wasmannia auropunctata), which is native to Central and South America but has spread throughout many tropical environments. Reproductive cloning Reproductive cloning uses "somatic cell nuclear transfer" (SCNT) to create animals that are genetically identical. This process entails the transfer of a nucleus from a donor adult cell (somatic cell) to an egg which has no nucleus. If the egg begins to divide normally it is transferred into the uterus of the surrogate mother. Such clones are not strictly identical since the somatic cells may contain mutations in their nuclear DNA. Additionally, the mitochondria in the cytoplasm also contains DNA and during SCNT this DNA is wholly from the donor egg, thus the mitochondrial genome is not the same as that of the nucleus donor cell from which it was produced. This may have important implications for cross-species nuclear transfer in which nuclear-mitochondrial incompatibilities may lead to death. Dolly the Sheep Dolly (1996-07-05 – 2003-02-14), a Finn Dorsett ewe, was the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult cell, though the first actual thing to be cloned was a tadpole in 1952 . She was cloned at the Roslin Institute in Scotland and lived there until her death when she was six. On 2003-04-09 her stuffed remains were placed at Edinburgh's Royal Museum, part of the National Museums of Scotland. Dolly was publicly significant because the effort showed that the genetic material from a specific adult cell, programmed to express only a distinct subset of its genes, can be reprogrammed to grow an entire new organism. Before this demonstration, there was no proof for the widely spread hypothesis that differentiated animal cells can give rise to entire new organisms. Cloning Dolly the sheep had a low success rate per fertilized egg; she was born after 277 eggs were used to create 29 embryos, which only produced three lambs at birth, only one of which lived. Seventy calves have been created from 9,000 attempts and one third of them died young; Prometea took 328 attempts. Notably, although the first clones were frogs, no adult cloned frog has yet been produced from a somatic adult nucleus donor cell. There were early claims that Dolly the Sheep had pathologies resembling accelerated aging. Scientists speculated that Dolly's death in 2003 was related to the shortening of telomeres, DNA-protein complexes that protect the end of linear chromosomes. However, other researchers, including Ian Wilmut who led the team that successfully cloned Dolly, argue that Dolly's early death due to respiratory infection was unrelated to deficiencies with the cloning process. Species cloned The modern cloning techniques involving nuclear transfer have been successfully performed on several species. Landmark experiments in chronological order: Tadpole: (1952) Many scientists questioned whether cloning had actually occurred and unpublished experiments by other labs were not able to reproduce the reported results. Carp: (1963) In China, embryologist Tong Dizhou cloned a fish. He published the findings in a Chinese science journal which was never translated into English. BLOODLINES. Timeline Mice: (1986) A mouse was the first successfully cloned mammal. Soviet scientists Chaylakhyan, Veprencev, Sviridova, and Nikitin had the mouse "Masha" cloned. Research was published in the magazine "Biofizika" volume ХХХII, issue 5 of 1987. (Russian) Sheep: (1996) From early embryonic cells by Steen Willadsen. Megan and Morag cloned from differentiated embryonic cells in June 1995 and Dolly the sheep from a somatic cell in 1997. Rhesus Monkey: Tetra (female, January 2000) from embryo splitting CNN. Researchers clone monkey by splitting embryo 2000-01-13. Retrieved 2008-08-05 Gaur: (2001) was the first endangered species cloned. http://archives.cnn.com/2001/NATURE/01/12/cloned.gaur/index.html Cattle: Alpha and Beta (males, 2001) and (2005) Brazil Camacho, Keite. Embrapa clona raça de boi ameaçada de extinção. Agência Brasil. 2005-05-20. (Portuguese) Retrieved 2008-08-05 Cat: CopyCat "CC" (female, late 2001), Little Nicky, 2004, was the first cat cloned for commercial reasons Mule: Idaho Gem, a john mule born 4 May 2003, was the first horse-family clone. Horse: Prometea, a Haflinger female born 28 May 2003, was the first horse clone. Water Buffalo: Samrupa was the first cloned water buffalo. It was born on February 6, 2009, at India's Karnal National Diary Research Institute but died five days later due to lung infection. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India-clones-worlds-first-buffalo/articleshow/4120044.cms Camel: (2009) Injaz, is the first cloned camel. Human cloning Human cloning is the creation of a genetically identical copy of an existing or previously existing human. The term is generally used to refer to artificial human cloning; human clones in the form of identical twins are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction. There are two commonly discussed types of human cloning: therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning. Therapeutic cloning involves cloning cells from an adult for use in medicine and is an active area of research: while reproductive cloning would involve making cloned human beings. Such reproductive cloning has not been performed and is illegal in many countries. A third type of cloning called replacement cloning is a theoretical possibility, and would be a combination of therapeutic and reproductive cloning. Replacement cloning would entail the replacement of an extensively damaged, failed, or failing body through cloning followed by whole or partial brain transplant. The various forms of human cloning are controversial. There have been numerous demands for all progress in the human cloning field to be halted. Some people and groups oppose therapeutic cloning, but most scientific, governmental and religious organizations oppose reproductive cloning. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and other scientific organizations have made public statements suggesting that human reproductive cloning be banned until safety issues are resolved . Serious ethical concerns have been raised by the idea that it might be possible in the future to harvest organs from clones. Some people have considered the idea of growing organs separately from a human organism - in doing this, a new organ supply could be established without the moral implications of harvesting them from humans. Research is also being done on the idea of growing organs that are biologically acceptable to the human body inside of other organisms, such as pigs or cows, then transplanting them to humans, a form of xenotransplantation. The first human hybrid human clone was created in November 1998, by American Cell Technologies. BBC News | SCI/TECH | Details of hybrid clone revealed . It was created from a man's leg cell, and a cow's egg whose DNA was removed. It was destroyed after 12 days. Since a normal embryo implants at 14 days, Dr Robert Lanza, ACT's director of tissue engineering, told the Daily Mail newspaper that the embryo could not be seen as a person before 14 days. While making an embryo, which may have resulted in complete human had it been allowed to come to term, according to ACT: "[ACT's] aim was 'therapeutic cloning' not 'reproductive cloning'" On January, 2008, Wood and Andrew French, Stemagen's chief scientific officer in California, announced that they successfully created the first 5 mature human embryos using DNA from adult skin cells, aiming to provide a source of viable embryonic stem cells. Dr. Samuel Wood and a colleague donated skin cells, and DNA from those cells was transferred to human eggs. It is not clear if the embryos produced would have been capable of further development, but Dr. Wood stated that if that were possible, using the technology for reproductive cloning would be both unethical and illegal. The 5 cloned embryos, created in Stemagen Corporation lab, in La Jolla, were destroyed. Mature Human Embryos Created From Adult Skin Cells Washingtonpost.com Ethical issues of cloning Although the practice of cloning organisms has been widespread for several thousands of years in the form of horticultural cloning, the recent technological advancements that have allowed for cloning of animals (and potentially humans) have been highly controversial. Some believe it is unethical to use a human clone to save the life of another. Others have countered that people who exist today and have interpersonal relationships and personal histories should take precedence over never-conscious life at any stage of developmental maturity. The Catholic Church and many religious organizations oppose all forms of cloning, on the grounds that life begins at conception. Conversely, Judaism does not equate life with conception and, though some question the wisdom of cloning, Orthodox rabbis generally find no firm reason in Jewish law and ethics to object to cloning. Michael Brody. Avraham Steinberg. From the standpoint of classical liberalism, concerns also exist regarding the protection of the identity of the individual and the right to protect one's genetic identity. Gregory Stock is a scientist and outspoken critic against restrictions on cloning research. New Page 0 The social implications of an artificial human production scheme were famously explored in Aldous Huxley's novel Brave New World. According to the US Food and Drug Administration, food coming from cloned animals is safe to eat. In addition the FDA stated that cloned food does not require special labeling. Both meat and milk from cloned animals such as swine, goats and cattle have no differences from the conventionally bred animals. Joseph Mendelson, legal director of the Center for Food Safety, said that cloned food still should be labeled due to the fact that safety and ethical issues of it remain questionable. Carol Tucker Foreman, director of food policy at the Consumer Federation of America, stated that FDA does not consider the fact that the results of some studies revealed that cloned animals have increased rates of mortality and deformity at birth. FDA specialists mentioned that when the cloned animals are aged from 6 to 18 months, they are almost similar to conventionally bred animals. The food receives a certain label only in cases when its features are modified by the way it is produced. Meat of Cloned Food is Safe to Eat, FDA Says Cloning extinct and endangered species Cloning, or more precisely, the reconstruction of functional DNA from extinct species has, for decades, been a dream of some scientists. The possible implications of this were dramatized in the best-selling novel by Michael Crichton and high budget Hollywood thriller Jurassic Park. In real life, one of the most anticipated targets for cloning was once the Woolly Mammoth, but attempts to extract DNA from frozen mammoths have been unsuccessful, though a joint Russo-Japanese team is currently working toward this goal. In 2001, a cow named Bessie gave birth to a cloned Asian gaur, an endangered species, but the calf died after two days. In 2003, a banteng was successfully cloned, followed by three African wildcats from a thawed frozen embryo. These successes provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species. Anticipating this possibility, tissue samples from the last bucardo (Pyrenean Ibex) were frozen immediately after it died. Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda, ocelot, and cheetah. The "Frozen Zoo" at the San Diego Zoo now stores frozen tissue from the world's rarest and most endangered species. In 2002, geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that they had replicated DNA of the Thylacine (Tasmanian Tiger), extinct about 65 years previous, using polymerase chain reaction. However, on 2005-02-15 the museum announced that it was stopping the project after tests showed the specimens' DNA had been too badly degraded by the (ethanol) preservative. Most recently, on 2005-05-15, it was announced that the Thylacine project would be revived, with new participation from researchers in New South Wales and Victoria. One of the continuing obstacles in the attempt to clone extinct species is the need for nearly perfect DNA. Cloning from a single specimen could not create a viable breeding population in sexually reproducing animals. Furthermore, even if males and females were to be cloned, the question would remain open whether they would be viable at all in the absence of parents that could teach or show them their natural behavior. Essentially, if cloning an extinct species were successful — it must be considered that cloning is still an experimental technology that succeeds only by chance — it is more likely than not that any resulting animals, even if they were healthy, would be little more than curios or museum pieces. Cloning endangered species is a highly ideological issue. Many conservation biologists and environmentalists vehemently oppose cloning endangered species — not because they think it won't work but because they think it may deter donations to help preserve natural habitat and wild animal populations. The "rule-of-thumb" in animal conservation is that, if it is still feasible to conserve habitat and viable wild populations, breeding in captivity should not be undertaken in isolation. In a 2006 review, David Ehrenfeld concluded that cloning in animal conservation is an experimental technology that, at its state in 2006, could not be expected to work except by pure chance and utterly failed a cost-benefit analysis. Furthermore, he said, it is likely to siphon funds from established and working projects and does not address any of the issues underlying animal extinction (such as habitat destruction, hunting or other overexploitation, and an impoverished gene pool). While cloning technologies are well-established and used on a regular basis in plant conservation, care must be taken to ensure genetic diversity. He concluded: References External links and references Cloning Fact Sheet from Human Genome Project Information website. 'Cloning' Freeview video by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU Clone Guide - Cloning News Website with a Resource to Cloning information in the World The Reproductive Cloning Network. Cloning articles, resources and links Cloning in Focus, an accessible and comprehensive look at cloning research from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center Click and Clone. Try it yourself in the virtual mouse cloning laboratory, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center Cloning timeline: from CNN "Cloning Addendum: A statement on the cloning report issues by the President's Council on Bioethics," The National Review, July 15, 2002 8:45am The President's Council on Bioethics Cloning educational resources and news from LiveScience.com Ian Wilmut to quit cloning game | Cloning |@lemmatized clone:105 biology:1 process:10 produce:8 population:5 genetically:5 identical:6 individual:6 occur:4 nature:3 organism:14 bacteria:2 insect:2 plant:7 reproduce:3 asexually:2 biotechnology:1 refers:4 use:29 create:16 copy:4 dna:33 fragment:8 molecular:3 cloning:36 cell:48 generally:4 term:9 production:4 multiple:2 product:1 digital:1 medium:4 software:1 etymology:1 derive:3 κλών:1 greek:1 word:1 twig:2 branch:2 refer:4 whereby:1 new:11 horticulture:2 spell:2 clon:1 twentieth:1 century:1 final:1 e:2 come:5 indicate:1 vowel:1 long:1 instead:1 short:1 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6,546 | Henotheism | Henotheism (Greek heis theos "one god") is a term coined by Max Müller, to mean worshiping a single god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities. Müller, Max. (1878) Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion: As Illustrated by the Religions of India. London:Longmans, Green and Co. Müller made the term central to his criticism of Western theological and religious exceptionalism (relative to Eastern religions), focusing on a cultural dogma which held "monotheism" to be both fundamentally well-defined and inherently superior to differing conceptions of God. Variations on the term have been "inclusive monotheism" and "monarchical polytheism", designed to differentiate differing forms of the phenomenon. Related terms are monolatrism and kathenotheism, which are typically understood as sub-types of henotheism. The latter term is an extension of "henotheism", from (kath' hena theon) —"one god at a time". Henotheism is similar but less exclusive than monolatry because a monolator worships only one god, while the henotheist may worship any within the pantheon, depending on circumstances. In some belief systems, the choice of the supreme deity within a henotheistic framework may be determined by cultural, geographical, historical or political reasons. Henotheism in various religions Classical Greco-Roman While Greek and Roman religion began as polytheism, during the Classical period, under the influence of philosophy, differing conceptions emerged. Often Zeus (or Jupiter) was considered the supreme, all-powerful and all-knowing, king and father of the Olympian gods. According to Maijastina Kahlos "monotheism was pervasive in the educated circles in Late Antiquity" Maijastina Kahlos, Debate and Dialogue: Christian and Pagan Cultures C. 360-430, Ashgate Publishing, 2007, p.145; p.160 Maximus Tyrius (2nd century A.D.), stated: "In such a mighty contest, sedition and discord, you will see one according law and assertion in all the earth, that there is one god, the king and father of all things, and many gods, sons of god, ruling together with him." Encyclopedia Britannia, 11th edition, Maximus Tryius. The Neoplatonist philosopher Plotinus taught that above the gods of traditional belief was "The One" and Maximus of Madauros even stated that only a mad person would deny the existence of a single God. Hinduism Contemporary Hinduism is mostly monistic, or in some instances monotheistic(see Hindu views on monotheism). The concept of Brahman implies a transcendent and immanent reality, Brahman which different schools of thought variously interpret as personal, impersonal or transpersonal. With the rise of Shaivism and Vaishnavism in the early centuries CE, Hinduism can largely be considered monotheistic, although the monism of Advaita school following Adi Shankara (see Smartism), is generally viewed as 'inclusive' monotheism. Smartas worship 5 deities - Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesha, Surya, Devi, Ganesha. Smarta Hinduism, a contemporary “soft polytheistic” (technically,“inclusive monotheistic”) religion, recognizes thousands of gods and goddesses, each representing one characteristic of a supreme Absolute called “Brahman. Educational Horizons The Devas of the historical Vedic religion are usually confused with demigods or angels, but they are better described as "celestial gods" or deities representing personification of supernatural forces within material nature. The True History and the Religion of India: A Concise Encyclopedia of Authentic Hinduism The Rigveda was the basis for Max Müller's description of henotheism in the sense of a polytheistic tradition striving towards a formulation of The One (ekam) Divinity aimed at by the worship of different cosmic principles. From this mix of monism, monotheism and naturalist polytheism Max Müller decided to name the early Vedic religion henotheistic. A prime example of the monistic aspects of the late Rigveda is the Nasadiya sukta, a hymn describing creation: "That One breathed by itself without breath, other than it there has been nothing." Christianity Many Christians believe in a pantheon of angels, demons, and/or Saints that are inferior to the Trinity. Christians do not label these beings as gods per se, although they are sometimes the object of prayer and some signs of honor. Mainline Christian churches which permit prayer to saints, however, insist that such prayer is only proper when limited to asking for the angel or saint's intercession to God. Catholic Encyclopedia: Intercession They are adamant that saints possess no powers of their own, and any miracle able to be attributed to their intercession is the product of the power of God and not any supernatural power of the saint. Were there to be any aspect of worship toward these angelic or saintly figures, then the matter would reflect polytheism, rather than henotheism, monolatry, or monotheism. This stance and use of the acknowledgment of other heavenly beings (Saints, most often) during prayer is primarily practiced in traditional Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, whereas the majority of Protestant denominations hold God as being the only appropriate object of veneration. Such practices could be construed, however, as acts reflecting monolatrism rather than henotheism, and it is thus important to note that, within a religious belief system, the acknowledgement of angels, saints, or any other spiritual entities does not immediately imply their worship nor their worthiness of receiving worship. Varieties of Theism: What are Henotheism and Monolatry? When Christianity was adopted by Greco-Roman pagans or African slaves, the new converts often attributed to these saints features of their previous polytheistic figures. In some cases, these beliefs have developed out of the Catholic Church and form syncretisms like Santeria. These beliefs are somewhat similar to modern Hinduism which distinguishes between God in the form of Vishnu or Shiva, and devas which are subordinate to God and who supervise forces of nature such as Agni (i.e., fire) or Vayu (i.e., wind). Some non-trinitarian Christian denominations have also been labeled henotheistic: Gnosticism is generally henotheistic. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (colloquially known as the LDS Church or Mormon church) considers the members of the Christian Godhead as three distinct beings, where God the Father is supreme, yet all three beings are defined collectively as "God". The Church teaches the worship one god, which belief is most easily described as worshiping God the Father through the conduit of the Son, Jesus Christ, as led by the Holy Ghost. Whereas other Christians speak of "One God in Three Persons", LDS scripture speaks instead of three persons in one god. See the Book of Mormon's ("they are one God"), and LDS interpretation of John 17:11 John 17:11, http://scriptures.lds.org/. . . (Jesus asks the Father in prayer that his disciples "may be one, as we are"). Jehovah's Witnesses are viewed as henotheistic because they worship the god Jehovah while viewing Jesus, Satan and angels as lesser gods. Satan in particular is referred to as "god of this system of things", that is, the invisible spirit having control over governments and other institutions of the secular and religious world, a position he has held since Adam and Eve's defection in Eden, with its implicit change of allegiance from God (Jehovah) to Satan. Jesus is referenced as sitting at the right hand of God, assisting in all acts of Creation aside from his own, hence his status as "only begotten" (cf. John 1:14, 18). It should be noted that no "god" aside from Jehovah is an appropriate object of worship for Jehovah's Witnesses. Jesus alone is accepted as an intercessor between God and man, but even he is not worshiped as such. Thus, the belief system may more appropriately be described as monolatristic rather than henotheistic, though both appellations would likely be disputed by adherents. Nazarene The Nazarenes would have to be classified as henotheistic. While they believed in Father YHWH being the Supreme Deity (as set forth in the Shema) they also believed in the deity of Yeshua as the subordinate Son of YHWH. They also believed the Ruach HaQodesh (Holy Spirit) to be Yeshua's Divine Mother as verified in the Gospel according to the Hebrews. In the Mishna (m. san 4:5), and in the Gemara (b. San 38b) the Nazarenes (referred to as MINIM/Minuth) were criticized for their belief in "many Powers". The henotheistic system of the Nazarenes would most accurately be categorized as Patriarchal Henothism. Judaism Modern Judaism is unequivocally monotheistic, but there are traces of henotheism in biblical accounts of Israelite culture. It is generally uncontroversial that many of the Iron Age religions found in the land of Israel were henotheistic in practice. For example, the Moabites worshipped the god Chemosh, the Edomites, Qaus, both of whom were part of the greater Canaanite pantheon, headed by the chief god, El. The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and Asherat as the chief deities, with 70 sons who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth. These sons were each worshiped within a specific region. K. L. Noll states that "the Bible preserves a tradition that Yahweh used to 'live' in the south, in the land of Edom" and that the original god of Israel was El Shaddai. K. L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction, Continuum, 2002, p.123 Several Biblical stories allude to the belief that the Canaanite gods all existed and possessed the most power in the lands that worshiped them or in their sacred objects; their power was real and could be invoked by the people who patronised them. There are numerous accounts of surrounding nations of Israel showing fear or reverence for the Israelite God despite their continued polytheistic practices. David Bridger, Samuel Wolk et al., The New Jewish Encyclopedia, Behrman House, 1976, pp.326-7 For instance, in 1 Samuel 4, the Philistines fret before the second battle of Aphek when they learn that the Israelites are bearing the Ark of the Covenant, and therefore Yahweh, into battle. In 2 Kings 5, the Aramean general Naaman insists on transporting Israelite soil back with him to Syria in the belief that only then will Yahweh have the power to heal him. The Israelites were forbidden to worship other deities, but according to some interpretations of the Bible, they were not fully monotheistic before the Babylonian Captivity. Mark S. Smith refers to this stage as a form of monolatry. Mark S. Smith, The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, Eerdmans Publishing, 2002, pp.58, 183 Smith argues that Yahweh underwent a process of merging with and that acceptance of cults of Asherah was common in the period of the Judges. 2 Kings 3:27 has been interpreted as describing a human sacrifice in Moab that led the invading Israelite army to fear the power of Chemosh. Gregory A. Boyd, God at War: The Bible & Spiritual Conflict, InterVarsity Press, 1997, p.118 According to the Five Books of Moses, Abraham is revered as the one who overcame the idol worship of his family and surrounding people by recognizing the Hebrew God and establishing a covenant with him and creating the foundation of what has been called by scholars "Ethical Monotheism". The first of the Ten Commandments can be interpreted to forbid the Children of Israel from worshiping any other god but the one true God who had revealed himself at Mount Sinai and given them the Torah, however it can also be read as henotheistic, since it states that they should have "no other gods before me." The commandment itself does not affirm or deny the existence of other deities per se. Nevertheless, as recorded in the Tanakh ("Old Testament" Bible), in defiance of the Torah's teachings, the patron god YHWH was frequently worshipped in conjunction with other gods such as Baal, Asherah, and El. Over time, this tribal god may have assumed all the appellations of the other gods in the eyes of the people. The destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and the exile to Babylon was considered a divine reprimand and punishment for the mistaken worship of other deities. By the end of the Babylonian captivity of Judah in the Tanakh, Judaism is strictly monotheistic. There are nonetheless seeming elements of "polytheism" in certain biblical books, such as God's reference to himself as "us" in Genesis 1:26 and 3:22, in Daniel's frequent use of the honorific "God of gods" and especially in the Psalms. Jewish scholars were aware of this, and expressed the opinion that although the verse can be understood wrongly, God was not afraid to write it in the Torah. However, the word God in Hebrew (Elohim) is also a plural, meaning "powerful ones" or "rulers". This is true in Hebrew as well as other related Canaanite languages. So "Elohim" could refer to any number of "rulers", such as angels, false gods (as defined by Torah), or even human holders of power including rulers or judges within Israel, as described in Exodus 21:6; 22:8-8, without violating the parameters of monotheism. Some scholars believe that Exodus 3:13-15 describes the moment when YHWH first tells Moses that he is the same god as El, the supreme being. This could be the recounting, in mythical form, of Israel's conversion to monotheism. Egyptian Religions While the ancient Egyptian beliefs usually recognized many gods, worship was often focused primarily upon a supreme deity, and this focus also changed from time to time. When Amenophis IV became Pharaoh (circa 1353 BCE), the supreme deity was considered to be Amun-Ra (itself the result of an earlier rise to prominence of the cult of Amun, resulting in Amun becoming merged with the sun god Ra). Gradually, the new pharaoh shifted the focus to the god Aten, eventually declaring that Aten was not merely the supreme god, but the only god. He changed his own name to "Ikhnaten" and eventually ordered removal from the temples of the name Amun (as well as references to the plural 'gods'). After his death, the prior religious establishment was restored to power, and Amun-Ra once again became supreme, among many lesser deities. Henotheism and monolatry Henotheism is closely related to the theistic concept of Monolatry, which is also the worship of one god among many. The primary difference between the two is that Henotheism is the worship of one god, not precluding the existence of others who may also be worthy of praise, while Monolatry is the worship of one god who alone is worthy of worship, though other gods are known to exist. Henotheism thus supposes to know less about divine matters, and Monolatry more. See also Henosis Hinduism Comparative religion Kathenotheism King of the Gods References External links What are Henotheism and Monolatry? 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6,547 | CSS_Virginia | CSS Virginia was a steam-powered battery design ironclad warship of the Confederate States Navy during the American Civil War, built using the remains of the scuttled USS Merrimack in 1862. Preston, p.13 She was one of the participants in the Battle of Hampton Roads in March 1862 opposite the USS Monitor. The battle is chiefly significant in naval history as the first battle between two ironclads. Ironclads were only a recent innovation, starting with the 1854 steam-powered ironclad battery Lave, which was designed for coastal warfare and had a speed of , with a crew of 282 men. Throughout the war, the Confederacy built many ironclad steam-powered batteries, and like the CSS Virginia, they were not designed to be ocean cruisers. Due to the success of the CSS Virginia, the CS Navy tried to procure turreted ironclad cruisers, but only succeeded in procuring one ironclad frigate, the [[CSS Stonewall|CSS Stonewall]], which arrived too late to make an impact in the war. USS Merrimack becomes CSS Virginia When the Commonwealth of Virginia seceded from the Union in 1861, one of the important federal military bases threatened was Gosport Shipyard (now Norfolk Naval Shipyard) in Portsmouth, Virginia. Accordingly, the order was sent to destroy the base rather than allow it to fall into Confederate hands. Unfortunately for the Union, the execution of these orders was bungled. The steam frigate USS Merrimack sank before she completely burned. When the Confederate government took possession of the yard, the hulk of the Merrimack was raised and moved pierside to clear the main channel of the Elizabeth River of the obstruction. About two months later, Confederate Navy Lieutenants John Brooke and John Porter surveyed the hull and found the running gear satisfactory to base conversion of the hull to an ironclad ram. Rebuilt under the supervision of Captain French Forrest, the new ship was named Virginia. The burned hull timbers were cut down to the waterline, and a new deck and armored casemate (fortress) were added. The deck was four inch (102 mm)-thick iron. The casemate was built up of 24" of oak and pine in several layers, topped with two layers of iron plating oriented perpendicular to each other, and angled to deflect shot hits. The battery consisted of four single-banded Brooke rifles and six nine-inch (229 mm) Dahlgren smoothbore shell guns. Two of the rifles, bow and stern pivots, were seven-inch (178 mm) , of 14,500 pounds; the other two were 6.4 inch (32 pound calibre) of 9000 pounds, one on each broadside. The nine-inch (229 mm) gun on each side nearest the furnaces was fitted for firing hot shot. A few nine-inch (229 mm) shot with extra windage (slightly smaller diameter) were cast for hot shot. No other solid shot were on board during the fight. As Virginia’s designers had heard of plans by the North to build an ironclad, and figuring her guns would be unable to harm such a ship, they equipped her with a ram— at that time an anachronism in a warship deKay, p. 131 . Merrimack's engines, now part of Virginia, had not been in good working order, and the salty Elizabeth River water and addition of tons of iron armor and ballast did not improve the situation. The commanding officer, Flag Officer Franklin Buchanan, arrived to take command only a few days before sailing. The ship was placed in commission and equipped by the executive officer, Catesby ap R. Jones. Battle of Hampton Roads The Battle of Hampton Roads began on March 8 1862 when Virginia sortied. Despite an all-out effort to complete her, the ship still had workmen on board when she sailed. Supported by Raleigh and Beaufort, and accompanied by Patrick Henry, Jamestown, and Teaser, Virginia took on the blockading fleet. The first ship engaged, USS Cumberland, was sunk after being rammed. However, in sinking, Cumberland broke off Virginia's ram. Seeing what happened to Cumberland, the captain of USS Congress ordered his ship grounded in shallow water. Congress and Virginia traded fire for an hour, after which the badly-damaged Congress surrendered. While the surviving crewmen of Congress were being ferried off the ship, a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on Virginia. In retaliation, the captain of Virginia ordered to fire upon the surrendered Congress with red-hot shot, to set her ablaze.Virginia did not emerge from the battle unscathed. Shot from Cumberland, Congress, and the shore-based Union troops had riddled her smokestack, reducing her already low speed. Two of her guns were out of order, and a number of armor plates had been loosened. Even so, her captain attacked USS Minnesota, which had run aground on a sandbank trying to escape Virginia. However, because of her deep draft, Virginia was unable to do significant damage. It being late in the day, Virginia left with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the destruction of the Union blockaders. Later that night, USS Monitor arrived at Union-held Fort Monroe, rushed to Hampton Roads in hopes of protecting the Union force and preventing Virginia from threatening Union cities. The next day, on March 9, 1862, the world's first battle between ironclads took place. The smaller, nimbler Monitor was able to outmaneuver Virginia, but neither ship proved able to do significant damage, despite numerous hits. Monitor was much closer to the water, and thus much harder to hit by the Virginia's guns, but vulnerable to ramming and boarding. Finally, Monitor retreated. This was because the captain of the Monitor was hit by gunpowder in his eyes while looking through the pilothouse's peepholes, which caused Monitor to haul off. The Monitor had retreated off into the shoals and remained there, and so the battle was a draw. The captain of Virginia, Lieutenant Catesby ap Roger Jones, CSN received the advice from his pilots to take the midnight high tide to depart back over the bar toward the CS Navy base at Norfolk until noon of the next day. Lieutenant Jones wanted, instead, to re-attack, but to "turn the ship and fight the starboard gun, was impossible, for heading up stream on a strong flood-tide, she would have been wholly unmanageable." The pilots emphasized that the Virginia had "nearly three miles to run to the bar" and that she could not remain and "take the ground on a falling tide." So to prevent getting stuck, Lieutenant Jones called off the battle and moved back toward harbor. http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/cssvirginia.htm In the following nine weeks, the crew of the Virginia were unsuccessful in their attempts to lure the Monitor out of the shallows. The Virginia made several sorties back over to Hampton Roads hoping to draw Monitor into battle. Monitor, however, was under orders not to engage. Eventually the Confederate Navy sent Lieutenant Joseph Nicholson Barney in command of the CSS Jamestown, along with the Virginia and five other ships in full view of the Union squadron, enticing them to fight. When it became clear that the US Navy ships were unwilling to fight, the CS Navy squadron moved in and captured three merchant ships, the brigs Marcus and Sabout and the schooner Catherine T. Dix. Their flags were then hoisted "Union-side down" to further taunt the US Navy into a fight, as they were towed back to Norfolk, with the help of the CSS Raleigh. Neither ironclad was ever to fight again. On May 10, 1862, advancing Union troops occupied Norfolk. Virginia was unable to retreat further up the James River due to her deep draft, and since she was a steam-powered battery and not a cruiser, she was not seaworthy enough to enter the ocean. Without a home port, Virginia was ordered blown up to keep her from being captured. This task fell to Lieutenant Jones, the last man to leave CSS Virginia after all of her guns had been safely removed and carried to the CS Marine Corps base and fortifications at Drewy's Bluff to fight again. Early on the morning of May 11, 1862, off Craney Island, fire reached her magazine and she was destroyed by a great explosion. Later that same year, despite the fact that the Monitor was essentially an armored raft designed for riverine warfare, the US Navy attempted to tow it out into the Atlantic Ocean and past the ship graveyard of Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, where the Monitor sank and was added to the collection. Historical names: Merrimack, Virginia, Merrimac The name of the warship which served the Confederacy in the Battle of Hampton Roads has become a source of confusion, which continues to the present day. When she was first commissioned into the United States Navy in 1856, her name was Merrimack, with the K. The name derived from the Merrimack River near where she was built. She was the second ship of the U.S. Navy to be named for the Merrimack River, which is formed by the junction of the Pemigewasset and Winnipesaukee Rivers at Franklin, New Hampshire. The Merrimack flows south across New Hampshire, and then eastward across northeastern Massachusetts before emptying in the Atlantic at Newburyport, Massachusetts. The Confederacy bestowed the name Virginia on her when she was raised, restored, and outfitted as an ironclad warship, but the Union preferred to call the Confederate ironclad warship by either its earlier name, "Merrimack", or by the nickname, "The Monster". Perhaps because the Union won the Civil War, the history of the United States generally records the Union version. In the aftermath of the battle, the names Virginia and Merrimack were used equally by both sides, as attested by the newspapers and correspondence of the day. Some Navy reports and pre-1900 historians misspelled the name as "Merrimac," which is actually an unrelated ship. Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimack C.S.S. Virginia Civil War Naval Battle Hence "the Battle of the Monitor and the Merrimac". Both spellings are still in use in the Hampton Roads area. Memorial, heritage It is said the most popular exhibit at Jamestown Exposition held in 1907 at Sewell's Point was the "Battle of the Merrimac and Monitor," a diorama that was in a special building. The small community in Montgomery County, Virginia near where the coal burned by the Confederate ironclad was mined is now known as Merrimac, Virginia. Other pieces of Virginia are on display at the Mariners' Museum in Newport News and the Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond, where the anchor has resided on the front lawn for many years. A gun recovered from the wreckage of the Virginia rests in Fredericksburg, VA next to the old city hall, now a museum. In 1907, an armor plate from the ship was melted down and used in the casting of the Pokahuntas Bell for the Jamestown Exposition. Richmond Times-Dispatch, "Pokahuntas Bell for Exposition", April 13, 1907 Starting in roughly 1883, numerous souvenirs, made from recently salvaged iron and wood raised from Virginias sunken hulk, found a ready and willing market among eastern seaboard residents who remembered the historic first battle between ironclads. Various tokens, medals, medalets, sectional watch fobs, and other similar metal keepsakes are known to have been struck by private mints in limited quantities. Known examples still exist today, being held in both public and private collections, rarely coming up for public auction. Nine examples made from Virginias iron and copper can be found catalogued in great detail, with front and back photos, in David Schenkman's 1979 reference booklet listed in the Reference section (below). The name of the Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel, built in Hampton Roads in the general vicinity of the famous engagement, with both Virginia and federal funds, also reflects the more recent version. Should periodic modern efforts to recover more of the Confederate vessel from the depths of Hampton Roads prove successful, it is unclear what name will be applied to the remains. ===CSS Virginia's battle ensigns & other naval flags=== The practice of using primary and secondary naval flags after the British tradition was common practice for the Confederacy, linked as she was by both heritage and economy to the British Isles. The fledgling Confederate Navy therefore adopted and used ensigns, jacks, small boat ensigns, commissioning pennants, and signal flags aboard its warships during the Civil War. The stars and bars On 4 March 1861, the committee of the first Provisional Congress of the Confederate States of America established the general requirements for the First National Flag of the Confederacy. Many designs were submitted by the public, but the new flag's approved design came from Marion, Alabama, Prussian artist Nicola Marschall, who had married into a Montgomery, Alabama family. The new Confederate flag was loosely adapted from his homeland's Austrian flag (with a dark blue canton added), quickly becoming known in the South as the Stars and Bars. Its hoist-to-fly (width-to-height) proportion was later established by the committee with the 2:3 ratio. The flag's dark blue canton would have a 1:1 (square) ratio and contain seven white, 5-pointed stars placed in a circular layout. The flag's three horizontal stripes would be red over white over red and were to be of equal height. The newly adopted Star and Bars made its first public appearance outside the Ben Johnson House in Bardstown, Kentucky. It was then raised over the dome of the first Confederate capitol in Montgomery, Alabama where it flew until 26 May 1863 when it was replaced with the new Second National Flag design. (Detailed descriptions of CSS Virginias two surviving battle ensigns and one small boat flag will follow here at a later time.) Jacks and secondary flagsVirginias original seven-star naval jack (illustration, right) would have flown forward of her battle ensign at prescribed times. It would have flown atop the tall jackstaff directly behind her armored, conical pilot house, located forward on the upper deck of her armored, slopping casemate. Her original jack would have duplicated the circular seven-star arrangement seen on the square canton of Virginias original battle ensign. (That seven-star ensign still survives today and is located in the special collections of the Museum of the Confederacy). Her later 11-star and 13-star naval jacks would have also flown atop the ironclad's jackstaff, matching the circular star arrangement of Virginias 11-star and final 13-star battle ensign. (Her 11-star ensign also survives (less four of its stars) and today is located in the collections of the Chicago Historical Society). All pre-1863 Confederate jacks were of a rectangular shape, rather than square, because the Confederate Navy emulated the overall designs being used by their U. S. Navy counterparts. There is one piece of evidence—the still surviving seven-star naval jack of the captured ironclad ram CSS Atlanta—that strongly suggests all early Confederate jacks were not a medium blue color but actually a dark blue, matching the color of the ensigns' cantons. Whatever shade of blue, later versions of Virginias jack would have contained, like her ensign, 9, 11 and 13 white, 5-pointed stars, as additional Southern states seceded and joined the Confederacy during 1861.Virginias commissioning pennant would have closely followed the pennant designs in use by the U. S. Navy. It would have been long and narrow and one of five approved sizes, being anywhere from to in overall length. It would have either flown atop Virginias forward jackstaff or atop a line attached to a removable metal signal flag framework that attached to her upper smokestack. The pennant's narrow canton (hoist) was a medium or possibly dark blue color and would have been one-quarter of the streamer's overall length (fly). It would have carried either 7 or 13 white, 5-pointed stars, with the stars being laid out in a single row. The remaining three-quarters of this long, narrow streamer would have been divided equally with two stripes, red over white (some accounts report white over red), both gradually tapering to a point. See also Norfolk Naval Shipyard USS Merrimack (1855) Notes References Preston, Antony and Batchelor, John, Battleships: 1856--1919, London, Phoebus Publishing Co., 1977, No ISBN. Besse, Sumner B., C. S. Iroclad Virginia and U. S. Ironclad Monitor, Newport News, Virginia, The Mariner's Museum, 1978, ISBN 0-917376-32-3. Potter, E. B., ed., Sea Power: A Naval Tradition, 2nd Edition, Annapolis, Maryland, U. S. Naval Institute Press, 1981, ISBN 0-87021-607-4. deKay, James, Monitor, Ballantine Books, 1997, New York, New York, ISBN ?. Smith, Gene A., Iron and Heavy Guns, Duel Between the Monitor and Merrimac (sic), Abeline, Texas, McWhiney Foundation Press, 1998, ISBN 1-866661-15-4. Thomas, Campbell R., and Flanders, Alan B., Confederate Phoenix, The CSS Virgina, Burd Street Press, 2001, ISBN 978-1572492011. Park, Carl D., Ironclad Down, USS Merrimack-CSS Virginia From Construction to Destruction, Annapolis Maryland, U. S. Naval Institute Press, 2007, ISBN 978-1-59114-659-9. Schenkman, David, Tokens & Medals Commemorating the Battle Between the Monitor and Merrimac (sic), Hampton, Virginia, 28-page booklet (the second in a series of Special Articles on the Numismatics of The Commonwealth of Virginia), Virginia Numismatic Association, 1979, no ISSN or ISBN. Madaus, H. Michael, Rebel Flags Afloat: A Survey of the Surviving Flags of the Confederate States Navy, Revenue Service, and Merchant Marine'', Winchester, MA, (80-page special edition of "The Flag Bulletin, #115"), Flag Research Center, 1986, ISSN 0015-3370. Military Heritage did a feature on the Merrimack (CSS Virginia), USS Monitor, and the Battle at Hampton Roads (Keith Milton, Military Heritage, December 2001, Volume 3, No. 3, pp.38 to 45 and p. 97). External links Library of Virginia official website Virginia Historical Society official website Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond, VA official website website devoted to the CSS Virginia Hampton Roads Visitor Guide USS Monitor Center and Exhibit Newport News, Virginia Mariner's Museum, Newport News, Virginia Hampton Roads Naval Museum Civil War Naval History Fort Wool History Roads to the Future - I-664 Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge Tunnel | CSS_Virginia |@lemmatized cs:13 virginia:56 steam:5 power:4 battery:6 design:9 ironclad:19 warship:6 confederate:17 state:6 navy:18 american:1 civil:5 war:7 build:6 use:8 remains:2 scuttled:1 uss:12 merrimack:16 preston:2 p:3 one:8 participant:1 battle:24 hampton:13 road:11 march:4 opposite:1 monitor:24 chiefly:1 significant:3 naval:14 history:5 first:9 two:8 recent:2 innovation:1 start:1 lave:1 coastal:1 warfare:2 speed:2 crew:2 men:1 throughout:1 confederacy:9 many:3 powered:1 like:2 ocean:3 cruiser:3 due:2 success:1 c:6 try:2 procure:2 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6,548 | Anointing_of_the_Sick | Detail of The Seven Sacraments (1445) by Roger van der Weyden showing the sacrament of Extreme Unction or Anointing of the Sick. Anointing of the Sick is distinguished from other forms of religious anointing or "unction" (an older term with the same meaning) in that it is intended, as its name indicates, for the benefit of a sick person. Other religious anointings occur in relation to other sacraments, in particular baptism, confirmation and ordination, and also in the coronation of a monarch. Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3), article "unction" Names Since 1972, the Roman Catholic Church uses the name Anointing of the Sick both in the English translations issued by the Holy See of its official documents in Latin Apostolic Constitution Sacram Unctionem Infirmorum, Catechism of the Catholic Church, Code of Canon Law, Directory for the Application of Principles and Norms on Ecumenism, motu proprio Summorum Pontificum, etc. and in the English official documents of Episcopal conferences. For example, United States Catholic Catechism for Adults It does not, of course, forbid the use of other names, for example the more archaic term "Unction of the Sick" or the term "Extreme Unction" - Cardinal Walter Kasper used the latter term in his intervention at the 2005 Assembly of the Synod of Bishops. Holy See Press Office bulletin However, while "Extreme Unction" was still the official name, the Church declared that "'Extreme unction' ... may also and more fittingly be called 'anointing of the sick'" (emphasis added), Constitution on the Liturgy, 73 and has itself adopted the latter term, while not outlawing the former. Extreme Unction was the normal name for the sacrament in the West from the late twelfth century until 1972, and was thus used at the Council of Trent Fourteenth Session and in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia. Catholic Encyclopedia (1913): article "Extreme Unction" Peter Lombard (died 1160) is the first writer known to have used the term, which did not become the technical name in the West till towards the end of the twelfth century, and never became current in the East. The word "extreme" (final) indicated either that it was the last of the sacramental unctions or because at that time it was normally administered only when a patient was in extremis Other names used in the West include the unction or blessing of consecrated oil, the unction of God, and the office of the unction. In the Greek Church the sacrament is called Euchelaion (Greek Εὐχέλαιον, from εὐχή, "prayer", and ἔλαιον, "oil"). Other names are also used, such as ἅγιον ἔλαιον (holy oil), ἡγιασμένον ἔλαιον (consecrated oil), and χρῖσις or χρῖσμα (anointing). The Community of Christ uses the term administration to the sick. Community of Christ: The Sacraments The term "last rites" refers to administration to a dying person not only of this sacrament but also of Penance and Holy Communion, the last of which, when administered in such circumstances, is known as "Viaticum", a word whose original meaning in Latin was "provision for the journey". The normal order of administration is: first Penance (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given), then Anointing, then Viaticum (if the person can receive it). Biblical texts The chief Biblical text concerning the rite is : "Is any among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith will save the sick man, and the Lord will raise him up; and if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven." (RSV) , and are also quoted in this regard. Status as sacrament The Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Coptic Sacrament of Unction of the Sick and Old Catholic Unction of the Sick; etc. Churches consider this anointing to be a sacrament. Other Christians too, in particular Anglicans, Lutherans and some other Protestant communities use a rite of anointing the sick, without necessarily classifying it as a sacrament. In the Churches mentioned here by name, the oil used (called "oil of the sick" in both West and East) Sacred Mysteries (sacraments) is blessed specifically for this purpose. Roman Catholic Church An extensive account of the teaching of the Catholic Church on Anointing of the Sick is given in Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1499-1532. Anointing of the Sick is one of the seven Sacraments, and is associated not only with bodily healing but with forgiveness of sins. Only priests can administer it, "Every priest, but only a priest, can validly administer the anointing of the sick" (Code of Canon Law, canon 1003 §1) and "any priest may carry the holy oil with him, so that in a case of necessity he can administer the sacrament of anointing of the sick." Code of Canon Law, canon 1003 §3) The Catholic Church sees the effects of the sacrament as follows. As the sacrament of Marriage gives grace for the married state, the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick gives grace for the state into which people enter through sickness. Through the sacrament is given a gift of the Holy Spirit that renews confidence and faith in God and strengthens against temptations to discouragement, despair and anguish at the thought of death and the struggle of death; it prevents from losing Christian hope in God's justice, truth and salvation. The special grace of the sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick has as its effects: the uniting of the sick person to the passion of Christ, for his own good and that of the whole Church; the strengthening, peace, and courage to endure in a Christian manner the sufferings of illness or old age; the forgiveness of sins, if the sick person was not able to obtain it through the sacrament of penance; the restoration of health, if it is conducive to the salvation of his soul; the preparation for passing over to eternal life." Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1532 The duly blessed oil used in the sacrament is, as laid down in the Apostolic Constitution Sacram unctionem infirmorum, pressed from olives or from other plants. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1513 It is blessed by the bishop of the diocese at the Chrism Mass he celebrates on Holy Thursday or on a day close to it. If oil blessed by the bishop is not available, the priest administering the sacrament may bless the oil, but only within the framework of the celebration. Code of Canon Law, canon 999 The Roman Rite Anointing of the Sick, as revised in 1972, puts greater stress than in the immediately preceding centuries on the sacrament's aspect of healing, and points to the place sickness holds in the normal life of Christians and its part in the redemptive work of the Church. Canon law permits its administration to any Catholic who has reached the age of reason and is beginning to be put in danger by illness or old age, "The anointing of the sick can be administered to any member of the faithful who, having reached the use of reason, begins to be in danger by reason of illness or old age" (Code of Canon Law, canon 1004 §1). unless the person in question obstinately persists in a manifestly grave sin. Code of Canon Law, canon 1007 "If there is any doubt as to whether the sick person has reached the use of reason, or is dangerously ill, or is dead, this sacrament is to be administered". Code of Canon Law, canon 1005 There is an obligation to administer it to the sick who, when they were in possession of their faculties, at least implicitly asked for it. Code of Canon Law, canon 1006 A new illness or a renewal or worsening of the first illness enables a person to receive the sacrament a further time. Code of Canon Law, canon 1004 §2 The sacrament can be administered within Mass, which is the preferred manner. Pastoral Care of the Sick, 26 If the celebration takes place outside of Mass, it can be held in the home, in a hospital or institution, or in church. Pastoral Care of the Sick, 111 The rite begins with a greeting by the priest, followed by sprinkling of all present with holy water, if deemed desirable, and a short instruction. Pastoral Care of the Sick, 115-117 There follows a penitential act, as at the beginning of Mass. Pastoral Care of the Sick, 118 If the sick person wishes to receive the sacrament of penance, it is preferable that the priest make himself available for this during a previous visit; but if the sick person must confess during the celebration of the sacrament of anointing, this confession replaces the penitential rite Pastoral Care of the Sick, 113 A passage of Scripture is read, and the priest may give a brief explanation of the reading, a short litany is said, and the priest lays his hands on the head of the sick person and then says a prayer of thanksgiving over the already blessed oil or, if necessary, blesses the oil himself. Pastoral Care of the Sick, 119-123 The actual anointing of the sick person is done on the forehead, with the prayer "Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit", and on the hands, with the prayer "May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up". To each prayer the sick person, if able, responds: "Amen." Pastoral Care of the Sick, 124 It is permitted, in accordance with local culture and traditions and the condition of the sick person, to anoint other parts of the body in addition, such as the area of pain or injury, but without repeating the sacramental form. In case of emergency, a single anointing, not necessarily on the forehead, is sufficient. Pastoral Care of the Sick, 23 From the early Middle Ages until after the Second Vatican Council the sacrament was administered, within the Latin Church, only when death was approaching and, in practice, bodily recovery was not ordinarily looked for, giving rise, as mentioned above to the name Extreme Unction (i.e. final anointing). The form used in the Roman Rite included anointing of seven parts of the body while saying (in Latin): "Through this holy unction and His own most tender mercy may the Lord pardon thee whatever sins or faults thou hast committed [quidquid deliquisti] by sight [by hearing, smell, taste, touch, walking, carnal delectation]", the last phrase corresponding to the part of the body that was touched; however, in the words of the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia, "the unction of the loins is generally, if not universally, omitted in English-speaking countries, and it is of course everywhere forbidden in case of women". Use of this form is still permitted under the conditions mentioned in article 9 of the 2007 motu proprio Summorum Pontificum. Summorum Pontificum, art. 9 Liturgical rites of the Catholic Church, both Western and Eastern, other than the Roman, have a variety of other forms for celebrating the sacrament. Eastern Orthodox Church The teaching of the Eastern Orthodox Church on the Holy Mystery (sacrament) of Unction is similar to that of the Roman Catholic Church. However, the reception of the Mystery is not limited to those who are enduring physical illness. The Mystery is given for healing (both physical and spiritual) and for the forgiveness of sin. For this reason, it is normally required that one go to Confession before receiving Unction. Because it is a Sacred Mystery of the Church, only Orthodox Christians may receive it. The solemn form of Eastern Christian anointing requires the ministry of seven priests. A table is prepared, upon which is set a vessel containing wheat. Into the wheat has been placed an empty shrine-lamp, seven candles, and seven anointing brushes. Candles are distributed for all to hold during the service. The rite begins with reading Psalm 50 (the great penitential psalm), followed by the chanting of a special Canon. After this, the senior priest (or bishop) pours pure olive oil and a small amount of wine into the shrine lamp, and says the "Prayer of the Oil", which calls upon God to "...sanctify this Oil, that it may be effectual for those who shall be anointed therewith, unto healing, and unto relief from every passion, every malady of the flesh and of the spirit, and every ill..." Then follow seven series of Epistles, Gospels, long prayers, Ektenias (litanies) and anointings. Each series is served by one of the seven priests in turn. The afflicted one is anointed with the sign of the cross on seven places: the forehead, the nostirls, the cheeks, the lips, the breast, the palms of both hands, and the back of the hands. After the last anointing, the Gospel Book is opened and placed with the writing down upon the head of the one who was anointed, and the senior priest reads the "Prayer of the Gospel". At the end, the anointed kisses the Gospel, the Cross and the right hands of the priests, receiving their blessing. Anointing is considered to be a public rather than a private sacrament, and so as many of the faithful who are able are encouraged to attend. It should be celebrated in the church when possible, but if this is impossible, it may be served in the home or hospital room of the afflicted. Unction in the Greek Orthodox Church and Churches of Hellenic custom (Melkite, Antiochian Orthodox, etc.) is usually given with a minimum of ceremony. Anointing may also be given during Forgiveness Vespers and Great Week, on Great and Holy Wednesday, to all who are prepared. Those who receive Unction on Holy Wednesday should go to Holy Communion on Maundy Thursday. The significance of receiving Unction on Holy Wednesday is shored up by the hymns in the Triodion for that day, which speak of the sinful woman who anointed the feet of Christ (). Just as her sins were forgiven because of her penitence, so the faithful are exhorted to repent of their sins. In the same narrative, Jesus says, "in that she hath poured this ointment on my body, she did it for my burial" (Id., v. 12), linking the unction with Christ's death and resurrection. In some dioceses the Russian Orthodox Church it is customary for the bishop to visit each parish or region of the diocese some time during Great Lent and give Anointing for the faithful, together with the local clergy. Anglican Churches The 1552 and later editions of the Book of Common Prayer omitted the form of anointing given in the original (1549) version in its Order for the Visitation of the Sick, but most twentieth-century Anglican prayer books do have anointing of the sick. Some Anglicans accept that anointing of the sick has a sacramental character and is therefore a channel of God's grace, seeing it as an "outward and visible sign of an inward and spiritual grace" which is the definition of a sacrament. The Catechism of the Episcopal Church includes Unction of the Sick as among the "other sacramental rites" and it states that unction can be done with oil or simply with laying on of hands Episcopal Church, 1979 Book of Common Prayer, p.860 . The rite of anointing is included in the Episcopal Church's "Ministration to the Sick" Episcopal Church, 1979 Book of Common Prayer, p.456 Article 25 of the Thirty-Nine Articles, speaking of the sacraments, says: "Those five commonly called Sacraments, that is to say, Confirmation, Penance, Orders, Matrimony, and extreme Unction, are not to be counted for Sacraments of the Gospel, being such as have grown partly of the corrupt following of the Apostles, partly are states of life allowed in the Scriptures; but yet have not like nature of Sacraments with Baptism, and the Lord's Supper, for that they have not any visible sign or ceremony ordained of God." Thirty-Nine Articles Various Protestant Communities Lutheran communities have the practice of anointing the sick, or have always offered the rite since the Protestant Reformation with varying degrees of frequency. Among Protestants, anointing is provided in a wide variety of formats but, for the most part, however, it has fallen into disuse amongst Protestants. Liturgical or Mainline Protestant communities (e.g. Presbyterian, Congregationalist/United Church of Christ, Methodist, Lutheran, etc.) all have official yet often optional liturgical rites for the anointing of the sick partly on the model of Western pre-Reformation rites. Anointing need not be associated with grave illness or imminent danger of death. Protestant communities generally vary widely on the sacramental character of anointing. Non-traditional Protestant communities generally use the term "ordinance" rather than "Sacrament". Mainline Protestants have two sacraments (the Lord's Supper and Baptism), deeming Anointing only a humanly-instituted rite. In Charismatic and Pentecostal communities, anointing of the sick is a frequent practice and has been an important ritual in these communities since the respective movements were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries. These communities use extemporaneous forms of administration at the discretion of the minister, who need not be a pastor. There is minimal ceremony attached to its administration. Usually, several people physically touch (laying on of hands) the recipient during the anointing. It may be part of a worship service with the full assembly of the congregation present, but may also be done in more private settings, such as homes or hospital rooms. Pentecostals (neo-Montanists) believe that physical healing is within the anointing and so there is often great expectation or at least great hope that a miraculous cure or improvement will occur when someone is being prayed over for healing. In Evangelical and Fundamentalist communities, anointing of the sick is performed with varying degrees of frequency, although laying on of hands may be more common than anointing. The rite would be similar to that of Pentecostals in its simplicity, but would usually not have the same emotionalism attached to it. Unlike Pentecostals, Evangelicals and Fundamentalists generally do not believe that physical healing is within the anointing. Therefore, God may or may not grant physical healing to the sick. The healing conferred by anointing is thus a spiritual event that may not result in physical recovery. Some Protestant US military chaplains carry the Roman Rite version of the Anointing of the Sick with them for use if called upon to assist wounded or dying soldiers who are Catholics. The Catholic and Orthodox Churches consider invalid as a sacrament the administration of Anointing of the Sick by such chaplains, who in the eyes of those Churches are not validly ordained priests. The rite performed by them is thus seen as having the same by no means negligible value of any other form of prayer offered for the sick or dying. Latter Day Saints Latter Day Saints—who consider themselves restorationists rather than Protestants—also practice ritual anointing of the sick, as well as other forms of anointing. Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints often, but not exclusively consider anointing to be an ordinance (see :category:Latter Day Saint ordinances, rituals, and symbolism). Administration to the sick is one of the eight sacraments of the Community of Christ. In the Community of Christ the sacrament of administration to the sick has also been known to be used for people seeking spiritual, emotional or mental healing. See also Anointing of the Sick (Catholic Church) References External links Western The Anointing of the Sick Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick "Extreme Unction" in Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) Apostolic Constitution "Sacram unctionem infirmorum" Eastern Holy Anointing of the Sick article from the Moscow Patriarchate Unction of the Sick article from the Sydney, Australia diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia The Mystery of Unction Russian Orthodox Cathedral of St. John the Baptist, Washington, DC Coptic Unction on Holy Saturday (Photo) | Anointing_of_the_Sick |@lemmatized detail:1 seven:9 sacrament:43 roger:1 van:1 der:1 weyden:1 show:1 extreme:10 unction:31 anointing:35 sick:60 distinguish:1 form:10 religious:2 anoint:28 old:5 term:9 meaning:2 intend:1 name:11 indicate:2 benefit:1 person:15 occur:2 relation:1 particular:2 baptism:3 confirmation:2 ordination:1 also:10 coronation:1 monarch:1 oxford:2 dictionary:1 christian:7 church:38 university:1 press:3 isbn:1 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chaplain:2 assist:1 wounded:1 soldier:1 invalid:1 eye:1 ordained:1 mean:1 negligible:1 value:1 saint:4 restorationists:1 well:1 exclusively:1 category:1 symbolism:1 eight:1 seek:1 emotional:1 mental:1 reference:1 external:1 moscow:1 patriarchate:1 sydney:1 australia:1 russia:1 cathedral:1 st:1 john:1 baptist:1 washington:1 dc:1 saturday:1 photo:1 |@bigram van_der:1 der_weyden:1 extreme_unction:9 anointing_sick:19 baptism_confirmation:1 catechism_catholic:4 motu_proprio:2 summorum_pontificum:3 unction_sick:5 council_trent:1 sin_forgive:1 eastern_orthodox:3 anoint_sick:8 forgiveness_sin:3 holy_spirit:2 sacrament_penance:2 pastoral_care:8 thou_hast:1 smell_taste:1 liturgical_rite:2 olive_oil:1 antiochian_orthodox:1 maundy_thursday:1 twentieth_century:1 sacrament_baptism:1 lord_supper:2 protestant_reformation:1 fall_disuse:1 mainline_protestant:2 imminent_danger:1 evangelical_fundamentalist:1 jesus_christ:1 external_link:1 moscow_patriarchate:1 washington_dc:1 |
6,549 | Politics_of_Norfolk_Island | Politics of Norfolk Island takes place in a framework of a parliamentary representative democratic entity. Norfolk Island is the only non-mainland Australian territory to have achieved self-governance. The Norfolk Island Act, passed by the Parliament of Australia in 1979, is the Act under which the island is governed. Executive branch The Australian Government maintains authority on the island through an Administrator (currently Owen Walsh) who is appointed by the Governor-General of Australia. Four of the members of the Assembly form the Executive Council, which devises policy and acts as an advisory body to the Administrator. This council is headed by the Chief Minister of Norfolk Island. |Administrator |Owen Walsh | |October 2008 |- |Head of Government |Andre Nobbs | |28 March 2007 |} Legislative branch The Norfolk Legislative Assembly is elected by popular vote for a term of not more than three years, although legislation passed by the Australian Parliament can extend its laws to the territory at will. The Assembly consists of nine seats, with electors casting nine equal votes, of which no more than four can be given to any individual candidate. It is a method of voting called a "weighted first past the post system". All seats are held by independent candidates as Norfolk Island does not have political parties. Local ordinances and acts apply on the island, where most laws are based on the Australian legal system. Australian common law applies when not covered by either Australian or Norfolk Island law. Suffrage is universal at age eighteen. Political parties and elections Relationship with Australia Controversy exists as to the exact status of Norfolk Island. Despite the island's status as a self-governing territory of Australia, some Islanders claim Norfolk Island - Norfolk Island's Relationship with Australia that it was actually granted independence at the time Queen Victoria granted permission to Pitcairn Islanders to re-settle on the island. These views have been repeatedly rejected by the Australian parliament's joint committee on territories, most recently in 2004, and were also rejected by the High Court of Australia in Berwick Limited v R R Gray Deputy Commissioner of Taxation Berwick Limited v R R Gray Deputy Commissioner of Taxation . Disagreements over the island's relationship with Australia have been put in sharper relief by a 2006 review undertaken by the Australian government. Under the more radical of two proposed models proposed as a result of the review, the island's legislative assembly would be reduced to the status of a local council BBC NEWS | Programmes | From Our Own Correspondent | Battle for Norfolk Island . The island is subject to separate immigration controls from the remainder of the nation. Australian citizens and residents from other parts of the nation do not have automatic right of residence on the island. Australian citizens must carry either a passport or a Document of Identity to travel to Norfolk Island. Citizens of all other nations must carry a passport to travel to Norfolk Island even if arriving from other parts of Australia. Non-Australians without a multiple entry visa to Australia (or authority to enter without a visa) will be refused entry if they try to return to mainland Australia from Norfolk Island. Residency on Norfolk Island requires sponsorship by an existing resident of Norfolk Island or a business operating on the island. Temporary residency may also be granted to skilled workers necessary for the island's services – examples are medical, government and teaching staff. Permanent residents of Norfolk Island may apply for Australian citizenship after meeting normal residence requirements. Children born on Norfolk Island are Australian citizens as specified by Australian nationality law. Residents of Norfolk Island who are citizens of Australia and meet the normal enrolment requirements are entitled, but not required, to enrol to vote in Australian federal elections and once enrolled must vote. However, the island is not covered by a particular electorate. Islanders are entitled enrol in an Australian state electorate to which they have a close connection, or if not applicable, in the Australian Capital Territory electorate of Canberra or the Northern Territory electorate of Solomon. Australian Electoral Commission - Norfolk Island Electors Medicare does not cover Norfolk Island. All visitors to Norfolk Island, including Australians, are recommended to purchase travel insurance. Serious medical conditions are not treated on the island and are instead flown off. This cost can amount to tens of thousands of dollars to the user if travel insurance is not taken out. Foreign relations As a territory of Australia, Norfolk Island does not have diplomatic representation abroad, or within the territory, and is also not a participant in any international organizations, other than sporting organizations. References | Politics_of_Norfolk_Island |@lemmatized politics:1 norfolk:23 island:35 take:2 place:1 framework:1 parliamentary:1 representative:1 democratic:1 entity:1 non:2 mainland:2 australian:19 territory:8 achieve:1 self:2 governance:1 act:4 pass:2 parliament:3 australia:12 govern:2 executive:2 branch:2 government:4 maintain:1 authority:2 administrator:3 currently:1 owen:2 walsh:2 appoint:1 governor:1 general:1 four:2 member:1 assembly:4 form:1 council:3 devise:1 policy:1 advisory:1 body:1 head:2 chief:1 minister:1 october:1 andre:1 nobbs:1 march:1 legislative:3 elect:1 popular:1 vote:5 term:1 three:1 year:1 although:1 legislation:1 extend:1 law:5 consist:1 nine:2 seat:2 elector:2 cast:1 equal:1 give:1 individual:1 candidate:2 method:1 call:1 weight:1 first:1 past:1 post:1 system:2 hold:1 independent:1 political:2 party:2 local:2 ordinance:1 apply:2 base:1 legal:1 common:1 applies:1 cover:3 either:2 suffrage:1 universal:1 age:1 eighteen:1 election:2 relationship:3 controversy:1 exist:2 exact:1 status:3 despite:1 islander:3 claim:1 actually:1 grant:3 independence:1 time:1 queen:1 victoria:1 permission:1 pitcairn:1 settle:1 view:1 repeatedly:1 reject:2 joint:1 committee:1 recently:1 also:3 high:1 court:1 berwick:2 limit:2 v:2 r:4 gray:2 deputy:2 commissioner:2 taxation:2 disagreement:1 put:1 sharper:1 relief:1 review:2 undertake:1 radical:1 two:1 proposed:1 model:1 propose:1 result:1 would:1 reduce:1 bbc:1 news:1 program:1 correspondent:1 battle:1 subject:1 separate:1 immigration:1 control:1 remainder:1 nation:3 citizen:5 resident:4 part:2 automatic:1 right:1 residence:2 must:3 carry:2 passport:2 document:1 identity:1 travel:4 even:1 arrive:1 without:2 multiple:1 entry:2 visa:2 enter:1 refuse:1 try:1 return:1 residency:2 require:2 sponsorship:1 business:1 operate:1 temporary:1 may:2 skilled:1 worker:1 necessary:1 service:1 example:1 medical:2 teaching:1 staff:1 permanent:1 citizenship:1 meet:2 normal:2 requirement:2 child:1 bear:1 specify:1 nationality:1 enrolment:1 entitle:2 enrol:3 federal:1 however:1 particular:1 electorate:4 state:1 close:1 connection:1 applicable:1 capital:1 canberra:1 northern:1 solomon:1 electoral:1 commission:1 medicare:1 visitor:1 include:1 recommend:1 purchase:1 insurance:2 serious:1 condition:1 treat:1 instead:1 fly:1 cost:1 amount:1 ten:1 thousand:1 dollar:1 user:1 foreign:1 relation:1 diplomatic:1 representation:1 abroad:1 within:1 participant:1 international:1 organization:2 sport:1 reference:1 |@bigram norfolk_island:22 governance_norfolk:1 legislative_branch:1 legislative_assembly:2 queen_victoria:1 bbc_news:1 skilled_worker:1 |
6,550 | Bat | Bats are mammals in the order Chiroptera (). The forelimbs of all bats are developed as wings, making them the only mammals naturally capable of sustained flight (other mammals, such as flying squirrels, gliding possums and colugos, can only glide for limited distances). The word Chiroptera comes from the Greek words cheir (χειρ) "hand" and pteron (πτερον) "wing," as the structure of the open wing is very similar to an outspread human hand with a membrane (patagium) between the fingers that also stretches between hand and body. A measure of the success of bats is their estimated total of about 1,100 species worldwide, accounting for about 20 percent of all mammal species. About 70 percent of bats are insectivores. Most of the rest are frugivores, with a few species being carnivorous. Bats are present throughout most of the world. Bats perform a vital ecological role by pollinating flowers, and also serve an important role in seed dispersal. Many tropical plants are entirely dependent on bats. Bats range in size from Kitti's Hog-nosed Bat measuring in length and in mass, to the Giant golden-crowned flying fox which has a wing span of and weighs approximately . Fossil bats Since bats are terrestrial and light-boned, there are few fossilized remains. An Early Eocene bat, Onychonycteris finneyi, was found in the 52-million-year-old Green River Formation in South Dakota (US) in 2004. The new genus was placed in a new family when it was published in Nature, February 2008. (BBC News) "Bat fossil solves evolution poser" 13 February 2008. It was clearly a flier, but the well-articulated skeleton showed that the cochlea of the inner ear lacked the developments which, in modern bats, provide echolocation capabilities; this indicates that flight in bats was developed before echolocation. The team realized Onychonycteris finneyi was different when they noticed that the species lacked the ear and throat features present not only in all living, echolocating bats today, but also in other ancient species known only from fossils. The bats of 52.5 million years ago flew differently from the bats of today, and had a vastly different appearance. Onychonycteris had claws on all five of its fingers, whereas modern bats have - at most - claws for only two digits on each hand. It also had longer hind legs, and shorter forearms, similar to those of climbing mammals that hang under branches (such as sloths or gibbons). This palm-sized animal had broad, short wings, which suggests that it could not fly as fast or as far as later bat species. Instead of flapping its wings continuously while flying, Onychonycteris would likely have alternated flapping and gliding while airborne. These physical characteristics also suggest that this species did not fly as much as modern bats do, perhaps just flying from tree to tree and spending most of its waking day just climbing or hanging. (Discovery Channel article) "Prehistoric bats learned to fly before they could see"February 13, 2008. Another early Eocene fossil Icaronycteris index, was unearthed in 1960. Classification and evolution Giant golden-crowned flying fox, Acerodon jubatus Common Pipistrelle, Pipistrellus pipistrellus Bats are mammals. Though sometimes called "flying rodents", "flying rats," or even mistaken for insects and birds, bats are not, in fact, any of these things. There are two traditional suborders of bats: Megachiroptera (megabats) Microchiroptera (microbats/echolocating bats) Despite the name, not all megabats are larger than microbats. The major distinction between the two suborders is based on other factors: Microbats use echolocation, whereas megabats do not (except for Rousettus and relatives). Microbats lack the claw at the second toe of the forelimb. The ears of microbats do not form a closed ring, but the edges are separated from each other at the base of the ear. Microbats lack underfur; they have only guard hairs or are naked. Megabats eat fruit, nectar or pollen while microbats eat insects, blood (small quantities of the blood of animals), small mammals, fish and may also consume fruit, pollen or nectar. While megabats have a well-developed visual cortex and show good visual acuity, microbats rely on echolocation for navigation and finding prey. The phylogenetic relationships of the different groups of bats have been the subject of much debate. The traditional subdivision into Megachiroptera and Microchiroptera reflects the predominant view which holds that these two groups of bats have evolved independently for a long time, from a common ancestor that was already capable of flight. This hypothesis recognizes the marked differences between microbats and megabats, while at the same time acknowledging the likelihood that flight has evolved only once in mammals. In addition, the majority of molecular biological evidence supports the point of view that bats form a monophyletic group . More recently, researchers have proposed alternative views of chiropteran phylogeny (and classification), but more research is required to assess the merits of these proposals. Genetic evidence indicates that megabats should be placed within the four major lines of microbats, which originated during the early Eocene. This has resulted in a new classification, which includes two suborders. The suborder Yinpterochiroptera includes the Pteropodidae or megabat family as well as the Rhinolophidae, Megadermatidae, and Rhinopomatidae families. The Yangochiroptera includes all the remaining families of bats. Because these relationships combine echolocating and non-echolocating bats, it's unknown if the ancestor of bats possessed laryngeal echolocation (which the bats of Pteropodiae subsequently lost) or if this ability evolved twice. As an alternative to the Yinpterochiroptera/Yangochiroptera classification, some researchers use Pteropodiformes and Vespertilioniformes as the names of suborders of chiroptera. This nomenclature is said to have more long-term stability. Under this new proposed nomenclature, the suborder Pteropodiformes would be defined to include all extant bat families more closely related to the genus Pteropus than to the genus Vespertilio, while the suborder Vespertilioniformes would be defined to include all extant bat families more closely related to the genus Vespertilio than to the genus Pteropus. In the 1980s, it was hypothesized (based on morphological evidence) that Megachiroptera evolved flight separately from Microchiroptera. The so-called Flying primates theory proposed that when adaptations to flight are discounted in a cladistic analysis, the Megachiroptera are allied to primates by anatomical features that are not shared with Microchiroptera. For example, the brains of megabats show a number of advanced characteristics linking these animals to primates. Although recent genetic studies support the monophyly of bats , debate persists about the relative merits of DNA versus morphological evidence in settling this controversy. Little fossil evidence exists about the evolution of bats, since their small, delicate skeletons do not fossilize very well. However a Late Cretaceous tooth from South America resembles that of an early Microchiropteran bat. The oldest known definite bat fossils, such as Icaronycteris, Archaeonycteris, Palaeochiropteryx and Hassianycteris, are from the early Eocene (), but they were already very similar to modern microbats. Archaeopteropus, formerly classified as the earliest known megachiropteran, is now classified as a microchiropteran. Bats were formerly grouped in the superorder Archonta along with the treeshrews (Scandentia), colugos (Dermoptera), and the primates, because of the similarities between Megachiroptera and these mammals. However, genetic studies have now placed bats in the superorder Laurasiatheria along with carnivorans, pangolins, odd-toed ungulates, even-toed ungulates, and cetaceans. "Chiroptera" from Ernst Haeckel's Kunstformen der Natur, 1904 Below is the traditional classification of bats. Order Chiroptera Suborder Megachiroptera (megabats) Pteropodidae Suborder Microchiroptera (microbats) Superfamily Emballonuroidea Emballonuridae (Sac-winged or Sheath-tailed bats) Superfamily Molossoidea Antrozoidae (Pallid bats) Molossidae (Free-tailed bats) Superfamily Nataloidea Furipteridae (Smoky bats) Myzopodidae (Sucker-footed bats) Natalidae (Funnel-eared bats) Thyropteridae (Disk-winged bats) Superfamily Noctilionoidea Mormoopidae (Ghost-faced or Moustached bats) Mystacinidae (New Zealand short-tailed bats) Noctilionidae (Bulldog bats or Fisherman bats) Phyllostomidae (Leaf-nosed bats) Superfamily Rhinolophoidea Megadermatidae (False vampires) Nycteridae (Hollow-faced or Slit-faced bats) Rhinolophidae (Horseshoe bats) Superfamily Rhinopomatoidea Craseonycteridae (Bumblebee Bat or Kitti's Hog-nosed Bat) Rhinopomatidae (Mouse-tailed bats) Superfamily Vespertilionoidea Vespertilionidae (Vesper bats or Evening bats) Megabats are primarily fruit- or nectar-eating. They have probably evolved for some time in New Guinea without microbat concurrention. This has resulted in some smaller megabats of the genus Nyctimene becoming (partly) insectivorous to fill the vacant microbat ecological niche. Furthermore, there is some evidence that the fruit bat genus Pteralopex from the Solomon Islands, and its close relative Mirimiri from Fiji, have evolved to fill some niches that were open because there are no nonvolant (non-flying) mammals in those islands. Anatomy Skeleton of a Greater Mouse-eared Bat (Myotis myotis)) By emitting high-pitched sounds and listening to the echoes, also known as sonar, microbats locate prey and other nearby objects. This is the process of echolocation, an ability they share with dolphins and whales. Two groups of moths exploit the bats' senses: tiger moths produce ultrasonic signals to warn the bats that the moths are chemically-protected (aposematism) (this was once thought to be the biological equivalent of "radar jamming", but this theory is still unconfirmed); the moths Noctuidae have a hearing organ called a tympanum which responds to an incoming bat signal by causing the moth's flight muscles to twitch erratically, sending the moth into random evasive manoeuvres. Although the eyes of most microbat species are small and poorly developed, leading to poor visual acuity, it is incorrect to assume that they are nearly blind. Vision is used as an aid in navigation especially at long distances, beyond the range of echolocation. It has even been discovered that some species are able to detect ultraviolet light. Their senses of smell and hearing are excellent. The teeth of microbats resemble those of the insectivorans. They are very sharp in order to bite through the hardened armor of insects or the skin of fruit. Thermographic image of a bat using trapped air as insulation. While other mammals have one-way valves only in their veins to prevent the blood from flowing backwards, bats also have the same mechanism in their arteries. The finger bones of bats are much more flexible than those of other mammals. One reason is that the cartilage in their fingers lacks calcium and other minerals nearer the tips, increasing their ability to bend without splintering. The cross-section of the finger bone is also flattened instead of circular as is the bone in a human finger, making it even more flexible. The skin on their wing membranes is a lot more elastic and can stretch much more than is usually seen among mammals. Because their wings are much thinner than those of birds, bats can maneuver more quickly and more precisely than birds. The surface of their wings are also equipped with touch-sensitive receptors on small bumps called Merkel cells, found in most mammals, including humans. But these sensitive areas are different in bats as each bump has a tiny hair in the center, making it even more sensitive, and allowing the bat to detect and collect information about the air flowing over its wings. An additional kind of receptor cell is found in the wing membrane of species that use their wings to catch prey. This receptor cell is sensitive to the stretching of the membrane. The cells are concentrated in areas of the membrane where insects hit the wings when the bats capture them. One species of bat has the longest tongue of any mammal relative to its body size. This is beneficial to them in terms of pollination and feeding - their long narrow tongues can reach deep into the long cup shape of some flowers. When their tongue retracts, it coils up inside their rib cage. The lungs of bats are typical mammalian lungs, and unlike the lungs of birds; this has been hypothesized to make them more sensitive to rupture when subjected to the sudden changes in air pressure generated in the immediate neighborhood of wind turbines, and therefore explain their apparent higher rate of mortality associated with these mechanisms. "B.C. study to help bats survive wind farms", National Wind Watch, September 23, 2008 Reproduction Colony of Mouse-eared Bats, Myotis myotis Most bats have a breeding season, which is in the spring for species living in a temperate climate. Bats may have one to three litters in a season, depending on the species and on environmental conditions such as the availability of food and roost sites. Females generally have one offspring at a time; this is probably a result of the mother's need to fly to feed while pregnant. Female bats nurse their youngster until it has grown nearly to adult size; this is because a young bat cannot forage on its own until its wings have assumed adult dimensions. Female bats use a variety of strategies to control the timing of pregnancy and the birth of young, so as to make delivery coincide with maximum food ability and other ecological factors. Females of some species have delayed fertilization, in which sperm are stored in the reproductive tract for several months after mating; in many such cases, mating occurs in the fall, but fertilization does not occur until the following spring. Other species exhibit delayed implantation, in which the egg is fertilized after mating, but remains free in the reproductive tract until external conditions become favorable for giving birth and caring for the offspring. In yet another strategy, fertilization and implantation both occur but development of the fetus is delayed until favorable conditions prevail. All of these adaptations result in the pup being born during a time of high local production of fruit or insects. The ability to fly is congenital, but at birth the wings are too small to fly. Young microbats become independent at the age of 6 to 8 weeks, megabats not until they are four months old. A single bat can live over 20 years, but the bat population growth is limited by the slow birth rate. http://www.batworld.org/main/main.html Retrieved 22 October 2006. Behavior Most microbats are active at night or at twilight. Many bats migrate , while others pass into torpor in cold weather but rouse themselves and feed when warm spells permit insect activity , and still others retreat to caves for winter and hibernate for six months. Bats rarely fly in rain- the rain interferes with their echo location, and they are unable to locate their food. The social structure of bats varies, with some bats leading a solitary life and others living in caves colonized by more than a million bats . The fission-fusion social structure is seen among several species of bats. "Fusion" refers to the grouping of large numbers of bats in one roosting area and "fission" is the breaking apart and mixing of subgroups, with individual bats switching roosts with others and often ending up in different trees and with different roostmates. Studies also show that bats make all kinds of sounds to communicate with others. Scientists in the field have listened to bats and have been able to identify some sounds with some behaviour bats will make right after the sounds are made. 70% of bat species are insectivorous, locating their prey by means of sonar. Of the remainder, most feed on fruits and their juices. Only three species sustain themselves with blood. Some species even prey on vertebrates: these are the leaf-nosed bats (Phyllostomidae) of Central America and South America, and the two bulldog bat (Noctilionidae) species, which feed on fish. At least two species of bat are known to feed on other bats: the Spectral Bat, also called the American False Vampire bat, and the Ghost Bat of Australia . One species, the Greater Noctule bat, is believed to catch and eat small birds in the air. It has been noted recently that, unexpectedly, bats seem to suffer a higher death rate than birds in the neighborhood of wind turbines "Bats take a battering at wind farms", New Scientist, May 12, 2007 , , ; since there are no signs of external trauma, the cause has been hypothesized to be a greater sensitivity to sudden pressure fluctuations in the mammalian lung than in that of birds. Laysource includes audio podcast of interview with author. In addition, it has been suggested that bats are attracted to these structures, perhaps seeking roosts, and thereby increasing the death rate. As vectors for pathogens A big brown bat (Eptesicus fuscus) approaches a wax moth (Galleria mellonella), which serves as the control species for the studies of the tiger moths. The moth is only "semi-tethered," allowing it to fly evasively. Bats are natural reservoirs or vectors for a large number of zoonotic pathogens including rabies, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Henipavirus (ie. Nipah virus and Hendra virus) and possibly ebola virus . Note: This could be considered a lay summary of the various scientific publications cited in the preceding sentence. Their high mobility, broad distribution, and social behaviour (communal roosting, fission-fusion social structure) make bats favourable hosts and vectors of disease. Many species also appear to have a high tolerance for harbouring pathogens and often do not develop disease while infected. Only 0.5% of bats carry rabies. However, of the few cases of rabies reported in the United States every year not caused by dogs, most are caused by bat bites. Note: the 71% figure in the quote would be for the 20 year period from 1980 to c.2000. Although most bats do not have rabies, those that do may be clumsy, disoriented, and unable to fly, which makes it more likely that they will come into contact with humans. Although one should not have an unreasonable fear of bats, one should avoid handling them or having them in one's living space, as with any wild animal. If a bat is found in living quarters near a child, mentally handicapped person, intoxicated person, sleeping person, or pet, the person or pet should receive immediate medical attention for rabies. Bats have very small teeth and can bite a sleeping person without being felt. There is evidence that it is possible for the bat rabies virus to infect victims purely through airborne transmission, without direct physical contact of the victim with the bat itself. If a bat is found in a house and the possibility of exposure cannot be ruled out, the bat should be sequestered and an animal control officer called immediately, so that the bat can be analysed. This also applies if the bat is found dead. If it is certain that nobody has been exposed to the bat, it should be removed from the house. The best way to do this is to close all the doors and windows to the room except one to the outside. The bat should soon leave. Due to the risk of rabies and also due to health problems related to their faecal droppings (guano), bats should be excluded from inhabited parts of houses. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention provides full detailed information on all aspects of bat management, including how to capture a bat, what to do in case of exposure, and how to bat-proof a house humanely. Center for Disease Control's website on bats and rabies In certain countries, such as the United Kingdom, it is illegal to handle bats without a license. Where rabies is not endemic, as throughout most of Western Europe, small bats can be considered harmless. Larger bats can give a nasty bite. They should be treated with the respect due to any wild animal. The bat in heraldry The bat is sometimes used as a heraldic symbol. The coats of arms of certain cities in eastern Spain, like Valencia, Palma de Mallorca and Fraga have the bat over the shield. Formerly the Barcelona city coat of arms also had a bat crowning it, but the bat has been removed in the present-day versions. The heraldic use of the bat in Valencia, Catalonia and the Balearic Islands has its origins in a winged dragon (vibra or vibria) that was crowning king James I of Aragon's helmet or cimera reial. This is the most widely accepted theory, although there is also a legend that says that thanks to the humble intervention of a bat, king James I was able to win a crucial battle against the Saracens that allowed him to win Valencia for his kingdom. The use of the bat as a heraldic symbol is prevalent in the territories of the former Crown of Aragon and it is little used elsewhere. However, it can be found in a few places, like in the coats of arms of the city of Albacete, in Spain, as well as the town of Montchauvet (Yvelines), in France. Certain Spanish soccer club badges, like the Valencia CF, have a bat on them. The ancient badge of the FC Barcelona, used only during the 1899-1906 period, had a small bat crowning it as well. The Burgee of the Royal Valencia Yacht Club (Reial Club Nàutic de València) displays a bat on a golden field in its center. Cultural aspects Bat. Moche Culture 100 A.D. Larco Museum Lima, Peru. "Nightwing," a work of art by Dale Whistler located in Austin, Texas, United States The bat is sacred in Tonga and West Africa and is often considered the physical manifestation of a separable soul . Bats are closely associated with vampires, who are said to be able to shapeshift into bats, fog, or wolves. Bats are also a symbol of ghosts, death, and disease. Among some Native Americans, such as the Creek, Cherokee and Apache, the bat is a trickster spirit. Chinese lore claims the bat is a symbol of longevity and happiness, and is similarly lucky in Poland and geographical Macedonia and among the Kwakiutl and Arabs. The bat is also a heraldic animal of the Spanish autonomous community of Valencia. Pre-Columbian cultures associated animals with gods and often displayed them in art. The Moche people depicted bats in their ceramics. Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1997. In Western Culture, the bat is often a symbol of the night and its foreboding nature. The bat is a primary animal associated with fictional characters of the night, both villains like Dracula and heroes like Batman. The association of the fear of the night with the animal was treated as a literary challenge by Kenneth Oppel, who created a best selling series of novels, beginning with Silverwing, which feature bats as the central heroic figures much as anthropomorphized rabbits were the central figures to the classic novel Watership Down. An old wives' tale has it that bats will entangle themselves in people's hair. One likely source of this belief is that insect-eating bats seeking prey may dive erratically toward people, who attract mosquitoes and gnats, leading the squeamish to believe that the bats are trying to get in their hair. In the United Kingdom all bats are protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Acts, and even disturbing a bat or its roost can be punished with a heavy fine. In Sarawak, Malaysia bats are protected species under the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998 (see Malaysian Wildlife Law). The large Naked bat (see Mammals of Borneo) and Greater Nectar bat are consumed by the local communities. Bats can be a tourist attraction. The Congress Avenue bridge in Austin, Texas is the summer home to North America's largest urban bat colony, an estimated 1,500,000 Mexican free-tailed bats, which eat an estimated 10,000 to 30,000 pounds of insects each night. An estimated 100,000 tourists per year visit the bridge at twilight to watch the bats leave the roost. Very large bat house, Tallahassee, Florida, United States Bats in Mesoamerican Mythology In Mesoamerican mythology during the Classic-Contemporary time period, bats symbolized the land of the dead, which is considered the underworld. They also symbolized destruction and decay. Bats may have symbolized these things because they fly only at night and dwell in caves during the daytime and are associated with human skulls and bones by Classic Maya ceramists. Central Mexicans sometimes depicted bats having snouts that looked like sacrificial knives and carrying human head in the Postclassic era Kay Almere Read and Jason J. Gonzalez. 2000. Mesoamerican Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 132 . Bat images were engraved onto funerary urns emphasized with large claws and round ears by Zapotecs and were commonly associated with death. The depiction of bats on funeral urns and goods took on some characteristics of the jaguar which is another entity of the night and the underworld. There have also been instances where bats are portrayed next to other dangerous animals, such as scorpions and other nocturnal ones such as owls. A gigantic, life-size ceramic bat-man has been discovered and dug up from the Templo Mayor. The Templo Mayor is located in the center of the Mexica capitol of Tenochtitlan. Known as a god of death, this statue has the clawed feet and hands of a bat, but the entire body of a human man. The statues human-like eyes bulged out from the bat-like head, making the Zapotec images come to life. It was said that in the 1930s the Kaqchikel Maya proclaimed that the bat was the Devil’s provider. Kaqchikel would leave the Devil’s underworld home and collect blood from the animals to be used for tasty meals to feed the Devil. “In the myths, the beast of prey and the animal that is preyed upon play two significant roles. They represent two aspects of life—the aggressive, killing, conquering, creating aspect of life, and the one that is the matter or, you might say, the subject matter” Joseph Cambell and Bill Moyers. 1988. The Power of Myth. Doubleday. pp. 91 . In the Devil’s underworld, dead sinners would work off their sins in order to get to heaven, indicating that the bat was too a sinner and worked under the authority of the Devil Kay Almere Read and Jason J. Gonzalez. 2000. Mesoamerican Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 132-134 . A contemporary story from Oaxaca Oaxacans believe that the bat was very jealous of all the birds’ pretty feathers that gently fit their bodies. Feeling left out and ugly, the bat whined to God that he was extremely cold, so God, being fair and just, turned to each bird and asked if they could donate one individual feather so the bat could keep warm. The birds agreed, and began to pluck one feather from their bodies to give to the bat. With all of the feathers combined, the bat became even more beautiful than the birds and was even able to spread color onto the night sky. During the day, the bat would create rainbows that reflected vibrant colors from the sun. Because of this new and improved look and feel, the bat became overly arrogant and conceited. The birds grew tired of the bat’s self glorification, so they decided to fly up to heaven and talk to God about what was going on. The birds reported to God how the bat was acting, so God decided to take a look for Himself, then called on the bat to show Him what the bat was doing on Earth. When the bat began to fly across the light blue sky, each feather began to fall out one by one, uncovering the bat’s ugly body. The bat became even more ashamed of his looks after all of the feathers came off and missed the beautiful, plentiful feathers so much that he decided to hide in caves during the day and only come out at night, searching high and low for his lost plumage in hopes that he will not be seen during his search for he is too embarrassed Kay Almere Read and Jason J. Gonzalez. 2000. Mesoamerican Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 132-134 . An Eastern Nigerian myth on why bats fly at night The bat and the bush-rat were once great friends a long time ago. The bat and the bush-rat would rummage through the grass and trees together, hunting all the way along, talking and bonding throughout the day. When nighttime came, the bat and the bush-rat would take turns cooking what they’ve hunted, but eat together. Their friendship appeared special and meaningful, but the bat did not even like the bush-rat. Actually, the bat hated the bush-rat. For some reason, the bat’s soup at supper time always tasted better than the bush-rat’s. One night, when both the bat and the bush-rat were eating dinner, the bush-rat asked the bat why his soup was always so much better than his and if the bat would show him how to make his excellent soup. The bat told the bush-rat he’d show him how to make it the next day, when the bat was really forming an evil and deceitful plan. The next day came, so the bat prepared his scrumptious soup as usual. A few moments later, the bush-rat came, greeted the bat, and asked if the bat could show him how to make the scrumptious soup. What the bush-rat did not know was that the bat found a pot looking exactly like the one he prepared his soup in and replaced his scrumptious soup pot with a pot holding warm water. The bat then explained to the bush-rat that in order to make his signature soup, he boils himself just before it is served and the sweetness and flavor of the soup comes from his flesh. The bat jumped in the pot, excited about the look of amazement in the bush-rat’s eyes. The bat climbed out after a few minutes and when the bush-rat wasn’t looking, switched the pots again. The bat then served his soup out of the soup pot and both the bat and the bush-rat tasted the deliciousness. Feeling eager and over anxious of the bat’s cooking strategy the bush-rat jumped into the pot of warm water and stayed in much, much longer than the bat, and died. When the bush-rat’s wife returned that night to find her husband dead, she ran crying to the chief telling him about what happened and all about the bat’s evil ways. When the chief heard the terrible story from the bush-rat’s wife he grew very angry and ordered for the bat’s arrest immediately. When all of the chief’s men went looking for the bat, he was nowhere to be found. When the chief ordered for the bat’s arrest, the bat just happened to be flying over the chief’s house and overheard, so he quickly went into hiding high up in a tree. Everyone continued to search for the bat to arrest him the next day and all of the following days, but no one could find him. The bat did, however need to eat, so he flew out of hiding every night to hunt for food. That is why bats only fly at night. Arnott, Kathleen. 1962. African Myths and Legends. Oxford University Press. Pp. 150-152 . Artificial roosts Many people put up bat houses to attract bats just like many people put up birdhouses to attract birds. Reasons for this vary, but mostly center around the fact that bats are the primary nocturnal insectivores in most if not all ecologies. Bat houses can be made from scratch, made from kits, or bought ready made. Plans for bat houses exist on many web sites, as well as guidelines for designing a bat house http://web.archive.org/web/20020124162143/www.batcon.org/ . Some conservation societies are giving away free bat houses to bat enthusiasts worldwide. A bat house constructed in 1991 at the University of Florida campus next to Lake Alice in Gainesville has a population of over 100,000 free-tailed bats. In Britain, pillboxes dating from World War II have been converted to make roosts for bats. Pillboxes that are well dug-in and thick walled are naturally damp and provide a stable thermal environment that is required by bats that would otherwise hibernate in caves. With a few minor modifications, suitable pillboxes can be converted to artificial caves for bats. See also Agreement on the Conservation of Populations of European Bats (UNEP/EUROBATS) Audiograms in mammals Bat bomb Bat detector Bat World Sanctuary European Bat Night Flying and gliding animals White nose syndrome List of Nocturnal animals References General references Greenhall, Arthur H. 1961. Bats in Agriculture. A Ministry of Agriculture Publication. Trinidad and Tobago. Nowak, Ronald M. 1994. " Walker's BATS of the World". The Johns Hopikins University Press, Baltimore and London. John D. Pettigrew's summary on Flying Primate Hypothesis Altringham, J.D. 1998. Bats: Biology and Behaviour. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Dobat, K.; Holle, T.P. 1985. Blüten und Fledermäuse: Bestäubung durch Fledermäuse und Flughunde (Chiropterophilie). Frankfurt am Main: W. Kramer & Co. Druckerei. Fenton, M.B. 1985. Communication in the Chiroptera. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Findley, J.S. 1995. Bats: a Community Perspective. Cambridge: Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge. Fleming, T.H. 1988. The Short-Tailed Fruit Bat: a Study in Plant-Animal Interactions. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Kunz, T.H. 1982. Ecology of Bats. New York: Plenum Press. Kunz, T.H.; Racey, P.A. 1999. Bat Biology and Conservation. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press. Kunz, T.H.; Fenton, M.B. 2003. Bat Ecology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Neuweiler, G. 1993. Biologie der Fledermäuse. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme Verlag. Nowak, R.M. 1994. Walker's Bats of the World. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Richarz, K. & Limbruner, A. 1993. The World of Bats. Neptune City: TFH Publications. Twilton, B. 1999. My Life as The Bat. Liverpool Hope University press Further reading External links UK Bat Conservation Trust University of Michigan Museum of Zoology Bats and Tarsier Tree of Life Bat evolution linked to warming Microbat Vision Bats of Australia Article - Safely and Humanely Deal with Bat in House | Bat |@lemmatized bat:259 mammal:17 order:7 chiroptera:6 forelimb:2 develop:5 wing:16 make:19 naturally:2 capable:2 sustained:1 flight:7 fly:28 squirrel:1 glide:4 possum:1 colugo:2 limited:1 distance:2 word:2 come:9 greek:1 cheir:1 χειρ:1 hand:5 pteron:1 πτερον:1 structure:5 open:2 similar:3 outspread:1 human:8 membrane:5 patagium:1 finger:6 also:22 stretch:2 body:6 measure:1 success:1 estimated:4 total:1 specie:24 worldwide:2 account:1 percent:2 insectivore:2 rest:1 frugivores:1 carnivorous:1 present:3 throughout:3 world:6 perform:1 vital:1 ecological:3 role:3 pollinate:1 flower:2 serve:4 important:1 seed:1 dispersal:1 many:7 tropical:1 plant:2 entirely:1 dependent:1 range:2 size:5 kitti:2 hog:2 nosed:4 measuring:1 length:1 mass:1 giant:2 golden:3 crown:6 fox:2 span:1 weigh:1 approximately:1 fossil:6 since:3 terrestrial:1 light:3 bone:5 fossilized:1 remains:1 early:6 eocene:4 onychonycteris:4 finneyi:2 find:12 million:3 year:6 old:4 green:1 river:1 formation:1 south:3 dakota:1 u:1 new:10 genus:7 place:4 family:6 publish:1 nature:2 february:3 bbc:1 news:1 solves:1 evolution:4 poser:1 clearly:1 flier:1 well:8 articulate:1 skeleton:3 show:8 cochlea:1 inner:1 ear:5 lack:5 development:2 modern:4 provide:3 echolocation:7 capability:1 indicate:3 team:1 realize:1 different:6 notice:1 throat:1 feature:3 living:2 echolocating:4 today:2 ancient:3 know:7 ago:2 differently:1 vastly:1 appearance:1 claw:5 five:1 whereas:2 two:10 digit:1 longer:1 hind:1 leg:1 short:4 forearm:1 climb:3 hang:2 branch:1 sloth:1 gibbon:1 palm:1 animal:16 broad:2 suggest:3 could:7 fast:1 far:2 late:2 instead:2 flap:1 continuously:1 would:11 likely:3 alternate:1 flapping:1 airborne:2 physical:3 characteristic:3 much:10 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6,551 | Rumi | Mawlānā Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Balkhī (), also known as Jalāl ad-Dīn Muḥammad Rūmī (جلالالدین محمد رومی), but known to the English-speaking world simply as Rumi, NOTE: Transliteration of the Arabic alphabet into English varies. One common transliteration is Mowlana Jalaluddin Rumi; the usual brief reference to him is simply Rumi or Balkhi. His given name, Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad, literally means "Majesty of Religion" (30 September 1207 – 17 December 1273), was a 13th-century Persian C.E. Bosworth/B.G. Fragner, "Tādjīk", in Encyclopaedia of Islam, Online Edition: "... In Islamic usage, eventually came to designate the Persians, as opposed to Turks [...] the oldest citation for it which Schaeder could find was in verses of Djalāl al-Dīn Rūmī ..." B. Ghafurov, "Todjikon", 2 vols., Dushanbe 1983-5 poet, Islamic jurist, theologian, and mystic. Rūmī is a descriptive name meaning "the Roman" since he lived most of his life in an area called Rūm because it was once ruled by the Byzantine Empire. Schwartz, Stephen (May 14, 2007) "The Balkin Front." Weekly Standard. According to tradition, Rumi was born in Balkh, Bactria, in contemporary Afghanistan, which at that time was part of the Persian Empire, and was the hometown of his father's family. Scholars, however, believe that he was born in Wakhsh, Annemarie Schimmel, "I Am Wind, You Are Fire," p. 11. She refers to a 1989 article by the German scholar, Fritz Meier: Professor Lewis has devoted two pages of his book to the topic of Wakhsh, which he states has been identified with the medieval town of Lêwkand (or Lâvakand) or Sangtude, which is about 65 kilometers southeast of Dushanbe, the capital of present-day Tajikistan. He says it is on the east bank of the Vakhshâb river, a major tributary that joins the Amu Daryâ river (also called Jayhun, and named the Oxus by the Greeks). He further states: "Bahâ al-Din may have been born in Balkh, but at least between June 1204 and 1210 (Shavvâl 600 and 607), during which time Rumi was born, Bahâ al-Din resided in a house in Vaksh (Bah 2:143 [= Bahâ' uddîn Walad's] book, "Ma`ârif."). Vakhsh, rather than Balkh, was the permanent base of Bahâ al-Din and his family until Rumi was around five years old (mei 16-35) [= from a book in German by the scholar Fritz Meier--note inserted here]. At that time, in about the year 1212 (A.H. 608–609), the Valads moved to Samarqand (Fih 333; Mei 29–30, 36) [= reference to Rumi's "Discourses" and to Fritz Meier's book--note inserted here], leaving behind Baâ al-Din's mother, who must have been at least seventy-five years old." a small town located at the river Wakhsh in what is now Tajikistan. Wakhsh belonged to the larger province of Balkh, and in the year Rumi was born, his father was an appointed scholar there. Both these cities were at the time included in the Greater Persian cultural sphere of Khorasan, the easternmost province of historical Persia, Franklin Lewis, Rumi Past and Present, East and West, Oneworld Publications, 2000. and were part of the Khwarezmian Empire. His birthplace Franklin Lewis, Rumi: Past and Present, East and West, Oneworld Publications, 2000. and native language Annemarie Schimmel, The Triumphal Sun: A Study of the Works of Jalaloddin Rumi, SUNY Press, 1993, p. 193: "Rumi's mother tongue was Persian, but he had learned during his stay in Konya, enough Turkish and Greek to use it, now and then, in his verse" both indicate a Persian heritage. Due to quarrels between different dynasties in Khorasan, opposition to the Khwarizmid Shahs who were considered devious by Bahā ud-Dīn Walad (Rumi's father) Franklin Lewis, Rumi Past and Present, East and West, Oneworld Publications, 2000. Chap1 or fear of the impending Mongol cataclysm, Encyclopedia Iranica, "Baha Al-Din Mohammad Walad" , H. Algar. his father decided to migrate westwards. Rumi's family traveled west, first performing the Hajj and eventually settling in the Anatolian city Konya (capital of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, now located in Turkey). This was where he lived most of his life, and here he composed one of the crowning glories of Persian literature which profoundly affected the culture of the area. C.E. Bosworth, "Turkish Expansion towards the west" in UNESCO HISTORY OF HUMANITY, Volume IV, titled "From the Seventh to the Sixteenth Century", UNESCO Publishing / Routledge, p. 391: "While the Arabic language retained its primacy in such spheres as law, theology and science, the culture of the Seljuk court and secular literature within the sultanate became largely Persianized; this is seen in the early adoption of Persian epic names by the Seljuq Rulers (Qubad, Kay Khusraw and so on) and in the use of Persian as a literary language (Turkish must have been essentially a vehicle for every days speech at this time). The process of Persianization accelerated in the thirteenth century with the presence in Konya of two of the most distinguished refugees fleeing before the Mongols, Baha al-din Walad and his son Mawlana Jalal al-din Rumi, whose Mathnawi, composed in Konya, constitutes one of the crowning glories of classical Persian literature." He lived most of his life under the Sultanate of Rum, where he produced his works Barks, Coleman, Rumi: The Book of Love: Poems of Ecstasy and Longing, HarperCollins, 2005, p. xxv, ISBN 0-06-075050-2 and died in 1273 CE. He was buried in Konya and his shrine became a place of pilgrimage. Note: Rumi's shrine is now known as the Mevlana Museum in Turkey Following his death, his followers and his son Sultan Walad founded the Mawlawīyah Sufi Order, also known as the Order of the Whirling Dervishes, famous for its Sufi dance known as the samāʿ ceremony. Rumi's works are written in the New Persian language. A Persian literary renaissance (in the 8th/9th century) started in regions of Sistan, Khorāsān and Transoxiana Lazard, Gilbert "The Rise of the New Persian Language", in Frye, R. N., The Cambridge History of Iran, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, Vol. 4, pp. 595–632. (Lapidus, Ira, 2002, A Brief History of Islamic Societies, "Under Arab rule, Arabic became the principal language for administration and religion. The substitution of Arabic for Middle Persian was facilitated by the translation of Persian classics into Arabic. Arabic became the main vehicle of Persian high culture, and remained such will into the eleventh century. Parsi declined and was kept alive mainly by the Zoroastrian priesthood in western Iran. The Arab conquests however, helped make Persian rather than Arabic the most common spoken language in Khurasan and the lands beyond the Oxus River. Paradoxically, Arab and Islamic domination created a Persian cultural region in areas never before unified by Persian speech. A new Persian evolved out of this complex linguistic situation. In the ninth century the Tahirid governors of Khurasan began to have the old Persian language written in Arabic script rather than in pahlavi characters. At the same time, eastern lords in the small principalities began to patronize a local court poetry in an elevated form of Persian. The new poetry was inspired by Arabic verse forms, so that Iranian patrons who did not understand Arabic could comprehend and enjoy the presentation of an elevated and dignified poetry in the manner of Baghdad. This new poetry flourished in regions where the influence of Abbasid Arabic culture was attenuated and where it had no competition from the surviving tradition of Middle Persian literary classics cultivated for religious purposes as in Western Iran." "In the western regions, including Iraq, Syria and Egypt, and the lands of the far Islamic west including North Africa and Spain, Arabic became the predominant language of both high literary culture and spoken discourse." pp. 125–132, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.) and by the 10th/11th century, it reinforced the Persian language as the preferred literary and cultural language in the Persian Islamic world. Although Rumi's works were written in Persian, Rumi's importance is considered to transcend national and ethnic borders. His original works are widely read in their original language across the Persian-speaking world. Translations of his works are very popular in other countries. His poetry has influenced Persian literature as well as the literature of the Urdu, Bengali, Arabic and Turkish languages. His poems have been widely translated into many of the world's languages and transposed into various formats; He has been described as the "most popular poet in America" in 2007. Life Rumi's tomb (Mevlana Museum). Konya, Turkey. Rumi was born in Khorāsān, possibly in or near the city of Balkh. His life is described in Shams ud-Din Ahmad Aflāki's Manāqib ul-Ārifīn (written between 1318 and 1353). Rumi's father was Bahā ud-Dīn Walad, a theologian, jurist and a mystic from Balkh, who was also known during his lifetime as Sultan al-Ulama or "Sultan of the Scholars". His mother was Mu'mina Khātūn. When the Mongols invaded Central Asia sometime between 1215 and 1220, Baha ud-Din Walad, with his whole family and a group of disciples, set out westwards. On the road to Anatolia, Rumi encountered one of the most famous mystic Persian poets, 'Attar, in the Iranian city of Nishapur, located in the province of Khorāsān. 'Attar immediately recognized Rumi's spiritual eminence. He saw the father walking ahead of the son and said, "Here comes a sea followed by an ocean." He gave the boy his Asrārnāma, a book about the entanglement of the soul in the material world. This meeting had a deep impact on the eighteen-year-old Rumi, and later on became the inspiration for his works. From Nishapur, Walad and his entourage set out for Baghdad, meeting many of the scholars and Sufis of the city. Ahmed, Nazeer, Islam in Global History: From the Death of Prophet Muhammed to the First World War, p.58, Xlibris Corporation (2000), ISBN 0-7388-5962-1 From there they went to Baghdad, and Hejaz and performed the pilgrimage at Mecca. The migrating caravan then passed through Damascus, Malatya, Erzincan, Sivas, Kayseri and Nigde. They finally settled in Karaman for seven years; Rumi's mother and brother both died there. In 1225, Rumi married Gowhar Khatun in Karaman. They had two sons: Sultan Walad and Ala-eddin Chalabi. When his wife died, Rumi married again and had a son, Amir Alim Chalabi, and a daughter, Malakeh Khatun. On 1 May 1228, most likely as a result of the insistent invitation of 'Alā' ud-Dīn Key-Qobād, ruler of Anatolia, Baha' ud-Din came and finally settled in Konya in Anatolia within the westernmost territories of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm. Baha' ud-Din became the head of a madrassa (religious school) and when he died, Rumi, aged twenty-five, inherited his position. One of Baha' ud-Din's students, Sayyed Burhan ud-Din Muhaqqiq Termazi, continued to train Rumi in the religious and mystical doctrines of Rumi's father. For nine years, Rumi practiced Sufism as a disciple of Burhan ud-Din until the latter died in 1240 or 1241. Rumi's public life then began: he became a teacher who preached in the mosques of Konya and taught his adherents in the madrassa. During this period, Rumi also travelled to Damascus and is said to have spent four years there. It was his meeting with the dervish Shams-e Tabrizi on 15 November 1244 that completely changed Rumi's life. Shams had traveled throughout the Middle East searching and praying for someone who could "endure my company". A voice said to him, "What will you give in return?" Shams replied, "My head!" The voice then said, "The one you seek is Jalal ud-Din of Konya." On the night of 5 December 1248, as Rumi and Shams were talking, Shams was called to the back door. He went out, never to be seen again. It is believed that Shams was murdered with the connivance of Rumi's son, 'Ala' ud-Din; if so, Shams indeed gave his head for the privilege of mystical friendship. Rumi, on an Iranian stamp. Rumi's love for, and his bereavement at the death of, Shams found their expression in an outpouring of music, dance, and lyric poems, Divan-e Shams-e Tabrizi. He himself went out searching for Shams and journeyed again to Damascus. There, he realized: For more than ten years after meeting Shams, Mawlana had been spontaneously composing ghazals (Persian poems), and these had been collected in the Divan-i Kabir or Diwan Shams Tabrizi. Rumi found another companion in Salaḥ ud-Din-e Zarkub, a goldsmith. After Salah ud-Din's death, Rumi's scribe and favorite student, Hussam-e Chalabi, assumed the role of Rumi's companion. One day, the two of them were wandering through the Meram vineyards outside Konya when Hussam described to Rumi an idea he had had: "If you were to write a book like the Ilāhīnāma of Sanai or the Mantiq ut-Tayr of 'Attar, it would become the companion of many troubadours. They would fill their hearts from your work and compose music to accompany it." Rumi smiled and took out a piece of paper on which were written the opening eighteen lines of his Masnavi, beginning with: Hussam implored Rumi to write more. Rumi spent the next twelve years of his life in Anatolia dictating the six volumes of this masterwork, the Masnavi, to Hussam. In December 1273, Rumi fell ill; he predicted his own death and composed the well-known ghazal, which begins with the verse: Rumi died on 17 December 1273 in Konya; his body was interred beside that of his father, and a splendid shrine, the Yeşil Türbe (Green Tomb, قبه الخضراء; today the Mevlana Museum), was erected over his place of burial. His epitaph reads: Teachings A page of a copy circa 1503 of the Diwan-e Shams-e Tabriz-i. The general theme of Rumi's thought, like that of other mystic and Sufi poets of Persian literature, is essentially that of the concept of tawhīd – union with his beloved (the primal root) from which/whom he has been cut off and become aloof – and his longing and desire to restore it. The Masnavi weaves fables, scenes from everyday life, Qur’anic revelations and exegesis, and metaphysics into a vast and intricate tapestry. Rumi is considered an example of Insan-e Kamil — Perfect Man, the perfected or completed human being. In the East, it is said of him that he was "not a prophet — but surely, he has brought a scripture". Rumi believed passionately in the use of music, poetry, and dance as a path for reaching God. For Rumi, music helped devotees to focus their whole being on the divine, and to do this so intensely that the soul was both destroyed and resurrected. It was from these ideas that the practice of "whirling" dervishes developed into a ritual form. His teachings became the base for the order of the Mevlevi which his son Sultan Walad organized. Rumi encouraged samāʿ, listening to music and turning or doing the sacred dance. In the Mevlevi tradition, samāʿ represents a mystical journey of spiritual ascent through mind and love to the Perfect One. In this journey, the seeker symbolically turns towards the truth, grows through love, abandons the ego, finds the truth, and arrives at the Perfect. The seeker then returns from this spiritual journey, with greater maturity, to love and to be of service to the whole of creation without discrimination with regard to beliefs, races, classes, and nations. According to Shahram Shiva, one reason for Rumi's popularity is that Rumi is able to verbalize the highly personal and often confusing world of personal/spiritual growth and mysticism in a very forward and direct fashion. He does not offend anyone, and he includes everyone. The world of Rumi is neither exclusively the world of a Sufi, nor the world of a Hindu, nor a Jew, nor a Christian; it is the highest state of a human being — a fully evolved human. A complete human is not bound by cultural limitations; he touches every one of us. Today, Rumi's poems can be heard in churches, synagogues, Zen monasteries, as well as in the downtown New York art/performance/music scene. According to Professor Majid M. Naini , Rumi's life and transformation provide true testimony and proof that people of all religions and backgrounds can live together in peace and harmony. Rumi’s visions, words, and life teach us how to reach inner peace and happiness so we can finally stop the continual stream of hostility and hatred and achieve true, global peace and harmony. In other verses in the Masnavi, Rumi describes in detail the universal message of love: Major works Rumi's poetry is often divided into various categories: the quatrains (rubayāt) and odes (ghazal) of the Divan, the six books of the Masnavi, The Discourses, The Letters, and the almost unknown Six Sermons. Poetic works Maṭnawīye Ma'nawī Mevlâna museum, Konya, Turkey. Rumi's major work is the Maṭnawīye Ma'nawī (Spiritual Couplets; ), a six-volume poem regarded by some Sufis Abdul Rahman Jami notes: (Khawaja Abdul Hamid Irfani, "The Sayings of Rumi and Iqbal", Bazm-e-Rumi, 1976.) as the Persian-language Qur'an. It is considered by many to be one of the greatest works of mystical poetry. Rumi's other major work is the Dīwān-e Kabīr (Great Work) or Dīwān-e Shams-e Tabrīzī (The Works of Shams of Tabriz; named in honor of Rumi's great friend and inspiration, the dervish Shams) and comprising some forty thousand verses. Several reasons have been offered for Rumi's decision to name his masterpiece after Shams; some argue that since Rumi would not have been a poet without Shams, it is apt that the collection be named after him. Prose works Fihi Ma Fihi (In It What's in It, Persian: فیه ما فیه) provides a record of seventy-one talks and lectures given by Rumi on various occasions to his disciples. It was compiled from the notes of his various disciples, so Rumi did not author the work directly. Franklin Lewis, Rumi: Past and Present, East and West – The Life, Teachings, and Poetry of Jalal al-Din Rumi, Oneworld Publications, 2000, Chapter 7. An English translation from the Persian was first published by A.J. Arberry as Discourses of Rumi(New York: Samuel Weiser, 1972), and a translation of the second book by Wheeler Thackston, Sign of the Unseen(Putney, VT: Threshold Books, 1994). Majāles-e Sab'a (Seven Sessions, Persian: مجالس سبعه) contains seven Persian sermons (as the name implies) or lectures given in seven different assemblies. The sermons themselves give a commentary on the deeper meaning of Qur'an and Hadeeth. The sermons also include quotations from poems of Sana'i, 'Attar, and other poets, including Rumi himself. As Aflakī relates, after Shams-e Tabrīzī, Rumi gave sermons at the request of notables, especially Salāh al-Dīn Zarkūb. Franklin Lewis, Rumi: Past and Present, East and West – The Life, Teachings, and Poetry of Jalal al-Din Rumi, Oneworld Publications, 2000. Makatib (The Letters, Persian: مکاتیب) is the book containing Rumi's letters in Persian to his disciples, family members, and men of state and of influence. The letters testify that Rumi kept very busy helping family members and administering a community of disciples that had grown up around them. Philosophical outlook Rumi was an evolutionary thinker in the sense that he believed that the spirit after devolution from the divine Ego undergoes an evolutionary process by which it comes nearer and nearer to the same divine Ego. M.M. Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy, Vol II, p. 827. All matter in the universe obeys this law and this movement is due to an inbuilt urge (which Rumi calls "love") to evolve and seek enjoinment with the divinity from which it has emerged. Evolution into a human being from an animal is only one stage in this process. The doctrine of the Fall of Adam is reinterpreted as the devolution of the Ego from the universal ground of divinity and is a universal, cosmic phenomenon. M.M. Sharif, A History of Muslim Philosophy, Vol II, p. 828. This synthesis of evolution and creationism is a culmination of the ideas of Plotinus and of previous Muslim philosophers like Al Farabi. The French philosopher Henri Bergson's idea of life being creative and evolutionary is similar, though unlike Bergson, Rumi believes that there is a specific goal to the process: the attainment of God. For Rumi, God is the ground as well as the goal of all existence. از جمادی مُردم و نامی شدم — وز نما مُردم بحیوان سرزدم مُردم از حیوانی و آدم شدم — پس چه ترسم کی ز مردم کم شدم حملهء دیگر بمیرم از بشر — تا برآرم از ملایک بال و پر وز ملک هم بایدم جستن ز جو — کل شییء هالک الاوجهه بار دیگر از ملک پران شوم — آنچه اندر وهم ناید آن شوم پس عدم گردم عدم چو ارغنون — گویدم کانا الیه راجعون Rumi's universality It is often said that the teachings of Rumi are universal in nature. Various Scholars such as Khalifah Abdul Hakim (Jalal al-Din Rumi), Afzal Iqbal (The Life and Thought of Rumi), and others have expressed this opinion; for a direct secondary source, see citation below. For Rumi, religion was mostly a personal experience and not limited to logical arguments or perceptions of the senses. Khalifah Abdul Hakim, "Jalal al-Din Rumi" in M.M. Sharif, ed., A History of Muslim Philosophy, Vol II. Creative love, or the urge to rejoin the spirit to divinity, was the goal towards which every thing moves. The dignity of life, in particular human life (which is conscious of its divine origin and goal), was important. Legacy Rumi's universality Rumi's importance transcends national and ethnic borders. Rumi Yoga Readers of the Persian language in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan see him as one of their most significant classical poets and an influence on many poets through history. Life of Rumi Rumi has also had a great influence on Turkish literature through the centuries. Rumi's poetry forms the basis of much classical Iranian and Afghan music. fUSION Anomaly. Whirling Dervish Contemporary classical interpretations of his poetry are made by Muhammad Reza Shajarian, Shahram Nazeri, Davood Azad (the three from Iran) and Ustad Mohammad Hashem Cheshti (Afghanistan). To many modern Westerners, his teachings are one of the best introductions to the philosophy and practice of Sufism. Pakistan's National Poet, Muhammad Iqbal, was also inspired by Rumi's works and considered him to be his spiritual leader, addressing him as "Pir Rumi" in his poems (the honorific Pir literally means "old man", but in the sufi/mystic context it means founder, master, or guide). Rumi's work has been translated into many of the world's languages, including Russian, German, Urdu, Turkish, Arabic, French, Italian, and Spanish, and is being presented in a growing number of formats, including concerts, workshops, readings, dance performances, and other artistic creations. The English interpretations of Rumi's poetry by Coleman Barks have sold more than half a million copies worldwide, The Diploma of Honorary Doctorate of the University of Tehran in the field of Persian Language and Literature will be granted to Professor Coleman Barks and Rumi is one of the most widely read poets in the United States. Curiel,J onathan, San Francisco Chronicle Staff Writer, Islamic verses: The influence of Muslim literature in the United States has grown stronger since the Sept. 11 attacks (February 6, 2005), Available online (Retrieved Aug 2006) Recordings of Rumi poems have made it to Billboard's Top 20 list. A selection of Deepak Chopra's editing of the translations by Fereydoun Kia of Rumi's love poems has been performed by Hollywood personalities such as Madonna, Goldie Hawn, Philip Glass and Demi Moore. Shahram Shiva's CD, Rumi: Lovedrunk, has been very popular in the Internet's music communities, such as MySpace.com. Rumi and his mausoleum were depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 5000 lira banknotes of 1981-1994. Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Banknote Museum: 7. Emission Group - Five Thousand Turkish Lira - I. Series, II. Series & III. Series. – Retrieved on 20 April 2009. Rumi and the Persian world پارسی گو گرچه تازی خوشتر است — عشق را خود صد زبان دیگر است Say all in Persian even if Arabic is better – Love will find its way through all languages on its own. Rumi's poetry reflects the richness of Persian culture and represents the literary environment of Khorasan, the medieval center of the Persian world. These cultural, historical and linguistic ties between Rumi and the Iranian world have made Rumi an iconic Persian and Iranian poet. Rumi's poetry is displayed on the walls of many cities across the Persian-speaking world, sung in Persian music, and read in school books. Persian speakers literally live Rumi's poetry. The Mawlawī Sufi Order The Mawlawī Sufi order (Mawlawīyah or Mevlevi, as it is known in Turkey) was founded in 1273 by Rumi's followers after his death. Sufism His first successor in the rectorship of the order was Husam Chalabi himself , after whose death in 1284 Rumi's younger and only surviving son, Sultan Walad (died 1312), favorably known as author of the mystical Maṭnawī Rabābnāma, or the Book of the Rabab, was installed as grand master of the order. ISCA - The Islamic Supreme Council of America The leadership of the order has been kept within Rumi's family in Konya uninterruptedly since then. The Mawlawī Sufis, also known as Whirling Dervishes, believe in performing their dhikr in the form of samāʿ. During the time of Rumi (as attested in the Manāqib ul-Ārefīn of Aflākī), his followers gathered for musical and "turning" practices. Rumi was himself a notable musician who played the robāb, although his favorite instrument was the ney or reed flute. About the Mevlevi Order of America The music accompanying the samāʿ consists of settings of poems from the Maṭnawī and Dīwān-e Kabīr, or of Sultan Walad's poems. The Mawlawīyah was a well-established Sufi order in the Ottoman Empire, and many of the members of the order served in various official positions of the Caliphate. The center for the Mawlawiyyah was in Konya. There is also a Mawlawī monastery (, dargāh) in Istanbul near the Galata Tower in which the samāʿ is performed and accessible to the public. The Mawlawī order issues an invitation to people of all backgrounds: Rumi's tomb in Konya, Turkey. During Ottoman times, the Mawlawīyah produced a number of notable poets and musicians, including Sheikh Ghalib, Ismail Rusuhi Dede of Ankara, Esrar Dede, Halet Efendi, and Gavsi Dede, who are all buried at the Galata Mawlawī Khāna (Turkish: Mevlevi-Hane) in Istanbul. Web Page Under Construction Music, especially that of the ney, plays an important part in the Mawlawiyyah, and thus much of the traditional, oriental music that Westerners associate with Turkey originates from the Mawlawī order. With the foundation of the modern, secular Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk removed religion from the sphere of public policy and restricted it exclusively to that of personal morals, behavior, and faith. On 13 December 1925, a law was passed closing all the tekkes (or tekeyh) (dervish lodges) and zāwiyas (chief dervish lodges), and also the centers of veneration to which pilgrimages (ziyārat) were made. Istanbul alone had more than 250 tekkes as well as small centers for gatherings of various fraternities; this law dissolved the Sufi Orders, prohibited the use of mystical names, titles and costumes pertaining to their titles, impounded the Orders' assets, and banned their ceremonies and meetings. The law also provided penalties for those who tried to re-establish the Orders. Two years later, in 1927, the Mausoleum of Mevlana in Konya was allowed to reopen as a Museum. Mango, Andrew, Atatürk: The Biography of the Founder of Modern Turkey, (2002), ISBN 1585670111. In the 1950s, the Turkish government began allowing the Whirling Dervishes to perform once a year in Konya. The Mawlānā festival is held over two weeks in December; its culmination is on 17 December, the Urs of Mawlānā (anniversary of Rumi's death), called Šabe Arūs (شب عروس) (Persian meaning "nuptial night"), the night of Rumi's union with God. Kloosterman Genealogy, Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi In 1974, the Whirling Dervishes were permitted to travel to the West for the first time. Rumi's religious denomination According to Edward G. Browne, the three most prominent mystical Persian poets Rumi, Sana'i and Attar were all Sunni Muslims and their poetry abound with praise for the first two caliphs Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattāb Edward G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia from the Earliest Times Until Firdawsh, 543 pp., Adamant Media Corporation, 2002, ISBN 1402160453, 9781402160455 (see p.437) . According to Annemarie Schimmel, the tendency among Shia authors to include leading mystical poets such as Rumi and Attar among their own ranks, became stronger after the introduction of Twelver Shia as the state religion in the Safavid Empire in 1501 Annemarie Schimmel, Deciphering the Signs of God, 302 pp., SUNY Press, 1994, ISBN 0791419827, 9780791419823 (see p.210) . Rumi and Islam Rumi's approach to Islam is clarified in this quatrain: Seyyed Hossein Nasr states: One of the greatest living authorities on Rûmî in Persia today, Hâdî Hâ'irî, has shown in an unpublished work that some 6,000 verses of the Dîwân and the Mathnawî are practically direct translations of Qur'ânic verses into Persian poetry. Seyyed Hossein Nasr, "Rumi and the Sufi Tradition," in Chelkowski (ed.), The Scholar and the Saint, p. 183 Rumi states in his Dīwān: The Sufi is hanging on to Muhammad, like Abu Bakr. Quoted in Ibrahim Gamard, Rumi and Islam: Selections from His Stories, Poems, and Discourses — Annotated and Explained, p. 171. He also states: Make your intellect a sacrifice in the presence of Muhammad, and say, "God is sufficient for me, since God is enough for satisfying me. Ibid., p. 177. Eight hundredth anniversary celebrations Mawlana Jalal-ud-Dine Balkhi-Rumi is one of the greatest spiritual masters and mystic poets of Islamic civilization. In Afghanistan, he is known as "Mawlana" and in Iran as "Mawlawi". An Afghan Postage Stamp honors Rumi. At the proposal of the Permanent Delegations of Afghanistan, Egypt, and Turkey, and as approved by its Executive Board and General Conference in conformity with its mission of “constructing in the minds of men the defences of peace”, UNESCO was associated with the celebration, in 2007, of the eight hundredth anniversary of Rumi's birth. Today'S Zaman The commemoration at UNESCO itself took place on 6 September 2007; UNESCO: 800th Anniversary of the Birth of Mawlana Jalal-ud-Din Balkhi-Rumi. – Retrieved on 22 April 2009. UNESCO issued a medal in Rumi's name in the hope that it would prove an encouragement to those who are engaged in research on and dissemination of Rumi's ideas and ideals, which would, in turn, enhance the diffusion of the ideals of UNESCO. UNESCO. Executive Board; 175th; UNESCO Medal in honour of Mawlana Jalal-ud-Din Balkhi-Rumi; 2006 http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2690/pdf/i12.pdf The Afghan Ministry of Culture and Youth established a national committee which organized an international seminar to celebrate the birth and life of the great ethical philosopher and world-renowned poet. This grand gathering of the intellectuals, diplomats, and followers of Maulana was held in Kabul and in Balkh. Ministry of Foreign Affairs Afghanistan - Rumi's 800 Anniversary On 30 September 2007, Iranian school bells were rung throughout the country in honor of Mowlana. همشهری آنلاین Also in that year, Iran held a Rumi Week from 26 October to 2 November. An international ceremony and conference were held in Tehran; the event was opened by the Iranian president and the chairman of the Iranian parliament. Scholars from twenty-nine countries attended the events, and 450 articles were presented at the conference. Int'l congress on Molana opens in Tehran Iranian musician Shahram Nazeri was awarded the Légion d'honneur and Iran's House of Music Award in 2007 for his renowned works on Rumi masterpieces. Iran Daily - Arts & Culture - 10/03/06 2007 was declared as the "International Rumi Year" by UNESCO. CHN | News . Podcast Interview with Coleman Barks on Rumi Also on 30 September 2007, Turkey celebrated Rumi’s eight-hundredth birthday with a giant Whirling Dervish ritual performance of the samāʿ, which was televised using forty-eight cameras and broadcast live in eight countries. Ertugrul Gunay, of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Turkey, stated, "Three hundred dervishes are scheduled to take part in this ritual, making it the largest performance of sama in history." tehrantimes.com, 300 dervishes whirl for Rumi in Turkey See also Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm Great Seljuk Empire On Persian culture Persian people Tajiks List of Persian poets and authors Persian literature Persian philosophy Persian Mysticism Mastan Ensemble Spiritual Islam Sufism Nimatullahi Other Sant Mat Mercan Dede Blind men and an elephant Monsters of Grace Rumi experts Badiozzaman Forouzanfar Abdolhossein Zarinkoob William Chittick Shahram Shiva Majid M. Naini Abdolkarim Soroush Hossein Elahi Ghomshei Annemarie Schimmel Seyyed Hossein Nasr Dariush Shayegan François Pétis de la Croix Jalal Homaei Rahim Arbab Franklin Lewis English translators of Rumi poetry Coleman Barks Ravan A. G. Farhadi William Chittick Majid M. Naini Shahram Shiva James W. Redhouse Reynold A. Nicholson Nader Khalili Franklin Lewis Bibliography English translations "MA-AARIF-E-MATHNAVI A commentary of the Mathnavi of Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi (R.A.)", by Hazrat Maulana Hakim Muhammad Akhtar Saheb (D.B.), 1997. The Sufi Path of Love: The Spiritual Teachings of Rumi, by William Chittick, Albany: SUNY Press, 1983. The Mysteries of the Universe and Rumi's Discoveries on the Majestic Path of Love, by Majid M. Naini, Universal Vision & Research, 2002 ISBN 0-9714600-0-0 www.naini.net The Mesnevi of Mevlānā Jelālu'd-dīn er-Rūmī. Book first, together with some account of the life and acts of the Author, of his ancestors, and of his descendants, illustrated by a selection of characteristic anecdotes, as collected by their historian, Mevlānā Shemsu'd-dīn Ahmed el-Eflākī el-'Arifī, translated and the poetry versified by James W. Redhouse, London: 1881. Contains the translation of the first book only. Masnaví-i Ma'naví, the Spiritual Couplets of Mauláná Jalálu'd-din Muhammad Rúmí, translated and abridged by E. H. Whinfield, London: 1887; 1989. Abridged version from the complete poem. On-line editions at sacred-texts.com and on wikisource. The Masnavī by Jalālu'd-din Rūmī. Book II, translated for the first time from the Persian into prose, with a Commentary, by C.E. Wilson, London: 1910. The Mathnawí of Jalálu'ddín Rúmí, edited from the oldest manuscripts available, with critical notes, translation and commentary by Reynold A. Nicholson, in 8 volumes, London: Messrs Luzac & Co., 1925–1940. Contains the text in Persian. First complete English translation of the Mathnawí. Rending The Veil: Literal and Poetic Translations of Rumi, translated by Shahram Shiva Hohm Press, 1995 ISBN 0-934252-46-7. Recipient of Benjamin Franklin Award. Hush, Don't Say Anything to God: Passionate Poems of Rumi, translated by Shahram Shiva Jain Publishing, 1999 ISBN 0-87573-084-1. The Essence Of Rumi's Masnevi (Including His Life and Works), from Prof. Dr. Erkan TÜRKMEN The Essential Rumi, translated by Coleman Barks with John Moyne, A. J. Arberry, Reynold Nicholson, San Francisco: Harper Collins, 1996 ISBN 0-06-250959-4; Edison (NJ) and New York: Castle Books, 1997 ISBN 0-7858-0871-X. Selections. The Illuminated Rumi, translated by Coleman Barks, Michael Green contributor, New York: Broadway Books, 1997 ISBN 0-7679-0002-2. The Masnavi: Book One, translated by Jawid Mojaddedi, Oxford World's Classics Series, Oxford University Press, 2004 ISBN 0-19-280438-3. Translated for the first time from the Persian edition prepared by Mohammad Estelami with an introduction and explanatory notes. Awarded the 2004 Lois Roth Prize for excellence in translation of Persian literature by the American Institute of Iranian Studies. Divani Shamsi Tabriz, translated by Nevit Oguz Ergin as Divan-i-kebir, published by Echo Publications, 2003 ISBN 188799128X. The rubais of Rumi: insane with love, translations and commentary by Nevit Oguz Ergin and Will Johnson, Inner Traditions, Rochester, Vermont, 2007, ISBN 978-1-59477-183-5. The Masnavi: Book Two, translated by Jawid Mojaddedi, Oxford World's Classics Series, Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 978-0-19-921259-0. The first ever verse translation of the unabridged text of Book Two, with an introduction and explanatory notes. The quatrains of Rumi: Complete translation with Persian text, Islamic mystical commentary, manual of terms, and concordance, translated by Ibrahim W. Gamard and A. G. Rawan Farhadi, 2008. Further reading On Rumi's life and work Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Art and Spirituality, Albany: SUNY Press, 1987, chapters 7 and 8. William Chittick, The Sufi Doctrine of Rumi: Illustrated Edition, Bloomington: World Wisdom, 2005. Annemarie Schimmel, The Triumphal Sun: A Study of the Works of Jalaloddin Rumi, Albany: SUNY Press, 1993. Majid M. Naini, The Mysteries of the Universe and Rumi's Discoveries on the Majestic Path of Love, Universal Vision & Research, 2002, ISBN 0-9714600-0-0 Franklin Lewis, Rumi Past and Present, East and West, Oneworld Publications, 2000. ISBN 1-85168-214-7 Leslie Wines, Rumi: A Spiritual Biography, New York: Crossroads, 2001 ISBN 0-8245-2352-0. Rumi's Thoughts, edited by Seyed G Safavi, London: London Academy of Iranian Studies, 2003. Şefik Can, Fundamentals of Rumi's Thought: A Mevlevi Sufi Perspective, Sommerset (NJ): The Light Inc., 2004 ISBN 1-932099-79-4. On Persian literature E.G. Browne, History of Persia, four volumes, 1998 ISBN 0-7007-0406-X. 2,256 pages, and twenty-five years in the writing. Jan Rypka, History of Iranian Literature, Reidel Publishing Company; 1968 . ISBN 90-277-0143-1 References External links Rumi Under the Weather Speaking of Faith: The Ecstatic Faith of Rumi, with Krista Tippet, American Public Media, December 13, 2007:— Pragram's Main Page— Program Particulars — Listen Now (RealAudio, 53 min)— Download (mp3, 53 min)— Video Performance: The Musicality of Rumi A mystic chant from Rumi's Masnavi sung by Shusha Guppy in the 1970s: Masnavi. BBC News. On-line texts and translations of Rumi "MA-AARIF-E-MATHNAVI A commentary of the Mathnavi of Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi (R.A.)", by Hazrat Maulana Hakim Muhammad Akhtar Saheb (D.B.), 1997. Four new translations of Rumi poems by Coleman Barks Rumi poetry set to beautiful Persian Music on Mp3 and CD The Masnavi I Ma'navi, by Maulana Jalalu-'d-din Muhammad Rumi, Abridged and Translated by E.H. Whinfield on sacred-texts.com Dar al Masnavi, several English versions of selections by different translators. (Rumi.net) Rumi's little-known biography and poems (Quatrains and Odes) in English by Shahram Shiva Quatrains at Iranian.com On Rumi The Rubaiyat of Rumi Lecture of Khosro Naghed. Rumi, Poet of Love and Justice, CHN News Jalaluddin Rumi About Rumi, English translations and personal/rare biography Several Rumi Poems (Quatrains and Odes) in English Iranian studies site The Threshold Society and Mevlevi Order The Mevlevi Order of America. [This organization and the one above are unaffiliated with each other] Official website of the Family of Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi Mevlana Mawlana Jalal al-Din Rumi- Mevlevi webpage RumiOnFire.com - A Tribute to Rumi What goes round... - The Guardian, November 5, 2000 Rumi Lectures at Harvard University Rumi and the Tradition of Sufi Poetry Mewlana Jelal Ad-Din Rumi Treasures of Persian Literature, by Professor Behrouz Homayoun Far Guernica Magazine (guernicamag.com) on the 800th anniversary of Rumi's birth Sermon on Rumi by UU Minister John Young Can Rumi Save Us Now? Criticism Is Rumi what we think he is?, by Massoume Price | Rumi |@lemmatized mawlānā:3 jalāl:3 ad:4 dīn:10 muḥammad:2 balkhī:1 also:16 know:12 rūmī:5 جلال:1 الدین:1 محمد:1 رومی:1 english:11 speaking:4 world:19 simply:2 rumi:190 note:9 transliteration:2 arabic:15 alphabet:1 varies:1 one:20 common:2 mowlana:2 jalaluddin:4 usual:1 brief:2 reference:3 balkhi:4 give:8 name:10 muhammad:11 literally:3 mean:4 majesty:1 religion:6 september:4 december:8 century:8 persian:65 c:3 e:23 bosworth:2 b:4 g:7 fragner:1 tādjīk:1 encyclopaedia:1 islam:6 online:2 edition:4 islamic:11 usage:1 eventually:2 come:4 designate:1 oppose:1 turks:1 old:7 citation:2 schaeder:1 could:3 find:5 verse:10 djalāl:1 al:20 ghafurov:1 todjikon:1 vols:1 dushanbe:2 poet:18 jurist:2 theologian:2 mystic:7 descriptive:1 roman:1 since:5 live:6 life:22 area:3 call:5 rūm:1 rule:2 byzantine:1 empire:6 schwartz:1 stephen:1 may:3 balkin:1 front:1 weekly:1 standard:1 accord:5 tradition:6 bear:6 balkh:7 bactria:1 contemporary:2 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6,552 | Arapawa_Island | Location of Arapawa Island Arapawa Island is a small island located in the Marlborough Sounds, at the north east tip of the South Island of New Zealand. The island has a land area of 75 km² (29 sq. miles). Queen Charlotte Sound defines its western side, while to the south lies Tory Channel, which is on the sea route from Wellington in the North Island to Picton. It was from a hill on Arapawa Island in 1770 that Captain James Cook first saw the sea passage from the Pacific Ocean to the Tasman Sea, which was named Cook Strait. This discovery banished the fond notion of geographers that there existed a great southern continent. From the late 1820s until the mid 1960s, Arapawa Island was a base for whaling in the Sounds. Perano Head on the east coast of the island was the principal whaling station for the area. The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodation. Arapawa Island is known for the breeds of pigs, sheep and goats found only on the island. The origin of these breeds is unknown, and is a matter of some speculation. Common suggestions are that they are old English breeds introduced by the early whalers, or by Captain Cook or other early explorers, which are now extinct in England. Aircraft accident An elevated power cable from the mainland to Arapawa Island over Tory Channel was struck by an Air Albatross Metro III commuter aircraft in 1985. The crash was witnessed by many passengers on the inter-island Cook Strait ferry. The ferry immediately stopped to despatch a rescue lifeboat. Along with the two pilots, one entire family was lost, and all but a young girl from the other. No bodies were ever found. The sole survivor (Cindy Mosey) was travelling with her family and the other from Nelson to Wellington to attend a gymnastics competition. The Arapawa Island crash caused public confidence in Air Albatross to falter, contributing to the company going into liquidation in December of that year. Cindy went on to become an accomplished gymnast and in her 30s was three times world champion kitesurfer (2002, 2003 & 2004). External links Arapawa Goats Arapawa Pigs Arapawa Sheep Perano Homestead | Arapawa_Island |@lemmatized location:1 arapawa:10 island:14 small:1 locate:1 marlborough:1 sound:3 north:2 east:2 tip:1 south:2 new:1 zealand:1 land:1 area:2 sq:1 mile:1 queen:1 charlotte:1 define:1 western:1 side:1 lie:1 tory:2 channel:2 sea:3 route:1 wellington:2 picton:1 hill:1 captain:2 james:1 cook:4 first:1 saw:1 passage:1 pacific:1 ocean:1 tasman:1 name:1 strait:2 discovery:1 banish:1 fond:1 notion:1 geographer:1 exist:1 great:1 southern:1 continent:1 late:1 mid:1 base:1 whale:1 perano:3 head:1 coast:1 principal:1 whaling:1 station:1 house:1 build:1 family:3 operate:1 tourist:1 accommodation:1 know:1 breed:3 pig:2 sheep:2 goat:2 find:2 origin:1 unknown:1 matter:1 speculation:1 common:1 suggestion:1 old:1 english:1 introduce:1 early:2 whaler:1 explorer:1 extinct:1 england:1 aircraft:2 accident:1 elevated:1 power:1 cable:1 mainland:1 strike:1 air:2 albatross:2 metro:1 iii:1 commuter:1 crash:2 witness:1 many:1 passenger:1 inter:1 ferry:2 immediately:1 stop:1 despatch:1 rescue:1 lifeboat:1 along:1 two:1 pilot:1 one:1 entire:1 lose:1 young:1 girl:1 body:1 ever:1 sole:1 survivor:1 cindy:2 mosey:1 travel:1 nelson:1 attend:1 gymnastics:1 competition:1 cause:1 public:1 confidence:1 falter:1 contribute:1 company:1 go:2 liquidation:1 december:1 year:1 become:1 accomplished:1 gymnast:1 three:1 time:1 world:1 champion:1 kitesurfer:1 external:1 link:1 homestead:1 |@bigram arapawa_island:7 pacific_ocean:1 sheep_goat:1 external_link:1 |
6,553 | John_Engler | John Mathias Engler (born October 12, 1948) is an American politician. He served as a Republican governor of Michigan from 1991 to 2003. Engler, a Roman Catholic, was born in Mount Pleasant and grew up on a cattle farm in Beal City. He attended Michigan State University and graduated with a degree in agricultural economics in 1971. He was elected to the Michigan House of Representatives as a State Representative in 1970 at the age of 22. His campaign manager was new MSU College Republican chair Dick Posthumus, who later went on to become Engler's Lieutenant Governor. Engler married Colleen House in 1975. Colleen Engler, by then a state representative herself, ran unsuccessfully in the Republican gubernatorial primary in 1986. John Engler had initially declared his support for another candidate (eventual Republican nominee William Lucas), but backed Colleen Engler once she became a candidate. The couple divorced sometime during the 1980s. Engler married his second wife, Michelle, a lawyer, in 1990. She was named to the Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie Mac) board in 2001 by President George W. Bush and re-appointed in 2002. The couple have triplet daughters born November 13, 1994. The girls are named Margaret Rose, Hannah Michelle and Madeleine Jenny. Engler has spent most of his adult life in government. He was serving in the Michigan Senate when he enrolled at Thomas M. Cooley Law School, and graduated with a J.D. in 1981, having served as a Michigan State Senator since 1979. He was elected Senate Majority Leader in 1984 and served there until elected governor in 1990. Governorship His administration was characterized by privatization of state services, tax reduction, educational reform,welfare reform and major reorganization of executive branch departments. In 1996 he was elected Chairman of the Republican Governors Association. 1996 Presidential Election During the 1996 presidential campaign, Engler was considered by many political commentators and experts to be a serious potential vice presidential running mate for Republican nominee Bob Dole. Eventually, however, Dole instead selected Jack Kemp, a former congressman and HUD Secretary. 2000 Presidential Election Engler was widely touted as a potential candidate for President in the 2000 election. However, Engler quickly passed on the race and endorsed his friend, Texas Governor George W. Bush, in the Republican primary. After Bush secured the GOP nomination, Engler's name began to surface as a possible running mate for Bush . However, many pundits believe that because Engler was unsuccessful in delivering Michigan for Bush in the Republican primary election that year, he was passed-over for the running mate position, as well as a coveted Cabinet position after Bush was elected. 2002 Elections & Post-Gubernatorial Work Engler's lieutenant governor, Dick Posthumus, sought to succeed Engler in the 2002 gubernatorial race. Despite Republican successes across the country and in Michigan, Posthumus lost a close race to the state's Attorney General, Democrat Jennifer Granholm. Since leaving the governor's mansion in January 2003, Engler served as President of the state and local government sector of Electronic Data Systems. He left that post in August 2004. National Association of Manufacturers In September 2004, Engler was named the new President & CEO of the National Association of Manufacturers. Election results In 1990 then State Senate Majority Leader John Engler challenged Governor James Blanchard in his bid for a third term. Political observers viewed Engler's bid as a long shot, and he trailed Blanchard by double digits in the polls the weekend before the election. However, on election day Engler pulled off the upset, defeating Blanchard by approximately 17,000 votes less than one percentage point. This victory is often cited by politicians of both major parties who are trailing in the polls as evidence they still can win. In 1994 Engler ran for his second term. The Democrats nominated former Representative Howard Wolpe, who had close ties to labor movement a potent force in Democratic politics in Michigan. Engler bested Wolpe 61% - 39%, and the state Republican party made significant gains. Spencer Abraham picked up the Senate seat of retiring Democrat Donald W. Riegle, Jr.. Republicans gained a seat to break a tie in the state House of Representatives and take a 56-54 majority, while also picking up a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives. Republican Candice Miller won an upset victory to win the post of Secretary of State. Michigan voters re-elected Governor Engler to his third and final term in 1998. He won a landslide victory over lawyer Geoffrey Fieger. Engler took 1,883,005 votes 62 percent of the total to Fieger's 38 percent and 1,143,574 votes. Engler's landslide helped the state Republican party to gain six seats in the state House of Representatives, taking control of the chamber they had lost two years previously with a 58-52 margin, as well as picking up an additional seat in the State Senate, for a 23-15 majority. Republicans also gained a seat on the technically non-partisan state Supreme Court, holding a 4-3 majority over the Democrats. Democrats held on to other seats, many of whom were held by long term incumbents in no danger of losing regardless who won the governorship. Electoral history 1998 Race for Governor John Engler (R) (inc.), 62% Geoffrey Fieger (D), 38% 1994 Race for Governor John Engler (R) (inc.), 61% Howard Wolpe (D), 38% 1990 Race for Governor John Engler (R), 50% James Blanchard (D) (inc.), 49% Further reading Gleaves Whitney, John Engler: The Man, The Leader, The Legacy. ISBN 1-58536-127-5 John J. Miller, "Citizen Engler." National Review Online, January 2, 2003 Lieutenant governors: Connie Binsfeld, 1991–1999 Dick Posthumus, 1999–2003 Democratic opponents: James Blanchard (incumbent), 1990 Howard Wolpe, 1994 Geoffrey Fieger, 1998 | John_Engler |@lemmatized john:8 mathias:1 engler:31 born:1 october:1 american:1 politician:2 serve:5 republican:13 governor:13 michigan:9 roman:1 catholic:1 bear:2 mount:1 pleasant:1 grow:1 cattle:1 farm:1 beal:1 city:1 attend:1 state:15 university:1 graduate:2 degree:1 agricultural:1 economics:1 elect:6 house:5 representative:7 age:1 campaign:2 manager:1 new:2 msu:1 college:1 chair:1 dick:3 posthumus:4 later:1 go:1 become:2 lieutenant:3 marry:2 colleen:3 run:2 unsuccessfully:1 gubernatorial:3 primary:3 initially:1 declare:1 support:1 another:1 candidate:3 eventual:1 nominee:2 william:1 lucas:1 back:1 couple:2 divorce:1 sometime:1 second:2 wife:1 michelle:2 lawyer:2 name:4 federal:1 home:1 loan:1 mortgage:1 corporation:1 freddie:1 mac:1 board:1 president:4 george:2 w:3 bush:6 appoint:1 triplet:1 daughter:1 november:1 girl:1 margaret:1 rise:1 hannah:1 madeleine:1 jenny:1 spend:1 adult:1 life:1 government:2 senate:5 enrol:1 thomas:1 cooley:1 law:1 school:1 j:2 senator:1 since:2 majority:5 leader:3 governorship:2 administration:1 characterize:1 privatization:1 service:1 tax:1 reduction:1 educational:1 reform:2 welfare:1 major:2 reorganization:1 executive:1 branch:1 department:1 chairman:1 association:3 presidential:4 election:8 consider:1 many:3 political:2 commentator:1 expert:1 serious:1 potential:2 vice:1 running:3 mate:3 bob:1 dole:2 eventually:1 however:4 instead:1 select:1 jack:1 kemp:1 former:2 congressman:1 hud:1 secretary:2 widely:1 tout:1 quickly:1 pass:2 race:6 endorse:1 friend:1 texas:1 secure:1 gop:1 nomination:1 begin:1 surface:1 possible:1 pundit:1 believe:1 unsuccessful:1 deliver:1 year:2 position:2 well:2 coveted:1 cabinet:1 post:3 work:1 seek:1 succeed:1 despite:1 success:1 across:1 country:1 lose:3 close:2 attorney:1 general:1 democrat:5 jennifer:1 granholm:1 leave:2 mansion:1 january:2 local:1 sector:1 electronic:1 data:1 system:1 august:1 national:3 manufacturer:2 september:1 ceo:1 result:1 challenge:1 james:3 blanchard:5 bid:2 third:2 term:4 observer:1 view:1 long:2 shot:1 trail:2 double:1 digit:1 poll:2 weekend:1 day:1 pull:1 upset:2 defeat:1 approximately:1 vote:3 less:1 one:1 percentage:1 point:1 victory:3 often:1 cite:1 party:3 evidence:1 still:1 win:5 nominate:1 howard:3 wolpe:4 tie:2 labor:1 movement:1 potent:1 force:1 democratic:2 politics:1 best:1 make:1 significant:1 gain:4 spencer:1 abraham:1 pick:3 seat:7 retire:1 donald:1 riegle:1 jr:1 republicans:1 break:1 take:3 also:2 u:1 candice:1 miller:2 voter:1 final:1 landslide:2 geoffrey:3 fieger:4 percent:2 total:1 help:1 six:1 control:1 chamber:1 two:1 previously:1 margin:1 additional:1 technically:1 non:1 partisan:1 supreme:1 court:1 hold:3 incumbent:2 danger:1 regardless:1 electoral:1 history:1 r:3 inc:3 reading:1 gleaves:1 whitney:1 man:1 legacy:1 isbn:1 citizen:1 review:1 online:1 connie:1 binsfeld:1 opponent:1 |@bigram mount_pleasant:1 lieutenant_governor:3 w_bush:2 thomas_cooley:1 presidential_election:2 running_mate:3 bob_dole:1 jennifer_granholm:1 landslide_victory:1 supreme_court:1 |
6,554 | Finagle's_law | Finagle's Law of Dynamic Negatives (also known as Finagle's corollary to Murphy's Law) is usually rendered: Anything that can go wrong, will—at the worst possible moment One variant (known as O'Toole's Corollary of Finagle's Law) favored among hackers is a takeoff on the second law of thermodynamics (also known as entropy): The perversity of the Universe tends towards a maximum. The term "Finagle's Law" was first used by John W. Campbell, Jr., the influential editor of Astounding Science Fiction (later Analog). He used it frequently in his editorials for many years in the 1940s to 1960s but it never came into general usage the way Murphy's Law has. Eventually the term "Finagle's law" was popularized by science fiction author Larry Niven in several stories depicting a frontier culture of asteroid miners; this "Belter" culture professed a religion and/or running joke involving the worship of the dread god Finagle and his mad prophet Murphy. "Finagle's Law" can also be the related belief, "Inanimate objects are out to get us." See also Hanlon's razor Hofstadter's law Sturgeon's law List of eponymous laws References | Finagle's_law |@lemmatized finagle:7 law:11 dynamic:1 negative:1 also:4 know:3 corollary:2 murphy:3 usually:1 render:1 anything:1 go:1 wrong:1 bad:1 possible:1 moment:1 one:1 variant:1 toole:1 favor:1 among:1 hacker:1 takeoff:1 second:1 thermodynamics:1 entropy:1 perversity:1 universe:1 tend:1 towards:1 maximum:1 term:2 first:1 use:2 john:1 w:1 campbell:1 jr:1 influential:1 editor:1 astound:1 science:2 fiction:2 later:1 analog:1 frequently:1 editorial:1 many:1 year:1 never:1 come:1 general:1 usage:1 way:1 eventually:1 popularize:1 author:1 larry:1 niven:1 several:1 story:1 depict:1 frontier:1 culture:2 asteroid:1 miner:1 belter:1 profess:1 religion:1 run:1 joke:1 involve:1 worship:1 dread:1 god:1 mad:1 prophet:1 related:1 belief:1 inanimate:1 object:1 get:1 u:1 see:1 hanlon:1 razor:1 hofstadter:1 sturgeon:1 list:1 eponymous:1 reference:1 |@bigram finagle_law:5 astound_science:1 science_fiction:2 larry_niven:1 inanimate_object:1 |
6,555 | Julio-Claudian_dynasty | The Julio-Claudian dynasty normally refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius), Claudius, and Nero, Brill's New Pauly, "Julio-Claudian emperors" or the family to which they belonged; they ruled the Roman Empire from its formation, in the second half of the first century BC, until AD 68, when the last of the line, Nero, committed suicide. There is some variation in usage; in strictly chronological contexts, it can be useful to distinguish between the long reign of Augustus and his Julio-Claudian, or Claudian, successors, the four of whom put together reigned about as long as Augustus himself. None of the Julio-Claudians were succeeded by their sons; only one of them had a legitimate son survive him. The ancient historical writers, chiefly Suetonius and Tacitus, write from the point of view of the Roman senatorial aristocracy, and portray the Emperors in generally negative terms, whether from preference for the Roman Republic or love of a good scandalous story. Tacitus wrote this of the Julio-Claudian Emperors and history: But the successes and reverses of the old Roman people have been recorded by famous historians; and fine intellects were not wanting to describe the times of Augustus, till growing sycophancy scared them away. The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero, while they were in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred. Tacitus Annals I.1 Dynastic relations Nomenclature Julius and Claudius were two Roman family names; in classical Latin, they came second. Such names are inherited from father to son; but a sonless Roman aristocrat would quite commonly adopt an heir, who would also take the family name - this could be done in his will. Thus (Gaius) Julius Caesar adopted his sister's grandson, Gaius Octavius, who became a Julius, eventually named Imperator Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus, normally called in English Augustus, the founder of the Empire. The next four emperors were closely related, and all were named either Julius or Claudius by birth or adoption. Tiberius, the son of Augustus' wife Livia by her first husband (thus Augustus' step-son), was born a Claudian but, like Augustus before him, became a Julian upon his adoption. Caligula, however, had both Julian and Claudian ancestry being a Julio-Claudian, and was also a direct blood great-grandson of Augustus. Claudius was a Claudian, though like his great-uncle Augustus Caesar, he was also descended from the Julian family through his maternal grandmother Octavia Minor—sister of Augustus—whose own maternal grandmother was Julia, Caesar's sister. Like Caligula before him, Nero also shared Julian and Claudian ancestry. Nero, again like Caligula, was a descendant of Augustus, a great-great-grandson. Rise and fall of the Julio-Claudians This marble statue of a youth on horseback is believed to represent a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty Augustus Lacking any male child and heir Augustus married his only daughter Julia to his nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus. However, Marcellus died of food poisoning in 23 BC. Augustus then married his widowed daughter to his loyal friend, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. This marriage produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina, and Postumus Agrippa. Gaius and Lucius, the first two children of Julia and Agrippa, were adopted by Augustus and became heirs to the throne; however, Augustus also showed great favor toward his wife Livia's two children from her first marriage: Drusus and Tiberius. They were successful military leaders who had fought against the barbarian Germanic tribes. Agrippa died in 12 BC, and Tiberius was ordered by Augustus to divorce his wife Vipsania Agrippina and marry his stepsister, the twice-widowed Julia. Drusus, the brother of Tiberius, died in 9 BC after falling from a horse. Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter, in 6 BC, he went into voluntary exile in Rhodes. After the early deaths of both Lucius (2 AD) and Gaius (4 AD), Augustus was forced to recognize Tiberius as the next Roman emperor. Augustus banished his grandson Postumus Agrippa to the small island of Planasia (around 6 or 7 AD), and Tiberius was recalled to Rome and officially adopted by Augustus. Tiberius On 19 August 14 AD, Augustus died. Tiberius had already been established as Princeps in all but name, and his position as heir was confirmed in Augustus' will. Despite his difficult relationship with the Senate, Tiberius's first years were generally good. He stayed true to Augustus’s plans for the succession and favored his adopted son Germanicus over his natural son, Drusus, as did the Roman populace. On Tiberius' request, Germanicus was granted proconsular power and assumed command in the prime military zone of Germania, where he suppressed the mutiny there and led the formerly restless legions on campaigns against Germanic tribes from 14 to 16 AD. Germanicus died at Syria in 19 AD and, on his deathbed, accused the governor of Syria, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, of murdering him at Tiberius’s orders. With Germanicus dead, Tiberius began elevating his own son Drusus to replace him as the Imperial successor. By this time Tiberius had left more of the day-to-day running of the Empire to Lucius Aelius Sejanus. Sejanus created an atmosphere of fear in Rome, controlling a network of informers and spies whose incentive to accuse others of treason was a share in the accused's property after their conviction and death. Treason trials became commonplace; few members of the Roman aristocracy were safe. The trials played up to Tiberius' growing paronoia, which made him more reliant on Sejanus, as well as allowing Sejanus to eliminate potential rivals. Tiberius, perhaps sensitive to this ambition, rejected Sejanus's initial proposal to marry Livilla in 25 AD, but later had withdrawn his objections so that, in 30 AD, Sejanus was betrothed to Livilla's daughter, Tiberius' granddaughter. Sejanus’ family connection to the Imperial house was now imminent, and in 31 AD Sejanus held the Consulship with the emperor as his colleague, an honor Tiberius reserved only for heirs to the throne. When he was summoned to a meeting of the Senate on 18 October in that year he probably expected to receive a share of the tribunician power. Instead, however, Tiberius' letter to the Senate completely unexpectedly requested the destruction of Sejanus and his faction. A purge followed, in which Sejanus and his most prominent supporters were killed. Rome’s second Emperor died at the port town of Misenum on March 16, 37 AD, at the age of seventy-eight in a reign of 23 years. Suetonius writes that the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard Naevius Sutorius Macro smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession. According to Suetonius, he was known for his cruelty and debauchery through his perversion on the island of Capri where he forced young boys and girls into orgies. On one account when one of the boys complained, Tiberius had his legs broken. However Suetonius' claims have to be taken with a degree of scepticism. Caligula Although Augustus's succession plans were all but ruined due to the deaths of more than several family members, including many of his own descendants, in the end Tiberius remained faithful to his predecessor's wishes that the next emperor would hail from the Julian side of the Imperial Family. Thus, on the death of Tiberius, his adopted son, Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, ascended to the throne. Not only did the new Caesar belong to both the Julii and the Claudii, but he was also a direct descendant of Augustus Caesar as well. More commonly remembered in history by his childhood nickname Caligula, he was the third Roman Emperor ruling from 37 to 41 AD. When Tiberius died on March 16, 37 AD, Caligula was well positioned to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius’s will, which named him and his cousin Tiberius Gemellus as joint heirs. Caligula ordered Gemellus killed within his first year. Backed by Naevius Sutorius Macro, Caligula asserted himself as sole princeps. There were several unsuccessful attempts made on Caligula's life. The successful conspiracy that ended Caligula's life was hatched by the disgruntled Praetorian Guard with backing by the Senate. The historian Josephus claims that the conspirators wished to restore the Republic while the historian Suetonius claims their motivations were mostly personal. On January 24, 41, the praetorian tribune Cassius Chaerea and his men stopped Caligula alone in an underground passage leading to a theater. They stabbed him to death. Together with another tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, he killed Caligula's wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla on the same day. Claudius After Caligula’s death, the senate attempted and failed to restore the Republic. Claudius, Caligula's uncle, became emperor by the instigation of the Praetorian Guards. Despite his lack of political experience, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the invasion of Britain in 43 AD. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day; however, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position—resulting in the deaths of many senators. Claudius also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal life. Claudius' reign also included several attempts on his life. In order to gain political support, he married Agrippina the Younger and adopted her son Nero. With his adoption on February 25, 50 Nero became heir to the throne. Claudius died on October 13, 54 and Nero became emperor. A number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of poisoning Claudius, but details on these private events vary widely. Nero Nero became emperor in 54 at seventeen, the youngest Emperor yet. Like his uncle Caligula before him, Nero was also a direct descendant of Augustus Caesar, a fact which made his ascension to the throne much easier and more smooth than it had been for Tiberius or Claudius. Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Seneca, and the Praetorian Prefect Burrus, especially in the first year. In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was consul four times between 55 and 60. Nero consolidated power over time through the execution and banishment of his rivals and slowly usurped authority from the Senate. In 64 Rome burned. Nero enacted a public relief effort as well as large reconstruction projects. To fund this, the provinces were heavily taxed following the fire. By 65, senators complained that they had no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy. The conspiracy failed and its members were executed. Vacancies after the conspiracy allowed Nymphidius Sabinus to rise in the praetorian guard. In late 67 or early 68, Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis in Gaul, rebelled against the tax policies of Nero. Lucius Virginius Rufus, the governor of superior Germany was sent to put down the rebellion. To gain support, Vindex called on Galba, the governor of Hispania Citerior in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, comprising modern Spain and Portugal), to become emperor. Virginius Rufus defeated Vindex's forces and Vindex committed suicide. Galba was declared a public enemy and his legion was confined in the city of Clunia. Nero had regained the control of the empire militarily, but this opportunity was used by his enemies in Rome. By June of 68 the senate voted Galba the emperor and declared Nero a public enemy. The praetorian guard was bribed to betray Nero by Nymphidius Sabinus, who desired to become emperor himself. Nero reportedly committed suicide with the help of his scribe Epaphroditos. With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in the Year of the Four Emperors. Great-nephews It is interesting how commonly the blood relationship of great-uncle /great-nephew is found between the rulers of Julio-Claudian dynasty. Augustus was the great-nephew of Julius Caesar (and his adopted son). Caligula was the great-nephew of Tiberius (and his adopted son). Claudius was the great-nephew of Augustus. Nero was the great-nephew of Claudius (and his adopted son). The other recurring relationship between emperor and successor is that of stepfather/stepson, a relationship not by blood but by marriage: Tiberius was Augustus's stepson. Nero, as well as being Claudius's great-nephew, was also his stepson (his mother Agrippina being Claudius's niece, and also Claudius's fourth wife). The uncle/nephew relationship also is prominent: Tiberius was Claudius's uncle, and Claudius was Caligula's uncle. No Julio-Claudian emperor was a blood descendant of his immediate predecessor. Both Tiberius and Claudius had male direct descendants (Tiberius's grandson Tiberius Gemellus, Claudius's son Britannicus) available for the succession, but their great-nephews were preferred. The fact that ordinary father-son (or grandfather-grandson) succession did not occur has contributed to the image of the Julio-Claudian court presented in Robert Graves's I, Claudius, a dangerous world where scheming family members were all too ready to murder the obvious, direct heirs so as to bring themselves, their own immediate families, or their lovers closer to the succession. Emperors of the dynasty Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) Tiberius (14–37) Caligula (37–41) Claudius (41–54) Nero (54–68) Notes Further reading Matyszak, Philip. The Sons of Caesar: Imperial Rome's First Dynasty. London: Thames & Hudson, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0-500-25128-2). Anthony Kamm, The Romans an Introduction Suetonius, The Lives of the twelve Caesars: http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/suetonius-index.html Anthony A. Barrett, Agrippina : sex, power, and politics in the early Empire Lecture and notes from CLCV 1003A (Classical Roman Civilization); Carleton University Wood, Susan, "The Incredible, Vanishing Wives of Nero," http://www.portraitsofcaligula.com/3/miscellaneous1.htm Holztrattner, Franz, Poppaea Neronis Potens: Studien zu Poppaea Sabina, Berger & Söhne: Graz-Horn, 1995 N.A. "Octavia," tragedy preserved with the writings of Seneca. Tacitus, Annals. Robert Graves, I, Claudius Robert Graves, Claudius the god See also Julio Claudian Art Photo Site- Joe Geranio Julio-Claudian family tree | Julio-Claudian_dynasty |@lemmatized julio:14 claudian:17 dynasty:6 normally:2 refers:1 first:9 five:2 roman:13 emperor:21 augustus:34 tiberius:36 caligula:20 gaius:8 claudius:28 nero:24 brill:1 new:2 pauly:1 family:10 belong:2 rule:2 empire:6 formation:1 second:3 half:1 century:1 bc:6 ad:15 last:1 line:1 commit:3 suicide:3 variation:1 usage:1 strictly:1 chronological:1 context:1 useful:1 distinguish:1 long:2 reign:6 successor:3 four:4 put:2 together:2 none:1 claudians:2 succeed:1 son:17 one:3 legitimate:1 survive:1 ancient:4 historical:1 writer:1 chiefly:1 suetonius:7 tacitus:4 write:4 point:1 view:1 senatorial:1 aristocracy:2 portray:1 generally:2 negative:1 term:1 whether:1 preference:1 republic:3 love:1 good:2 scandalous:1 story:1 history:3 success:1 revers:1 old:1 people:1 record:1 famous:1 historian:5 fine:1 intellect:1 want:1 describe:2 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6,556 | Netscape_Navigator | Netscape Navigator and Netscape are the names for the proprietary web browser popular in the 1990s, and the flagship product of the Netscape Communications Corporation, and the dominant web browser in terms of usage share. Yet by 2002 its users had almost disappeared. One of the reasons for this was due to the popularity of Microsoft's Internet Explorer web browser software and other web browsers like Mozilla's Firefox, and partly because Netscape corporation (later purchased by AOL) did not sustain Netscape Navigator's technical innovation after the late 1990s. Netscape's Brief History Retrieved on 02-16-2009 The business demise of Netscape was a central premise of Microsoft's antitrust trial, wherein the Court ruled that Microsoft corporation's bundling of Internet Explorer with the Windows operating system was monopolistic, an illegal business practice. The Netscape Navigator web browser was succeeded by the Netscape Communicator internet suite, in turn succeeded by Netscape 6, Netscape 7, and Netscape Browser 8. On 1 May 2007, the resurrection of the Netscape Navigator name would be Netscape Navigator 9. Netscape 9 - 1 May 2007 Announcement Retrieved on 05-02-2007 AOL formally stopped development of Netscape Navigator on 28 December 2007, but continued supporting the web browser with security updates until 1 February 2008, then extended until 1 March 2008, when AOL canceled technical support, yet permits user-downloading of archived versions of the Netscape Navigator web browser family. Moreover, AOL maintains the Netscape website as an Internet portal. History and development The creation Netscape Navigator was based on the Mosaic web browser, which was co-written by Marc Andreessen, a part-time employee of the National Center for Supercomputing Applications and a student at the University of Illinois. After Andreessen graduated in 1993, he moved to California and there met Jim Clark, the recently-departed founder of Silicon Graphics. Clark believed that the Mosaic browser had great commercial possibilities and provided the seed money. Soon Mosaic Communications Corporation was in business in Mountain View, California, with Andreessen as a vice-president. Since the University of Illinois was unhappy with the company's use of the Mosaic name, the company changed its name to Netscape Communications (thought up by sales representative Greg Sands) and named its flagship web browser Netscape Navigator. Mosaic Netscape 0.9, a pre-1.0 version. Note the image of the Mozilla mascot, and the Mosaic logo in the top-right corner. Netscape announced in its first press release (October 13, 1994) that it would make Navigator freely available to all non-commercial users, and Beta versions of version 1.0 and 1.1 were indeed freely downloadable in November 1994 and March 1995, with the full version 1.0 available in December 1994. Netscape's initial corporate policy regarding Navigator is interesting, as it claimed that it would make Navigator freely available for non-commercial use in accordance with the notion that Internet software should be distributed for free. AOL.com - Netscape However, within 2 months of that press release, Netscape apparently reversed its policy on who could freely obtain and use version 1.0 by only mentioning that educational and non-profit institutions could use version 1.0 at no charge. AOL.com - Netscape The reversal was complete with the availability of version 1.1 beta on March 6, 1995, in which a press release states that the final 1.1 release would be available at no cost only for academic and non-profit organizational use. Gone was the notion expressed in the first press release that Navigator would be freely available in the spirit of Internet software. The first few releases of the product were made available in "commercial" and "evaluation" versions; for example, version "1.0" and version "1.0N". The "N" evaluation versions were completely identical to the commercial versions; the letter was there to remind people to pay for the browser once they felt they had tried it long enough and were satisfied with it. This distinction was formally dropped within a year of the initial release, and the full version of the browser continued to be made available for free online, with boxed versions available on floppy disks (and later CDs) in stores along with a period of phone support. Email support was initially free, and remained so for a year or two until the volume of support requests grew too high. During development, the Netscape browser was known by the code name Mozilla, which became the name of a Godzilla-like cartoon dragon mascot used prominently on the company's web site. The Mozilla name was also used as the User-Agent in HTTP requests by the browser. Other web browsers claimed to be compatible with Netscape's extensions to HTML, and therefore used the same name in their User-Agent identifiers so that web servers would send them the same pages as were sent to Netscape browsers. Mozilla is now a generic name for matters related to the open source successor to Netscape Communicator. The rise of Netscape Netscape Navigator 1.22 When the consumer Internet revolution arrived in the mid-to-late 1990s, Netscape was well positioned to take advantage of it. With a good mix of features and an attractive licensing scheme that allowed free use for non-commercial purposes, the Netscape browser soon became the de facto standard, particularly on the Windows platform. Internet service providers and computer magazine publishers helped make Navigator readily available. An important innovation that Netscape introduced in 1994 was the on-the-fly display of webpages, where text and graphics appeared on the screen as the web page downloaded. Earlier web browsers would not display a page until all graphics on it had been loaded over the network connection; this often made a user stare at a blank page for as long as several minutes. With Netscape, people using dial-up connections could begin reading the text of a webpage within seconds of entering a web address, even before the rest of the text and graphics had finished downloading. This made the web much more tolerable to the average user. Netscape Navigator 2.02 Through the late 1990s, Netscape made sure that Navigator remained the technical leader among web browsers. Important new features included cookies, frames, and JavaScript (in version 2.0). Although those and other innovations eventually became open standards of the W3C and ECMA and were emulated by other browsers, they were often viewed as controversial. Netscape, according to critics, was more interested in bending the web to its own de facto "standards" (bypassing standards committees and thus marginalizing the commercial competition) than it was in fixing bugs in its products. Consumer rights advocates were particularly critical of cookies and of commercial web sites using them to invade individual privacy. In the marketplace, however, these concerns made little difference. Netscape Navigator remained the market leader with more than 50% usage share. The browser software was available for a wide range of operating systems, including Windows (3.1, 95, 98, NT), Macintosh, Linux, OS/2, and many versions of Unix including DEC, Sun Solaris, BSDI, IRIX, AIX, and HP-UX, and looked and worked nearly identically on every one of them. Netscape began to experiment with prototypes of a web-based system, known internally as "Constellation", which would allow a user to access and edit his or her files anywhere across a network no matter what computer or operating system he or she happened to be using. Industry observers confidently forecast the dawn of a new era of connected computing. The underlying operating system, it was believed, would become an unimportant consideration; future applications would run within a web browser. This was seen by Netscape as a clear opportunity to entrench Navigator at the heart of the next generation of computing, and thus gain the opportunity to expand into all manner of other software and service market. The fall of Netscape Usage share of Netscape Navigator, 1994–2007 With the success of Netscape showing the importance of the web (more and more people were using the Internet due in part to the ease of using Netscape) Microsoft saw a new profitable market they too could enter. Following Netscape's lead Microsoft started a campaign to enter the web browser software market. Like Netscape before them, Microsoft licensed the Mosaic source code from Spyglass, Inc. (University of Illinois). Using this basic code, Microsoft created Internet Explorer(IE). The war between Microsoft and Netscape denominated the Browser Wars; Version 1.0 (shipped in the Internet Jumpstart Kit in Microsoft Plus! For Windows 95 History of Internet Explorer ) and Version 2.0 (the first cross platform web browser supporting Windows and MacOS History of Internet Explorer ) of Internet Explorer were thought by many to be inferior and primitive when compared to contemporary versions of Netscape Navigator. With the release of IE version 3.0 (1996) Microsoft was able to catch up with Netscape competitively. IE Version 4.0 (1997) fared even better in market share than even version 3.0. IE 5.0 (1999) improved stability and took significant market share from Netscape Navigator for the first time. Netscape 3.04 There were two versions of Netscape Navigator 3.0; the Standard Edition and the Gold Edition. The latter consisted of the Navigator browser with e-mail, news readers, and a WYSIWYG web page compositor. The extra functions enlarged and slowed the software, rendering it prone to crashing; yet it was the version (renamed) published as Netscape Communicator, in version 4.0; the name change (Netscape CEO Jim Barksdale insisted, was because Communicator was a general-purpose client application, which contained the Navigator browser) diluted its name-recognition and confused users. The aging Netscape Communicator 4.x code was slower than Internet Explorer 5.0. Typical web pages had become heavily illustrated, often JavaScript-intensive, and encoded with HTML features designed for specific purposes but now employed as global layout tools (HTML tables, the most obvious example of this, were especially difficult for Communicator to render). The Netscape browser, once a solid product, became crash-prone and buggy; for example, some versions re-downloaded an entire web page to re-render it when the browser window was re-sized (a nuisance to dial-up users), and the browser would usually crash when the page contained simple Cascading Style Sheets. Moreover, Netscape Communicator's browser interface design dated in comparison to Internet Explorer. At decade's end, Netscape's web browser had lost dominance over the Windows platform. On other computer platforms, it was threatened, by open-source browsers and the August 1997 Microsoft financial agreement to invest one hundred and fifty million dollars in Apple, requiring that Apple make Internet Explorer the default web browser in new Mac OS installations. The latest IE Mac release, then, was Internet Explorer version 3.0 for Macintosh, but Internet Explorer 4 was released later that year. In the event, Microsoft succeeded in having ISPs and PC vendors distribute Internet Explorer to their customers instead of Netscape Navigator, partly aided by Microsoft's investment in making IE brandable, such that a customized version of IE was offered. Also, web developers used proprietary, browser-specific extensions in web pages. Both Microsoft and Netscape were found guilty of so doing, having added many proprietary HTML tags to their browsers, forcing users to choose between two competing, almost incompatible web browsers. In March 1998, Netscape released most of the code base for Netscape Communicator under an open source license. The product, Netscape 5, uses open-source community contributions, is known as Mozilla, Netscape Navigator's original code name. Netscape programmers gave Mozilla a different GUI, releasing it as Netscape 6 and Netscape 7. After a long public beta test, Mozilla 1.0 was released on 5 June 2002. The same code-base, notably the Gecko layout engine, became the basis of independent applications, including Firefox and Thunderbird. These web browsers took years to yield results. Meanwhile, America Online had bought Netscape, and released Netscape Navigator 6 from a pre-beta-quality form of the Mozilla codebase. This did nothing to win back users, who continued to migrate to Internet Explorer. On 28 December 2007, the Netscape developers announced that AOL had canceled development of Netscape Navigator, leaving it unsupported as of 1 February 2008. BBC News Article retrieved 29th February 2008 Archived and unsupported versions of the browser remain available for download. Release history Mosaic Netscape 0.9 – October 13, 1994 Netscape Navigator 1.0 – December 15, 1994 Netscape Navigator 1.1 – March 1995 Netscape Navigator 1.22 – August 1995 Netscape Navigator 2.0 – March 1996 holgermetzger.de Tim Berners-Lee And The W3C Netscape Navigator 2.01 Netscape Navigator 2.02 Netscape Navigator 3.0 – August 19, 1996 Netscape Navigator 3.01 Netscape Navigator 3.02 Netscape Navigator 3.03 Netscape Navigator 3.04 – October 4, 1997 Netscape Navigator 4.0 – June 1997 Netscape Navigator 4.01 Netscape Navigator 4.02 Netscape Navigator 4.03 Netscape Navigator 4.04 Netscape Navigator 4.05 Netscape Navigator 4.06 – August 17, 1998 Netscape Navigator 4.07 Netscape Navigator 4.08 – November 9, 1998 (Last release for 16-bit Windows and 68k Macintoshes) Criticism Netscape has been criticized for following actual web standards poorly, often lagging behind or supporting them very poorly or even incorrectly. This criticism wasn't very loud during the days of its popularity as web designers then often simply developed for Netscape Navigator, but came to be an increasing annoyance to web designers who wish to provide backward compatibility, most often with Netscape Navigator 4 and Netscape Communicator, to their web sites. Today, many web masters simply do not choose to support these old versions, due to their extremely small market share and lack of standardization. However, Netscape's own contributions to the web of this sort hasn't always been of frustration to web developers. JavaScript (which has little to do with Java) was for example submitted as a new standard to Ecma International, resulting in the ECMAScript specification. This move allowed it to be more easily supported by multiple web browsers and is today an established cross-browser scripting language, long after Netscape Navigator itself has dropped in popularity. Another example is the FRAME tag, that is also widely supported today, and even ended up becoming incorporated into official web standards such as the "HTML 4.01 Frameset" specification. In a 2007 PC World column, the original Netscape Navigator was considered the "best tech product of all time" due to its impact on the Internet. PC World - The 50 Best Tech Products of All Time See also Browser timeline Comparison of web browsers List of web browsers Netscape Mosaic Mozilla References External links Netscape handbook 1.1 / 2.02 / 3.0, and knowledge base OS/2 Navigator unofficial home page, Y2K certificates Fortify Netscape 2.02 - 4.72 (unofficial security upgrades) Netscape 3.0 hidden features, compatibility screen shots Download archive releases of Mosaic 0.4 to Netscape Navigator 3.04 | Netscape_Navigator |@lemmatized netscape:107 navigator:55 name:13 proprietary:3 web:44 browser:45 popular:1 flagship:2 product:7 communication:3 corporation:4 dominant:1 term:1 usage:3 share:6 yet:3 user:12 almost:2 disappear:1 one:3 reason:1 due:4 popularity:3 microsoft:14 internet:22 explorer:13 software:7 like:3 mozilla:10 firefox:2 partly:2 later:3 purchase:1 aol:7 sustain:1 technical:3 innovation:3 late:4 brief:1 history:5 retrieve:3 business:3 demise:1 central:1 premise:1 antitrust:1 trial:1 wherein:1 court:1 rule:1 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6,557 | Kondratiev_wave | Kondratiev waves — also called Supercycles, surges, long waves or K-waves — are described as regular, sinusoidal cycles in the modern (capitalist) world economy. Averaging fifty and ranging from approximately forty to sixty years in length, the cycles consist of alternating periods between high sectoral growth and periods of slower growth. Unlike the short-term business cycle which in various forms has been familiar since the nineteenth century, the long wave of this theory does not belong within current orthodox economics and is sometimes categorized as part of heterodox economics (a catch-all term for alternative ideas). The Russian economist Nikolai Kondratiev (also written Kondratieff) was the first to bring these observations international attention in his book The Major Economic Cycles (1925) alongside other works written in the same decade. Two Dutch economists, Jacob van Gelderen and Samuel de Wolff, previously argued for the existence of 50- to 60-year cycles in 1913. However, only recently has the work of de Wolff and van Gelderen been translated from Dutch to reach a wider audience. Kondratiev was a Soviet economist, but his economic conclusions were disliked by the Soviet leadership and upon their release he was quickly dismissed from his post as director of the Institute for the Study of Business Activity in the Soviet Union in 1928. His conclusions were seen as a criticism of Stalin’s intentions for the Soviet economy; due to this fact he was sentenced to the Russian Gulag and later received the death penalty. Later, Joseph Schumpeter suggested in Business Cycles to name the cycle "Kondratieff wave" in honor of the economist who first noticed them. In the 1950s, French economist Francois Simiand proposed to name the ascendant period of the cycle "Phase A" and the downward period "Phase B". Some market commentators divide the Kondratiev wave into four 'seasons', namely, the Kondratiev Spring (improvement – plateau) and Summer (acceleration – prosperity) of the ascendant period and the Kondratiev Fall (recession – plateau) and Winter (acceleration – depression) of the downward period. Characteristics of the cycle The cycle is supposedly more visible in international production data than in individual national economies. It affects all the sectors of an economy, and concerns output rather than prices (although Kondratieff had made observations about the prices only). According to Kondratieff, the ascendant phase is characterized by an increase in prices and low interest rates, while the other phase consists of a decrease in prices and high interest rates. Kondratieff identified three phases in the cycle: expansion, stagnation, recession. More common today is the division into four periods with a turning point (collapse) between the first and second two. Writing in the 1920s, Kondratieff proposed to apply the theory to the 19th century: 1790 – 1849 with a turning point in 1815. 1850 – 1896 with a turning point in 1873. Kondratieff supposed that in 1896, a new cycle had started. The phases of Kondratieff's waves also carry with them social shifts and changes in the public mood. The first stage of expansion and growth, the "Spring" stage, encompasses a social shift in which the wealth, accumulation, and innovation that are present in this first period of the cycle create upheavals and displacements in society. The economic changes result in redefining work and the role of participants in society. In the next phase, the "Summer" stagflation, there is a mood of affluence from the previous growth stage that change the attitude towards work in society, creating inefficiencies. After this stage comes the season of deflationary growth, or the plateau period. The popular mood changes during this period as well. It shifts toward stability, normalcy, and isolationism after the policies and economics during unpopular excesses of war. Finally, the "Winter" stage, that of severe depression, includes the integration of previous social shifts and changes into the social fabric of society, supported by the shifts in innovation and technology. A fourth cycle may have roughly coincided with the Cold War: beginning in 1949, turning with the economic peak of the mid-1960s and the Vietnam War escalation, hitting a trough in 1982 amidst growing predictions in the United States of worldwide Soviet domination and ending with the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. The current cycle most likely peaked in 1999 with a possible winter phase beginning in late 2008. The Austrian-school economists point out that extreme price inflation in the absence of economic growth is a form of capital destruction, allowing either stagflation (as in the 1970s and much of the 2000s during the gold and oil price run-ups) or deflation (as in the 1930s and possibly following the crash in commodity prices beginning in 2008) to represent a recession or depression phase of the Kondratieff theory. Explanation of the cycle Early on, four schools of thought emerged as to why capitalist economies have these long waves. These schools of thought revolved around innovations, capital investment, war and capitalist crisis. According to the innovation theory, these waves arise from the bunching of basic innovations that launch technological revolutions that in turn create leading industrial or commercial sectors. Kondratiev's ideas were taken up by Joseph Schumpeter in the 1930s. The theory hypothesized the existence of very long-run macroeconomic and price cycles, originally estimated to last 50–54 years. A rough schematic drawing showing the "World Economy" over time according to the Kondratiev theory Since the inception of the theories, various studies have expanded the range of possible cycles, finding longer or shorter cycles in the data. The Marxist scholar Ernest Mandel revived interest in long wave theory with his 1964 essay predicting the end of the long boom after five years and in his Alfred Marshall lectures in 1979. However, in Mandel's theory, there are no long "cycles", only distinct epochs of faster and slower growth spanning 20–25 years. More recently, investment theorist Ian Gordon has advocated a 4 season Kondratiev model in which spring is moderate growth from a stock market and inflationary bottom, summer is characterized by accelerating growth and high inflation, autumn is characterized by declining inflation and asset bubbles, and winter involves the collapse of the asset bubbles. See materials at Longwavegroup.com. Long wave theory is not accepted by most academic economists, but it is one of the bases of innovation-based, development, and evolutionary economics, i.e. the main heterodox stream in economics. Among economists who accept it, there has been no universal agreement about the start and the end years of particular waves. This points to another criticism of the theory: that it amounts to seeing patterns in a mass of statistics that aren't really there. Moreover, there is a lack of agreement over the cause of this phenomenon. How much this matters is disputed: some scientific patterns have in the past been identified before an explanation could be advanced. (The best known example is that of the precursors to the periodic table, which were in fact rejected by many scientists precisely on the grounds of lack of explanation.) There is controversy over the validity of Kondratiev's theory among many scholars. Some believe that not enough is attributed to actual human errors that have created some of the economic situations of history, and too much to the inevitability of the characteristics of the phases of the waves. They claim that many of the situations were entirely avoidable, not the consequences of an unstoppable wave pattern. Others doubt the legitimacy of Kondratiev's waves because they believe that every wave is a structural cycle that has unique characteristics and cannot be repeated. There is also controversy over Kondratiev's research - many believe that the conclusions and results of his research are biased because he highlighted and used only certain events to reach his conclusions and left out other important data and events that could have affected his outcomes. Most cycle theorists agree, however, with the "Schumpeter-Freeman-Perez" paradigm of five waves so far since the industrial revolution, and the sixth one to come. These five cycles are The Industrial Revolution—1771 The Age of Steam and Railways—1829 The Age of Steel, Electricity and Heavy Engineering—1875 The Age of Oil, the Automobile and Mass Production—1908 The Age of Information and Telecommunications—1971 According to this theory, we are currently at the turning-point of the 5th Kondratiev. Some scholars, particularly Immanuel Wallerstein, argue that cycles of global war are tied to Capitalist Long Waves. Major, highly-destructive wars tend to begin just prior to an output upswing. A simplified and somewhat updated interetation of Kondrtiev Waves can be seen as follows; Period Date Innovation Saturation point First Industrial Revolution Circa 1800 - 1850 Cotton based technology; spinning weaving etc. 1810 –end of Napoleonic Wars Second Industrial Revolution Circa 1850 - 1900 Age of steam; railways, shipping, heavy industry, iron and steel etc. 1870s Third Industrial revolution 1908 - 1947 Petrol chemicals, internal combustion engine, electrification. Inter-war slump 1920s and 30s Post-war Boom 1947- 1990s Consumer goods, electronics, etc 1973 Contemporary Era 1990- The internet, mobile technologies, bio-technologies etc Independently, the economists/physicists Cesare Marchetti and Theodore Modis have evidenced the cyclical Kondratiev pattern from physical variables such as energy consumption, the use of horsepower, the appearance of basic innovations, the discovery of stable elements, bank failures, homicides, and one-mile-run records. The historian Eric Hobsbawm wrote of the theory: "That good predictions have proved possible on the basis of Kondratiev Long Waves - this is not very common in economics - has convinced many historians and even some economists that there is something in them, even if we don't know what." Hobsbawm, 1999: 87n. See also Business cycles Economic cycles Market trends Grand Supercycle (Elliott Wave theory) Martin A. Armstrong Clustering illusion References Additional References With contributions by Samir Amin, Christopher Chase Dunn, Andre Gunder Frank, Immanuel Wallerstein. Further reading This book provides the history of the many ups and downs of the economies. Weekly Column from 11.09.2007 predicting a major turning-point between 2007 to 2009 and the start of a Great Depression. External links Smith, Marx, Kondratieff and Keynes; R. L. Norman, Jr. Cause of the Kondratieff Cycle Theories of the Great Depression, R. L. Norman, Jr. Revista Entelequia 200-yr chart of Kondratieff cycles, multifactorial & intricate "Kondratieff waves" on faculty.washington.edu (The Evolutionary World Politics Homepage). "Kondratieff theory explained" on Kondratyev.com (Kondratyev Theory Letters). 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6,558 | Arabic_alphabet | The Arabic alphabet (أبجدية عربية) is the script used for writing several languages of Asia and Africa, such as Arabic, Persian, and Urdu. After the Latin alphabet, it is the second-most widely used alphabet around the world. The alphabet was first used to write texts in Arabic, most notably the , the holy book of Islam. With the spread of Islam, it came to be used to write many other languages, even outside of the Semitic family to which Arabic belongs. Examples of non-Semitic languages written with the Arabic alphabet include Persian, Urdu, Pashto, Baloch, Malay, Hausa (in West Africa), Mandinka, Swahili (in East Africa), Balti, Brahui, Panjabi (in Pakistan), Kashmiri, Sindhi (in India and Pakistan), Arwi (in Sri Lanka), Uyghur (in China), Kazakh (in China), Kyrgyz (in China), Azerbaijani (in Iran), Kurdish (in Iraq and Iran) and the language of the former Ottoman Empire. In order to accommodate the needs of these other languages, new letters and other symbols were added to the original alphabet. The Arabic script is written from right to left, in a cursive style, and includes 28 basic letters. Because some of the vowels are indicated with optional symbols, it can be classified as an abjad. Just as different handwriting styles and typefaces exist in the Roman alphabet, the Arabic script has a number of different styles of calligraphy, including Naskh, Nastaʿlīq, Shahmukhi, Ruq'ah, Thuluth, Kufic, Sini and Hijazi. Consonants Collation There are two collating orders for the Arabic alphabet. The original abjadī order () derives from the order of the Phoenician alphabet, and is therefore similar to the order of other Phoenician-derived alphabets, such as the Hebrew alphabet. The abjadī order is used for numbering. In the order (), similarly-shaped letters are grouped together (see below). The hijāʼī order is used wherever lists of names and words are sorted, as in phonebooks, classroom lists, and dictionaries. Primary letters The Arabic alphabet has 28 basic letters. Adaptations of the Arabic script for other languages, such as the Malay Arabic script, have additional letters. There are no distinct upper and lower case letter forms. Many letters look similar but are distinguished from one another by dots above or below their central part, called iʿjam. These dots are an integral part of a letter, since they distinguish between letters that represent different sounds. For example, the Arabic letters transliterated as b and t have the same basic shape, but b has one dot below, , and t has two dots above, . Both printed and written Arabic are cursive, with most of the letters within a word directly connected to the adjacent letters. Unlike cursive writing based on the Latin alphabet, the standard Arabic style is to have a substantially different shape depending on whether it will be connecting with a preceding and/or a succeeding letter, thus all primary letters have conditional forms for their glyphs, depending on whether they are at the beginning, middle or end of a word, so they may exhibit four distinct forms (initial, medial, final or isolated). However, six letters have only isolated or final form, and so force the following letter (if any) to take an initial or isolated form, as if there were a word break. These forms are called: Initial: at the beginning of a word; or in the middle of a word, after a non-connecting letter. Medial: between two connecting letters (non-connecting letters lack a medial form). Final: at the end of a word following a connecting letter. Isolated: at the end of a word following a non-connecting letter; or used independently. Some letters look almost the same in all four forms, while others show considerable variation. Generally, the initial and middle forms look similar except that in some letters the middle form starts with a short horizontal line on the right to ensure that it will connect with its preceding letter. The final and isolated forms, are also similar in appearance but the final form will also have a horizontal stroke on the right and, for some letters, a loop or longer line on the left with which to finish the word with a subtle ornamental flourish. In addition, some letter combinations are written as ligatures (special shapes), including . For compatibility with previous standards, all these forms can be encoded separately in Unicode; however, they can also be inferred from their joining context, using the same encoding. The following table shows this common encoding, in addition to the compatibility encodings for their normally contextual forms (Arabic texts should be encoded today using only the common encoding, but the rendering must then infer the joining types to determine the correct glyph forms, with or without ligation). The transliteration given is the widespread DIN 31635 standard, with some common alternatives. See the article Romanization of Arabic for details and various other transliteration schemes. Regarding pronunciation, the phonetic values given are those of the pronunciation of literary Arabic, the standard which is taught in universities. In practice, pronunciation may vary considerably between the different varieties of Arabic. For more details concerning the pronunciation of Arabic, consult the article Arabic phonology. The names of the Arabic letters can be thought of as abstractions of an older version where they were meaningful words in the Proto-Semitic language. Six letters are not connected to the letter following them, therefore their initial form matches the isolated and their medial form matches the final. These letters are (أ,د,ذ,ر,ز,و). Contextual formsNameTranslit.Phonemic Value (IPA)IsolatedEndMiddleBeginning / various, including , also in some loanwords (also j, g) (also kh, x) (also dh, ð) (also sh) (also gh) ( in many loanwords), also in some loanwords, ( in Allah only) / / , sometimes , and in loanwords / / , sometimes , and in loanwords Further notes Initially, the letter indicated the glottal stop , as in Phoenician. Today it is used, together with and , as a mater lectionis, that is to say a consonant standing in for a long vowel (see below). In fact, over the course of time its original consonantal value has been obscured, so now serves either as a long vowel or as graphic support for certain diacritics (madda and hamza). The Arabic alphabet now uses , the hamza, to denote the glottal stop, which can appear anywhere in a word. This letter, however, does not function like the others: it can be written alone or with a carrier: alone: ; with a carrier: (above and under a ), (above a ), (above a dotless or ). Letters lacking an initial or medial version are never connected to the following letter, even within a word. As to the hamza, it has only a single form, since it is never connected to a preceding or following letter. However, it is sometimes combined with a , , or , and in that case the carrier behaves like an ordinary , , or . In academic work, the glottal stop is transliterated with the right half ring sign (), while the left half ring sign () represents a different pharyngeal, pharyngealized glottal, or epiglottal sound. Modified letters The following are not individual letters, but rather different contextual variants of some of the Arabic letters. Conditional formsNameTranslit.Phonemic Value (IPA)IsolatedFinalMedialInitial—— or / h / , —— / Ligatures The only compulsory ligature is + . All other ligatures ( + , etc.) are optional. (isolated) + ( ): (final or medial) + ( ): Unicode has a special glyph for the ligature (“God”), U+FDF2 ARABIC LIGATURE ALLAH ISOLATED FORM: The latter is a work-around for the shortcomings of most text processors, which are incapable of displaying the correct vowel marks for the word , because it should compose a small sign above a gemination sign. Compare the display of the composed equivalents below (the exact outcome will depend on your browser and font configuration): , (geminated) (with implied short a vowel, reversed) : , , (geminated) (with implied short a vowel, reversed) : Gemination The , or shadda ( ّ ), is a diacritic which marks the gemination (doubling) of a consonant. A ( ّ ) may be written between the consonant and the rather than under the consonant. The w-shaped sign is derived from beginning of a small letter . GeneralUnicodeNameTransliteration0651 ّ (consonant doubled) Nunation Tanwīn letters: used to write the grammatical endings -an, -in and -un, respectively, for desinences with nunation in indefinite state in Arabic. The sign is most commonly written in combination with ʼalif () or (tāʼ marbūṭa). Vowels The Arabic alphabet is an "impure" abjad. Long vowels are written, but short ones are not, so the reader must be familiar with the language to understand the missing vowels. However, in editions of the and in didactic works, vocalization marks are used, including the sukūn for vowel omission and the šadda for consonant gemination (consonant doubling). Short vowels In everyday use handwriting, general publications, and street signs short vowels are generally not written in Arabic. Prints of cannot be adorned by the religious institutes that reviews them unless short vowels are properly marked, and it is generally preferred and customary to mark them whenever is cited in print. Children's books and school books for little children and Arabic language teaching in general have diacritics to varying degrees of observation. These are known as vocalized texts. The Arabic writing system can not be considered complete without the diacritical marking of short vowels as they are an essential part of it in its developed state, conveying information not coded in any other way. Just like dotted letters, diacritical marking were a later addition to writing system. Short vowels are occasionally marked where the word would otherwise be ambiguous and could not be resolved simply from context, or simply wherever they are aesthetically pleasing. Short vowels may be written with diacritics placed above or below the consonant that precedes them in the syllable, called harakat. All Arabic vowels, long and short, follow a consonant; in Arabic, words like "Ali" or "alif", for example, start with a consonant: , . Short vowels(fully vocalised text)NameTrans.Value064E◌064F◌0650◌ Long vowels A long a following a consonant other than a hamza is written with a short a sign on the consonant plus an after it; long i is written as a sign for short i plus a ; and long u as a sign for short u plus a . Briefly, aʾ = ā, iy = ī and uw = ū. Long a following a hamza may be represented by an or by a free hamza followed by an ʾalif. In the table below, vowels will be placed above or below a dotted circle replacing a primary consonant letter or a šadda sign. For clarity in the table below, the primary letter on the left used to mark these long vowels are shown only in their isolated form. Please note that most consonants do connect to the left with , and written then with their medial or final form. Additionally, the letter in the last row may connect to the letter on its left, and then will use a medial or initial form. Use the table of primary letters to look at their actual glyph and joining types. Long vowels(fully vocalised text)NameTrans.Value064E 0627◌ (ـَا)064E 0649◌ (ـَى) / 064F 0648◌ / (ـُو)0650 064A◌ / (ـِي) In unvocalized text (one in which the short vowels are not marked), the long vowels are represented by the consonant in question: , (or ), , or . Long vowels written in the middle of a word of unvocalised text are treated like consonants with a sukūn (see below) in a text that has full diacritics. Here also, the table shows long vowel letters only in isolated form for clarity. Combinations وا and يا are always pronounced and respectively, the exception is when وا is the verb ending, where ʾalif is silent, resulting in . Long vowels(unvocalised text)NameTrans.Value06270649 / 0648 / 064A / Diphthongs The diphthongs and are represented in vocalised text as follows: Diphthongs(fully vocalised text)NameTrans.Value064E 064A◌064E 0648◌ Vowel omission An Arabic syllable can be open (ending with a vowel) or closed (ending with a consonant). open: CV [consonant-vowel] (long or short vowel) closed: CVC (short vowel only) When the syllable is closed, we can indicate that the consonant that closes it does not carry a vowel by marking it with a diacritic called ( ) to remove any ambiguity, especially when the text is not vocalized. A normal text is composed only of series of consonants; thus, the word , "heart", is written . The indicates where not to place a vowel: could, in effect, be read qalab (meaning "he turned around"), but written with a sukūn over the and the (), it can only have the form qVlb. This is one step down from full vocalization, where the vowel a would also be indicated by a : . The is traditionally written in full vocalization. Outside of the , putting a above a (representing ), or above a (representing ) is extremely rare, to the point that with sukūn will be unambiguously read as the diphthong , and with will be read . For example, the letters ( with an at the end of the word) will be read most naturally as the word ("music"). If one were to write a above the , the and the , one would get , which would be read as (note however that the final , because it is an , never takes a ). The word, entirely vocalized, would be written in the , or elsewhere. The Quranic spelling would have no sign above the final , but instead a miniature above the preceding consonant, which is a valid Unicode character but most Arabic computer fonts cannot in fact display this miniature as of 2006. No is placed on word-final consonants, even if no vowel is pronounced, because fully vocalised texts are always written as if the vowels were in fact pronounced. For example, , meaning “Ahmed is a bad husband”, for the purposes of Arabic grammar and orthography, is treated as if still pronounced with full , i.e. with the complete desinences. GeneralUnicodeNameTranslit.Phonemic Value (IPA)0652◌(no vowel with this consonant letter ordiphthong with this long vowel letter)Ø / 0670◌(no vowel with next final consonant letter ordiphthong with next final long vowel letter)Ø / The is also used for transliterating words into the Arabic script. The Persian word (mâsk, from the English word "mask"), for example, might be written with a sukūn above the to signify that there is no vowel sound between that letter and the . Additional letters Additional modified letters, used in non-Arabic languages, or in Arabic for transliterating foreign words only, include: Sometimes used in Arabic for transliterating foreign words only ﭪ - Vā', sometimes used to represent the letter V when transliterating foreign words in Arabic. Also used in writing dialects with that sound. http://www1.ccls.columbia.edu/~cadim/ArabicDialectTutorialAMTA2006.pdf Normally the letter ف - Fā' is used to transliterate the V letter. Also used as Pa in the Jawi script. In Tunisia a character similar to Vā' in its initial and medial forms, is sometimes used to represent the phoneme . In final and isolate form it has the form ڨ which resembles the letter Qāf whence it is derived. The sound V in Tunisia is rendered using the Arabic letter Fa with three dots underneath. ﭖ - Pā', used to represent the sound [p] in Persian, Urdu, and Kurdish; sometimes used to represent the letter P when transliterating foreign words in Arabic, although Arabic nearly always substitutes B for P in the transliteration of foreign terms. Normally the letter ب - Bā' is used to transliterate the P letter. So, "7up" can be transcribed as سفن أب or سڤن أﭖ. Also used in Persian, and Urdu. ﭺ - Chā', used to represent the [t] ("ch") phoneme; sometimes used when transliterating foreign words in Arabic, although Arabic usually substitutes other letters (such as t + sh, as in Chad) in the transliteration of foreign terms. Normally the combination تش - tā' and šīn are used to transliterate the [t] ("ch") sound. Also used in Persian, Urdu, and Kurdish. Ca in the Jawi script. گ - Gāf, used to represent the [g] phoneme (as in "get"). Normally used in Persian, Kurdish, and Urdu. Often foreign words with the G sound are transliterated in Arabic with ك (kāf), غ (ġayn) or ج (īm), which may or may not change the original sound, (in Egyptian Arabic ج is usually read as a hard "G" (get), which also creates a confusion when the original sound is like the English [d] (j) phoneme (as in "job")). Also used in Persian, Urdu, and Bedouin dialects. ژ - Zhe, used to represent a voiced postalveolar fricative in, Persian, Kurdish, Urdu and Uyghur. This is used to transliterate words of foreign origin, mostly French, in Levantine and Maghrebi Arabic dialects. Also, very seldom in Arabic to render // sound, and normally, the letter shin is used to transliterate // sound. Also used in Persian, and Urdu. Used only in languages other than Arabic ڭ - Ng, used to represent the "ng" phoneme in Ottoman Turkish, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, and Uyghur ݙ - used in Siraiki to represent a voiced retroflex implosive ݐ - used to represent the equivalent of the Latin letter Ƴ in some African languages such as Fulfulde; not used in Arabic ݫ - used in Ormuri to represent a voiced alveolo-palatal fricative, as well as in Torwali ݭ - used in Kalami to represent a voiceless retroflex fricative, and in Ormuri to represent a voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative ݜ - used in Shina to represent a voiceless retroflex fricative ݪ - used in Marwari to represent a retroflex lateral flap, and in Kalami to represent a voiceless lateral fricative ﭒ - B̤ē, used to represent a voiced bilabial implosive in Hausa and Sindhi ﭞ - Ṭhē, represents the aspirated voiceless retroflex plosive in Sindhi ﮎ - Khē, represents K in Sindhi ﭦ - Ṭe, used to represent Ṭ (a voiceless retroflex plosive) in Urdu ڳ - represents a variety of G in Sindhi ڱ - represents the "ng" phoneme in Sindhi ڻ - represents the retroflex nasal phoneme in Sindhi ڀ - represents an aspirated "b" ("bh") in Sindhi ژ - Zhe, represents a voiced postalveolar fricative in Urdu Kurdishand Uyghur. Also, very seldom in Arabic to render /ʒ/ sound. ڑ - Aṛ, represents a retroflex flap in Urdu ڕ - used in Kurdish to represent rr گ - Gaf, represents G in Persian, Kyrgyz, Kazakh, Kurdish, and Ottoman Turkish ݣ - Gaf, represents G in informal Moroccan Arabic, as well as officially to transliterate the letter G in many city names such as Agadir (أݣادير), and family names such as El Guerrouj (الݣروج). ݢ or ڬ - Gaf, represents G in the Jawi script of Malay ے - Bari ye, represents "ai" or "e" in Urdu and Punjabi ێ - represents Ê or É (e) in Kurdish ۆ - represents O (o) in Kurdish ۋ - represents V in Kyrgyz, Uyghur, and Old Tatar; and W in Kazakh; also formerly used in Nogai ڽ - Nya in the Jawi script ڠ - Nga in the Jawi script ۏ - Va in the Jawi script ڈ - Ḍ in Urdu Numerals There are two kinds of numerals used in Arabic writing; standard numerals (predominant in the Arab World), and Eastern Arabic numerals (used in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India). In Arabic, the former are referred to as "Indian numbers" (, ). Arabic (or Hindu-Arabic) numerals are also used in Europe and the rest of the Western World in a third variant, the Western Arabic numerals, even though the Arabic alphabet is not. In most of present-day North Africa, the usual western numerals are used; in medieval times, a slightly different set was used, from which Western Arabic numerals derive, via Italy. Like Arabic alphabetic characters, Arabic numerals are written from right to left, though the units are always right-most, and the highest value left-most, just as with Western "Arabic numerals". Telephone numbers are read from left to right. Western(Maghreb, Europe) Central(Mideast) Eastern/Indian(Persian, Urdu) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 In addition, the Arabic alphabet can be used to represent numbers (Abjad numerals). This usage is based on the abjadī of the alphabet. is 1, is 2, is 3, and so on until = 10, = 20, = 30, …, = 200, …, = 1000. This is sometimes used to produce chronograms. History Evolution of early Arabic calligraphy (9th - 11th century). The Basmala was taken as an example, from kufic Qur’an manuscripts. (1) Early 9th century. script with no dots or diacritic marks ; (2) and (3)9th - 10th century under Abbasid dynasty, the Abu al-Aswad's system establish red dots with each arrangement or position indicating a different short vowel. Later, a second black dots system was used to differentiate between letters like "fāʼ" and "qāf" ; (4) 11th century, In Al Farāhídi's system (system we know today) dots were changed into shapes resembling the letters to transcribe the corresponding long vowels . The Arabic alphabet can be traced back to the Nabataean alphabet used to write the Nabataean dialect of Aramaic. The first known text in the Arabic alphabet is a late fourth-century inscription from Jabal Ramm (50 km east of Aqaba), but the first dated one is a trilingual inscription at Zebed in Syria from 512. However, the epigraphic record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions surviving, though some others may be pre-Islamic. Later, dots were added above and below the letters to differentiate them. (The Aramaic language had fewer phonemes than the Arabic, and some originally distinct Aramaic letters had become indistinguishable in shape, so that in the early writings 15 distinct letter-shapes had to do duty for 28 sounds; cf. the similarly ambiguous Pahlavi alphabet.) The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic papyrus (PERF 558), dated April 643, although they did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts like the were frequently memorized; this practice, which is still widespread among many Muslim communities today, probably arose partially from a desire to avoid the great ambiguity of the script. (see Arabic Unicode) Later still, vowel marks and the hamza were introduced, beginning some time in the latter half of the seventh century, preceding the first invention of Syriac and Hebrew vocalization. Initially, this was done by a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned by an Umayyad governor of Iraq, Hajjaj ibn Yusuf: a dot above = , a dot below = , a dot on the line = , and doubled dots indicated nunation. However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted. The system was finalized around 786 by al-Farahidi. Arabic printing presses Although Napoleon Bonaparte generally is given the credit with introducing the printing press to the Arab world upon invading Egypt in 1798, and he did indeed bring printing presses and Arabic script presses, to print the French occupation's official newspaper Al-Tanbiyyah (The Courier), the process was started several centuries earlier. Gutenberg's invention of the printing press in 1450 was followed up by Gregorio de Gregorii, a Venetian, who in 1514 published an entire prayer book in Arabic script entitled Kitab Salat al-Sawa'i intended for the eastern Christian communities. The script was said to be crude and almost unreadable. Famed type designer Robert Granjon working for Cardinal Ferdinando de Medici succeeded in designing elegant Arabic typefaces and the Medici press published many Christian prayer and scholarly Arabic texts in the late sixteenth century. The first Arabic books published using movable type in the Middle East were by the Maronite monks at the Maar Quzhayy Monastery in Mount Lebanon. They transliterated the Arabic language using Syriac script. It took a fellow goldsmith like Gutenberg to design and implement the first true Arabic script movable type printing press in the Middle East. The Greek Orthodox monk Abd Allah Zakhir set up an Arabic language printing press using movable type at the monastery of Saint John at the town of Dhour El Shuwayr in Mount Lebanon, the first homemade press in Lebanon using true Arabic script. He personally cut the type molds and did the founding of the elegant typeface. He created the first true Arabic script type in the Middle East. The first book off the press was in 1734; this press continued to be used until 1899. Arabic and the Art of Printing — A Special Section, by Paul Lunde A Bequest Unearthed, Phoenicia, Encyclopedia Phoeniciana Languages written with the Arabic alphabet Worldwide use of the Arabic alphabet Arabic alphabet world distribution. → Countries where the Arabic script is the only official orthography → Countries where the Arabic script is used officially alongside other orthographies. The Arabic script has been adopted for use in a wide variety of languages besides Arabic, including Persian, Kurdish, Malay, and Urdu, which are not Semitic. Such adaptations may feature altered or new characters to represent phonemes that do not appear in Arabic phonology. For example, the Arabic language lacks a voiceless bilabial plosive (the sound), so many languages add their own letter to represent in the script, though the specific letter used varies from language to language. These modifications tend to fall into groups: all the Indian and Turkic languages written in Arabic script tend to use the Persian modified letters, whereas Indonesian languages tend to imitate those of Jawi. The modified version of the Arabic script originally devised for use with Persian is known as the Perso-Arabic script by scholars. In the case of Kurdish, vowels are mandatory, making the script an abugida rather than an abjad as it is for most languages. Kashmiri and Uyghur, also, write all vowels. Use of the Arabic script in West African languages, especially in the Sahel, developed with the penetration of Islam. To a certain degree the style and usage tends to follow those of the Maghreb (for instance the position of the dots in the letters fāʼ and qāf). Additional diacritics have come into use to facilitate writing of sounds not represented in the Arabic language. The term Ajami, which comes from the Arabic root for "foreign", has been applied to Arabic-based orthographies of African languages. Languages currently written with the Arabic alphabet Today Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and China are the main non-Arab states using the Arabic alphabet to write one or more official national languages, including Persian, Dari, Punjabi, Pashto, Urdu, Kashmiri, Sindhi, and Uyghur. The Arabic alphabet is currently used for: Middle East and Central Asia Kurdish in Northern Iraq, Northwest Iran, and Northeast Syria. (In Turkey, the Latin alphabet is used for Kurdish); Official language Persian and regional languages including Azeri, Kurdish and Baluchi in Iran; Official languages Dari (which differs to a degree from Persian) and Pashto and all regional languages including Uzbek in Afghanistan; Tajik also differs only to a minor degree from Persian, and while in Tajikistan the usual Tajik alphabet is an extended Cyrillic alphabet, there is also some use of Arabic-alphabet Persian books from Iran; in the southwestern region of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwest China Arabic script is the official one (like for Uyghur in the rest of Xinjiang); Garshuni (or Karshuni) originated in the seventh century AD, when Arabic was becoming the dominant spoken language in the Fertile Crescent, but Arabic script was not yet fully developed and widely read. There is evidence that writing Arabic in Garshuni influenced the style of modern Arabic script. After this initial period, Garshuni writing has continued to the present day among some Syriac Christian communities in the Arabic-speaking regions of the Levant and Mesopotamia. Uyghur changed to Roman script in 1969 and back to a simplified, fully voweled, Arabic script in 1983; Kazakh in Pakistan, Iran, China, and Afghanistan; and Kyrgyz by its 150,000 speakers in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in northwestern China. East Asia The Chinese language is written by some Hui in the Arabic-derived Xiao'erjing alphabet. South Asia Official language Urdu and regional languages including Punjabi (where the script is known as Shahmukhi), Sindhi, Kashmiri, and Balochi in Pakistan; Urdu and Kashmiri in India. Urdu is one of several official languages in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh; see List of national languages of India. Kashmiri also uses Sharada script; The Arwi language known as Arabic-Tamil uses the Arabic script together with the addition of 13 letters. It is mainly used in Sri Lanka and the South Indian states of Tamil Nadu for religious purposes. Malayalam language represented by Arabic script variant is known as Arabi Malayalam.The script has particular alphabets to represent the peculiar sounds of Malayalam.This script is mainly used in Madrassas of South Indian state of Kerala and Lakshadweep to teach Malayalam. The Thaana script used to write the Dhivehi language in the Maldives has vowels derived from the vowel diacritics of the Arabic script. Some of the consonants are borrowed from Arabic numerals. Southeast Asia Malay in the Arabic script known as Jawi is co-official in Brunei, and used for religious purposes in Malaysia, Indonesia, Southern Thailand, Singapore, and predominantly Muslim areas of the Philippines. Africa Bedawi or Beja, mainly in northeastern Sudan; Comorian (Comorian) in the Comoros, currently side by side with the Latin alphabet (neither is official); Hausa, for many purposes, especially religious (known as Ajami); Mandinka, widely but unofficially (known as Ajami), (another non-Latin alphabet used is N'Ko); Fula, especially the Pular of Guinea (known as Ajami); Wolof (at zaouia schools), known as Wolofal. Tamazight and other Berber languages were traditionally written in Arabic in the Maghreb. There is now a competing 'revival' of neo-Tifinagh. Languages formerly written with the Arabic alphabet Speakers of languages that were previously unwritten used Arabic script as a basis to design writing systems for their mother languages. This choice could be influenced by Arabic being their second language, the language of scripture of their faith, or the only written language they came in contact with. Additionally, since most education was once religious, choice of script was determined by the writer's religion; which meant that Muslims would use Arabic script to write whatever language they spoke. This led to Arabic script being the most widely used script during the Middle Ages. See also Languages of Muslim countries. In the 20th century, the Arabic script was generally replaced by the Latin alphabet in the Balkans, parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia, while in the Soviet Union, after a brief period of Latinization, Alphabet Transitions — The Latin Script: A New Chronology — Symbol of a New Azerbaijan, by Tamam Bayatly use of the Cyrillic alphabet was mandated. Turkey changed to the Latin alphabet in 1928 as part of an internal Westernizing revolution. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, many of the Turkic languages of the ex-USSR attempted to follow Turkey's lead and convert to a Turkish-style Latin alphabet. However, renewed use of the Arabic alphabet has occurred to a limited extent in Tajikistan, whose language's close resemblance to Persian allows direct use of publications from Iran. Tajik Language: Farsi or Not Farsi? by Sukhail Siddikzoda, reporter, Tajikistan. Most languages of the Iranian languages family continue to use Arabic script, as well as the Indo-Aryan languages of Pakistan and of Muslim populations in India, but the Bengali language of Bangladesh is written in the Bengali alphabet. Africa Afrikaans (as it was first written among the "Cape Malays", see Arabic Afrikaans); Berber in North Africa, particularly Tachelhit in Morocco (still being considered, along with Tifinagh and Latin for Tamazight); Harari, by the Harari people of the Harari Region in Ethiopia. Now uses the Ge'ez and Latin alphabets. For the West African languages – Hausa, Fula, Mandinka,Wolof and some more – the Latin alphabet has officially replaced Arabic transcriptions for use in literacy and education; Malagasy in Madagascar (script known as Sorabe); Nubian; Swahili (has used the Latin alphabet since the 19th century); Somali (see Wadaad's writing) has used only the Latin alphabet since 1972; Songhay in West Africa, particularly in Timbuktu; Yoruba in West Africa (this was probably limited, but still notable) Europe Albanian; Azeri in Azerbaijan (now written in the Latin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet scripts in Azerbaijan); Bosnian (only for literary purposes; currently written in the Latin alphabet); Polish (among ethnic Tatars); Greek in certain areas and Greece and Anatolia Belarusian (among ethnic Tatars; see Belarusian Arabic alphabet); Mozarabic, Aragonese, Portuguese, and Spanish, when the Muslims ruled the Iberian peninsula (see Aljamiado); Romanian in certain areas of Transylvania (until the 17th century a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire). Central Asia and Russian Federation Bashkir (officially for some years from the October Revolution of 1917 until 1928, changed to Latin, now uses the Cyrillic script); Chaghatai across Central Asia; Chechen (sporadically from the adoption of Islam; officially from 1917 until 1928); Chechen Writing Kazakh in Kazakhstan (until 1930s, changed to Latin, now uses the Cyrillic script); Kyrgyz in Kyrgyzstan (until 1930s, changed to Latin, now uses the Cyrillic script); Tatar before 1928 (changed to Latin Janalif), reformed in 1880s (iske imlâ), 1918 (yaña imlâ — with the omission of some letters); Chinese and Dungan, among the Hui people (script known as Xiao'erjing); Turkmen in Turkmenistan (changed to Latin in 1929, then to the Cyrillic script, then back to Latin in 1991); Uzbek in Uzbekistan (changed to Latin, now uses the Cyrillic script); All the Muslim peoples of the USSR between 1918-1928 (many also earlier), including Bashkir, Chechen, Kazakh, Tajik etc. After 1928 their script became Latin, then later Cyrillic. Southeast Asia Malay in Malaysia and Indonesia; Maguindanaon and Tausug in the Philippines. South Asia Arwi, a hybrid Arabic and Tamil dialect that was used extensively by the Muslim minority of Tamil Nadu state of India and the Moors of Sri Lanka. Middle East Turkish in the Ottoman Empire was written in Arabic script until Mustafa Kemal Atatürk declared the change to Roman script in 1928. This form of Turkish is now known as Ottoman Turkish and is held by many to be a different language, due to its much higher percentage of Persian and Arabic loanwords (Ottoman Turkish alphabet); Kurdish (Kurmanji dialect) in Turkey and Syria was written in Arabic script until 1932, when a modified Kurdish Latin alphabet was introduced by Jaladat Ali Badirkhan in Syria. Computers and the Arabic alphabet The Arabic alphabet can be encoded using several character sets, including ISO-8859-6 and Unicode, in the latter thanks to the "Arabic segment", entries U+0600 to U+06FF. However, neither of these sets indicate the form each character should take in context. It is left to the rendering engine to select the proper glyph to display for each character. Unicode As of Unicode 5.0, the following ranges encode Arabic characters: Arabic (0600–06FF) Arabic Supplement (0750–077F) Arabic Presentation Forms-A (FB50–FDFF) Arabic Presentation Forms-B (FE70–FEFF) The basic Arabic range encodes the standard letters and diacritics, but does not encode contextual forms (U+0621–U+0652 being directly based on ISO 8859-6); and also includes the most common diacritics and Arabic-Indic digits. U+06D6 to U+06ED encode Qur'anic annotation signs such as "end of ayah" and "start of rub el hizb" . The Arabic Supplement range encodes letter variants mostly used for writing African (non-Arabic) languages. The Arabic Presentation Forms-A range encodes contextual forms and ligatures of letter variants needed for Persian, Urdu, Sindhi and Central Asian languages. The Arabic Presentation Forms-B range encodes spacing forms of Arabic diacritics, and more contextual letter forms. See also the notes of the section on modified letters. Keyboards Arabic keyboard layout Keyboards designed for different nations have different layouts so that proficiency in one style of keyboard such as Iraq's does not transfer to proficiency in another keyboard such as Saudi Arabia's. Differences can include the location of non-alphabetic characters such as ' All Arabic keyboards allow typing Roman characters, e.g., for the URL in a web browser. Thus, each Arabic keyboard has both Arabic and Roman characters marked on the keys. Usually the Roman characters of an Arabic keyboard conform to the QWERTY layout, but in North Africa, where French is the most common language typed using the Roman characters, the Arabic keyboards are AZERTY. When one wants to encode a particular written form of a character, there are extra code points provided in Unicode which can be used to express the exact written form desired. The range Arabic presentation forms A (U+FB50 to U+FDFF) contain ligatures while the range Arabic presentation forms B (U+FE70 to U+FEFF) contains the positional variants. These effects are better achieved in Unicode by using the zero width joiner and non-joiner, as these presentation forms are deprecated in Unicode, and should generally only be used within the internals of text-rendering software, when using Unicode as an intermediate form for conversion between character encodings, or for backwards compatibility with implementations that rely on the hard-coding of glyph forms. Finally, the Unicode encoding of Arabic is in logical order, that is, the characters are entered, and stored in computer memory, in the order that they are written and pronounced without worrying about the direction in which they will be displayed on paper or on the screen. Again, it is left to the rendering engine to present the characters in the correct direction, using Unicode's bi-directional text features. In this regard, if the Arabic words on this page are written left to right, it is an indication that the Unicode rendering engine used to display them is out-of-date. For more information about encoding Arabic, consult the Unicode manual available at The Unicode website See also MULTILINGUAL COMPUTING WITH ARABIC AND ARABIC TRANSLITERATION Arabicizing Windows Applications to Read and Write Arabic & Solutions for the Transliteration Quagmire Faced by Arabic-Script Languages and A PowerPoint Tutorial (with screen shots and an English voice-over) on how to add Arabic to the Windows Operating System. There are competing online tools, e.g. Yamli editor, allowing to enter Arabic letters without having Arabic support installed on a PC and without the knowledge of the layout of the Arabic keyboard. Yamli in the News Handwriting recognition The first software program of its kind in the world that identifies Arabic handwriting in real time has been developed by researchers at Ben-Gurion University. The prototype enables the user to write Arabic words by hand on an electronic screen, which then analyzes the text and translates it into printed Arabic letters in a thousandth of a second. The error rate is less than three percent, according to Dr. Jihad El-Sana, from BGU's department of computer sciences, who developed the system along with master's degree student Fadi Biadsy. Israel 21c See also Arabic calligraphy - considered an art form in its own right Arabic numerals Arabic Unicode Romanization of Arabic Arabic Chat Alphabet ArabTeX - provides Arabic support for TeX and LaTeX Tashkīl (vowel pointing) Iʿjam (consonant pointing) Rasm (unpointed consonants) South Arabian alphabet :Category: Arabic-derived alphabets References External links free Arabic alphabet with audio The Arabic Alphabet showing the different glyphs for each letter and its code position in Unicode Alphabet, with sound, just click on a letter Arabic Alphabet Table pronunciation of the letters, and instructions to write them. Arabic Alphabet with sound and lessons Arabic writing and calligraphy Article about Arabic alphabet Arabic alphabet and calligraphy Guide to the use of Arabic in Windows, major word processors and web browsers Learn the Arabic Script Online Madinaharabic.com: Free Arabic Reading and Language Course (with sound) Arabic Alphabet Quiz Choose the "Arabic" link. Babel Arabic Writing Explanation Site on Scripts and Writing Systems: A long list of links to sites dealing with issues of scripts. Arabic alphabet stroke directions Dr. Habash's Introduction to Arabic Natural Language Processing A Brief Survey of Proposals to Simplify Arabic Script by Mamoun Sakkal Online Arabic keyboards Arabic keyboard Arabic keyboard for Search Engine. Arabic keyboard to type Arabic characters on computers which do not have a keyboard for typing the Arabic alphabet. Arabic Keyboard adapted to QWERTY (ISLAM-91) clavier arabe en ligne LEXILOGOS (French) Muftah-Alhuruf.com: Write and send Arabic emails Arabic Keyboard لوحة المفاتيح العربية eiktub: a web-based Arabic transliteration editor Yamli Real time transliteration engine. This article contains major sections of text from the very detailed article Arabic alphabet from the French Wikipedia, which has been partially translated into English. Further translation of that page, and its incorporation into the text here, are welcomed. | Arabic_alphabet |@lemmatized arabic:204 alphabet:70 أبجدية:1 عربية:1 script:69 use:113 write:61 several:4 language:63 asia:10 africa:11 persian:23 urdu:21 latin:26 second:4 widely:4 around:4 world:6 first:13 text:23 notably:1 holy:1 book:7 islam:5 spread:1 come:4 many:11 even:4 outside:2 semitic:4 family:3 belongs:1 example:8 non:10 include:16 pashto:3 baloch:1 malay:7 hausa:4 west:5 mandinka:3 swahili:2 east:8 balti:1 brahui:1 panjabi:1 pakistan:7 kashmiri:6 sindhi:11 india:7 arwi:3 sri:3 lanka:3 uyghur:11 china:7 kazakh:7 kyrgyz:6 azerbaijani:1 iran:9 kurdish:16 iraq:4 former:2 ottoman:7 empire:3 order:10 accommodate:1 need:2 new:4 letter:90 symbol:3 add:4 original:5 right:9 leave:6 cursive:3 style:8 basic:4 vowel:50 indicate:6 optional:2 classify:1 abjad:4 different:13 handwriting:2 typeface:3 exist:1 roman:7 number:5 calligraphy:5 naskh:1 nastaʿlīq:1 shahmukhi:2 ruq:1 ah:1 thuluth:1 kufic:2 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6,559 | Dmitri_Shostakovich | Dmitri Shostakovich in 1942 Dmitri Dmitriyevich Shostakovich (; – 9 August 1975) was a Russian composer of the Soviet period. After a period influenced by Prokofiev and Stravinsky (e.g. in his Symphony No. 1 of 1925), Shostakovich developed a hybrid of styles as exemplified in his opera Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (1934). Within a single work this frequently juxtaposed a wide variety of trends, such as the neo-classical style (showing the influence of Stravinsky) and a form of post-romantic style (after Mahler). Shostakovich's unique approach to tonality involved the use of modal scales and some astringent neo-classical harmonies à la Hindemith and Prokofiev. His works frequently include sharp contrasts and elements of the grotesque. Sheinberg (2000) pp.207-309, Shostakovich prided himself on his orchestration, which is clear, economical and well-projected; this aspect of his technique owes more to Gustav Mahler than Rimsky-Korsakov. Shostakovich's most popular works are his 15 symphonies and 15 string quartets. His works for piano include two piano sonatas, an early set of preludes, and a later set of 24 preludes and fugues. Other works include two operas, six concertos and a substantial quantity of film music. Shostakovich rose to fame in the Soviet Union under the patronage of Leon Trotsky's chief of staff Mikhail Tukhachevsky, but later had a complex and difficult relationship with the Stalinist bureaucracy, suffering two official denunciations of his music, in 1936 and 1948, and the periodic banning of his work. At the same time, he received a number of accolades and state awards and served in the Supreme Soviet. Despite the official controversy, his works were popular and well received. Life Birthplace of Shostakovich (now School no. 267). Commemorative plaque at left. Early life Born at 2 Podolskaya Ulitsa in Saint Petersburg, Russia, Shostakovich was the second of three children born to Dmitri Boleslavovich Shostakovich and Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina. Though the Shostakovich family through his paternal grandfather (originally Szostakowicz) was of Polish Roman Catholic heritage (his family roots trace to the region of the town of Wilejka, now Vileyka in Belarus), his immediate forebears came from Siberia. Laurel Fay, Shostakovich: A Life p. 7 His paternal grandfather, a Polish revolutionary in the January Uprising of 1863-4, had been exiled to Narim (near Tomsk) in 1866 in the crackdown that followed Dmitri Karakozov's assassination attempt on Tsar Alexander II. When his term of exile ended Bolesław Szostakowicz decided to remain in Siberia. He eventually became a successful banker in Irkutsk and raised a large family. His son, Dmitriy Boleslavovich Shostakovich, the composer's father, was born in exile in Narim in 1875 and attended Saint Petersburg University, graduating in 1899 from the faculty of physics and mathematics. After graduation, he went to work as an engineer under Dmitriy Mendeleyev at the Bureau of Weights and Measures in Saint Petersburg. In 1903, he married Sofiya Vasilievna Kokoulina, another Siberian transplant to the capital. Sofiya herself was one of six children born to Vasiliy Yakovlevich Kokoulin, a Russian Siberian native. Dmitri Shostakovich's family was politically liberal (one of his uncles was a Bolshevik, but the family also sheltered far-right activists). He was a child prodigy as both a pianist and composer, his talent becoming apparent after he began piano lessons with his mother at the age of eight. (On several occasions, he displayed a remarkable ability to remember what his mother had played at the previous lesson, and would get "caught in the act" of pretending to read, by playing the previous lesson's music when different music was placed in front of him.) Laurel Fay, Shostakovich: A Life p. 9 In 1918, he wrote a funeral march in memory of two leaders of the Kadet party, murdered by Bolshevik sailors. In 1919, he was allowed to enter the Petrograd Conservatory, then headed by Alexander Glazunov. Glazunov monitored Shostakovich's progress closely and promoted him. Laurel Fay, Shostakovich: A Life p. 17 Shostakovich studied piano with Leonid Nikolayev, after a year in the class of Elena Rozanova, composition with Maximilian Steinberg, and counterpoint and fugue with Nikolay Sokolov, with whom he became friends. Laurel Fay, Shostakovich: A Life p. 18 Shostakovich also attended Alexander Ossovsky's history of music classes. The Cambridge Companion to Shostakovich, Cambridge Companions to Music by Pauline Fairclough (Editor), David Fanning (Editor). Cambridge University Press; 1 edition (November 17, 2008) p.73 However, he suffered for his perceived lack of political zeal, and initially failed his exam in Marxist methodology in 1926. His first major musical achievement was the First Symphony (premiered 1926), written as his graduation piece at the age of twenty. Shostakovich in 1925 After graduation, he initially embarked on a dual career as concert pianist and composer, but his dry style of playing (Fay comments on his "emotional restraint" and "riveting rhythmic drive") was often unappreciated. He nevertheless won an "honorable mention" at the First International Frederic Chopin Piano Competition in Warsaw in 1927. After the competition Shostakovich met the conductor Bruno Walter, who was so impressed by the composer's First Symphony that he conducted it at the Berlin premiere later that year. Thereafter, Shostakovich concentrated on composition and soon limited performances primarily to those of his own works. In 1927 he wrote his Second Symphony (subtitled To October). While writing the symphony, he also began his satirical opera The Nose, based on the story by Gogol. In 1929, the opera was criticised as "formalist" by RAPM, the Stalinist musicians' organisation, and it opened to generally poor reviews in 1930. 1927 also marked the beginning of the composer's relationship with Ivan Sollertinsky, who remained his closest friend until the latter's death in 1944. Sollertinsky introduced Shostakovich to the music of Gustav Mahler, which had a strong influence on his music from the Fourth Symphony onwards. 1932 saw his open marriage to his first wife, Nina Varzar. Initial difficulties led to divorce proceedings in 1935, but the couple soon reunited. In the late 1920s and early '30s he worked at TRAM, a proletarian youth theatre. Although he did little work in this post, it shielded him from ideological attack. Much of this period was spent writing his opera Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District; it was first performed in 1934 and was immediately successful, both on a popular and official level. It was said to be “the result of the general success of Socialist construction, of the correct policy of the Party" and that such an opera “could have been written only by a Soviet composer brought up in the best tradition of Soviet culture.” Dmitrii Shostakovich, Shostakovich: About Himself and His Times, compiled by L. Grigoryev and Ya. Platek, trans. Angus and Neilian Roxburgh (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1981), 33. First denunciation In 1936 Shostakovich fell from grace. The year began with a series of attacks on him in Pravda, in particular an article entitled Muddle Instead of Music. The campaign, which condemned Lady Macbeth as formalist, "coarse, primitive and vulgar," McBurney, p. 287. was thought to have been instigated by Stalin; consequently, commissions began to dry up, and his income fell by about three quarters. The Fourth Symphony entered rehearsals that December, but the political climate made performance impossible. It was not performed until 1961, but Shostakovich did not repudiate the work: it retained its designation as his Fourth Symphony. A piano reduction was published in 1946. More widely, 1936 marked the beginning of the Great Terror, in which many of the composer's friends and relatives were imprisoned or killed. His only consolation in this period was the birth of his daughter Galina in 1936; his son Maxim was born two years later. The composer's response to his denunciation was the Fifth Symphony of 1937, which was, because of its fourth movement, musically more conservative than his earlier works. It was a success, and is still one of his most popular works. It was also at this time that Shostakovich composed the first of his string quartets. His chamber works allowed him to experiment and express ideas which would have been unacceptable in his more public symphonic pieces. In September 1937, he began to teach composition at the Conservatory, which provided some financial security but interfered with his own creative work. Wartime propaganda images of Shostakovich as a fire warden reached as far as the American Time magazine. War After the outbreak of war between the Soviet Union and Germany in 1941, Shostakovich initially remained in Leningrad, enduring the siege, during which he wrote the first three movements of his Seventh Symphony (nicknamed Leningrad). He also contributed to propaganda efforts, posing as a fire warden and delivering a radio broadcast to the Soviet people . In October 1941, the composer and his family evacuated to Kuybishev (now Samara), where the symphony was completed. It was adopted as a symbol of Russian resistance both in the USSR and in the West. In spring 1943 the family moved to Moscow. Whilst the Seventh Symphony depicts a heroic (and ultimately victorious) struggle against adversity, the Eighth Symphony of that year is perhaps the ultimate in sombre and violent expression within Shostakovich's output, resulting in it being banned until 1956. The Ninth Symphony (1945), in contrast, is an ironic Haydnesque parody, which failed to satisfy demands for a "hymn of victory." Shostakovich continued to compose chamber music, notably his Second Piano Trio (Op. 67), dedicated to the memory of Sollertinsky, with a bitter-sweet, Jewish-themed totentanz finale. Second denunciation In 1948 Shostakovich, along with many other composers, was again denounced for formalism in the Zhdanov decree. Most of his works were banned, he was forced to publicly repent, and his family had privileges withdrawn. Yuri Lyubimov says that at this time "he waited for his arrest at night out on the landing by the lift, so that at least his family wouldn't be disturbed." Elizabeth Wilson, Shostakovich: A Life Remembered p. 183. In the next few years his compositions were divided into film music to pay the rent, official works aimed at securing official rehabilitation, and serious works "for the desk drawer". The latter included the Violin Concerto No. 1 and the song cycle From Jewish Folk Poetry. The cycle was written at a time when the post-war anti-Semitic campaign was already under way, and Shostakovich had close ties with some of those affected. The restrictions on Shostakovich's music and living arrangements were eased in 1949, in order to secure his participation in a delegation of Soviet notables to the U.S. That year he also wrote his cantata Song of the Forests, which praised Stalin as the "great gardener." In 1951 the composer was made a deputy to the Supreme Soviet. Stalin's death in 1953 was the biggest step towards Shostakovich's official rehabilitation, which was marked by his Tenth Symphony. It features a number of musical quotations and codes (notably the DSCH and Elmira motifs), the meaning of which is still debated, whilst the savage second movement is said to be a musical portrait of Stalin himself. It ranks alongside the Fifth as one of his most popular works. 1953 also saw a stream of premieres of the "desk drawer" works. During the forties and fifties Shostakovich had close relationships with two of his pupils: Galina Ustvolskaya and Elmira Nazirova. He taught Ustvolskaya from 1937 to 1947. The nature of their relationship is far from clear: Mstislav Rostropovich described it as "tender" and Ustvolskaya claimed in a 1995 interview that she rejected a proposal from him in the fifties. However, in the same interview, Ustvolskaya's friend, Viktor Suslin, said that she had been "deeply disappointed" in him by the time of her graduation in 1947. The relationship with Nazirova seems to have been one-sided, expressed largely through his letters to her, and can be dated to around 1953 to 1956. In the background to all this remained Shostakovich's first, open marriage to Nina Varzar until her death in 1954. He married his second wife, Komsomol activist Margarita Kainova, in 1956; the couple proved ill-matched, and divorced three years later. In 1954, Shostakovich wrote the Festive Overture, opus 96, that was used as the theme music of the 1980 Summer Olympics. 40-megabyte document. In addition his '"Theme from the film 'Pirogov', Opus 76a: Finale" was played as the cauldron was lit at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. In 1959, Shostakovich appeared on stage in Moscow at the end of a concert performance of his Fifth Symphony, congratulating Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra for their performance (part of a concert tour of the Soviet Union). Bernstein recorded the symphony later that year in New York for Columbia Records. Joining the Party The year 1960 marked another turning point in Shostakovich's life: his joining of the Communist Party. This event has been interpreted variously as a show of commitment, a mark of cowardice, or as the result of political pressure. On the one hand, the apparat was undoubtedly less repressive than it had been prior to Stalin's death. On the other, his son recalled that the event reduced Shostakovich to tears, Ho and Feofanov, p. 390. and he later told his wife Irina that he had been blackmailed. Manashir Yakubov, programme notes for the 1998 Shostakovich seasons at the Barbican, London). Lev Lebedinsky has said that the composer was suicidal. Wilson p. 340. Around this time, his health also began to deteriorate. Shostakovich's musical response to these personal crises was the Eighth String Quartet, composed in only three days. Like the Tenth Symphony, this quartet incorporates quotations and his musical monogram. In 1962 he married for the third time, to Irina Supinskaya. In a letter to his friend Isaak Glikman, he wrote, "her only defect is that she is 27 years old. In all other respects she is splendid: clever, cheerful, straightforward and very likeable." Dmitri Shostakovich and Isaak Glikman, Story of a Friendship: The Letters of Dmitry Shostakovich to Isaak Glikman p. 102. According to Galina Vishnevskaya, who knew the Shostakoviches well, this marriage was a very happy one: "It was with her that Dmitri Dmitriyevich finally came to know domestic peace... Surely, she prolonged his life by several years." Galina Vishnevskaya, Galina, A Russian Story p. 274. In November Shostakovich made his only venture into conducting, conducting a couple of his own works in Gorky: otherwise he declined to conduct, citing nerves and ill health as his reasons. That year saw Shostakovich again turn to the subject of anti-Semitism in his Thirteenth Symphony (subtitled Babi Yar). The symphony sets a number of poems by Yevgeny Yevtushenko, the first of which commemorates a massacre of the Jews during the Second World War. Opinions are divided as to how great a risk this was: the poem had been published in Soviet media, and was not banned, but it remained controversial. After the symphony's premiere, Yevtushenko was forced to add a stanza to his poem which said that Russians and Ukrainians had died alongside the Jews at Babi Yar. In 1965 Shostakovich raised his voice in defense of poet Joseph Brodsky, who was unfairly sentenced to five years of exile and hard labor. Shostakovich co-signed protests together with Yevtushenko and fellow Soviet artists Kornei Chukovsky, Anna Akhmatova, Samuil Marshak, and the French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. After the protests the sentence was commuted, and Brodsky returned to Leningrad. At that time Shostakovich joined the group of 25 distinguished intellectuals in signing the letter to Leonid Brezhnev asking not to rehabilitate Stalin. Later life In later life, Shostakovich suffered from chronic ill health, but he resisted giving up cigarettes and vodka. From 1958 he suffered from a debilitating condition which particularly affected his right hand, eventually forcing him to give up piano playing: in 1965 this was diagnosed as polio. He also suffered heart attacks the following year and again in 1971, and several falls in which he broke both his legs; in 1967 he wrote in a letter: "Target achieved so far: 75% (right leg broken, left leg broken, right hand defective. All I need to do now is wreck the left hand and then 100% of my extremities will be out of order.)" Glikman p. 147. A preoccupation with his own mortality permeates much of Shostakovich's later works, among them the later quartets and the Fourteenth Symphony of 1969 (a song cycle based on a number of poems concerning the theme of death). The subject matter of this work also coincides with Shostakovich at his most extreme in terms of musical language, with twelve-note themes being used throughout as well as dense polyphony. Shostakovich dedicated this score to his close friend Benjamin Britten, who conducted its Western premiere at the 1970 Aldeburgh Festival. The Fifteenth Symphony of 1971 is, by contrast, melodic and retrospective in nature, quoting from Wagner, Rossini and the composer's own Fourth Symphony. A Russian stamp in Shostakovich's memory Shostakovich died of lung cancer on 9 August 1975 and after a civic funeral was interred in the Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow. The official obituary did not appear in Pravda until three days after his death, apparently because the wording had to be approved at the highest level, by Brezhnev and the rest of the Politburo. Volkov, Solomon. Obituary Came Three Days Late. Moscow News N49 2005. Retrieved on 23 December 2005. Even before his death he had been commemorated in the naming of the Shostakovich Peninsula on Alexander Island, Antarctica. He was survived by his third wife Irina, his daughter Galina, and his son Maxim, a pianist and conductor who was the dedicatee and first performer of some of his father's works. Shostakovich himself left behind several recordings of his own piano works, while other noted interpreters of his music include his friends Emil Gilels, Mstislav Rostropovich, Tatiana Nikolayeva, Maria Yudina, David Oistrakh, and members of the Beethoven Quartet. Shostakovich's opera Orango (1932) was found by Russian researcher Olga Digonskaya in his last home. It is being orchestrated by the British composer Gerard McBurney and will be performed some time in 2010-2011. Artsjournal accessed April 5, 2009 Shostakovich's musical influence on later composers outside the former Soviet Union has been relatively slight, although Alfred Schnittke took up his eclecticism, and his contrasts between the dynamic and the static, and some of André Previn's music shows clear links to Shostakovich's style of orchestration. His influence can also be seen in some Nordic composers, such as Kalevi Aho Finnish Music Information Centre. Kalevi Aho in Profile. Retrieved on 18 November 2005. and Lars-Erik Larsson. Musicweb International. Lars-Erik Larsson. Retrieved on 18 November 2005. Many of his Russian contemporaries, and his pupils at the Leningrad Conservatory, however, were strongly influenced by his style (including German Okunev, Boris Tishchenko, whose 5th Symphony of 1978 is dedicated to Shostakovich's memory, Sergei Slonimsky, and others). Shostakovich's conservative idiom has nonetheless grown increasingly popular with audiences both within and beyond Russia, as the avant-garde has declined in influence and debate about his political views has developed. Works For a complete list, see List of compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich. See also: :Category:Compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich (thematical selection of works by Shostakovich). Shostakovich's works are broadly tonal and in the Romantic tradition, but with elements of atonality and chromaticism. In some of his later works (e.g. the Twelfth Quartet), he made use of tone rows. His output is dominated by his cycles of symphonies and string quartets, fifteen of each. The symphonies are distributed fairly evenly throughout his career, while the quartets are concentrated towards the latter part. Among the most popular are the Fifth, Seventh and Tenth Symphonies and the Eighth and Fifteenth Quartets. Other works include the operas Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, The Nose and the unfinished The Gamblers based on the comedy of Nikolai Gogol; six concertos (two each for piano, violin and cello); two piano trios; and a large quantity of film music. Shostakovich's music shows the influence of many of the composers he most admired: Bach in his fugues and passacaglias; Beethoven in the late quartets; Mahler in the symphonies and Berg in his use of musical codes and quotations. Among Russian composers, he particularly admired Modest Mussorgsky, whose operas Boris Godunov and Khovanshchina he re-orchestrated; Mussorgsky's influence is most prominent in the wintry scenes of Lady Macbeth and the Eleventh Symphony, as well as in his satirical works such as "Rayok". Fay pp. 119, 165, 224. Prokofiev's influence is most apparent in the earlier piano works, such as the first sonata and first concerto. Grove pp. 288, 290. The influence of Russian church and folk music is very evident in his works for unaccompanied choir of the 1950s. Shostakovich's relationship with Stravinsky was profoundly ambivalent; as he wrote to Glikman, "Stravinsky the composer I worship. Stravinsky the thinker I despise." Glikman p. 181. He was particularly enamoured of the Symphony of Psalms, presenting a copy of his own piano version of it to Stravinsky when the latter visited the USSR in 1962. (The meeting of the two composers was not a great success, however; observers commented on Shostakovich's extreme nervousness and Stravinsky's "cruelty" towards him.) Wilson pp. 375–377. Many commentators have noted the disjunction between the experimental works before the 1936 denunciation and the more conservative ones which followed; the composer told Flora Litvinova, "without 'Party guidance' … I would have displayed more brilliance, used more sarcasm, I could have revealed my ideas openly instead of having to resort to camouflage." Wilson p. 426. Articles published by Shostakovich in 1934 and 1935 cited Berg, Schoenberg, Krenek, Hindemith, "and especially Stravinsky" among his influences. Fay p. 88. Key works of the earlier period are the First Symphony, which combined the academicism of the conservatory with his progressive inclinations; The Nose ("The most uncompromisingly modernist of all his stage-works" Grove p. 289. ); Lady Macbeth. which precipitated the denunciation; and the Fourth Symphony, described by Grove as "a colossal synthesis of Shostakovich's musical development to date". Grove p. 290. The Fourth Symphony was also the first in which the influence of Mahler came to the fore, prefiguring the route Shostakovich was to take to secure his rehabilitation, while he himself admitted that the preceding two were his least successful. Glikman p. 315. In the years after 1936, Shostakovich's symphonic works were outwardly musically conservative, regardless of any subversive political content. During this time he turned increasingly to chamber works, a field which permitted the composer to explore different and often darker ideas that did not, however, invite external scrutiny. See also Grove p. 294. While his chamber works were largely tonal, they gave Shostakovich an outlet for sombre reflection which was not welcomed in his more public works. This is most apparent in the late chamber works, which portray what Groves has described as a "world of purgatorial numbness"; Grove p. 300. in some of these he included the use of tone rows, although he treated these as melodic themes rather than serially. Vocal works are also a prominent feature of his late output, setting texts often concerned with love, death and art. Criticism According to Shostakovich scholar Gerard McBurney, opinion is divided on whether his music is "of visionary power and originality, as some maintain, or, as others think, derivative, trashy, empty and second-hand." McBurney, p. 283. William Walton, his British contemporary, described him as "The greatest composer of the 20th century." British Composers in Interview by R Murray Schafer (Faber 1960) Musicologist David Fanning concludes in Grove that, "Amid the conflicting pressures of official requirements, the mass suffering of his fellow countrymen, and his personal ideals of humanitarian and public service, he succeeded in forging a musical language of colossal emotional power." Grove p. 280. Some modern composers have been critical. Pierre Boulez dismissed Shostakovich's music as "the second, or even third pressing of Mahler." McBurney, p. 288. The Romanian composer and Webern-disciple Philip Gershkovich called Shostakovich "a hack in a trance." McBurney, p. 290. A related complaint is that Shostakovich's style is vulgar and strident: Stravinsky wrote of Lady Macbeth: "brutally hammering … and monotonous." McBurney, p. 286. English composer and musicologist Robin Holloway described his music as "battleship-grey in melody and harmony, factory-functional in structure; in content all rhetoric and coercion." Holloway, Robin. "Shostakovich horrors." The Spectator, 26 August 2000. Available at Find articles. Retrieved on 2007-10-14. It is certainly true that Shostakovich borrows extensively from the material and styles both of earlier composers and of popular music; the vulgarity of "low" music is a notable influence on this "greatest of eclectics". Haas, Shostakovich's Eighth: C minor Symphony against the Grain p. 125. McBurney traces this to the avant-garde artistic circles of the early Soviet period among which Shostakovich moved early in his career, and argues that these borrowings were a deliberate technique to allow him to create "patterns of contrast, repetition, exaggeration" which gave his music the large-scale structure it required. McBurney The Trotskyist theoretician Alan Woods puts much of this criticism down to anti-communist politicking and the professional jealousy of less accomplished composers, pointing out that Shostakovich "made no secret of his debt to Mahler and many other composers: Bach, Stravinsky, jazz and popular music, Jewish and Russian folk music. But was the music of Beethoven not rooted in the music of Mozart and Haydn? Of course it was. But did it not evolve into something entirely different - something that is unmistakably Beethoven? Of course, it did. And who can deny that the symphonies of Shostakovich, taking their starting point from Mahler, developed into an entirely different musical idiom that is unmistakably Shostakovich and nobody else but Shostakovich?" Woods, Alan. "Shostakovich, the musical conscience of the Russian Revolution – Part Two". In Defence of Marxism, 22 December 2006. Retrieved on 2008-04-23. Personality Shostakovich with close friend Ivan Sollertinsky Shostakovich was in many ways an obsessive man: according to his daughter he was "obsessed with cleanliness"; Michael Ardov,Memories of Shostakovich p. 139. he synchronised the clocks in his apartment; he regularly sent cards to himself to test how well the postal service was working. Wilson's Shostakovich: A Life Remembered indexes 26 references to his nervousness. Even as a young man, Mikhail Druskin remembers that the composer was "fragile and nervously agile". Wilson pp. 41–45. Yuri Lyubimov comments, "The fact that he was more vulnerable and receptive than other people was no doubt an important feature of his genius". Wilson p. 183. In later life, Krzysztof Meyer recalled, "his face was a bag of tics and grimaces". Wilson p. 462. In his lighter moods, sport was one of his main recreations, although he preferred spectating or umpiring to participating (he was a qualified football referee). His favourite football club was Zenit Leningrad, which he would watch regularly. Mentioned in his personal correspondance (Shostakovich, tr. Phillips (2001)), as well as other sources. He also enjoyed playing card games, particularly patience. Both light and dark sides of his character were evident in his fondness for satirical writers such as Gogol, Chekhov and Mikhail Zoshchenko. The influence of the latter in particular is evident in his letters, which include wry parodies of Soviet officialese. Zoshchenko himself noted the contradictions in the composer's character: "he is … frail, fragile, withdrawn, an infinitely direct, pure child … [but he is also] hard, acid, extremely intelligent, strong perhaps, despotic and not altogether good-natured (although cerebrally good-natured)". Quoted in Fay, p. 121. He was diffident by nature: Flora Litvinova has said he was "completely incapable of saying 'No' to anybody." Wilson p. 162. This meant he was easily persuaded to sign official statements, including a denunciation of Andrei Sakharov in 1973; on the other hand he was willing to try to help constituents in his capacities as chairman of the Composers' Union and Deputy to the Supreme Soviet. Oleg Prokofiev commented that "he tried to help so many people that … less and less attention was paid to his pleas." Wilson p. 40. Orthodoxy and revisionism Shostakovich represented himself in some works with the DSCH motif, consisting of D-E♭-C-B. Shostakovich's response to official criticism and, more importantly, the question of whether he used music as a kind of abstract dissidence is a matter of dispute. It is clear that outwardly he conformed to government policies and positions, reading speeches and putting his name to articles expressing the government line. It is also generally agreed that he disliked many aspects of the regime, a view confirmed by his family, his letters to Isaak Glikman, and the satirical cantata "Rayok," which ridiculed the "anti-formalist" campaign and was kept hidden until after his death. He was a close friend of Trotsky's protege Marshal of the Soviet Union Mikhail Tukhachevsky, who was executed in 1937 for his opposition to Stalin. It is also uncertain to what extent Shostakovich expressed his opposition to the state in his music. The revisionist view was put forth by Solomon Volkov in the 1979 book Testimony, which was claimed to be Shostakovich's memoirs dictated to Volkov. The book alleged that many of the composer's works contained coded anti-government messages. That would place Shostakovich in a tradition of Russian artists outwitting censorship that goes back at least to the early 19th century poet Pushkin. It is known that he incorporated many quotations and motifs in his work, most notably his signature DSCH theme. His longtime collaborator Evgeny Mravinsky said that "Shostakovich very often explained his intentions with very specific images and connotations." Wilson p. 139. The revisionist perspective has subsequently been supported by his children, Maxim and Galina, and many Russian musicians. More recently, Volkov has argued that Shostakovich adopted the role of the yurodivy or holy fool in his relations with the government. Shostakovich's widow Irina, who was present during Volkov's visits to Shostakovich, denies the authenticity of Testimony. Other prominent revisionists are Ian MacDonald, whose book The New Shostakovich put forward more interpretations of his music, and Elizabeth Wilson, whose Shostakovich: A Life Remembered provides testimony from many of the composer's acquaintances. Tombstone of Shostakovich, showing his D-E♭-C-B motif. Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow. Many musicians and scholars (notably Laurel Fay and Richard Taruskin) contest the authenticity (and debate the significance) of Testimony, alleging that Volkov compiled it from a combination of recycled articles, gossip, and possibly some information direct from the composer. Fay substantiates these allegations in her 2002 article 'Volkov's Testimony reconsidered', showing that the only pages of the original Testimony manuscript that Shostakovich had signed and verified are in fact word-for-word reproductions of earlier interviews given by the composer, none of which are controversial. More broadly, they argue that the significance of Shostakovich is in his music rather than his life, and that to seek political messages in the music detracts from, rather than enhances, its artistic value. Recorded legacy In 1957, during a visit to Paris, Shostakovich recorded his two piano concertos with Andre Cluytens, as well as some short piano works. These were issued by EMI on an LP, reissued by Seraphim Records on LP, and eventually digitally remastered and released on CD. Shostakovich also recorded the Sonata, Op. 40, for Cello and Piano with cellist Daniil Shafran, the Sonata, Op. 134, for Violin and Piano with violinist David Oistrakh, and the Trio, Op. 67, for Violin, Cello, and Piano with violinist David Oistrakh and cellist Miloš Sádlo. There is also a short sound film of Shostakovich as soloist in a concert performance of the closing moments of his first piano concerto. Awards Soviet Union Hero of Socialist Labor (1966) Order of Lenin (1946, 1956, 1966) Order of the October Revolution (1971) Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1940) Order of Friendship of Peoples (1972) People's Artist of the USSR (1954) Lenin Prize (1958) State Stalin Prize in arts (1941, 1941, 1942, 1946, 1946, 1948, 1949, 1949, 1949, 1950, 1952) United States Oscar nomination for Khovanshchina, Best Score (Musical) in 1961 United Kingdom Gold Medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society (1966) Austria Grand Decoration of Honour in Silver for Services to the Republic of Austria (1967) Denmark Sonning Award (1973) Notes References External links Complete opus list, comprehensive discography, bibliography, filmography, list of first performances and links by Yosuke Kudo The Shostakovich Debate: Interpreting the composer's life and music Sikorski’s Shostakovich Catalogue, complete chronological list of works, with many comments The New Collected Works (published by DSCH) Journey of Dmitri Shostakovich An Interview with Filmmaker Helga Landauer Epitonic.com: Dimitri Shostakovich featuring tracks from Written With The Heart's Blood Archive of BBC's "Discovering Music" radio show, featuring Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 10, String Quartet No. 8, and Cello Concerto No. 1. 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6,560 | N | N is the fourteenth letter in the Latin alphabet. Its name in English () is spelled en. “N” Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (1989); Merriam-Webster’s Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged (1993); “en,” op. cit. History of the forms Nannerpedia One of the most common snake hieroglyph was used in Egyptian writing to stand for a sound like English “J,” because the Egyptian word for “snake” was djet. It is speculated that Semitic people working in Egypt adapted hieroglyphics to create the first alphabet, and that they used the same snake symbol to represent N, because their word for “snake” may have begun with that sound. However, the name for the letter in the Phoenician, Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic alphabets is nun, which means “fish” in some of these languages. The sound value of the letter was —as in Greek, Etruscan, Latin and all modern languages. Egyptian hieroglyph for 'J' Proto-Semitic N Phoenician N Etruscan N Greek NuD Usage N represents the dental or alveolar nasal in virtually all languages that use the Latin alphabet. A common digraph with <n> is <ng>, which represents a velar nasal in a variety of languages, usually positioned word-finally in English. In languages like Italian and French, <gn> represents a palatal nasal (). The Portuguese spelling for this sound is <nh>. In English, n is silent when it is preceded by an m, in words like hymn (although it is pronounced in words such as damnation). In the International Phonetic Alphabet, the lowercase represents the alveolar nasal sound. A small capital represents the uvular nasal. N is the second-most commonly used consonant in the English language (after T). Codes for computing In Unicode the capital N is codepoint U+004E and the lower case n is U+006E. The ASCII code for capital N is 78 and for lowercase n is 110; or in binary 01001110 and 01101110, correspondingly. The EBCDIC code for capital N is 213 and for lowercase n is 149. The numeric character references in HTML and XML are "N" and "n" for upper and lower case respectively. See also Ń Ñ Ň П, п (П, п) - Pe (Cyrillic) Н, н (Н, н) - En (Cyrillic) Ν, ν - Nu (Greek) References | N |@lemmatized n:18 fourteenth:1 letter:3 latin:3 alphabet:5 name:2 english:7 spell:1 en:3 oxford:1 dictionary:2 edition:1 merriam:1 webster:1 third:1 new:1 international:2 language:7 unabridged:1 op:1 cit:1 history:1 form:1 nannerpedia:1 one:1 common:2 snake:4 hieroglyph:2 use:4 egyptian:3 writing:1 stand:1 sound:5 like:3 j:2 word:5 djet:1 speculate:1 semitic:2 people:1 work:1 egypt:1 adapt:1 hieroglyphic:1 create:1 first:1 symbol:1 represent:6 may:1 begin:1 however:1 phoenician:2 hebrew:1 aramaic:1 arabic:1 nun:1 mean:1 fish:1 value:1 greek:3 etruscan:2 modern:1 proto:1 nud:1 usage:1 dental:1 alveolar:2 nasal:5 virtually:1 digraph:1 ng:1 velar:1 variety:1 usually:1 position:1 finally:1 italian:1 french:1 gn:1 palatal:1 portuguese:1 spelling:1 nh:1 silent:1 precede:1 hymn:1 although:1 pronounce:1 damnation:1 phonetic:1 lowercase:3 small:1 capital:4 uvular:1 second:1 commonly:1 consonant:1 code:3 compute:1 unicode:1 codepoint:1 u:2 low:2 case:2 ascii:1 binary:1 correspondingly:1 ebcdic:1 numeric:1 character:1 reference:2 html:1 xml:1 upper:1 respectively:1 see:1 also:1 ń:1 ñ:1 ň:1 п:4 pe:1 cyrillic:2 н:4 ν:2 nu:1 |@bigram merriam_webster:1 op_cit:1 egyptian_hieroglyph:1 proto_semitic:1 dental_alveolar:1 alveolar_nasal:2 velar_nasal:1 palatal_nasal:1 phonetic_alphabet:1 п_п:3 |
6,561 | History_of_Cuba | The earliest inhabitants of Cuba were the Guanajatabey people, Gott, Richard Cuba: A new history, Yale University Press: 2004, Chapter 1. who migrated to the island from the forests of the South American mainland as long ago as 5300 BCE. Creating the Guanahatabey (Ciboney): the modern genesis of an extinct culture William F. Keegan (Volume 63, Number 239, June 1989) The Guanajatabeyes, who numbered about 170,000, were hunters, gatherers, and farmers. They were to cultivate cohiba (tobacco), a crop upon which the island's economy would one day depend. Spanish conquistador Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar later observed that the Guanajatabeyes were "without houses or towns and eating only the meat they are able to find in the forests as well as turtles and fish." The First Cubans: J.A. Sierra Though the Guanajatabeyes are now considered to be a distinct population, early anthropologists and historians mistakenly believed that they were the Ciboney people who occupied areas throughout the Antilles islands of the Caribbean. ROUSE, Irving, Handbook of South American Indians, pp. 497–503. More recently, researchers have speculated that the Guanajatabeyes may have migrated from the south of the United States, evidenced by similarities of artifacts found in both regions. Some studies ascribe a role to these original inhabitants in the extinction of the islands' megafauna, including condors, giant owls, and eventually ground sloths. Order Strigiformes: Animal Diversity Web, Danielle Cholewiak. "The largest owl known to have existed comes from the Pleistocene in Cuba; Ornimegalonyx oteroi was larger than a meter tall with the most powerful claws of all owls" Cuban Ground Sloth Megalocnus rodens: Allen, G. M. Extinct and Vanishing Mammals of the Western Hemisphere. "The groundloth was never observed by Europeans; fossils contemporary with indigenous artifacts and introduced rat fossils indicate survival into colonial era, possibly until 16th Century" William Suárez, The Neotropical Ornithological Society, 2000. cuba is cool PDF. Further evidence suggests that the Guanajatabeyes were driven to the west of the island by the arrival of two subsequent waves of migrants, the Taíno and Ciboney. These groups are sometimes referred to as neo-Taíno nations. The new arrivals had migrated north along the Caribbean island chain from the Orinoco delta in Venezuela. These two groups were prehistoric cultures in a time period during which humans created tools from stone, yet they were familiar with gold (caona) and copper alloys (guanín). Christopher Columbus discovered the island in 1492, believing it to be a peninsula of the Asian mainland. . . During the Spanish-American War in 1898, the United States helped the Cubans to overthrow Spanish rule and the Treaty of Paris established Cuban independence in 1902. The country had a multi-party democracy in the first half of the 20th century. Its development was on the top of Latin America and ahead many European countries. Havana was among the world's most developed cities and rivaled New York City and Paris. Irregularities in elections from 1952 to 1959 were followed by the Cuban Revolution, which was expected to restore the 1940 constitutional government. However, Fidel Castro immediately consolidated power to himself and his brother Raul Castro, and soon abolished elections altogether. The new totalitarian state was greatly strengthened by close ties to Moscow. These ties grew steadily to the point that Cuba became a privileged client-state of the Soviet Union. By 1982, Cuba had built up the second largest military in Latin America. Millions of Cubans have left over the years; leaving the country is illegal and ordinary Cubans can't get exit permits. Starting from the mid-1980s and the collapse of Soviet Union , Cuba experienced a crisis referred to as the "Special Period". In 2008, Fidel Castro transferred power to his brother, Raúl Castro. Cuba remains one of the few socialist states in the world. Although contacts between Cubans and foreign visitors were made legal in 1997 Rennie, David. Cuba 'apartheid' as Castro pulls in the tourists, The Daily Telegraph, 08/06/2002. , extensive censorship has isolated it from the rest of the world. Taíno and Ciboney cultures The Taíno and Ciboney were a part of a cultural group commonly called the Arawak, which extended far into South America. Initially the new arrivals inhabited the eastern area of Baracoa before expanding across the island. Traveling Dominican clergyman and writer Bartolome de las Casas estimated that the Cuban population of the neo-Taíno people had reached 200,000 by the time of the late fifteenth century. The Taíno cultivated the yucca root, harvested it and baked it to produce cassava bread. They also grew cotton and tobacco, and ate maize and sweet potatoes. According to Las Casas, they had "everything they needed for living; they had many crops, well arranged". Historia de las Indias, vol 3 Biblioteca Ayacucho, Caracus, 1986, pp. 81–101. Conquest of Cuba Early Spanish colonization Havana Bay, c. 1639. The first sighting of a Spanish boat approaching the island was on October 28 1492, probably at Baracoa on the eastern point of the island. Christopher Columbus, on his first voyage to the Americas, sailed south from what is now The Bahamas to explore the northeast coast of Cuba and the northern coast of Hispaniola. During a second voyage in 1494, Columbus passed along the south coast of the island, landing at various inlets including what was to become Guantánamo Bay. With the Papal Bull of 1493, Pope Alexander VI commanded Spain to conquer, colonize and convert the Pagans of the New World to Catholicism. Bakewell, Peter. A History of Latin America. Blackwell Publishers, pp. 129–130. On arrival, Columbus observed the Taíno dwellings, describing them as “looking like tents in a camp. All were of palm branches, beautifully constructed”. Willis Fletcher Johnson, The History of Cuba Volume 1, New York, 1920 p. 228. The Spanish began to create permanent settlements on the island of Hispaniola, east of Cuba, soon after Columbus's arrival in the Caribbean, but it wasn't until 1509 that the coast of Cuba was fully mapped by Sebastián de Ocampo. Historia de la Construcción Naval en Cuba In 1511, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar set out with three ships and an army of 300 men from Hispaniola to form the first Spanish settlement in Cuba, with orders from Spain to conquer the island. The settlement was at Baracoa, but the new settlers were to be greeted with stiff resistance from the local Taíno population. The Taínos were initially organized by cacique (chieftain) Hatuey, who had himself relocated from Hispaniola to escape the brutalities of Spanish rule on that island. After a prolonged guerrilla campaign, Hatuey and successive chieftains were captured and burnt alive, and within three years the Spanish had gained control of the island. In 1514, a settlement was founded in what was to become Havana. Clergyman Bartolomé de Las Casas observed a number of massacres initiated by the invaders as the Spanish swept over the island, notably the massacre near Manzanillo of the inhabitants of Caonao. According to his account, some three thousand villagers had traveled to Manzanillo to greet the Spanish with loaves, fishes and other foodstuffs and were "without provocation, butchered". Las Casas, A Short Account, p.29 The surviving indigenous groups fled to the mountains or the small surrounding islands before being captured and forced into reservations. One such reservation was Guanabacoa, which is today a suburb of Havana. Thomas, Hugh: Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom 2nd edition. p14 A monument to Taíno chieftain Hatuey, Baracoa, Cuba In 1513, Ferdinand II of Aragon issued a decree establishing the encomienda land settlement system that was to be incorporated throughout the Spanish Americas. Velázquez, who had become Governor of Cuba relocating from Baracoa to Santiago de Cuba, was given the task of apportioning both the land and the indigenous Cubans to groups throughout the new colony. The scheme was not a success, however, as the Cubans either succumbed to diseases brought from Spain such as measles and smallpox, or simply refused to work preferring to slip away into the mountains. Desperate for labor to toil the new agricultural settlements, the Conquistadors sought slaves from surrounding islands and the continental mainland. But these new arrivals followed the indigenous Cubans by also dispersing into the wilderness or suffering a similar fate at the hands of disease. Despite the difficult relations between the local Cubans and the new Europeans, some cooperation was in evidence. The Spanish were shown by the Native Cubans how to nurture tobacco and consume it in the form of cigars. There were also many unions between the largely male Spanish colonists and indigenous women. Their children were called mestizos, but the Native Cubans called them Guajiro, which translates as "one of us". Although modern day studies have revealed traces of Taíno DNA in individuals throughout Cuba, Cuban Site Casts Light on an Extinct People Anthony DePalma, The New York Times, 5 July 1998 the population was effectively destroyed as a culture and civilization after 1515. The local Indian population left their mark on the language and placenames of the island, however. The name of Cuba itself and Havana were derived from neo-Taino dialect, and Indian words such as Tobacco, Hurricane and Canoe continue to be used today. Arrival of African slaves The Spanish established sugar and tobacco as Cuba's primary products, and the island soon supplanted Hispaniola as the prime Spanish base in the Caribbean. Peter Bakewell. A History of Latin America. Bakewell books. p.74. The expansion of agriculture tempered by the rapid erosion of the native populations meant that further field labor was required. African slaves were then imported to work the plantations as field labor. However, restrictive Spanish trade laws made it difficult for Cubans to keep up with the 17th and 18th century advances in processing sugar cane pioneered in British Barbados and French Saint Domingue (Haiti). Spain also restricted Cuba's access to the slave trade, which was dominated by the British, French, and Dutch. One important turning point came in the Seven Years' War, when the British conquered the port of Havana and introduced thousands of slaves in a ten month period. Another key event was the Haitian Revolution in nearby Saint-Domingue, from 1791 to 1804. Thousands of French refugees, fleeing the slave rebellion in Saint Domingue, brought slaves and expertise in sugar refining and coffee growing into eastern Cuba in the 1790 and early 1800s. In the 1800s, Cuban sugar plantations became the most important world producer of sugar, thanks to the expansion of slavery and a relentless focus on improving the island's sugar technology. Use of modern refining techniques was especially important because the British abolished the slave trade in 1807 and, after 1815, began forcing other countries to follow suit. Cubans were torn between the profits generated by sugar and a repugnance for slavery, which they saw as morally, politically, and racially dangerous to their society. By the end of the nineteenth century, slavery was abolished. However, leading up to the abolition of slavery, Cuba gained great prosperity from its sugar trade. Originally, the Spanish had ordered regulations on trade with Cuba, which kept the island from becoming a dominant sugar producer. The Spanish were interested in keeping their trade routes and slave trade routes protected. Nevertheless, Cuba's vast size and abundance of natural resources made it an ideal place for becoming a booming sugar producer. When Spain opened the Cuban trade ports, it quickly became a popular place. New technology allowed a much more effective and efficient means of producing sugar. They began to use water mills, enclosed furnaces, and steam engines to produce a higher quality of sugar at a much more efficient pace than elsewhere in the Caribbean. The boom in Cuba's sugar industry in the nineteenth century made it necessary for Cuba to improve its means of transportation. Planters needed safe and efficient ways to transport the sugar from the plantations to the ports, in order to maximize their returns. Many new roads were built, and old roads were quickly repaired. Railroads were built early and changed the way that perishable sugar cane (within one or two days after the cane is cut easily crystallizable sucrose sugar has "inverted" to turn into far less recoverable glucose and fructose sugars) is collected and allowing more rapid and effective sugar transportation. It was now possible for plantations all over this large island to have their sugar shipped quickly and easily. The prosperity seen from the boom in sugar production is a major reason that Cuban ethnicity became further enriched by new influx of Spanish migrants. Many Spaniards immigrated to Cuba, calling it a place of refuge. Sugar plantations Cuba failed to prosper before the 1760s due to Spanish trade regulations. Spain had set up a monopoly in the Caribbean and their primary objective was to protect this. They did not allow the islands to trade with any foreign ships. Spain was primarily interested in the Caribbean for its gold. The Spanish crown thought that if the colonies traded with other countries it would not itself benefit from it. This slowed the growth of the Spanish Caribbean. This effect was particularly bad in Cuba because Spain kept a tight grasp on it. It held great strategic importance in the Caribbean. As soon as Spain opened Cuba's ports up to foreign ships, a great sugar boom began that lasted until the 1880s. The Island was perfect for growing sugar. It is dominated by rolling plains, with rich soil, and adequate rainfall. It is the largest island in the Caribbean, its relatively low mountains and large plains are suitable for roads, and railroads, and it has the best ports in the area. By 1860, Cuba was devoted to growing sugar. The country had to import all other necessary goods. They were dependent on the United States who bought 82 percent of the sugar. Cubans resented the economic policy Spain implemented in Cuba, which was to help Spain and hurt Cuba. In 1820, Spain abolished the slave trade, hurting the Cuban economy even more and forcing planters to buy more expensive, illegal, and troublesome slaves (as demonstrated by the events surrounding the ship Amistad). Cuba under attack The British fleet closing in on Havana in 1762 El Morro fortress in Havana, built in 1589 Cuba had long been a target of buccaneers, pirates and French corsairs seeking Spain's new world riches. Repeated raids meant that defences were bolstered throughout the island during the 16th century and Havana was furnished with the Castillo de los Tres Reyes Magos del Morro (El Morro fortress) to deter potential invaders which included English privateer Francis Drake, who sailed within sight of Havana harbour but did not disembark on the island. Gott, Richard: Cuba, A A new history, Yale University Press: 2004, p 32 Havana's inability to resist invaders was dramatically exposed in 1628, when a Dutch fleet led by Piet Heyn plundered the Spanish fleet in the city's harbor. Gott, Richard: Cuba, A A new history, Yale University Press: 2004, p 34-35 In 1662, on the eastern part of the island, English admiral and pirate Christopher Myngs captured and briefly occupied Santiago de Cuba in an effort to open up Cuba's protected trade with neighbouring Jamaica. Nearly a century later, English were to invade in earnest taking Guantánamo Bay during the War of Jenkins' Ear with Spain. Edward Vernon, the British Admiral who devised the scheme, saw his 4,000 occupying troops capitulate to local guerilla resistance, and more critically, debilitating disease, forcing him to withdraw his fleet to British owned Jamaica. Gott, Richard: Cuba, A new history, Yale University Press: 2004, p 39-41 Seven years later, in 1748, tensions between the three dominant colonial powers; Britain, France and Spain, were transported to the Caribbean. A skirmish between a British squadron and a Spanish squadron off the coast of Cuba became known as the Battle of Havana. The Seven Years' War, which erupted in 1754 in three continents, eventually arrived at the Spanish Caribbean. Spain's alliance with the French pitched them in direct conflict with the British, and in 1762 an expedition set out from Portsmouth of 5 warships and 4000 troops to capture Cuba. The English arrived on June 6, and by August had Havana under siege. Thomas, Hugh: Cuba: The Pursuit of Freedom 2nd edition. Chapter One When Havana surrendered, British Admiral of the fleet George Keppel, the 3rd Earl of Albemarle, entered the city as conquering new governor, taking control of the whole western part of the island. The arrival of the British immediately opened up trade with their North American and Caribbean colonies, causing a rapid transformation of Cuban society. Food, horses and other goods flooded into the city, and thousands of slaves from West Africa were transported to the island to work on the under manned sugar plantations. Though Havana, which had become the third largest city in the new world, was to enter an era of sustained development and closening ties with North America, the British occupation was not to last. Pressure from London by sugar merchants fearing a decline in sugar prices forced a series of negotiations with the Spanish over colonial territories. Less than a year after Havana was seized, the Peace of Paris was signed by the three warring powers thus ending the Seven Years' War. The treaty gave Britain Florida in exchange for Cuba on the recommendation of the French, who advised that declining the offer could result in Spain losing Mexico and much of the South American mainland to the British. The 19th century: Years of upheaval In the early 19th century three different currents characterizing the political struggles of that century took shape: reformism, annexation and independence. In addition to that there were spontaneous and isolated actions carried out from time to time and growing in organization, adding a current of jew stars social character: abolitionism. The declaration of independence by the 13 British colonies of North America and the victory of the French Revolution of 1789 as well as the revolt of black slaves in Haiti influenced early Cuban liberation movements. One of the first, headed by the free Black, Nicolás Morales, and aimed at the equality between "mulattos and whites" and the abolition of sales taxes and other burdens that oppress the poor, was discovered in 1795 in Bayamo and the conspirators were jailed. Reform, autonomy and separatist movements As a result of the political upheavals caused by the Peninsular War and the removal of Ferdinand VII from the throne, the first separatist rebellion emerged among the Creole aristocracy in 1809 and 1810. One of its leaders, Joaquín Infante drafted Cuba's first constitution considering the island a sovereign state, presuming the rule of the countries' wealthy, maintaining slavery as long as it was necessary for agriculture, establishing a social classification based on skin colour and declaring Catholicism the official religion. This conspiracy also failed and the main leaders were sentenced to prison and deported to Spain. Cantón Navarro, José and Juan Jacomino. History of Cuba: The Challenge of the Yoke and the Star: Biography of a People. Havana, Editoral SI-MAR, 1998, p. 35, ISBN 959-705-419-1. In 1812, a mixed race abolitionist conspiracy arose, organized by José Antonio Aponte, a free black carpenter in Havana. He and others were executed. The main reason for the lack of support was that the vast majority of Creoles, especially the plantation owners, rejected any kind of separatism, considering Spain's power essential to maintain a slavery system and to prevent a Black revolt. They were interested in reforms, which would guarantee the island's progress through the maintenance of slavery, the end to a commercial monopoly imposed by Madrid and the granting Cuba the same rights enjoyed by other Spanish provinces. Some of these reforms had been accomplished as part of the Bourbon Reforms but the promise of change was fast becoming reality in the Cádiz Cortes, which began deliberations in 1808. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 and the legislation passed by the Cortes created a number of liberal political and commercial policies, which were welcomed in Cuba. Between 1810 and 1814 the island elected six representatives to the Cortes, in addition to forming a locally-elected Provincial Deputation. Rieu-Millan, Marie Laure. Los diputados americanos en las Cortes de Cádiz: Igualdad o independencia. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 1990, 41. ISBN 978-8400070915 Nevertheless, the liberal regime and the Constitution proved to be ephemeral: they were suppressed by Ferdinand VII when he returned to the throne in 1814. Therefore, by the end of the decade some Cubans were inspired by the successes of Simón Bolívar despite the fact that the Spanish Constitution was restored in 1820. Numerous secret societies emerged, of which the most important was the so-called "Soles y Rayos Bolívar", founded in 1821 and led by José Francisco Lemus. Its aim was to establish the free Republic of Cubanacán, and the society had branches in five districts of the island. In 1823 the leaders were arrested and condemned to exile. In the same year in Spain, Ferdinand VII, with French help and the approval of the Quintuple Alliance, managed to abolish constitutional rule yet again and reestablish absolutism. As a result, in Cuba the national militia established by the Constitution and a potential instrument for liberal agitation was dissolved, a permanent executive military commission under the orders of the governor was created, newspapers were closed, elected provincial representatives were removed and other liberties suppressed. This suppression and the success of independence in the former Spanish colonies on the mainland lead to a rise of Cuban nationalism and a number of independence conspiracies took place during the 1820s and 1830s, but all failed. By 1825, most of Spain’s colonies in the new world had achieved their independence, and only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained. In 1826, on occasion of the Congress of Panama the US (with the backing of England) prevented Mexico and Colombia from joining to support Cuba's independence, threatening that the U.S. would “not remain indifferent” to the freeing of Cuba. The US diplomat who delivered the threats wrote a revealing letter to his superior, Secretary of State Henry Clay, stating, “What I most dread is that that blacks may be armed and used as auxiliaries… This country prefers that Cuba and Porto Rico should remain dependent on Spain. This Government desires no political change of that condition.” The Mexican-Colombian expedition was stopped before it began. Simón Bolívar told a delegation of Cuban revolutionaries: “We cannot set at defiance the American Government, in conjunction with that of England, determined on maintaining the authority of Spain over the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico…” Jerry A. Sierra. "Timetable History of Cuba: Struggle for Independence-1", History of Cuba The US also opposed possible agreements between Spain and England. Antislavery and independence movements In 1826, the first armed uprising for independence took place in Puerto Príncipe (Camagüey Province), led by Francisco de Agüero and Andrés Manuel Sánchez. Agüero (white) and Sánchez (mulato, of mixed African and European ancestry) were executed, becoming the first martyrs of Cuban independence. Among others there were the "Expedición de los Trece" (Expedition of the Thirteen) in 1826, the "Gran Legión del Aguila Negra" (Great Legion of the Black Eagle) in 1829, the "Cadena Triangular" (Triangular Chain) and "Soles de la Libertad" (Suns of Liberty) in 1837. Leading national figures in these years were Félix Varela and Cuba's first revolutionary poet, José María Heredia. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 36-38. The 1830s saw a surge of the reformist movement, whose main leader was José Antonio Saco, standing out for his criticism of Spanish despotism and slave trade. Nevertheless, this surge brought no fruit; instead, Cubans remained deprived of the right to send representatives to the Spanish parliament and Madrid stepped up repression. Spain had been under pressure to end trade of slaves. In 1817 it signed a first treaty to which it did not adhere. With the abolishment of slavery altogether in their colonies the British forced Spain to sign another treaty in 1835. With this background Black revolts in Cuba increased and were put down with massive killings and executions. One of the most significant was the Conspiración de La Escalera (Ladder Conspiracy), which started March 1843 and continued to 1844. The conspiracy took its name from a torture method, blacks being tied to a ladder and whipped until they confessed or died. It included free Blacks and slaves as well as white intellectuals and professionals. It is estimated that 300 Blacks and mulattos died from torture, 78 were executed, over 600 were imprisoned and over 400 expelled from the island. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba. La Habana, 1998, p. 40, ISBN 959-705-419-1. (See comments in new translation of Villaverde's "Cecilia Valdés.") Among the executed was one of Cuba's greatest poets, Gabriel de la Concepción Valdés, now commonly as "Placido". José Antonio Saco one of Cuba's foremost thinkers was expelled from Cuba. The possibility of annexation Black unrest and British pressure to abolish slavery motivated many Creoles to advocate Cuba's annexation to the United States, where slavery was still legal. Other Cubans supported the idea because they longed for the higher development and democratic freedom. Annexation of Cuba was repeatedly supported by the US. In 1805 President Thomas Jefferson considered possessing Cuba for strategic reasons, sending secret agents to the island to negotiate with Governor Someruelos. In April 1823 US Secretary of State John Quincy Adams discussed the rules of political gravitation, in a theory often referred to as the "ripe fruit theory." Adams wrote, “There are laws of political as well as physical gravitation; and if an apple severed by its native tree cannot choose but fall to the ground, Cuba, forcibly disjoined from its own unnatural connection with Spain, and incapable of self-support, can gravitate only towards the North American Union which by the same law of nature, cannot cast her off its bosom.” “Worthington, Chauncey Ford: Writings of John Quincy Adams vol. VII, Boston, MA, 2001, p372" Adams described Cuba as “incapable” and described its separation from Spain as inevitable. He specified the islands gravitation towards North America rather than Europe. As he explained that, “the transfer of Cuba to Great Britain would be an event unpropitious to the interest of this Union.” “Worthington, Chauncey Ford: Writings of John Quincy Adams vol. VII, Boston, MA, 2001, p373" Adams voiced concern that a country outside of North America would attempt to occupy Cuba upon its separation from Spain. He wrote, “The question both of our right and our power to prevent it, if necessary, by force, already obtrudes itself upon our councils, and the administration is called upon, in the performance of its duties to the nation, at least to use all the means with the competency to guard against and forefend it.” "Worthington, Chauncey Ford: Writings of John Quincy Adams vol. VII, Boston, MA, 2001, p379" On December second of that year US president James Monroe specifically addressed Cuba and other European colonies in his proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine. Cuba located in the Western Hemisphere just 94 miles from the US city Key West was of interest to the doctrine’s founders as they warned European forces to leave “America for the Americans." "Díez de Medina, Raul: Autopsy of the Monroe doctrine’The strange story of inter-American relations, New York, NY, 1934, p.21” The most outstanding attempts in support of annexation were made by Spanish Army General Narciso López, who prepared four expeditions to Cuba in the US. The first two in 1848 and 1849 already failed before departure due to US-opposition. The third one, made up of some 600 men, managed to land on Cuba and take the central city of Cárdenas. Lacking popular support, this expedition failed. His fourth expedition landed in Pinar del Río province with around 400 men in August 1851; the invaders were defeated by Spanish troops and López was executed. The independence struggle resumed In the 1860s Cuba had two more liberal minded governors, Serrano and Dulce, who even encouraged the creation of a Reformist Party, despite the fact that political parties were forbidden. But a reactionary governor, Francisco Lersundi, followed, who suppressed all liberties granted by the previous ones and maintaining a pro-slavery regime with all its rigour. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 42. On 10 October 1868, landowner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes made the "Grito de Yara", the "Cry of Yara", declaring Cuban independence and freedom for his slaves. This began the "Ten Years' War". The War of 1895 Changes In the years of the so-called “Rewarding Truce”, lasting for 17 years from the end of the Ten Years War in 1878 there were fundamental social changes in Cuban society. With the abolition of slavery in October 1886 former slaves joined the ranks of farmers and urban working class. Most wealthy Cubans lost their properties and many of them joined the urban middle class. The number of sugar mills dropped and efficiency increased with only companies and the most powerful plantation owners owning them. The numbers of campesinos and tenant farmers rose considerably. It is the period when US capital began flowing into Cuba, mostly into the sugar and tobacco business and mining. By 1895 investments reached 50 million US dollars. Although Cuba remained Spanish politically, economically it started to depend on the United States. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 53-55. Although the conditions were very difficult, these changes entailed the rise of labour movements, the first organisation created in 1878 being the Cigar Makers Guild, followed by the Central Board of Artisans in 1879 and many more across the island. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 55-57. After his second deportation to Spain in 1878, José Martí moved to the United States in 1881 were he took up mobilizing the support of the Cuban exile community, especially in Ybor City in the Tampa area and Key West, Florida, for a revolution and independence from Spain, but also lobbying to oppose U.S. annexation of Cuba, which some American and Cuban politicians desired. After deliberations with patriotic clubs across the US, the Antilles and Latin America "El Partido Revolucionario Cubano" (The Cuban Revolutionary Party) with the purpose of gaining independence for both Cuba and Puerto Rico was officially proclaimed on April 10, 1892. Martí was elected Delegate, the highest party position. By the end of 1894 the basic conditions for launching the revolution were set. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 59-60. “Martí’s impatience to start the revolution for independence was affected by his growing fear that the imperialist forces in the United States would succeed in annexing Cuba before the revolution could liberate the island from Spain.” Foner, Philip: The Spanish-Cuban-American War and the Birth of American Imperialism quoted in: http://www.historyofcuba.com/history/scaw/scaw1.htm A new trend of aggressive US “influence,” evident by Secretary of State James G. Blaine’s expressed ideals that all of Central and South America would some day fall to the U.S. “That rich island,” Blaine wrote on December 1, 1881, “the key to the Gulf of Mexico, is, though in the hands of Spain, a part of the American commercial system… If ever ceasing to be Spanish, Cuba must necessarily become American and not fall under any other European domination.” Spanish-Cuban-American War - History of Cuba Blaine’s vision did not allow the existence of an independent Cuba. “Martí noticed with alarm the movement to annex Hawaii, viewing it as establishing a pattern for Cuba…” On December 25, 1895 three ships loaded with fighters and weapons, the Lagonda, the Almadis and the Baracoa set sail for Cuba from Fernandina Beach, Florida, loaded with weapons and supplies that had been difficult and costly to obtain. Two of the ships were seized by US authorities in early January, who also alerted the Spanish government, but the proceedings went ahead. Not to be dissuaded, on March 25 Martí presented the Proclamation of Montecristi (Manifesto de Montecristi) which outlined the policy for Cuba’s war of independence: the war was to be waged by blacks and whites alike; participation of all blacks was crucial for victory; Spaniards who did not object to the war effort should be spared, private rural properties should not be damaged; and the revolution should bring new economic life to Cuba. The insurrection began on 24 February 1895 with uprisings all across the island. In Oriente the most important ones took place in Santiago, Guantánamo, Jiguaní, San Luis, El Cobre, El Caney, Alto Songo, Bayate and Baire. The uprisings in the central part of the island, such as Ibarra, Jagüey Grande and Aguada suffered from poor co-ordination and failed; the leaders were captured, some of them deported and some executed. In the province of Havana the insurrection was discovered before it got off and the leaders detained. Thus, the insurgents further west in Pinar del Río were ordered to wait. Martí, on his way to Cuba, proclaimed the ‘’’Manifesto de Montecristi’’’ in Santo Domingo, outlining the policy for Cuba’s war of independence: the war was to be waged by blacks and whites alike; participation of all blacks was crucial for victory; Spaniards who did not object to the war effort should be spared, private rural properties should not be damaged; and the revolution should bring new economic life to Cuba. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 61 On April 1 and 11, 1895, the main Mambi leaders landed on two expeditions in Oriente: Major Antonio Maceo and 22 members near Baracoa and Martí, Máximo Gomez and 4 other members in Playitas. Around that time, Spanish forces in Cuba numbered about 80,000,of which, 20,000 were regular troops, and 60,000 were Spanish and Cuban volunteers. The latter were a locally enlisted force that took care of most of the “guard and police” duties on the island. Wealthy landowners would “volunteer” a number of their slaves to serve in this force, which was under local control and not under official military command. By December, 98,412 regular troops had been sent to the island, and the number of volunteers increased to 63,000 men. By the end of 1897, there were 240,000 regulars and 60,000 irregulars on the island. The revolutionaries were far outnumbered. The Mambises were named after the Negro Spanish officer, Juan Ethninius Mamby who joined the Dominicans in the fight for independence in 1846. The Spanish soldiers referred to the insurgents as “the men of Mamby,” and “Mambies.” When Cuba’s first war of independence (known as the Ten Year War) broke out in 1868, some of the same soldiers were assigned to the island, importing what had, by then, become a derogatory Spanish slur. The Cubans adopted the name with pride. After the Ten-Year War, possession of weapons by private individuals had been prohibited. Thus, from the very beginning of the war, one of the most serious problems for the rebels was the acquisition of suitable weapons. This lack of arms led to the guerrilla-style war using the environment, the element of surprise, a fast horse and a machete. Most of the weapons were acquired in raids on the Spaniards. Between June 11, 1895 and November 30, 1897, out of sixty attempts to bring weapons and supplies to the rebels from outside the country, only one succeeded through the protection of the British. Twenty-eight were prevented already within US-territory; 5 were intercepted by the US Navy, 4 by the Spanish Navy; 2 were wrecked; one was driven back to port by storm; the fate of another is unknown. Martí was killed only shortly after his landing on May 19, 1895, at Dos Rios, but Máximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo fought on, taking the war to all parts of Oriente. By the end of June all of Camagüey was at war. Continuing west, they were met by 1868 war veterans, Polish internationalist, General Carlos Roloff and Serafín Sánchez in Las Villas, adding weapons, men and experience. In mid-September representatives of the five Liberation Army Corps assembled in Jimaguayú, Camagüey to approve the “Jimaguayú Constitution”, establishing a central government, which grouped the executive and legislative powers into one entity named “Government Council”, headed by Salvador Cisneros and Bartolomé Masó. After some time of consolidation in the three eastern provinces the liberation armies headed for Camagüey and then Matanzas, outmanoeuvring and deceiving the Spanish Army several times, defeating the Spanish General Arsenio Martínez Campos, himself the victor of the Ten Year War, and killing his most trusted general at Peralejo. Campos tried the same strategy he had employed in the Ten Year War, constructing a broad belt across the island, called the “trocha”, about 80 km long and 200m wide. This defense line was to limit rebel activities to the eastern provinces. The belt consisted of a railroad, from Jucaro in the south to Moron in the north, on which to move armoured cars. Along this railroad, at various points there were fortifications, and at intervals 12m of posts and 400m of barbed wire. In addition, booby traps were placed at locations most likely to be attacked. For the rebels it was essential bring the war to the western provinces (Matanzas, Havana and Pinar del Rio) where the island's government and wealth was located. The Ten Year War failed because it had not managed to proceed beyond the eastern provinces. In a successful cavalry campaign, overcoming the trochas they invaded every province. Surrounding all larger cities and well fortified towns they arrived at the westernmost tip of the island on January 22, 1896, exactly 3 months after the invasion near Baraguá. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 64-65. Campos was replaced by General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau (nicknamed the "butcher") who reacted to these successes by introducing terror methods: periodic executions, mass exile, and destruction of farms and crops. These methods reached their height on October 21, 1896, when he ordered all countryside residents and their livestock to gather in various fortified areas and towns occupied by his troops within 8 days. Hundreds of thousands of people had to leave their homes creating appalling and inhumane conditions in the crowded towns and cities. It is estimated that this measure caused the death of at least one third of Cuba’s rural population. Canalejas, José in Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 66. The forced relocation was maintained until March 1898. Starting in the early 80 Spain had also suppressing an independence movement in the Philippines, which was intensifying and Spain was now fighting two wars, which were putting a heavy burden on its economy. But, it turned down offers in secret negotiations by the US in 1896, closely following the war, to buy Cuba from Spain. Maceo was killed December 7, 1896, in Havana province while returning from the west. As the war went on, the major obstacle to Cuban success was weapons supply. Although weapons and funding came from within the US, the supply operation violated American laws, which were enforced by the US Coast Guard; of 71 re-supply missions only 27 got through, 5 were stopped by the Spanish but 33 by the US Coast Guard. In 1897 the liberation army maintained a privileged position in Camagüey and Oriente, where the Spanish only controlled a few cities. Spanish Liberal leader Praxedes Sagasta admitted in May 1897: “After having sent 200,000 men and shed so much blood, we don’t own more land on the island than what our soldiers are stepping on”. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 69. The rebel force of 3,000 defeated the Spanish in various encounters, such as the battle of La Reforma or the surrender of Las Tunas on August 30 and the Spaniards were kept on the defensive. Las Tunas had been guarded by over 1,000 well-armed-and-supplied men. As stipulated at the Jimaguayú Assembly two years earlier, a second Constituent Assembly met in La Yaya, Camagüey on October 10, 1897. The newly adopted constitution supplied for a military command subordinated to civilian rule. The government was confirmed, naming Bartolomé Masó President and Dr. Domingo Méndez Capote Vice President. Madrid decided to change its policy towards Cuba, replaced Weyler, drew up a colonial constitution for Cuba and Puerto Rico and installed a new government in Havana. But with half the country out of its control and the other half in arms it was powerless and rejected by the rebels. The Maine incident Wreckage of the Maine, 1898 The Cuban struggle for independence had captured the American imagination for years and newspapers had been agitating for intervention with sensational stories of Spanish atrocities against the native Cuban population, intentionally sensationalized and exaggerated. Americans believed that Cuba's battle with Spain resembled America's Revolutionary War. This continued even after Spain replaced Weyler and changed its policies and American public opinion was very much in favour of intervening in favour of the Cubans. In January 1898, a riot by Cuban Spanish loyalists against the new autonomous government broke out in Havana leading to the destruction of the printing presses of four local newspapers for publishing articles critical of Spanish Army atrocities. The US Consul-General cabled Washington with fears for the lives of Americans living in Havana. In response the battleship USS Maine was sent to Havana in the last week of January. On February 15, 1898, the Maine was rocked by an explosion, killing 268 of the crew and sinking the ship in the harbour. The cause of the explosion has not been clearly established to this day. In an attempt to appease the US the colonial government took two steps that had been demanded by President William McKinley: it ended the forced relocation and offered negotiations with the independence fighters. But the truce was rejected by the rebels. The Spanish-American War / The Cuban War Theatre The explosion of the Maine sparked a wave of indignation in the US. Newspaper owners such as William R. Hearst leapt to the conclusion that Spanish officials in Cuba were to blame, and they widely publicized the conspiracy although Spain could have had no interest in getting the US involved in the conflict. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 71. Yellow journalism fuelled American anger by publishing "atrocities" committed by Spain in Cuba. Hearst, when informed by Frederic Remington, whom he had hired to furnish illustrations for his newspaper, that conditions in Cuba were not bad enough to warrant hostilities, allegedly replied, "You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war." McKinley, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed, and the business community opposed the growing public demand for war, which was lashed to fury by yellow journalism. The American cry of the hour became, Remember the Maine, To Hell with Spain! The decisive event was probably the speech of Senator Redfield Proctor delivered on March 17, analyzing the situation and concluding that war was the only answer. The business and religious communities switched sides, leaving McKinley and Reed almost alone in their opposition to the war. Offner 1992 pp 131–35; Michelle Bray Davis and Rollin W. Quimby, "Senator Proctor's Cuban Speech: Speculations on a Cause of the Spanish-American War", Quarterly Journal of Speech 1969 55(2): 131–41. ISSN 0033-5630. “Faced with a revved up, war-ready population, and all the editorial encouragement the two competitors could muster, the U.S. jumped at the opportunity to get involved and showcase its new steam-powered Navy”. On April 11, McKinley asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba for the purpose of ending the civil war there. On April 19, Congress passed joint resolutions (by a vote of 311 to 6 in the House and 42 to 35 in the Senate) supporting Cuban independence and disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, demanding Spanish withdrawal, and authorizing the president to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuban patriots gain independence from Spain. This was adopted by resolution of Congress and included from Senator Henry Teller the Teller Amendment, which passed unanimously, stipulating that “the island of Cuba is, and by right should be, free and independent”. The amendment disclaimed any intention on the part of the U.S. to exercise jurisdiction or control over Cuba for other than pacification reasons, and confirmed that the armed forces would be removed once the war is over. Senate and Congress passed the amendment April 19, McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20, and the ultimatum was forwarded to Spain. War was declared on April 20/21, 1898. On April 19 the U.S. Congress (by a vote of 311 to 6 in the House and 42 to 35 in the Senate) adopted the Joint Resolution for War with Spain, which included the Teller Amendment, named after Colorado Senator Henry Moore Teller. The amendment disclaimed any intention on the part of the U.S. to exercise jurisdiction or control over Cuba for other than pacification reasons, and confirmed that the armed forces would be removed once the war is over. The amendment, pushed through at the last minute by anti-imperialists in the Senate, made no mention of the Philippines, Guam, or Puerto Rico. The U.S. congress formally declared war on April 25. “It's been suggested that a major reason for the U.S. war against Spain was the fierce competition emerging between Joseph Pulitzer's New York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal.” Joseph E. Wisan wrote in an essay titled "The Cuban Crisis As Reflected In The New York Press”, published in “American Imperialism” in 1898: “In the opinion of the writer, the Spanish-American War would not have occurred had not the appearance of Hearst in New York journalism precipitated a bitter battle for newspaper circulation.” It has also been argued that the main reason the U.S. entered the war was the failed secret attempt, in 1896, to purchase Cuba from a weaker, war-depleted Spain. Hostilities started hours after the declaration of war when a US contingent under Admiral William T. Sampson blockaded several Cuban ports. The Americans decided to invade Cuba and to start in Oriente where the Cubans had almost absolute control and were able to co-operate, e. g. by establishing a beachhead and protecting the US landing in Daiquiri. The first US objective was to capture the city of Santiago de Cuba in order to destroy Linares' army and Cervera's fleet. To reach Santiago they had to pass through concentrated Spanish defences in the San Juan Hills and a small town in El Caney. Between June 22 and 24, the Americans landed under General William R. Shafter at Daiquirí and Siboney, east of Santiago, and established a base. The port of Santiago became the main target of naval operations. The U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season. Thus nearby Guantánamo Bay with its excellent harbour was chosen for this purpose and attacked on June 6 (1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay). The Battle of Santiago de Cuba on July 3, 1898, was the largest naval engagement during the Spanish-American War resulting in the destruction of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron (Flota de Ultramar). Resistance in Santiago consolidated around Fort Canosa, Daley#, L. 2000. El Fortin Canosa en la Cuba del 1898. in Los Ultimos Dias del Comienzo. Ensayos sobre la Guerra Hispano-Cubana-Estadounidense. B. E. Aguirre and E. Espina eds. RiL Editores, Santiago de Chile pp. 161–71. All the while major battles between Spaniards and Americans took place at Las Guasimas (Battle of Las Guasimas) on June 24, El Caney Battle of El Caney and San Juan Hill Battle of San Juan Hill on July 1, 1898, outside of Santiago. The Battles at El Caney and San Juan Hills at HomeOfHeroes.com. after which the American advance ground to a halt. Spanish troops successfully defended Fort Canosa, allowing them to stabilize their line and bar the entry to Santiago. The Americans and Cubans forcibly began a bloody, strangling siege of the city which eventually surrendered on July 16, after the defeat of the Spanish Caribbean Squadron. Thus, Oriente was under control of Americans the Cubans, but US General Nelson A. Miles would not allow Cuban troops to enter Santiago, claiming that he wanted to prevent clashes between Cubans and Spaniards. Thus, Cuban General Calixto Carcía, head of the mambi forces in the Eastern department, ordered his troops to hold their respective areas and resigned, writing a letter of protest to General Shafter. After losing the Philippines and Puerto Rico, which had also been invaded by the US, and with no hope of holding on to Cuba, Spain sued for peace on 17 July, 1898. On August 12 the US and Spain signed a protocol of Peace in which Spain agreed to relinquish all claim of sovereignty over and title of Cuba. On December 10, 1898, the US and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, recognizing Cuban independence Although the Cubans had participated in the liberation efforts, the US prevented Cuba from participating in the Paris peace talks and signing the treaty. The treaty set no time limit for US occupation and the Isle of Pines was excluded from Cuba. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 77. Although the treaty officially granted Cuba's independence, US General William R. Shafter refused to allow Cuban General Calixto García and his rebel forces to participate in the surrender ceremonies in Santiago de Cuba. The first US Occupation / Platt Amendment After the Spanish troops left the island in December 1898, the government of Cuba was handed over to the United States on January 1, 1899. The first governor was General John R. Brooke. Unlike Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, the United States did not annex Cuba because of the restrictions imposed in the Teller Amendment. Political changes The US administration was undecided on Cuba’s future status. Once it had been pried away from the Spaniards it was to be assured that it moved and remained in the US sphere. How this was to be achieved was a matter of intense discussion and annexation was an option, not only on the mainland but also in Cuba. McKinley spoke about the links that should exist between the two nations. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 78. Brooke set up a civilian government, also placed US governors in seven newly created departments and named civilian governors in the provinces as well as mayors and representatives in municipalities. Many Spanish colonial government officials were kept in their posts. People were ordered to disarm and, ignoring the Mambi Army, Brooke created the Rural Guard and municipal police corps at the service of the occupation forces. Judicial powers and courts remained legally based on the same codes of the Spanish government. Tomás Estrada Palma, successor of Martí as delegate of the Cuban Revolutionary Party, dissolved the party a few days after the signing of the Paris Treaty in December 1898, claiming that the objectives of the party had been met. The revolutionary Assembly of Representatives was disregarded and also dissolved. Thus, the three representative institutions of the national liberation movement disappeared. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 74. Economical changes Already before the US officially took over the government, it had cut tariffs on US goods entering Cuba without granting the same rights to Cuban goods going to the US. Government payments had to be made in US dollars. In spite of the Foraker Amendment, prohibiting the US occupation government from granting privileges and concessions to US investors, the Cuban economy, facilitated by the occupation government, was soon dominated by US capital. The growth of US sugar estates was so quick that in 1905 nearly 10% of Cuba’s total land area belonged to US citizens. By 1902 US companies controlled 80% of Cuba’s ore exports and owned most of the sugar and cigarette factories. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 76. The U.S. Army began a massive public health program to fight endemic diseases, mainly yellow fever, and an education system was organized at all levels, increasing the number of primary schools fourfold. Voices soon began to be heard, demanding a Constituent Assembly. In December 1899 the US War Secretary assured that the occupation was temporary, that municipal elections would be held, that a Constituent Assembly would be set up, followed by general elections and that sovereignty would be handed to Cubans. Brooke was replaced by General Leonard Wood to oversee the transition. Parties were created, including the Cuban National Party, the Federal Republican Party of Las Villas, the Federal Republican Party of Havana and the Democratic Union Party. The first elections for mayors, treasurers and attorneys of the country’s 110 municipalities for a one-year-term took place on June 16, 1900, but balloting was limited to literate Cubans older than 21 and with properties worth more than 250 US dollars. Only members of the dissolved Liberation Army were exempt from these conditions. Thus, the number of about 418.000 male citizens over 21 was reduced to about 151.000. 360.000 women were totally excluded. The same elections were held one year later, again for a one-year-term. Elections for 31 delegates to a Constituent Assembly were held September 15, 1900 with the same balloting restrictions. In all three elections pro-independence candidates including a large number of mambi delegates won the overwhelming majority. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 79. The Constitution was drawn up from November 1900 to February 1901 and then passed by the Assembly. It established the republican form of government, proclaimed internationally recognized individual rights and liberties, freedom of religion, separation between Church and State and the composition, structure and functions of state powers. On March 2, 1901, the US-Congress passed the Army Appropriations Act stipulating the conditions for the withdrawal of United States troops remaining in Cuba since the Spanish-American War. As a rider this act included the Platt Amendment, which defined the terms of Cuban-U.S. relations until 1934. It replaced the earlier Teller Amendment. The amendment provided for a number of rules: Cuba would not transfer Cuban land to any power other than the United States. Cuba would contract no foreign debt without guarantees that the interest could be served from ordinary revenues. The right to US intervention in Cuban affairs and military occupation when the US authorities considered that the life, properties and rights of US citizens were in danger, Cuba was prohibited from negotiating treaties with any country other than the United States “which will impair or to impair the independence of Cuba”. Cuba was prohibited to “permit any foreign power or powers to obtain... lodgement in or control over any portion” of Cuba. The Isle of Pines (now called Isla de la Juventud) was deemed outside the boundaries of Cuba until the title to it was adjusted in a future treaty. The sale or lease to the United States of “lands necessary for coaling or naval stations at certain specified points to be agreed upon.” The amendment ceded to the United States the naval base in Cuba (Guantánamo Bay) and granted the right to use a number of other naval bases as coal stations. As a precondition to Cuba’s independence the US demanded that this amendment be approved fully and without changes by the Constituent Assembly as an appendix to the new constitution. Faced with this alternative the appendix was approved after heated debating with a margin of 4 votes. Governor Wood admitted: “Little or no independence had been left to Cuba with the Platt Amendment and the only thing appropriate was to seek annexation” In the following presidential elections on December 31, 1901, Tomás Estrada Palma, a US citizen still living in the United States, was the only candidate. His adversary, General Barolomé Masó, withdrew his candidacy in protest against US favoritism and the manipulation of the political machine by Palma’s followers. Palma was elected to be the Republic’s first President and only returned to Cuba four months after the election. US occupation officially ended when Palma took office on May 20, 1902. Cantón Navarro, José. History of Cuba, p. 81. Cuba in the early 20th century In 1902, the United States handed over control to a Cuban government that as a condition of the transfer had included in its constitution provisions implementing the requirements of the Platt Amendment, which among other things gave the United States the right to intervene militarily in Cuba. Havana and Varadero became tourist resorts, adorned with casinos and strip-clubs. The Cuban population gradually enacted civil rights anti-discrimination legislation that ordered minimum employment quotas for Cubans. President Tomás Estrada Palma was elected in 1902, and Cuba was declared independent, though Guantanamo Bay was leased to the United States as part of the Platt Amendment. The status of the Isle of Pines as Cuban territory was left undefined until 1925 when the United States finally recognized Cuban sovereignty over the island. Estrada Palma, a frugal man, governed successfully for his four year term; yet when he tried to extend his time in office, a revolt ensued. In 1906, the United States representative William Howard Taft, notably with the personal diplomacy of Frederick Funston, negotiated an end of the successful revolt led by able young general Enrique Loynaz del Castillo, who had served under Antonio Maceo in the final war of independence. Estrada Palma resigned. The United States Governor Charles Magoon assumed temporary control until 1909. In this period in the area of Manzanillo, Agustín Martín Veloz, Blas Roca, and Francisco (Paquito) Rosales founded the embryonic Cuban Communist Party. For three decades, the country was led by former War of Independence leaders, who after being elected did not serve more than two constitutional terms. The Cuban presidential succession was as follows: José Miguel Gómez (1908-1912); Mario Garcia Menocal (1913-1920); Alfredo Zayas (1921-25). In World War I, Cuba declared war on Imperial Germany on April 7, 1917, the day after the US entered the war. Despite being unable to send troops to fight in Europe, Cuba played a significant role as a base to protect the West Indies from U-Boat attacks. A draft law was instituted, and 25,000 Cuban troops raised, but the war ended before they could be sent into action. After the World War I President Gerardo Machado was elected by popular vote in 1925, but he was constitutionally barred from reelection. Machado, who determined to modernize Cuba, set in motion several massive civil works projects such as the Central Highway, but at the end of his constitutional term held on to power. The United States, despite the Platt Amendment, decided not to interfere militarily. The communists of the PCC did very little to resist Machado in his dictator phase; however, practically everybody else did. In the late 1920s and early 1930s a number of Cuban action groups, including some Mambí, staged a series of uprisings that either failed or did not affect the capital. After much complex rebellion, Machado was asked to leave by the Cuban Army and senior Cuban civil leaders in 1933. After Machado was deposed there was a confused short interregnum. About six months later still, in September 1933, there was a successful mutiny by enlisted soldiers and non-commissioned officers, taking the lower ranks of the Cuban Army to power. A key figure in the process was Fulgencio Batista, an army sergeant holding a key post as a telegraph officer. Batista, with his straight Taíno hair and very dark skin, often lightened in later photographs, was known as "El Mulato Lindo"; he was the first and only mulatto leader in Cuban history. The 1940 Constitution President Carlos Prío Socarrás (left), with US president Harry S. Truman in Washington, 1948. In 1940, Cuba had free and fair elections. Batista, endorsed by Communists , won the election. Communists attacked the anti-Batista opposition, saying that Ramón Grau and others were "fascists", "reactionaries", and "Trotskyists". The 1940 Constitution, which Julia E. Sweig describes as extraordinary progressivist, was adopted by Batista administration. Batista was voted out of office in 1944 elections. Batista was succeeded by Dr. Ramón Grau San Martín in 1944, a populist physician, who had briefly held the presidency in the 1933 revolutionary process. President Grau made a deal with labor union to continue Batista's pro-labour policies. Grau administration was corrupt. The country was also steadily gaining a reputation as a base for organized crime, with the Havana Conference of 1946 seeing leading Mafia mobsters descend upon the city. http://crimemagazine.com/havana.htm Grau was followed by Carlos Prío Socarrás, also elected democratically, but whose government was tainted by increasing corruption and violent incidents among political factions. Around the same time Fidel Castro had become a public figure at the University of Havana. Eduardo Chibás was the leader of the Partido Ortodoxo (Orthodox Party), a liberal democratic group, who was widely expected to win in 1952 on an anticorruption platform. Chibás committed suicide before he could run for the presidency, and the opposition was left without its major leader. Taking advantage of the opportunity, Batista, who was running for president in the 1952 elections, but was only expected to get a small minority of votes, seized power in an almost bloodless coup three months before the election was to take place. President Prío did nothing to stop the coup, and was forced to leave the island. Due to the corruption of the past two administrations, the general public reaction to the coup was somewhat accepting at first. However, Batista soon encountered stiff opposition when he temporarily suspended the balloting and the constitution, and attempted to rule by decree. Elections were held in 1953 and Batista was elected. Opposition parties mounted a blistering campaign, and continued to do so, using the Cuban free press during all of Batista's tenure in office. Although Batista was intent on lining his pockets, Cuba did flourish economically during his regime. Cuba's wages were among the world's highest. According to International Labor Organization, the average industrial salary in Cuba was the world's 8th highest in 1958. The average agricultural wages were higher than in Denmark, West Germany, Belgium, or France. Although a third of the population still lived in poverty, Cuba was one of the five most developed countries in Latin America. Only 44% of the population was rural. Gross domestic product per capita was already about equal to Italy and significantly higher than that of countries such as Japan, although 1/6 of the US. United Nations described the economy with "one feature of the Cuban social structure is a large middle class". Eight-hour day had been established in 1933, long before other countries. Cuba had a months's paid holiday, nine days' sick leave with pay, six weeks' holiday before and after childbirth. Cuba had the Latin America's highest per capita consumption rates of meat, vegetables, cereals, automobiles, telephones and radios. Televisions per capita was the fifth highest in the world. Despite small size, it had the world's 8th highest number of radio stations (160). According to the United Nations, Cubans read 58 daily newspapers during the late 1950s, only behind three much more populous countries: Brazil, Argentina and Mexico. People migrated to Havana at fast pace. Havana was the world's fourth most expensive city. Havana had more cinemas than New York. Cuba had one of the highest numbers of doctors per capita - more than in the United Kingdom. The mortality rate was the third lowest in the world. According to the World Health Organization, the island had the lowest infant mortality rate of Latin America and the 13th lowest in the world - better than in France, Belgium, West Germany, Israel, Japan, Austria, Italy, Spain, and Portugal. Cuba had the highest rates of education spending in Latin America. Cuba had the 4th highest literacy in the region at almost 80% according to the United Nations, higher than in Spain. Economy could not always keep up with demand. Cuban had already the highest telephone penetration in Latin America - but thousands were still waiting, which cause frustration. However, United States was the frame of reference, not Latin America. Cubans travelled to America, read American newspapers, listened to American radio, watched American television, and were attracted to American culture. Middle class Cubans dreamed of American economy and the gap between Cuba and the US increasingly frustrated many in the mid-1950. The middle class became increasingly dissatisfied with the administration, while labour unions supported Batista until the very end. There were large income disparities that were a result of the fact that Cuba's unionized workers enjoyed perhaps the largest privileges in Latin America. Cuban labour unions had established limitations on mechanization and the bans on dismissals. The labour union privileges were obtained in large measure "at the cost of the unemployed and the peasants". Cuba's labour regulations caused economic stagnation. Hugh Thomas asserts that "militant unions succeded in maintaining the position of unionized workers and, consequently, made it difficult for capital to improve efficiency." Between 1933 and 1958, Cuba increased economic regulation enormously. The regulation led to declining investment. World Bank also complained that the Batista administration raised tax burden without assessing its impact. Unemployment was large. Many graduates could not find jobs. Cuban gross domestic product grew at only 1% annual rate during 1950-1958. The Cuban Revolution Fidel Castro, a young lawyer from a rich family, who was running for a seat in the Chamber of Representatives for the Partido Ortodoxo, circulated a petition to depose Batista's government on the grounds that it had illegitimately suspended the electoral process. However, the petition was not acted upon by the courts. On July 26, 1953, Castro led a historic attack on the Moncada Barracks near Santiago de Cuba, but failed. Many soldiers were killed by Castro's forces. Castro was captured, tried and sentenced to 15 years in prison. However, he was released by the Batista government in 1956, when amnesty was given to many political prisoners, including the ones that assaulted the Moncada barracks. Castro subsequently went into exile in Mexico where he met Ernesto "Che" Guevara. While in Mexico, he organized the 26th of July Movement with the goal of overthrowing Batista. A group of over 80 men sailed to Cuba on board the yacht Granma, landing in the eastern part of the island in December 1956. Despite a pre-landing rising in Santiago by Frank Pais and his followers of the urban pro-Castro movement, most of Castro's men were promptly killed, dispersed or taken prisoner by Batista's forces. Castro managed to escape to the Sierra Maestra mountains with about 12-17 effectives, aided by the urban and rural opposition, including Celia Sanchez and the bandits of Cresencio Perez's family, he began a guerrilla campaign against the regime. Castro's main forces supported by numerous poorly armed escopeteros, and with support from the well armed fighters of the Frank Pais urban organization who at times went to the mountains the rebel army grew more and more effective. The country was soon driven to chaos conducted in the cities by diverse groups of the anti-Batista resistance and notably a bloodily crushed rising by the Batista Navy personnel in Cienfuegos. At the same time, rival guerrilla groups in the Escambray Mountains also grew more and more effective. Castro attempted to arrange a general strike in 1958, but did not get support from Communists or labor unions. United States imposed trade restrictions on the Batista administration and sent an envoy which attempted to persuade Batista to leave the country voluntary. The middle class was dissatisfied with the unemployment and wanted to restore the 1940 constitution. Batista fled on January 1, 1959. Castro took over. Within months of taking control, Castro moved to consolidate power by brutally marginalizing other resistance groups and figures and imprisoning and executing opponents and former supporters. As the revolution became more radical and continued its persecution of those who did not agree with its direction, hundreds of thousands of Cubans fled the island. Castro's Cuba Socialism As early as September 1959, Valdim Kotchergin (or Kochergin), a KGB agent, was seen in Cuba. (British Foreign Office. Chancery American Department, Foreign Office, London September 2, 1959 (2181/59) to British Embassy Havana classified as restricted Released 2000 by among British Foreign Office papers FOREIGN OFFICES FILES FOR CUBA Part 1: Revolution in Cuba “in our letter 1011/59 May 6 we mentioned that a Russian workers' delegation had been invited to participate in the May Day celebrations here, but had been delayed. The interpreter with the party, which arrived later and stayed in Cuba a few days, was called Vadim Kotchergin although he was at the time using what he subsequently claimed was his mother's name of Liston (?). He remained in the background, and did not attract any attention..” (English title: The training camp "Point Zero" where the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) trained national and international terrorists) “... Los coroneles soviéticos de la KGB Vadim Kochergin y Victor Simonov (ascendido a general en 1970) fueron entrenadores en "Punto Cero" desde finales de los años 60 del siglo pasado. Uno de los" graduados" por Simonov en este campo de entrenamiento es Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, más conocido como "Carlos El Chacal". Otro "alumno" de esta instalación del terror es el mexicano Rafael Sebastián Guillén, alias "subcomandante Marcos", quien se "graduó" en "Punto Cero" a principio de los años 80.” Jorge Luis Vasquez, a Cuban who was imprisoned in East Germany, states that the Stasi trained the personnel of the Cuban Interior Ministry(MINIT). The relationship between the Soviet Union's KGB and the Cuban Intelligence Directorate was complex and marked by times of extremely close cooperation and times of extreme competition. The Soviet Union saw the new revolutionary government in Cuba as an excellent proxy agent in areas of the world where Soviet involvement was not popular on a local level. Nikolai Leninov, the KGB Chief in Mexico City, was one of the first Soviet officials to recognize Fidel Castro's potential as a revolutionary and urged the Soviet Union to strengthen ties with the new Cuban leader. Moscow saw Cuba as having far more appeal with new revolutionary movements, western intellectuals, and members of the New Left with Cuba's perceived David and Goliath struggle against US imperialism. Shortly after the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1963, Moscow invited 1,500 DI agents, including Che Guevara, to the KGB's Moscow Center for intensive training in intelligence operations. Fidel Castro quickly purged political opponents from the administration. Loyalty to Castro became the primary criteria for all appointments. Groups such as labour unions were made illegal. By the end of 1960, all opposition newspaper had been closed down and all radio and television stations were in state control. Teachers and professors were purged. The Communist Party strengthened its one-party rule, with Castro as the supreme leader. Moderates were arrested. Fidel's brother Raul Castro became the army chief. In September 1960, the neighborhood watch systems known as committees for the defense of the revolution (CDR) were created. In the 1961 New Year's Day parade, the Communist administration exhibited Soviet tanks and other weapons. The Revolution, by 1982, had created the second largest armed forces in Latin America, second only to Brazil, though it was thought not to have the ability to invade another nation (apart from perhaps small Caribbean nations). In July 1961, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations (BYA) was formed by the merger of Fidel Castro's 26th of July Revolutionary Movement, the People's Socialist Party (the old Communist Party) led by Blas Roca and the Revolutionary Directory March 13 led by Faure Chomón. On March 26, 1962, the ORI became the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution (PURSC) which, in turn, became the Communist Party of Cuba on October 3, 1965, with Castro as First Secretary. Che Guevara's economic policies ruined the economy until he was sent to Africa in 1965. Fidel Castro admitted the failures in a 1970 speech. By 1970s the standard of living was "extremely spartan" and discontent was rife. Castro changed economic policies in the first half of 1970s. In the 1970s unemployment reappeared as problem. The solution was criminalize unemployment with 1971 Anti-Loafing Law; unemployed would be put into jail. One alternative was to go fight Soviet-supported wars in Africa. In any given year, there were about 20,000 dissents held and tortured under inhuman prison conditions. Homosexuals were imprisoned in internment camps in the 1960s, where they were subject to medical-political "reeducation". The Black Book of Communism estimates that 15,000-17,000 people were executed. Black Book of Communism. p. 664. From 1959 through 1993, some 1.2 million Cubans (about 10% of the current population) left the island for the United States , often by sea in small boats and fragile rafts. In the early years a number of those who could claim dual Spanish-Cuban citizenship left for Spain. Over time a number of Cuban Jews were allowed to emigrate to Israel after quiet negotiations; the majority of the 10,000 or so Jews who were in Cuba in 1959 have left. After the collapse of the Soviet Union many Cubans now reside in a diverse number of countries, some ending up in countries of the European Union. A large number of Cubans live in Mexico and Canada. Break with the United States The U.S. recognized the Castro government on January 7, only six days after Batista fled Cuba. President Eisenhower sent a new ambassador, Philip Bonsal, to replace Earl Smith, who had been close to Batista. The Eisenhower administration, in agreement with the US media and the Congress (Republicans and Democrats alike), did this with the assumption that “Cuba must remain in the US sphere of influence”. If Castro accepted these parameters, he would be allowed to stay in power. Otherwise he would be overthrown. Gleijeses, Piero: Conflicting Missions, Havana, Washington and Africa, 1959–1976, The University of North Carolina Press, 2002, p. 14. Among the opponents of Batista there were many who wanted to accommodate the US. Castro belonged to a faction who, to the astonishment of Eisenhower and many North Americans, was repulsed by US domination and paternalism. Castro did not forgive the US supply of arms to Batista during the revolution. On 5 June 1958, he wrote: “The Americans are going to pay dearly for what they are doing. When the war is over, I’ll start a much longer and bigger war of my own: the war I’m going to fight against them. That will be my true destiny.” Castro to Celia Sanches, June 5, 1958 in Franqui: Diary, p. 338. (The US had stopped supplies to Batista in March 1958, but left its Military Advisory Group in Cuba Paterson in: Contesting Castro, p. 242. ). Thus, Castro had no intention to bow to the US. “Even though he did not have a clear blueprint of the Cuba he wanted to create, Castro dreamed of a sweeping revolution that would uproot his country’s oppressive socioeconomic structure and of a Cuba that would be free of the United States”. Quotations from “Unofficial Visit of Prime Minister Castro of Cuba to Washington – A Tentative Evaluation”, enclosed in Herter to Eisenhower, April 23, 1959, jFRUS 1958–60, 6:483, and Special NIE in: “The Situation in the Caribbean through 1959”, June 30, 1959, p. 3, NSA Only six months after Castro seized power, the Eisenhower administration began to plot his ouster. The United Kingdom was persuaded to cancel the sale of Hawker Hunter fighter aircraft to Cuba. "At an NSC meeting on 14 January 1960, Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs Livingston T. Merchant noted, that "our present objective was to adjust all our actions in such a way as to accelerate the development of an opposition in Cuba which would bring about… a new government favorable to US interests." At the same meeting Roy Rubottom, Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, summarized the evolution of Cuba–United States relations since January: "The period from January to March might be characterized as the honeymoon period of the Castro government. In April a downward trend in U.S.-Cuban relations had been evident...In June we had reached the decision that it was not possible to achieve our objectives with Castro in power and had agreed to undertake the program referred to by Mr. Merchant. In July and August we had been busy drawing up a program to replace Castro. However some US companies reported to us during this time that they were making some progress in negotiations, a factor that caused us to slow the implementation of our program. The hope expressed by these companies did not materialize. October was a period of clarification… On October 31., in agreement with CIA, the Department had recommended to the President approval of a program along the lines referred to by Mr. Merchant. The approved program authorized us to support elements in Cuba opposed to the Castro government while making Castro’s downfall seem to be the result of his own mistakes." NSC meeting, January 14, 1960, FRUS 1958-60, 6:742–43. “It was probably as part of this program that Cuban exiles mounted sea borne raids against Cuba from US territory and that unidentified planes attacked economic targets on the island, leading the US to warn Washington that the population was “becoming aroused” against the United States”. Braddock to SecState, Havana, February 1, 1960, FRUS 1958–60, 6:778. Gleijeses, Piero in: Conflicting Missions, Havana, Washington and Africa, 1959–1976, The University of North Carolina Press, 2002, pp. 14–5. In January 1960, CIA Chief Allen Dulles proposed to sabotage sugar refineries on Cuba. Eisenhower considered such undertakings timely and felt that more ambitious programs should be implemented. In his view “it was probably now the time to move against Castro in a positive and aggressive way which went beyond pure harassment”. He asked the CIA to develop an enlarged program which was presented in March 1960. Gray (Eisenhower’s special assistant for national security affairs) to Wilson (assistant director, DDEL), December 3, 1974, p. 1, Gray Papers, box 2, DDEL. This program led to the invasion in the Bay of Pigs. Kornbluh: Bay of Pigs. Blight and Kornbluh in: Politics Vandenbroucke in: Perilous Options, p. 9-50 Bissell: Reflections, pp. 152–204 In February 1960, the French ship La Coubre was blown up in Havana harbor as it unloaded munitions, killing dozens. Relations between the United States and Cuba deteriorated rapidly as the Cuban government, in reaction to the refusal of Royal Dutch Shell, Standard Oil and Texaco to refine petroleum from the Soviet Union in Cuban refineries under their control, took control of those refineries in July 1960. The Eisenhower administration promoted a boycott of Cuba by oil companies, to which Cuba responded by nationalizing the refineries in August 1960. Both sides continued to escalate the dispute. Cuba expropriated more US-owned properties, notably those belonging to the International Telephone and Telegraph Company (ITT) and the United Fruit Company. In the Castro government’s first agrarian reform law, on 17 May 1959, it sought to limit the size of land holdings, and to distribute that land to small farmers in "Vital Minimum" tracts. In compensation, the Cuban government offered to pay the landholders based on the tax assessment values for the land; in reality little or no compensation was paid. Reasons for this include that actual payment would be with twenty-year bonds paying 4.5% interest (instead of the then U.S. investment grade corporate bond rate of 3.8%). Landholders from most other countries settled on this basis. The problem was with the tax assessed values. Most of the large landholdings had been acquired in the 1920 period when world sugar prices were depressed, and the land could be bought at bargain-basement prices. In the intervening period, former Cuban governments friendly to these interests had kept these bargain prices as the basis for calculating property taxes, thus insuring that those taxes would be kept low. However, as Castro’s control of the island’s assets tightened and more nationalization campaigns took place, promises such as these were not honored. The US broke diplomatic relations on 3 January 1961 and imposed the U.S. embargo against Cuba on 3 February 1962. The embargo is still in effect , although some humanitarian trade in food and medicines is now allowed. At first, the embargo didn’t extend to other countries and Cuba traded with most European, Asian and Latin American countries and especially Canada. But now the United States pressures other nations and US companies with foreign subsidiaries to restrict trade with Cuba. Also, the Helms-Burton Act of 1996 makes it very difficult for companies doing business with Cuba to also do business in the United States, forcing internationals to choose between the two. The establishment of a socialist system in Cuba led to the fleeing of many hundreds of thousands of upper- and middle-class Cubans to the United States and other countries since Castro's rise to power. One major exception to the embargo was made on 6 November 1965 when Cuba and the United States formally agreed to start an airlift for Cubans who wanted to go to the United States. The first of these so-called Freedom Flights left Cuba on 1 December 1965 and by 1971 over 250,000 Cubans had flown to the United States. In 1980, another 125,000 came to US during six-months period in the Mariel boat lift, some of them criminals and people with psychiatric diagnoses. It was discovered that the Cuban government was using the event to rid Cuba of the unwanted segments of its society. Currently, there is an immigration lottery allowing 20,000 Cubans seeking political asylum to go to the United States legally every year. The closest points between Key West and Cuba are at a distance of ninety-four statue miles apart. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_West,_Florida The ocean separating the two destinations is known for its changing currents and high concentrations of sharks. Volusia County of Florida neighbors the Atlantic Ocean and is considered the "Shark Capital of the World." http://volusia.org/beach/shark_facts.htm Nonetheless, a thousand or more Cuban natives take the risk of traveling by small raft or boat to Key West, the southern most part of the continental US. By 1961, thousands of Cubans had fled Cuba for the United States. On March 22, an exile council was formed. After defeating the Communist regime, the council planned to form a provisional government in which José Miró Cardona (who had become a noted leader in the civil opposition to President Fulgencio Batista) would have served as the temporary president until elections. John F. Kennedy decided to support exile efforts, as long as U.S. troops were not used. The attack began on April 15, 1961, when exiles, flying planes provided by the United States bombed several Cuban air force bases. This attack did not succeed in destroying all of Castro's air force. Castro declared Cuba a communist state in a speech on April 16, 1961. On April 17, 1961, a force of about 1,500 Cuban exiles helped by CIA, landed in the south during the Bay of Pigs Invasion. Their assumption was that the invasion would spark a popular rising against Castro. Castro's forces were forewarned of the invasion and had arrested hundreds of thousands of suspected "subversives," before the invasion landed (Priestland, 2003). Castro executed high level defectors from his own ranks notably William Morgan and Sori Marin. There was no popular uprising. Most of the invasion force made it ashore; however, all their supplies did not. Despite some initial advances during which thousands of Castro militia died, the exile forces were quickly defeated as President Kennedy did not allow the U.S. Navy—already on site—to provide the air support he had promised. Many believe that the invasion, instead of weakening Castro, actually helped him consolidate his grip on power. The Organization of American States, under pressure from the United States, suspended Cuba's membership in the body on January 22, 1962 and the U.S. Government banned all U.S-Cuban trade a couple of weeks later on February 7. The Kennedy administration extended this on February 8, 1963 making travel, financial and commercial transactions by U.S. citizens to Cuba illegal. Priestland, Jane (editor) 2003 British Archives on Cuba: Cuba under Castro 1959-1962. Archival Publications International Limited, 2003, London ISBN 1-903008-20-4 In April 2009 Barrack Obama expressed his intention to relax the existing travel restrictions by making it legal for Americans to travel to Cuba. The Cuban Missile Crisis Tensions between the two governments peaked again during the October 1962 Cuban missile crisis. The United States had a much larger arsenal of long-range nuclear weapons than the Soviet Union, as well as medium-range ballistic missiles (MRBMs) in Turkey, whereas the Soviet Union had a large stockpile of medium-range nuclear weapons which were primarily located in Europe. Cuba agreed to let the Soviets secretly place SS-4 Sandal and SS-5 Skean MRBMs in their on their territory. Reports from inside Cuba to exile sources questioned the need for large amounts of ice going to rural areas, which led to the discovery of the missiles, confirmed by U-2s. The United States responded by establishing a cordon in international waters to stop Soviet ships from bringing in more missiles (designated a quarantine rather than a blockade to avoid issues with international law). At the same time, Castro was getting a little too extreme for the liking of Moscow, so at the last moment the Soviets called back their ships. In addition, they agreed to remove the missiles already there in exchange for an agreement that the United States would not invade Cuba. Only after the fall of the Soviet Union was it revealed that another part of the agreement was the removal of U.S. missiles from Turkey. It also turned out that some submarines that the U.S. Navy blocked were carrying nuclear missiles and that communication with Moscow was tenuous, effectively leaving the decision of firing the missiles at the discretion of the captains of those submarines. In addition, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian government revealed that FROGs (Free Rocket Over Ground) armed with nuclear warheads and IL-28 Beagle bombers armed with nuclear bombs had also been deployed in Cuba, to be used in the event of a US invasion. The United States has honored this agreement by not attacking Cuba again, but the CIA has continued to support anti-Castro groups by mounting extensive international campaigns and several botched assassination attempts throughout the 1960s. And the agreement was specifically about Cuban territory. Cuba has in turn provided military support to revolutions in Angola, Nigeria and parts of South America. During one such campaign, Ernesto "Che" Guevara was captured by U.S.-trained commandos in Bolivia in 1967 and ultimately executed. He has since become a symbol of revolution worldwide, remembered for his ideology and untimely death on one hand, and for the Sierra Maestra blood purges and his role in executions after Castro gained power on the other. A stylized likeness of him later become popular on t-shirts and posters. Cuban Internationalism From the very beginning the Cuban Revolution defined itself as internationalist and focused on the whole world. Thus, out of this idealism and also as a strategy for survival, already one year after the victory of revolution on Cuba the country took on civil and military assignments in the southern hemisphere. Although still a third world country itself Cuba supported African, Central American and Asian countries in the field of military, health and education. These “overseas adventures” not only irritated the USA but quite often were a “major headache” for the Kremlin. Jim Lobe http://www.strategypage.com/militaryforums/50-9.aspx The Sandinista insurgency in Nicaragua which lead to the demise of the Somoza-Dictatorship in 1979, was openly supported by Cuba and can be considered its greatest success in Latin America. Apart from that, Cuban efforts bore little fruit in this region considered to be the back door of the US. Quite the contrary was the case on the African continent, where Cuba garnered a number of successes in supporting 17 liberation movements or leftist governments, e. g. Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique. Among these countries Angola takes an exceptional position. In the mid 1960s, Africa moved to the centre of Cuba’s foreign activities. Patrice Lumumba, Amilcar Cabral and Agostinho Neto requested help from Cuba. Fidel Castro was a friend of the Marxist-Leninist dictator Mengistu Haile Mariam, whose Marxist-Leninist regime murdered millions during the Red Terror and was later convicted of genocide and crimes against humanity. Castro backed Mengistu Haile Mariam even when the latter had a war with the Somalian Marxist-Leninist dictator Siad Barre. Castro described said to Erich Honecker, communist dictator of East Germany, that Siad Barre was "above all a chauvinist". Already in 1961 in its first mission Cuba supported the FLN in Algeria against France. Shortly after Algerian independence Morocco started a border dispute in October 1963 in which Cuba sent troops to help Algeria (see: Sand War ). From a Memorandum of 20 October, 1963 by Major Raúl Castro it can be seen, that great importance was attached to the decent behaviour of the troops and good relations giving strict instructions on conduct. http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB67/gleijeses10.pdf (Document from the Centro de Informacion de la Defensa de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias, CIDFAR, [Information Centre of the Revolutionary Armed Forces]) In 1965 Cuba supported a rebellion of adherents of Lumumba (Simba Rebellion) in Congo-Leopoldville (today Democratic Republic of the Congo) under the personal leadership of Ernesto Che Guevara. Among the insurgents was also Laurent-Désiré Kabila who, 30 years later, would overthrow long-time dictator Mobutu. This secret Cuban mission turned out to be a complete failure. Ernesto Che Guevara: "The African Dream" The Diaries of the Revolutionary War in the Congo. With an Introduction by Richard Gott (New York: Grove Press, 2001) In contrast Cuba’s influence was decisive in Guinea-Bissau’s war of independence against Portugal from 1966 to 1974 and especially in Angola. Cuba's involvement in Angola began in the 1960s when relations were established with the leftist Movement for the Popular Liberation of Angola (MPLA). The MPLA was one of three organisations struggling to liberate Angola from Portugal, the other two being UNITA and the FNLA, mainly supported by the West and Apartheid South Africa. After the Carnation Revolution in 1974, the Portuguese withdrew quite suddenly from Angola, ending 400 years of colonialism. The MPLA gained control of the capital of Luanda. In August and October 1975, South African Defence Forces (SADF) invaded Angola in support of the UNITA and FNLA. On 5 November 1975, without consulting the USSR, the Cuban government opted for an all out intervention with combat troops Operation Carlota in support of the MPLA. Cuban military assistance was decisive in repelling the attacks on Luanda in the battle of Kifangondo, in the demise of the FNLA and the establishment of a leftist government. In 1987-1988, South Africa again sent military forces to Angola to stop an advance of Angolan government forces (FAPLA) against UNITA leading to the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale, and again, without consulting the USSR, Cuba stepped in. Cuba directly participated in the negotiations between Angola and South Africa. On 22 December 1988 Angola, Cuba and South Africa signed the Tripartite Accord in New York arranging for the retreat of South Africa, the withdrawal of Cuban troops within 30 months and the implementation of the 10 year old UN Security Council Resolution 435 for the independence of Namibia. The Cuban intervention, for a short time, turned Cuba into a “global player” in the midst of the Cold War. It ended with the independence of Namibia and sounded the bell for the decline of the Apartheid regime in South Africa. The withdrawal of the Cubans ended 13 years of military presence in Angola. At the same time they removed their troops from Pointe Noire Republic of the Congo and Ethiopia. “Une Odyssee Africaine” (France, 2006, 59mn) directed by: Jihan El Tahri Cuba (11/07) In the 1970s and 1980s Cuba stepped up its military presence abroad, especially in Africa. It had up to 50,000 men stationed in Angola, 24,000 in Ethiopia and hundreds in other countries. Cuban forces played a key role in the Ogaden War 1977/78 between Ethiopia and Somalia and kept a substantial garrison stationed in Ethiopia. In the Mozambican Civil War beginning in 1977 and in Congo-Brazzaville (today Republic of the Congo) Cubans acted as advisors. Congo-Brazzaville acted as a supply base for the Angola mission. Cuba after the Soviet Union When the Soviet Union broke up in late 1991, a major boost to Cuba's economy was lost, leaving it essentially paralyzed because of the economy's narrow basis, focused on just a few products with just a few buyers. Also, supplies (including oil) almost dried up. Over 80% of Cuba's trade was lost and living conditions worsened. A "Special Period in Peacetime" was declared, which included cutbacks on transport and electricity and even food rationing. In response, the United States tightened up its trade embargo, hoping it would lead to Castro's downfall. But Castro tapped into a pre-revolutionary source of income and opened the country to tourism, entering into several joint ventures with foreign companies for hotel, agricultural and industrial projects. As a result, the use of U.S. dollars was legalized in 1994, with special stores being opened which only sold in dollars. There were two separate economies, dollar-economy and the peso-economy, creating a social split in the island because those in the dollar-economy made much more money (as in the tourist-industry). However, in October 2004, the Cuban government announced an end to this policy: from November U.S. dollars would no longer be legal tender in Cuba, but would instead be exchanged for convertible pesos (since April 2005 at the exchange rate of $1.08) with a 10% tax payable to the state on the exchange of U.S. dollars cash — though not on other forms of exchange. A Canadian Medical Association Journal paper states that "The famine in Cuba during the Special Period was caused by political and economic factors similar to the ones that caused a famine in North Korea in the mid-1990s. Both countries were run by authoritarian regimes that denied ordinary people the food to which they were entitled when the public food distribution collapsed; priority was given to the elite classes and the military." The government did not accept American donations of food, medicines and cash until 1993. Cubans had to resort to eating anything they could find. In the Havana zoo, the peacocks, the buffalo and even the rhea were reported to have disappeared. Cuban domestic cats disappeared from streets to dinner tables. Extreme shortages of food and other goods as well as electrical blackouts led to a brief period of unrest, including numerous anti-government protests and widespread increases in crime. In response, the Cuban Communist party government formed hundreds of “rapid-action brigades” to confront protesters. According to the Communist Party daily, Granma, "delinquents and anti-social elements who try to create disorder and an atmosphere of mistrust and impunity in our society will receive a crushing reply from the people." The Tugboat massacre in 1994 was a massacre of fleeing Cubans. In 1997, a group led by Vladimiro Roca, a decorated veteran of the Angolan war and the son of the founder of the Cuban Communist Party, sent a petition, entitled La Patria es de Todos ("the homeland belongs to all") to the Cuban general assembly requesting democratic and human rights reforms. As a result, Roca and his three associates were sentenced to jail, from which they were eventually released. In 2001, a group of activists collected thousands of signatures for the Varela Project, a petition requesting a referendum on the island's political process was openly supported by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter during his historic 2002 visit to Cuba. The petition gathered sufficient signatures, but was rejected on an alleged technicality. Instead, a plebiscite was held in which it was formally proclaimed that Castro's brand of socialism would be perpetual. In 2003, Castro cracked down on independent journalists and other dissidents, which became known as the "Black Spring". The government imprisoned 75 dissident thinkers, including 29 journalists, librarians, human rights activists and democracy activists. In 2006 Fidel Castro took ill and moved out of the public light and into a hospital, and in 2007 Raul Castro became Acting President. In a letter dated February 18, 2008, Castro announced that he would not accept the positions of president and commander in chief at the February 24, 2008 National Assembly meetings, saying "I will not aspire nor accept—I repeat I will not aspire or accept—the post of President of the Council of State and Commander in Chief." See Fidel Castro. References Further reading Castillo Ramos, Ruben 1956 Muerto Edesio, El rey de la Sierra Maestra (Edesio the king of Sierra Maestra Is Dead 1914–1956), Bohemia XLVIII No. 9 {August 12 1956} pp. 52–54 and 87 Aviva Chomsky, Barry Carr, and Pamela Maria Smorkaloff (Eds.) The Cuba Reader: History, Culture, Politics (2004) De Paz Sánchez, Manuel Antonio (en colaboración con José Fernández y Nelson López) 1993–1994. El bandolerismo en Cuba (1800–1933). Presencia canaria y protesta rural, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, two, 2 vols. Franklin, Jame. Cuba and the United States: A Chronological History, Ocean Press, 1997. Gleijeses, Piero. Conflicting Missions: Havana, Washington, and Africa, 1959–1976. U. of North Carolina Press, 2002. 552 pp. Richard Gott. Cuba: A New History (2004) Hernández, Rafael and Coatsworth, John H., ed. Culturas Encontradas: Cuba y los Estados Unidos Harvard U. Press, 2001. 278 pp. Hernández, José M. Cuba and the United States: Intervention and Militarism, 1868–1933 U. of Texas Press, 1993. 288 pp. Johnson, Willis Fletcher, The History of Cuba, New York : B.F. Buck & Company, Inc., 1920 Kirk, John M. and McKenna, Peter. Canada-Cuba Relations: The Other Good Neighbor Policy. U. Press of Florida, 1997. 207 pp. McPherson, Alan. Yankee No! Anti-Americanism in U.S.-Latin American Relations. Harvard U. Press, 2003. 257 pp. Morley, Morris H. and McGillian, Chris. Unfinished Business: America and Cuba after the Cold War, 1989–2001. Cambridge U. Press, 2002. 253 pp. Offner, John L. An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895–1898. U. of North Carolina Press, 1992. 306 pp. Paterson, Thomas G. Contesting Castro: The United States and the Triumph of the Cuban Revolution. Oxford U. Press, 1994. 352 pp. Pérez, Louis A., Jr. The War of 1898: The United States and Cuba in History and Historiography. U. of North Carolina Press 1998. 192 pp. Pérez, Louis A. Cuba and the United States: Ties of Singular Intimacy. U. of Georgia Press, 1990. 314 pp. Perez, Louis A. 1989 Lords of the Mountain: Social Banditry and Peasant Protest in Cuba, 1878–1918 (Pitt Latin American Series) Univ of Pittsburgh Press ISBN 0-8229-3601-1 Schwab, Peter. Cuba: Confronting the U.S. Embargo New York: St. Martin's, 1999. 226 pp. Staten, Clifford L. The History of Cuba (Palgrave Essential Histories) (2005), brief Thomas, Hugh . Cuba or the Pursuit of Freedom (rev ed. 1998) ISBN 978-0306808272 Tone, John Lawrence. War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895–1898 (2006) Walker, Daniel E. No More, No More: Slavery and Cultural Resistance in Havana and New Orleans U. of Minnesota Press, 2004. 188 pp. Whitney, Robert W., State and Revolution in Cuba: Mass Mobilization and Political Change, 1920-1940, Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. ISBN 0807826111 Zeuske, Michael, Insel der Extreme. Kuba im 20. Jahrhundert (Island of Extremes. Cuba in the 20th Century), Zürich: Rotpunktverlag, 2004 ISBN 3-85869-208-5 Zeuske, Schwarze Karibik. Sklaven, Sklavereikulturen und Emanzipation {Black Caribbean. Slaves, Slavery Cultures and Emnacipation}, Zuerich: Rotpunktverlag, 2004 ISBN 3-85869-272-7 See also Timeline of Cuban history Spanish colonization of the Americas External links History of Cuba Timeline 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Cuba History of Cuba Online guide's History of Cuba Reflecting on Cuba's Bloody History by Peter Coyote, San Francisco Chronicle, March 4 2009 Deena Stryker Photographs of Cuba, 1963-1964 - Duke University Libraries Digital Collections | History_of_Cuba |@lemmatized early:14 inhabitant:3 cuba:273 guanajatabey:1 people:13 gott:6 richard:6 new:50 history:42 yale:4 university:9 press:24 chapter:2 migrate:4 island:65 forest:2 south:18 american:51 mainland:6 long:9 ago:1 bce:1 create:15 guanahatabey:1 ciboney:5 modern:3 genesis:1 extinct:3 culture:7 william:10 f:3 keegan:1 volume:2 number:23 june:12 guanajatabeyes:5 hunter:2 gatherer:1 farmer:4 cultivate:2 cohiba:1 tobacco:6 crop:3 upon:7 economy:14 would:35 one:36 day:14 depend:2 spanish:71 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6,562 | Epistemology | Epistemology (from Greek ἐπιστήμη - episteme-, "knowledge, science" + λόγος, "logos") or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 3, 1967, Macmillan, Inc. It addresses the questions: What is knowledge? How is knowledge acquired? What do people know? How do we know what we know? Why do we know what we know? Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief, and justification. It also deals with the means of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about different knowledge claims. The term was introduced into English by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier (1808–1864). Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2007 Knowledge Distinguishing knowing that from knowing how Is knowledge a subset of that which is both true and believed? (See below) In this article, and in epistemology in general, the kind of knowledge usually discussed is propositional knowledge, also known as "knowledge-that" as opposed to "knowledge-how." For example: in mathematics, it is known that 2 + 2 = 4, but there is also knowing how to add two numbers. Many (but not all) philosophers therefore think there is an important distinction between "knowing that" and "knowing how", with epistemology primarily interested in the former. This distinction is recognized linguistically in many languages, though not in modern Standard English (N.B. some languages related to English still do retain these verbs, as in Scots: "wit" and "ken"). In French, Portuguese and Spanish, to know (a person) is connaître, conhecer, and conocer, respectively, whereas to know (how to do something) is savoir, saber, and saber. In Modern Greek the verbs are γνωρίζω (gnorízo) and ξέρω (kséro). In Italian the verbs are conoscere and sapere and the nouns for knowledge are conoscenza and sapienza, respectively. In German, the verbs are kennen and wissen. Wissen implies knowing as a fact, kennen implies knowing in the sense of being acquainted with and having a working knowledge of; there is also a noun derived from kennen, namely erkennen, which roughly implies knowledge in the form of recognition or acknowledgment. The verb itself implies a process: you have to go from one state to another, from a state of "not-erkennen" to a state of true erkennen. This verb seems to be the most appropriate in terms of describing the "episteme" in one of the modern European languages, hence the German name "Erkenntnistheorie." In Personal Knowledge, Michael Polanyi articulates a case for the epistemological relevance of both forms of knowledge; using the example of the act of balance involved in riding a bicycle, he suggests that the theoretical knowledge of the physics involved in maintaining a state of balance cannot substitute for the practical knowledge of how to ride, and that it is important to understand how both are established and grounded. In recent times, some epistemologists (Sosa, Greco, Kvanvig, Zagzebski) have argued that we should not think of knowledge this way. Epistemology should evaluate people's properties (i.e., intellectual virtues) instead of propositions' properties. This is, in short, because higher forms of cognitive success (i.e., understanding) involve features that can't be evaluated from a justified true belief view of knowledge. Belief Often, statements of "belief" mean that the speaker predicts something that will prove to be useful or successful in some sense—perhaps the speaker might "believe in" his or her favorite football team. This is not the kind of belief usually addressed within epistemology. The kind that is dealt with is when "to believe something" simply means any cognitive content held as true. For example, to believe that the sky is blue is to think that the proposition "The sky is blue" is true. Knowledge entails belief, so the statement, "I know the sky is blue, but I don't believe it", is self-contradictory (see Moore's paradox). On the other hand, knowledge about a belief does not entail an endorsement of its truth. For example, "I know about astrology, but I don't believe in it" is perfectly acceptable. It is also possible that someone believes in astrology but knows virtually nothing about it. Belief is a subjective personal basis for individual behavior, while truth is an objective state independent of the individual. On occasion, knowledge and belief can conflict producing "cognitive dissonance". Truth Whether someone's belief is true is not a prerequisite for someone to believe it. On the other hand, if something is actually known, then it categorically cannot be false. For example, a person believes that a particular bridge is safe enough to support them, and attempts to cross it; unfortunately, the bridge collapses under their weight. It could be said that they believed that the bridge was safe, but that this belief was mistaken. It would not be accurate to say that they knew that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. By contrast, if the bridge actually supported their weight then they might be justified in subsequently holding that he knew the bridge had been safe enough for his passage, at least at that particular time. For something to count as knowledge, it must actually be true. The Aristotelian definition of truth states: "To say of something which is that it is not, or to say of something which is not that it is, is false. However, to say of something which is that it is, or of something which is not that it is not, is true." Justification Plato In Plato's dialogue Theaetetus, Socrates considers a number of theories as to what knowledge is, the last being that knowledge is true belief that has been "given an account of"—meaning explained or defined in some way. According to the theory that knowledge is justified true belief, in order to know that a given proposition is true, one must not only believe the relevant true proposition, but one must also have a good reason for doing so. One implication of this would be that no one would gain knowledge just by believing something that happened to be true. For example, an ill person with no medical training, but a generally optimistic attitude, might believe that they will recover from their illness quickly. Nevertheless, even if this belief turned out to be true, the patient would not have known that they would get well since their belief lacked justification. The definition of knowledge as justified true belief was widely accepted until the 1960s. At this time, a paper written by the American philosopher Edmund Gettier provoked widespread discussion. See theories of justification for other views on the idea. The Gettier problem In 1963 Edmund Gettier called into question the theory of knowledge that had been dominant among philosophers for thousands of years . In a few pages, Gettier argued that there are situations in which one's belief may be justified and true, yet fail to count as knowledge. That is, Gettier contended that while justified belief in a proposition is necessary for that proposition to be known, it is not sufficient. As in the diagram above, a true proposition can be believed by an individual but still not fall within the "knowledge" category (purple region). According to Gettier, there are certain circumstances in which one does not have knowledge, even when all of the above conditions are met. Gettier proposed two thought experiments, which have come to be known as "Gettier cases," as counterexamples to the classical account of knowledge. One of the cases involves two men, Smith and Jones, who are awaiting the results of their applications for the same job. Each man has ten coins in his pocket. Smith has excellent reasons to believe that Jones will get the job and, furthermore, knows that Jones has ten coins in his pocket (he recently counted them). From this Smith infers, "the man who will get the job has ten coins in his pocket." However, Smith is unaware that he has ten coins in his own pocket. Furthermore, Smith, not Jones, is going to get the job. While Smith has strong evidence to believe that Jones will get the job, he is wrong. Smith has a justified true belief that a man with ten coins in his pocket will get the job; however, according to Gettier, Smith does not know that a man with ten coins in his pocket will get the job, because Smith's belief is "...true by virtue of the number of coins in Smith's pocket, while Smith does not know how many coins are in Smith's pocket, and bases his belief...on a count of the coins in Jones's pocket, whom he falsely believes to be the man who will get the job." (see p.122.) These cases fail to be knowledge because the subject's belief is justified, but only happens to be true in virtue of luck. Responses to Gettier The responses to Gettier have been varied. Usually, they have involved substantive attempts to provide a definition of knowledge different from the classical one, either by recasting knowledge as justified true belief with some additional fourth condition, or as something else altogether. Infallibilism, indefeasibility In one response to Gettier, the American philosopher Richard Kirkham has argued that the only definition of knowledge that could ever be immune to all counterexamples is the infallibilist one. To qualify as an item of knowledge, so the theory goes, a belief must not only be true and justified, the justification of the belief must necessitate its truth. In other words, the justification for the belief must be infallible. (See Fallibilism, below, for more information.) Yet another possible candidate for the fourth condition of knowledge is indefeasibility. Defeasibility theory maintains that there should be no overriding or defeating truths for the reasons that justify one's belief. For example, suppose that person S believes they saw Tom Grabit steal a book from the library and uses this to justify the claim that Tom Grabit stole a book from the library. A possible defeater or overriding proposition for such a claim could be a true proposition like, "Tom Grabit's identical twin Sam is currently in the same town as Tom." So long as no defeaters of one's justification exist, a subject would be epistemically justified. The Indian philosopher B K Matilal has drawn on the Navya-Nyaya fallibilism tradition to respond to the Gettier problem. Nyaya theory distinguishes between know p and know that one knows p - these are different events, with different causal conditions. The second level is a sort of implicit inference that usually follows immediately the episode of knowing p (knowledge simpliciter). The Gettier case is analyzed by referring to a view of Gangesha (13th c.), who takes any true belief to be knowledge; thus a true belief acquired through a wrong route may just be regarded as knowledge simpliciter on this view. The question of justification arises only at the second level, when one considers the knowledgehood of the acquired belief. Initially, there is lack of uncertainty, so it becomes a true belief. But at the very next moment, when the hearer is about to embark upon the venture of knowing whether he knows p, doubts may arise. "If, in some Gettier-like cases, I am wrong in my inference about the knowledgehood of the given occurrent belief (for the evidence may be pseudo-evidence), then I am mistaken about the truth of my belief -- and this is in accord with Nyaya fallibilism: not all knowledge-claims can be sustained." The Gettier problem is dealt with in Chapter 4, Knowledge as a mental episode. The thread continues in the next chapter Knowing that one knows. It is also discussed in Matilal's Word and the World p. 71-72. Reliabilism Reliabilism is a theory that suggests a belief is justified (or otherwise supported in such a way as to count towards knowledge) only if it is produced by processes that typically yield a sufficiently high ratio of true to false beliefs. In other words, this theory states that a true belief counts as knowledge only if it is produced by a reliable belief-forming process. Reliabilism has been challenged by Gettier cases. Another argument that challenges reliabilism, like the Gettier cases (although it was not presented in the same short article as the Gettier cases), is the case of Henry and the barn façades. In the thought experiment, a man, Henry, is driving along and sees a number of buildings that resemble barns. Based on his perception of one of these, he concludes that he has just seen barns. While he has seen one, and the perception he based his belief on was of a real barn, all the other barn-like buildings he saw were façades. Theoretically, Henry doesn't know that he has seen a barn, despite both his belief that he has seen one being true and his belief being formed on the basis of a reliable process (i.e. his vision), since he only acquired his true belief by accident. Other responses The American philosopher Robert Nozick has offered the following definition of knowledge: S knows that P if and only if: P; S believes that P; if P were false, S would not believe that P; if P is true, S will believe that P. Philosophical Explanations Chapter 3 "Knowledge and Skepticism" I. Knowledge Conditions for Knowledge p. 172-178. Nozick believed that the third subjunctive condition served to address cases of the sort described by Gettier. Nozick further claims this condition addresses a case of the sort described by D. M. Armstrong : A father believes his son innocent of committing a particular crime, both because of faith in his son and (now) because he has seen presented in the courtroom a conclusive demonstration of his son's innocence. His belief via the method of the courtroom satisfies the four subjunctive conditions, but his faith-based belief does not. If his son were guilty, he would still believe him innocent, on the basis of faith in his son; this would violate the third subjunctive condition. The British philosopher Simon Blackburn has criticized this formulation by suggesting that we do not want to accept as knowledge beliefs which, while they "track the truth" (as Nozick's account requires), are not held for appropriate reasons. He says that "we do not want to award the title of knowing something to someone who is only meeting the conditions through a defect, flaw, or failure, compared with someone else who is not meeting the conditions.". In addition to this, externalist accounts of knowledge, like Nozick's, are often forced to reject closure in cases where it is intuitively valid. Timothy Williamson, has advanced a theory of knowledge according to which knowledge is not justified true belief plus some extra condition(s). In his book Knowledge and its Limits, Williamson argues that the concept of knowledge cannot be analyzed into a set of other concepts—instead, it is sui generis. Thus, though knowledge requires justification, truth, and belief, the word "knowledge" can't be, according to Williamson's theory, accurately regarded as simply shorthand for "justified true belief." Externalism and internalism Part of the debate over the nature of knowledge is a debate between epistemological externalists on the one hand, and epistemological internalists on the other. Externalists think that factors deemed "external", meaning outside of the psychological states of those who gain knowledge, can be conditions of knowledge. For example, an externalist response to the Gettier problem is to say that, in order for a justified, true belief to count as knowledge, it must be caused, in the right sort of way, by relevant facts. Such causation, to the extent that it is "outside" the mind, would count as an external, knowledge-yielding condition. Internalists, contrariwise, claim that all knowledge-yielding conditions are within the psychological states of those who gain knowledge. René Descartes, prominent philosopher and supporter of internalism wrote that, since the only method by which we perceive the external world is through our senses, and that, since the senses are not infallible, we should not consider our concept of knowledge to be infallible. The only way to find anything that could be described as "infallibly true," he advocates, would be to pretend that an omnipotent, deceitful being is tampering with one's perception of the universe, and that the logical thing to do is to question anything that involves the senses. "Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) is commonly associated with Descartes' theory, because he postulated that the only thing that he could not logically bring himself to doubt is his own existence: "I do not exist" is a contradiction in terms; the act of saying that one does not exist assumes that someone must be making the statement in the first place. Though Descartes could doubt his senses, his body and the world around him, he could not deny his own existence, because he was able to doubt and must exist in order to do so. Even if some "evil genius" were to be deceiving him, he would have to exist in order to be deceived. However from this Descartes did not go as far as to define what he was. This was pointed out by the materialist philosopher Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) who accused Descartes of saying that he was "not this and not that," while never saying what exactly was existing. One could argue that this is not an edifying question, because it doesn't matter what exactly exists, it only matters that it does indeed exist. Acquiring knowledge The second question that will be dealt with is the question of how knowledge is acquired. This area of epistemology covers: Issues concerning epistemic distinctions such as that between experience and apriori as means of creating knowledge. Further that between synthesis and analysis used as a means of proof Debates such as the one between empiricists and rationalists. What is called "the regress problem" A priori and a posteriori knowledge The nature of this distinction has been disputed by various philosophers; however, the terms may be roughly defined as follows: A priori knowledge is knowledge that is known independently of experience (that is, it is non-empirical, or arrived at beforehand). A posteriori knowledge is knowledge that is known by experience (that is, it is empirical, or arrived at afterward). Analytic/synthetic distinction Some propositions are such that we appear to be justified in believing them just so far as we understand their meaning. For example, consider, "My father's brother is my uncle." We seem to be justified in believing it to be true by virtue of our knowledge of what its terms mean. Philosophers call such propositions "analytic." Synthetic propositions, on the other hand, have distinct subjects and predicates. An example of a synthetic proposition would be, "My father's brother has black hair." Kant held that all mathematical propositions are synthetic. The American philosopher W. V. O. Quine, in his "Two Dogmas of Empiricism," famously challenged the distinction, arguing that the two have a blurry boundary. Specific theories of knowledge acquisition Empiricism In philosophy, empiricism is generally a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience, especially experience based on perceptual observations by the five senses. Certain forms treat all knowledge as empirical, while some regard disciplines such as mathematics, economics and logic as exceptions. Rationalism Rationalists believe that knowledge is primarily (at least in some areas) acquired by a priori processes or is innate—for example, in the form of concepts not derived from experience. The relevant theoretical processes often go by the name "intuition". The relevant theoretical concepts may purportedly be part of the structure of the human mind (as in Kant's theory of transcendental idealism), or they may be said to exist independently of the mind (as in Plato's theory of Forms). The extent to which this innate human knowledge is emphasized over experience as a means to acquire knowledge varies from rationalist to rationalist. Some hold that knowledge of any kind can only be gained a priori, while others claim that some knowledge can also be gained a posteriori. Consequently, the borderline between rationalist epistemologies and others can be vague. Constructivism Constructivism is a view in philosophy according to which all knowledge is "constructed" in as much as it is contingent on convention, human perception, and social experience. Constructivism proposes new definitions for knowledge and truth that forms a new paradigm, based on inter-subjectivity instead of the classical objectivity and viability instead of truth. Piagetian constructivism, however, believes in objectivity as constructs can be validated through experimentation. The constructivist point of view is pragmatic as Vico said: "the truth is to have made it." It originated in sociology under the term "social constructionism" and has been given the name "constructivism" when referring to philosophical epistemology, though "constructionism" and "constructivism" are often used interchangeably.Constructivism has also emerged in the field of International Relations, of which the writings of Alexander Wendt are most popular. Describing the characteristic nature of International reality marked by 'anarchy' he says, "anarchy is what states make of it." The regress problem Suppose we make a point of asking for a justification for every belief. Any given justification will itself depend on another belief for its justification, so one can also reasonably ask for this to be justified, and so forth. This appears to lead to an infinite regress, with each belief justified by some further belief. The apparent impossibility of completing an infinite chain of reasoning is thought by some to support skepticism. The skeptic will argue that since no one can complete such a chain, ultimately no beliefs are justified and, therefore, no one knows anything. "The only thing I know for sure is that I do not know for sure." Response to the regress problem Many epistemologists studying justification have attempted to argue for various types of chains of reasoning that can escape the regress problem. Infinitism Some philosophers, notably Peter Klein in his article "Human Knowledge and the Infinite Regress of Reasons," have argued that it is not impossible for an infinite justificatory series to exist. This position is known as "infinitism." Infinitists typically take the infinite series to be merely potential, in the sense that an individual may have indefinitely many reasons available to him, without having consciously thought through all of these reasons. The individual need only have the ability to bring forth the relevant reasons when the need arises. This position is motivated in part by the desire to avoid what is seen as the arbitrariness and circularity of its chief competitors, foundationalism and coherentism. Foundationalism Foundationalists respond to the regress problem by claiming that some beliefs that support other beliefs do not themselves require justification by other beliefs. Sometimes, these beliefs, labeled "foundational," are characterized as beliefs of whose truth one is directly aware, or as beliefs that are self-justifying, or as beliefs that are infallible. According to one particularly permissive form of foundationalism, a belief may count as foundational, in the sense that it may be presumed true until defeating evidence appears, as long as the belief seems to its believer to be true. Others have argued that a belief is justified if it is based on perception or certain a priori considerations. The chief criticism of foundationalism is that it allegedly leads to the arbitrary or unjustified acceptance of certain beliefs. Coherentism Another response to the regress problem is coherentism, which is the rejection of the assumption that the regress proceeds according to a pattern of linear justification. To avoid the charge of circularity, coherentists hold that an individual belief is justified circularly by the way it fits together (coheres) with the rest of the belief system of which it is a part. This theory has the advantage of avoiding the infinite regress without claiming special, possibly arbitrary status for some particular class of beliefs. Yet, since a system can be coherent while also being wrong, coherentists face the difficulty in ensuring that the whole system corresponds to reality. Foundherentism There is also a position known as "foundherentism". Susan Haack is the philosopher who conceived it, and it is meant to be a unification of foundationalism and coherentism. One component of this theory is what is called the "analogy of the crossword puzzle." Whereas, say, infinists regard the regress of reasons as "shaped" like a single line, Susan Haack has argued that it is more like a crossword puzzle, with multiple lines mutually supporting each other. What do people know? The last question that will be dealt with is the question of what people know. At the heart of this area of study is skepticism, with many approaches involved trying to disprove some particular form of it. Skepticism Skepticism is related to the question of whether certain knowledge is possible. Skeptics argue that the belief in something does not necessarily justify an assertion of knowledge of it. In this skeptics oppose foundationalism, which states that there have to be some basic beliefs that are justified without reference to others. The skeptical response to this can take several approaches. First, claiming that "basic beliefs" must exist, amounts to the logical fallacy of argument from ignorance combined with the slippery slope. While a foundationalist would use Münchhausen Trilemma as a justification for demanding the validity of basic beliefs, a skeptic would see no problem with admitting the result. Developments from skepticism Fallibilism For most of philosophical history, "knowledge" was taken to mean belief that was true and justified to an absolute certainty. Early in the 20th century, however, the notion that belief had to be justified as such to count as knowledge lost favour. Fallibilism is the view that knowing something does not entail certainty regarding it. Charles Sanders Peirce was a fallibilist and the most developed form of fallibilism can be traced to Karl Popper (1902-1994) whose first book Logik Der Forschung (The Logic of Investigation), 1934 introduced a "conjectural turn" into the philosophy of science and epistemology at large. He adumbrated a school of thought that is known as Critical Rationalism with a central tenet being the rejection of the idea that knowledge can ever be justified in the strong form that is sought by most schools of thought. His two most helpful exponents are the late William W Bartley and David Miller, recently retired from the University of Warwick. A major source of on-line material is the Critical Rationalist website and also the Rathouse of Rafe Champion. Practical applications Far from being purely academic, the study of epistemology is useful for a great many applications. It is particularly commonly employed in issues of law where proof of guilt or innocence may be required, or when it must be determined whether a person knew a particular fact before taking a specific action (e.g., whether an action was premeditated). Another practical application is to the design of computer interfaces. For example, the skills, rules, and knowledge taxonomy of human behavior has been used by designers to develop systems that are compatible with multiple "ways of knowing": abstract analytic reasoning, experience-based 'gut feelings', and 'craft' sensorimotor skills. Other common applications of epistemology include: Artificial Intelligence Austrian School of economics (in the form of praxeology, the discovery of economic laws valid for all human action) Cognitive Science Cultural Anthropology (Do different cultures have different systems of knowledge?) History and archaeology Intelligence (information) gathering Knowledge Management Mathematics and science Medicine (diagnosis of disease) Product testing (How can we know that the product will not fail?) Psychology Philosophy Linguistics Literature Religion and Apologetics Sociology Testimony Related topics Adaptive representation Agnotology Analytic tradition Bayesian probability Conveyed concept Cybernetic epistemology Constructivist epistemology Eastern epistemology Evidentialism Evidentiality Formal epistemology General Semantics Knowledge by acquaintance Knowledge by description List of epistemology topics Meta-epistemology Methodology Methods of obtaining knowledge Monopolies of knowledge Mysticism Noölogy Philosophical Studies Platonic epistemology Praxeology Reason Reformed epistemology Revelation Scientific method Self-evidence Social epistemology Transcendence (philosophy) Virtue epistemology Notes References and further reading The London Philosophy Study Guide offers many suggestions on what to read, depending on the student's familiarity with the subject: Epistemology & Methodology Annis, David. 1978. "A Contextualist Theory of Epistemic Justification", in American Philosophical Quarterly, 15: 213-219. Ayer, Alfred Jules. 1936. Language, Truth, and Logic. BonJour, Laurence. 2002. Epistemology: Classic Problems and Contemporary Responses. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Boufoy-Bastick, Z. 2005. "Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge", Sophia Journal of Philosophy, 8: 39-51. Bovens, Luc & Hartmann, Stephan. 2003. Bayesian Epistemology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Butchvarov, Panayot. 1970. The Concept of Knowledge. Evanston, Northwestern University Press. Cohen, Stewart. 1998. "Contextualist Solutions to Epistemological Problems: Skepticism, Gettier, and the Lottery." Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 76: 289-306. Cohen, Stewart. 1999. "Contextualism, Skepticism, and Reasons", in Tomberlin 1999. Dancy, Jonathan. 1991. An Introduction to Contemporary Epistemology (Second Edition). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0631136223 DeRose, Keith. 1992. "Contextualism and Knowledge Attributions", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 15: 213-19. DeRose, Keith. 1999. "Contextualism: An Explanation and Defense", in Greco and Sosa 1999. Descartes, Rene. 1641. Meditations on First Philosophy Feldman, Richard. 1999. "Contextualism and Skepticism", in Tomberlin 1999, pp. 91-114. Gettier, Edmund. 1963. "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", Analysis, Vol. 23, pp. 121-23. Online text. Greco, J. & Sosa, E. 1999. Blackwell Guide to Epistemology, Blackwell Publishing. Harris, Errol E. 1970. Hypothesis And Perception, George Allen and Unwin, London, Reprinted 2002 Routledge, London. Harwood, Sterling. 1989. "Taking Skepticism Seriously -- And In Context", Philosophical Investigations, Vol. 12. Hay, Clare. 2008. The Theory of Knowledge: A Coursebook, The Lutterworth Press, Cambridge. Hawthorne, John. 2005. "The Case for Closure", Contemporary Debates in Epistemology, Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (ed.): 26-43. Hendricks, Vincent F. 2006. Mainstream and Formal Epistemology, New York: Cambridge University Press. Kant, Immanuel. 1781. Critique of Pure Reason. Keeton, Morris T. 1962. "Empiricism", in Dictionary of Philosophy, Dagobert D. Runes (ed.), Littlefield, Adams, and Company, Totowa, NJ, pp. 89–90. Kierkegaard, Søren. 1844. Philosophical Fragments. Kirkham, Richard. 1984. "Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?" Mind, 93. Klein, Peter. 1981. Certainty: a Refutation of Skepticism, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. Kyburg, H.E. 1961. Probability and the Logic of Rational Belief, Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Korzybski, Alfred. 1994 (1933). Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics, Fifth Edition. Ft. Worth, TX: Institute of General Semantics. Lewis, David. 1996. "Elusive Knowledge." Australian Journal of Philosophy, 74, 549-67. Morin, Edgar. 1986. La Méthode, Tome 3, La Connaissance de la connaissance (Method, 3rd volume : The knowledge of knowledge) Morton, Adam. 2002. A Guide Through the Theory of Knowledge (Third Edition) Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405100125 Nelson, Quee. 2007. The Slightest Philosophy, Indianapolis, IN: Dog Ear Publishing, 296 pages. Niiniluoto, Ilkka. 2002. Critical Scientific Realism, Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Plato. Meno. Popper, Karl R. 1972. Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Preyer, G./Siebelt, F./Ulfig, A. 1994. Language, Mind and Epistemology, Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Rand, Ayn. 1979. Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology, New York: Meridian. Russell, Bertrand. 1912. The Problems of Philosophy, New York: Oxford University Press. Schiffer, Stephen. 1996. "Contextualist Solutions to Skepticism", Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, 96:317-33. Steup, Matthias. 2005. "Knowledge and Skepticism", Contemporary Debates in Epistemology, Peter Sosa and Matthias Steup (eds.): 1-13. Tomberlin, James (ed.). 1999. Philosophical Perspectives 13, Epistemology, Blackwell Publishing. Wittgenstein, Ludwig. 1922. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, C.K. Ogden (trns.), Dover. Online text. External links and references Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy articles: Bayesian Epistemology by William Talbott. Epistemology by Matthias Steup. Evolutionary Epistemology by Michael Bradie & William Harms. Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science by Elizabeth Anderson. Naturalized Epistemology by Richard Feldman. Social Epistemology by Alvin Goldman. Virtue Epistemology by John Greco. Other links: Research articles in Epistemology - PhilPapers What Is Epistemology? — a brief introduction to the topic by Keith DeRose. Certain Doubts — a group blog run by Jonathan Kvanvig, with many leading epistemologists as contributors. The Epistemological Lifeboat by Birger Hjørland & Jeppe Nicolaisen (eds.) The Epistemology Page by Keith DeRose. Justified True Belief and Critical Rationalism by Mathew Toll Epistemology Papers a collection of Michael Huemer's. Epistemology Introduction, Part 1 and Part 2 by Paul Newall at the Galilean Library. Teaching Theory of Knowledge (1986) — Marjorie Clay (ed.), an electronic publication from The Council for Philosophical Studies. Epistemology: The Philosophy of Knowledge — an introduction at Groovyweb. Introduction to Theory of Knowledge — from PhilosophyOnline. The Peripatetic A practical introduction to the theory of knowledge Theory of Knowledge — an introduction to epistemology, exploring the various theories of knowledge, justification, and belief. A Theory of Knowledge by Clóvis Juarez Kemmerich, on the Social Science Research Network, 2006. An Introduction to Epistemology by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners. 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6,563 | Mongolian_Armed_Forces | The military of Mongolia has three branches: general purpose forces, border defense forces and internal security forces. This is a peace-time structure. In case of war or war-like situations, the structure could be changed and reorganized. History Main articles: Mongolian People's Army Cold War era Policy Due to its geopolitical positions and economical powers, Mongolia has a unique military policy. Being between two of the world's largest nations, Mongolian armed forces have a limited capability to protect its independence against foreign invasions; the country's national security therefore depends strongly on diplomacy. The country's military ideal is to create and maintain a small but efficient and professional armed forces. Mongolian armed forces in peacekeeping missions Mongolian armed forces are performing peacekeeping missions in Sierra Leone, Iraq, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Western Sahara and Afghanistan, and with the United Nations Mission in Liberia. Mongolian forces in Afghanistan mostly assist NATO/ISAF personnel in training on the former Warsaw Pact weapons that comprise the bulk of the military equipment available to the Afghan National Army. In 2005/2006, Mongolian troops also served as part of the Belgian KFOR contingent in Kosovo. Capability Ground forces possess over 650 tanks, 100 mobile artillery pieces, 800 Infantry Fighting Vehicles and armored personnel carriers, 450 mobile anti-aircraft weapons, more than 1000 artillery and mortar and other military equipment. Most of them are old Soviet Union models designed between the late 1950s to early 1970s. Light equipment AKM AKMS AK-47 AK-74 NSV (machine gun) SVD (rifle) PK machine gun RPK machine gun RPD machine gun Anti-Tank weapon RPG-7 air defence carrier & equipments ZSU-23-4 "Shilka" 9K31 Strela-1 -"Gaskin". Strela 2 SA-7 S-75 SA-2 Guideline ZPU-4 ZU-23-2 37 mm automatic air defense gun M1939 (61-K) 57 mm AZP S-60 Towed artillery 122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30) 130 mm towed field gun M1954 (M-46) 100 mm field gun M1944 (BS-3) 122 mm howitzer M1938 (M-30) Mortar Multi Rocket Launchers BM-14 BM-16 BM-19 BM-21 Grad Tanks T-54 – 200 T-55 – 150 T-62 - 250 Infantry Fighting Vehicles/Armored Personnel Carriers BMP-1 – 310 in 2003, 400 in 1996, originally 420 were delivered. BTR-60 – 350 BRDM-1 - Unkhown number BRDM-2 – Unkhown number Mongolian Air Force The small Mongolian Air Force is the national air force, administered by the Army. Arrcraft's inventory ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Aircraft ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Origin ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Type ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Versions ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|In service ! style="text-align: left; background: #aacccc;"|Notes |----- | Antonov An-24 Coke || || tactical transport || An-24 || 20-4 ||grounded |----- | Antonov An-26 Curl || || tactical transport || An-26 || 4-3 ||grounded |----- | Antonov An-2 Colt || || biplane transport || An-2 || 10 || |----- | Harbin Y-12 || || light transport || Y-12 || 4 || retired |----- | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 Fishbed || || fighter || MiG-21PFM/UM || 44/14-8 || grounded |----- | Mil Mi-24 Hind || || attack helicopter || Mi-24V || 12-4 || Anti-tank |----- | Mil Mi-8 Hip || || attack helicopter || Mi-8 || 20 || Anti-tank |----- | Mil Mi-8 Hip || || transport helicopter || Mi-8 || 12 || Transport only/Replaced |----- | Mil Mi-171 Hip|| || transport helicopter || Mi-171 || 2 || Transport only|| |} Source: Scramble.nl References and links Mongolia Military Profile The Ministry of Defence of Mongolia | Mongolian_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized military:6 mongolia:4 three:1 branch:1 general:1 purpose:1 force:12 border:1 defense:2 internal:1 security:2 peace:1 time:1 structure:2 case:1 war:3 like:1 situation:1 could:1 change:1 reorganize:1 history:1 main:1 article:1 mongolian:8 people:1 army:3 cold:1 era:1 policy:2 due:1 geopolitical:1 position:1 economical:1 power:1 unique:1 two:1 world:1 large:1 nation:2 arm:3 limited:1 capability:2 protect:1 independence:1 foreign:1 invasion:1 country:2 national:3 therefore:1 depend:1 strongly:1 diplomacy:1 ideal:1 create:1 maintain:1 small:2 efficient:1 professional:1 armed:1 peacekeeping:2 mission:3 perform:1 sierra:1 leone:1 iraq:1 ethiopia:1 eritrea:1 western:1 sahara:1 afghanistan:2 united:1 liberia:1 mostly:1 assist:1 nato:1 isaf:1 personnel:3 training:1 former:1 warsaw:1 pact:1 weapon:3 comprise:1 bulk:1 equipment:4 available:1 afghan:1 troop:1 also:1 serve:1 part:1 belgian:1 kfor:1 contingent:1 kosovo:1 ground:4 posse:1 tank:5 mobile:2 artillery:3 piece:1 infantry:2 fight:2 vehicle:2 armored:1 carrier:3 anti:4 aircraft:2 mortar:2 old:1 soviet:1 union:1 model:1 design:1 late:1 early:1 light:2 akm:1 akms:1 ak:2 nsv:1 machine:4 gun:7 svd:1 rifle:1 pk:1 rpk:1 rpd:1 rpg:1 air:5 defence:2 zsu:1 shilka:1 strela:2 gaskin:1 sa:2 guideline:1 zpu:1 zu:1 mm:6 automatic:1 k:1 azp:1 tow:2 howitzer:2 field:2 b:1 multi:1 rocket:1 launcher:1 bm:4 grad:1 armor:1 bmp:1 originally:1 deliver:1 btr:1 brdm:2 unkhown:2 number:2 administer:1 arrcraft:1 inventory:1 style:6 text:6 align:6 left:6 background:6 aacccc:6 origin:1 type:1 version:1 service:1 note:1 antonov:3 coke:1 tactical:2 transport:8 curl:1 colt:1 biplane:1 harbin:1 retire:1 mikoyan:1 gurevich:1 mig:2 fishbed:1 fighter:1 um:1 mil:4 mi:8 hind:1 attack:2 helicopter:4 hip:3 replace:1 source:1 scramble:1 nl:1 reference:1 link:1 profile:1 ministry:1 |@bigram peacekeeping_mission:2 sierra_leone:1 ethiopia_eritrea:1 western_sahara:1 warsaw_pact:1 armored_personnel:1 soviet_union:1 ak_ak:1 sa_sa:1 tow_artillery:1 mm_howitzer:2 howitzer_mortar:1 rocket_launcher:1 bm_bm:3 align_left:6 background_aacccc:6 antonov_curl:1 mikoyan_gurevich:1 gurevich_mig:1 mig_fishbed:1 mil_mi:4 mi_hind:1 |
6,564 | Intron | Diagram of the location of introns and exons within a gene. An intron is a DNA region within a gene that is not translated into protein. These non-coding sections are transcribed to precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) and some other RNAs (such as long noncoding RNAs), and subsequently removed by a process called splicing during the processing to mature RNA. After intron splicing (ie. removal), the mRNA consists only of exon derived sequences, which are translated into a protein. The word intron is derived from the term intragenic region and also called intervening sequence (IVS) Introduction Introns are common in eukaryotic pre-mRNA, but in prokaryotes they are only found in tRNA and rRNA; introns have variable length and alternate with exons in intron-containing genes. The number and length of introns varies widely among species, and among genes within the same species. Some eukaryotes, e.g. sac fungi, have evolved genomes with few introns, while the genomes of many other eukaryote groups are rich in introns (several per gene). Simple illustration of a pre-mRNA, with introns (top). After the introns have been removed via splicing, the mature mRNA sequence is ready for translation (bottom). Alternative splicing of introns within a gene may introduce greater variability of protein sequences translated from a single gene. The control of mRNA splicing is performed by a wide variety of signaling molecules. Introns may also contain "old code", or sections of a gene that were once translated into a protein, but have since become inactive. It was generally assumed that the sequence of any given intron is junk DNA with no biological function. More recently, however, this is being disputed. Introns contain several short sequences that are important for efficient splicing, such as acceptor and donor sites at either end of the intron as well as a branch point site, which are required for proper splicing by the spliceosome. One of the most important roles of the introns, that is still in research, is the transcription of the introns to small regulatory RNA, such a type of RNAs called miRNA (microRNA). These small single-stranded RNAs regulate the expression of genes. Discovery The discovery of introns led to the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1993 for Phillip Allen Sharp and Richard J. Roberts. The term intron was introduced by American biochemist Walter Gilbert: "The notion of the cistron [...] must be replaced by that of a transcription unit containing regions which will be lost from the mature messenger - which I suggest we call introns (for intragenic regions) - alternating with regions which will be expressed - exons." (Gilbert 1978) Classification Four classes of introns are known to exist: Nuclear introns Group I intron Group II intron Group III intron Some introns, such as the Group I and Group II introns, after transcription possess ribozyme activity, enabling them to catalyze their own splicing out of a primary RNA transcript. These introns are thus self splicing introns and are relatively rare compared to spliceosomal introns. This self-splicing activity was discovered by Thomas Cech, who shared the 1989 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Sidney Altman for the discovery of the catalytic properties of RNA. Nuclear or spliceosomal introns are spliced by the spliceosome and a series of snRNAs (small nuclear RNAs). There are certain splice signals (or consensus sequences) which abet the splicing (or identification) of these introns by the spliceosome. Group II and III introns are similar and have a conserved secondary structure. A so-called lariat pathway is used in their splicing. They perform functions similar to the spliceosome and may be evolutionarily related to it. Group I introns are the only class of introns whose splicing requires a free guanine nucleoside. They possess a secondary structure different from that of group II and III introns. Many self-splicing introns code for maturases that help with the splicing process, generally only the splicing of the intron that encodes it. Intron evolution There are two competing theories that offer alternative scenarios for the origin and early evolution of spliceosomal introns. Other classes of introns such as self-splicing and tRNA introns are not subject to much debate, but see Gogarten JP, Hilario E. "Inteins, introns, and homing endonucleases: recent revelations about the life cycle of parasitic genetic elements." BMC Evol Biol. 2006 Nov 13; 6: 94. PMID 17101053 for the former. These are popularly referred to as the Introns-Early (IE) and the Introns-Late (IL) views. The IE model, championed by Walter Gilbert, Fedorov A, Cao X, Saxonov S, de Souza SJ, Roy SW, Gilbert W. "Intron distribution difference for 276 ancient and 131 modern genes suggests the existence of ancient introns." Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2001 Nov 6; 98(23): 13177-82. PMID 11687643. proposes that introns are extremely old and numerously present in the earliest ancestors of prokaryotes and eukaryotes (the progenote). In this model, introns were subsequently lost from prokaryotic organisms, allowing them to attain growth efficiency. A central prediction of this theory is that the early introns were mediators that facilitated the recombination of exons that represented the protein domains. Rodriguez-Trelles F, Tarrio R, Ayala, FJ. "Origins and evolution of spliceosomal introns." Annual Review of Genetics 2006; 40: 47-76. This model cannot account for some observed positional variation of introns shared among related genes. Rzhetsky A, Ayala FJ. "The enigma of intron origins." Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 1999; 55(1): 3-6. The IL model proposes that introns were recently inserted into originally intron-less contiguous genes after the divergence of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. In this model, introns probably originated from transposable elements. This model is based on the observation that the spliceosomal introns are restricted to eukaryotes alone. However, there is considerable debate over the presence of introns in the early prokaryote-eukaryote ancestors and the subsequent intron loss-gain during eukaryotic evolution. Sverdlov AV, Csuros M, Rogozin IB, Koonin EV. "A glimpse of a putative pre-intron phase of eukaryotic evolution." Trends Genet. 2007 Mar; 23(3): 105-108. PMID 17239982 The evolution of introns and of the intron-exon structure may be largely independent of the evolution of coding-sequences. Identification Nearly all eukaryotic nuclear introns begin with the nucleotide sequence GT, and end with AG (the GT-AG rule). These, along with a larger consensus sequence, help direct the splicing machinery to the proper intronic donor and acceptor sites. At the time of splicing the intron is composed of RNA not DNA so the beginning of the sequence is GU not GT See also Structure: Exon mRNA Eukaryotic gene example Eukaryotic chromosome fine structure Splicing: Alternative splicing Minor spliceosome Function MicroRNA Others: Intein Noncoding DNA Noncoding RNA Selfish DNA Twintron References External links Intron finding tool for plant genomic sequences | Intron |@lemmatized diagram:1 location:1 intron:67 exon:7 within:4 gene:13 dna:5 region:5 translate:4 protein:5 non:1 coding:1 section:2 transcribe:1 precursor:1 mrna:8 pre:4 rna:10 long:1 noncoding:3 subsequently:2 remove:2 process:2 call:5 splicing:12 processing:1 mature:3 ie:3 removal:1 consist:1 derive:2 sequence:12 word:1 term:2 intragenic:2 also:3 intervene:1 iv:1 introduction:1 common:1 eukaryotic:6 prokaryote:4 find:2 trna:2 rrna:1 variable:1 length:2 alternate:2 containing:1 number:1 varies:1 widely:1 among:3 specie:2 eukaryote:5 e:2 g:1 sac:1 fungi:1 evolve:1 genome:2 many:2 group:9 rich:1 several:2 per:1 simple:1 illustration:1 top:1 via:1 ready:1 translation:1 bottom:1 alternative:3 may:4 introduce:2 great:1 variability:1 single:2 control:1 perform:2 wide:1 variety:1 signal:2 molecule:1 contain:3 old:2 code:2 since:1 become:1 inactive:1 generally:2 assume:1 give:1 junk:1 biological:1 function:3 recently:2 however:2 dispute:1 short:1 important:2 efficient:1 splice:11 acceptor:2 donor:2 site:3 either:1 end:2 well:1 branch:1 point:1 require:2 proper:2 spliceosome:5 one:1 role:1 still:1 research:1 transcription:3 small:3 regulatory:1 type:1 mirna:1 microrna:2 strand:1 rnas:1 regulate:1 expression:1 discovery:3 lead:1 nobel:2 prize:2 physiology:1 medicine:1 phillip:1 allen:1 sharp:1 richard:1 j:1 robert:1 american:1 biochemist:1 walter:2 gilbert:4 notion:1 cistron:1 must:1 replace:1 unit:1 lose:2 messenger:1 suggest:2 express:1 classification:1 four:1 class:3 know:1 exist:1 nuclear:4 ii:4 iii:3 posse:1 ribozyme:1 activity:2 enable:1 catalyze:1 primary:1 transcript:1 thus:1 self:4 relatively:1 rare:1 compare:1 spliceosomal:5 discover:1 thomas:1 cech:1 share:2 chemistry:1 sidney:1 altman:1 catalytic:1 property:1 series:1 snrnas:1 certain:1 consensus:2 abet:1 identification:2 similar:2 conserved:1 secondary:2 structure:5 lariat:1 pathway:1 use:1 evolutionarily:1 relate:1 whose:1 free:1 guanine:1 nucleoside:1 possess:1 different:1 maturases:1 help:2 encode:1 evolution:7 two:1 compete:1 theory:2 offer:1 scenario:1 origin:3 early:5 subject:1 much:1 debate:2 see:2 gogarten:1 jp:1 hilario:1 inteins:1 home:1 endonuclease:1 recent:1 revelation:1 life:2 cycle:1 parasitic:1 genetic:1 element:2 bmc:1 evol:1 biol:1 nov:2 pmid:3 former:1 popularly:1 refer:1 late:1 il:2 view:1 model:6 champion:1 fedorov:1 cao:1 x:1 saxonov:1 de:1 souza:1 sj:1 roy:1 sw:1 w:1 distribution:1 difference:1 ancient:2 modern:1 existence:1 proc:1 natl:1 acad:1 sci:1 u:1 proposes:1 extremely:1 numerously:1 present:1 ancestor:2 progenote:1 prokaryotic:1 organism:1 allow:1 attain:1 growth:1 efficiency:1 central:1 prediction:1 mediator:1 facilitate:1 recombination:1 represent:1 domains:1 rodriguez:1 trelles:1 f:1 tarrio:1 r:1 ayala:2 fj:2 annual:1 review:1 genetics:1 cannot:1 account:1 observed:1 positional:1 variation:1 related:1 rzhetsky:1 enigma:1 cellular:1 molecular:1 science:1 propose:1 insert:1 originally:1 less:1 contiguous:1 divergence:1 probably:1 originate:1 transposable:1 base:1 observation:1 restrict:1 eukaryotes:1 alone:1 considerable:1 presence:1 subsequent:1 loss:1 gain:1 sverdlov:1 av:1 csuros:1 rogozin:1 ib:1 koonin:1 ev:1 glimpse:1 putative:1 phase:1 trend:1 genet:1 mar:1 largely:1 independent:1 cod:1 nearly:1 begin:1 nucleotide:1 gt:3 ag:2 rule:1 along:1 large:1 direct:1 machinery:1 intronic:1 time:1 compose:1 beginning:1 gu:1 example:1 chromosome:1 fine:1 minor:1 others:1 intein:1 selfish:1 twintron:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 tool:1 plant:1 genomic:1 |@bigram pre_mrna:3 mature_mrna:1 alternative_splicing:1 nobel_prize:2 prize_physiology:1 physiology_medicine:1 spliceosomal_intron:5 proc_natl:1 natl_acad:1 acad_sci:1 prokaryote_eukaryote:2 prokaryotic_organism:1 eukaryote_prokaryote:1 transposable_element:1 donor_acceptor:1 external_link:1 |
6,565 | History_of_Lithuania | This article discusses the history of Lithuania and the Lithuanians. Lithuania was mentioned for the first time in written sources in 1009. Edvardas Gudavičius. Lietuvos istorija. Nuo seniausių laikų iki 1569 metų, Vilnius, 1999, p.28. ISBN 5-420-00723-1 Lithuanians later conquered neighboring lands, finally establishing the Kingdom of Lithuania in the 13th century. In the 15th century, Lithuania became the largest state in Europe R. Bideleux. A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge, 1998. p.122 , but it was erased from the political map in the 18th century. In February 16, 1918, Lithuania was reestablished as a democratic state. It faced many setbacks including many deaths in World War II and further catastrophe after being annexed by the Soviet Union. In the early 1990s, Lithuania restored its sovereignty and continued to grow into an economically strong country. Before statehood Balts in the 13th century Kernavė mounds The first people arrived on the territory of modern Lithuania in the 10th millennium BC after the glaciers had retreated and the last glacial period had ended. According to historian Marija Gimbutas, the people came from two directions: from the Jutland Peninsula and from present-day Poland. They brought two different cultures as evidenced by the tools they used. They were traveling hunters and did not form more stable settlements. In the 8th millennium BC, the climate became much warmer and forests developed. The people started to gather berries and mushrooms from the forests and fish in the local rivers and lakes. They traveled less. During the 6th–5th millennium BC, people domesticated various animals, the houses became more sophisticated and could shelter larger families. Agriculture did not arrive until the 3rd millennium BC because there were no efficient tools to cultivate the land. Crafts and trade also started to form at this time. Proto-Indo-Europeans came around 2500 BC, and the identity of the Balts formed about 2000 BC. Baltic tribes The first Lithuanians were a branch of an ancient group known as the Balts, whose tribes also included the original Prussian and Latvian people. The Baltic tribes were not directly influenced by the Roman Empire, but the tribes did maintain close trade contacts (see Amber Road). Lithuanians have built a nation that has endured for most of the past ten centuries, while Latvians acquired statehood in the 20th century and Prussian tribes disappeared in the 18th century. The first known reference to Lithuania as a nation (Litua) comes from the annals of the monastery of Quedlinburg and is dated February 14, 1009. Today, the two remaining Baltic nationalities are Lithuanians and Latvians, but there were more Baltic nationalities/tribes in the past. Some of these have merged into the Lithuanian and Latvian nationalities (Samogitians, Selonians, Curonians, Semigallians), while others have disappeared (Prussians, Sambians, Skalvians, Galindians). Towards the creation of a single state During the 11th century, Lithuanian territories were included in the list of lands paying tribute to Kievan Rus', but by the 12th century, the Lithuanians were plundering neighboring territories themselves. The military and plundering activities of the Lithuanians triggered a struggle for power in Lithuania, which initiated the formation of early statehood and was a precondition of the founding of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Grand Duchy of Lithuania Pagan Lithuania The Pope Innocent IV bull regarding Lithuania's placement under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, Mindaugas baptism and coronation Duchy of Lithuania in 1250 between the areas of the Livonian Order and the Teutonic Order In the early 13th century two German religious orders, the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Brothers of the Sword, conquered much of the area that is now Estonia and Latvia, in addition to parts of Lithuania. In response, a number of small Baltic tribal groups united under the rule of Mindaugas (Myndowe) and soundly defeated the Livonians at Šiauliai in the Battle of Saule in 1236. In 1250 Mindaugas signed an agreement with the Teutonic Order and in 1251 was baptized in their presence by the bishop of Chełmno (in Chełmno Land.) On 6 July 1253, Mindaugas was crowned as King of Lithuania and state was proclaimed as Kingdom of Lithuania. However, Mindaugas was later murdered by his nephew Treniota which resulted in great unrest and a return to paganism. In 1241, 1259 and 1275 the kingdom was ravaged by raids from the Golden Horde. In 1316, Gediminas, with the aid of colonists from Germany, began restoration of the land. The brothers Vytenis and Gediminas united various groups into one Lithuania. Gediminas extended Lithuania to the east by challenging the Mongols who, at that time, Mongol invasion of Rus'. Through alliances and conquest the Lithuanians gained control of significant parts of the territory of Rus. This area included most of modern Belarus and Ukraine and created a massive Lithuanian state that stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea. When Gediminas was slain, his son Algirdas (Olgierd) suppressed the monasteries, but Algirdas's son, Jogaila (Jagiello), again made overtures to the Teutonic Order and concluded a secret treaty with them. His uncle Kęstutis took him prisoner and a civil war ensued. Kęstutis was eventually captured, imprisoned and put to death, but Kęstutis's son Vytautas escaped. Nowadays Lithuanian paganism is practised by Ancient Baltic faith community 'Romuva'. Christian Lithuania St. Nicholas, the oldest church in Lithuania built before 1387 Jadwiga of Poland was strongly urged by the Poles to marry Jogaila who had become the Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1377 and for the good of Christianity, Jadwiga consented and married Jogaila three days after he was baptized. Jogaila and Lithuanians in general favoured this marriage as the alliance with Poland gave them a powerful ally against the constant threat of Germany (especially the Teutonic Knights based in Prussia) and Muscovy from the east. On February 2, 1386, the Polish Parliament (Sejm) elected Jogaila as King of Poland. Before Jogaila was Crowned as a king of Poland, the second and the final Christianization of Lithuania was carried out. Lithuania remained sovereign state but the highest social class in Lithuanian nobility became increasingly influenced by Christian culture and language and the countries grew closer. Many cities were granted the German system of laws (Magdeburg rights), with the largest of these being Vilnius, which since 1322 was the capital city of Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Lithuanian Renaissance Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the 15th centuryLithuania's administrative divisions in the 17th century In the 16th century, when many educated Lithuanians came back from studies abroad, Grand Duchy of Lithuania was boiling with active cultural life, sometimes referred to as Lithuanian Renaissance (not to be confused with Lithuanian National Revival in 19th century). At the time Italian architecture was introduced in Lithuanian cities, and Lithuanian literature written in Latin flourished. Also at the time emerged first handwritten and printed texts in the Lithuanian language, and began the formation of written Lithuanian language. The process was led by Lithuanian scholars Abraomas Kulvietis, Stanislovas Rapalionis, Martynas Mažvydas and Mikalojus Daukša. Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) Outline of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with its major subdivisions as of 1619, superimposed on present-day national borders With the Union of Lublin of 1569 Poland and Lithuania formed a new state: the Republic of Both Nations (commonly known as Poland-Lithuania or the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth; Polish: Rzeczpospolita Obojga Narodow, Lithuanian: Abiejų Tautų Respublika). Following the union, Polonization started to take place in Lithuanian public life, and took another 140 years to become a major factor. Under the influence of the Lithuanian upper classes and the church, who began to use Polish language more frequently. In 1696 Polish became an official language, replacing the previous Lithuanian language and Ruthenian languages. Despite the Union and integration of the two countries, for nearly two centuries Lithuania continued to exist as the Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, retaining separate laws as well as an Army and a Treasury. The Constitution of May 3, 1791, agreed by the Sejm attempted to integrate Lithuania and Poland more closely, although the separation was kept by the October 20 addendum to the May the 3rd Constitution. However, partitions of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, 1793 and 1795 saw Lithuania divided between Russia and Prussia and Lithuania ceased to exist as a distinct entity for more than a century. Under Imperial Russia (1795–1914) Modern Lithuania in Russian Empire (1867–1914) Domination of Russia Following the partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Russian Empire controlled the majority of Lithuania, including Vilnius, which made up a part of Vilna Governorate. In the early years of the 19th century, there were signs that Lithuania might be allowed some separate recognition by the Empire, however this never happened. Napoleon's invasion These hopes were soon to be dashed, particularly subsequent to 1812, when Lithuanians eagerly welcomed Napoleon Bonaparte's French army as liberators. After the French army's withdrawal, Tsar Nicholas I began an intensive program of Russification. The south-western part of Lithuania included in Prussia in 1795 and in the short-lived Duchy of Warsaw in 1807 became a part of the Russian-controlled Kingdom of Poland in 1815, while the rest of Lithuania continued to be administered as a Russian province. Uprisings The Lithuanians and Poles revolted twice, in 1831 and 1863, but both attempts failed. In 1864 the Lithuanian language and the Latin alphabet were banned in junior schools. Lithuanians resisted the Russification by arranging printing abroad and smuggling the books in by knygnešiai. Lithuanian national revival Under late Russian occupation, the native language of Lithuania was reborn after many years of dormancy. Because many of Lithuanian nobles were Polonized and only the poor and middle classes used Lithuanian (but some of the latter also tended to use Polish for "prestige"), Lithuanian was not considered a prestigious language. There were even expectations that the language would become extinct, as more and more territories in the east were Slavicized, and more people used Polish or Russian in daily life. The only place where Lithuanian was considered to be more prestigious and worthy of books and such was German-controlled Lithuania Minor. Even here, an influx of German immigrants threatened the native language and culture. The revival started among poor people, then continued with the wealthy, beginning with the release of Lithuanian newspapers, Aušra and Varpas, then with the writing of poems and books in Lithuanian. These writings glorified the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, depicting the nation with power and many heroes. This revival spearheaded the independence movement, with various organizations opposing Russian influence. Russian policy became harsher in response. Strikes were organized against Catholic churches while a ban forbidding Lithuanian press continued. Lithuania's nationalist movement continued to grow. During the Russia-wide revolutionary uprising of 1905 a congress (Great Seimas of Vilnius) of Lithuanian representatives in Vilnius on 5 December 1905 demanded provincial autonomy. For its part, the tsarist regime did make a number of concessions as the result of the 1905 uprising. The Baltic states could once again use their native languages in schooling and public discourse. Latin script replaced the Cyrillic script which had been forced upon Lithuanian for four decades. However, not even Russian liberals were prepared to concede autonomy similar to that as had already existed in Estonia and Latvia, albeit under Baltic German hegemony. Hiden, John and Salmon, Patrick. The Baltic Nations and Europe. London: Longman. 1994. Under Bismark, German policy had aligned itself with tsarist Russia along the lines of Prussian alliances extending back to the Napoleonic era, in line with their both being politically aligned against Poland. When relations deteriorated between Germany and Russia, it was not over the Baltics but over the conflict between Austria and Russia in the Balkans. While many Baltic Germans had looked toward aligning the Baltics with Germany—Lithuania and Courland in particular—they had taken no overt action. However, with the outbreak of hostilities in World War I and Germany's occupation of Lithuania and Courland in 1915, the Baltic Germans now had the real possibility of aligning themselves with Germany, opposing both tsarist Russia and Lithuanian nationalism. Independent Lithuania (1918–1940) Declaration of independence During World War I Lithuania was incorporated into Ober Ost, occupational German government. As the war progressed, it became evident that Germany would not reach an effective victory and would have to compromise peace with the Russian Empire. As open annexation could result in a public relations backlash, Germans planned to form a network of formally independent states that would in fact be completely dependent on Germany, the so-called Mitteleuropa. Germans allowed Vilnius Conference (September 18 – September 22, 1917) to convene demanding that Lithuanians declare loyalty to Germany and agree to an annexation. The Conference elected 20-member Council of Lithuania and empowered it to act as the executive authority of the Lithuanian people. The Council adopted the Act of Independence of Lithuania on February 16, 1918. It declared that Lithuania is an independent republic, organized based on democratic principles. Germans, still present in the country, did not support such a declaration and hindered any attempts to establish the proclaimed independence. To prevent being incorporated into the German Empire, Lithuanians elected Monaco-born King Mindaugas II as the titular monarch of the Kingdom of Lithuania in July 1918. Mindaugas II never assumed the throne. Lithuania and Poland after the treaties of Versailles and Brest-Litovsk and before the Peace of Riga Germany lost the war and signed the Armistice of Compiègne on November 11, 1918. Lithuanians quickly formed their first government, led by Augustinas Voldemaras, adopted a provisional constitution, and started organizing basic administrative structures. As the defeated German army was withdrawing from the Eastern Front, it was followed by Soviet forces in order to spread the global proletarian revolution. They created a number of puppet states, including the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic. By the end of December the Red Army reached Lithuanian borders starting the Lithuanian–Soviet War. The Lithuanian government evacuated from Vilnius to Kaunas, the temporary capital of Lithuania. Vilnius was captured on January 5, 1919. As Lithuanian army was in its infant stages, Soviet forces moved largely unopposed and by mid-January 1919 controlled about ⅔ of Lithuanian territory. From April 1919 the Lithuanian war went parallel with the Polish–Soviet War. Poland had territorial claims over Lithuania, especially the Vilnius Region, and these tensions spilled over into the Polish–Lithuanian War. In mid-May the Lithuanian army, now commanded by General Silvestras Žukauskas, began an offensive against the Soviets in northeastern Lithuania. By the end of August 1919, Soviets were pushed out of the Lithuanian territory. When the Soviets were defeated, Lithuanian army was deployed against the paramilitary West Russian Volunteer Army, who invaded northern Lithuania. They were rouse German and Russian soldiers who sought to retain German control over the former Ober Ost. West Russian Volunteers were defeated and pushed out by the end of 1919. Thus the first phase of the Lithuanian Wars of Independence was over and Lithuanians could direct attention to internal affairs. Democratic Lithuania The Constituent Assembly of Lithuania was elected in April and first met in May 1920. In June it adopted the third provisional constitution and in July signed the Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty. In the treaty the Soviet Union recognized fully independent Lithuania and its claims to the disputed Vilnius Region. The treaty increased hostilities between Poland and Lithuania. To prevent further fighting, the Suwałki Agreement was signed in October. But before it went into effect, Polish General Lucjan Żeligowski staged a mutiny, invaded Lithuania, captured Vilnius, and established short-lived Republic of Central Lithuania. The League of Nations attempted to mediate the dispute and Paul Hymans proposed plans of Polish–Lithuanian union. However, the negotiations broke down as neither side agreed to compromise. The Central Lithuania held a plebiscite and was incorporated into Poland in March 1922. The dispute for the Vilnius Region was not resolved. Lithuania broke any diplomatic relation with Poland refusing to recognize, even de facto, its control over Vilnius, historical capital of Lithuania with significant Polish population. The dispute continued to dominate Lithuanian foreign policy for the entire interwar period. The Constituent Assembly, which adjourned in October 1920 due to threats from Poland, gathered again and initiated many reforms needed in the new state: obtained international recognition and membership in the League of Nations, passed the law of land reform, introduced national currency litas, and adopted the final constitution in August 1922. Lithuania became a democratic state, with Seimas (parliament) elected by men and women for a three-year term. The Seimas elected the president. The First Seimas was elected in October 1922, but could not form a government as the votes split equally 38–38 and was forced to resign. Its only lasting achievement was the Klaipėda Revolt in January 1923. Lithuania took advantage of the Ruhr Crisis and captured the Klaipėda Region, a territory detached from the East Prussia according to the Treaty of Versailles and placed under french administration. The region was incorporated as an autonomous district of Lithuania in May 1924. For Lithuania it was the only access to the Baltic Sea and important industrial center. The Revolt was the last armed conflict in Lithuania before World War II. The Second Seimas, elected in May 1923, was the only Seimas in independent Lithuania that served the full term. The Seimas continued the land reform, introduced social support systems, started repaying foreign debt. Strides were made in education: the network of primary and secondary schools was expanded and first universities were established in Kaunas. Authoritarian Lithuania The Third Seimas, was elected in May 1926. For the first time Lithuanian Christian Democrats (krikdemai) lost their majority and became an opposition. It was sharply criticized for signing the Soviet–Lithuanian Non-Aggression Pact and accused of "Bolshevization" of Lithuania. As a result of growing tensions, the government was deposed during the 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état in December. The coup, organized by the military, was supported by the Lithuanian Nationalists Union (tautininkai) and Lithuanian Christian Democrats. They installed Antanas Smetona as the President and Augustinas Voldemaras as the Prime Minister. Smetona suppressed its opposition and remained as an authoritarian leader until June 1940. The Seimas though that the coup was just a temporary measure and the new elections should be called to return to democratic Lithuania. It was dissolved in May 1927. Later that year members of Social Democrats and other leftist parties, named plečkaitininkai after their leader, tried to organize an uprising against Smetona but were quickly subdued. Voldemaras grew increasingly independent of Smetona and was forced to resign in 1929. Three times in 1930 and once in 1934 he unsuccessfully attempted to return to power. In May 1928 Smetona, without the Seimas, announced the fifth provisional constitution. It continued to claim that Lithuania is a democratic state and vastly increased powers of the President. His party, the Lithuanian National Union, steadily grew in size and importance. Smetona adopted the title of "tautos vadas" (leader of the nation) and slowly started building personality cult. Many of the prominent political figures married into Smetona's family (Juozas Tūbelis, Stasys Raštikis). When the Nazi Party came into power in the Weimar Republic, Germany–Lithuania relations worsened considerably as Nazi Germany did not accept the loss of Klaipėda Region. The Nazis sponsored anti-Lithuanian organizations in the region. In 1934, Lithuania put the activists on trial and sentenced about 100 people, including their leaders Ernst Neumann and Theodor von Sass. That prompted Germany, one of the main trade partners of Lithuania, to declare embargo of Lithuanian products. In response Lithuania shifted its exports to Great Britain. But that was not enough and peasants in Suvalkija organized strikes, which were violently suppressed. Smetona's prestige was damaged and in September 1936 he agreed to call the first elections to Seimas since the coup in 1926. Before the elections all political parties, except the National Union, were closed. Thus of 49 members of the Fourth Seimas, 42 were from the National Union. It functioned as an advisory board to the President and in February 1938 adopted a new constitution, which granted even greater powers to the President. As tensions were rising in Europe following the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany, Poland presented an ultimatum to Lithuania in March 1938. Poland demanded the re-establishment of normal diplomatic relations, which were broken after the Żeligowski's Mutiny in 1920, and threatened military actions in case of refusal. Lithuania, having weaker military power and unable to enlist international support for its cause, accepted the ultimatum. Lithuania–Poland relations somewhat normalized and the parties concluded treaties regarding railway transport, postal exchange, and other means of communication. Just a year after the Polish ultimatum and five days after the German occupation of Czechoslovakia, Lithuania received as oral ultimatum from Joachim von Ribbentrop demanding to cede the Klaipėda Region to Germany. Again, Lithuania was forced to accept. This triggered a political crisis in Lithuania and forced Smetona to form a new government which for the first time since 1926 included members of the opposition. The loss of Klaipėda was a major blow to Lithuanian economy and the country shifted to the sphere of German influence. When Germany and the Soviet Union concluded the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact in 1939 and divided Eastern Europe into spheres of influence, Lithuania was, at first, assigned to Germany. World War II (1939–1945) First Soviet occupation Soviet troops are marching into Lithuania (June 1940) In August 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union signed an agreement (the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact), with secret clauses assigning spheres of influence in the area of the Baltic Sea. Lithuania was initially assigned to the German sphere of influence, but when Lithuania refused to ally with Nazi Germany in the attack on Poland, it was transferred to the Soviets in secret additional protocols of another pact, the German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty on September 28, 1939, eleven days after the Soviet invasion. Stalin, Ribbentrop and others at the signing of the German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty Stalin, Ribbentrop, Molotov and others at the signing of the German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty The city of Vilnius was occupied by the Red Army and later transferred to Lithuania together with only one fifth of the Vilnius region. The Soviets established their military presence within the country. Despite having a non-aggression pact signed and in force, Soviet Russia gave Lithuania an ultimatum in 1940. It demanded to remove from the legal position several key Lithuanian politicians under the pretext of a supposed kidnapping of several deserted Soviet soldiers and asked them to be imprisonment by Soviet troops. (the incident was staged by the Russians themselves). In the ultimatum Soviets demanded to deploy overwhelming military units in the Lithuanian territory. Unlike Finland, Lithuania did not stage an armed opposition and accepted the ultimatum. President Antanas Smetona opposed it and insisted that Lithuania should hold an armed opposition against advancing Soviet troops, while most of members of the government decided that it should be accepted, assuming that Lithuania would have lost a war against Russia in any case, so, the ultimatum was accepted. Smetona left Lithuania to prevent legalization of the inevitable occupation, as the Soviet military forces (15 divisions, about 150,000 soldiers) crossed the Lithuanian border on June 15, 1940, the military of Lithuania was ordered not to resist. With the support of Soviet military forces, a new government was formed by occupying Soviet forces. The illegitimate government consisted mainly of leftist Lithuanians, who were sponsored for a long time by Soviets—(such as leftist poets like Salomėja Nėris, Antanas Venclova), that according to the censored press was supposedly to be more popular among the general public. 200,000 families requested land nationalized from well doing farmers, who were prepared to be deported to Siberia. Puppet-Government members were nominated according to the orders of Vladimir Dekanozov, the Soviet envoy in Lithuania. Dekanozov named Justas Paleckis, a Lithuanian leftist who at the time was not yet a member of the Communist Party, although enjoyed sponsorship for Soviet embassy in Kaunas for a long time, as a frontman Prime Minister. The selection of a prime minister acceptable to Moscow was not carried out according to the procedures foreseen in the Lithuanian constitution; rather, aided by specialists sent in from Moscow, Dekanozov staged the elections through the Lithuanian Communist Party, headed by Antanas Sniečkus, while the cabinet of ministers, headed by Paleckis, served an a puppet-administrative function. This temporary government was in office for a very short period, and on July 14–15, 1940, elections to the so-called "People's Parliament" were organized. However, only the Communist Party of Lithuania could nominate candidates, with its leaders being returned from Moscow or released from prisons. On July 21, 1940, the parliament declared Lithuania's will to join the Soviet Union and on August 3, 1940, the Supreme Council of the USSR "admitted" Lithuania into the Soviet Union. The process of annexation was formally over and the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic was created. On June 14, 1941 first mass deportations from Lithuania (18 000 victims) to Siberia took place. From June 1940 to June 1941, the number confirmed executed, conscripted, or deported in three Baltic states is estimated at a minimum of 124,467: 59,732 in Estonia, 34,250 in Latvia, and 30,485 in Lithuania. This included 8 former heads of state and 38 ministers from Estonia, 3 former heads of state and 15 ministers from Latvia, and the then president, 5 prime ministers and 24 other ministers from Lithuania. The next large-scale deportation was planned for the night of 27-28 June 1941. Nazi occupation On June 22, 1941, Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. Lithuanians declared independence expectating that the Soviets would weaken and wouldn't have enough strength to hold Lithuania. On June 24 1941, Juozas Ambrazevičius, a member of the Lithuanian Activist Front (Lietuvos aktyvistų frontas, LAF), became prime minister. The retreating Soviet forces massacred Lithuanian political prisoners in the Rainiai massacre and other places. The leader of the LAF was Kazys Škirpa, who was in Berlin, away from Soviet occupation. However, the Germans did not let him leave because Nazi Germany did not want an independent Lithuania and planned for it to be a part of its occupied territories. The new government asked people via radio not to loot and to remain in place with the retreat of Soviet army, and declared Lithuania independent again. At this time the government tried to negotiate with Germany to allow Lithuanian independence. German troops had entered Lithuania, but for propaganda purposes and other reasons, they did not immediately dissolve the government of Lithuania (and this created a false belief among some Lithuanians that Germans would permit Lithuania to stay independent or at least autonomous). However, with time Germans gradually stripped the Lithuanian government of its powers; Lithuania, having no regular army, was unable to resist because of the huge disparity of strength and ultimately the Germans annexed Lithuania. The government, no longer having any real power, dissolved itself on August 7, 1941. The Lithuanian Activist Front was subsequently banned by the German authorities. German actions The Forest Brothers — Lithuanian partisans — often used cellars, tunnels or more complex underground bunkers such as the one depicted here. People soon realized that the Nazis had no plans for an independent or even autonomous Lithuania and the German occupation administration viewed the natives as second-class citizens. Germany annexed a small part of southern Lithuania to the Reich itself (Balstogė county), while the Lithuanian part of Ostland acquired some more lands from the Vilnius region: Ašmena, Svyriai, etc. This region was not part of the territory given to Lithuania by the Soviets some years previously when Vilnius itself was acquired from occupied Polish territory. Lithuania lost its independence fully. Economic conditions were harsh, especially in cities and towns. In the countryside people were at least able to grow food for themselves and did not suffer the same hardships. Resistance The migration of thousands of German settlers into territories formerly belonging to Lithuanian farmers, along with the dismissal and suppression of the independent Lithuanian government, soon produced a vigorous resistance movement. The resistance movement was not however united — the majority fought for an independent Lithuania; but another group of pro-Soviet partisans, which mainly consisted of Russians, Belarusians and Jews, operated in eastern Lithuania. This group fought for the re-incorporation of Lithuania into the Soviet Union. Soviet partisans committed a number of atrocities (for example, the Koniuchy massacre) and sacked towns and villages. Audronė Janavičienė. Sovietiniai diversantai Lietuvoje (1941–1944) at Genocid.lt The Polish Armia Krajowa (AK) also operated on Lithuanian territory, expecting post-war Poland to resume control of the Vilnius/Wilno region. AK was fighting not only against the Nazis, but also against the pro-Nazi Lithuanian police, Lithuanian Territorial Defense Force, and the Soviet partisans. Relationships between different guerilla detachments was never cordial and worsened as the war went on. Relations between German forces and Lithuanian people There was substantial cooperation and collaboration between the German forces and some Lithuanians. The Lithuanian Activist Front group formed five police companies to restore order in the country. Later, the units around Kaunas were incorporated into the Tautos Darbo Apsauga (National Labour Guard) and in Vilnius the Lietuvos Savisaugos Dalys (Lithuanian Self Defence). These were then joined into the Policiniai Batalionai (Lithuanian Police Battalions) called by the Germans the Schutzmannschaft, with a total of 8,388 men by August, 1942. Another infamous unit was the Lithuanian Security Police (Saugumo policija). Despite the fact that the purpose of their creation was different, these Lithuanian units participated in the Jewish Shoah, especially within Lithuania and the areas of the Vilnius region that are now in Belarus. It is alleged that in October and November 1941 Lithuanian Schutzmannschaft Battalion 2 participated in the killing of 19,000 Jews, US DoJ. that in 1942 the Schutzmannschaft 7th company was involved in the murder of 9,200 Jews, and that the Lithuanian Schutzmannschaft Battalion 254E killed at least 1,800 Jews in the course of a single action in 1943. Vill. An SS division was not established in Lithuania but other military units with about 30,000 Lithuanian inductees were created. World War II in the Baltic, Mike Hurtado, May 23, 2002 in Encyclopedia of Baltic History - a research project by undergraduate and graduate students at the University of Washington Eventually, the Lithuanian general Povilas Plechavičius, who commanded the collaborationist forces, dismissed his soldiers upon finding out that the Nazi regime was planning to mould them into a division of the Nazi elite corps. There was also resistance to the German occupation, and some Lithuanians risked their own lives to save Jews. 504 Lithuanians are recognized as Righteous among the Nations for their efforts. The Holocaust German soldiers and locals watch a Lithuanian synagogue burn For many centuries, Lithuania was one of the great centers of Jewish theology, philosophy, and learning, symbolized by the renowned teachings of the Vilna Gaon. After the First World War, the territory of the new Republic of Lithuania did not include the Vilnius/Vilna region, which was occupied by Poland. Before the Holocaust, the Republic of Lithuania was home to 160,000 Jews. At the beginning of World War II, the Soviets annexed the eastern portion of Poland, including the Vilnius/Vilna region, and in 1940, upon annexing Lithuania, the Soviets transferred the Vilnius/Vilna region to Lithuania. As a result of this enlargement of the territory of Lithuania (and some influx of Jewish refugees from other portions of Poland), by 1941 the Jewish population of Lithuania was approximately 250,000. There was some Lithuanian involvement in the Holocaust, as Nazis encouraged pogroms against the Jewish population after the German invasion, which began on the night of June 21-22, 1941. In the days before the Germans imposed effective administrative control, Lithuanian nationalist paramilitary forces began to massacre Jewish civilians. According to German documentation, between the 25th and 26th of June, 1941, "about 1,500 Jews were eliminated by the Lithuanian partisans. Many Jewish synagogues were set on fire; on the following nights of 25th and 26th of June another 2,300 were killed." Einsatzgruppen Archives. Between June and July 1941, detachments of German Einsatzgruppe A, together with Lithuanian auxiliaries, started large scale mass shootings of Jews, and by November 1941, many had been killed in places like Paneriai (Ponary massacre). The official German army report (“the Jager Report”) methodically lists for each Lithuanian town and village the number of men, women, and children who were systematically murdered by the joint forces of the SS and the Lithaunian paramilitary. http://www.remember.org/docss.html. Typically, the victims were murdered just outside of the communities in which they lived. A minority of the Jews were temporarily kept alive to provide slave labor. Approximately 40,000 Jews were concentrated in the Vilnius, Kaunas, Šiauliai, and Švenčionys ghettos, and in concentration camps, where they were given harsh work assignments and provided inadequate quantities of food. As a result, many died of starvation or disease over the next two years. In 1943, the ghettos were either destroyed by the Germans or turned into concentration camps, and 5,000 Jews were sent to the extermination camps. At the end of the war, only 10% of Lithuania's Jews survived. Return of Soviet authority In the summer of 1944, the Red Army reached eastern Lithuania, while the city of Vilnius was captured by the Home Army during the ill-fated Operation Ostra Brama. By January 1945, the Russians captured Klaipėda, on the Baltic coast. The USSR re-occupied Lithuania as a Soviet republic, with the passive agreement of the United States and Britain (see Yalta Conference and Potsdam Agreements). Soviet Lithuania (1944–1990) Stalinism Flag of Lithuanian SSR The mass deportation campaigns of 1941–1952 exiled 29,923 families to Siberia and other remote parts of the Soviet Union. Official statistics state that more than 120,000 people were deported from Lithuania during this period, while researchers estimate the number of political prisoners and deportees at 300,000. In response to these events, an estimated several tens of thousands of resistance fighters participated in unsuccessful partisan warfare against the Soviet regime from 1944. The last partisan was killed in combat in 1965. Soviet authorities encouraged immigration of non-Lithuanian workers, especially Russians, as a way of integrating Lithuania into the Soviet Union and to encourage industrial development. This period has a dedicated Grūtas Park. Rebirth (1988–1990) Until mid-1988, all political, economic, and cultural life was controlled by the Lithuanian Communist Party (LCP). Lithuanians as well as people in two other Baltic republics distrusted the Soviet regime even more than people in other regions of the Soviet state, and gave their own specific and active support to Gorbachev's program of social and political reforms by Lithuanians. Under the leadership of intellectuals, the Lithuanian reform movement "Lietuvos persitvarkymo sąjūdis" (the Reform Movement of Lithuania) was formed in mid1988 and declared a program of democratic and national rights, winning nationwide popularity. Inspired by Sąjūdis, the Lithuanian Supreme Soviet passed constitutional amendments on the supremacy of Lithuanian laws over Soviet legislation, annulled the 1940 decisions on proclaiming Lithuania a part of the USSR, legalized a multi-party system, and adopted a number of other important decisions, including the return of the national state symbols — the flag and the anthem. A large number of LCP members also supported the ideas of Sąjūdis, and with Sąjūdis support, Algirdas Brazauskas was elected First Secretary of the Central Committee of the LCP in 1988. On 23 August, 1989, 50 years after Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, in order to draw the world's attention to the fate of the Baltic nations, Latvians, Lithuanians and Estonians joined hands in a human chain that stretched 600 kilometres from Tallinn, to Rīga, to Vilnius. That human chain was called the Baltic Way. In December 1989, the Brazauskas-led LCP declared its independence from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and became a separate party, after which it renamed itself in 1990 the Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania. Independent modern Lithuania (1990–present) Struggle for independence (1990–1991) Troops parade to mark events of March 11 In 1990, Sąjūdis-backed candidates won the elections to the Lithuanian Supreme Soviet. On March 11, 1990, the Supreme Soviet (or, more precisely, the Supreme Council of Lithuania) proclaimed the restitution of Lithuanian independence, becoming the first of the Soviet republics to declare national rights. The Supreme Council of Lithuania also appointed leaders of the state and adopted the Provisional Fundamental Law (temporary constitution) on this day and the Lithuanian SSR ceased to exist. Vytautas Landsbergis became the head of the state and Kazimira Prunskienė led the Cabinet of Ministers.. On March 15 the Soviet Union demanded revocation of the act and began employing political and economic sanctions against Lithuania. Soviet military was used to seize a couple of public buildings. Also, it showed its force by driving its tanks through the streets of Vilnius. The Lithuanians, inspired by their government, protested against Soviet actions in a non-violent manner. On January 10, 1991, Soviet authorities seized the main publishing house and other premises in Vilnius and attempted to suppress the elected government by sponsoring a so called "National Salvation Committee". Three days later, during the January Events, the Soviets forcibly took over the Vilnius TV Tower, killing 14 unarmed civilians and injuring 700. The self-styled National Salvation Committee declared the Government overthrown, but capturing of houses of the Supreme Council and the Government never followed. Moscow failed to act further to crush the Lithuanian independence movement in light of widespread world criticism and a dearth of local popular support. The Lithuanian government continued to work. During the national plebiscite on February 9 more than 90% of those who took part in the voting (and 76% of all eligible voters) voted in favor of an independent, democratic Lithuania. Led by tenacious Vytautas Landsbergis, Lithuanian leadership continued to labor for Western diplomatic recognition of its independence. The Soviet Foreign Ministry had called the validity of that and other Lithuanian elections of the time into question, particularly given the strong support that Algirdas Brazauskas commanded in the Seimas. Meanwhile, Soviet military and security forces continued forced conscription, occasional seizure of buildings, attacks on customs posts, and a few killings of customs and police officials. Recognition of independence, 1991 During the 1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt, Soviet military troops took over several communications and other government facilities in Vilnius and other cities, but returned to their barracks when the coup failed. The Lithuanian Government banned the Communist Party and ordered confiscation of its property. Independence was first recognised by Iceland and finally recognized by Russia in September 1991, several months after the referendum. Building the new state (1991–2008) Political developments As in many other formerly Soviet countries, popularity of the liberating movement (Sąjūdis in this case) was diminishing, due to people's overly high expectations that the country would immediately become rich when it became capitalist, which understandably did not happen. Due to the change towards a market economy some indicators, e.g., employment (which was near 100% during Soviet times due to underemployment), fell. At the time the Lithuanian Communist Party renamed itself Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania (LDDP) and ran against Sąjūdis in 1992 elections. Sąjūdis failed at those elections, and LDDP won the majority, although the did not have enough power to change the constitution. This was not expected, and LDDP had even less candidates in their lists than they got seats in parliament, therefore, according to the law, the unused seats were distributed among other political parties according to the percentages of votes. LDDP did not go the radical way back as, for example, the Belarusians did, and more or less continued building the independent state. Leftist policies however also proved to be wrong for the time, and in the elections of 1996 rightist Homeland Union won the majority of seats. Homeland Union has been established by Vytautas Landsbergis, leader of Sąjūdis, when it was seen that Sąjūdis needed reform. Sąjūdis remained as a public organisation, slowly diminishing and losing its importance. Although it exists today, it is not involved in politics any longer. Privatization It was decided that the state would have a market economy and therefore organizations like shops and flats, which were owned by government and leased to people, were to be privatised. Because people did not have money, the government issued investment vouchers of varying amounts to everybody, which could be used to privatise things such as real estate. Privatisation of companies was performed in auctions where the one who could offer the most cheques would win. People cooperated in groups to have a larger amount to offer and the privatisation campaign in Lithuania, unlike Russia, did not create a small group of very wealthy and powerful people. This was probably because the privatisation started with small organizations, and not large enterprises such as telecoms or airlines, which were done much later and some are still left unprivatised (and then already a monetary model was chosen for privatisation instead of a cheque-based one). Privatisation however created a problem by people who were new to business acquiring some factories which were thriving previously and being unable to make them continue prospering. Others claim however that the fate of these factories was already sealed anyway because they were non-competitive and could only have been working under the planned economy of the Soviet Union. Russian troop withdrawal (1991–1994) Despite Lithuania's achievement of complete independence, sizable numbers of Russian forces remained in its territory. Withdrawal of those forces was one of Lithuania's top foreign policy priorities. Lithuania and Russia signed an agreement on September 8, 1992, calling for Russian troop withdrawals by August 31, 1993, which took place on time. Forming the military The first military of the reborn country were the Lithuanian volunteers, who first took an oath at the Supreme Council of Lithuania soon after the independence declaration. Later SKAT was formed from them. However, when the LDDP (former communists) came to power in 1992, the position of the volunteers was weakened, according to them on purpose, by not giving them enough weaponry, financing nor uniforms. This led to the Coup of the Volunteers, but with time the situation calmed down, and Lithuanian military built itself to the common standard with an air force, navy and land army. SKAT remained too, and interwar paramilitary organisations such as Lithuanian Riflemen's Union, Young Riflemen, and Lithuanian Scouts were re-created. However, riflemen's organisations do not have the power or support they enjoyed in interwar Lithuania. Forming the monetary system Lithuania's monetary system was to be based on Litas, the currency used during the interwar republic of Lithuania. The name Litas derives from the name Lithuania (the other Baltic State, Latvia, has similarly-named currency Lats). The currency was to be introduced quickly, immediately after Russian ruble, however it did not happen and Russia did not support the use of Roubles in Lithuania. Therefore a temporary currency, talonas, was introduced (commonly called Vagnorkė or Vagnorėlis because Gediminas Vagnorius was prime minister during its introduction). This currency however was very simple, easily counterfeited, and also was subject to heavy inflation. There were two versions of talonas, a large note and then a small note, the smaller notes were being released to change the large banknotes when they lost their value, but it was later controversially decided that the large banknotes would regain value again. Eventually Litas was issued (printed outside Lithuania), and it was decided to peg it to the United States dollar and later to the Euro. Some possible affairs and conspiracy theories exist about the issue of litas. Since then except for the first few years and up until joining the European Union, inflation in Lithuania has been among the lowest in Europe. In October 2002, Lithuania was invited to join the European Union (EU) and one month later to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO); it became a member of both in 2004. See also Baltic region Republic of Central Lithuania Forest Brothers History of Vilnius History of Poland Lithuania Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Russians in Lithuania Law of Lithuania Territorial changes of the Baltic states Notes Bibliography Zigmantas Kiaupa, et al. The History of Lithuania Before 1795 (Vilnius: Lithuanian Institute of History, 2000). 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6,566 | Ballad | A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative story and set to music. Ballads were characteristic of particularly British and Irish popular poetry and song from the later medieval period until the nineteenth century and used extensively across Europe and later north America, Australia and north Africa. Many ballads were written and sold as single sheet broadsides. The form was often used by poets and composers from the eighteenth century onwards to produce lyrical ballads. In the later twentieth century it took on the meaning of a slow form of popular love song. The origin of ballads The ballad probably derives its name from medieval French dance songs or ‘ballares’ (from which we also get ballet), as did the alternative rival form that became the French Ballade. In theme and function they may originate from Scandinavian and Germanic traditions of epic storytelling that can be seen in poems such as Beowulf. J. E. Housman, British Popular Ballads (1952, London: Ayer Publishing, 1969), p. 15. The earliest example we have of a recognisable ballad in form in England is ‘Judas’ in a thirteenth-century manuscript. A. N. Bold, The Ballad (Routledge, 1979), p. 5. The ballad form Most, but not all northern and west European ballads are written in ballad stanzas or quatrains (four line stanzas) of alternating lines of iambic (an unstressed followed by a stressed syllable) tetrameter (eight syllables) and iambic trimeter (six syllables), known as ballad meter. Usually, only the second and fourth line of a quatrain are rhymed (in the scheme a, b, c, b), which has been taken to suggest that, originally, ballads consisted of couplets (two lines) of rhymed verse, each of fourteen syllables. D. Head and I. Ousby, The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 66. As can be seen in this stanza from ‘Lord Thomas and Fair Annet’, The horse| fair An|et rode| upon| He amb|led like| the wind|, With sil|ver he| was shod| before, With burn|ing gold| behind|. However, there is considerable variation on this pattern in almost every respect, including length, number of lines and rhyming scheme, making the strict definition of a ballad extremely difficult. In southern and eastern Europe, and in countries that derive their tradition from them, ballad structure differs significantly, like Spanish romanceros like which are octosyllabic and use consonance rather than rhyme. T. A. Green, Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art (ABC-CLIO, 1997), p. 81. In all traditions most ballads are narrative in nature, with a self contained story, often concise and relying on imagery, rather than description, which can be tragic, historical, romantic or comic. D. Head and I. Ousby, The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 66. Another common feature of ballads is repetition, sometimes of fourth lines in succeeding stanzas, as a refrain, sometimes of third and fourth lines of a stanza and sometimes of entire stanzas. The composition of ballads Scholars of ballads are often divided into two camps, the ‘communalists’ who, following the line established by the German scholar Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) and the Brothers Grimm, argue that ballads arose by a combined communal effort and did not have a single author, and ‘individualists’, following the thinking of English collector Cecil Sharp, who assert that there was a single original author. A. N. Bold, The Ballad (Routledge, 1979), p. 5. The communalist position tends to lead to the view that more recent, particularly printed broadside ballads, where we may even know the author, are a debased form of the genre. The individualists position has tended to lead to the view that later changes in the words of ballads are corruptions of an original text. M. Hawkins-Dady, Reader's Guide to Literature in English (Taylor & Francis, 1996), p. 54. More recently scholars have pointed to the interchange of oral and written forms of the ballad. T. A. Green, Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art (ABC-CLIO, 1997), p. 353. Classification of ballads European Ballads have been generally been classified into three major groups: traditional, broadside and literary. In America a distinction is drawn between ballads that are versions of European, particularly British and Irish songs, and 'native American ballads', developed without reference to earlier songs. A further development were blues ballads, which mixed the genre with Afro-American music. For the late nineteenth century the music publishing industry found a market for what are often termed sentimental ballads, and these are the origin of the modern use of the term ballad to mean a slow love song. Traditional ballads The traditional, classical or popular (meaning of the people) ballad has been seen as originating with the wandering minstrels of late medieval Europe. From the end of the fifteenth century we have printed ballads that suggest a rich tradition of popular music. We know from a reference in William Langland's Piers Plowman, that ballads about Robin Hood were being sung from at least the late fourteenth century and the oldest detailed material we have is Wynkyn de Worde's collection of Robin Hood ballads printed about 1495. B. Sweers, Electric Folk: The Changing Face of English Traditional Music (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 45. Early collections of ballads were made by Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) and in the Roxburghe Ballads collected by Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer (1661-1724). In the eighteenth century there were increasing numbers such collections, including Thomas D'Urfey's Wit and Mirth: or, Pills to Purge Melancholy (1719-20) and Bishop Thomas Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765). The last of these also contained some oral material and by the end of the eighteenth century this was becoming increasingly common, with collections including John Ritson's, The Bishopric Garland (1784), which paralleled the work of figures like Robert Burns and Walter Scott in Scotland. Key work on the traditional ballad was undertaken in the late nineteenth century in Denmark by Svend Grundtvig and for England and Scotland by the Harvard professor Francis Child. A. N. Bold, The Ballad (Routledge, 1979), p. 5. They attempted to record and classify all the known ballads and variants in their chosen regions. Unfortunately since Child died before writing a commentary on his work it is uncertain exactly how and why he differentiated the 305 ballads printed that would be published as The English and Scottish Popular Ballads. T. A. Green, Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art (ABC-CLIO, 1997), p. 352. There have been many different and contradictory attempts to classify traditional ballads by theme, but commonly identified types are the religious, supernatural, tragic, love ballads, historic, legendary and humorous. Broadside ballads Broadside ballads (also known as 'roadsheet’, ‘stall’, ‘vulgar’ or ‘come all ye’ ballads) were a product of the development of cheap print from the sixteenth century. They were generally printed on one side of a large sheet of poor quality paper. This could also be cut in half lengthways to make ‘broadslips’, or folded to make chapbooks. G. Newman and L. E. Brown, Britain in the Hanoverian Age, 1714-1837: An Encyclopedia (Taylor & Francis, 1997), pp. 39-40. They were produced in huge numbers, with over 400,000 being sold in England annually by the 1660s. B. Capp, ‘Popular literature’, in B. Reay, ed., Popular Culture in Seventeenth-Century England (Routledge, 1985), p. 199. Many were sold by traveling chapmen in city streets or at fairs. M. Spufford, Small Books and Pleasant Histories: Popular Fiction and Its Readership in Seventeenth-Century England (Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 111-128. The subject matter varied from what has been defined as the traditional ballad, although many traditional ballads were printed as broadsides. Among the topics were love, religion, drinking-songs, legends, and early journalism, which included disasters, political events and signs, wonders and prodigies. B. Capp, ‘Popular literature’, in B. Reay, ed., Popular Culture in Seventeenth-Century England (Routledge, 1985), p. 204. Literary ballads Literary or lyrical ballads grew out of an increasing interest in the ballad form among social elites and intellectuals, particularly in the Romantic movement from the later eighteenth century. Respected literary figures like Robert Burns and Sir Walter Scott in Scotland both collected and wrote their own ballads, using the form to create an artistic product. Similarly in England William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge produced a collection of Lyrical Ballads in 1798, including Coleridge’s ‘The Rime of the Ancient Mariner’. At the same time in Germany Goethe cooperated with Schiller on a series of ballads, some of which were later set to music by Schubert. J. R. Williams, The Life of Goethe (Blackwell Publishing, 2001), pp. 106-8. Later important examples of the poetic form included Rudyard Kipling’s ‘Barrack Room Ballads’ (1892-6) and Oscar Wilde’s ‘Ballad of Reading Gaol’ (1897). S. Ledger, S. McCracken, Cultural Politics at the Fin de Siècle (Cambridge University Press, 1995), p. 152. Ballad operas Painting based on The Beggar's Opera, Act III Scene 2, William Hogarth, c. 1728In the eighteenth century ballad operas developed as a form of English stage entertainment, partly in opposition to the Italian domination of the London operatic scene. M. Lubbock, The Complete Book of Light Opera (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962) pp. 467-68. It consisted of racy and often satirical spoken (English) dialogue, interspersed with songs that are deliberately kept very short to minimize disruptions to the flow of the story. Subject matter involved the lower, often criminal, orders, and typically showed a suspension (or inversion) of the high moral values of the Italian opera of the period. Arguably the first ballad opera was Handel's Rinaldo in 1712. M. Lubbock, The Complete Book of Light Opera (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962), pp. 467-68. The most important and successful was The Beggar's Opera of 1728, with a libretto by John Gay and music arranged by John Christopher Pepusch, both of whom probably influenced by Parisian vaudeville and the burlesques and musical plays of Thomas D'Urfey (1653–1723), a number of whose collected ballads they used in their work. F. Kidson, The Beggar's Opera: Its Predecessors and Successors (Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 71. Gay produced further works in this style, including a sequel under the title Polly. Henry Fielding, Colley Cibber, Arne, Dibdin, Arnold, Shield, Jackson of Exeter, Hook and many others produced ballad operas that enjoyed great popularity. M. Lubbock, The Complete Book of Light Opera (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1962), pp. 467-68. Ballad opera was attempted in America and Prussia. Later it moved into a more pastoral form, like Isaac Bickerstaffe's Love in a Village (1763) and Shield’s Rosina (1781), using more original music that imitated, rather than reproduced, existing ballads. Although the form declined in popularity towards the end of the eighteenth century its influence can be seen in light operas like that of Gilbert and Sullivan's early works like The Sorcerer. G. Wren, A Most Ingenious Paradox: The Art of Gilbert and Sullivan (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 41. In the twentieth century, one of the most influential plays, Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht's (1928) The Threepenny Opera was a reworking of The Beggar's Opera, setting a similar story with the same characters, and containing much of the same satirical bite, but only using one tune from the original. K. Lawrence, Decolonizing Tradition: New Views of Twentieth-century "British" Literary Canons (University of Illinois Press, 1992), p. 30. The term ballad opera has also been used to describe musicals using folk music, such as The Martins and the Coys in 1944, and Peter Bellamy's The Transports in 1977. A. J. Aby and P. Gruchow, The North Star State: A Minnesota History Reader, (Minnesota Historical Society Press, 2002), p. 461. The satiric elements of ballad opera can be seen in some modern musicals such as Chicago and Cabaret. L. Lehrman, Marc Blitzstein: A Bio-bibliography (Greenwood, 2005), p. 568. Ballads beyond Europe Native American ballads Some 300 ballads sung in north America have been identified as having origins in British traditional or broadside ballads. N. Cohen, Folk Music: a Regional Exploration (Greenwood, 2005), pp. 14-29. Examples include ‘The Streets of Laredo’, which was found in Britain and Ireland as ‘The Unfortunate Rake’. However, a further 400 have been identified as originating in colonial north America, including among the best known, ‘The Ballad of Davy Crockett' and 'Jesse James'. They became an increasing area of interest for scholars in the nineteenth century and most were recorded or catalogued by George Malcolm Laws, although some have since been found to have British origins and additional songs have since been collected. They are usually considered closest in form to British broadside ballads and in terms of style are largely indistinguishable, however, they demonstrate a particular concern with occupations, journalistic style and often lack the ribaldry of British broadside ballads. T. A. Green, Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art (ABC-CLIO, 1997), p. 353. Blues ballads The blues ballad has been seen as a fusion of Anglo-American and Afro-American styles of music from the nineteenth century. Blues ballads tend to deal with active protagonists, often anti-heroes, resisting adversity and authority, but frequently lacking a strong narrative and emphasising character over narrative. They were often accompanied by banjo and guitar which followed the blues musical format. T. A. Green, Folklore: An Encyclopedia of Beliefs, Customs, Tales, Music, and Art (ABC-CLIO, 1997), p. 353. The most famous blues ballads include those about John Henry and Casey Jones. Bush Ballads The ballad was taken to Australia by early settlers from Britain and Ireland and gained particular foothold in the rural outback. The rhyming songs, poems and tales written in the form of ballads often relate to the itinerant and rebellious spirit of Australia in The Bush, and the authors and performers are often referred to as bush bards. Kerry O'Brien December 10, 2003 7:30 Report http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2003/s1007523.htm. The nineteenth century was the golden age of bush ballads. Several collectors have catalogued the songs including John Meredith whose recording in the 1950s became the basis of the collection in the National Library of Australia. Kerry O'Brien December 10, 2003 7:30 Report http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2003/s1007523.htm The songs tell personal stories of life in the wide open country of Australia. Typical subjects include mining, raising and droving cattle, sheep shearing, wanderings, war stories, the 1891 Australian shearers' strike, class conflicts between the landless working class and the squatters (landowners), and outlaws such as Ned Kelly, as well as love interests and more modern fare such as trucking. G. Smith, Singing Australian: A History of Folk and Country Music (Pluto Press Australia, 2005), p. 2. Sentimental ballads Now the most commonly understood meaning of the term ballad, sentimental ballads had their origins in the early ‘Tin Pan Alley’ music industry of the later nineteenth century. Such songs include ‘Little Rosewood Casket’ (1870), ‘After the Ball was Over’’ (1892) and ‘Danny Boy’. As new genres of music, such as ragtime and jazz began to emerge in the early twentieth century the popularity of the genre faded, but association with sentimentality meant led to this being used as the term for a slow love song from the 1950s onwards. Pop and rock ballads In the second half of the twentieth century the term "ballad" took on the meaning of a popular or jazz song especially of a romantic or sentimental nature, and was often contrasted with up-tempo pop songs. D. Randel, The New Harvard Dictionary of Music (Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 68. From the 1970s the power ballad was developed by rock bands as an emotional song, generally focused on love , delivered with powerful vocals and using rock instruments, particularly electric guitars and drums. Examples include Heart’s ‘What about love’ (1985). P. Buckley, The Rough Guide to Rock: the definitive guide to more than 1200 artists and bands (Rough Guides, 2003). See also Border ballads Francis James Child Graves, Alfred Perceval List of the Child Ballads List of Irish ballads List of folk song collections Roud Folk Song Index References External links The Bodleian Library Ballad Collection: view facsimiles of printed ballads The Traditional Ballad Index Black-letter Broadside Ballads Of The years 1595-1639 From The Collection Of Samuel Pepys Smithsonian Global Sound: The Music of Poetry - audio samples of poems, hymns and songs in ballad meter. 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6,567 | George_Berkeley | George Berkeley () (12 March 1685 14 January 1753), also known as Bishop Berkeley, was a philosopher whose primary achievement was the advancement of a theory he called "immaterialism" (later referred to as "subjective idealism" by others). This theory contends that individuals can only directly know sensations and ideas of objects, not abstractions such as "matter." The theory also contends that ideas are dependent upon being perceived by minds for their very existence, a belief that became immortalized in the dictum, "Esse est percipi" ("To be is to be perceived"). His most widely-read works are A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710) and Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous (1713), in which the characters Philonous and Hylas represent Berkeley himself and his contemporary John Locke. In 1734, he published The Analyst, a critique of the foundations of infinitesimal calculus, which was influential in the development of mathematics. Life of George Berkeley Berkeley was born at his family home, Dysart Castle, near Thomastown, County Kilkenny, Ireland, the eldest son of William Berkeley, a cadet of the noble family of Berkeley. He was educated at Kilkenny College and attended Trinity College, Dublin, completing a Master's degree in 1707. He remained at Trinity College after completion of his degree as a tutor and Greek lecturer. His earliest publication was a mathematical one but the first which brought him into notice was his Essay towards a New Theory of Vision, first published in 1709. In the essay, Berkeley examined visual distance, magnitude, position and problems of sight and touch. Though giving rise to much controversy at the time, its conclusions are now accepted as an established part of the theory of optics. The next publication to appear was the Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge in 1710, which was followed in 1713 by Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous, in which he propounded his system of philosophy, the leading principle of which is that the world as represented to our senses depends for its existence, as such, on being perceived. Of this theory, the Principles gives the exposition and the Dialogues the defence. One of his main objects was to combat the prevailing materialism of the time. The theory was largely received with ridicule; while even those, such as Samuel Clarke and William Whiston, who did acknowledge his "extraordinary genius," were nevertheless convinced that his first principles were false. Shortly afterwards, Berkeley visited England, and was received into the circle of Addison, Pope and Steele. In the period between 1714 and 1720, he interspersed his academic endeavours with periods of extensive travel in Europe, including one of the most extensive Grand Tours of the length and breadth of Italy ever undertaken. In 1721, he took Holy Orders in the Church of Ireland, earning his doctorate in divinity, and once again chose to remain at Trinity College Dublin, lecturing this time in Divinity and in Hebrew. In 1724, he was made Dean of Derry. In 1725, he formed the project of founding a college in Bermuda for training ministers for the colonies, and missionaries to the Indians, in pursuit of which he gave up his deanery with its income of £1100. In 1728, he married Anne Forster, daughter of the Lord Chief Justice of Ireland. He then went to America on a salary of £100. He landed near Newport, Rhode Island, where he bought a plantation the famous "Whitehall." He lived at the plantation while he waited for funds for his college to arrive. The funds, however, were not forthcoming and in 1732 he returned to London. While living on London's Saville Street, he took part in the efforts to create a home for the city's abandoned children. The Foundling Hospital was founded by Royal Charter in 1739 and Berkeley is listed as one of its original governors. In 1734, he was appointed Bishop of Cloyne in Ireland. Soon afterwards, he published Alciphron, or The Minute Philosopher, directed against both Shaftesbury and Bernard de Mandeville; and in 1735–37 The Querist. His last two publications were Siris: Philosophical reflexions and inquiries concerning the virtues of tar-water, and divers other subjects connected together and arising from one another (1744) and Further Thoughts on Tar-water (1752). Pine tar is an effective antiseptic and disinfectant when applied to cuts on the skin, but Berkeley argued for the use of pine tar as a broad panacea for disease in general. It is said that his 1744 book on the medical benefits of pine tar was his best-selling book in his lifetime. See Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy He remained at Cloyne until 1752, when he retired and went to Oxford to live with his son. He died soon afterward and was buried in Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford. His affectionate disposition and genial manners made him much loved and held in warm regard by many of his contemporaries. Contributions to philosophy As a young man, Berkeley theorized that individuals cannot know if an object is; they can only know if an object is perceived by a mind. He stated that individuals cannot think or talk about an object's being, but rather think or talk about an object's being perceived by someone. That is, individuals cannot know any "real" object or matter "behind" the object as they perceive it, which "causes" their perceptions. He thus concluded that all that individuals know about an object is their perception of it. Under his theory, the object a person perceives is the only object that the person knows and experiences. If individuals need to speak at all of the "real" or "material" object, the latter in particular being a confused term that Berkeley sought to dispose of, it is this perceived object to which all such names should exclusively refer. This raises the question whether this perceived object is "objective" in the sense of being "the same" for fellow humans. In fact, is the concept of "other" human beings, beyond an individual's perception of them, valid? Berkeley argued that since an individual experiences other humans in the way they speak to him —something which is not originating from any activity of his own —and since he learns that their view of the world is consistent with his, he can believe in their existence and in the world being identical or similar for everyone. It follows that: Any knowledge of the world is to be obtained only through direct perception. Error comes about through thinking about what individuals perceive. Knowledge of the world of people, things and actions around them may be purified and perfected merely by stripping away all thought, and with it language, from their pure perceptions. From this it follows that: The ideal form of scientific knowledge is to be obtained by pursuing pure de-intellectualized perceptions. If individuals would pursue these, we would be able to obtain the deepest insights into the natural world and the world of human thought and action that is available to man. The goal of all science, therefore, is to de-intellectualize or de-conceptualize, and thereby purify, human perceptions. Theologically, one consequence of Berkeley's views is that they require God to be present as an immediate cause of all our experiences. God is not the distant engineer of Newtonian machinery that in the fullness of time led to the growth of a tree in the university quadrangle. Rather, my perception of the tree is an idea that God's mind has produced in mine, and the tree continues to exist in the quadrangle when "nobody" is there, simply because God is an infinite mind that perceives all. The philosophy of David Hume concerning causality and objectivity is an elaboration of another aspect of Berkeley's philosophy. As Berkeley's thought progressed, his works took on a more Platonic character: Siris, in particular, displays an interest in highly abstruse and speculative metaphysics which is not to be found in the earlier works. However, A.A. Luce, the most eminent Berkeley scholar of the twentieth century, constantly stressed the continuity of Berkeley's philosophy. The fact that Berkeley returned to his major works throughout his life, issuing revised editions with only minor changes, also counts against any theory that attributes to him a significant volte-face. Over a century later Berkeley's thought experiment was summarized in a limerick by Ronald Knox and an anonymous reply: There was a young man who said "God Must find it exceedingly odd To think that the tree Should continue to be When there's no one about in the quad." "Dear Sir: Your astonishment's odd; I am always about in the quad. And that's why the tree Will continue to be Since observed by, Yours faithfully, God." In reference to Berkeley's philosophy, Dr. Samuel Johnson kicked a heavy stone and exclaimed, "I refute it thus!" A philosophical empiricist might reply that the only thing that Dr. Johnson knew about the stone was what he saw with his eyes, felt with his foot, and heard with his ears. That is, the existence of the stone consisted exclusively of Dr. Johnson's perceptions. What the stone really consisted of (given that such a question can in fact be asked sensibly) could be entirely different in construction to what was perceived - it existed, ultimately, as an idea in his mind, nothing more and nothing less. John Locke (Berkeley's predecessor) states that we define an object by its primary and secondary qualities. He takes heat as an example of a secondary quality. If you put one hand in a bucket of cold water, and the other hand in a bucket of warm water, then put both hands in a bucket of lukewarm water, one of your hands is going to tell you that the water is cold and the other that the water is hot. Locke says that since two different objects (both your hands) perceive the water to be hot and cold, then the heat is not a quality of the water. While Locke used this argument to distinguish primary from secondary qualities, Berkeley extends it to cover primary qualities in the same way. For example, he says that size is not a quality of an object because the size of the object depends on the distance between the observer and the object, or the size of observer. Since an object is a different size to different observers, then size is not a quality of the object. Berkeley refutes shape with a similar argument and then asks: if neither primary qualities nor secondary qualities are of the object, then how can we say that there is anything more than the qualities we observe? Berkeley's Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge was published three years before the publication of Arthur Collier's Clavis Universalis, which made assertions similar to those of Berkeley's. However, there seemed to have been no influence or communication between the two writers. German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer once wrote of him: "Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate irrefutably its absolute necessity. He is the father of idealism…" Parerga and Paralipomena, Vol. I, "Fragments for the History of Philosophy," § 12 . The Analyst controversy In addition to his contributions to philosophy, Bishop Berkeley was also very influential in the development of mathematics, although in a rather indirect sense. In 1734, he published The Analyst, subtitled A DISCOURSE Addressed to an Infidel Mathematician. The infidel mathematician in question is believed to have been either Edmond Halley, or Isaac Newton himself, although if to the latter, the discourse would then have been posthumously addressed, as Newton died in 1727. The Analyst represented a direct attack on the foundations and principles of calculus and, in particular, the notion of fluxion or infinitesimal change, which Newton and Leibniz had used to develop the calculus. Berkeley regarded his criticism of calculus as part of his broader campaign against the religious implications of Newtonian mechanics as a defence of traditional Christianity against deism, which tends to distance God from His worshippers. As a consequence of the resulting controversy, the foundations of calculus were rewritten in a much more formal and rigorous form using limits. It was not until 1966, with the publication of Abraham Robinson's book Non-standard Analysis, that the concept of the infinitesimal was made rigorous, thus giving an alternative way of overcoming the difficulties that Berkeley discovered in Newton's original approach. Commemoration Berkeley's influence is reflected in the institutions of education named in his honour. Both University of California, Berkeley, and the city that grew up around the university, were named after him, although the pronunciation has evolved to suit American English--( like Burke-Lee). The naming was suggested in 1866 by a trustee of the then College of California, Frederick Billings. Billings was inspired by Berkeley's Verses on the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America, particularly the final stanza: "Westward the course of empire takes its way; The first four Acts already past, A fifth shall close the Drama with the day; Time's noblest offspring is the last." A residential college in Yale University also bears Berkeley's name, as does the Berkeley Library at Trinity College, Dublin. Bibliography Philosophical Commentaries (1707–08, notebooks) An Essay towards a New Theory of Vision (1709) A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, Part I (1710) Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous (1713) De Motu (1721) Alciphron: or the Minute Philosopher (1732) The Theory of Vision or Visual Language … Vindicated and Explained (1733) The Analyst (1734) The Querist (1735–37) Siris (1744) See also Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius List of people on stamps of Ireland Yogacara and Consciousness-only schools References Primary Ewald, William B., ed., 1996. From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics, 2 vols. Oxford Uni. Press. 1707. Of Infinites, 16–19. 1709. Letter to Samuel Molyneaux, 19–21. 1721. De Motu, 37–54. 1734. The Analyst, 60–92. Secondary p. 349. Edward Chaney (2000), 'George Berkeley's Grand Tours: The Immaterialist as Connoisseur of Art and Architecture', in E. Chaney, The Evolution of the Grand Tour: Anglo-Italian Cultural Relations since the Renaissance, 2nd ed. London, Routledge. Costica Bradatan (2006), The Other Bishop Berkeley. An Exercise in Reenchantment, Fordham University Press, New York External links A list of the published works by and about Berkeley as well as online links Berkeley's Life and Works Page in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Another perspective on how Berkeley framed his immaterialism Original texts and discussion concerning The Analyst controversy A bibliography on George Berkeley More easily readable versions of Principles of Human Knowledge, Three Dialogues, and Alciphron An extensive compendium of online resources, including a gallery of Berkeley's images A version of Berkeley's PHK condensed and rewritten for faster reading. | George_Berkeley |@lemmatized george:4 berkeley:44 march:1 january:1 also:6 know:8 bishop:4 philosopher:4 whose:1 primary:6 achievement:1 advancement:1 theory:11 call:1 immaterialism:2 later:2 refer:2 subjective:2 idealism:2 others:1 contend:2 individual:10 directly:1 sensation:1 idea:4 object:22 abstraction:1 matter:2 dependent:1 upon:1 perceive:11 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6,568 | Flamenco | Flamenco is an andalusian term that refers both to a musical genre, known for its intricate rapid passages, and a dance genre characterized by its audible footwork. The origins of the term are unclear. It's rumoured to originate in South Wales and is associated with tin mining. The word Flamenco, which applies to the song, the dance and the guitar, did not come into use until the 19th century. Flamenco embodies a complex musical and cultural tradition. Although considered part of the culture of Spain, flamenco actually originates from one of Spain's autonomous regions: Andalusia. However, other areas, mainly Extremadura and Murcia, have contributed to the development of several flamenco musical forms, and a great number of renowned flamenco artists have been born in other territories of the state. It is generally acknowledged that flamenco grew out of the unique interplay of native Arabic, Andalusian, Sephardic, and Gypsy cultures that existed in Andalusia prior to and after the Reconquest. Latin American and especially Cuban influences have also been important in shaping the rumba flamenco form. Flamenco is the music of the gypsies and played in their social community. Andalusian people who grew up around gypsies and the life were also accepted as "flamencos" (Paco de Lucía). "Flamencologists" or "Pro Dancers" have usually been flamenco connoisseurs of no specific academic training in the fields of history or musicology. They have tended to rely on a limited number of sources (mainly the writings of 19th century folklorist Demófilo, and notes by foreign travellers. Bias has also been frequent in flamencology. This started to change in the 1980s, when flamenco slowly started to be included in music conservatories, and a growing number of musicologists and historians began to carry out more rigorous research. Since then, some new data have shed new light on it. (Ríos Ruiz, 1997:14) There are questions not only about the origins of the music and dances of flamenco, but also about the origins of the very word flamenco. George Borrow writes that the word flemenc [sic] is synonymous with "Gypsy"). Blas Infante, in his book Orígenes de los Flamencos y Secreto del Cante Jondo, controversially argued that the word flamenco comes from Hispano-Arabic word fellahmengu, which would mean "expelled peasant" after the end of the Moorish reign. term to the ethnic Andalusians of Muslim faith, the Moriscos, who would have mixed with the Gypsy newcomers in order to avoid religious persecution. Other hypotheses concerning the term's etymology include connections with Flanders (flamenco also means Flemish in Spanish), believed by Spanish people to be the origin of the Gypsies, or the flamante (ardent) execution by the performers, or the flamingos. . However, in the 1990s works of scholars, such as the above mentioned Rios Ruiz and Álvarez Caballero demonstrated that there is much historical data available on early flamenco. (See subsection below: "The rise of flamenco") History Background For a complete picture of the possible influences that gave rise to, attention must be paid to the cultural and musical background of the Iberian Peninsula since Ancient times. Long before the Moorish invasion in 711, Visigothic Spain had adopted its own liturgic musical forms, the Visigothic or Mozarabic rite, strongly influenced by Byzantium. The Mozarabic rite survived the Gregorian reform and the Moorish invasion, and remained alive at least until the 10th or 11th century. Some theories, started by Spanish classical musician Manuel de Falla, link the melismatic forms and the presence of Greek Dorian mode (in modern times called “Phrygian mode”) in flamenco to the long existence of this separate Catholic rite. Unfortunately, owing to the type of musical notation in which these Mozarabic chants were written, it is not possible to determine what this music really sounded like, so the theory remains unproven. Moor comes from the Latin Mauroi, an inhabitant of North Africa. The Carthaginians, for instance, came from North Africa. Moorish influence in the Iberian Peninsula goes back thousands of years, but it was the Islamic invasion, by largely Berber armies in 711, that determined the main musical influences from North Africa. They called the Iberian Peninsula Al-Andalus, from which the name of Andalusia derives. The Moorish and Arab conquerors brought their musical forms to the Peninsula, and at the same time, probably gathered some native influence in their music. The Emirate, and later Caliphate of Córdoba became a center of influence in both the Muslim and Christian worlds and it attracted musicians from all Islamic countries. One of those musicians was Zyriab, who imported forms of the Arabic music, revolutionized the shape and playing techniques of the oud, adding a fifth string to it, and set the foundations for the Andalusian nuba, the style of music in suite form still performed in North African countries. This also left a permanent influence upon western music; when centuries later aspects of this "Moorish guitar" were combined with European instruments like the lute and guitar latina to create the vihuela, which in turn had a powerful influence upon the baroque guitar, the predecessor to the modern classical guitar - which was itself the basis of the flamenco guitar - and also all the guitars in popular usage today. The presence of the Moors was also decisive in shaping the cultural diversity of U.S., Caribean, and The Hawian Ocean. Owing to the extraordinary length of the Reconquest started in the north as early as 722 and completed in 1492 with the conquest of Granada, the degree of Moorish influence on culture, customs and even language varies enormously between the north and the south of the Iberian Peninsula. Music cannot have been alien to that process. While music in the north of Spain has a clear Celtic influence which dates to pre-Roman times, southern music is certainly reminiscent of mid-eastern influences. To what extent this eastern flavour is owed to the Moors, the Jews, the Catholic Mozarabic rite (with its Byzantine influence), or the Gypsies has not been clearly determined. During the Reconquest, another important cultural influence was present in Al-Andalus: the Jews. Enjoying a relative religious and ethnic tolerance due to Islamic law in comparison to Christian countries, they formed an important ethnic group, with their own traditions, rites, and music, and probably reinforced the middle-Eastern element in the culture and music forms of Al-Andalus. Certain flamenco palos like the Peteneras and saetas have been attributed a direct Jewish origin . The influence of the New World Recent research has revealed that there might have been an influence of Sub-Saharan African music on flamenco's prehistory. This developed from the music and dance of African slaves held by the Spanish in the New World. There are 16th and 17th century manuscripts of classical compositions that are possibly based on African folk forms, such as negrillas, zarambeques, and chaconas. We also find mention of the fandango indiano (Indiano meaning from the Americas, but not necessarily Native American). Some critics support the view that the names of flamenco palos, like the tangos or even the fandango, are derived from Bantoid languages, and most theories state that the rhythm of the tangos was imported from Cuba. It might be that during that stay in the New World, the fandango picked up dance steps deemed too inappropriate for European tastes. Thus, the dance for fandango, for chacon, and for zarabanda, were all banned in Europe at one time or another. References to Gypsy dancers can be found in the lyrics of some of these forms, e.g., the chacon. Indeed, Gypsy dancers are often mentioned in Spanish literary and musical works from the 1500s on. However, the zarabandas and jácaras are the oldest written musical forms in Spain to use the 12-beat metre as a combination of terciary and binary rhythms. The basic rhythm of the zarabanda and the jácara is 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12. The soleá and the Seguiriya, are variations on this: they just start the metre in a different beat. The 18th century: the fandango and the Escuela Bolera During this period of development, the “flamenco fiesta” developed. More than just a party where flamenco is performed, the fiesta, either unpaid (reunion) or paid, sometimes lasting for days, has an internal etiquette with a complex set of musical and social rules. In fact, some might argue that the cultural phenomenon of the flamenco fiesta is the basic cultural “unit” of flamenco. A turning point in flamenco appears to have come about with a change of instruments. In the late 18th Century the favoured guitar became the 6 string single-coursed guitar which replaced the double-coursed 5 string guitar in popularity. It is the 6 string guitar to which flamenco music is inextricably tied. Flamenco became married to the 6 string guitar. The Rise of Flamenco During the late-eighteenth to mid-nineteenth centuries, flamenco took on a number of unique characteristics which separated it from local folk music and prepared the way to a higher professionalization and technical excellence of flamenco performers, to the diversification of flamenco styles (by gradually incorporating songs derived from folklore or even other sources), and to the popularization of the genre outside Andalusia. The first time flamenco is mentioned in literature is in 1774 in the book Cartas Marruecas by José Cadalso. During this period, according to some authors, there is little news about flamenco except for a few scattered references from travelers. This led traditional flamencologists, like Molina and Mairena, to call the period of 1780 to 1850 as "The Hermetic Period" or the "private stage of flamenco". According to these flamencologists, flamenco, at this time was something like a private ritual, secretly kept in the Gypsy homes of some towns in the Seville and Cádiz area. This theory started to fall out of favour in the 1990s. José Blas Vega has denied the absence of evidences for this period: Nowadays, we know that there are hundreds and hundreds of data which allow us to know in detail what flamenco was from 1760 until 1860, and there we have the document sources: the theatre movement of sainetes (one-act plays) and tonadillas, the popular songbooks and song sheets, the narrations and descriptions from travelers describing customs, the technical studies of dances and toques, the musical scores, the newspapers, the graphic documents in paintings and engravings; and all of this with no interruptions, in continuous evolution together with the rhythm, the poetic stanzas, and the ambience. (Quoted by Ríos Ruiz 1997) Álvarez Caballero (1998) goes further, stating that if there are no news about flamenco previous to its late 1780 mentions, it is because flamenco simply did not exist. The whole theory about a hermetic stage would then be a fantasy, caused by the aura of mystery surrounding Gypsy culture. There is disagreement as to whether primitive flamenco was accompanied by any instrument or not. For traditional flamencology, flamenco consisted of unaccompanied singing (cante). Later, the songs were accompanied by flamenco guitar (toque), rhythmic hand clapping (palmas), rhythmic feet stomping (zapateado) and dance (baile). Later theories claim that this is false. While some cante forms are sung unaccompanied (a palo seco), it is likely that other forms were accompanied if and when instruments were available. 19th century writer Estébanez Calderón already described a flamenco fiesta (party) in which the singing was accompanied not only by guitars, but also bandurria and tambourine. The Golden Age During the so-called Golden Age of Flamenco, between 1869–1910, flamenco music developed rapidly in music cafés called cafés cantantes, a new type of venue with ticketed public performances. This was the beginning of the "café cantante" period. Flamenco was developed here to its definitive form. Flamenco dancers also became the major public attraction in those cafés. Along with the development of flamenco dance, guitar players supporting the dancers increasingly gained a reputation, and so flamenco guitar as an art form by itself was born. A most important artist in this development was Silverio Franconetti, a non-Gypsy rob seaman of Italian descent. He is reported to be the first "encyclopedic" singer, that is, the first who was able to sing well in all the palos, instead of specializing on a few of them, as was usual at the time. He opened his own café cantante, where he sang himself or invited other artists to perform, and many other venues of this kind were created in all Andalusia and Spain. Traditional views on flamenco, starting with Demófilo have often accused this period as the start of the commercial debasement of flamenco. The traditional flamenco fiesta is crowded if more than 20 people are present. Moreover, there is no telling when a fiesta will begin or end, or assurance that the better artists invited will perform well. And, if they do perform, it may not be until the morning after a fiesta that began the night before. By contrast, the café cantante offered set performances at set hours and top artists were contracted to perform. For some, this professionalization led to commercialism, while for others it stimulated healthy competition and therefore, more creativity and technical proficiency. In fact, most traditional flamenco forms were created or developed during this time or, at least, have been attributed to singers of this period like El Loco Mateo, El Nitri, Rojo el Alpargatero, Enrique el Mellizo, Paquirri El Guanté, or La Serneta, among many others. Some of them were professionals, while others sang only at private gatherings but their songs were learned and divulged by professional singers. In the 19th century, both flamenco and its association with Gypsies started to become popular throughout Europe, even into Russia. Composers wrote music and operas on what they thought were Gypsy-flamenco themes. Any traveler through Spain “had” to see the Gypsies perform flamenco. Spain - often to the chagrin of non-Andalusian Spaniards - became associated with flamenco and Gypsies. This interest was in keeping with the European fascination with folklore during those decades. In 1922, one of Spain's greatest writers, Federico García Lorca, and renowned composer Manuel de Falla, organised the Concurso de Cante Jondo, a folk music festival dedicated to cante jondo ("deep song"). They did this to stimulate interest in some styles of flamenco, which were falling into oblivion as they were regarded uncommercial and, therefore, not apt the cafés cantante. Two of Lorca's most important poetic works, Poema del Cante Jondo and Romancero Gitano, show Lorca's fascination with flamenco and appreciation of Spanish folk culture. However, the initiative was not very influential, and the derivations of fandango and other styles kept gaining popularity while the more difficult styles like siguiriyas and, especially, tonás were usually only performed in private parties. The "Theatrical" period The stage after the Concurso de Cante Jondo in 1922 is known as Etapa teatral (Theatrical period) or Ópera flamenca (Flamenco Opera) period. The name Ópera flamenca was due to the custom started by impresario Vedrines to call these shows opera, as opera performances enjoyed lower taxes. The cafés cantante had entered a period of decadence and were gradually replaced by larger venues like theatres or bullrings. This led to an immense popularity of flamenco but, according to traditionalist critics, also caused it to fall victim to commercialism and economic interests. New types of flamenco shown were born, where flamenco was mixed with other music genres and theatre interludes portraying picturesque scenes by Gitanos and Andalusians. The dominant palos of this era were the personal fandango, the cantes de ida y vuelta (songs of Latin American origin) and the song in bulería style. Personal fandangos were based on Huelva traditional styles with a free rhythm (as a cante libre) and with a high density of virtuouso variations. The song in bulería style (Canción por bulerías) adapted any popular or commercial song to the bulería rhythm. This period also saw the birth of a new genre, sometimes called copla andaluza (Andalusian couplet) or canción española (Spanish song), a type of ballads with influences from zarzuela, Andalusian folk songs, and flamenco, usually accompanied with orchestra, which enjoyed great popularity and was performed both by flamenco and non-flamenco artists. Owing to its links with flamenco shows, many people consider this genre as "flamenco". The leading artist at the time was Pepe Marchena, who sang in a sweet falsetto voice, using spectacular vocal runs reminding of bel canto coloratura. A whole generation of singers was influenced by him and some of them, like Pepe Pinto, or Juan Valderrama also reached immense celebrity. Many classical flamenco singers who had grown with the café cantante fell into oblivion. Others, like Tomás Pavón or Aurelio Sellé, found refuge in private parties. The rest adapted (though often did not completely surrender) to the new tastes: they took part in those mass flamenco shows, but kept singing the old styles, although introducing some of the new ones in their repertoire: it is the case of La Niña de los Peines, Manolo Caracol, Manuel Vallejo, El Carbonerillo and many others. This period has been considered by the most traditionalist critics as a time of complete commercial debasement. According to them, the opera flamenca became a "dictatorship" (Álvarez Caballero 1998), where bad personal fandangos and copla andaluza practically caused traditional flamenco to disappear. Other critics consider this view to be unbalanced (See Ríos Ruiz 1997:40-43): great figures of traditional cante like La Niña de los Peines or Manolo Caracol enjoyed great success, and palos like siguiriyas or soleá were never completely abandoned, not even by the most representative singers of the ópera flamenca style like Marchena or Valderrama. Typical singers of the period like Marchena, Valderrama, Pepe Pinto or El Pena, have also been reappraised. Starting with singers like Luis de Córdoba, Enrique Morente or Mayte Martín, who recorded songs they created or made popular, a high number of singers started to rescue their repertoire, a CD in homage to Valderrama was recorded, and new generations of singers claim their influence. Critics like Antonio Ortega or Ortiz Nuevo have also vindicated the artists of the ópera flamenca period. Musical characteristics Harmony Flamenco derives a lot of its music from classic popular arabic music, mainly Adani music, native of Aden in modern day Yemen. Whereas, in Western music, only the major and minor modes are explicitly named by composers, (except as an occasional oddity in jazz and classical music) flamenco has also preserved the Phrygian mode, commonly "Dorian mode" by flamencologists, referring to the Greek Dorian mode, and sometimes also "flamenco mode". The reason for preferring the term "Greek Dorian" is that, as in ancient Greek music, flamenco melodies are descending (instead of ascending as in usual Western melodic patterns). Some flamencologists, like Hipólito Rossy (Rossy 1998: 19–36) or guitarist Manolo Sanlúcar, also consider this flamenco mode as a survival of the old Greek Dorian mode. The rest of the article, however, will use the term "Phrygian" to refer to this mode, as it is the most common denomination in English speaking countries. The Phrygian mode is in fact the most common in the traditional palos of flamenco music, and it is used for soleá, most bulerías, siguiriyas, tangos and tientos, among other palos (Rossy 1998:82). The flamenco version of this mode contains two frequent alterations in the 7th and, even more often, the 3rd degree of the scale: if the scale is played in E Phrygian for example, G and D can be sharp. This such augmentation results in the Phrygian Dominant mode of that key. G sharp is compulsory for the tonic chord. Based on the Phrygian scale, a typical cadence is formed, usually called “Andalusian cadence”. The chords for this cadence in E Phrygian are Am–G–F–E. According to guitarist Manolo Sanlúcar, in this flamenco Phrygian mode, E is the tonic, F would take the harmonic function of dominant, while Am and G assume the functions of subdominant and mediant respectively. When playing using the Phrygian mode, guitarists traditionally use only two basic positions for the tonic chord (music): E and A. However, they often transport these basic tones by using a capo. Modern guitarists, starting with Ramón Montoya, have also introduced other positions. Montoya himself started to use other chords for the tonic in the doric sections of several palos: F sharp for tarantas, B for granaína, A flat for the minera, and he also created a new palo as solo piece for the guitar, the rondeña, in C sharp with scordatura. Later guitarists have further extended the repertoire of tonalities, chord positions and scordatura.. There are also palos in major mode, for example, most cantiñas and alegrías, guajiras, and some bulerías and tonás, and the cabales (a major mode type of siguiriyas). The minor mode is less frequent and it is restricted to the Farruca, the milongas (among cantes de ida y vuelta), and some styles of tangos, bulerías, etc. In general, traditional palos in major and minor mode are limited harmonically to the typical two-chord (tonic–dominant) or three-chord structure (tonic–subdominant–dominant) (Rossy 1998:92). However, modern guitarists have increased the traditional harmony by introducing chord substitution, transition chords, and even modulation. Fandangos and the palos derived from it (e.g. malagueñas, tarantas, cartageneras) are bimodal. Guitar introductions are in Phrygian mode, while the singing develops in major mode, modulating to Phrygian mode at the end of the stanza. (Rossy 1998:92) Traditionally, flamenco guitarists did not receive any formal training, so they just relied on their ear to find the chords on the guitar, disregarding the rules of Western classical music. This led them to interesting harmonic findings, with unusual unresolved dissonances (Rossy 1998:88). Examples of this are the use of minor 9th chords for the tonic, the tonic chord of tarantas, or the use of the 1st unpressed string as a kind of pedal tone. Melody Dionisio Preciado, quoted by Sabas de Hoces established the following characteristics for the melodies of flamenco singing: Microtonality: presence of intervals smaller than the semitone. Portamento: frequently, the change from one note to another is done in a smooth transition, rather than using discrete intervals. Short tessitura or range: The most traditional flamenco songs are usually limited to a range of a sixth (four tones and a half). The impression of vocal effort is the result of using different timbres, and variety is accomplished by the use of microtones. Use of enharmonic scale. While in equal temperament scales, enharmonics are notes with identical name but different spellings (e.g. A flat and G sharp), in flamenco, as in unequal temperament scales, there is a microtonal intervalic difference between enharmonic notes. Insistence on a note and its contiguous chromatic notes (also frequent in the guitar), producing a sense of urgency. Baroque ornamentation, with an expressive, rather than merely aesthetic function. Greek Dorian mode (modern Phrygian mode) in the most traditional songs. Apparent lack of regular rhythm, especially in the siguiriyas: the melodic rhythm of the sung line is different from the metric rhythm of the accompaniment. Most styles express sad and bitter feelings. Melodic improvisation. Although flamenco singing is not, properly speaking, improvised, but based on a relatively small number of traditional songs, singers add variations on the spur of the moment. Musicologist Hipólito Rossy adds the following characteristics (Rossy 1998: 94): Flamenco melodies are also characterized by a descending tendency, as opposed to, for example, a typical opera aria, they usually go from the higher pitches to the lower ones, and from forte to piano, as it was usual in ancient Greek scales. In many styles, such as soléa or siguiriya, the melody tends to proceed in contiguous degrees of the scale. Skips of a third or a fourth are rarer. However, in fandangos and fandango-derived styles, fourths and sixths can often be found, especially at the beginning of each line of verse. According to Rossy, this would be a proof of the more recent creation of this type of songs, which would be influenced by the Castilian jota. Compás Compás is the Spanish word for metre and time signature in classical music theory. In flamenco, besides having these meanings, it also refers to the rhythmic cycle, or layout, of a palo or flamenco style. When performing flamenco it is important to feel the rhythm — the compás — rather than mechanically count the beats. In this way, flamenco is similar to jazz or blues where performers seem to simply 'feel' the rhythm. Flamenco uses three basic counts or measures: Binary, Ternary and the (unique to flamenco) twelve-beat cycle which is difficult to confine within the classical measure. There are also free-form styles, not subject to any particular metre, including, among others, the palos in the group of the tonás, the saetas, malagueñas, tarantas, and some types of fandangos. Rhythms in 2/4 or 4/4. These metres are used in forms like tangos, tientos, gypsy rumba, zambra and tanguillos. Rhythms in 3/4. These are typical of fandangos and sevillanas both of these forms originate in Spanish folk, thereby illustrating their provenance as non-Gypsy styles, since the 3/4 and 4/4 measures are the most common throughout the Western world but not within the ethnic Gypsy, nor Hindi musics. 12-beat rhythms usually rendered in amalgams of 6/8 + 3/4 and sometimes measures of 12/8 in attempts to confine it within the classical constraints. The 12 beat cycle is fundamental in the soleá and bulerías palos, for example. However, the various accentuation differentiates these two. These accentuations don't correspond to the classic concept of the downbeat, whereby the first beat in the measure is emphasised. In flamenco, the different ways of performing percussion (including the complex technique of palmas) make it hard to render in traditional musical notation. The alternating of groups of 2 and 3 beats is also common in the Spanish folk or traditional dances of the 16th Century such as the zarabanda, jácara and canarios. They are also common in Latin American countries. 12-beat amalgams are in fact the most common in flamenco. There are three types of these, which vary in their layouts, or use of accentuations: The soleá The seguiriya The bulería peteneras and guajiras: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Both palos start with the strong accent on 12. Hence the meter is 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11... The seguiriya, liviana, serrana, toná liviana, cabales: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 The seguiriya is measured in the same way as the soleá but starting on the 8th beat soleá, within the cantiñas group of palos which includes the alegrías, cantiñas, mirabras, romera, caracoles and soleá por bulería (also “ bulería por soleá”): 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12. For practical reasons, when transferring flamenco guitar music to sheet music, this rhythm is written as a regular 3/4. The Bulerías is the emblematic palo of flamenco, today its 12 beat cycle is most often played with accents on the 1, 4, 8, and 9th beats. The accompanying palmas are played in groups of 6 beats, giving rise to a multitude of counter rhythms and percussive voices within the 12 beat compás The compás is fundamental to flamenco. It is the basic definition of the music and without it, there is no flamenco. Compás is therefore the division of beats and accentuations. It is the backbone of this musical form. In private gatherings, if there is no guitarist available, the compás is rendered through hand clapping (palmas) or by hitting a table with the knuckles. This is also sometimes done in recordings especially for bulerías. The guitar also has an important function, using techniques like strumming (rasgueado) or tapping the soundboard. Changes of chords also emphasize the most important downbeats. When dancers are present, they use their feet as a percussion instrument. Forms of flamenco expression Flamenco is expressed through the toque -- the playing of the flamenco guitar, the cante (singing), and the baile (dancing) Toque The flamenco guitar (and the very similar classical guitar) is a descendent from the lute. The first guitars are thought to have originated in Spain in the 15th century. The traditional flamenco guitar is made of Spanish cypress and spruce, and is lighter in weight and a bit smaller than a classical guitar, to give the output a 'sharper' sound. The flamenco guitar, in contrast to the classical, is also equipped with a barrier, called a golpeador. This is often plastic, similar to a pick guard, and protects the body of the guitar from the rhythmic finger taps, called golpes. The flamenco guitar is also used in several different ways from the classical guitar, including different strumming patterns and styles, as well as the use of a capo in many circumstances. Cante Foreigners often think that the essence of flamenco is the dance. However, the heart of flamenco is the song (cante). In common with almost all dance forms, Flamenco began as a form of musical expression before it became the expression through movement known as dance. Although to the uninitiated, flamenco seems totally extemporaneous, these cantes (songs) and bailes (dances) follow strict musical and poetic rules. The verses (coplas) of these songs often are beautiful and concise poems, and the style of the flamenco copla was often imitated by Andalusian poets. Garcia Lorca is perhaps the best known of these poets. In the 1920s he, along with the composer Manuel de Falla and other intellectuals, crusaded to raise the status of flamenco as an art form and preserve its purity. But the future of flamenco is uncertain. Flamenco is tied to the conditions and culture of Andalusia in the past, and as Spain modernizes and integrates into the European community, it is questionable whether flamenco can survive the social and economic changes. Cante flamenco can be categorized in a number of ways. First, a cante may be categorized according to whether it follows a strict rhythmic pattern ("compas") or follows a free rhythm ("libre"). The cantes with compas fit one of four compas patterns. These compas-types are generally known by the name of the most important cante of the group. Thus Solea Siguiriya Tango Fandango The solea group includes the cantes: solea; romances, solea por bulerias, alegrias (cantinas); La Cana; El Polo Baile El baile flamenco is a highly-expressive solo dance, known for its emotional sweeping of the arms and rhythmic stomping of the feet. While flamenco dancers (bailaores and bailaoras) invest a considerable amount of study and practice into their art form, the dances are not choreographed, but are improvised along the palo or rhythm. In addition to the percussion provided by the heels and balls of the feet striking the floor, castanets are sometimes held in the hands and clicked together rapidly to the rhythm of the music, or clicking using just fingers. Sometimes, folding fans are used for visual effect. It is important to keep in mind that performing flamenco(ex. flamenco shows) and dancing true, pure flamenco at gypsy weddings and parties are not the same. Flamenco shows are used as entertainment to the payos and many times done by them. Real form of dancing flamenco is seen at "Juergas". The flamenco dance is basically pure gypsy, excluding the hand movements. [citation needed] "El Flamenco" can also be characterized as a dance of many cultures. Its a colorful dance that takes a lot of passion and strength to do. It can be danced as different "Tascas Españolas"(spanish clubs) where people can just dance off their emotions, celebrate, or just dance to dance. "Flamenco" can also be a great source of exercise because it requires a lot of body movement and through those moves "bailaores" express lots of different emotions. [citation needed] Palos Flamenco music styles are called palos in Spanish. There are over 50 different palos flamenco, although some of them are rarely performed. A palo can be defined as musical form of flamenco. Flamenco songs are classified into palos based on several musical and non-musical criteria such as its basic rhythmic pattern, mode, chord progression, form of the stanza, or geographic origin. The rhythmic patterns of the palos are also often called compás. A compás (the Spanish normal word for either time signature or bar) is characterised by a recurring pattern of beats and accents. To really understand the different palos, it is also important to understand their musical and cultural context: The mood intention of the palo (for example, dancing - Alegrías, consolation - Soleá, fun - Bulerias, etc.). Although palos are associated with type of feeling or mood, this is by no means rigid. The set of typical melodic phrases, called falsetas, which are often used in performances of a certain palo. The relation to similar palos. Cultural traditions associated with a palo (ie: men's dance - Farruca) Some of the forms are sung unaccompanied, while others usually have a guitar and sometimes other accompaniment. Some forms are danced while others traditionally are not. Amongst both the songs and the dances, some are traditionally the reserve of men and others of women, while still others could be performed by either sex. Many of these traditional distinctions are now breaking down; for example, the Farruca is traditionally a man's dance, but is now commonly performed by women too. Many flamenco artists, including some considered to be amongst the greatest, have specialised in a single flamenco form. The classification of flamenco palos is not entirely uncontentious, but a common traditional classification is into three groups. The deepest, most serious forms are known as cante jondo (or cante grande), while relatively light, frivolous forms are called cante chico. Other non-musical considerations often factor into this classification, such as whether the origin of the palo is considered to be gypsy or not. Forms which do not fit into either category but lie somewhere between them are classified as cante intermedio. However, there is no general agreement on how to classify each palo. Whereas there is general agreement that the soleá, seguiriya and the tonás must be considered cante jondo, there is wide controversy on where to place cantes like the fandango, malagueña, or tientos. Many flamenco fans tend to disregard this classification as highly subjective, or else they considered that, whatever makes a song cante grande is not the song itself but the depth of the interpreter. The classification below reflects another traditional classification of cantes more based on rhythmic pattern, but also taking the origin into account. Toná Palos (usually known as Cantes a palo seco) Debla Martinetes Carceleras Saetas Tonás Trilla Palos based on the Soleá rhythm Alboreá Bulerías - Bulerias (Luis Maravilla. 31 seconds,133Kb) and Jaleos from extremadura (a variety of Bulerías) The related palos Caña and Polo The Cantiñas group, including: Alegrías Caracoles Mirabrás Romeras other Cantiñas Peteneras Romances Soleá - Soleares (Juan Serrano. 30 seconds,118Kb) and Bulerías por Soleá. Palos derived from Fandango Fandangos de Huelva Fandangos orientales (from Eastern Andalusia and Murcia) Fandangos abandolaos, including: Verdiales Rondeñas Jabera Fandangos libres (free of rhythmic pattern): Granaínas Media Granaína Malagueñas Cantes de las minas (songs originated in mining areas): Minera, Tarantos, Tarantas, Cartageneras, Murciana, Levantica, Cantes de madrugá Fandangos personales (personal creations) Seguiriya Palos Cabales Livianas Siguiriyas - (also seguiriyas) Siguiriyas (Carlos Montoya. 30 seconds,135Kb) Serrana Palos with a Tango rhythm Farruca - (Sabicas. 35 seconds,147Kb) Garrotín Marianas Tarantos (when played for dance). Tientos Tanguillos Tango Salsa Palos de "Ida y vuelta" Other palos with a tango rhythm are often considered as "Ida y vuelta", that is, originated in Spanish America. Colombianas Guajiras - (Sabicas. 35 seconds,158Kb) Milonga Rumba Vidalitas Other palos of difficult classification Campanilleros Bambera Sevillanas Nanas Zambras Zorongo Flamenco artists Flamenco occurs in two types of settings. The first, the juerga is an informal gathering where gypsyies are free to join in play flamenco. This can include dancing, singing, palmas (hand clapping), or simply pounding in rhythm on an old orange crate or a table. Flamenco, in this context, is very dynamic: it adapts to the local talent, instrumentation, and mood of the audience. One tradition remains firmly in place: Cantaores(singers)are the most important part. The professional concert is more formal and organized. The traditional singing performance has only a singer and one guitar, while a dancing performance usually included two or three guitars, one or more singers (singing in turns, as in traditional flamenco singers always sing solo), and one or more dancers. A guitar concert used to include a single guitarist, with no other support, though this is now extremely rare. The so-called New flamenco has included other instruments, like the now ubiquitous cajón, flutes or saxophones, piano or other keyboards, or even the bass guitar and the electric guitar. Camarón de la Isla was one artist who popularized this style. A great number of flamenco artists are not capable of performing in both settings at the same level. There are still many artists, and some of them with a good level, who only perform in juergas, or at most in private parties with a small audience. As to their training in the art, traditional flamenco artists never received any formal training: they learnt in the context of the family, by listening and watching their relations, friends and neighbours. Since the appearance of recordings, though, they have relied more and more on audiovisual materials to learn from other famous artists. Nowadays, dancers and guitarists (and sometimes even singers) take lessons in schools or in short courses organized by famous performers. Some guitarists can even read music or learn from teachers in others styles like classical guitar or jazz, and many dancers take courses in contemporary dance or Classical Spanish ballet. An overview of the various flamenco artists can be found in the following categories: :Category: Flamenco singers :Category: Flamenco guitarists :Category: Flamenco dancers Sources ÁLVAREZ CABALLERO, Ángel: El cante flamenco, Alianza Editorial, Madrid, Second edition, 1998. ISBN 84-206-9682-X (First edition: 1994) ÁLVAREZ CABALLERO, Ángel: La Discografía ideal del cante flamenco, Planeta, Barcelona, 1995. ISBN 84-08-01602-4 COELHO, Víctor Anand (Editor): "Flamenco Guitar: History, Style, and Context," in The Cambridge Companion to the Guitar, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 13–32. MAIRENA, Antonio & MOLINA, Ricardo: Mundo y formas del cante flamenco, Librería Al-Ándalus, Third Edition, 1979 (First Edition: Revista de Occidente, 1963) MARTÍN SALAZAR, Jorge: Los cantes flamencos, Diputación Provincial de Granada, Granada, 1991 ISBN 84-7807-041-9 MANUEL, Peter. “Flamenco in Focus: An Analysis of a Performance of Soleares.” In Analytical Studies in World Music, edited by Michael Tenzer. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006, pp. 92–119. ORTIZ NUEVO, José Luis: Alegato contra la pureza, Libros PM, Barcelona, 1996. ISBN 84-88944-07-1 RÍOS RUIZ, Ayer y hoy del cante flamenco, Ediciones ISTMO, Tres Cantos (Madrid), 1997, ISBN 84-7090-311-X ROSSY, Hipólito: Teoría del Cante Jondo, CREDSA, Barcelona, 1998. ISBN 84-7056-354-8 (First edition: 1966) CABA LANDA, Pedro y Carlos CABA LANDA , Carlos. Andalucía , su comunismo y su cante jondo. 1ª Ed Editorial Atlántico 1933 . 3ª Edición , Editorial Renacimiento 2008. ISBN 978-84-8472-348-6 See also Camarón de la Isla Paco de Lucia Flamenco guitar Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain La Convivencia Picados Palo Festival Bienal Flamenco Silverio Franconetti Concurso de Cante Jondo Kathak External links Flamenco Forum Flamenco Carolina - Classic Flamenco Flamenco - Its Origin and evolution Worldwide Flamenco Directory Flamenco dancing photos at Fiesta Day in Tampa Flamenco Photos Almacenes del Pilar | Flamenco |@lemmatized flamenco:161 andalusian:9 term:6 refer:4 musical:22 genre:6 know:9 intricate:1 rapid:1 passage:1 dance:34 characterize:3 audible:1 footwork:1 origin:10 unclear:1 rumour:1 originate:6 south:2 wale:1 associate:3 tin:1 mining:1 word:7 apply:1 song:25 guitar:42 come:5 use:27 century:12 embody:1 complex:3 cultural:8 tradition:4 although:6 consider:10 part:3 culture:9 spain:12 actually:1 one:14 autonomous:1 region:1 andalusia:7 however:11 area:3 mainly:3 extremadura:2 murcia:2 contribute:1 development:4 several:4 form:36 great:8 number:8 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6,569 | Alessandro_Volta | Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (February 18 1745 – March 5 1827) was a Lombard Giuliano Pancaldi, "Volta: Science and culture in the age of enlightenment", Princeton University Press, 2003. Alberto Gigli Berzolari, "Volta's Teaching in Como and Pavia"- Nuova voltiana physicist known especially for the development of the first electric cell in 1800. Life Volta was born in Como, Italy and taught in the public schools there. In 1774 he became a professor of physics at the Royal School in Como. One year later, Volta perfected the electrophorus, a device that produces charges of static electricity. In 1776 to 1777 he put himself into chemistry, studying atmospheric electricity and making up experiments such as the ignition of gases by an electric spark in a closed vessel. In 1779 he became professor of physics at the University of Pavia, this was his position for 25 years. By 1800 he had developed the so-called voltaic pile, an early electric battery, which produced a steady stream of electricity. In honor of his work, Napoleon made him a count in 1810. A museum in Como, the Voltian Temple, has been built in his honor and exhibits some of the original equipment he used to conduct experiments. Near Lake Como stands the Villa Olmo, which houses the Voltian Foundation, an organization which promotes scientific activities. Volta carried out his experimental studies and made his first inventions in Como. Inventions and discoveries In 1775, Volta improved and popularized the electrophorus, a device that produces a static electric charge. His promotion of it was so extensive that he is often credited with its invention, even though a machine operating in the same principle was described in 1762 by Swedish professor Johan Carl Wilcke. , p.73 In 1776-77 he studied the chemistry of gases, discovered methane, and devised experiments such as the ignition of gases by an electric spark in a closed vessel. Volta also studied what we now call capacitance, developing separate means to study both electrical potential V and charge Q, and discovering that for a given object they are proportional. This may be called Volta's Law of Capacitance, and likely for this work the unit of electrical potential has been named the volt. In 1779 he became professor of experimental physics at the University of Pavia, a chair he occupied for almost 25 years. In 1794, Volta married the daughter of Count Ludovico Peregrini, Teresa, with whom he raised three sons. Around 1791 he began to study the "animal electricity" noted by Galvani when two different metals were connected in series with the frog's leg and to one another. He realized that the frog's leg served as both a conductor of electricity (we would now call it an electrolyte) and as a detector of electricity. He replaced the frog's leg by brine-soaked paper, and detected the flow of electricity by other means familiar to him from his previous studies of electricity. In this way he discovered the electrochemical series, and the law that the electromotive force (emf) of a galvanic cell, consisting of a pair of metal electrodes separated by electrolyte, is the difference of their two electrode potentials. That is, if the electrodes have emfs , then the net emf is . (Thus, two identical electrodes and a common electrolyte give zero net emf.) This may be called Volta's Law of the electrochemical series. In 1800, as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by Luigi Galvani, he invented the voltaic pile, an early electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was zinc and silver. Initially he experimented with individual cells in series, each cell being a wine goblet filled with brine into which the two dissimilar electrodes were dipped. The electric pile replaced the goblets with cardboard soaked in brine. (The number of cells, and thus the voltage it could produce, was limited by the pressure, exerted by the upper cells, that would squeeze all of the brine out of the cardboard of the bottom cell.) In announcing his discovery of the pile, Volta paid tribute to the influences of William Nicholson, Tiberius Cavallo and Abraham Bennet. * ( An additional invention pioneered by Volta, was the remotely operated pistol. He made use of a Leyden jar to send an electric current from Como to Milan, which in turn, set off the pistol. The current was sent along a wire that was insulated from the ground by wooden boards. This invention was a significant forerunner of the idea of the telegraph which also makes use of a current to communicate. http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/history/volta.htm The Voltaic battery Voltaic battery The battery made by Volta is credited as the first electrochemical cell. It consists of two electrodes: one made of zinc, the other of copper. The electrolyte is sulphuric acid or a brine mixture of salt and water. The electrolyte exists in the form 2H+ and SO4 2-. The zinc, which is higher than both copper and hydrogen in the electrochemical series, reacts with the negatively charged sulphate. ( SO4 ) The positively charged hydrogen bubbles start depositing around the copper and take away some of its electrons. This makes the zinc rod the negative electrode and the copper rod the positive electrode. We now have 2 terminals, and the current will flow if we connect them. The reactions in this cell are as follows: zinc Zn --> Zn2+ + 2e- sulfuric acid 2H+ + 2e- --> H2 The copper does not react, functioning as an electrode for the reaction. However, this cell also has some disadvantages. It is unsafe to handle, as sulfuric acid, even if dilute, is dangerous. Also, the power of the cell diminishes over time because the hydrogen gas is not released, accumulating instead on the surface of the electrode and forming a barrier between the metal and the electrolyte solution. Honors Tempio Voltiano, Como In honor of his work in the field of electricity, Napoleon Bonaparte made him a count in 1810; in 1815 the Emperor of Austria named him a professor of philosophy at Padua. Before 1796, Lombardy was ruled by Austria. From 1796 to 1815, Lombardy came under Napoleon's rule. After 1815, Lombardy was once again under Austrian rule. Thus Volta was once a subject of the Emperor of Austria, later a subject of Napoleon and then later a subject of the Emperor of Austria again. He was a long-time correspondent of the Royal Society and was made a fellow (FRS). He received the Society's 1794 Copley Medal. He published his invention of the Voltaic pile battery in 1800 in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. He was in correspondence with scientists in Austria, which ruled Lombardy in his day, and in France. His 1800 paper was written in French. Volta is buried in the city of Como. At the Tempio Voltiano near Lake Como there is a museum devoted to explaining his work. Count Volta's original instruments and papers are on display there. The building, along with his portrait, appeared on Italian 10.000 lira banknote, before the introduction of the euro. In 1881, an important electrical unit, the volt (V), was named in his honor. There have also been innovations and discoveries named after Alessandro Volta including the Toyota Alessandro Volta, and the crater Volta on the Moon. Retirement Volta retired in 1819 in his estate in Camnago, a frazione of Como now called Camnago Volta after him, where he died on March 5, 1827. Children Christian Volta [1765–1839] Alezandro Volta [1767–1844] Louis Volta [1768–1845] Johann Volta [1771–1850] Magdalena Volta [1773–1854] Alessandro Volta Junior [1776–1855] See also Volta Prize Luigi Galvani History of the internal combustion engine References External links An Encyclopedia Article http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/volta.htm http://www.italian-american.com/volta.htm http://www.energyquest.ca.gov/scientists/volta.html http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biographies/VoltaBio.htm | Alessandro_Volta |@lemmatized count:5 alessandro:4 giuseppe:1 antonio:1 anastasio:1 volta:34 february:1 march:2 lombard:1 giuliano:1 pancaldi:1 science:1 culture:1 age:1 enlightenment:1 princeton:1 university:3 press:1 alberto:1 gigli:1 berzolari:1 teaching:1 como:11 pavia:3 nuova:1 voltiana:1 physicist:1 know:1 especially:1 development:1 first:3 electric:9 cell:11 life:1 bear:1 italy:1 taught:1 public:1 school:2 become:3 professor:5 physic:3 royal:3 one:3 year:3 later:3 perfect:1 electrophorus:2 device:2 produce:6 charge:5 static:2 electricity:10 put:1 chemistry:2 study:7 atmospheric:1 make:9 experiment:4 ignition:2 gas:4 spark:2 closed:2 vessel:2 position:1 develop:2 call:6 voltaic:5 pile:5 early:2 battery:6 steady:2 stream:1 honor:5 work:4 napoleon:4 museum:2 voltian:2 temple:1 build:1 exhibit:1 original:2 equipment:1 use:3 conduct:1 near:2 lake:2 stand:1 villa:1 olmo:1 house:1 foundation:1 organization:1 promote:1 scientific:1 activity:1 carry:1 experimental:2 invention:6 discovery:3 improve:1 popularize:1 promotion:1 extensive:1 often:1 credit:2 even:2 though:1 machine:1 operating:1 principle:1 describe:1 swedish:1 johan:1 carl:1 wilcke:1 p:1 discover:3 methane:1 devise:1 also:6 capacitance:2 separate:2 mean:2 electrical:3 potential:3 v:2 q:1 give:2 object:1 proportional:1 may:2 law:3 likely:1 unit:2 name:4 volt:2 chair:1 occupy:1 almost:1 marry:1 daughter:1 ludovico:1 peregrini:1 teresa:1 raise:1 three:1 son:1 around:2 begin:1 animal:1 note:1 galvani:3 two:5 different:1 metal:4 connect:2 series:5 frog:3 leg:3 another:1 realize:1 serve:1 conductor:1 would:2 electrolyte:6 detector:1 replace:2 brine:5 soaked:1 paper:3 detect:1 flow:2 familiar:1 previous:1 way:1 electrochemical:4 electromotive:1 force:1 emf:3 galvanic:2 consist:2 pair:2 electrode:10 difference:1 emfs:1 net:2 thus:3 identical:1 common:1 zero:1 result:1 professional:1 disagreement:1 response:1 advocate:1 luigi:2 invent:1 current:5 determine:1 effective:1 dissimilar:2 zinc:5 silver:1 initially:1 individual:1 wine:1 goblet:2 fill:1 dip:1 cardboard:2 soak:1 number:1 voltage:1 could:1 limit:1 pressure:1 exert:1 upper:1 squeeze:1 bottom:1 announce:1 pay:1 tribute:1 influence:1 william:1 nicholson:1 tiberius:1 cavallo:1 abraham:1 bennet:1 additional:1 pioneer:1 remotely:1 operated:1 pistol:2 leyden:1 jar:1 send:2 milan:1 turn:1 set:1 along:2 wire:1 insulate:1 ground:1 wooden:1 board:1 significant:1 forerunner:1 idea:1 telegraph:1 communicate:1 http:5 chem:1 ch:1 huji:1 ac:1 il:1 history:3 htm:4 made:1 copper:5 sulphuric:1 acid:3 mixture:1 salt:1 water:1 exists:1 form:2 high:1 hydrogen:3 react:2 negatively:1 sulphate:1 positively:1 bubble:1 start:1 deposit:1 take:1 away:1 electron:1 rod:2 negative:1 positive:1 terminal:1 reaction:2 follow:1 zn:1 sulfuric:2 function:1 however:1 disadvantage:1 unsafe:1 handle:1 dilute:1 dangerous:1 power:1 diminish:1 time:2 release:1 accumulate:1 instead:1 surface:1 barrier:1 solution:1 tempio:2 voltiano:2 field:1 bonaparte:1 emperor:3 austria:5 philosophy:1 padua:1 lombardy:4 rule:4 come:1 austrian:1 subject:3 long:1 correspondent:1 society:3 fellow:1 frs:1 receive:1 copley:1 medal:1 publish:1 philosophical:1 transaction:1 correspondence:1 scientist:2 day:1 france:1 write:1 french:1 bury:1 city:1 devote:1 explain:1 instrument:1 display:1 building:1 portrait:1 appear:1 italian:2 lira:1 banknote:1 introduction:1 euro:1 important:1 innovation:1 include:1 toyota:1 crater:1 moon:1 retirement:1 retire:1 estate:1 camnago:2 frazione:1 die:1 child:1 christian:1 alezandro:1 louis:1 johann:1 magdalena:1 junior:1 see:1 prize:1 internal:1 combustion:1 engine:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 encyclopedia:1 article:1 www:4 ideafinder:1 com:2 inventor:1 american:1 energyquest:1 ca:1 gov:1 html:1 corrosion:1 doctor:1 org:1 biography:1 voltabio:1 |@bigram static_electricity:1 voltaic_pile:3 steady_stream:1 electromotive_force:1 galvanic_cell:1 luigi_galvani:2 pay_tribute:1 remotely_operated:1 leyden_jar:1 wire_insulate:1 electrochemical_cell:1 zinc_copper:1 sulphuric_acid:1 react_negatively:1 negatively_charge:1 positively_charge:1 sulfuric_acid:2 napoleon_bonaparte:1 copley_medal:1 lira_banknote:1 alessandro_volta:3 internal_combustion:1 combustion_engine:1 external_link:1 http_www:4 |
6,570 | Biological_warfare | Biological warfare (BW), also known as germ warfare, is the use of pathogens (bacteria, viruses, or other disease-causing agents) as biological weapons (or bioweapons). Using nonliving toxic products, even if produced by living organisms (e.g. toxins), is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention. A biological weapon may be intended to kill, incapacitate, or seriously impede an individual as well as entire cities or places. It may also be defined as the material or defense against such employment. BW is a military technique that can be used by nation-states or non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, it may also be considered bioterrorism. Overview The creation and stockpiling of biological weapons ("offensive biological warfare") was outlawed by the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention (BWC), signed by over 100 countries. The BWC remains in force, and it prohibits storage, stockpiling, and usage of these weapons. The rationale behind the agreement is to avoid the devastating impact of a successful biological attack which could conceivably result in millions, possibly even billions of deaths and cause severe disruptions to societies and economies. However, the consensus among military analysts is that, except in the context of bioterrorism, BW is of little military use. Many countries pursue "defensive BW" research (defensive or protective applications) which are not prohibited by the BWC. As a tactical weapon, the main military problem with a BW attack is that it would take days to be effective, and therefore, unlike a nuclear or chemical attack, would not immediately stop an opposing force. As a strategic weapon, BW is again militarily problematic, although with a possible exception with the Soviets, the weaponized biological agents did not spread from person to person. Spread is less of a concern for terrorists, but it was very much a concern for post-WWII BW development by major powers. History Biological warfare has been practiced repeatedly throughout history. Before the 20th century, the use of biological agents took three major forms: Deliberate poisoning of food and water with infectious material Use of microorganisms, toxins or animals, living or dead, in a weapon system Use of biologically inoculated fabrics The ancient world The earliest documented incident of the intention to use biological weapons is recorded in Hittite texts of 1500-1200 B.C, in which victims of plague were driven into enemy lands. Although the Assyrians knew of ergot, a fungus of rye with effects similar to LSD, there is no evidence that they poisoned enemy wells with ergot, as has often been claimed. According to Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, epic poems about the legendary Trojan War, spears and arrows were tipped with poison. During the First Sacred War in Greece, in about 590 BC, Athens and the Amphictionic League poisoned the water supply of the besieged town of Kirrha (near Delphi) with the toxic plant hellebore. The Roman commander Manius Aquillus poisoned the wells of besieged enemy cities in about 130 BC. During the 4th century BC Scythian archers tipped their arrow tips with snake venom, human blood, and animal feces to cause wounds to become infected. There are numerous other instances of the use of plant toxins, venoms, and other poisonous substances to create biological weapons in antiquity. In 184 B.C, Hannibal of Carthage had clay pots filled with venomous snakes and instructed his soldiers to throw the pots onto the decks of Pergamene ships. In about AD 198, the city of Hatra (near Mosul, Iraq) repulsed the Roman army led by Septimius Severus by hurling clay pots filled with live scorpions. Cornelius Nepos, Hannibal 11.5-6. Herodian 3.9.3-8 and Dio Cassius 68.31-75 and Epitome 75.10 and 76.10. Medieval biological warfare When the Mongol Empire established commercial and political connections between the Eastern and Western areas of the world, its Mongol armies and merchant caravans probably inadvertently brought bubonic plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The Black Death swept through Eurasia, killing approximately one third to one half of the population and changing the course of Asian and European history. During the Middle Ages, victims of the bubonic plague were used for biological attacks, often by flinging corpses and excrement over castle walls using catapults. In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa (now Theodosia). It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the advent of the Black Death in Europe. At the siege of Thun l’Eveque in 1340, during the Hundred Years' War, the attackers catapulted decomposing animals into the besieged area. In 1422, during the siege of Karlstein Castle in Bohemia, Hussite attackers used catapults to throw dead (but not plague-infected) bodies and 2000 carriage-loads of dung over the walls. The last known incident of using plague corpses for biological warfare occurred in 1710, when Russian forces attacked the Swedes by flinging plague-infected corpses over the city walls of Reval (Tallinn). However, during the 1785 siege of La Calle, Tunisian forces flung diseased clothing into the city. Though not used for warfare, in ancient times (circa 1 bc)one form of execution/torture was attaching a corpse to a live person. The person who carried the Corpse would become a social outcast and die from sicknesses in about a week. Modern times The 18th century The Native American population was decimated after contact with the Old World due to the introduction of many different fatal diseases. The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs There is, however, only one documented case of alleged germ warfare, involving British commander Lord Jeffrey Amherst and Swiss-British officer Colonel Henry Bouquet, whose correspondence included a reference to the idea of giving smallpox-infected blankets to Indians as part of an incident known as Pontiac's Rebellion which occurred during the Siege of Fort Pitt (1763) late in the French and Indian War. Any smallpox transmitted by Native American tribes was due to the transfer of the disease to blankets during transportation. Historians have been unable to establish whether or not this plan was implemented, particularly in light of the fact that smallpox was already present in the region. The roots of diseases that killed millions of indigenous peoples in the Americas can be traced back to Eurasians living for millennia in close proximity with domesticated animals. Without long contact with domesticated animals, indigenous Americans had no resistance to plague, measles, tuberculosis, smallpox or most influenza strains. As it was well documented that many of European origin wished to exterminate the Native peoples, it has been assumed that there could have been many cases of smallpox being used as a quick way to kill off the locals. (Attempts by missionaries to provide inoculation to local tribespeople were usually met with suspicion, thus leaving the native population completely vulnerable to epidemics.) Despite the lack of historical evidence, the belief that British and American soldiers used germ warfare against North American tribes has remained fairly strong in certain oral traditions and in popular culture. Such claims that smallpox infested blankets were used are especially strong in the oral traditions of native nations in the Plains and along the west coast of Canada. Adrienne Mayor, "The Nessus Shirt in the New World: Smallpox Blankets in History and Legend" Journal of American Folklore 108 (1995): 54-77 The 19th century In 1834 Cambridge Diarist Richard Henry Dana (Two Years Before the Mast; available in Project Gutenberg) visited San Francisco on a merchant ship. His ship traded many items including blankets with Mexicans and Russians who had established outposts on the northern side of the San Francisco Bay. Local histories document that the California smallpox epidemic began at the Russian fort soon after they left. Blankets were a popular trading item, and the cheapest source of them was second-hand blankets which were often contaminated. During the American Civil War, General Sherman reported that Confederate forces shot farm animals in ponds upon which the Union depended for drinking water. This would have made the water unpleasant to drink, although the actual health risks from dead bodies of humans and animals which did not die of disease are minimal. Jack London in his story '"Yah! Yah! Yah!"' describes a punitive European expedition to a Pacific island deliberately exposing the Polynesian population to Measles, of which many of them died . While much of the material for London's South Sea Tales is derived from his personal experince in the region, it is not certain that this particular incident is historical. The 20th century During the First World War, Germany pursued an ambitious biological warfare program. Using diplomatic pouches and couriers, the German General Staff supplied small teams of saboteurs in the Russian Duchy of Finland, and in the then-neutral countries of Romania, the US and Argentina. In Finland, Scandinavian freedom fighters mounted on reindeer placed ampules of anthrax in stables of Russian horses in 1916 . Anthrax was also supplied to the German military attache in Bucharest, as was glanders, which was employed against livestock destined for Allied service. German intelligence officer and US citizen Dr. Anton Casimir Dilger established a secret lab in the basement of his sister's home in Chevy Chase, Maryland, that produced glanders which was used to infect livestock in ports and inland collection points including, at least, Newport News, Norfolk, Baltimore, and New York, and probably St. Louis and Covington, Kentucky. In Argentina, German agents also employed glanders in the port of Buenos Aires and also tried to ruin wheat harvests with a destructive fungus. The Geneva Protocol of 1925 prohibited the use of chemical weapons and biological weapons, but said nothing about production, storage or transfer; later treaties did cover these aspects. Twentieth-century advances in microbiology enabled the first pure-culture biological agents to be developed by WWII. There was a period of development by many nations, and Japanese Unit 731, based primarily at Pingfan in occupied China and commanded by Shirō Ishii, did research on BW, conducted forced human experiments, often fatal, on prisoners, and provided biological weapons for attacks in China. . Biological experiments, often using twins with one subject to the procedure and the other as a control, were carried out by Nazi Germany on concentration camp inmates, particularly by Joseph Mengele. 1937-1945 During the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) and World War II, Unit 731 of the Imperial Japanese Army conducted human experimentation on thousands, mostly Chinese, Russian, American prisoners. [http://www.aiipowmia.com/731/731caveat.html AII POW-MIA Unit 731 In military campaigns, the Japanese army used biological weapons on Chinese soldiers and civilians. For example, in 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with ceramic bombs full of fleas carrying the bubonic plague. Japan triggered bubonic plague outbreak, doctor claims, , A film showing this operation was seen by princes Tsuneyoshi Takeda and Takahito Mikasa during a screening made by mastermind Shiro Ishii. Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity, 2004, p.32. However, some operations were ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems, using disease-bearing insects rather than dispersing the agent as an aerosol cloud. It is estimated that 400,000 Chinese died as a direct result of Japanese field testing of biological weapons. During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that as early as 1941 some 40 members of Unit 731 air-dropped plague-contaminated fleas on Changde. These operations caused epidemic plague outbreaks. . Some other firsthand accounts testify the Japanese infected civilians through the distribution of foodstuffs, such as dumplings and vegetables, contaminated with plague. There are also reports of contaminated water supplies. Three veterans of Unit 731 testified, in a 1989 interview to the Asahi Shimbun, that they were part of a mission to contaminate the Horustein river with typhoid near the Soviet troops during the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. Hal Gold, Unit 731 testimony, 1996, p.64-66 In response to biological weapons development in Japan, and at the time suspected in Germany, the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada initiated a BW development program in 1941 that resulted in the weaponization of tularemia, anthrax, brucellosis, and botulism toxin. The center for U.S. military BW research was Fort Detrick, Maryland, where USAMRIID is currently based; the first director was pharmaceutical executive George W. Merck. Some biological and chemical weapons research and testing was also conducted at Dugway Proving Grounds" in Utah, at a munition manufacturing complex in Terre Haute, Indiana, and at a tract on Horn Island, Mississippi. Much of the British work was carried out at Porton Down. Field testing carried out in the United Kingdom during World War II left Gruinard island in Scotland contaminated with anthrax for the next 48 years. 1946 to 1972 During the 1948 Israel War of Independence, Red Cross reports raised suspicion that the Jewish Haganah militia had released Salmonella typhi bacteria into the water supply for the city of Acre, causing an outbreak of typhoid among the inhabitants. Egyptian troops later captured disguised Haganah soldiers near wells in Gaza, whom they executed for allegedly attempting another attack. Israel denies these allegations. Typhoid- Biological Weapons NTI: Country Overviews: Israel: Biological Chronology During the Cold War US conscientious objectors were used as consenting test subjects for biological agents in a program known as Operation Whitecoat. There were also many unpublicized tests carried out on the public during the Cold War. E120 biological bomblet, developed before the U.S. signed the Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention Considerable research on the topic was performed by the United States (see US Biological Weapon Testing), the Soviet Union, and probably other major nations throughout the Cold War era, though it is generally believed that biological weapons were never used after World War II. This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who accused the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons, including the use of disease-carrying insects against them during the Korean War (1950-1953). Cuba also accused the US of spreading human and animal disease on their island. Recently revealed documents indicate that this was disinformation produced by Soviet intelligence. At the time of the Korean War the US had only weaponized one agent, brucellosis (agent US), which is caused by Brucella suis. The original weaponized form used the M114 bursting bomblet in M33 cluster bombs. While the specific form of the biological bomb was classified until some years after the Korean War, in the various exhibits of biological weapons that Korea alleged were dropped on their country nothing resembled an M114 bomblet. There were ceramic containers that had some similarity to Japanese weapons used against the Chinese in WWII, developed by Unit 731. Some of the Unit 731 personnel were imprisoned by the Soviets, and would have been a potential source of information on Japanese weaponization. The head of Unit 731, Lieutenant General Shiro Ishii, was granted immunity from war crimes prosecution in exchange for providing information to the United States on the Unit's activities. The Korean War allegations also stressed the use of disease vectors, such as fleas, which, again, were probably a legacy of Japanese biological warfare efforts. The United States initiated its weaponization efforts with disease vectors in 1953, focused on Plague-fleas, EEE-mosquitoes, and yellow fever - mosquitoes (OJ-AP).. However, US medical scientists in occupied Japan undertook extensive research on insect vectors, with the assistance of former Unit 731 staff, as early as 1946. The United States Air Force was not satisfied with the operational qualities of the M114/US and labeled it an interim item until the US Army Chemical Corps could deliver a superior weapon. The Air Force also changed its plans and wanted lethal biologicals. The Chemical Corps then initiated a crash program to weaponize anthrax (N) in the E61 1/2-lb hour-glass bomblet. Though the program was successful in meeting its development goals, the lack of validation on the infectivity of anthrax stalled standardization. Around 1950 the Chemical Corps also initiated a program to weaponize tularemia (UL). Shortly after the E61/N failed to make standardization, tularemia was standardized in the 3.4" M143 bursting spherical bomblet. This was intended for delivery by the MGM-29 Sergeant missile warhead and could produce 50% infection over a area. Unlike anthrax, tularemia had a demonstrated infectivity with human volunteers (Operation Whitecoat). Furthermore, although tularemia is treatable by antibiotics, treatment does not shorten the course of the disease. In addition to the use of bursting bomblets for creating biological aerosols, the Chemical Corps started investigating aerosol-generating bomblets in the 1950s. The E99 was the first workable design, but was too complex to be manufactured. By the late 1950s the 4.5" E120 spraying spherical bomblet was developed; a B-47 bomber with a SUU-24/A dispenser could infect 50% or more of the population of a area with tularemia with the E120. The E120 was later superseded by dry-type agents. Dry-type biologicals resemble talcum powder, and can be disseminated as aerosols using gas expulsion devices instead of a burster or complex sprayer. The Chemical Corps developed Flettner rotor bomblets and later triangular bomblets for wider coverage due to improved glide angles over Magnus-lift spherical bomblets. Weapons of this type were in advanced development by the time the program ended. Richard Nixon signed an executive order on November 1969, which stopped production of biological weapons in the U.S. and allowed only scientific research of lethal biological agents and defensive measures such as immunization and biosafety. The biological munition stockpiles were destroyed, and approximately 2,200 researchers became redundant. United States special forces and the CIA also had an interest in biological warfare, and a series of special munitions was created for their operations. The covert weapons developed for the military (M1, M2, M4, M5, and M32 - or Big Five Weapons) were destroyed in accordance with Nixon's executive order to end the offensive program. The CIA maintained its collection of biologicals well into 1975 when it became the subject of the senate Church Committee. The Biological Weapons Convention In 1972, the U.S. signed the Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention, which banned the "development, production and stockpiling of microbes or their poisonous products except in amounts necessary for protective and peaceful research." By 1996, 137 countries had signed the treaty; however it is believed that since the signing of the Convention the number of countries capable of producing such weapons has increased. The Soviet Union continued research and production of offensive biological weapons in a program called biopreparat, despite having signed the convention. The United States was unaware of the program until Dr. Vladimir Pasechnik defected in 1989, and Dr. Kanatjan Alibekov, the first deputy director of Biopreparat defected in 1992. After the 1991 Persian Gulf War, Iraq admitted to the United Nations inspection team to having produced 19,000 L of concentrated botulinum toxin, of which approximately 10,000 L were loaded into military weapons; the 19,000 L have never been fully accounted for. This is approximately 3 times the amount needed to kill the entire current human population by inhalation, although in practice it would be impossible to distribute it so efficiently, and, unless it is protected from oxygen, it deteriorates in storage. On September 18, 2001 and for a few days after several letters were received by members of the U.S. Congress and media outlets containing anthrax spores: the attack killed five people. The identity of the perpetrator remained unknown until 2008. See 2001 anthrax attacks. Biological agents Biological warfare is the deliberate use of disease and natural poisons to incapacitate humans. It employs pathogens as weapons. Pathogens are the micro-organism, whether bacterial, viral or protozoic, that cause disease. There are four kinds of biological warfare agents: bacteria, viruses, rickettsiae and fungi. Biological weapons are distinguished by being living organisms, that reproduce within their host victims, who then become contagious with a deadly, if weakening, multiplier effect. Toxins in contrast do not reproduce in the victim and need only the briefest of incubation periods; they kill within a few hours. Gray, Colin. (2007). Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare. Page 265 to 266. Phoenix. ISBN 0304367346. Biological weapons characteristics Anti-personnel BW The international biological hazard symbol. Ideal characteristics of biological weapons targeting humans are high infectivity, high potency, non-availability of vaccines, and delivery as an aerosol. Diseases most likely to be considered for use as biological weapons are contenders because of their lethality (if delivered efficiently), and robustness (making aerosol delivery feasible). The biological agents used in biological weapons can often be manufactured quickly and easily. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent but delivery in an effective form to a vulnerable target. For example, anthrax is considered an effective agent for several reasons. First, it forms hardy spores, perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax usually do not cause secondary infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually confined to the target. A pneumonic anthrax infection starts with ordinary "cold" symptoms and quickly becomes lethal, with a fatality rate that is 90% or higher. Finally, friendly personnel can be protected with suitable antibiotics. A mass attack using anthrax would require the creation of aerosol particles of 1.5 to 5 micrometres. Too large and the aerosol would be filtered out by the respiratory system. Too small and the aerosol would be inhaled and exhaled. Also, at this size, nonconductive powders tend to clump and cling because of electrostatic charges. This hinders dispersion. So the material must be treated to insulate and discharge the charges. The aerosol must be delivered so that rain and sun does not rot it, and yet the human lung can be infected. There are other technological difficulties as well. Diseases considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized include anthrax , ebola, Marburg virus, plague , cholera , tularemia, brucellosis, Q fever, machupo, Coccidioides mycosis , Glanders, Melioidosis, Shigella, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, typhus , Psittacosis, yellow fever , Japanese B encephalitis , Rift Valley fever, and smallpox . Naturally-occurring toxins that can be used as weapons include ricin, SEB, botulism toxin, saxitoxin, and many mycotoxins. The organisms causing these diseases are known as select agents. In the United States, their possession, use, and transfer are regulated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Select Agent Program. Anti-agriculture BW Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation. The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., herbicides) during the Second World War, and initiated an herbicidal warfare program that was eventually used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter insurgency. Though herbicides are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare as bioregulators in a similar manner as biotoxins. Scorched earth tactics or destroying livestock and farmland were carried out in the Vietnam war and Eelam War in Sri Lanka. The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases (bioherbicides, or mycoherbicides) for destroying enemy agriculture. It was believed that destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war. Diseases such as wheat blast and rice blast were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy water sheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotics (epidemics among plants). When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases. In 1980s Soviet Ministry of Agriculture had successfully developed variants of foot-and-mouth disease and rinderpest against cows, African swine fever for pigs, and psittacosis to kill chicken. These agents were prepared to spray them down from tanks attached to airplanes over hundreds of miles. The secret program was code-named "Ecology". Kenneth Alibek and S. Handelman. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World - Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. 1999. Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6 . Attacking animals is another area of biological warfare intended to eliminate animal resources for transportation and food. In the First World War German agents were arrested attempting to inoculate draft animals with anthrax, and they were believed to be responsible for outbreaks of glanders in horses and mules. The British tainted small feed cakes with anthrax in the Second World War as a potential means of attacking German cattle for food denial, but never employed the weapon. In the 1950s the United States had a field trial with hog cholera. Unconnected with inter-human wars, humans have deliberately introduced the rabbit disease Myxomatosis, originating in South America, to Australia and Europe, with the intention of reducing the rabbit population - which had devastating but temporary results, with wild rabbit populations reduced to a fraction of their former size but survivors developing immunity and increasing again. Biodefense Role of public health departments and disease surveillance It is important to note that all of the classical and modern biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception being smallpox. Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or perhaps earlier than humans. Indeed, in the largest biological weapons accident known the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in 1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 19 and still off limits to visitors today, see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak). Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill. For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 - 36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports). By making these data available to local public health officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately high mortality of the disease. Identification of bioweapons The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence, diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers and public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some countries private, local, and state (province) capabilities are being augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered defenses against biological weapons attacks. The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be deliberate, multiple, and repetitive. The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One such technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a "sandwich immunoassay", in which fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are attached to silver and gold nanowires. Physorg.com, "Encoded Metallic Nanowires Reveal Bioweapons", 12:50 EST, August 10, 2006. Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are developing a different device called the BioPen, essentially a "Lab-in-a-Pen", which can detect known biological agents in under 20 minutes using an adaptation of the ELISA, a similar widely employed immunological technique, that in this case incorporates fiber optics. Iddo Genuth and Lucille Fresco-Cohen, "BioPen Senses BioThreats", The Future of Things, November 13, 2006 List of BW institutions and programs by country According to the United States Office of Technology Assessment, since disbanded, seventeen countries were believed to possess biological weapons in 1995: Libya, North Korea, South Korea, Iraq, Taiwan, Syria, Israel, Iran, China, Egypt, Vietnam, Laos, Cuba, Bulgaria, India, South Africa, and Russia. Alibek, K. and S. Handelman. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6 United States Fort Detrick, Maryland U.S. Army Biological Warfare Laboratories (1943-69) Building 470 One-Million-Liter Test Sphere Operation Whitecoat United States Army Medical Unit (1954-69) U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases (USAMRIID; 1969-present) National Biodefense Analysis and Countermeasures Center (NBACC; Projected: 2008) Project Bacchus Project Clear Vision Project SHAD United Kingdom Porton Down Gruinard Island Nancekuke Former Soviet Union and Russia Biopreparat (18 labs and production centers) Stepnagorsk Scientific and Technical Institute for Microbiology, Stepnogorsk, northern Kazakhstan Institute of Ultra Pure Biochemical Preparations, Leningrad, a weaponized plague center Vector State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology (VECTOR), a weaponized smallpox center Institute of Applied Biochemistry, Omutninsk Kirov bioweapons production facility, Kirov, Kirov Oblast Zagorsk smallpox production facility, Zagorsk Berdsk bioweapons production facility, Berdsk Sverdlovsk bioweapons production facility (Military Compound 19), Sverdlovsk, a weaponized anthrax center Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services Vozrozhdeniya Island Japan Unit 731 Zhongma Fortress Unit 100 Unit 2646 Unit 8604 Unit Ei 1644 Iraq Main articles: Iraqi biological weapons program and Iraq and weapons of mass destruction (passim) Al Hakum Salman Pak facility Al Manal facility Treaties banning or restricting BW Geneva Protocol Biological Weapons Convention List of people associated with BWBioweaponeers:Anton Dilger George W. Merck Ira Baldwin Paul Fildes Rihab Rashid Taha William C. Patrick III Kanatjan Alibekov, known as Ken Alibek Yuri Ovchinnikov Vladimir PasechnikWriters and activists:'Matthew Meselson Jeanne Guillemin Richard Preston Sheldon H. Harris See also AIDS conspiracy theories Antibiotic resistance Asymmetric warfare Biological agent Biological hazard Biosecurity Chemical warfare Entomological warfare Ethnic bioweapon Exotic pollution Psychochemical weapon Ten Threats identified by the United Nations References Further reading Alibek, K. and S. Handelman. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. Delta (2000) ISBN 0-385-33496-6 Crosby, Alfred W., Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (New York, 1986). Endicott, Stephen and Edward Hagerman, The United States and Biological Warfare: Secrets from the Early Cold War and Korea, Indiana University Press (1998). ISBN 0253334721 Knollenberg, Bernhard, "General Amherst and Germ Warfare," Mississippi Valley Historical Review 41 (1954-1955), 489-494. Maskiell, Michelle, and Adrienne Mayor. "Killer Khilats: Legends of Poisoned Robes of Honour in India. Parts 1 & 2.” Folklore [London] 112 (Spring and Fall 2001): 23-45, 163-82. Mayor, Adrienne, Greek Fire, Poison Arrows & Scorpion Bombs: Biological and Chemical Warfare in the Ancient World. Overlook, 2003, rev. ed. 2009. ISBN 1-58567-348-X. Pala, Christopher (19??), Anthrax IslandPreston, Richard (2002), The Demon in the Freezer, New York: Random House. Rózsa, Lajos 2009. The motivation for biological aggression is an inherent and common aspect of the human behavioural repertoire. Medical Hypotheses, 72, 217-219. Woods, Lt Col Jon B. (ed.), USAMRIID’s Medical Management of Biological Casualties Handbook, 6th edition, U.S. Army Medical Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland (April 2005). External links Irish Medical Times: War has always been a dirty 'biological' battle The Sunshine Project WHO: Health Aspects of Biological and Chemical Weapons Green Goo - Life In The Era Of Humane Genocide by Nick Szabo Encyclopaedia Britannica, Biological Weapon Center for Biosecurity of UPMC Council for Responsible Genetics Info on chemical and biological weapons for emergency and security personnel Potomac Institute Course Notes The Terrorist Threat, Parts I, II & III US Army Treatment Summary Sheet Failed establishment of an international Organisation for the Prohibition of Biological Weapons Monterey Institute of International Studies article on the Yellow Rain controversy Lewis, Susan K. History of Biowarfare, NOVA Online'', 2001 (2003–04–24) DECONference: Yearly conference on decontamination, including a decontamination drill Drug Preparedness and Response to Terrorism alt.war.biological Usenet - Google Rapport counter measures of Coalition in War of Gulf Russian Biological and Chemical Weapons, a useful page about non-state weapons transfers with a lot of links to information from CRS, the GAO and NGOs. Biological Weapons Effects Lists all known biological weapons Hidden history of US germ testing, BBC, 13 February 2006 Uncovering bioterrorism Bert Weinstein on bioweapons on LLNL BioPen Senses BioThreats - Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are working on a new tool for identifying BioThreats - November 2006 TFOT article Biological weapons effects: Bacteria, viruses, fungi, toxins, animals, agricultural and dispersion methods. 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6,571 | Gnome | A gnome is a mythical creature characterized by its extremely small size and subterranean lifestyle. The word gnome is derived from the New Latin gnomus. It is often claimed to descend from the Greek γνώσις gnosis, "knowledge", but more likely comes from genomos "earth-dweller", in which case the omission of e is, as the OED calls it, a blunder. Another possibility is that it comes from the Arabic نوم (Noum), which means sleep. It is also possible that Paracelsus simply made the word up. Notable Gnomes in English Folklore include Sprin, Rumo, Pinny, Fislet and Gulcifer. When a group of Gnomes is present the collective term is a donsy of Gnomes. The term originates from the British word Donsie meaning tidy and neat. It is believed to refer to the well turned out appearance of the Gnomes, rather than the habitats they are often found in. Paracelsus includes gnomes in his list of elementals, as earth elementals. He describes them as two spans high, and very taciturn. C.S. Lewis, The Discarded Image, p135 ISBN 0-521-47735-2 Sometimes they are seen as a type of fairy, though at other times are seen as a distinct species in their own right. History Some confusion arises as the gnome is one of many similar but subtly different creatures in European folklore; mythical creatures such as goblins and dwarves are often represented as gnomes, and vice versa. In the Book of Lost Tales by JRR Tolkien a race of Elves (the Noldoli) are also referred to as Gnomes. Gnomes feature in the legends of many of central, northern and eastern European lands by other names: a kaukis is a Prussian gnome, and barbegazi are gnome-like creatures with big feet in the traditions of France and Switzerland. Further east, tengu are sometimes referred to as winged gnomes. According to certain medieval beliefs, Gnomes were deformed, usually with a hunchback, and were led by their king, Gob, who ruled with a magic sword. gnome - Britannica Online Encyclopedia Today, Gnomes are traditionally thought of as being small, bearded and wearing pointed, colourful, conical hats. They live in natural areas close to the Earth and care for wildlife. They are more benevolent than other folkloric creatures such as goblins. This traditional view is supported in such fictional works as The Secret Book of Gnomes. Garden gnomes German garden gnome. The first garden gnomes were made in Gräfenroda, a town known for its ceramics in Thuringia, Germany in the mid-1800s. Philip Griebel made terracotta animals as decorations, and produced gnomes based on local myths as a way for people to enjoy the stories of the gnomes' willingness to help in the garden at night. The garden gnome quickly spread across Germany and into France and England, and wherever gardening was a serious hobby. Gnome manufacture spread across Germany with numerous other large and small manufacturers coming into and out of the business, each one having its own particular style of design. World War II was hard on the industry and most producers gave up then. Griebel's descendants still make them and are the last of the German producers, all others having moved production to Poland or China. Currently, there are an estimated 25 million garden gnomes in Germany. Traditional gnomes are made from a terracotta clay slurry poured into molds. The gnome is removed from the mold, allowed to dry, and then fired in a kiln until it is hard. Once cooled the gnome is painted to the level of detail desired and sent to stores to be sold to consumers. More modern gnomes are made from schwau resins and similar materials. A replica of Lampy the Lamport Lamp Garden gnomes were first introduced to the United Kingdom in 1847 by Sir Charles Isham, when he brought 21 terracotta figures back from a trip to Germany and placed them as ornaments in the gardens of his home, Lamport Hall in Northamptonshire. Only one of the original batch of gnomes survives: Lampy, as he is known, is on display at Lamport Hall, and is insured for one million pounds. Garden gnomes have become a popular accessory in many gardens. They are often the target of pranks, known collectively as gnoming: people have been known to return garden gnomes "to the wild", most notably France's "Front de Liberation des Nains de Jardins" and Italy's "MALAG" (Garden Gnome Liberation Front). Some kidnapped garden gnomes have been sent on trips around the world (the travelling gnome prank; this later became the basis for Travelocity's "Roaming Gnome"). In 2008, a 53-year-old French man in Brittany was arrested on suspicion of stealing upwards of 170 garden gnomes. The practice of stealing garden gnomes is also sometimes referred to as "Gnome Hunting". Gnomes are often depicted as having beards and are typically males, and usually wear red hats and are known to smoke pipes. They are made in various poses and pursuing various pastimes, such as fishing or napping. Garden gnomes are often viewed as "kitsch" and in poor taste. Gnomes have become controversial in serious gardening circles in the UK, and have been banned from the prestigious Chelsea Flower Show as the organisers claim that they detract from the garden designs. Gnome enthusiasts accuse the organisers of snobbery because they are popular in working class and suburban gardens. It has been suggested by some scholars that the garden gnome is a descendant of the Greco-Roman fertility god Priapus, whose statue was often found in ancient gardens. Peter D. Arnott, An Introduction to the Roman World. London: MacMillan, 1970; Judith Harris, Pompeii Awakened: A Story of Rediscovery. I.B.Tauris, 2007, p. 117. ISBN 1845112415. Hugh Lloyd-Jones, Greek in a Cold Climate. Rowman & Littlefield, 1991, p. 64. ISBN 0389209678. Welsh rugby union centre Jamie Roberts has the largest collection of gnomes in South Wales. Claims of Gnome sightings Despite the fact that Gnomes are usually seen as a mythical creature with no real existence, there have been certain cases where people have claimed to have encountered real, living gnomes, that are not fictional. Argentina, 2007-08 The Gnome sightings in Argentina is a reported wave of sightings of Gnomes in General Güemes, Salta, Argentina that came to its climax in 2007. The craze was similar to that of the chupacabra, which had also happened in the Americas. Some reports claim that a survey showed that 90% of locals believed in the creature with over a hundred claiming to have actually seen one of the creatures, however contrasting reports claim that very few locals actually believe in it. snopes.com: Creepy Gnome Locals had reported seeing gnomes (or duendes) for several decades, however reports increased in 2007 after railway workers reported seeing one run around the tracks. They reported seeing a knee height humanoid creature wearing a pointy hood who ran sideways. The story was reported by El Tribuno in Argentina, and then The Sun in the UK. It was then picked up by Fox News in the USA, before becoming something of an urban legend. Since then, many skeptics have declared the story to be false, claiming that the video used as the main evidence is faked and that reports of the beliefs were exaggerated. Various video recordings claiming to depict the creatures were uploaded onto websites such as YouTube. The majority follow the same formula of a group of teenagers getting scared by a gnome, and running away screaming. io9.com/5068850, Real Life Gnomes, Or Back-Door Alien Infestation In Argentina? May 2007 Video In this video, lasting only 16 seconds, a group of teenage males are playing football outside when they are terrified by a gnome that appears to be only a few inches tall. October 2007 Video Two males are playing football indoors, when they are terrified at a creature that runs along the floor. March 2008 Video In March 2008, a 'creepy gnome' who wears a pointy hat, that locals claim stalks the streets of General Guemes, Salta, Argentina, foxnews.com, Little Person Dressed as Gnome Caught on Video 'Stalking' Streets of Argentina Town www.thesun.co.uk, 'Creepy gnome' terrorises town was caught on video by local teenagers on their mobile phone, led by Jose Alvarez, who commented on how he and some friends had encountered it one night. Frame from the March 2008 Argentine Gnome video "We were chatting about our last fishing trip. It was one in the morning. I began to film a bit with my mobile phone while the others were chatting and joking. Suddenly we heard something — a weird noise as if someone was throwing stones... We looked to one side and saw that the grass was moving. To begin with we thought it was a dog but when we saw this gnome-like figure begin to emerge we were really afraid... This is no joke. We are still afraid to go out — just like everyone else in the neighbourhood now... One of my friends was so scared after seeing that thing that we had to take him to the hospital." FOXNews.com - Little Person Dressed as Gnome Caught on Video 'Stalking' Streets of Argentina Town - International News | News of the World | Middle East News | Europe News The video quality is fairly blurred and dark. It goes from showing the teenagers chatting, to zooming in on something rustling about in some long grass several metres away. The creature then dashes across a field, running sideways, and this is filmed for a brief few seconds. A second video, virtually identical to the first, but with certain distinct differences, was later released on the internet, confirming that two very similar, yet different, versions of the account were filmed, providing strong evidence that the video was faked. October 2008 Video On October, 2008, South America’s ‘creepy gnome’ or ‘midget monster’ had again caused panic among locals. The video was shot by Juan Carlos Roldan, his brother Javier and 5 friends, by the water fountain in Clodomira, Santiago del Estero, Argentina, and running down Avenue San Martin. thesun.co.uk, "creepy gnome" back on prowl flatheadbeacon.com, The Night-Stalking Gnome Returns Gnomes in popular culture Gnomes are often used in fantasy stories for their cunning roles, normally as an inventor. Other reasons that gnomes are used in many games and stories are because of their funny nature, appearance, and awkward behaviors, so Fantasy authors will sometimes employ gnomes, as elementals, in their fiction. John Grant and John Clute, The Encyclopedia of Fantasy, "Elemental" p 313-4, ISBN 0-312-19869-8 Video games Some video games feature gnomes. One example of this is Cadash, which features gnomes extensively, especially in the third level where they live underground in their own grove. A gnome known as "Jubim" must be consulted in order to progress further in the game. A model garden gnome appears in Half-Life 2: Episode 2, awarding you an achievement if you carry it through the whole game then put it into Magnusson's rocket at the end. Gnomes have also made popular by appearances made in many online games. In modern fantasy games such as Dungeons & Dragons D20 System Reference Document, http://www.d20srd.org/srd/monsters/gnome.htm. , EverQuest EverQuest Online reference site (May 2007), http://www.everquest-online.com/content/races-gnome.php , and World of Warcraft World of Warcraft website (May 2007), http://www.worldofwarcraft.com/info/races/gnomes.html. , gnomes are often included as a playable race. They are commonly portrayed as large-headed humanoids about a meter in height, displaying characteristics such as a cheery temperament, a high degree of intelligence coupled with curiosity and poor judgment, and an unusual talent when it comes to either using magic or inventing and building technology, depending on the setting. These attributes - not found in traditional stories about gnomes - largely originated with the playable gnomes in Dungeons and Dragons, as well as the tinker gnome variant in the Dragonlance setting. Both World of Warcraft, and RuneScape take a similar approach with gnomes as inventors. In the Mana series, Gnome was an earth elemental. In the browser-based RPG, DragonFable, Gnomes are inventors that use steam-powered technology. They reside in the magitechnical city of Popsprocket. Movies In the movie Le Fabuleux Destin d'Amelie Poulain (which literally translates as "The Fabulous Destiny of Amélie Poulain") or Amelie (as used for U.S. release), the main character steals her father's garden gnome and has a plane stewardess she is familiar with take the Gnome to numerous places around the world, including New York, U.S.A. and Moscow, Russia. This is an example of the "Travelling Gnome" prank. In the 1997 film The Full Monty, the character Gerald collects garden gnomes Internet Movie Database-The Full Monty-Memorable Quotes . Miramax Films is in production of a film called 'Gnomeo and Juliet' starring the voice talents of James McAvoy and Emily Blunt, set to be released in 2010. Television The popular children's TV series David the Gnome features very small gnomes as a kind, nature-loving race working to undo humanity's damage. A 2005 episode of King of the Hill, "Yard, She Blows!" revolves around an antique garden gnome. Gordon the Garden Gnome was a recent children's TV program on Cbeebies. The final episode of the cult British TV comedy series Citizen Smith involves a homeowner destroying his prize garden gnome collection by accidentally stepping on the fire button in an armoured tank. In two shorts featured in episodes of the Warner Brothers animated series "Freakazoid", a small group of "real" gnomes cursed to spend the daylight hours as common lawn ornaments until they atone - via good deeds - for a centuries-old prank against a Norse wizard - already upset by their treatment of his Viking brother. The gnomes are mischievous and selfish, but not evil, although completely wrongheaded in their attempts to "save" humanity from the vicious likes of yard sprinklers. In an episode of South Park, Tweek is tormented by Underpants Gnomes In an episode of Goosebumps(Revenge of the lawn Gnomes) The lawn gnomes come to life and are introduced to the next generation to know about gnomes. Military The Panzer crews of the Tiger tank detachment of the 2nd SS-Panzer Division "Das Reich" adopted a gnome symbol on their tank turrets. This was adopted during the Kursk offensive. Literature Particularly noteworthy is the phonetically spelled Nome King of the Oz books. Although the Wicked Witch of the West is the most famous of Oz's villains (thanks to the popular 1939 film The Wizard of Oz), the Nome King is the closest the book series has to a main antagonist. He appears again and again to cause trouble for the Land of Oz. David the Gnome, a popular 1980's animated television series, featured the adventures of a tree-dwelling gnome and his wife, based on the children's books The Gnomes and The Secret Book of Gnomes by Rien Poortvliet and Wil Huygen. In the Harry Potter series, gnomes are considered garden pests and appear to be more akin to animals than intelligent beings. In the second book, Ron scoffs at the garden gnome statues that Muggles keep, saying that they're chubby "Father Christmases" holding fishing rods, and generally depicted as doing things that real gnomes would never do. A "text book" written by J.K. Rowling to resemble the books that Harry uses in school (Fantastic Beasts and Where To Find Them) states that they can be ridden of if swung around in circles until dizzy and then thrown over the garden wall. They could also be eaten by a Jarvey, which is a ferrett-like creature. Gnomes are said to only reach a foot in height and have a large head with bony feet. In the legendarium of J.R.R. Tolkien's Middle-earth, "Gnome" is an alternative and infrequently used word for Noldo or "Deep Elf". It appears in early editions of The Hobbit and also in The Book of Lost Tales (written early in Tolkien's career but not published until the 1980's). Feeling the word to be misleading, Tolkien omitted it entirely from his most famous work The Lord of the Rings, though it is mentioned briefly in an early draft of the appendices. Author Ambrose Bierce wrote in "The Devil's Dictionary" that gnomes became extinct in the year 1764. The Devil's Dictionary is a tongue in cheek book labeled as "A guidebook for cynics". Music "Gnomus" is the first movement of Modest Mussorgsky's "Pictures at an Exhibition." In the words of music critic Vladimir Stasov, it is "a sketch depicting a little gnome, clumsily running with crooked legs." "The Gnome" is a song by British psychedelic rock band Pink Floyd. It was written by the band's first leader, Syd Barrett, and tells the tale of a gnome named Grimble Gromble. It appears on the band's debut album The Piper at the Gates of Dawn. "The Laughing Gnome" is an upbeat novelty track released by David Bowie in 1967. In 2007, St. Louis-based jam band The Earth Mafia composed and recorded a song called "Gnomes." It is loosely based on the "South Park" episode of the same name. It is currently available on the band's MySpace page. Gnomes are featured in the cover photo of George Harrison's first solo album "All Things Must Pass". Many songs by the French space rock band Gong mention gnomes. The Floridian rock band Fringe claims to have a strong connection with gnomes. A trilogy of songs from Demons & Wizards' self-titled album depicts Azrael, the creator and destroyer of the universe, as a gnome. http://www.myspace.com/demonswizard Workplace Gnomes are often adopted as office mascots. These gnomes can be particularly sneaky in where they reside in the office. One must always keep an eye out. Gnomes have been reported to hide in desk drawers, overhead bins and even in trash cans. See also From a catalogue of garden ornaments. 1910. Christmas elf Dwarf Elf Erdgeist Gargoyle German folklore Gnome, D&D Gnomes of Zürich Gnome Liberation Front Gnoming Gnorc Goblin Kaliko Kallikantzaroi Kabouter Leprechaun Nome King Pixie Plastic flamingos Sprite (creature) The Secret Book of Gnomes Tomte Troll Travelling Gnome Prank Vetter Notes References External links 'Creepy gnome' terrorises town The Sun, March 11, 2008. Teenager Jose Alvarez records a "gnome" with his cell phone camera in General Guemes, Argentina. (Story received international coverage including a link on the Drudge Report Mar 11 2008. Update: A second video shot differently indicates this to be a hoax involving a marionette. See talk page.) The Gnome's Tavern. A research site on gnomes. 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6,572 | Biostatistics | Biostatistics (a portmanteau word made from biology and statistics; sometimes referred to as biometry or biometrics) is the application of statistics to a wide range of topics in biology. The science of biostatistics encompasses the design of biological experiments, especially in medicine and agriculture; the collection, summarization, and analysis of data from those experiments; and the interpretation of, and inference from, the results. Biostatistics and the history of biological thought Biostatistical reasoning and modeling were of critical importance to the foundation theories of modern biology. In the early 1900s, after the rediscovery of Mendel's work, the conceptual gaps in understanding between genetics and evolutionary Darwinism led to vigorous debate between biometricians such as Walter Weldon and Karl Pearson and Mendelians such as Charles Davenport, William Bateson and Wilhelm Johannsen. By the 1930s statisticians and models built on statistical reasoning had helped to resolve these differences and to produce the neo-Darwinian modern evolutionary synthesis. The leading figures in the establishment of this synthesis all relied on statistics and developed its use in biology. Sir Ronald A. Fisher developed several basic statistical methods in support of his work The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection Sewall G. Wright used statistics in the development of modern population genetics J. B. S Haldane's book, The Causes of Evolution, reestablished natural selection as the premier mechanism of evolution by explaining it in terms of the mathematical consequences of Mendelian genetics. These individuals and the work of other biostatisticians, mathematical biologists, and statistically inclined geneticists helped bring together evolutionary biology and genetics into a consistent, coherent whole that could begin to be quantitatively modeled. In parallel to this overall development, the pioneering work of D'Arcy Thompson in On Growth and Form also helped to add quantitative discipline to biological study. Despite the fundamental importance and frequent necessity of statistical reasoning, there may nonetheless have been a tendency among biologists to distrust or deprecate results which are not qualitatively apparent. One anecdote describes Thomas Hunt Morgan banning the Frieden calculator from his department at Caltech, saying "Well, I am like a guy who is prospecting for gold along the banks of the Sacramento River in 1849. With a little intelligence, I can reach down and pick up big nuggets of gold. And as long as I can do that, I'm not going to let any people in my department waste scarce resources in placer mining." Educators are now adjusting their curricula to focus on more quantitative concepts and tools. Education and training programs Almost all educational programmes in biostatistics are at postgraduate level. They are most often found in schools of public health, affiliated with schools of medicine, forestry, or agriculture or as a focus of application in departments of statistics. In the United States, while several universities have dedicated biostatistics departments, many other top-tier universities integrate biostatistics faculty into statistics or other departments, such as epidemiology. Thus departments carrying the name "biostatistics" may exist under quite different structures. For instance, relatively new biostatistics departments have been founded with a focus on bioinformatics and computational biology, whereas older departments, typically affiliated with schools of public health, will have more traditional lines of research involving epidemiological studies and clinical trials as well as bioinformatics. In larger universities where both a statistics and a biostatistics department exist, the degree of integration between the two departments may range from the bare minimum to very close collaboration. In general, the difference between a statistics program and a biostatistics one is twofold: (i) statistics departments will often host theoretical/methodological research which are less common in biostatistics programs and (ii) statistics departments have lines of research that may include biomedical applications but also other areas such as industry (quality control), business and economics and biological areas other than medicine. Applications of biostatistics Public health, including epidemiology, health services research, nutrition, and environmental health Design and analysis of clinical trials in medicine Genomics, population genetics, and statistical genetics in populations in order to link variation in genotype with a variation in phenotype. This has been used in agriculture to improve crops and farm animals (animal breeding). In biomedical research, this work can assist in finding candidates for gene alleles that can cause or influence predisposition to disease in human genetics Ecology, ecological forecasting Biological sequence analysis Statistical methods are beginning to be integrated into medical informatics, public health informatics, and bioinformatics Biostatistics journals Biometrics Biometrika Biostatistics International Journal of Biostatistics, The Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Statistics Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics Pharmaceutical Statistics Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology Statistics in Biopharmaceutical Research Statistics in Medicine Related fields Biostatistics shares several methods with quantitative fields such as: statistics, operations research, computer science, psychometrics, econometrics, and mathematical demography See also Quantitative parasitology Ecological forecasting References External links The International Biometric Society The Collection of Biostatistics Research Archive Guide to Biostatistics (MedPageToday.com) Journals Statistical Applications in Genetics and Molecular Biology Statistics in Medicine The International Journal of Biostatistics Journal of Agricultural, Biological, and Environmental Statistics Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics Biostatistics Biometrics Biometrika Biometrical Journal Genetics Selection Evolution | Biostatistics |@lemmatized biostatistics:20 portmanteau:1 word:1 make:1 biology:8 statistic:18 sometimes:1 refer:1 biometry:1 biometrics:3 application:6 wide:1 range:2 topic:1 science:2 encompass:1 design:2 biological:7 experiment:2 especially:1 medicine:6 agriculture:3 collection:2 summarization:1 analysis:3 data:1 interpretation:1 inference:1 result:2 history:1 thought:1 biostatistical:1 reasoning:3 model:3 critical:1 importance:2 foundation:1 theory:2 modern:3 early:1 rediscovery:1 mendel:1 work:5 conceptual:1 gap:1 understand:1 genetics:10 evolutionary:3 darwinism:1 lead:2 vigorous:1 debate:1 biometricians:1 walter:1 weldon:1 karl:1 pearson:1 mendelian:2 charles:1 davenport:1 william:1 bateson:1 wilhelm:1 johannsen:1 statistician:1 build:1 statistical:7 help:3 resolve:1 difference:2 produce:1 neo:1 darwinian:1 synthesis:2 figure:1 establishment:1 rely:1 develop:2 use:3 sir:1 ronald:1 fisher:1 several:3 basic:1 method:3 support:1 genetical:1 natural:2 selection:3 sewall:1 g:1 wright:1 development:2 population:3 j:1 b:1 haldane:1 book:1 cause:2 evolution:3 reestablish:1 premier:1 mechanism:1 explain:1 term:1 mathematical:3 consequence:1 individual:1 biostatisticians:1 biologist:2 statistically:1 inclined:1 geneticist:1 bring:1 together:1 consistent:1 coherent:1 whole:1 could:1 begin:2 quantitatively:1 parallel:1 overall:1 pioneering:1 arcy:1 thompson:1 growth:1 form:1 also:3 add:1 quantitative:4 discipline:1 study:2 despite:1 fundamental:1 frequent:1 necessity:1 may:4 nonetheless:1 tendency:1 among:1 distrust:1 deprecate:1 qualitatively:1 apparent:1 one:2 anecdote:1 describe:1 thomas:1 hunt:1 morgan:1 ban:1 frieden:1 calculator:1 department:12 caltech:1 say:1 well:2 like:1 guy:1 prospect:1 gold:2 along:1 bank:1 sacramento:1 river:1 little:1 intelligence:1 reach:1 pick:1 big:1 nugget:1 long:1 go:1 let:1 people:1 waste:1 scarce:1 resource:1 placer:1 mining:1 educator:1 adjust:1 curriculum:1 focus:3 concept:1 tool:1 education:1 training:1 program:3 almost:1 educational:1 programme:1 postgraduate:1 level:1 often:2 find:2 school:3 public:4 health:6 affiliate:2 forestry:1 united:1 state:1 university:3 dedicate:1 many:1 top:1 tier:1 integrate:2 faculty:1 epidemiology:2 thus:1 carry:1 name:1 exist:2 quite:1 different:1 structure:1 instance:1 relatively:1 new:1 found:1 bioinformatics:3 computational:1 whereas:1 old:1 typically:1 traditional:1 line:2 research:8 involve:1 epidemiological:1 clinical:2 trial:2 large:1 degree:1 integration:1 two:1 bare:1 minimum:1 close:1 collaboration:1 general:1 statistics:1 twofold:1 host:1 theoretical:1 methodological:1 less:1 common:1 ii:1 include:2 biomedical:2 area:2 industry:1 quality:1 control:1 business:1 economics:1 service:1 nutrition:1 environmental:3 genomics:1 order:1 link:2 variation:2 genotype:1 phenotype:1 improve:1 crop:1 farm:1 animal:2 breeding:1 assist:1 candidate:1 gene:1 allele:1 influence:1 predisposition:1 disease:1 human:1 ecology:1 ecological:2 forecasting:2 sequence:1 medical:1 informatics:2 journal:9 biometrika:2 international:3 agricultural:2 biopharmaceutical:3 pharmaceutical:1 molecular:2 relate:1 field:2 share:1 operation:1 computer:1 psychometrics:1 econometrics:1 demography:1 see:1 parasitology:1 reference:1 external:1 biometric:1 society:1 archive:1 guide:1 medpagetoday:1 com:1 biometrical:1 |@bigram ronald_fisher:1 b_haldane:1 mendelian_genetics:1 evolutionary_biology:1 computational_biology:1 clinical_trial:2 bare_minimum:1 molecular_biology:2 external_link:1 |
6,573 | Contras | The Contras is a label given to the various rebel groups opposing Nicaragua's FSLN (Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional) Sandinista Junta of National Reconstruction government following the July 1979 overthrow of Anastasio Somoza Debayle. Although the Contra movement included a number of separate groups, with different aims and little ideological unity, the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (FDN) emerged as by far the largest. In 1987, virtually all Contra organizations were united, at least nominally, into the Nicaraguan Resistance. From an early stage, the rebels received both overt and covert financial and military support from the United States government through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), initially supplemented by the Argentinean government of the time. At other times the US Congress wished to distance itself from the Contras and withdrew all overt support. The term "Contra" comes from the Spanish la contra, short for la contra-revolucion, in English "the counter-revolution", an expected byproduct of many revolutions. (Many references use the uncapitalized form, "contra", sometimes italicizing it.) Some rebels disliked being called Contras, feeling that it defined their cause only in negative terms, or implied a desire to restore the old order. Rebel fighters usually referred to themselves as commandos ("commandos"); peasant sympathizers also called the rebels los primos ("the cousins"). Later, veterans recalled their movement as la resistencia. History Origins Following the July 1979 fall of dictator Anastasio Somoza Debayle and the rise to power of the Sandinistas, the Nicaraguan National Guard associated with the Somoza regime disbanded. Those in the higher ranks had the means to escape and found a route to exile. The thousands of others surrendered to the victorious Sandinista revolutionary forces and were placed in internment camps to await trial. Those who had reason to fear arrest for war crimes remained at large but were persecuted, and sometimes killed. Pablo Emilio Salazar (Comandante Bravo), an ex-National Guard's commander, hoped the escaped National Guard could be regrouped. But he was chased and killed in October 1979 by Sandinista intelligence, and the rump of the National Guard disintegrated again. A minority formed groups such as the Anti-Sandinista Guerrilla Special Forces, the 15th of September Legion, and the National Army of Liberation. However, these groups were small and conducted little active raiding into Nicaragua. Dickey, Christopher. With the Contras, A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua. Simon & Schuster, 1985. Meanwhile, some of the Nicaraguan middle class, whose discontent with Somoza had led them to back the Sandinistas, soon became disillusioned with Sandinista rule. Businessman José Francisco Cardenal went into exile and founded the Nicaraguan Democratic Union (UDN), centered around fellow Conservative Party exiles, with the Nicaraguan Revolutionary Armed Forces (FARN) as its armed wing. The earliest Contras inside Nicaragua were the MILPAS (Milicias Populares Anti-Sandinistas), peasant militias led by disillusioned Sandinistas. Founded by Pedro Joaquín González, the Contra Milpistas were also known as chilotes (green corn). Even after his death, other MILPAS bands sprouted during 1980-1981. The Milpistas were composed largely of the campesino highlanders and rural workers who would later form the rank and file of the rebellion. Padro-Maurer, R. The Contras 1980 - 1989, a Special Kind of Politics. NY: Praeger Publishers, 1990. Brown, Timothy C. The Real Contra War, Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua. University of Oklahoma Press, 2001. Main groups The CIA and Argentine intelligence, seeking to unify the anti-Sandinista cause before initiating large-scale aid, persuaded the 15th of September Legion and the UDN to merge in August 1981 as the Nicaraguan Democratic Force (Fuerza Democrática Nicaragüense, FDN). Based in Honduras, Nicaragua's northern neighbor, under the command of former National Guard Colonel Enrique Bermúdez, the new FDN drew in the other rebel forces in the north. The core leadership was initially dominated by former Guardia NCOs, but MILPAS veterans rose through the ranks during the war, and Bermúdez was ultimately replaced by Milpista Oscar Sobalvarro. A joint political directorate was created in December 1982, soon led by businessman and anti-Sandinista politician Adolfo Calero. The creation of the Democratic Revolutionary Alliance (ARDE) and its armed wing, the Sandino Revolutionary Front (FRS), in September 1982 saw the opening of a second front in the war. The group was founded in neighboring Costa Rica by Edén Pastora (Comandante Cero), a former Sandinista and participant in the August 1978 seizure of Somoza's palace. ARDE consisted largely of Sandinista dissidents and veterans of the anti-Somoza campaign who opposed the increased influence of Soviet Union, Eastern bloc and Cuban officials in the Managua government. Proclaiming his ideological distance from the FDN, Pastora nevertheless opened a "southern front" in the war. A third force, Misurasata, appeared among the Miskito, Sumo and Rama Amerindian peoples of Nicaragua's Atlantic coast, who in December 1981 found themselves in conflict with the authorities following the government's efforts to nationalise Indian land. They had a number of grievances against the Sandinistas, including: Unilateral natural resource exploitation policies which denied Indians access to much of their traditional land base and severely restricted their subsistence activities. Forced removal of at least 10,000 Indians from their traditional lands to relocation centers in the interior of the country, and subsequent burning of some villages. The Americas Watch Committee. "Human Rights in Nicaragua 1986" (print), Americas Watch, February 1987. Economic embargoes and blockades against native villages not sympathetic to the government. The Misurasata movement led by Brooklyn Rivera split in 1983, with the breakaway Misura group of Stedman Fagoth allying itself more closely with the FDN. A subsequent autonomy statute in September 1987 largely defused Miskito resistance. Unity efforts U.S. officials were active in attempting to unite the Contra groups. In June 1985 most of the groups reorganized as the United Nicaraguan Opposition (UNO), under the leadership of Calero, Arturo Cruz and Alfonso Robelo, all originally supporters of the anti-Somoza revolution. After its dissolution early in 1987, the Nicaraguan Resistance (RN) was organized along similar lines in May. Splits within the rebel movement emerged with Misurasata's April 1985 accommodation with the Sandinista government, the formation of the Southern Opposition Bloc (BOS) under Alfredo César by those excluded from UNO, and Pastora's withdrawal from the struggle in May 1986. Mediation by other Central American governments under Costa Rican leadership led to the Sapoa Accord ceasefire of March 23, 1988, which, along with additional agreements in February and August 1989, provided for the Contras' disarmament and reintegration into Nicaraguan society and politics. The agreements also called for internationally-monitored elections which were subsequently held on February 25, 1990. Violeta Chamorro, a former Sandinista ally who turned into a vocal opponent , widow of murdered anti-Somoza journalist Pedro Joaquín Chamorro Cardenal, defeated Sandinista leader Daniel Ortega by a huge margin and became President with the backing of the center-right UNO. Some Contra elements and disgruntled Sandinistas would return briefly to armed opposition in the 1990s, sometimes styled as recontras or revueltos, but these groups were subsequently persuaded to disarm. Catholic Church Support The Catholic Church in Nicaragua to which 85% of Nicaraguans claimed to belong , often spoke out in favor of the Contras. To quote from Cardinal Miguel Obando y Bravo's May 12 1986 Washinton Post letter to the editor "Sandinistas Gagged and Bound Us",which greatly influenced the approbabation of the US Congress of $100 million in military aid to the Contras: "The insurgent dissidents are now in the same position that the Sandinistas themselves once occupied, and, consequently, they have the same right that the Sandinistas had to seek aid from other nations, which they in fact did request and obtain in order to fight a terrible dictatorship." Pope John Paul II visited Nicaragua in 1983 and publicly scolded the Ortega regime for "Liberation Theology". Culture Minister Ernesto Cardenal knelt in front of the Pope while being scolded by the finger-wagging Pontiff. On May 25, 1985, Pope John Paul II promoted ArchBishop Miguel Obando y Bravo to the rank of Cardinal. Human rights controversies The Sandinista government, its supporters, and outside groups such as Americas Watch frequently accused the Contras of indiscriminate attacks on civilians. The Contras and their backers, especially in the Reagan Administration, dismissed these accusations as a propaganda campaign and accused the Sandinistas of the same crimes against humanity. Catholic Institute for International Relations (CIIR, now known as "Progressio"), a human rights organization which identifies itself with Liberation theology summarized contra operating procedures in their 1987 human rights report: "The record of the contras in the field, as opposed to their official professions of democratic faith, is one of consistent and bloody abuse of human rights, of murder, torture, mutilation, rape, arson, destruction and kidnapping." An influential report on alleged Contra atrocities was issued by lawyer Reed Brody shortly before the 1985 U.S. Congressional vote on Contra aid. The report was soon published as a book, Contra Terror in Nicaragua (Brody, 1985). It charged that the Contras attacked purely civilian targets and that their tactics included murder, rape, beatings, kidnapping and disruption of harvests. Brody's report had been requested by the Sandinista government's Washington law firm Reichler & Applebaum and the Sandinista government had provided his facilities in Nicaragua. The New Republic, January 20, 1986, with letters in The New Republic, February 17, 1986. In a letter to The New York Times, Brody asserted that this in no way affected his report, and added that the newspaper had confirmed the veracity of four randomly chosen incidents. A Sandinista militiaman interviewed by The Guardian stated that Contra rebels committed these atrocities against Sandinista prisoners after a battle at a Sandinista rural outpost: Rosa had her breasts cut off. Then they cut into her chest and took out her heart. The men had their arms broken, their testicles cut off. They were killed by slitting their throats and pulling the tongue out through the slit. Americas Watch - which was subsequently folded into Human Rights Watch - stated that "the Contras systematically engage in violent abuses... so prevalent that these may be said to be their principal means of waging war." Nicaragua It accused the Contras of: targeting health care clinics and health care workers for assassination. kidnapping civilians. torturing civilians. executing civilians, including children, who were captured in combat. raping women. indiscriminately attacking civilians and civilian houses. seizing civilian property. burning civilian houses in captured towns. American news media published several articles accusing Americas Watch and other bodies of ideological bias and unreliable reporting. The media alleged that Americas Watch gave too much credence to alleged Contra abuses and systematically tried to discredit Nicaraguan human rights groups such as the Permanent Commission on Human Rights, which blamed the major human rights abuses on the Sandinistas. The New Republic, January 20, 1986; The New Republic, August 22, 1988; The National Interest, Spring 1990. In 1985, the Wall Street Journal reported: Three weeks ago, Americas Watch issued a report on human rights abuses in Nicaragua. One member of the Permanent Commission on Human Rights commented on the Americas Watch report and its chief investigator Juan Mendez: "The Sandinistas are laying the groundwork for a totalitarian society here and yet all Mendez wanted to hear about were abuses by the contras. How can we get people in the U.S. to see what's happening here when so many of the groups who come down are pro-Sandinista?" David Asman, "Despair and fear in Managua", Wall Street Journal, March 25, 1985. U.S. military and financial assistance A key role in the development of the Contra alliance was played by the United States following Ronald Reagan's assumption of the presidency in January 1981. Reagan accused the Sandinistas of importing Cuban-style socialism and aiding leftist guerrillas in El Salvador. On January 4, 1982, Reagan signed the top secret National Security Decision Directive 17 (NSDD-17), http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nsdd/nsdd-017.htm giving the CIA the authority to recruit and support the Contras with $19 million in military aid. The effort to support the Contras was one component of the Reagan Doctrine, which called for providing military support to movements opposing Soviet-supported, communist governments. The CIA distributed to the civilians The Freedom Fighter's Manual, meant to teach them simple sabotage methods (not going to work, damaging light bulbs, putting nails on roads, etc.) and more dangerous ones (how to make a molotov cocktail). In 1984, Sandinista-run Nicaraguan government filed a suit in the International Court of Justice (ICJ) against the United States (Nicaragua vs. United States), which resulted in a 1986 judgment against the United States, calling on it to "cease and to refrain" from the "unlawful use of force" against Nicaragua, through such actions as the placement of underwater mines by CIA operatives and training, funding and support for the guerrilla forces. The court concluded that the United States was "in breach of its obligations under customary international law not to use force against another State", "not to intervene in its affairs", "not to violate its sovereignty", "not to interrupt peaceful maritime commerce", and "in breach of its obligations under Article XIX of the Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between the Parties signed at Managua on 21 January 1956." Regarding human rights violations by the Contras, however, the court stated that the United States could be held accountable only for acts the Contras committed in connection with the United States, and therefore the "Court does not have to determine whether the violations of humanitarian law attributed to the contras were in fact committed by them." The Court found that the United States "has encouraged the commission by them [the Contras] of acts contrary to general principles of humanitarian law; but does not find a basis for concluding that any such acts which may have been committed are imputable to the United States of America as acts of the United States of America" The United States was ordered to pay reparations. Large PDF file from the ICJ website The United States, which did not participate in the merits phase of the proceedings, maintained that the ICJ's power did not supersede the Constitution of the United States and argued that the court did not seriously consider the Nicaraguan role in El Salvador, whose intervention the court would not accept. The latter argument was affirmed by the primary dissenting justices—notably U.S. Judge Schwebel, who claimed that "Nicaragua does not come before the Court with clean hands." Nicaragua then took its case to the UN Security Council, where a resolution supporting the ruling of the ICJ was vetoed by the United States. Nicaragua then went to the General Assembly, which passed a resolution supporting the ruling of the ICJ 94-3. Direct military aid by the United States was interrupted by the Boland Amendment, passed by the United States Congress in December 1982. The Boland Amendment was extended in October 1984 to forbid action by not only the Defense Department and the Central Intelligence Agency but all U.S. government agencies. Administration officials sought to arrange funding and military supplies by means of third-parties. These efforts culminated in the Iran-Contra Affair of 1986-1987, which concerned contra funding through the proceeds of arms sales to Iran. On February 3, 1988 the United States House of Representatives rejected President Reagan's request for $36.25 million to aid the Contras. According to the National Security Archive, Oliver North, an important official in the Iran-Contra affair, had been in contact with Manuel Noriega, the military leader of Panama later convicted on drug charges, whom he personally met. The issue of drug money and its importance in funding the Nicaraguan conflict was the subject of various reports and publications. The contras were funded by drug trafficking, of which the USA was aware. . Senator John Kerry's 1988 Committee on Foreign Relations report on Contra drug links concluded that "senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems." On the other hand, the 1989 book, Kings of Cocaine, alleges Sandinista involvement in cocaine smuggling. Barry Seal, a Medellin cartel pilot took photos which allegedly showed a high ranking Sandinista official unloading cocaine shipments at a Sandinista military airport. The Reagan administration's support for the Contras continued to stir controversy well into the 1990s. In August 1996, San Jose Mercury News reporter Gary Webb published a series titled Dark Alliance, alleging that the contras contributed to the rise of crack cocaine in California. Webb's controversial and highly damaging revelations were disputed at the time, but later revelations confirmed some of his findings." Military Successes and Election of Violeta Chamorro While faced with the largest standing army in the history of Central America, thousands of Cuban and East Bloc military advisers, and "Flying Tank" Mi-24 Soviet gunships Mil Mi-24, the Contras recorded their greatest military successes in late 1987 and early 1988. The 1980s protests in Masaya and subsequent 1990 election loss there were especially galling to the Sandinistas as this town was known as "The Birthplace of the Revolution". After a cutoff in US military support and with both sides facing international pressure to bring an end to the conflict the Contras agreed to negotiations with the FSLN. This had the short term effect of allowing opposition candidate Violeta Chamorro to win a victory over Daniel Ortega. See also Iran-Contra Affair Sandinista National Liberation Front Women and the Armed Struggle in Nicaragua Carla's Song Democratic Revolutionary Alliance References Asleson, Vern. (2004) Nicaragua: Those Passed By. Galde Press ISBN 1-931942-16-1 Belli, Humberto. (1985). Breaking Faith: The Sandinista Revolution and Its Impact on Freedom and Christian Faith in Nicaragua. Crossway Books/The Puebla Institute. Bermudez, Enrique, "The Contras' Valley Forge: How I View the Nicaraguan Crisis", Policy Review magazine, The Heritage Foundation, Summer 1988. Brody, Reed. (1985). Contra Terror in Nicaragua: Report of a Fact-Finding Mission: September 1984-January 1985. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 0-89608-313-6. Brown, Timothy. (2001). The Real Contra War: Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-3252-3. Chamorro, Edgar. (1987). Packaging the Contras: A Case of CIA Disinformation. New York: Institute for Media Analysis. ISBN 0-941781-08-9; ISBN 0-941781-07-0. Christian, Shirley. (1986) Nicaragua, Revolution In the Family. New York: Vintage Books. Cox, Jack. (1987) Requiem in the Tropics: Inside Central America. UCA Books. Cruz S., Arturo J. (1989). Memoirs of a Counterrevolutionary. (1989). New York: Doubleday. Dickey, Christopher. (1985, 1987). With the Contras: A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua. New York: Simon & Schuster. Garvin, Glenn. (1992). Everybody Had His Own Gringo: The CIA and the Contras. Washington: Brassey's. Gugliota Guy. (1989). Kings of Cocaine Inside the Medellin Cartel. Simon and Shuster. Horton, Lynn. Peasants in Arms: War and Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979-1994. (1998). Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies. Kirkpatrick, Jeane J.. (1982) Dictatorships and Double Standards. Touchstone. ISBN 0-671-43836-0 Miranda, Roger, and William Ratliff. (1993, 1994) "The Civil War in Nicaragua: Inside the Sandinistas." New Brunswick, NY: Transaction Publishers. Moore, John Norton (1987). The Secret War in Central America: Sandinista Assault on World Order. University Publications of America. Pardo-Maurer, Rogelio. (1990) The Contras, 1980-1989: A Special Kind of Politics. New York: Praeger. Persons, David E. (1987) A Study of the History and Origins of the Nicaraguan Contras. Nacogdoches, Texas: Total Vision Press. Stephen Austin University Special Collections. Webb, Gary (1998). Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion, Seven Stories Press. ISBN 1-888363-68-1 (hardcover, 1998), ISBN 1-888363-93-2 (paperback, 1999). Notes External links "Peasants Tell of Rights Abuses by Sandinistas", by James LeMoyne, New York Times, June 28, 1987. "Sandinistas Uproot Villagers to Limit Support for Contras", by James LeMoyne, New York Times, June 17, 1987. "Turnover in Nicaragua;Nicaraguan Opposition Routs Sandinistas", by Mark A. Uhlig, New York Times, February 27, 1990. "Nicaragua Goes For Reagan", National Review, March 19, 1990. "Nicaragua 1981-1990: Destabilization in slow motion, by William Blum. "Dark Alliance", by Gary Webb, San Jose Mercury News, August 1996. "Gary Webb, of Controversial CIA/Crack Series, Dead in Apparent Suicide", Associated Press, December 12, 2004. "The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations" - National Security Archive. US administration disregarding the UN verdict Video provided by BBC. When the AK-47s Fall Silent, by Timothy Brown CIA Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare. Tactical Manual for the Revolutionary. "The Freedom Fighter's Manual" - CIA booklet distributed in Nicaragua | Contras |@lemmatized contra:62 label:1 give:3 various:2 rebel:8 group:13 oppose:4 nicaragua:32 fsln:2 frente:1 sandinista:27 de:1 liberación:1 nacional:1 junta:1 national:13 reconstruction:1 government:14 follow:4 july:2 overthrow:1 anastasio:2 somoza:8 debayle:2 although:1 movement:5 include:4 number:2 separate:1 different:1 aim:1 little:2 ideological:3 unity:2 nicaraguan:18 democratic:6 force:11 fdn:5 emerge:2 far:1 large:5 virtually:1 organization:2 united:20 least:2 nominally:1 resistance:5 early:4 stage:1 receive:1 overt:2 covert:2 financial:2 military:13 support:13 state:22 central:6 intelligence:4 agency:3 cia:11 initially:2 supplement:1 argentinean:1 time:7 u:12 congress:3 wish:1 distance:2 withdraw:1 term:3 come:3 spanish:1 la:3 short:2 revolucion:1 english:1 counter:1 revolution:6 expected:1 byproduct:1 many:3 reference:2 use:3 uncapitalized:1 form:3 sometimes:3 italicize:1 dislike:1 call:5 feel:1 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6,574 | Enki | Enki (Sumerian: ) was a god in Sumerian mythology, later known as Ea in Akkadian and Babylonian mythology. He was originally patron god of the city of Eridu, but later the influence of his cult spread throughout Mesopotamia and to the Hittites and Hurrians. He was the deity of crafts (gašam); water, seawater, and lakewater (a, aba, ab), intelligence (gestú, literally "ear") and creation (Nudimmud: nu, likeness, dim mud, make bear). He was assimilated to the zenith in the Sun's path at the winter solstice. Jeremias, Alfred 1913. Handbuch der altorientalischen Geisteskultur. Leipzig. p. 74. His sacred number name was "40". Reallexikon der Assyriologie III, Götterzahlen. p. 500. The exact meaning of his name is uncertain: the common translation is "Lord of the Earth": the Sumerian en is translated as a title equivalent to "lord"; it was originally a title given to the High Priest; ki means "earth"; but there are theories that ki in this name has another origin, possibly kig of unknown meaning, or kur meaning "mound". The name Ea is allegedly Hurrian in origin while others Huffmon, Herbert B. (1965), "Amorite Personal Names in the Mari Texts: A Structural and Lexical Study". (Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins Press) Noah Kramer, Samuel and John Maier, (1989), "Myths of Enki, the Crafty God" (New York and Oxford. Oxford University Press) claim that it is possibly of Semitic origin and may be a derivation from the West-Semitic root *hyy meaning "life" in this case used for "spring", "running water." In Sumerian E-A means "the house of water", and it has been suggested that this was originally the name for the shrine to the God at Eridu. Attributes The main temple to Enki is called E-abzu, meaning "abzu temple" (also E-engura, meaning "house of the subterranean waters""), a ziggurat temple surrounded by Euphratean marshlands near the ancient Persian Gulf coastline at Eridu. He was the keeper of the divine powers called Me, the gifts of civilization. His image is a double-helix snake. Considered the master shaper of the world, god of wisdom and of all magic, Enki was characterized as the lord of the Abzu (Apsu in Akkadian, perhaps equivalent of Greek abýssos, English "abyss"), the freshwater sea or groundwater located within the earth. In the later Babylonian epic Enûma Eliš, Abzu, the "begetter of the gods", is inert and sleepy but finds his peace disturbed by the younger gods so sets out to destroy them. His grandson Enki, chosen to represent the younger gods, puts a spell on Abzu "casting him into a deep sleep", thereby confining him deep underground. Enki subsequently sets up his home "in the depths of the Abzu." Enki thus takes on all of the functions of the Abzu, including his fertilizing powers as lord of the waters and lord of semen Leick, Gwendolyn (2001), "Mesopotamia: the invention of the city" (Penguin) p.20 . Early royal inscriptions from the third millennium BCE mention "the reeds of Enki". Reeds were an important local building material, used for baskets and containers, and collected outside the city walls, where the dead or sick were often carried. This links Enki to the Kur or underworld of Sumerian mythology. In another even older tradition, Nammu, the goddess of the primeval creative matter and the mother-goddess portrayed as having "given birth to the great gods," was the mother of Enki, and as the watery creative force, was said to preexist Ea-Enki. Daley, S (1989), "Myths of Mesopotamia" (Oxford, NY), p.50 Benito states "With Enki it is an interesting change of gender symbolism, the fertilizing agent is also water, Sumerian "a" which also means "semen". In one evocative passage in a Sumerian hymn, Enki stands at the empty riverbeds and fills them with his 'water'" Benito, C.A. (1969) "Enki and Ninmah" and "Enki and the World Order" (dissertation, Uni of Philadelphia) . This may be a reference to Enki's hieros gamos or sacred marriage with /Ninhursag (the Earth) (see below). His symbols included a goat and a fish, which later combined into a single beast, the goat Capricorn, recognized as the Zodiacal constellation Capricornus. In Sumerian astronomy, Enki also represented the planet Mercury, known for its ability to shift rapidly, and its proximity to the Sun, Sumerian Utu, Akkadian Shamash, the god of Justice. Restorer of balance Enki was not perfect, as god of water he had a penchant for beer and as god of semen he had a string of incestuous affairs. In the epic Enki and Ninhursag, he and his consort Ninhursag had a daughter Ninsar. When Ninhursag left him he came upon Ninsar (Lady Greenery) and then had intercourse with her. Ninhursa then gave birth to Ninkurra (Lady Fruitfulness or Lady Pasture). A second time, he had intercourse with Ninkurra, who gave birth to Uttu (weaver or spider). A third time Enki succumbs to temptation, and attempts seduction of Uttu. Upset about Enki's reputation, Uttu consults Ninhursag, who, upset at the promiscuous nature of her spouse, advises Uttu to avoid the riverbanks. In another version of this myth Ninhursag takes Enki's semen from Uttu's womb and plants it in the earth where seven plants rapidly germinate. With his two-faced servant and steward Isimud, Enki finds the plants and immediately starts consuming their fruit. Consuming his own semen he falls pregnant (ill with swellings) in his jaw, his teeth, his mouth, his throat, his limbs and his rib. The gods are at a loss to know what to do, as Enki lacks a womb with which to give birth, until Ninhursag's sacred fox fetches the goddess. Ninhursag relents and takes Enki's Ab (water, or semen) into her body, and gives birth to gods of healing of each part of the body. The last one, Ninti (Lady Rib), is also a pun on Lady Life, a title of Ninhursag herself. The story symbolically reflects the way in which life is brought forth through the addition of water to the land, and once it grows, water is required to bring plants to fruit. It also counsels balance and responsibility, nothing to excess. Ninti, is given the title of the mother of all living, and was a title given to the later Hurrian goddess Kheba. This is also the title given to Eve, the Hebrew Khavvah (חוה), the Aramaic Hawwah, who was supposedly made from the rib of Adam, in a strange reflection of the Sumerian myth. Confuser of languages In the Sumerian epic entitled Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, in a speech of Enmerkar, an incantation is pronounced that has a mythical introduction. Kramer's translation is as follows Another translation describes 'Hamazi, the many-tongued' and instead calls on Enki to change the languages of mankind into one. : Once upon a time there was no snake, there was no scorpion, There was no hyena, there was no lion, There was no wild dog, no wolf, There was no fear, no terror, Man had no rival. In those days, the lands of Subur (and) Hamazi, Harmony-tongued Sumer, the great land of the decrees of princeship, Uri, the land having all that is appropriate, The land Martu, resting in security, The whole universe, the people in unison To Enlil in one tongue [spoke]. (Then) Enki, the lord of abundance (whose) commands are trustworthy, The lord of wisdom, who understands the land, The leader of the gods, Endowed with wisdom, the lord of Eridu Changed the speech in their mouths, [brought] contention into it, Into the speech of man that (until then) had been one. Champion of humankind According to Sumerian mythology, Enki also assisted humanity to survive the Deluge designed to kill them. In the Legend of Atrahasis, Enlil, the king of the gods, sets out to eliminate humanity, the noise of whose mating is offensive to his ears. He successively sends drought, famine and plague to eliminate humanity, but Enki thwarts his half-brother's plans by teaching Atrahasis about irrigation, granaries and medicine. Humans again proliferate a fourth time. Enraged, Enlil convenes a Council of Deities and gets them to promise not to tell humankind that he plans their total annihilation. Enki does not tell Atrahasis, but instead tells the walls of Atrahasis' (a.k.a. Utnapishtim or Ziusudra) reed hut of Enlil's plan, thus covertly rescuing Atrahasis by either instructing him to build some kind of a boat for his family, or by bringing him into the heavens in a magic boat. After the seven day Deluge, the flood hero frees a swallow, a raven and a dove in an effort to find if the flood waters have receded. On the boat landing, a sacrifice is organized to the gods. Enlil is angry his will has been thwarted yet again, and Enki is named as the culprit. As the god of what we would call ecology, Enki explains that Enlil is unfair to punish the guiltless Atrahasis for the sins of his fellows, and secures a promise that the gods will not eliminate humankind if they practice birth control and live within the means of the natural world. The threat is made, however, that if humans do not honor their side of the covenant the gods will be free to wreak havoc once again. This is apparently the oldest surviving Middle Eastern Deluge myths. Enki and Inanna In his connections with Inanna Enki shows other aspects of his ll non-Patriarchal nature. The myth Enki and Inanna "Inanna: Lady of Love and War, Queen of Heaven and Earth, Morning and Evening Star", consulted 25 Aug 2007 Wolkstein, Diana and Noah Kramer, Samuel "Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth" tells the story of the young goddess of the É-anna temple of Uruk, who visits the senior god of Eridu, and is entertained by him in a feast. The seductive god plies her with beer, and the young goddess maintains her virtue, whilst Enki proceeds to get drunk. In generosity he gives her all the gifts of his Me, the gifts of civilized life. Next morning, with a hangover, he asks his servant Isimud for his Me, only to be informed that he has given them to Inanna. Upset at his actions, he sends Galla demons to recover them. Inanna escapes her pursuers and arrives safely back at the quay at Uruk. Enki realizes that he has been tricked in his hubris and accepts a peace treaty forever with Uruk. Politically, this myth would seem to indicate events of an early period when political authority passed from Enki's city of Eridu to Inanna's city of Uruk. In the myth of Inanna's descent, Inanna, in order to console her grieving sister Ereshkigal, who is mourning the death of her husband Gugalana (gu, bull, gal, big, ana, sky/heaven), slain by Gilgamesh and Enkidu, sets out to visit her sister. She tells her servant Ninshubur (Lady Evening), a reference to Inanna's role as the evening star, that if she does not return in three days, to get help from her father Anu, Enlil, king of the gods, or Enki. When she does not return, Ninshubur approaches Anu only to be told that he understands that his daughter is strong and can take care of herself. Enlil tells Ninshubur he is much too busy running the cosmos. Enki immediately expresses concern and dispatches his Galla demons, Galaturra or Kurgarra, sexless beings created from the dirt from beneath the god's finger-nails, to recover the young goddess. These beings may be the origin of the Greco-Roman Galli, androgynous beings of the third sex, similar to the American Indian berdache, who played an important part in early religious ritual. De Shong Meador, Betty, (2006)"Inanna: Lady of the Largest Heart: Poems of the Sumerian High Priestess Enheduanna" (Texas Press) In the story Inanna and Shukaletuda, Lishtar "The Avenging Maiden and the Predator Gardener: a study of Inanna and Shukaletuda" Shukaletuda, the gardener, set by Enki to care for the date palm he had created, finds Inanna sleeping under the palm tree and rapes the goddess in her sleep. Awaking, she discovers that she has been violated and seeks to punish the miscreant. Shukaletuda seeks protection from Enki, whom Bottero Bottéro, Jean (1992) "Mesopotamia: Writing, Reasoning and the Gods" (University of Chicago Press) believes to be his father. In classic Enkian fashion, the father advises Shukaletuda to hide in the city where Inanna will not be able to find him. Enki, as the protector of whomever comes to seek his help, and as the empowerer of Inanna, here challenges the young impetuous goddess to control her anger so as to be better able to function as a great judge. Eventually, after cooling her anger, she too seeks the help of Enki, as spokesperson of the "assembly of the gods", the Igigi and the Anunnaki. After she presents her case, Enki sees that justice needs to be done and promises help, delivering knowledge of where the miscreant is hiding. Portrayal Enki was considered a god of life and replenishment, and was often depicted with two streams of water emanating from his shoulders, one the Tigris, the other the Euphrates. Alongside him were trees symbolizing the male and female aspects of nature, each holding the male and female aspects of the 'Life Essence', which he, as apparent alchemist of the gods, would masterfully mix to create several beings that would live upon the face of the earth. In character Enki is not a jester or trickster god, he is never a cheat, and although fooled, he is not a fool. Enki uses his magic for the good of others when called upon to help either a god, a goddess or a human. Enki is always true to his own essence as a masculine nurturer. He is fundamentally a trouble-shooter god, and avoids or disarms those who bring conflict and death to the world. He is the mediator whose compassion and sense of humor breaks and disarms the wrath of his stern half-brother, Enlil, king of the gods. He is the Challenger who tests the limits of Inanna in the myth Enki and Inanna and the Me and then concedes graciously his defeat by the young goddess of Love and War, by strengthening the bonds between Eridu and her city of Uruk. So he becomes the Empowerer of Inanna. Influence Enki and later Ea were apparently depicted, sometimes, like Adapa, as a man covered with the skin of a fish, and this representation, as likewise the name of his temple E-apsu, "house of the watery deep", points decidedly to his original character as a god of the waters (see Oannes). Of his cult at Eridu, which goes back to the oldest period of Mesopotamian history, nothing definite is known except that his temple was also associated with Ninhursag's temple which was called Esaggila, "the lofty head house" (E, house, sag, head, ila, high; or Akkadian goddess Ila), a name shared with Marduk's temple in Babylon, pointing to a staged tower or ziggurat (as with the temple of Enlil at Nippur, which was known as Ekur (kur, hill)), and that incantations, involving ceremonial rites in which water as a sacred element played a prominent part, formed a feature of his worship. This seems also implicated in the epic of the hieros gamos or sacred marriage of Enki and Ninhursag, which seems an etiological myth of the fertilization of the dry ground by the coming of irrigation water (from Sumerian a, ab, water or semen). The early inscriptions of Urukagina in fact go so far as to suggest that the divine pair, Enki and Ninki, were the progenators of seven pairs of gods, including Enki as god of Eridu, Enlil of Nippur, and Su'en (or Sin) of , and were themselves the children of An (sky, heaven) and Ki (earth) http://www.utlib.ee/ekollekt/diss/mag/2006/b18272897/espakpeeter.pdf . The pool of the Abzu at the front of his temple, was adopted also at the temple to Nanna (Akkadian Sin) the Moon, at , and spread throughout the Middle East. It remains as the sacred pool at Mosques. Whether Eridu at one time also played an important political role in Sumerian affairs is not certain, though not improbable. At all events the prominence of "Ea" led, as in the case of Nippur, to the survival of Eridu as a sacred city, long after it had ceased to have any significance as a political center. Myths in which Ea figures prominently have been found in Assurbanipal's library, and in the Hattusas archive in Hittite Anatolia. As Ea, Enki had a wide influence outside of Sumeria, being equated with El (at Ugarit) and possibly Yah (at Ebla) in the Canaanite 'ilhm pantheon, he is also found in Hurrian and Hittite mythology, as a god of contracts, and is particularly favourable to humankind. Amongst the Western Semites it is thought that Ea was equated to the term *hyy (life), referring to Enki's waters as life giving. Enki/Ea is essentially a god of civilization, wisdom, and culture. He was also the creator and protector of man, and of the world in general. Traces of this view appear in the Marduk epic celebrating the achievements of this god and the close connection between the Ea cult at Eridu and that of Marduk. The correlation between the two rise from two other important connections: (1) that the name of Marduk's sanctuary at Babylon bears the same name, Esaggila, as that of a temple in Eridu, and (2) that Marduk is generally termed the son of Ea, who derives his powers from the voluntary abdication of the father in favour of his son. Accordingly, the incantations originally composed for the Ea cult were re-edited by the priests of Babylon and adapted to the worship of Marduk, and, similarly, the hymns to Marduk betray traces of the transfer of attributes to Marduk which originally belonged to Ea. It is, however, as the third figure in the triad (the two other members of which were Anu and Enlil) that Ea acquires his permanent place in the pantheon. To him was assigned the control of the watery element, and in this capacity he becomes the shar apsi; i.e. king of the Apsu or "the deep". The Apsu was figured as the abyss of water beneath the earth, and since the gathering place of the dead, known as Aralu, was situated near the confines of the Apsu, he was also designated as En-Ki; i.e. "lord of that which is below", in contrast to Anu, who was the lord of the "above" or the heavens. The cult of Ea extended throughout Babylonia and Assyria. We find temples and shrines erected in his honour, e.g. at Nippur, Girsu, , Babylon, Sippar, and Nineveh, and the numerous epithets given to him, as well as the various forms under which the god appears, alike bear witness to the popularity which he enjoyed from the earliest to the latest period of Babylonian-Assyrian history. The consort of Ea, known as Ninhursag, Ki, Uriash Damkina, "lady of that which is below", or Damgalnunna, "big lady of the waters", originally was fully equal with Ea but in more patriarchal Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian times plays a part merely in association with her lord. Generally, however, Enki seems to be a reflection of pre-patriarchal times, in which relations between the sexes were characterised by a situation of greater gender equality. In his character, he prefers persuasion to conflict, which he seeks to avoid if possible. Ea and West Semitic deities In 1964, a team of Italian archaeologists under the direction of Paolo Matthiae of the University of Rome La Sapienza performed a series of excavations of material from the third-millennium BCE city of Ebla. Much of the written material found in these digs was later translated by Dr. Giovanni Pettinato. Among other conclusions, he found a tendency among the inhabitants of Ebla to replace the name of El, king of the gods of the Canaanite Pantheon (found in names such as Mikael), with Ia (two syllables as in Mikiah). Jean Bottero Bottero, Jean. "Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia" (University of Chicago Press, 2004) ISBN 0-226-06718-1 and many others Boboula, Ida. "The Great Stag: A Sumerian Deity and Its Affiliations", Fifty-Third General Meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America (1951) in American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 56, No. 3 (Jul. 1952) 171–178, All pertinent information is available online. have suggested that Ia in this case is a West Semitic (Canaanite) way of saying Ea, Enki's Akkadian name. Ia (two syllables) is declined with the Semitic ending as Iahu and may have developed into the later form of Yahweh. Ia has also been confused with the Ugaritic Yamm (sea), (also called Judge Nahar, or Judge River) whose earlier name in at least one ancient source was Yaw, or Ya'a. Although both Ea and Yamm were water gods and are sometimes called "storm" gods, Ea was the creator and representative of the sweet beneficent waters from below the earth, and as "Enki" was responsible for fertilising the earth itself. Yamm, however, in addition to being the deity of salt waters, and of storms that sank ships, flooded cities—that is, had a more violent character than Ea, who generally avoided conflict. Indeed, ancient Ur during its hey day as a port city along the ancient coastline of the Persian Gulf (now far inland), maintained its most holy shrine to the life-giving essence of fresh water as against the life-threatening qualities of the salty seas. Thus Ea, the lord of the sweet waters, antagonist to his half brother, the storm god Enlil, who can be identified with the West Semitic storm god Ba'al Haddad, the King of heaven and creator of heaven and earth in West Semitic mythology. Yamm, although important to the maritime Canaanites, was comparatively a minor figure when compared to Ba'al Hadad, who in the West Semitic myths is always his foe. See also Barbar Temple, a Dilmun-era temple in Bahrain devoted to the worship of Enki Mesopotamian mythology Mesopotamia Ancient Near East Capricornus Notes References Jacobsen, Thorkild (1976) "Treasures of Darkness; A History of Mesopotamian Religion", (Yale University Press, London, New Heaven) ISBN 0-300-02291-3 Bottero, Jean (2004) "Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia" (University Of Chicago Press) ISBN 0-226-06718-1 Kramer, Samuel Noah (1998) "Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C." (University of Pennsylvania Press; Revised edition) ISBN 0-8122-1047-6 Kramer, S.N. and Maier, J.R. (1989) "Myths of Enki, the Crafty God" (Oxford) Galter, H.D. (1981) "Der Gott Ea/Enki in der akkadischen Überlieferung" (Graz) External links AncientNearEast.Net | Enki |@lemmatized enki:63 sumerian:17 god:45 mythology:8 later:5 know:7 ea:24 akkadian:6 babylonian:4 originally:6 patron:1 city:11 eridu:13 influence:3 cult:5 spread:2 throughout:3 mesopotamia:7 hittite:3 hurrians:1 deity:5 craft:1 gašam:1 water:25 seawater:1 lakewater:1 aba:1 ab:3 intelligence:1 gestú:1 literally:1 ear:2 creation:1 nudimmud:1 nu:1 likeness:1 dim:1 mud:1 make:3 bear:3 assimilate:1 zenith:1 sun:2 path:1 winter:1 solstice:1 jeremias:1 alfred:1 handbuch:1 der:4 altorientalischen:1 geisteskultur:1 leipzig:1 p:4 sacred:7 number:1 name:15 reallexikon:1 assyriologie:1 iii:1 götterzahlen:1 exact:1 meaning:3 uncertain:1 common:1 translation:3 lord:13 earth:13 en:3 translate:2 title:6 equivalent:2 give:14 high:3 priest:2 ki:5 mean:7 theory:1 another:4 origin:4 possibly:3 kig:1 unknown:1 kur:3 mound:1 allegedly:1 hurrian:3 others:3 huffmon:1 herbert:1 b:2 amorite:1 personal:1 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6,575 | A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire | A Song of Ice and Fire is an award-winning series of epic fantasy novels by American novelist and screenwriter George R. R. Martin. Martin began writing the series in 1991 and the first volume was published in 1996. Originally planned as a trilogy, the series now consists of four published volumes with three more projected. There are also two prequel novellas available, with several more planned, and a series of novellas consisting of excerpts of the main novels. One of these excerpt novellas has won a Hugo Award. The series has been translated into eighteen languages Gallery of different language editions and the fourth volume reached the top of the New York Times bestseller lists upon its release. 'A Fantasy Realm Too Vile For Hobbits', New York Times article - December 2005 Overall, the series has sold more than 2.2 million copies in the USA. Valyrian Resin promotional information The story of A Song of Ice and Fire takes place in a fictional world, primarily upon a continent called Westeros but also on a large landmass to the east, known as Essos Spanish Q&A - July 2008 . Most of the characters are human but as the series progresses other races are introduced, such as the cold and menacing Others from the far North and fire-breathing dragons from the East, both races thought to be extinct by the people of the story. There are three principal storylines in the series: the chronicling of a dynastic civil war for control of Westeros between several competing families; the rising threat of the Others who dwell beyond an immense wall of ice that forms Westeros' northern border; and the journey of Daenerys Targaryen, the exiled daughter of a king who was murdered in another civil war fifteen years previously (War of the Usurper) and now seeks to return to Westeros and claim her rightful throne. As the series progresses, all three storylines become intensely interwoven and dependent on each other. The series is told in the limited third-person through the eyes of a number of POV characters. By the end of the fourth volume, there have been twenty-five such characters, although these include eight who only appear once apiece. While the series is set in a fictional world and Martin has acknowledged his debt to the works of J.R.R. Tolkien, Q&A Summary on Westeros.org - September 1999 Jack Vance Author statement on Westeros.org - 11 November 1998 and Tad Williams, Author statement on Westeros.org - 4 December 1999 the series differs from these earlier works in its greater interest in and use of realistic elements. While Tolkien was inspired by mythology, A Song of Ice and Fire is more clearly influenced by medieval history, most notably the Wars of the Roses. SF Site review of The Hedge Knight - 2005 Likewise, while Tolkien included romance in his tales, Martin writes frequently, albeit in a clever fashion, of sexual matters. This has led to the series being cited as a forerunner of a 'gritty' new wave of epic fantasy authors that followed, including Scott Lynch, Interview with Scott Lynch - 2006 Joe Abercrombie, Joe Abercrombie blog entry on A Game of Thrones - 16 February 2008 Steven Erikson and Scott Bakker. On his website, Martin has acknowledged historical fiction authors such as Bernard Cornwell and George MacDonald Fraser to be influences on the series. Martin has cited the cover blurb by Robert Jordan for the first book to have been influential in ensuring the series' early success with fantasy readers. GRRM's Blog - 16 September 2007 The growing popularity of the series led to it being optioned by HBO, an option which they have now chosen to exercise for a possible television adaptation. Variety Article - 17 January 2007 There are popular board A Game of Thrones board game homepage at Fantasy Flight and role-playing games A Song of Ice and Fire RPG homepage at Green Ronin based on the books available, as well as a collection of artwork based on and inspired by the series. The Art of George RR Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire homepage at Fantasy Flight The French video game company, Cyanide, has announced that they have partnered with Martin to create a video game adaption of the books. The series has been placed as the number 2 rated series at the Internet Book List as of March 10, 2009. list Internet book list rating ASOIAF, retrieved March 10th, 2009 Novels and novellas A Game of Thrones (1996) A Clash of Kings (1998) A Storm of Swords (2000) A Feast for Crows (2005) A Dance with Dragons (forthcoming) The Winds of Winter (forthcoming) A Dream of Spring (formerly known as "A Time for Wolves", forthcoming) There are also three novellas based on chapter sets from the books: Blood of the Dragon is a novella taken from Daenerys chapters in A Game of Thrones. It won the Hugo Award for Best Novella in 1997. Path of the Dragon is a second novella based on Daenerys chapters, this time taken from A Storm of Swords. Arms of the Kraken is a novella based on the Iron Islands chapters from A Feast for Crows. There are also three separate novellas set in the same world, known as the "Tales of Dunk and Egg" after the main protagonists. They are set about ninety years before the novels and for now have no direct connection with the plot of A Song of Ice and Fire. The Hedge Knight (1998) The Sworn Sword (2003) The Mystery Knight (2010) The Hedge Knight and The Sworn Sword are also both available as graphic novels from Dabel Brothers Productions. The author has said that he would like to write a number of these stories (varying from six to twelve from interview to interview) covering the entire lives of these two characters. Publication of the third "Dunk and Egg" novella, titled The Mystery Knight, is provisionally set for 2010 in an anthology named Warriors, which will be edited by Martin and Gardner Dozois. Background The background to A Song of Ice and Fire is revealed through the lengthy appendices which follow on from each volume, with additional information revealed through the novellas, the text of the novels themselves and the role-playing game. The narrative is set primarily in the fictional Seven Kingdoms of Westeros, a large, South America-sized Author comments, retrieved February 13th, 2008 continent with an ancient history stretching back some twelve thousand years, and where the seasons last for years. The original inhabitants of the land were the children of the forest (whose old gods are still worshipped in the North), a dimunitive race who lived in harmony with nature and employed powerful magic. The First Men, a civilization of primitive warriors wielding bronze weapons and riding horses, crossed over from the eastern continent via a land bridge (destroyed in the resulting conflicts) and fought a series of wars against the children which ended with the Pact of the Isle of Faces being signed, with the First Men taking control of the open lands and the children remaining in the forests. The Pact was weakened after four thousand years by the emergence of the Others, an enigmatic race from the furthermost north, who swept south into Westeros and caused great death and destruction, bringing about a night that lasted a generation and a winter that lasted decades. In the War for the Dawn, the Others were thrown back by the First Men and the children of the forest, and the vast Wall was raised to bar their passage south should they come again. In the following centuries the children gradually disappeared, and it was presumed that they died out or left Westeros altogether. Approximately two thousand years after the War for the Dawn, the Andals crossed the narrow sea from the eastern continent. The Andals wielded iron weapons, had tamed horses to use in battle and brought with them the Faith of the Seven. They landed in the Vale of Arryn and over the course of several millennia subjugated the southern kingdoms. However, they could not take the North due to natural defences. Over time six great and powerful kingdoms were forged across Westeros: the Kingdom of the North, the Kingdom of the Iron Islands, the Kingdom of Vale and Sky, the Kingdom of the Rock, the Kingdom of the Storm Kings and the Kingdom of the Reach. A seventh kingdom—that of the Riverlands—was repeatedly conquered by its neighbours and eventually was destroyed altogether, whilst the small desert kingships in the far south of Westeros were divided by constant struggle and war. One thousand years prior to the events of the novels, a great host of refugees from the region of the River Rhoyne on the eastern continent—displaced by the growing power of a distant empire called Valyria—crossed the narrow sea under the warrior-queen Nymeria and landed in the southern-most part of Westeros. The Rhoynar allied with the native Lord Mors Martell and conquered the southern peninsula of Dorne, forging another powerful kingdom. By five centuries later the expanding Valyrian Freehold had reached the far coast of the narrow sea and established links with Westeros, using the island of Dragonstone as a trading port. However, a mere century later the Valyrian Freehold was destroyed by a titanic disaster known as the Doom. The Valyrian family that controlled Dragonstone, the Targaryens, spent a further century in preparing their forces, and then launched a devastating invasion of Westeros under Aegon the Conqueror. Although their forces were tiny, they had with them the last three dragons in the western world and they were able to use these to subjugate the continent. Six of the Seven Kingdoms were conquered in this initial war, but Dorne resisted so fiercely that Aegon agreed to let them remain independent. The Targaryens adopted the native Faith of the Seven (although they still married brother to sister in the ancient Valyrian tradition in defiance of the Faith's teachings) and Westerosi customs, and within a few decades had crushed all resistance to their rule. The last dragons died out a century and a half into the Targaryen rule, but by this time they had become the ruling power on the continent and their rule was not challenged at this time. Fifteen years prior to the beginning of the novels, the Targaryens were displaced from power in a civil war brought about by King Aerys II's (called "the Mad King") insanity and cruelty. An alliance of houses under the leadership of Lord Robert Baratheon, Lord Jon Arryn, and Lord Eddard Stark successfully destroyed the Targaryen armies, then went on to kill king Aerys's heirs and wiped out most of the line, aside from Aerys' pregnant wife and his son Viserys, who fled to Dragonstone. King Aerys himself was killed by Jaime Lannister, his own sworn sword, who since then has been nicknamed the Kingslayer. Aerys' wife died giving birth to Daenerys Targaryen, who was taken to safety in the Free Cities beyond the narrow sea by loyal retainers. In the meantime, Robert Baratheon took the Iron Throne and married Cersei Lannister, whose father Tywin had delivered Robert the capital of King's Landing through treachery. Plot summary A Song of Ice and Fire follows three principal storylines, divided by geography and participants. The first storyline, set in the Seven Kingdoms themselves, chronicles a many-sided struggle for the Iron Throne that develops after King Robert's death. The throne is claimed by his son Joffrey, supported by his mother's powerful family, House Lannister, but Lord Eddard Stark, King Robert's Hand, claims that Robert's children are illegitimate, and that the throne should fall to Robert's brother Stannis. Robert's youngest brother, Renly, also places a claim with the support of the extremely powerful House Tyrell. Whilst these three claimants battle for the Iron Throne, Robb Stark, Lord Eddard Stark's heir, is proclaimed King in the North as the northmen and their allies in the Riverlands seek to return to self-rule. Likewise, Balon Greyjoy also (re-)claims the ancient throne of his own region, the Iron Islands, with an eye towards independence. The War of the Five Kings is the principal storyline in the second and third novels, while the fourth novel concerns the realm's recovery in the face of the coming winter. The second storyline is set on the extreme northern border of Westeros. Here, eight thousand years ago, a huge wall of ice and gravel was constructed by both magic and labor to defend Westeros from the threat of The Others, a race of ice creatures living in the uttermost north. This Wall, long and tall, is defended and maintained by the Sworn Brotherhood of the Night's Watch, whose primary duty is to guard against the Others, but by the time of the novels it is badly under-strength and has almost forgotten its original purpose, instead being threatened by the human 'wildlings' or 'free folk' who live to the north. This storyline follows Jon Snow, bastard son of Eddard Stark, as he rises through the ranks of the Watch, learns the true nature of the threat from the north, and prepares to defend the realm from it, despite the fact that the people of Westeros are too busy warring to send support. By the end of the third volume, this storyline has become somewhat entangled with the civil war to the south with the arrival of one of the claimants to the Iron Throne after the defeat of his armies in battle. The third storyline is set on the huge eastern continent of Essos and follows the journeys of Daenerys Targaryen, the last scion of House Targaryen and another claimant to the Iron Throne. Daenerys's adventures showcase her growing ability, as she rises from a near-penniless wanderer to a powerful and canny ruler who possesses the last living dragons. Though her story is separated from the others by many thousands of miles, her stated goal is to reclaim the Iron Throne, and it is presumed she will travel to Westeros before the end of the series. While she has no memories of Westeros and is barely known there, she may still be welcomed: the chaos of two civil wars in rapid succession has led to much yearning among the smallfolk for the days of stability under the Targaryens. The eponymous Song of Ice and Fire has been mentioned only rarely in the series so far, most notably in a vision Daenerys sees in A Clash of Kings. This vision depicts her dead brother Rhaegar The Citadel: Prophecies - II: 511-512 - The Dragon Has Three Heads speaking of his son, saying, "He is the prince that was promised, and his is the song of ice and fire". It is implied that there is a connection between this song, the promised prince, and Daenerys herself, who according to her granduncle Aemon will fulfill the prophecy (the Valyrian word "prince" is gender-neutral, just as their dragons are hermaphrodites). The phrase "ice and fire" is also mentioned in the Reeds' oath of loyalty to Bran in A Clash of Kings. See also: List of characters in A Song of Ice and Fire Historical and literary sources Numerous parallels have been seen between the events and characters in A Song of Ice and Fire and events and people involved in the Wars of the Roses. Two of the principal families in A Song of Ice and Fire, the Starks and the Lannisters, are seen as representing the historical House of York and House of Lancaster, respectively. A similar reality-inspired conflict is the succession struggle called the Dance of Dragons between two children Aegon II and Rhaenyra. A historical struggle (labeled The Anarchy) between Empress Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and her cousin Stephen of Blois, provides the inspiration. Each daughter is announced as her father's successor, but due to differing reasons, male rivals seize the crown and are anointed as rulers. During the dynastic struggle, the rival claimants are deposed and succeeded by the son (Aegon III and Henry II of England respectively) of the original designated heir. Neither Empress Matilda nor Rhaenyra actually ruled in their own name. A comparison of Martin's map of Northern Westeros and a map of Great Britain will also show a geographical resemblance. Martin's "Wall" geographically corresponding with Hadrian's Wall and Dorne with Cornwall. Westeros is, however, much larger than Britain, stretching for nearly three thousand miles from the Wall to the Summer Sea. Martin is an avid student of medieval Europe, and has said that the Wars of the Roses, along with many other events in Europe during that time, have influenced the series. However, he insists that "there's really no one-for-one character-for-character correspondence. I like to use history to flavor my fantasy, to add texture and verisimilitude, but simply rewriting history with the names changed has no appeal for me. I prefer to reimagine it all, and take it in new and unexpected directions." So Spake Martin Report #1 Martin has also said the Albigensian Crusades are an influence for the series. Origins of the series George R. R. Martin had a long love of model knights and medieval history, but his early novels and short stories mostly fit into the science fiction genre; however, eventually several fantasy stories did appear, such as The Ice Dragon. Biographical author summaries in Dreamsongs In the mid-1980s, Martin worked mainly in Hollywood, principally as a writer or producer on The New Twilight Zone and Beauty and the Beast. After Beauty and the Beast ended in 1989 Martin returned to writing prose and started work on a science fiction novel called Avalon. In 1991, whilst struggling with this story, Martin conceived of a scene where several youngsters find a dead direwolf with a stag's antler in its throat. The direwolf has several pups, which are taken by the youngsters to raise as their own. Martin's imagination was fired by this idea and he developed it into an epic fantasy story, which he envisaged as a trilogy consisting of the books A Game of Thrones, A Dance with Dragons and The Winds of Winter. Martin had previously apparently not been inspired by the genre, but reading Tad Williams' Memory, Sorrow, and Thorn series had convinced him it could be approached in a more adult and mature way than previous authors. After a hiatus spent producing a television pilot for a series called Doorways, Martin resumed work on A Game of Thrones in 1994 and completed it the following year, although he was only partway through his initial plan for the first novel. As a result of this, Martin then expanded his plan for the series to four books, and then to six. Publication of A Game of Thrones followed in early 1996. Pre-release publicity included publication of a 'sample novella' called Blood of the Dragon, which went on to win the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella. In order to fit A Game of Thrones into one volume, Martin had pulled out the last quarter or so of the book and made it the opening section of the second book, which he then named A Clash of Kings. Growth of the series After expanding the series to four volumes, Martin remarked, "What can I say? It's a BIG story, and a cast of thousands." Martin in post to Legends, 6 October 1998. So Spake Martin – Posts to Legends (SSL) After A Storm of Swords was completed in 2000, Martin began writing A Dance with Dragons, the intended fourth volume which would pick up the story five years after the previous volume. Martin found it difficult to make this work without an over-reliance on flashbacks. At the World Science Fiction Convention in Philadelphia on 1 September 2001, Martin announced that he was scrapping more than a year's work and writing a different fourth book that would fill in the gap, named A Feast for Crows. He found it extremely difficult to go back and start again, especially as this novel was not planned for in his scheme for the series, and work on the book progressed slowly. By May 2005 A Feast for Crows had become longer than A Storm of Swords and his publishers said they could not publish the book in one volume. They suggested splitting the book in two and releasing the volumes as A Feast for Crows, Volume I and A Feast for Crows, Volume II, but Martin was unhappy with this idea. After discussing the matter with his publishers and his friend and fellow writer Daniel Abraham, Martin decided to split the book by character and location instead. The published A Feast for Crows thus contained all of the characters in the South of the Seven Kingdoms, while the forthcoming A Dance with Dragons will contain the characters in the North, the Free Cities and in Slaver's Bay. In a May 2005 statement, the author also said that this move now meant that the series would require seven volumes. Martin recognized that this decision could cause frustration among some of his fans. He wrote: "I know some of you may be disappointed, especially when you buy A Feast for Crows and discover that your favorite character does not appear, but given the realities I think this was the best solution... and the more I look at it, the more convinced I am that these two parallel novels, when taken together, will actually tell the story better than one big book." Message on Martin's website, 29 May 2005 It's Done!!! These problems aside, A Feast for Crows was released in October 2005 and immediately won largely positive reviews. Time dubbed Martin, "The American Tolkien" The American Tolkien - TIME , and the novel went straight to the top of the New York Times bestseller list. Despite initial hopes of A Dance with Dragons being published quickly after A Feast for Crows, the writing and revision process for this fifth novel proved more difficult than anticipated. On January 1, 2008, Martin published an update on his website saying he hoped to have the book published in the autumn of 2008. Update - A Song of Ice and Fire As of January 2009, though the author has published no further updates on his website, A Dance with Dragons is expected to be released on September 29, 2009 in the US A Dance with Dragons by George R. R. Martin - Hardcover - Random House and the following month in the UK, ADWD Product info on Amazon.co.uk although it should be noted that announced release dates for both A Feast for Crows and A Dance with Dragons have had to be pushed back previously. In a February update on his LiveJournal, Martin confirmed that he hopes to finish the novel in June, which will permit a September-October publication Not A Blog: A Dance With Dragons . TV adaptation Variety reported on 17 January 2007 that the rights for A Song of Ice and Fire have been sold to HBO with the intent of turning the novels into a television series. Written and executive produced by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss, the series is expected to cover one novel’s worth of material per season. Martin plans to co-executive produce the series and is expected to write one episode per season. - Winter Is Coming The series is to be filmed in Northern Ireland HBO to film TV pilot in Northern Ireland . Martin reported in August 2007 that the first draft of the script was complete Publishers Weekly interview - 14 August 2007 and stated in November that the script was approved and budgeting had begun. At this point the series had still not been officially greenlit, and the 2007 Writers Guild of America strike could have delayed the process. Entertainment Weekly interview - November 2007 In April 2008 David Benioff confirmed that development of the script and series was continuing. Interview with David Benioff - April 2008 He suggested a ‘crappy’ tagline for the project could be, “The Sopranos in Middle-earth.” Q&A with David Benioff - May 2008 In June, Martin reported in his blog that the second draft of the script was complete, but again a final decision had not been made. If the series were to go ahead, the BBC would also be financially involved much as they were for the HBO series Rome. - Not A Blog In September 2008, according to Martin's not-a-blog, - Not A Blog HBO exercised its option to buy the television rights to produce A Game of Thrones. Martin is quick to point out the project has still not been greenlit, but it is an encouraging first step. In November, Variety reported that HBO has committed to filming a pilot episode before a decision is made in regards to filming the entire first book of the series. - Fantasy sits on 'Thrones' In May 2009, Martin's not-a-blog, - Not A Blog announced that HBO has selected actor/ director Tom McCarthy as director of the Game Of Thrones pilot. Also, the first cast member, Peter Dinklage, has been cast as Tyrion Lannister. McCarthy and Dinklage previously worked together on "The Station Agent." The pilot episode will be shot in and around Belfast in Northern Ireland during the third quarter of 2009. - The Hollywood Reporter Spin-offs In addition to the novels and novellas, there are number of other products inspired by the series. Related publications Some of the novels' chapters have appeared previously in collected form in other outlets. Blood of the Dragon (Asimov’s, July 1996) based on the Daenerys chapters from A Game of Thrones. Received the 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella. Path of the Dragon (Asimov’s, December 2000) based on the Daenerys chapters from A Storm of Swords. Arms of the Kraken (Dragon issue 305, August 2002) based on the Iron Islands chapters from A Feast for Crows. A Game of Thrones collectible card game This is a collectible card game (CCG) produced by Fantasy Flight Games. A number of base sets have been released for the game, each with a number of expansions. The game's primary designer is Eric Lang and the lead developer is Nate French. The A Game of Thrones: Westeros Edition won the Origins Award for Best Trading Card Game of 2002. The Game of Thrones: Ice and Fire Edition won the Origins Award for Best Card Game Expansion or Supplement of 2003. It is an ongoing project consisting of five editions and eight expansions to date. A Game of Thrones Board Game In 2003, Fantasy Flight Games released the A Game of Thrones strategy board game created by Christian T. Petersen. The Origins Award-winning game allows the players to take on the roles of several of the Great Houses vying for control of the Seven Kingdoms, including House Stark, House Lannister, House Baratheon, House Greyjoy, House Tyrell, and as of the expansion A Clash of Kings, House Martell. Players maneuver armies to secure support in the various regions that comprise the Seven Kingdoms, with the goal of capturing enough support to claim the Iron Throne. Two expansions for the game, A Clash of Kings and A Storm of Swords have been released. Roleplaying Games The A Game of Thrones Roleplaying Game (2005), created by the defunct Guardians of Order company and published by White Wolf, is a roleplaying game using the d20 and the Tri-Stat dX rules systems. The game consists of a single large, full-colour rulebook featuring information on role-playing in the Seven Kingdoms and also background information to the series not found in the novels, including a detailed map of the Seven Kingdoms. The game was very well-received and was nominated for several awards (and won 3 silver ENnie awards for Best Production, Best Game, and Best d20/OGL Product), but this was not enough to save its parent company from closure in July 2006. On 28 July 2006 George R. R. Martin confirmed that he had received word from the head of Guardians of Order that the company was folding and that no further releases for the setting would take place. Martin expressed hope that the game might be salvaged by another company, and on 24 April 2007, Green Ronin Publishing announced they would be producing a new role-playing game titled A Song of Ice and Fire. Green Ronin has or will publish the following titles: "A Song of Ice and Fire Roleplaying Quick-Start Rules" (Free PDF) (June 21, 2008) "A Song Of Ice And Fire Roleplaying: Adventures In The Seven Kingdoms" (10 March 2009) "A Song Of Ice And Fire Roleplaying: Peril At King's Landing Adventure" (29 March 2009) "A Song of Ice and Fire Roleplaying Campaign Guide" (June, 2009) "SIFRP Narrator's Kit" (TBA) A Song of Ice and Fire Roleplaying website Amazon listing Blood of Dragons MUSH Blood of Dragons is an online, text-based roleplaying MUSH and the only online game specifically authorized by the author . Blood of Dragons MUSH FAQ Blood of Dragons fully opened in 2007 and is set approximately 140 years prior to the initial series, during the reign of Daeron I and his conquest of Dorne. The game is maintained by the administrators of Westeros.org, who are collaborating with Martin on The World of Ice and Fire. Video Games On May 13, 2009 Cyanide Studio announced they will be developing a series of video games based on A Song of Ice and Fire for the PC and next-generation consoles. Gaming Target. (05-13-09). George R.R Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire to become a video game series The Art of Ice and Fire This book, published in 2005 by Fantasy Flight Games, contains numerous works of art inspired by the series from a variety of different artists and illustrators. Some of the art previously appeared in the card game or on-line, but most of it was new. Models and figures Testor Corporation announced that in late 2006 it would begin releasing model figures based on the series, to be followed by a tactical wargame. Only one product shipped, a Ruby Ford diorama. In April 2007, Martin announced that the licensing agreement with Testor had expired, and Testor's A Song of Ice and Fire product lines had been canceled. In December 2006, Haute Productions signed a deal to release a range of resin mini-busts featuring characters from A Song of Ice and Fire, under the name Valyrian Resin. The company plans to expand the line to include resin statues and pewter chess sets. On August 13, 2007, Dark Sword Miniatures announced a line of premium pewter miniatures based on the world of George R.R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire, and sculpted by renowned miniatures artist Tom Meier. The World of Ice and Fire A companion volume for the series, provisionally known as a ‘world book’, is in development by George R. R. Martin and co-authors Elio M. García, Jr. and Linda Antonsson, although no publication date has been confirmed as yet. García and Antonsson run the largest A Song of Ice and Fire community on the web and assisted in the writing of the first roleplaying game. The companion volume was given the working title The World of Ice and Fire at the 2006 Worldcon, during a discussion between the writers. They confirmed that the book will open with a historical overview of the setting, have a ‘who's who’ of characters and have a large amount of heraldry and at least the Targaryen family tree, possibly more. The book will also contain a large amount of artwork and will be published after A Dance with Dragons is released. Hippoi Athanatoi: Memoirs - Worldcon: Day 3 The artist Ted Nasmith, best known for his work on illustrated editions of J. R. R. Tolkien books, has been asked to do some landscape and castle portraits for the book. In his correspondence with the publishers, Nasmith was told that the target release date was spring 2008 Long Time No Post-My Apologies, Friends! - Ted Nasmith , although the book was subsequently moved back. Weapon replicas On 20 March 2007, George R. R. Martin announced on his blog Not A Blog - Nothing Holds an Edge Like Valyrian Steel that he had "signed a deal with Jalic, Inc of East Lansing, Michigan, granting them a license to manufacture and sell full-sized high-quality replicas of the arms and armor from A Song of Ice and Fire", under the name Valyrian Steel Valyrian Steel - Swords from George R.R. Martin’s “A Song of Ice and Fire” , starting with the bastard sword Longclaw wielded by Jon Snow. Notes External links GeorgeRRMartin.com - George R. R. Martin's website The Citadel at www.westeros.org - extensive archive about the series, including detailed thematic notes, timelines, artwork & heraldry, and correspondence from the author Westeros Forum - a popular and busy forum based around discussion of the series and its spin-offs Tower of the Hand: An Encyclopaedia of Ice and Fire - A comprehensive treatment of A Song of Ice and Fire with chapter summaries and individual pages for every character, location, historical event, noble house, etc. from the series all thoroughly cross-referenced and hyperlinked Amoka.net Gallery Fan-created portraits and scenes of the Song of Ice and Fire characters BwB Fan Club - GRRM fan club A Wiki Of Ice And Fire A Wiki for the World of Ice and Fire Maps of Westeros and The Lands of the Summer Sea Maps of the North, South, and Beyond the Wall Winter is Coming A blog following the production of HBO's A Song of Ice and Fire based TV series, Game of Thrones [http://www.westeros.org/BoD Blood of 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6,576 | Geography_of_Jamaica | Jamaica lies 90 miles (145 km) south of Cuba and 118 miles (190 km) west of Haiti. At its greatest extent, Jamaica is 146 miles (235 km) long, and it varies between 21 and 52 miles (35-85 km) wide. With an area of 10,911 square kilometres, Jamaica is the largest island of the Commonwealth Caribbean and the third largest of the Greater Antilles, after Cuba and Hispaniola. Along the south coast are a number of small islands, such as the Port Royal Cays. Pedro Bank, an area of shallow seas, with a number of cays (low islands or reefs), extending generally east to west for over 160 kilometres, lies southwest of Jamaica. To the southeast lies Morant Bank, with the Morant Cays, fifty-one kilometres from Morant Point, the easternmost point of mainland Jamaica. Alice Shoal, 260 km southwest of the main island of Jamaica, falls within the Jamaica-Colombia Joint Regime. Geology and landforms Jamaica and the other islands of the Antilles evolved from an arc of ancient volcanoes that rose from the sea millions of years ago. During periods of submersion, thick layers of limestone were laid down over the old igneous and metamorphic rock. In many places, the limestone is thousands of feet thick. The country can be divided into three landform regions: the eastern mountains, the central valleys and plateaus, and the coastal plains. The highest area is that of the Blue Mountains. These eastern mountains are formed by a central ridge of metamorphic rock running northwest to southeast from which many long spurs jut to the north and south. For a distance of over 3 kilometers, the crest of the ridge exceeds 1,800 meters. The highest point is Blue Mountain Peak at 7,402 feet (2,256 m). The Blue Mountains rise to these elevations from the coastal plain in the space of about sixteen kilometers, thus producing one of the steepest general gradients in the world. In this part of the country, the old metamorphic rock reveals itself through the surrounding limestone.To the north of the Blue Mountains lies the strongly tilted limestone plateau forming the John Crow Mountains. This range rises to elevations of over 1,000 meters. To the west, in the central part of the country, are two high rolling plateaus: the Dry Harbour Mountains to the north and the Manchester Plateau to the south. Between the two, the land is rugged and here, also, the limestone layers are broken by the older rocks. Streams that rise in the region flow outward and sink soon after reaching the limestone layers. The limestone plateau covers two-thirds of the country, so that karst formations dominate the island. Karst is formed by the erosion of the limestone in solution. Sinkholes, caves and caverns, disappearing streams, hummocky hills, and terra rosa (residual red) soils in the valleys are distinguishing features of a karst landscape; all these are present in Jamaica. To the west of the mountains is the rugged terrain of the Cockpit Country, one of the world's most dramatic examples of karst topography. The Cockpit Country is pockmarked with steep-sided hollows, as much as 120 meters deep in places, which are separated by conical hills and ridges. On the north, the main defining feature is the fault-based "Escarpment", a long ridge that extends from Flagstaff in the west, through Windsor in the centre, to Campbells and the start of the Barbecue Bottom Road (B10). The Barbecue Bottom Road, which runs north-south, high along the side of a deep, fault-based valley in the east, is the only drivable route across the Cockpit Country. However, there are two old, historical trails that cross further west, the Troy Trail, and the Quick Step Trail, both of which are seldom used as of 2006 and difficult to find. In the southwest, near Quick Step, is the district known as the "Land of Look Behind," so named because Spanish horsemen venturing into this region of hostile runaway slaves were said to have ridden two to a mount, one rider facing to the rear to keep a precautionary watch. Where the ridges between sinkholes in the plateau area have dissolved, flat-bottomed basins or valleys have been formed that are filled with terra rosa soils, some of the most productive on the island. The largest basin is the Vale of Clarendon, eighty kilometers long and thirty-two kilometers wide. Queen of Spains Valley, Nassau Valley, and Cave Valley were formed by the same process. Coasts The coastline of Jamaica is one of many contrasts. The northeast shore is severely eroded by the ocean. There are many small inlets in the rugged coastline, but no coastal plain of any extent. A narrow strip of plains along the northern coast offers calm seas and white sand beaches. Behind the beaches is a flat raised plain of uplifted coral reef. The southern coast has small stretches of plains lined by black sand beaches. These are backed by cliffs of limestone where the plateaus end. In many stretches with no coastal plain, the cliffs drop 300 meters straight to the sea. In the southwest, broad plains stretch inland for a number of kilometers. The Black River courses seventy kilometers through the largest of these plains. The swamplands of the Great Morass and the Upper Morass fill much of the plains. The western coastline contains the island's finest beaches. Climate Two types of climate are found in Jamaica. An upland tropical climate prevails on the windward side of the mountains, whereas a semiarid climate predominates on the leeward side. Warm trade winds from the east and northeast bring rainfall throughout the year. The rainfall is heaviest from May to October, with peaks in those two months. The average rainfall is per year. Rainfall is much greater in the mountain areas facing the north and east, however. Where the higher elevations of the John Crow Mountains and the Blue Mountains catch the rain from the moisture-laden winds, rainfall exceeds per year. Since the southwestern half of the island lies in the rain shadow of the mountains, it has a semiarid climate and receives fewer than of rainfall annually. Temperatures are fairly constant throughout the year, averaging 25 °C to 30 °C in the lowlands and 15 °C to 22 °C at higher elevations. Temperatures may dip to below 10 °C at the peaks of the Blue Mountains. The island receives, in addition to the northeast trade winds, refreshing onshore breezes during the day and cooling offshore breezes at night. These are known on Jamaica as the "Doctor Breeze" and the "Undertaker's Breeze," respectively. Jamaica lies in the Atlantic hurricane belt; as a result, the island sometimes experiences significant storm damage. Powerful hurricanes which have hit the island directly causing death and destruction include Hurricane Charlie in 1951 and Hurricane Gilbert in 1988. Several other powerful hurricanes have passed near to the island with damaging effects. In 1980, for example, Hurricane Allen destroyed nearly all Jamaica's banana crop. In recent years, Hurricane Ivan (2004) swept past the island causing heavy damage and a number of deaths; in 2005, Hurricanes Dennis and Emily brought heavy rains to the island. A Category 4 hurricane, Hurricane Dean, caused some deaths and heavy damage to Jamaica in August 2007. The first recorded hurricane to hit Jamaica was in 1519. The island has been struck by tropical cyclones regularly. During two of the coldest periods in the last 250 years (1780s and 1810s), the frequency of hurricanes in the Jamaica region was unusually high. Another peak of activity occurred in the 1910s, the coldest decade of the 20th century. On the other hand, hurricane formation was greatly diminished from 1968 to 1994, which for some reason coincides with the great Sahel drought. Vegetation Although most of Jamaica's native vegetation has been stripped in order to make room for cultivation, some areas have been left virtually undisturbed since the time of Columbus. Indigenous vegetation can be found along the northern coast from Rio Bueno to Discovery Bay, in the highest parts of the Blue Mountains, and in the heart of the Cockpit Country. Key facts Jamaica's parishes, main rivers and main centres Location Caribbean, island in the Caribbean Sea, south of Cuba Geographic coordinates Map references Central America and the Caribbean Area Total: 10 991 km² Land: 10 831 km² Water: 160 km² Area – comparative (Australia) About 2½ times as big as Kangaroo Island (Canada) About twice Prince Edward Island's size (UK) About half Wales's size (USA) Slightly smaller than the state of Connecticut Land boundaries 0 km Longest River Black River (70 km) Coastline 1 022 km Maritime claims Measured from claimed archipelagic baselines Continental shelf: 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation Exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) Territorial sea: 12 nautical miles Climate Tropical Marine; hot, humid; temperate interior Terrain Mostly mountains, with narrow, discontinuous coastal plains Elevation extremes Lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m Highest point: Blue Mountain Peak 2 256 m Natural resources Bauxite, gypsum, limestone Land use Arable land: 14% Permanent crops: 6% Permanent pastures: 24% Forests and woodland: 17% Other: 39% (1993 est.) Irrigated land 350 km² (1993 est.) Natural hazards Hurricanes (especially July to November) Environment--current issues Heavy rates of deforestation; coastal waters polluted by industrial waste, sewage, and oil spills; damage to coral reefs; air pollution in Kingston results from vehicle emissions Environment--international agreements Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling Signed, but not ratified: None of the selected agreements Geography--note Strategic location between Cayman Trench and Jamaica Channel, the main sea lanes for Panama Canal See also Jamaica List of cities and towns in Jamaica References | Geography_of_Jamaica |@lemmatized jamaica:22 lie:6 mile:6 km:9 south:6 cuba:3 west:6 haiti:1 great:5 extent:2 long:5 vary:1 wide:2 area:8 square:1 kilometre:2 large:4 island:19 commonwealth:1 caribbean:5 third:2 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6,577 | Analgesic | An analgesic (also known as a painkiller) is any member of the diverse group of drugs used to relieve pain (achieve analgesia). The word analgesic derives from Greek an- ("without") and algos ("pain"). Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous systems; they include paracetamol (acetaminophen), the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, narcotic drugs such as morphine, synthetic drugs with narcotic properties such as tramadol, and various others. In choosing analgesics, the severity and response to other medication determines the choice of agent; the WHO pain ladder, originally developed in cancer-related pain, is widely applied to find suitable drugs in a stepwise manner. The analgesic choice is also determined by the type of pain: for neuropathic pain, traditional analgesics are less effective, and there is often benefit from classes of drugs that are not normally considered analgesics, such as tricyclic antidepressants and anticonvulsants. The major classes Paracetamol and NSAIDs The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol/acetaminophen is uncertain, but it appears to be acting centrally. Aspirin and the other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) inhibit cyclooxygenases, leading to a decrease in prostaglandin production. This reduces pain and also inflammation (in contrast to paracetamol and the opioids). Paracetamol has few side effects and is regarded as very safe, although excessive doses can lead to kidney and liver damage in the form of analgesic nephropathy and paracetamol hepatotoxicity, respectively. NSAIDs predispose to peptic ulcers, renal failure, allergic reactions, and occasionally hearing loss, and they can increase the risk of hemorrhage by affecting platelet function. The use of aspirin in children under 16 suffering from viral illness may contribute to Reye syndrome. COX-2 inhibitors These drugs have been derived from NSAIDs. The cyclooxygenase enzyme inhibited by NSAIDs was discovered to have at least 2 different versions: COX1 and COX2. Research suggested that most of the adverse effects of NSAIDs were mediated by blocking the COX1 (constitutive) enzyme, with the analgesic effects being mediated by the COX2 (inducible) enzyme. The COX2 inhibitors were thus developed to inhibit only the COX2 enzyme (traditional NSAIDs block both versions in general). These drugs (such as rofecoxib and celecoxib) are equally effective analgesics when compared with NSAIDs, but cause less gastrointestinal hemorrhage in particular. However, post-launch data indicated increased risk of cardiac and cerebrovascular events with these drugs due to an increased likelihood of clotting in the blood due to a decrease in the production of protoglandin around the platelets causing less clotting factor to be released, and rofecoxib was subsequently withdrawn from the market. The role for this class of drug is debated. Opiates and morphinomimetics Morphine, the archetypal opioid, and various other substances (e.g. codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, diamorphine, pethidine) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid receptor system. Tramadol and buprenorphine are thought to be partial agonists of the opioid receptors. Dosing of all opioids may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, respiratory depression, myoclonic jerks and pinpoint pupils), but there is no dose ceiling in patients who tolerate this. Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Up to 1 in 3 patients starting morphine may experience nausea and vomiting (generally relieved by a short course of antiemetics). Pruritus (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. Constipation occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and laxatives (lactulose, macrogol-containing or co-danthramer) are typically co-prescribed. When used appropriately, opioids and similar narcotic analgesics are otherwise safe and effective, however risks such as addiction and the body becoming used to the drug (tolerance) can occur. The effect of tolerance means that drug dosing may have to be increased if it is for a chronic disease this is where the no ceiling limit of the drug comes into play. However what must be remembered is although there is no upper limit there is a still a toxic dose even if the body has become used to higher doses. Specific agents In patients with chronic or neuropathic pain, various other substances may have analgesic properties. Tricyclic antidepressants, especially amitriptyline, have been shown to improve pain in what appears to be a central manner. The exact mechanism of carbamazepine, gabapentin and pregabalin is similarly unclear, but these anticonvulsants are used to treat neuropathic pain with modest success. Specific forms and uses Combinations Analgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamol and codeine preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as pseudoephedrine for sinus-related preparations, or with antihistamine drugs for allergy sufferers. The use of paracetamol, as well as aspirin, ibuprofen, naproxen, and other NSAIDS concurrently with weak to mid-range opiates (up to about the hydrocodone level) has been shown to have beneficial synergistic effects by combatting pain at multiple sites of action—NSAIDs reduce inflammation which, in some cases, is the cause of the pain itself while opiates dull the perception of pain—thus, in cases of mild to moderate pain caused in part by inflammation, it is generally recommended that the two be prescribed together. Topical or systemic Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an ibuprofen- or diclofenac-containing gel; capsaicin also is used topically. Lidocaine, an anesthetic, and steroids may be injected into painful joints for longer-term pain relief. Lidocaine is also used for painful mouth sores and to numb areas for dental work and minor medical procedures. Psychotropic agents Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and some other cannabinoids, either from the Cannabis sativa plant or synthetic, have analgesic properties, although the use of cannabis derivatives is illegal in many countries. Other psychotropic analgesic agents include ketamine (an NMDA receptor antagonist), clonidine and other α2-adrenoreceptor agonists, and mexiletine and other local anaesthetic analogues. Atypical and/or adjuvant analgesics Orphenadrine, cyclobenzaprine, scopolamine, atropine, gabapentin, first-generation antidepressants and other drugs possessing anticholinergic and/or antispasmodic properties are used in many cases along with analgesics to potentiate centrally acting analgesics such as opioids when used against pain especially of neuropathic origin and to modulate the effects of many other types of analgesics by action in the parasympathetic nervous system. Dextromethorphan has been noted to slow the development of tolerance to opioids and exert additional analgesia by acting upon the NMDA receptors; some analgesics such as methadone and ketobemidone and perhaps piritramide have intrinsic NMDA action. High-alcohol liquor has been used in the past as an agent for dulling pain, due to the CNS depressant effects of ethyl alcohol, a notable example being the American Civil War. However, the ability of alcohol to "kill pain" is said to be inferior to virtually all analgesics used today (e.g. morphine, codeine). As such, the idea of alcohol for analgesia is generally regarded as being a primitive practice in virtually all industrialized countries today. The use of adjuvant analgesics is an important and growing part of the pain-control field and new discoveries are made practically every year. Many of these drugs combat the side effects of opioid analgesics, an added bonus. For example, antihistamines including orphenadrine combat the release of histamine caused by many opioids, methylphenidate, caffeine, ephedrine, dextroamphetamine, and cocaine work against heavy sedation and may elevate mood in distressed patients as do the antidepressants. A well-accepted benefit of THC to chronic pain patients on opioids is its superior anti-nauseant action. Some think it would make more sense to use the synthetic THC capsule (trade name Marinol), which is administered orally. However, in patients suffering from nausea, the swallowing of the capsule itself may provoke vomiting. Likewise, the use of medicinal cannabis remains a debated issue. See also Pain management Patient-controlled analgesia Co-proxamol References External links Bandolier pain site (Oxford pain group) | Analgesic |@lemmatized analgesic:24 also:7 know:1 painkiller:1 member:1 diverse:1 group:2 drug:19 use:19 relieve:2 pain:24 achieve:1 analgesia:5 word:1 derives:1 greek:1 without:1 algos:1 act:4 various:4 way:1 peripheral:1 central:2 nervous:2 system:3 include:3 paracetamol:8 acetaminophen:2 non:3 steroidal:2 anti:3 inflammatory:2 nsaid:10 salicylate:1 narcotic:3 morphine:4 synthetic:3 property:4 tramadol:2 others:1 choose:1 severity:1 response:1 medication:1 determine:2 choice:2 agent:5 ladder:1 originally:1 develop:2 cancer:1 relate:1 widely:1 apply:1 find:3 suitable:1 stepwise:1 manner:2 type:2 neuropathic:4 traditional:2 less:3 effective:4 often:1 benefit:2 class:3 normally:1 consider:1 tricyclic:2 antidepressant:4 anticonvulsant:2 major:1 nsaids:1 exact:2 mechanism:2 action:5 uncertain:1 appear:2 centrally:2 aspirin:3 inhibit:3 cyclooxygenase:2 lead:2 decrease:2 prostaglandin:1 production:2 reduce:2 inflammation:3 contrast:1 opioids:9 side:4 effect:10 regard:2 safe:2 although:3 excessive:1 dos:2 kidney:1 liver:1 damage:1 form:2 nephropathy:1 hepatotoxicity:1 respectively:1 predispose:1 peptic:1 ulcer:1 renal:1 failure:1 allergic:1 reaction:1 occasionally:1 hearing:1 loss:1 increase:3 risk:3 hemorrhage:2 affect:1 platelet:2 function:1 child:1 suffer:2 viral:1 illness:1 may:11 contribute:1 reye:1 syndrome:1 cox:1 inhibitor:2 derive:1 enzyme:4 discover:1 least:1 different:2 version:2 research:1 suggest:1 adverse:1 mediate:2 block:2 constitutive:1 inducible:1 thus:2 general:1 rofecoxib:2 celecoxib:1 equally:1 compare:1 cause:5 gastrointestinal:1 particular:1 however:5 post:1 launch:1 data:1 indicate:1 increased:1 cardiac:1 cerebrovascular:1 event:1 due:3 likelihood:1 clot:2 blood:1 protoglandin:1 around:1 factor:1 release:2 subsequently:1 withdraw:1 market:1 role:1 debate:1 opiate:3 morphinomimetics:1 archetypal:1 opioid:6 substance:2 e:2 g:2 codeine:3 oxycodone:1 hydrocodone:2 diamorphine:1 pethidine:1 exert:2 similar:2 influence:1 cerebral:1 receptor:4 buprenorphine:1 think:2 partial:1 agonist:2 dosing:2 limit:3 toxicity:1 confusion:1 respiratory:1 depression:1 myoclonic:1 jerk:1 pinpoint:1 pupil:1 dose:2 ceiling:2 patient:8 tolerate:1 unpleasant:1 start:1 experience:1 nausea:2 vomiting:1 generally:4 short:1 course:1 antiemetic:1 pruritus:1 itch:1 require:1 switch:1 constipation:1 occur:2 almost:1 laxative:1 lactulose:1 macrogol:1 containing:1 co:3 danthramer:1 typically:1 prescribed:1 appropriately:1 otherwise:1 addiction:1 body:2 become:2 tolerance:3 mean:1 chronic:3 disease:1 come:1 play:1 must:1 remember:1 upper:1 still:1 toxic:1 even:1 high:2 specific:2 especially:2 amitriptyline:1 show:2 improve:1 carbamazepine:1 gabapentin:2 pregabalin:1 similarly:1 unclear:1 treat:2 modest:1 success:1 combination:3 frequently:1 preparation:2 many:6 prescription:1 reliever:1 vasoconstrictor:1 pseudoephedrine:1 sinus:1 related:1 antihistamine:1 allergy:1 sufferer:1 well:2 ibuprofen:2 naproxen:1 concurrently:1 weak:1 mid:1 range:1 level:1 beneficial:1 synergistic:1 combat:3 multiple:1 site:2 case:3 dull:2 perception:1 mild:1 moderate:1 part:2 recommend:2 two:1 prescribe:1 together:1 topical:2 systemic:2 avoid:1 painful:3 joint:2 example:3 diclofenac:1 contain:1 gel:1 capsaicin:1 topically:1 lidocaine:2 anesthetic:1 steroid:1 inject:1 long:1 term:1 relief:1 mouth:1 sore:1 numb:1 area:1 dental:1 work:2 minor:1 medical:1 procedure:1 psychotropic:2 tetrahydrocannabinol:1 thc:3 cannabinoids:1 either:1 cannabis:3 sativa:1 plant:1 derivative:1 illegal:1 country:2 ketamine:1 nmda:3 antagonist:1 clonidine:1 adrenoreceptor:1 mexiletine:1 local:1 anaesthetic:1 analogue:1 atypical:1 adjuvant:2 orphenadrine:2 cyclobenzaprine:1 scopolamine:1 atropine:1 first:1 generation:1 possess:1 anticholinergic:1 antispasmodic:1 along:1 potentiate:1 origin:1 modulate:1 parasympathetic:1 dextromethorphan:1 note:1 slow:1 development:1 additional:1 upon:1 methadone:1 ketobemidone:1 perhaps:1 piritramide:1 intrinsic:1 alcohol:4 liquor:1 past:1 cns:1 depressant:1 ethyl:1 notable:1 american:1 civil:1 war:1 ability:1 kill:1 say:1 inferior:1 virtually:2 today:2 idea:1 primitive:1 practice:1 industrialized:1 important:1 grow:1 control:2 field:1 new:1 discovery:1 make:2 practically:1 every:1 year:1 added:1 bonus:1 antihistamines:1 histamine:1 methylphenidate:1 caffeine:1 ephedrine:1 dextroamphetamine:1 cocaine:1 heavy:1 sedation:1 elevate:1 mood:1 distressed:1 accepted:1 superior:1 nauseant:1 would:1 sense:1 capsule:2 trade:1 name:1 marinol:1 administer:1 orally:1 swallowing:1 provoke:1 vomit:1 likewise:1 medicinal:1 remain:1 debated:1 issue:1 see:1 management:1 proxamol:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 bandolier:1 oxford:1 |@bigram relieve_pain:1 paracetamol_acetaminophen:2 non_steroidal:2 steroidal_anti:2 anti_inflammatory:2 inflammatory_drug:2 narcotic_drug:1 neuropathic_pain:3 tricyclic_antidepressant:2 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6,578 | Boron_nitride | Boron nitride is a binary chemical compound, consisting of equal numbers of boron and nitrogen atoms. Its chemical formula is therefore BN. Boron nitride is isoelectronic with carbon and, like carbon, exists as various polymorphic forms. The hexagonal form corresponds to graphite - it is most stable and soft among BN polymorphs (Mohs hardness ~ 2), and is therefore used a lubricant. The cubic zinc blende variety (c-BN) is analogous to diamond. Its hardness is inferior only to diamond, but its thermal and chemical stability is superior. Contrary, to diamond, larger c-BN pellets can be produced by sintering relatively cheap c-BN powders. As a result, c-BN is widely used in mechanical applications. The rare wurtzite BN modification is similar to lonsdaleite and may even be harder than the cubic form. Because of excellent thermal and chemical stability, sintered boron nitride ceramics are traditionally used as parts of high-temperature equipment. Boron nitride has a great potential in nanotechnology. Nanotubes of BN can be produced having the structure similar to that of carbon nanotubes, i.e. graphene (or BN) sheets rolled on themselves, however the properties are very different: whereas carbon nanotubes can be metallic or semiconducting depending on the rolling direction and radius, BN nanotube is an electrical insulator with a wide bandgap of ~5.5 eV (same as in diamond), which is almost independent of tube chirality and morphology. Similar to other BN forms, BN nanotubes are more thermally and chemically stable than carbon nanotubes which favors them for applications. Structure Several allotropes of boron nitride are known. The most stable is hexagonal form, also called h-BN, α-BN, or g-BN (graphitic BN). It has a layered structure similar to graphite. Within each layer, boron and nitrogen atoms are bound by covalent bonds, whereas the layers are held together by van der Walls bonds. The interlayer "registry" of these sheets differs, however, from the pattern seen for graphite, because the atoms are eclipsed, with boron atoms lying over and above nitrogen atoms. This registry reflects the polarity of the B-N bonds. Still, h-BN and graphite are very close neighbors and even the BC6N hybrids was synthesized where carbon substitutes for some B and N atoms. Similar to diamond, the cubic BN is metastable relatively to the h-BN, but the conversion rate between those forms is negligible at ambient conditions. The cubic form has zinc blende (= sphalerite) crystal structure and is also called α-BN or c-BN. The wurtzite BN form (w-BN) has similar structure as lonsdaleite, rare hexagonal polymorph of carbon. Properties Physical + Comparison of room-temperature properties of BN, graphite and diamond Some properties of h-BN and graphite differ within the basal planes (║) and normal to them (┴)Materialh-BNc-BNw-BNgraphitediamondDensity (g/cm3)~2.13.453.49~2.13.515Mohs hardness1-2~10~101-210Knoop hardness (GPa)4534100Bulk modulus (GPa)36.540040034440Thermal conductivity (W/cm K)6║; 0.3 ┴7.42-20║; 0.02-0.8┴6-20Thermal expansion (10-6/°C) -2.7║; 38┴1.22.7 -1.5║; 25┴0.8Bandgap (eV)5.26.44.5-5.505.5Refractive index1.82.12.052.4Magnetic susceptibility (µemu/g) -0.48║; -17.3┴ -0.2..-2.7║; -20..-28┴ -1.6 The warped structure of BN layers in h-BN results in diminished covalency in BN and therefore in smaller electrical conductivity, whereas the interlayer interaction increases resulting in higher hardness of h-BN relative to graphite. The diminished electron-delocalization in hexagonal-BN is also indicated by its absence of color and a large band gap. Very different bonding - strong covalent within the basal planes and weak between them - results in high anisotropy of most properties of h-BN. For example, the hardness, electrical and thermal conductivity are much higher within the planes than perpendicular to them. On the contrary, the properties of c-BN and w-BN are more homogeneous. Those materials are extremely hard, with the hardness of c-BN being slightly smaller and w-BN even higher than that of diamond. Because of much better stability to heat and metals, c-BN surpasses diamond in mechanical applications. The thermal conductivity of BN is among the highest of all electric insulators (see table). Boron nitride can be doped p-type with Be and n-type with boron, sulfur, silicon or if co-doped with carbon and nitrogen. Both hexagonal and cubic BN are wide-gap semiconductors with a band gap energy corresponding to UV region. Application of voltage to h-BN or c-BN, then they emit deep UV light (215-250 nm) and therefore can potentially be used as light emitting diodes or lasers. Thermal stability + Reactivity of BN with solidsSolidAmbientActionThreshold T (°C)Mo 10−2 Pa vacuumreaction 1360Ni 10−2 Pa vacuumwetting 1360Fe, Ni, Co argon react1400-1500Al 10−2 Pa vacuum wetting and reaction 1050Si10−3 Pa vacuumwetting 1500Cu, Ag, Au, Ga, In, Ge, Sn 10−3 Pa vacuumno wetting1100B no wetting2200Al2O3 + B2O3 10−2 Pa vacuumno reaction 1360 Hexagonal and cubic (and probably w-BN) BN show remarkable chemical and thermal stabilities. For example, h-BN is stable in temperatures up to 1000 °C in air, 1400 °C in vacuum, and 2800 °C in an inert atmosphere. Thermal stability of c-BN can be summarized as follows: In air or oxygen: B2O3 protective layer prevents further oxidation to ~1300 °C; no conversion to hexagonal form at 1400 °C. In nitrogen: some conversion to h-BN at 1525 °C after 12 h. In vacuum (10−5 Pa): conversion to h-BN at 1550 - 1600 °C. Chemical stability Boron nitride is insoluble in usual acids, but is soluble in alkaline molten salts and nitrides, such as LiOH, KOH, NaOH-Na2CO3, NaNO3, Li3N, Mg3N2, Sr3N2, Ba3N2 or Li3BN2, which are therefore used as BN etchants. Synthesis Preparation of hexagonal BN Hexagonal boron nitride is produced by the nitridation or ammonolysis of boron trioxide. Industrial production is based on two reactions: melted boric acid with ammonia, and boric acid or alkaline borates with urea, guanidine, melamin, or other suitable organic nitrogen compounds in nitrogen atmosphere. The synthesis reactions involving ammonia and boric acid are shown below: The alternative is heating: h-BN parts can be made by hot-pressing with subsequent machining; due to the low hardness, the machining cost is low too. The parts are made from boron nitride powders, using boron oxide as a sintering agent. Thin films of boron nitride can be obtained by chemical vapor deposition from boron trichloride and nitrogen precursors. Combustion of boron powder in nitrogen plasma at 5500 °C yields ultrafine boron nitride used for lubricants and toners. Intercalation of hexagonal BN Similar to graphite, hexagonal BN can be intercalated with various species, such as NH3 or alkali metals. Both experiment and theory suggest the intercalation is much more difficult for BN than for graphite. Preparation of cubic BN Synthesis of c-BN synthesis uses same methods as that of diamond: Cubic boron nitride is produced by treating hexagonal boron nitride at high pressure and temperature, much as synthetic diamond is produced from graphite. Direct conversion of hexagonal boron nitride to the cubic form occurs at pressures up to 18 GPa and temperatures between 1730-3230 °C, i.e. similar parameters as for direct graphite-diamond conversion. Addition of small amount of boron oxide can lower the required pressure to 4-7 GPa and temperature to 1500 °C. As in diamond synthesis, to further reduce the conversion pressures and temperatures, a catalyst is added, such as lithium, potassium, or magnesium, their nitrides, their fluoronitrides, water with ammonium compounds, or hydrazine. Other industrial synthesis methods, again borrowed from diamond growth, use crystal growth in temperature gradient, or explosive shock wave. The shock wave method is used to produce material called heterodiamond, a superhard compound of boron, carbon, and nitrogen. Low-pressure deposition of thin films of cubic boron nitride is possible. As in diamond growth, the major problem is to suppress the growth of hexagonal phases (h-BN or graphite, respectively). Whereas in diamond growth this is achieved by adding hydrogen gas, boron trifluoride is used for c-BN. Ion beam deposition, plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition, pulsed laser deposition, reactive sputtering, and other physical vapor deposition methods are used as well. Preparation of wurtzite BN Wurtzite BN can be obtained by static high-pressure or dynamic shock methods. The limits of its stability are not well defined. Both c-BN and w-BN are formed by compressing h-BN, but formation of w-BN occurs at much low temperatures close to 1700 C. Applications Hexagonal BN Sintered BN crucible Hexagonal BN is the most widely used polymorph. It is a good lubricant at both low and high temperatures (up to 900 °C, even in oxidizing atmosphere). h-BN lubricant is particularly useful when the electrical conductivity or chemical reactivity of graphite (alternative lubricant) would be problematic. Another advantage of h-BN over graphite is that its lubricity does not require water or gas molecules trapped between the layers. Therefore, h-BN lubricants can be used even in vacuum, e.g. in space applications. Fine-grained h-BN is used in some cosmetics, paints, dental cements, and pencil leads. Because of excellent thermal and chemical stability, sintered boron nitride ceramics are traditionally used as parts of high-temperature equipment. h-BN can be included in ceramics, alloys, resins, plastics, rubbers and other materials, giving them self-lubricating properties. Such materials are suitable for construction of e.g. bearings. Plastics filled with BN have smaller thermal expansion, higher thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity. Due to its excellent dielectric and thermal properties, BN is used in electronics e.g. as a substrate for semiconductors, microwave-transparent windows, structural material for seals. Hexagonal BN is used in xerographic process and laser printers as a charge leakage barrier layer of the photo drum. Boron nitride reacts with iodine fluoride in trichlorofluoromethane at -30 °C to produce an extremely sensitive contact explosive NI3 in low yield. Cubic boron nitride Cubic boron nitride is widely used as an abrasive. Its usefulness arises from insolubility in iron, nickel, and related alloys at high temperatures, whereas diamond is soluble in these metals to give carbides. Polycrystalline c-BN abrasives are therefore used for machining steel, whereas diamond abrasives are preferred for aluminum alloys, ceramics, and stone. In contact with oxygen at high temperatures, BN forms a passivation layer of boron oxide. Boron nitride binds well with metals, due to formation of interlayers of metal borides or nitrides. Materials with cubic boron nitride crystals are often used in the tool bits of cutting tools. For grinding applications, softer binders, e.g. resin, porous ceramics, and soft metals, are used. Ceramic binders can be used as well. Commercial products are known under names "Borazon" (by Diamond Innovations), and "Elbor" or "Cubonite" (by Russian vendors). Similar to diamond, the combination in c-BN of highest thermal conductivity and electrical resistivity is ideal for heat spreaders. Contrary to diamond, large c-BN pellets can be produced by sintering that makes c-BN much cheaper. As cubic boron nitride consists of light atoms and is very robust chemically and mechanically, it is one of the popular materials for X-ray membranes: low mass results in small X-ray absorption, and good mechanical properties allow usage of thin membranes, thus further reducing the absorption. Other BN forms Boron nitride fibers Hexagonal BN can be prepared in the form of fibers, structurally similar to carbon fibers, by thermal decomposition of extruded borazine (B3N3H6) fibers with addition of boron oxide in nitrogen atmosphere at 1800 °C. An alternative method is thermal decomposition of cellulose fibers impregnated with boric acid or ammonium tetraborate in an atmosphere of ammonia and nitrogen above 1000 °C. Boron nitride fibers are used as reinforcement in composite materials, with the matrix materials ranging from organic resins to ceramics to metals (see Metal matrix composites). Boron nitride nanotubes Boron nitride nanotube can be imagined as a rolled on itself graphite-like sheet, where carbon atoms are alternately substituted by nitrogen and boron atoms. Structurally, it is a close analog of the carbon nanotube, but the properties are very different: whereas carbon nanotubes can be metallic or semiconducting depending on the rolling direction and radius, BN nanotube is an electrical insulator with a bandgap of ~5.5 eV, basically independent of tube chirality and morphology. In addition, a layered BN structure is much more thermally and chemically stable than a graphitic carbon structure. All reliable and well-established techniques of carbon nanotube growth, e.g., arc-discharge, laser ablation, and chemical vapor deposition, do not effectively work for BN nanotubes. However, the latter can be produced by ball milling of amorphous boron, mixed with a catalyst - iron powder, under NH3 atmosphere. Subsequent annealing at ~1100 °C in nitrogen flow transforms most of the product into BN nanotubes. Electrical and field emission properties of the thus prepared nanotubes can be tuned by doping with gold atoms via sputtering of gold on the nanotubes. Doping rare-earth atoms of europium turns BN nanotube into a phosphor material emitting visible light under electron excitation. Like BN fibers, boron nitride nanotubes show promise for aerospace applications where integration of boron and in particular the light isotope of boron (10B) into structural materials improves their radiation-shielding properties, due to 10B's neutron absorption properties. Such 10BN materials are of particular theoretical value as composite structural material in future manned interplanetary spacecraft, where absorption-shielding from cosmic ray spallation neutrons is expected to be a particular asset in light construction materials. Boron nitride nanomesh Perspective view of nanomesh (structure ends at the back of the figure) BN nanomesh observed by STM. The center of each ring corresponds to the center of the pores Boron nitride nanomesh is a new inorganic nanostructured two-dimensional material. It consists of a single BN layer, which forms by self-assembly a highly regular mesh after high-temperature exposure of a clean rhodium or ruthenium surface to borazine under ultra-high vacuum. The nanomesh looks like an assembly of hexagonal pores. The distance between 2 pore centers is 3.2 nm and the pore diameter is ~2 nm. The boron nitride nanomesh is not only stable under vacuum, air and some liquids , but also up to temperatures of 800 °C. In addition, it shows the extraordinary ability to trap molecules and metallic clusters, which have similar sizes to the nanomesh pores, forming a well-ordered array. These characteristics promise interesting applications of the nanomesh in areas like nanocatalysis, surface functionalisation, spintronics, quantum computing and data storage media like hard drives. Amorphous boron nitride Layers of amorphous boron nitride (a-BN) are used in some semiconductor devices, e. g. MISFETs. They can be prepared by chemical decomposition of trichloroborazine with cesium, or by thermal chemical vapor deposition methods. Thermal CVD can be also used for deposition of h-BN layers, or at high temperatures, c-BN. Composites containing BN Addition of boron nitride to silicon nitride ceramics improves the thermal shock resistance of the resulting material. For the same purpose, BN is added also to silicon nitride-alumina and titanium nitride-alumina ceramics. Other materials being reinforced with BN are, e.g., alumina and zirconia, borosilicate glasses, glass ceramics, enamels, and composite ceramics with titanium boride-boron nitride and titanium boride-aluminium nitride-boron nitride and silicon carbide-boron nitride composition. Health issues Boron nitride (along with Si3N4, NbN, and BNC) is reported to show weak fibrigenic activity and cause pneumoconiosis. Maximum concentration recommended for nitrides of nonmetals is 10 mg/m3 for BN and 4 for AlN or ZrN. See also Beta carbon nitride Borazon Boron phosphide Boron suboxide Aluminium nitride Wide bandgap semiconductors superhard materials References External links Synthesis and functionalization of BN nanotubes National Pollutant Inventory: Boron and Compounds Fiz Chemie Berlin thermophysical database Materials Safety Data Sheet at University of Oxford Boron Nitride Nanomesh as a scaffold for Nanocatalysts and Functional Surfaces | Boron_nitride |@lemmatized boron:58 nitride:48 binary:1 chemical:13 compound:5 consist:3 equal:1 number:1 nitrogen:14 atom:11 formula:1 therefore:7 bn:97 isoelectronic:1 carbon:16 like:6 exist:1 various:2 polymorphic:1 form:16 hexagonal:19 corresponds:2 graphite:15 stable:6 soft:3 among:2 polymorph:3 mohs:1 hardness:7 use:26 lubricant:6 cubic:14 zinc:2 blende:2 variety:1 c:37 analogous:1 diamond:20 inferior:1 thermal:17 stability:9 superior:1 contrary:3 large:3 pellet:2 produce:9 sinter:5 relatively:2 cheap:2 powder:4 result:6 widely:3 mechanical:3 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6,579 | Bob_Costas | Robert Quinlan "Bob" Costas (born March 22, 1952) is an American sportscaster, on the air for the NBC network since the early 1980s. Early life Bob Costas was born in Queens , New York. He is the son of Jayne (née Quinlan) of Irish American descent and John George Costas of Greek American descent, who was an electrical engineer. Bob Costas Biography (1952-) He grew up in Commack, New York, graduating from Commack High School South. Following high school, he attended the S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University, though he left school before graduating to begin his professional career as a commentator. Broadcasting career Early career His sportscasting career started while attending Syracuse University, as an announcer for the Syracuse Blazers minor-league hockey team. Costas' career as a professional began as play-by-play announcer for the Spirits of St. Louis of the American Basketball Association, followed by a stint with the Spirits' station, KMOX radio in St. Louis. Costas was a prominent contributor to the ABA book Loose Balls: The Short, Wild Life of the American Basketball Association. He is extensively quoted on many topics, and the book includes his reflections of ABA life during his tenure as radio voice of the Spirits of St. Louis. Costas later did play-by-play for Chicago Bulls broadcasts on WGN-TV during the 1979-1980 season. fuzzymemories.tv fuzzymemories.tv He was briefly employed by the CBS network prior to joining NBC Sports in 1980. NBC Sports When Costas was first hired by NBC, Don Ohlmeyer, who at the time ran NBC Sports, told the then 28-year-old Costas that he looked like a 14-year-old. Ohlmeyer presumably based his reaction on Costas' modest stature (Costas is 5' 7" (1.70 m) in height) and boyish, babyfaced appearance (Costas' appearance has, at times, been compared to actor Mark Hamill's). After Boston Red Sox pitcher Curt Schilling made disparaging remarks about Barry Bonds (concerning Bonds' alleged steroid use) in a 2007 HBO interview with Costas Associated Press, Schilling: Bonds and McGwire lack of denials tantamount to admissions. USA Today, July 2, 2007. , Bonds immediately responded by dismissing Schilling's comments and calling Costas a "midget" who "knows absolutely jack shit about baseball". He has been an in-studio host of National Football League coverage and play-by-play man for the NBA and for Major League Baseball. Costas has teamed with Isiah Thomas and Doug Collins for basketball telecasts (from 1997-2000) and Tony Kubek (from 1983-1989), Joe Morgan and Bob Uecker (from 1994-2000) for baseball telecasts. Before becoming the studio host for The NFL on NBC in 1984, Costas did play-by-play with analyst Bob Trumpy for NFL games. In 2009, Costas hosted the World Figure Skating Championships for NBC Sports. He has also been as co-host on the big horse racing events for NBC Sports since 1997. Costas filled in for Tom Hammond at the hosting desk during the 2002 Breeders' Cup when Hammond had to undergo open-heart surgery. In 2009, he hosted Bravo's coverage of the 2009 Kentucky Oaks. Olympics Costas has frontlined many Olympics broadcasts for NBC. They include the Olympics in Barcelona in 1992, Atlanta in 1996, Sydney in 2000, Salt Lake City in 2002, Athens in 2004, Turin in 2006, and Beijing in 2008. He discusses his work on the Olympic telecasts extensively in a book by Andrew Billings entitled Olympic Media: Inside the Biggest Show on Television. A personal influence on Costas has been legendary ABC Sports broadcaster Jim McKay, who hosted many Olympics for ABC from the 1960s to the 1980s. During the 1992 Barcelona and 1996 Atlanta Opening Ceremonies, Costas' remarks on the China Team's possible drug use caused an uproar among the American Chinese and international communities. Thousands of dollars were raised to purchase ads in the Washington Post and Sunday New York Times, featuring an image of the head of a statue of Apollo and read: "Costas Poisoned Olympic Spirit, Public Protests NBC." However, Costas' comments were made subsequent to the suspension of Chinese coach Zhou Ming after seven of his swimmers were caught using steroids in 1994. Further evidence of Chinese athletes' drug use came in 1997 when Australian authorities confiscated 13 vials of Somatropin, a human growth hormone, from the bag of Chinese swimmer Yuan Yuan upon her arrival for the 1997 World Swimming Championships. At the World Championships, four Chinese swimmers tested positive for the banned substance Triamterene, a diuretic used to dilute urine samples in order to mask the presence of anabolic steroids. Including these failed drug tests, 27 Chinese swimmers were caught using performance enhancing drugs from 1990 through 1997; more than the rest of the world combined.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://articles.latimes.com/1998/jan/18/sports/sp-9735 | title=Latest Drug Scandal Has China Critics Seeing Red | author=Mike Penner | date=1998-01-18}}</ref> Major League Baseball One of Bob Costas' most memorable broadcasts occurred on June 23, 1984 (in what would go down in baseball lore as The Sandberg Game). Costas along with Tony Kubek, were calling the Saturday baseball Game of the Week from Chicago's Wrigley Field. The game between the Chicago Cubs and St. Louis Cardinals in particular was cited for putting Ryne Sandberg (as well as the 1984 Cubs in general, who would go on to make their first postseason appearance since 1945) "on the map." In the ninth inning, the Cubs trailed 9-8, and faced the premier relief pitcher of the time, Bruce Sutter. Sandberg, then not known for his power, slugged a home run to left field against the Cardinals' ace closer. Despite this dramatic act, the Cardinals scored two runs in the top of the tenth. Sandberg came up again in the tenth inning, facing a determined Sutter with one man on base. Sandberg then shocked the national audience by hitting a second home run, even further into the left field bleachers, to tie the game again. The Cubs went on to win in the 11th inning. Costas said when Sandberg hit that second home run, "Do you believe it?!" While broadcasting Game 4 of the 1988 World Series between the Los Angeles Dodgers and Oakland Athletics on NBC, Costas angered many members of the Dodgers (especially the team's manager, Tommy Lasorda) by commenting that the team quite possibly had the weakest-hitting lineup in World Series history. Later (while being interviewed by NBC's Marv Albert), after the Dodgers had won Game 4 (en route to a 4–1 series victory), Lasorda sarcastically suggested that the MVP of the 1988 World Series should be Bob Costas. Besides calling the 1989 American League Championship Series for NBC, Costas also filled-in for a suddenly ill Vin Scully (who had come down with laryngitis.) for Game 2 of the 1989 National League Championship Series. Game 2 of the NLCS occurred on Thursday, October 5, which was an off day for the ALCS. NBC then decided to fly Costas from Toronto to Chicago to substitute for Scully on Thursday night. Afterwards, Costas flew back to Toronto, where he resumed work on the ALCS the next night. Bob Costas anchored NBC's pre and post-game for NFL broadcasts and the pre and post-game shows for numerous World Series and Major League Baseball All-Star Games during the 1980s (the first being for the 1982 World Series). Costas didn't get a shot at doing play-by-play (as the games on NBC were previously called by Vin Scully) for an All-Star Game until 1994 and a World Series until 1995 (when NBC split the coverage with ABC under "The Baseball Network" umbrella). It wasn't until 1997 when Costas finally got the chance to do play-by-play for a World Series from start to finish. Costas ended up winning a Sports Emmy Award for Outstanding Sports Personality, Play-by-Play. In 1999, Costas teamed with his then-NBC colleague, Joe Morgan to call two weekday night telecasts for ESPN. The first was on Wednesday, August 25 with Detroit Tigers playing against the Seattle Mariners. The second was on Tuesday, September 21 with the Atlanta Braves playing against the New York Mets. National Basketball Association When NBC gained the NBA network contract from CBS in 1990, Costas hosted the telecasts and was teamed in the studio with ex-Lakers coach Pat Riley. He also hosted the studio program Showtime and did play-by-play for the 1991 All-Star Game. In 1997, Costas began a three year stint as the lead play-by-play man for The NBA on NBC. NBC enlisted Costas' services after they were forced to (temporarily) remove Marv Albert from their broadcasts due to lingering personal and legal problems at the time. Costas stepped aside following the 2000 NBA Finals, in favor of a returning Marv Albert. While this, in essence, ended his active role on the NBA on NBC program (by this point, Hannah Storm and briefly Ahmad Rashad had replaced Costas on studio anchoring duties), Costas would return to do play-by-play for selected playoff games. Costas also anchored NBC's NBA Finals coverage in 2002, which was their last to date as Hannah Storm also anchored it with Costas. Costas is a critic of the raunchier side of pro wrestling. He condemned Karl Malone during a live NBA broadcast for participating periodically in WCW matches. National Football League In 2006, Costas returned to studio hosting duties on The NFL on NBC (under the Football Night in America banner), which was returning after a near ten year hiatus. Costas last hosted NFL telecasts for NBC in 1992. Costas is nicknamed "Rapping Roberto" by New York Daily News sports media columnist Bob Raissman. Al Michaels also called him "Rapping Roberto" during the telecast between the Indianapolis Colts and the New York Giants on September 10, 2006, in response to Costas calling him "Alfalfa." National Hockey League Costas hosted NBC's coverage of the 2008 and 2009 NHL Winter Classics. NHL.com - 2008 NHL Winter Classic Talk show hosting Costas also hosted the syndicated radio program Costas Coast to Coast, 1986-1996, which has recently been revived as Costas on the Radio. Like Later, Costas' radio shows have focused on a wide variety of topics, and have not been limited to sports discussion. Bob's current radio show, Costas on the Radio, airs on 200 stations nationwide each weekend and syndicated by the Clear Channel owned Premiere Radio Networks. Costas hosted Later with Bob Costas on NBC, 1988-1994. This show was something of a break from the typical TV talk show format of the era, featuring Costas and a single guest having a conversation for the entire half hour, without a band, opening monologue or studio audience. On several occasions, Costas held the guest over for multiple nights, and these in-depth discussions won Costas much praise for his interviewing skills. In June 2005, Costas was named by CNN president, Jonathan Klein, as a regular substitute anchor for Larry King's Larry King Live for one year. Costas, as well as Klein, have said that Costas was not trying out for King's position on a permanent basis. Nancy Grace was also named a regular substitute host for the show. On August 18, 2005, Costas refused to host a Larry King Live broadcast where the subject was missing teen Natalee Holloway. Costas said he had no hard feelings about the subject, but that he was uncomfortable with it. HBO Sports In 2001, Costas was hired by HBO to host a 12 week series called On the Record with Bob Costas. IMDb > "On the Record with Bob Costas" (2001) On the Record with Bob Costas was similar to the format of the old Later program as they both concentrated on in-depth celebrity interviews. In 2002, Costas began a stint as co-host of HBO's long running series Inside the NFL. Costas remained host of Inside the NFL through the end of the 2007 NFL season. He hosted the show with Cris Collinsworth and former NFL legends Dan Marino and Cris Carter. The program aired each week during the NFL season. In 2005, On the Record with Bob Costas was revamped to become Costas Now, a monthly show that would focus more on sports and air year-round in a 9 p.m. ET/PT time slot. Costas Now was more akin to HBO's Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel. Costas left HBO to sign with MLB Network in February 2009. MLB Network Costas agreed to become a contributor to MLB Network. At the channel's launch on January 1, 2009, he hosted the premiere episode of All Time Games, a presentation of the recently-discovered kinescope of Game 5 of the 1956 World Series. During the episode, he held a forum with Don Larsen, who pitched MLB's only postseason perfect game during that game, and Yogi Berra, who caught the game. Costas joined the network full-time on February 3, 2009. He will host a regular interview show titled MLB Network Studio 42 with Bob Costas as well as special programming, and provide play-by-play for select live regular-season games. Bob Costas Joins MLB Network Interests Love of baseball Costas is a devoted baseball fan (he's been suggested as a potential commissioner) and wrote the best-selling Fair Ball: A Fan's Case for Baseball in 2000. For his 40th birthday, then Oakland Athletics manager Tony La Russa allowed Costas to manage the club during a spring training game. The first time Costas visited baseball legend Stan Musial's St. Louis eatery, he left a $3.31 tip in homage to Musical's lifetime batting average (.331). Costas delivered the eulogy at Mickey Mantle's funeral. In eulogizing Mantle, Costas described the baseball legend as "a fragile hero to whom we had an emotional attachment so strong and lasting that it defied logic." Costas has even carried a 1958 Mickey Mantle baseball card in his wallet. Costas has been fairly outspoken about his disdain for Major League Baseball instituting a wild card. Costas believes that it diminishes the significance of winning a divisional championship. He prefers a system in which winning the wild card puts a team at some sort of disadvantage, as opposed to on an equal level with teams by which they were outplayed over a 162 game season. Or, as explained in his book Fair Ball, have only the three division winners in each league go to the postseason, with the team with the best record receiving a bye into the League Championship Series. Once, on the air on HBO's Inside the NFL, he mentioned that the NFL regular season counted for something, but baseball's was beginning to lose significance. Political views Costas declared on June 27, 2007, that the presidency of George W. Bush had "tragically failed." I think it is now overwhelmingly evident, if you're honest about it, even if you're a conservative Republican, if you're honest about it, this is a failed administration. And no honest conservative would say that George W. Bush was among the 100 most qualified people to be President of the United States. That's not based on political leaning. If a liberal, and I tend to be liberal, disagrees with a conservative, they can still respect that person's competence and the integrity of their point of view. Bob Costas: 'Inescapable Fact' That Bush Presidency 'A Tragically Failed Administration'|NewsBusters.org The following summer, Costas would interview Bush, as he made an appearance during the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing (pictured above). Personal life Costas was married from 1983 to 2001 to Carole "Randy" Randall Krumenacher. They had two children, son Keith (born 1986) and daughter Taylor (born 1989). Costas once jokingly promised Minnesota Twins center fielder Kirby Puckett that if he was batting over .350 by the time his child was born he would name the baby Kirby. Kirby was hitting better than .350, but Bob's son was not given a first (or second) name of Kirby. His son was given the name of Keith Michael Kirby Costas. On March 12, 2004, Costas married his second wife, Jill Sutton. Awards and honors Bob Costas has won multiple National Sportcaster of the Year awards (from the National Sportcaster and Sportswriter Association) and nearly 20 Emmy Awards for outstanding sports announcing. In 1999, Costas was a recipient of the Curt Gowdy Award, which is awarded to members of the electronic and print media for outstanding contributions to baseball. He is also an honorary board member of the Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation He was selected as the Dick Schaap Award for Outstanding Journalism recipient in 2004. In 2006, Costas was also awarded an honorary doctorate in humane letters from Loyola College in Maryland. On April 19, 2007, while at the Iowa Cubs vs. Albuquerque Isotopes Pacific Coast League baseball game, Costas was made an honorary member of the Iowa Cubs Video Production Team during a brief induction ceremony in the Principal Park pressbox. He is a Honorary Trustee of Webster University, a private college located in the St. Louis suburb of Webster Groves. He is a frequent supporter of the school, to include numerous radio commercials In popular culture Costas appeared on the The War to Settle the Score, a pre-WrestleMania program that The WWF aired on MTV. Apart from his normal sportscasting duties, Costas has also presented periodic sports blooper reels, and announced dogsled and elevator races, on Late Night with David Letterman. Costas once appeared on the television program,NewsRadio, as himself. He hosted an award show and later had some humorous encounters with the crew of WNYX. Costas also once appeared as a guest on the faux talkshow cartoon Space Ghost Coast to Coast. Bob Costas has been impersonated several times by Darrell Hammond on Saturday Night Live. Darrell Hammond impersonation on Bob Costas Costas appeared as himself along with his rival/counterpart Al Michaels (who now works for NBC) from ABC in the movie BASEketball. Costas also appeared as himself in the movie Pootie Tang where he remarks that he saw "the longest damn clip ever". In a supposed effort to fulfill a deal he made on The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn, as coverage of a game resumed he sipped a glass of pink lemonade and said "Ah, that's restaurant quality lemonade."Costas was "name checked" in a Ludacris song after he had mentioned being a fan on the late night talk show Last Call with Carson Daly. On September 11, 2001 (the day of the terrorist attacks), Costas was in New York City for an appearance on NBC's Today Show to discuss with Katie Couric basketball legend Michael Jordan's return to the NBA. The interview started off at approximately 7:03 a.m. Eastern Time. In 2002, Costas was the keynote speaker for the opening ceremonies of the 25th Empire State Games held in Syracuse, New York. In 2002, Bob was the play-by-play announcer, alongside ESPN's Harold Reynolds, for Triple Play 2002 during the ballgame for PlayStation 2 and Xbox. In 2006, Costas voiced the animated character Bob Cutlass, a race announcer, in the movie Cars. On October 18, 2007, Costas appeared along with former Baseball Commissioner, Fay Vincent at Williams College for "A Conversation About Sports" moderated by Will Dudley, Associate Professor of Philosophy. On June 13, 2008, Costas appeared the MSNBC's commercial-free special coverage of Remembering Tim Russert (1950~2008), as a colleague of the host (of that broadcast), Keith Olbermann. He paid tribute to Russert as a person who loved sports and athletes, mentioning Russert's love of Yogi Berra. Costas: Russert understood competition Career timeline 1974-1976: Spirits of St. Louis play by play, KMOX radio 1979-1980: Chicago Bulls play by play, WGN-TV 1983–1989: MLB on NBC #2 play by play 1984–1992, 2006-present: NFL on NBC Studio Host HBO: Costas Now 1988–1994: Later Host 1992–present: Summer Olympics Primetime Host 1994–2000: MLB on NBC Lead play by play 1997–1999: NBA on NBC Lead play by play 2001–2009: On the Record with Bob Costas and Costas Now Host 2002–present: Winter Olympics Primetime Host 2002–2008: Inside the NFL'' Host 2008: AMP Energy NHL Winter Classic Host References Links | Bob_Costas |@lemmatized robert:1 quinlan:2 bob:25 costa:112 bear:3 march:2 american:7 sportscaster:1 air:6 nbc:33 network:11 since:3 early:3 life:4 queen:1 new:8 york:8 son:4 jayne:1 née:1 irish:1 descent:2 john:1 george:3 greek:1 electrical:1 engineer:1 biography:1 grow:1 commack:2 graduate:2 high:2 school:5 south:1 follow:3 attend:2 newhouse:1 public:2 communication:1 syracuse:4 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6,580 | Hermann_Ebbinghaus | Hermann Ebbinghaus (January 24, 1850 — February 26, 1909) was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve. Wozniak, R. H. (1999). Introduction to memory: Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885/1913). Classics in the history of psychology He was the father of the eminent Neo-Kantian philosopher Julius Ebbinghaus. Early life Ebbinghaus was born to Lutheran merchants in Barmen, a German town later incorporated into the city of Wuppertal. At age 17, he entered the University of Bonn, where he was first drawn to the study of philosophy. His studies were interrupted in 1870 by the Franco-Prussian War, in which he served with the Prussian army. Prior to the War, he had also briefly attended the universities of Berlin and Halle, but then had returned to the University of Bonn, where he completed his dissertation on Eduard von Hartmann’s Philosophy of the Unconscious. He received his doctorate in 1873 at the age of twenty-three. Professional career After acquiring his PhD, Ebbinghaus moved to Berlin, where he spent several years before leaving to travel in France and England for the next three years. In England, he may have taught in two small schools in the South of the country (Gorfein, 1985). In London, in a used bookstore, he came across Gustav Fechner's book Elements of Psychophysics which arguably spurred him to conduct his famous memory experiments. He began his work in 1879, but he may have performed his first set of experiments on several students from the English schools he had taught at. In 1885, the year he published his monumental work Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology he was accepted as a professor at the university of Berlin. In Berlin, he founded the Psychological journal Zeitschrift für Physiologie und Psychologie der Sinnesorgane (The Psychology and Physiology of the Sense Organs). He also founded two psychological laboratories in Germany. His very sparse contributions to academic writing eventually cost him the seat of head of philosophy department at the university of Berlin, which ended up going to Carl Stumpf. Nevertheless, he was described as an excellent teacher and eloquent speaker. Eventually, he had begun to drift away from his colleagues, and left to join the University of Breslau (now Wroclaw, Poland) in 1894. While in Breslau, he published a successful elementary textbook of psychology in 1908, and had also begun working on his next piece of writing Die Grundzuge der Psychologie (Fundamentals of Psychology). Before completing his third work, Ebbinghaus had died of pneumonia in 1909 at the age of 59. At a conference later that year, prominent American psychologist Edward B. Titchener called Ebbinghaus’s death a great loss to psychology. Pioneering research on memory In his work on memory, Ebbinghaus was determined to show that higher mental processes are not hidden from view, but instead could be studied using experimentation. In order to simplify the procedure, Ebbinghaus wanted to use simple acoustic encoding and maintenance rehearsal for which a list of words could have been used. However, Ebbinghaus knew that prior knowledge affected learning, and people’s understanding of the words, and the easily formable associations between them would interfere with his results. He thus had to look for something that could be easily memorized but without any previous cognitive “baggage” attached. For these purposes he used something that would later be called “nonsense syllables”. A nonsense syllable is a consonant-vowel-consonant combination, where the consonant does not repeat, and the syllable does not have any prior meaning. BOL (sounds like ‘Ball’) and DOT (already a word) would then not be allowed, but syllables like DAX, BOK, and YAT would all be acceptable. After creating the possible combinations and eliminating the meaning-laden ones, Ebbinghaus wound up with 2,300 resultant syllables. Nevertheless, it has also been suggested that we may impose meaning on nonsense syllables to make them more meaningful, which would make nonsense syllable PED (which is the first three letters of the word ‘pedal’) less nonsense than a syllable like KOJ. It appears that Ebbinghaus recognized this, and only referred to the strings of syllables as “nonsense” regarding the syllables as possibly having meaning. Once he had his syllables, he would pull out a number of random syllables from a box and then write them down in a notebook. Then, to the regular sound of a metronome, and with the same voice inflection, he would read out the syllables, and attempt to recall them at the end of the procedure. It is important to note that Ebbinghaus used himself as the only subject, attempting to regulate his daily routine in order to maintain more control over his results. He may have kept himself as the sole subject not out of convenience or ignorance but rather, because he did not want to subject anyone else to the tedious experiments. One investigation alone required 15,000 recitations. Contributions to memory In 1885, he published his groundbreaking Über das Gedächtnis ("On Memory", later translated to English as Memory. A Contribution to Experimental Psychology) in which he described experiments he conducted on himself to describe the processes of learning and forgetting. Ebbinghaus made several findings that are still relevant and supported to this day. Firstly, his arguably most famous finding – the forgetting curve. The forgetting curve describes the exponential curve that illustrates how fast we tend to forget the information we had learned. The sharpest decline is in the first twenty minutes, then in the first hour, and then the curve evens off after about one day.A typical representation of the forgetting curve The learning curve, which was described by Ebbinghaus, refers to how fast we learn information. The sharpest increase occurs after the first try, and gradually evens out, meaning that less and less new information is retained after each repetition. Like the forgetting curve, the learning curve is also exponential. Ebbinghaus had also documented the serial position effect, which describes how the position of an item in the list affects the likelihood of said item being recalled. The two main concepts in the serial position curve are the recency and primacy effects. The recency effect refers to the fact that we remember the most recent information better because it is still stored in short-term memory. The primacy effect is remembering the first items in a list better due to increased rehearsal and commitment to long-term memory. The other important discovery is that of savings. Savings refers to the amount of information retained in the subconscious even after this information had been completely forgotten (cannot be consciously accessed). To test this, Ebbinghaus would memorize a list of items until perfect recall and then would not access the list until he could no longer recall any of its items. He then would relearn the list, and compare the new learning curve to the learning curve of his previous memorization of the list. The second list was generally memorized faster, and this difference between the two learning curves is what Ebbinghaus called “savings”. Ebbinghaus also described the difference between involuntary and voluntary memory, the former occurring “with apparent spontaneity and without any act of the will” and the latter being brought “into consciousness by an exertion of the will”. The bulk of the work on memory prior to Ebbinghaus’s contributions centered primarily on observational description and speculation, with most of this work undertaken by philosophers. For example, Immanuel Kant used pure description to discuss recognition and its components and Sir Francis Bacon claimed that the simple observation of the rote recollection of a previously learned list was “no use to the art” of memory. This dichotomy between descriptive and experimental study of memory would resonate later in Ebbinghaus’s life, particularly in his public argument with former colleague, Wilhelm Dilthey. Ebbinghaus’s effect on memory research had been almost immediate. With very few works published on memory in the previous two millennia, Ebbinghaus’s work on memory spurred memory research in the United States in the 1890’s, with 32 papers published in 1894 alone. This research was also coupled with the growing development of mechanized mnemometers – various devices that aided in the recording and studying of memory, which illustrates the progress that was launched from Ebbinghaus’s work. The reaction to his work in his day was mostly positive. Noted psychologist William James called the studies “heroic” and said that they were “the single most brilliant investigation in the history of psychology”. Edward B. Titchener also mentioned that the studies were the greatest undertaking in the topic of memory since Aristotle. Although Ebbinghaus is generally considered the one who popularized experiments in psychology it is important to note that he was not the first one to conduct experiments in psychology. Johann Andreas Segner, more than a century before, had invented the “Segner-wheel” to see the length of after-images by seeing how fast a wheel with a hot coal attached would have to move in order for the red ember circle from the coal to be complete. (see iconic memory) Other contributions Ebbinghaus can also be credited with pioneering sentence completion exercises, which he developed in studying the abilities of schoolchildren. It were these same exercises that Alfred Binet had borrowed and incorporated into the Binet-Simon intelligence scale. Sentence completion had since then also been used extensively in memory research, especially in tapping into measures of implicit memory, and also has been used in psychotherapy as a tool to help tap into the motivations and drives of the patient. He had also influenced Charlotte Buhler, who along with Lev Vygotsky and others went on to study language meaning and society. The Ebbinghaus Illusion. Note that the orange circles appear to be of different size, even though they are equalEbbinghaus is also credited with discovering an optical illusion that is now known after its discoverer – the Ebbinghaus illusion, which is an illusion of relative size perception. In the best-known version of the illusion, two circles of identical size are placed near to each other and one is surrounded by large circles while the other is surrounded by small circles; the first central circle then appears smaller than the second central circle. This illusion is now used extensively in research in cognitive psychology, to find out more about the various perception pathways in our brain. Ebbinghaus is also largely credited with drafting the first standard research report. In his paper on memory, Ebbinghaus arranged his research into four sections: the introduction, the methods, the results, and a discussion section. This clarity and organization of this format was so impressive to contemporaries that it has now become standard in the discipline and all research reports follow the same standards laid out by Ebbinghaus. Unlike notable contemporaries like Titchener and James, Ebbinghaus did not promote any specific school of psychology nor was he known for extensive lifetime research, having only done three works. He had never attempted to bestow upon himself the title of the pioneer of experimental psychology, did not seek to have any “disciples”, and left the exploitation of the new field to others. Discourse on the nature of psychology In addition to pioneering experimental psychology, Ebbinghaus was also a strong defender of this direction of the new science, as is illustrated by his public dispute with University of Berlin colleague, Wilhelm Dilthey. Shortly after Ebbinghaus left Berlin in 1893, Dilthey published a paper extolling the virtues of descriptive psychology, and condemning experimental psychology as boring, claiming that the mind was too complex, and that introspection was the desired method of studying the mind. The debate at the time had been primarily whether psychology should aim to explain or understand the mind and whether it belonged to the natural or human sciences. Many had seen Dilthey’s work as an outright attack on experimental psychology, Ebbinghaus included, and he responded to Dilthey with a personal letter and also a long scathing public article. Amongst his counterarguments against Dilthey he mentioned that it is inevitable for psychology to do hypothetical work and that the kind of psychology that Dilthey was attacking was the one that existed before Ebbinghaus’s “experimental revolution”. Charlotte Buhler echoed his words some forty years later, stating that people like Ebbinghaus "buried the old psychology in the 1890’s". Ebbinghaus explained his scathing review by saying that he could not believe that Dilthey was advocating the status quo of structuralists like Wilhelm Wundt and Titchener and attempting to stifle psychology’s progress. Some contemporary texts still describe Ebbinghaus as a philosopher rather than a psychologist and he had also spent his life as a professor of philosophy. However, Ebbinghaus himself would probably describe himself as a psychologist considering that he fought to have psychology viewed as a separate discipline from philosophy. Influences There has been some speculation as to what had influenced Ebbinghaus in his undertakings. There do not appear to be any professors that had rubbed off on him, nor are there suggestions that he was affected by his colleagues. Von Hartmann’s work, that Ebbinghaus did his doctorate on, did suggest that higher mental processes were hidden from view, which probably spurred Ebbinghaus to attempt to prove otherwise. The one influence that has always been cited as inspiring Ebbinghaus was the second-hand Fechner book that he had picked up in England. It is said that the meticulous mathematical procedures impressed Ebbinghaus so much, that he wanted to do for psychology what Fechner had done for psychophysics. This inspiration is also evident in that Ebbinghaus dedicated his second work Fundamentals of Psychology to Fechner, signing it “I owe everything to you”. There has also been speculation surrounding the question of how much Ebbinghaus’s love of poetry also influenced the direction of his work. One of the studies Ebbinghaus performed looked at how memorizing his string of nonsense syllables compared to memorizing a passage from Don Juan, suggesting that perhaps his own attempts to memorize poetry inspired him to study memory in general. References External links Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology Introduction to Memory. by Robert H. 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6,581 | Book_of_Mosiah | The Book of Mosiah is one of the books which make up the Book of Mormon. The title refers to Mosiah II, a king of the Nephites at Zarahemla. The book covers the time period between ca 130 BC and 91 BC, except for when the book has a flashback into the Record of Zeniff, which starts at ca 200 BC, according to footnotes. Narrative King Benjamin Speaks and Appoints an Heir The Book of Mosiah opens with the Nephites (the descendants of Nephite people and the people of Zarahemla who merged together and are now called the Nephites) living in peace under the rule of righteous King Benjamin in the land of Zarahemla. King Benjamin, who is getting old, decides to bestow the throne on his son Mosiah. He gathers all the people together and speaks to them from a high tower. His discourse in chapters 2 through 9 is considered by many Book of Mormon readers to be a significant piece of the Book of Mormon. He speaks of his principles of leadership, he emphasizes that he has worked himself as to not burden his people with taxes, and that the laws he has enacted are based on the laws of God. He states that serving one another is equivalent to serving God. He speaks of an angelic visitation and prophecies of Jesus Christ, his birth, identifying his mother as being named Mary, his ministry and miracles, his suffering, death and resurrection. He speaks of Jesus as being the judge, of his atonement as the means to overcome sin and the tendencies of the natural man in order to become a holy person. He emphasizes the importance to have faith in Jesus and to repent in order to become a child of Jesus Christ through His atonement. He also decrees that his son Mosiah is the new king. (He is the second king Mosiah, as his grandfather was also King Mosiah.) An Expedition to the Land of Nephi and a Story Within a Story The book changes time narration as it reflects on events that were past but are now being unfolded. The Nephites wanted to know what had happened to some of them who had taken a trip back to the land of Nephi in an attempt to reclaim it. Mosiah sends a small group on an expedition to find out (chapter 7). Some of this small group is met by guards and taken to prison and then brought before a king named Limhi. Limhi tells this group their story and shows the Record of Zeniff, who was the leader of the first group to try and reclaim the land of Nephi. This story within a story encompasses chapters 9 through 22. Zeniff, whose original mission was to spy on the Lamanites, began to like the land, and decided to try to reclaim it. This led to a conflict in his party which ended in bloodshed, but ultimately he got his way. He made a deal with the king of the Lamanites to have a piece of the land of Nephi. He becomes king of this Nephite colony. They had some altercations with the Lamanites, but prevailed at that time. Zeniff dies and passes rule to his son Noah. Noah is a wicked king. He is one of the more favorite villains among Book of Mormon readers. He collects exorbitant taxes from his people to build a palace and he and his ministers live a life of comfort, ease and self indulgence. His wicked ways lead the whole colony into wickedness. Evil King Noah and the Preaching of Righteous Abinadi Then along comes a man named Abinadi. He is a holy man, a prophet, and he begins to preach that they must repent. He speaks against King Noah and prophecies that he will be killed if he doesn't repent. Abinadi is arrested and brought before King Noah where he gives what is considered a very important discourse in the Book of Mormon (chapters 12-16). Abinadi asks the ministers what they preach and they respond that they preach the Law of Moses. Abinadi then tells them that they ought to teach the Law of Moses, but rebukes them for not obeying it themselves, including the Ten Commandments, which he quotes to them. Abinadi then continues to explain that the Law of Moses is a teaching method to prepare people for the coming of Jesus Christ. He speaks of the atonement, faith, repentance and redemption through Jesus. He quotes Isaiah 53 and explains the seed of Christ, the resurrection, and that little children who die are saved in Christ. King Noah and his priests are angered by this and sentence him to death by fire. One of King Noah's priests named Alma is stirred by Abinadi's words and pleas on his behalf. He too is accused and he flees. Alma hides and writes down the words of Abinadi. After a period of sore repentance, Alma begins to preach the words of Abinadi and the doctrine of Christ to the people in secret. He gains a sizable following and in chapter 18, Alma begins to baptize those who have accepted Christ. The Lord tells Alma that King Noah has discovered them and will be coming after them. He and his followers flee the land. The Lamanites attack King Noah and his people and they begin to run. King Noah tells his priests and others to leave their wives and children so they can escape from the Lamanites. Those that follow this command are later angered at themselves and King Noah for leaving their families. The group sentences King Noah to death by fire. They then turn on the priests of Noah who flee before the people, later becoming the Amulonites. King Noah's son Limhi rules, but becomes a tributary monarch to the king of the Lamanites. All Nephite Peoples Gather to Zarahemla and The Church is Organized Although this is not an exhaustive explanation, this is more or less the state found by the small expedition sent by King Mosiah. By the end of chapter 25, both the people of King Limhi, and the people of Alma have been guided by the Lord away from the Lamanites and to the land of Zarahemla. King Mosiah appoints Alma to organize the church. King Limhi and his people are baptized and join the church. Also, King Mosiah by the aide of God translates a set of records which were found by Limhi's people. They tell of a people commonly called the Jaredites. A portion of the record was inserted in the Book of Mormon as the Book of Ether. King Mosiah's grandfather Mosiah, had also translated some writings found on a large stone which touched upon these people. Conversion of Alma the Younger and the Sons of Mosiah There are problems in the church as a group of the younger "rising generation" do not believe in the teachings. They persuade others to follow after them and not believe in Jesus and the teachings of the church. Alma receives direction from the Lord on the matter and is told that excommunicating those who won't repent is the most sever punishment the church can bestow. The secular government will deal with breaches in the law. King Mosiah makes it illegal to pursecute the believers. Among those who don't believe are a son of Alma who also shares the name Alma (but he is usually differentiated as "Alma the Younger"), and King's Mosiah's own sons. One day while they are out and about doing their destructive work, an angel comes to them and tells them to no longer seek to destroy the church. This sight causes them great fear and Alma the Younger faints. He is in an unconscious state for two days and two nights and his father prays for him. When he comes to, he speaks of having waded through much tribulation and finding redemption through Christ. He speaks in much more detail about this experience in the Book of Alma, chapter 36. The experience causes himself and his associates (King Mosiah's sons) to become converted to the Lord and to build up his church. Mosiah's sons approach Mosiah and tell him that they want to leave Zarahemla to go to the Lamanites and preach to them. This worries Mosiah, but he asks God who assures him that they will be protected and that they will also do much good there. Their journeys and preaching are described later in the Book of Alma beginning with chapter 17. A New Government King Mosiah has a desire to set the affairs of the kingdom in order, as he is getting on in years. Since his sons have gone to the land of the Lamanites to preach, he has no heir to receive the throne. He proposes to his people therefore that they abolish the monarchy and instead organize a republic. He explains that kings who rule righteously are desirable, but once a wicked king comes to power he spreads evil to his subjects, and it is difficult to remove a wicked king from power. He outlines a system of what are known as "judges" who are popularly elected at different levels of power. The people accept this system and the elections are held, and Alma the younger becomes the first "chief judge" a title designating the head of the government. He also receives the office of "high priest" of the church, making him the leader of the church as well. At the end of the Book of Mosiah Alma (the elder) and Mosiah both pass away. See also The Record of Zeniff External links The Book of Mormon: The Book of Mosiah King Benjamin's Speech to his People (YouTube) | Book_of_Mosiah |@lemmatized book:18 mosiah:24 one:5 make:4 mormon:7 title:2 refers:1 ii:1 king:37 nephites:4 zarahemla:6 cover:1 time:3 period:2 ca:2 bc:3 except:1 flashback:1 record:5 zeniff:5 start:1 accord:1 footnote:1 narrative:1 benjamin:4 speaks:1 appoints:2 heir:2 open:1 descendant:1 nephite:3 people:19 merge:1 together:2 call:2 living:1 peace:1 rule:4 righteous:2 land:9 get:3 old:1 decide:2 bestow:2 throne:2 son:10 gather:2 speak:8 high:2 tower:1 discourse:2 chapter:8 consider:2 many:1 reader:2 significant:1 piece:2 principle:1 leadership:1 emphasize:2 work:2 burden:1 tax:2 law:6 enact:1 base:1 god:4 state:3 serve:2 another:1 equivalent:1 angelic:1 visitation:1 prophecy:2 jesus:7 christ:8 birth:1 identify:1 mother:1 name:5 mary:1 ministry:1 miracle:1 suffering:1 death:3 resurrection:2 judge:3 atonement:3 mean:1 overcome:1 sin:1 tendency:1 natural:1 man:3 order:3 become:7 holy:2 person:1 importance:1 faith:2 repent:4 child:3 also:8 decree:1 new:2 second:1 grandfather:2 expedition:3 nephi:4 story:5 within:2 change:1 narration:1 reflect:1 event:1 past:1 unfold:1 want:2 know:2 happen:1 take:2 trip:1 back:1 attempt:1 reclaim:3 send:2 small:3 group:6 find:4 meet:1 guard:1 prison:1 bring:2 limhi:6 tell:8 show:1 leader:2 first:2 try:2 encompass:1 whose:1 original:1 mission:1 spy:1 lamanites:9 begin:6 like:1 lead:2 conflict:1 party:1 end:3 bloodshed:1 ultimately:1 way:2 deal:2 colony:2 altercation:1 prevail:1 dy:1 pass:2 noah:14 wicked:4 favorite:1 villain:1 among:2 collect:1 exorbitant:1 build:2 palace:1 minister:2 live:1 life:1 comfort:1 ease:1 self:1 indulgence:1 whole:1 wickedness:1 evil:2 preaching:1 abinadi:9 along:1 come:6 prophet:1 preach:7 must:1 kill:1 arrest:1 give:1 important:1 ask:2 respond:1 moses:3 ought:1 teach:2 rebuke:1 obey:1 include:1 ten:1 commandment:1 quote:2 continue:1 explain:3 method:1 prepare:1 repentance:2 redemption:2 isaiah:1 seed:1 little:1 die:1 save:1 priest:5 anger:2 sentence:2 fire:2 alma:17 stir:1 word:3 plea:1 behalf:1 accused:1 flee:3 hide:1 write:1 sore:1 doctrine:1 secret:1 gain:1 sizable:1 following:1 baptize:2 accept:2 lord:4 discover:1 follower:1 attack:1 run:1 others:2 leave:3 wife:1 escape:1 follow:2 command:1 later:3 family:1 turn:1 amulonites:1 tributary:1 monarch:1 church:10 organize:3 although:1 exhaustive:1 explanation:1 less:1 guide:1 away:2 join:1 aide:1 translate:2 set:2 commonly:1 jaredites:1 portion:1 insert:1 ether:1 writing:1 large:1 stone:1 touch:1 upon:1 conversion:1 young:5 problem:1 rise:1 generation:1 believe:3 teaching:2 persuade:1 receives:1 direction:1 matter:1 excommunicate:1 win:1 sever:1 punishment:1 secular:1 government:3 breach:1 illegal:1 pursecute:1 believer:1 share:1 usually:1 differentiate:1 day:2 destructive:1 angel:1 long:1 seek:1 destroy:1 sight:1 cause:2 great:1 fear:1 faint:1 unconscious:1 two:2 night:1 father:1 prays:1 wad:1 much:3 tribulation:1 finding:1 detail:1 experience:2 associate:1 converted:1 approach:1 go:2 worry:1 assure:1 protect:1 good:1 journey:1 describe:1 desire:1 affair:1 kingdom:1 year:1 since:1 receive:2 propose:1 therefore:1 abolish:1 monarchy:1 instead:1 republic:1 righteously:1 desirable:1 power:3 spread:1 subject:1 difficult:1 remove:1 outline:1 system:2 popularly:1 elect:1 different:1 level:1 election:1 hold:1 chief:1 designate:1 head:1 office:1 well:1 elder:1 see:1 external:1 link:1 speech:1 youtube:1 |@bigram jesus_christ:3 ten_commandment:1 external_link:1 |
6,582 | Brazilian_Armed_Forces | The Brazilian Armed Forces () comprise the Brazilian Army, the Brazilian Navy (including the Brazilian Marine Corps and Brazilian Naval Aviation) and the Brazilian Air Force. According to article 144 of the 1988 Brazilian Constitution, the para-military Polícia Militar is constitutionally considered an auxiliary and potential reserve to the federal military forces, though subordinate to the state governors. They can, however, be compelled to federal service under a statute similar to posse comitatus. Organization The Armed Forces of Brazil are divided into 3 branches: See also: "Brazilian Federal Constitution in English", text translated to English (unofficial). Retrieved on 2007-05-17. Brazilian Army Brazilian Navy Brazilian Air Force The Military Police (State's Military Police) is described as an ancillary force of the Army.All military branches are part of the Ministry of Defence. Ministry of Defence Structure "Defence" Ministério da Defesa. Accessed June 22, 2007. The Brazilian Navy which is the oldest of the Brazilian Armed forces, includes the Brazilian Marine Corps and the Brazilian Naval Aviation. Brazil has the most powerful military of South America, and so is each of its military branches. http://www.senado.gov.br/JORNAL/arquivos_jornal/arquivosPdf/080331.pdf (p. 9) Military history of Brazil Since 1648 the Brazilian Armed Forces have been relied upon to fight in defense of Brazilian sovereignty and to suppress civil rebellions. The Brazilian military has also four times intervened militarily to overthrow the Brazilian government. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/1,,EMI14440-15273,00.html It has built a tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping missions such as in Haiti and East Timor. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9901E4DD1F3DF932A3575BC0A9629C8B63 Below a list of some of the historical events in which the Brazilian Armed Forces took part: First Battle of Guararapes (1648) - Decisive Brazilian victory that helped end Dutch occupation. Due to this battle, the year 1648 is considered as the year of the foundation of the Brazilian Army. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-4,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html Brazilian War of Independence(1822-1824) - Argentina-Brazil War (1825-1828) - War of the Farrapos (1835-1845) - Longest Brazilian rebellion. Arruda, José and Piletti, Nelson -Toda a História (1997)(7° edition)(226 p.) Under the leadership of then Baron of Caxias, the war ended after negotiations. Koshiba, Luiz and Pereira, Denise - História do Brasil (1999) (7° edition) (150 p.) Platine War (1851-1852) - Uruguayan War (1864-1865) - War of the Triple Alliance (1864-1870) - Also known as the Paraguayan War. Over 200,000 Brazilians fought on this conflict, http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-4,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html which is considered as the most serious in Brazilian history. Arruda, José and Piletti, Nelson -Toda a História (1997)(7° edition)(229 p.) War of Canudos (1893-1897) - The deadliest rebellion of Brazil, the insurrectionists defeated the first 3 military forces sent to quell the rebellion. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-4,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html Brazil in World War II (1942-1945) - Brazil declared war on Nazi Germany in August 1942 and in 1944 sent 23,300 soldiers to fight in Italy. Koshiba, Luiz and Pereira, Denise - História do Brasil (1999) (7° edition) (291 p.) Brazilian military coup d'états Although no military coups occurred during the 67 years of the Brazilian Empire, the Republican period experienced 4 military coup d'états in the 75 years between 1889 and 1964. Proclamation of the Republic (1889) - End of the Brazilian Empire, this was the first coup d'état performed by the Brazilian military. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-4,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html Revolution of 1930 - Second military overthrow of government, in which President Washington Luís was replaced by Getulio Vargas, who became the Provisional President. End of Estado Novo (1945) - Then Dictator Getulio Vargas is deposed by generals, who installed General Eurico Dutra as president. Brazilian 1964 coup d'état - President João Goulart is removed from office, leading to a military dictatorship which lasted until 1985. Mission and challenges South America is a relatively peaceful continent in which wars are a rare event; as a result, Brazil hasn't had its territory invaded since year 1865 during the War of the Triple Alliance. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-3,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html Additionally, Brazil has no territorial disputes with any of its neighbours https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/br.html#Issues and neither does it have bitter rivalries, like Chile and Bolivia have with each other. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200610/25/eng20061025_315049.html http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3632235.stm However, Brazil is the only country besides China and Russia that has land borders with 10 or more nations. Moreover, Brazil has 16,880 kilometers (10,488 miles) of land borders http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-2,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html and http://educacao.uol.com.br/geografia/litoral-brasileiro.jhtm of coastline to be patrolled and defended. Overall, the Armed Forces have to defend 8.5 million km2 (around 3.2 million sq. mi.) of land and patrol 4.4 million km2 (around 1.7 million sq. mi.) https://www.mar.mil.br/secirm/document/livrogeo.pdf (p.22) of territorial waters—or Blue Amazon, as the Brazilian Navy calls them. https://www.mar.mil.br/menu_v/amazonia_azul/amazonia_azul.htm In order to achieve this mission properly, significant quantities of both man power and funding have to be made available. Insufficient investments Payments for personnel and pensions absorb most of the Defense budget, limiting the amount of investments in maintenance and new equipment. "Pais Gigante Defesa Pobre", O Dia newspaper, November 10, 2007. Between 2001 and 2007, just R$11.1 billion, roughly US$6.1 billion, were invested in the military. For 2008, USD $5.6 billion (out of a total Defense budget of USD $24.4 billion National Congress of Brazil. Brazilian Federal Budget (2008) - Ministry of Defense (Ministério da Defesa). ) are expected to be invested in new equipments. A South American Arms Race? - TIME Only 267 or 37% of the Air Force's aircraft are operational, lack of maintenance and spare parts have grounded 452 aircraft. http://ultimosegundo.ig.com.br/brasil/2007/10/18/sinopse_da_imprensa_apenas_37_dos_avioes_da_fab_tem_condicoes_de_uso_diz_saito_1049201.html http://www.estado.com.br/editorias/2007/10/21/edi-1.93.5.20071021.1.1.xml Adding to this problem is the fact that 60% of the aircrafts are 20 years old or older. The Navy is also facing difficulties. A 2007 report pointed out that not only the Navy had just 21 combat surface ships to patrol http://educacao.uol.com.br/geografia/litoral-brasileiro.jhtm of coastline, but also only 10 of those ships were operational. http://www.defesa.ufjf.br/fts/CBINFOR.pdf Additionally, most operational ships are plagued with operating restrictions. http://noticias.terra.com.br/brasil/interna/0,,OI2186587-EI306,00.html Out of the Navy's 5 submarines, only one is fully operational, another two operate with restrictions, and 27 or 46% of the Navy's 58 helicopters are inoperable. http://www.defesa.ufjf.br/fts/CBINFOR.pdf http://noticias.terra.com.br/brasil/interna/0,,OI2186587-EI306,00.html And the Brazilian Army is enduring challenges as well. Seventy-eight percent of all Army vehicles are 34 years or older and some trucks date back to World War II. http://www.auniao.pb.gov.br/v2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=10978&Itemid=73 General Enzo Martins Peri added the fact that most of the Army's artillery guns are also from World War II. http://www.auniao.pb.gov.br/v2/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=10978&Itemid=73 Out of the Army's 1,437 armored vehicles, over 40% are not combat ready, and 40% or 2,670 of the Army's vehicles are not operational. General Augusto Heleno Ribeiro Pereira, then commander of the Amazonian Military Command stated that some weapons have been in use for more than 40 years. http://www.estado.com.br/editorias/2008/04/20/pol-1.93.11.20080420.1.1.xml Lastly, the amount of ammunition stock is only 15% of what is recommended. Troop relocation right|Brazilian Army presence in the border regions of the Amazon in 1999. Brazil has the need to patrol its 16,880 kilometers (10,488 miles) of land borders. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-2,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html Since the 1990s Brazil has been relocating its forces in accordance to this national security requirement. Between 1992 and 2008, the 1st, 2nd and 16th Jungle Infantry Brigades, http://www.fazenda.gov.br/resenhaeletronica/MostraMateria.asp?page=&cod=372337 http://www.fab.mil.br/portal/operacoes_aereas/solimoes/ft.htm the 3rd Infantry Battalion, the 19th Logistics Battalion, and the 22nd Army Police Platoon were transferred by the Army from the states of Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul to the Amazon region O DIA Online - União cortará tropa do Rio . After those redeployments the number of Army troops in that region rose to 25,000. http://www.estado.com.br/editorias/2008/04/20/pol-1.93.11.20080420.1.1.xml Also relocated from the state of Rio de Janeiro were the 1st and 3rd Combat Cars Regiment, now stationed in the city of Santa Maria, in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. However, despite those efforts, the presence of the Armed Forces on the border regions of the Brazilian Amazon continues to be sparse and disperse, given the fact that the Army has just 28 border detachments in that area, a total of 1,600 soldiers, or 1 men for every .) of borders. http://revistaepoca.globo.com/Revista/Epoca/0,,EMI14439-15273-2,00-UMA+NOVA+AGENDA+MILITAR.html More redeployments are expected since the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo still concentrate over 49,000 soldiers. On May 2008, the Navy announced new plans to reposition its forces throughout Brazil. Service obligation and manpower The age for voluntary service is 17–45 years, and an increasing percentage of the ranks are "long-service" volunteer professionals. Brazil's military manpower, as of a 2005 estimate, is 33 million males aged 19–49 and 38 million females aged 19–49 fit for military service. Males in Brazil are required to enlist for serving 12 months of military service upon their 18th birthday. However, most enlisted are dismissed and do not serve at all. Most often, the service is performed in military bases as close as possible to the person's home. The government does not require those planning to attend college or holding a permanent job to serve. There are also several other exemptions to compulsory service, including health reasons, tattoos (infection risk), height and weight etc. Women were allowed to serve in the armed forces for the first time in the early 1980s, when the Brazilian Army became the first in South America to accept women into career ranks. See also Brazil and weapons of mass destruction Policing in Brazil Military Police of Brazilian States BOPE: Special Police Operations Battalion of the Military Police of the State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. List of Wars involving Brazil Military of the Empire of Brazil External links Brazilian Ministry of Defence Brazil military profile from the CIA World Factbook Brazil military guide from GlobalSecurity.org References | Brazilian_Armed_Forces |@lemmatized brazilian:39 arm:5 force:16 comprise:1 army:15 navy:9 include:3 marine:2 corp:2 naval:2 aviation:2 air:3 accord:1 article:1 constitution:2 para:1 military:27 polícia:1 militar:9 constitutionally:1 consider:3 auxiliary:1 potential:1 reserve:1 federal:4 though:1 subordinate:1 state:9 governor:1 however:4 compel:1 service:8 statute:1 similar:1 posse:1 comitatus:1 organization:1 armed:4 brazil:24 divide:1 branch:3 see:2 also:9 english:3 text:1 translate:1 unofficial:1 retrieve:1 police:7 describe:1 ancillary:1 part:3 ministry:4 defence:4 structure:1 ministério:2 da:2 defesa:5 access:1 june:1 old:4 powerful:1 south:4 america:3 http:28 www:13 senado:1 gov:5 br:18 jornal:1 arquivospdf:1 pdf:4 p:6 history:2 since:4 rely:1 upon:2 fight:3 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6,583 | Council_of_the_European_Union | The Council of the European Union is the principal decision-making institution of the European Union (EU). It is often informally called the Council of Ministers or just the Council, the name used in the treaties; it is also called Consilium as a Latin-language compromise. Within the competencies of the Community pillar, it is the more powerful of the two legislative chambers, the other being the European Parliament. This Council should not be confused with the European Council (an assembly of EU heads of state or government) nor confused with the Council of Europe (a non-EU organisation of 47 states). The Council is composed of twenty-seven national ministers (one per state). However the exact membership depends upon the topic being discussed, for example; when discussing the agricultural policy the twenty-seven national agriculture ministers form the Council. The Union's law is limited to specific policy areas, however it does override national law. As the Union operates on supranational and intergovernmental platforms, in some areas the Council is superior to the Parliament, having only to consult to get assent from the body. In many areas, however, the Union uses the legislative process of codecision procedure, in which the two bodies are equal in power. The Council does not have a single president in the traditional sense, but the role is rotated between each member state every 6 months (known as the "Presidency"), with the minister from that state then able to set the agenda. Another powerful position is the Secretary General who is also the representative of the Union's foreign policy. History The Council first appeared in the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) as the "Special Council of Ministers", set up to counterbalance the High Authority (the supranational executive, now the Commission). The original Council had limited powers as issues relating only to coal and steel were in the Authority's domain, whereas the Council only had to give its consent to decisions outside coal and steel. As a whole, it only scrutinised the High Authority (the executive). In 1957, the Treaties of Rome established two new communities, and with them two new Councils: the Council of the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC) and the Council of the European Economic Community (EEC). However due to objections over the supranational power of the Authority, their Councils had more executive powers with the new executive bodies being known as "Commissions". In 1965 the Council was hit by the "empty chair crisis". Due to disagreements between French President Charles de Gaulle and the Commission's agriculture proposals, among other things, France boycotted all meetings of the Council bringing work to a halt until it was resolved the following year by the Luxembourg compromise. Although initiated by a gamble of then-President Walter Hallstein, who lost the Presidency after the crisis, it exposed flaws in the Council's workings. With the Merger Treaty of 1967, the ECSC's Special Council of Ministers and the Council of the EAEC (together with their other independent institutions) were merged into the Council of the EEC which would act as a single Council of the European Communities. In 1993 the body became the Council of the European Union with the Maastricht Treaty, reflecting the wider change in name. That treaty strengthened the Council with the addition of more intergovernmental elements in the three pillars system. However, at the same time the Parliament and Commission had been strengthened inside the Community pillar curbing the ability of the Council to act independently. The development of the Council has been characterised by the rise in power of the Parliament as, while the Council has not lost power, the Parliament has provided a greater and greater opposition to the Council's wishes. This has in some cases led to clashes between the two bodies with the Council's system of intergovernmentalism contradicting the developing parliamentary system and supranational principles. Powers and functions The primary purpose of the Council is to act as one of the two chambers of the Union's legislative branch, the other chamber being the European Parliament. However the Council only has legislative initiative in the latter two of the three pillars of the EU. It also holds, jointly with the Parliament, the budgetary power of the Union and has greater control than the Parliament over the intergovernmental areas of the EU. Finally, it formally holds the executive power of the EU which it confers upon the European Commission. Legislative procedure The Union's legislative authority is divided between the Council and Parliament, as the relationships and powers of these institutions have developed, various legislative procedures have been created for adopting laws. The most common is the codecision procedure, which is used in forty–three policy areas and works on the principle that consent from both the Council and Parliament are required before a law may be adopted. Under this procedure, the Commission presents a proposal to Parliament and the Council. Following its first reading the Parliament may propose amendments. If the council accepts these amendments then the legislation is approved. If it does not then it adopts a "common position" and submits that new version to the Parliament. At its second reading, if the Parliament approves the text or does not act, the text is adopted, otherwise the Parliament may propose further amendments to the Council's proposal. It may be rejected out right by an absolute majority of MEPs. If the Council still does not approve the Parliament's position, then the text is taken to a "Conciliation Committee" composed of the Council members plus an equal number of MEPs. If a Committee manages to adopt a joint text, it has to still be approved by both the Council and Parliament or the proposal is abandoned. However there are some older procedures still in use which give the Parliament less say than the Council over legislative bills. These are the consultation and assent procedures. The former means the Parliament is consulted by the Council, and it can ask for amendments, on legislation but it is unable to block it. The latter means the Council has to obtain the approval of the Parliament on legislation before it can become law, but the Parliament cannot make amendments. The procedure used also depends upon which type of institutional act is being used. The strongest act is a regulation, an act or law which is directly applicable in its entirety. Then there are directives which bind members to certain goals which they must achieve. They do this through their own laws and hence have room to manoeuvre in deciding upon them. A decision is an instrument which is focused at a particular person/group and is directly applicable. Institutions may also issue recommendations and opinions which are merely non-binding, declarations. The Council votes in one of three ways; unanimity, simple majority or qualified majority. In most cases, the Council votes on issues by Qualified Majority Voting, meaning that there must be a minimum of 255 votes out of 345 (73.9 %) and a majority of member states (sometimes a two–third majority). A majority representing 62% of the EU's population may also be taken into account. Unanimity is nearly always used where foreign policy is concerned, and in a number of cases under Police and Judicial Co-operation. Intergovernmentalism The Justus Lipsius building, the headquarters of the Council in Brussels At present, the EU is divided into three pillars, the European Community (EC) (the main and historic element), the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) and Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJC). The latter two operate under a more intergovernmental fashion in that the Commission, Parliament and Courts have little input. It is also reflected in that the Council, rather than the Commission, has the right to legislative initiative on matters concerning those areas. Hence, the Council has a major role in these areas. It works to develop the CFSP, for example in creating military forces and signing international agreements for the whole EU. In the PJC, it seeks to ensure co-operation between national courts and police forces due to cross-border crime arising from free movement across internal borders. It also manages policy concerning external borders and immigration. The legal instruments used by the Council for the CFSP are different from the legislative acts. Under the CFSP they consist of "common positions", "joint actions" and "common strategies". Common positions relate to defining a European foreign policy towards a particular third-country such as the isolation of Burma, a region such as the stabilisation efforts in the African Great Lakes, or a certain issue such as support for the International Criminal Court. A common position, once agreed, is binding on all EU states who must follow and defend the policy, which is regularly revised. A joint action refers to a co-ordinated action of the states to deploy resources in order to achieve an objective, for example for mine clearing or to combat the spread of small arms. Common strategies defined an objective and commits the EUs resources to that task for four years. Budgetary authority Furthermore, the legislative branch officially holds the Union's budgetary authority. The EU's budget (which is around 116.4 billion euro ) is divided into compulsory and non–compulsory spending. Compulsory spending is that resulting from EU treaties (including agriculture) and international agreements, the rest is non–compulsory. While the Council has the last word on compulsory spending, the Parliament has the last word on non–compulsory spending. The institutions draw up budget estimates and the Commission consolidates them into a draft budget. Both the Council and the Parliament can amend the budget, both have to agree for the budget to become law. In addition to the budget, the Council coordinates the economic policy of members. Delegated authority The Council officially holds the executive power of the Union, conferring it upon the Commission and able to withdraw it by Article 202 of the Single European Act; "The Council confers on the Commission powers for the implementation of the rules it lays down. It may impose certain requirements in respect of the exercise of those powers. In specific cases, it may reserve the right to exercise implementing powers directly." Furthermore, some of the Council's more high-level powers, such as the appointment of the Commission President, are implemented by the European Council rather than a configuration of the Council of the European Union. Organisation Presidency The Presidency of the Council is not a single post, but is held by a member state's government (currently Czech Republic). Every six months the presidency rotates between the states, in an order predefined by the Councils members, allowing each state to preside over the body. From 2007, every three member states cooperate for their combined 18 months on a common agenda, although only one formally holds the presidency for the normal six month period. For example the President for the second half of 2007, Portugal, was the second in a trio of states alongside Germany and Slovenia with whom Portugal had been co-operating. The Council meets in various configurations (as outlined below) so its membership changes depending upon the issue. The person chairing the Council will always be the member from the state holding the Presidency (same applies for the European Council). A delegate from the following Presidency also assists the presiding member and may take over work if requested. The role of the Presidency is administrative and political. On the administrative side it is responsible for procedures and organising the work of the Council during its term. This includes summoning the Council for meetings along with directing the work of COREPER and other committees and working groups. The political element is the role of successfully dealing with issues and mediating in the Council. In particular this includes setting the agenda of the council, hence giving the Presidency substantial influence in the work of the Council during its term. The Presidency also plays a major role in representing the Council within the EU and representing the EU internationally, for example at the United Nations. Configurations Legally speaking, the Council is a single entity, but it is in practice divided into several different councils. Each council deals with a different functional area, for example agriculture and fisheries. In this formation, the council is composed of ministers from each state government who are responsible for this area: the agriculture and fisheries ministers. The chair of this council is held by the member from the state holding the presidency (see section above). In contrast, the Economic and Financial Affairs council is composed of national finance ministers, however there are still one per state and the chair is still held by the member coming from the presiding country. They meet irregularly throughout the year except for the three major configurations (top three below) which meet once a month. There are currently nine formations General Affairs and External Relations (GAERC): The most important of the formations, GAERC is composed of ministers for foreign affairs. Since June 2002 it has held separate meetings on general affairs and external relations. At its sessions on External Relations, under the context of the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy takes part. It also coordinates preparation for and follow–up to meetings of the European Council. It includes the ESDP and development cooperation. The main meeting room of the Council Economic and Financial Affairs (Ecofin): Composed of economics and finance ministers of the member states. It includes budgetary and eurozone matters via an informal group composed only of eurozone member ministers. Agriculture and Fisheries: One of the oldest configurations, this brings together once a month the ministers for agriculture and fisheries, and the commissioners responsible for agriculture, fisheries, food safety, veterinary questions and public health matters. Justice and Home Affairs Council (JHA): This configuration brings together Justice ministers and Interior Ministers of the Member States. Includes civil protection. Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs Council (EPSCO): Composed of employment, social protection, consumer protection, health and equal opportunities ministers. Competitiveness: Created in June 2002 through the merging of three previous configurations (Internal Market, Industry and Research). Depending on the items on the agenda, this formation is composed of ministers responsible for areas such as European affairs, industry, tourism and scientific research. Transport, Telecommunications and Energy: Created in June 2002, through the merging of three policies under one configuration, and with a composition varying according to the specific items on its agenda. This formation meets approximately once every two months. Environment: Composed of environment ministers, who meet about four times a year. Education, Youth and Culture (EYC): Composed of education, culture, youth and communications ministers, who meet around three or four times a year. Includes audiovisual issues. Complementing these, the Political and Security Committee (PSC) brings together ambassadors to monitor international situations and define policies within the ESDP, particularly in crises The European Council is similar to a configuration of the Council, it operates in the same way and shares the same Presidency system but is composed of the national leaders (heads of government or state). The body's purpose is to define the general "impetus" of the Union. The European Council deals with the major issues such as the appointment of the President of the European Commission who takes part in the body's meetings. Civil Service Secretary General Javier Solana The General Secretariat of the Council provides the continuous infrastructure of the council, carrying out preparation for meetings, draft reports, translation, records, documents, agendas and assisting the presidency. The Secretary General of the Council is head of the General Secretariat, currently Javier Solana. The post is a powerful position within the Union and its holder a notable figure; not simply because he or she holds that position, but because the same person is also the High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy and President of the European Defence Agency (along with leading the non–EU defence organisation, the Western European Union ). The Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) is a body composed of representatives from the states (ambassadors, civil servants etc.) who meet each week to prepare the work and tasks of the Council. It monitors and co-ordinates work and deals with the Parliament on co-decision legislation (along with leading the non–EU defence organisation, the Western European Union) It is divided into two groups of the representatives (Coreper II) and their deputies (Coreper I). Agriculture is dealt with separately by the Special Committee on Agriculture (SCA). The numerous working groups submit their reports to the Council through Coreper or SCA Voting system The Council is composed of national ministers for the relevant topic of discussion, with each minister representing their national government. Under qualified majority voting different states have different voting weights based on population. For example, a vote by Germany or France has weight 29 out of the total weight 345, whereas a vote by Cyprus or Latvia has only weight four. The complete list of voting weights is shown below: 29 votes: France, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom, 27 votes: Spain and Poland, 14 votes: Romania, 13 votes: The Netherlands, 12 votes: Belgium, the Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, and Portugal, 10 votes: Austria, Bulgaria, and Sweden, 7 votes: Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Lithuania, and Slovakia, 4 votes: Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Luxembourg, and Slovenia, 3 votes: Malta. Under the third pillar (Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters), there is little supranational influence. For example the Parliament has no say and the Commission does not have the right to initiate legislation in this field (whereas it has a monopoly in the Community). As a result, the Council is very powerful and when decisions are taken by qualified majority voting, the voting weights become decisive. This led to the creation of the G5, which has been expanded by Poland to the G6 in 2006. The G6 represent the 6 largest member states with a combined 49.3% of the total voting weight in the council. Therefore, the G6 comprise a lot of power in the Council, which leads to criticisms. However, they cannot pass legislation without the support of other countries. Political parties The states of the European Union by the European party affiliations of their leaders, as of 8 May 2009 Almost all members of the Council are members of a political party at national level, and most of these are members of a European-level political party. However the Council is composed in order to represent the Union's states rather than political parties and decisions are generally made on these lines. The table below outlines the European party affiliations of the leaders of each country (those comprising the European Council), it should be noted that in many countries there are coalition governments and the ministers forming the various configurations may be of different parties. Comparisons The Council and the German Bundesrat, are both composed by representatives of the states governments Although common in executive intergovernmental systems, as a legislature the Council has few institutions of comparison. The composition of the council can only be compared with the quite unique and unusual composition of the German upper house, the Bundesrat. Membership of the Bundesrat is limited to members of the governments of the states of Germany and can be recalled by those governments in the same manner as the EU's Council. They retain their state role while sitting in the Bundesrat and if their term ends when they are recalled by their state governments (who are solely responsible for their appointment) or they cease to sit in their state government. Elections are not coordinated among states, so government can come and go at any time, and the assembly can not be dissolved. Those members vote in their state blocks and can not cast fractioned votes, hence they do not act as individual members but as representatives of their state governments to that government's agreed line. The states have unequal voting powers, and decisions are taken by an absolute majority. Likewise, the presidency rotates equally between members, though each year rather than every six months like in the EU Council. However, unlike the EU's Council, the Bundesrat does not vary its composition depending on the topic being discussed. Seat By a decision of the European Council at Edinburgh in December 1992, the Council has its seat in Brussels but in April, June and October, it holds its meetings in Luxembourg. Between 1952 and 1967 the ECSC Council held its Luxembourg meetings in the Cercle Municipal on Place d’Armes. Its secretariat moved on numerous occasions but between 1955 and 1967 it was housed in the Verlorenkost district of the city. In 1957 with the creation of two new Communities with their own Councils, discretion on location was given to the current President. In practice this was to be in the Castle of the Valley of the Duchess until the autumn of 1958, at which point it move to 2 Rue Ravensteinstraat in Brussels. The 1965 agreement (finalised by the Edinburgh agreement and annexed to the treaties) on the location of the newly merged institutions, the Council was to be in Brussels but would meet in Luxembourg during April, June and October. The ECSC secretariat moved from Luxembourg to the merged body Council secretariat in the Ravenstein building of Brussels. In 1971 the Council and its secretariat moved into the Charlemagne building, next to the Commission's Berlaymont, but the Council rapidly ran out of space and administrative branch of the Secretariat moved to a building at 76 Rue Joseph II/Jozef II-straat and during the 1980s the language divisions moved out into the Nerviens, Frère Orban and Guimard buildings. In 1995 the Council moved once more, into the Justus Lipsius building, across the road from Charlemagne. However, its staff was still increasing, so it continued to rent the Frère Orban building to house the Finnish and Swedish language divisions. Staff continued to increase and the Council rented, in addition to owning Justus Lipsius, the Kortenberg, Froissart, Espace Rolin and Woluwe Heights buildings. Since acquiring the Lex building, the three aforementioned buildings are not used by the Council services any more as of 2008. Résidence Palace has been acquired and is currently being renovated; it will house the new press centre of the European Council, which uses the same facilities as the Council. When the Council is meeting in Luxembourg, it meets in the Kirchberg Conference Centre and its offices are based at the European Centre on the plateau du Kirchberg. The Council has also met occasionally in Strasbourg, in various other cities and also outside the Union: for example in 1974 when it met in Tokyo and Washington while trade and energy talks were taking place. Under the Council's present rules of procedures the Council can, in extraordinary circumstances, hold one of its meetings outside Brussels and Luxembourg. Public access Within the Council's debates, delegates may speak in any of the 23 official EU languages. Official documents are also translated into Catalan/Valencian, Basque and Galician. Minutes and voting records are made available when the Council is acting as a legislator (published in the Official Journal of the European Union) and in co-decision matters meetings are open to the public via television or the internet. Certain other areas may be open to public viewing, such as presentation of programmes and priorities, opening deliberations on acts and issues of major public interest. Future of the Council The proposed Treaty of Lisbon, which may not be ratified as planned by 2009 following its rejection in the Irish referendum, largely retains the reforms outlined in the rejected Constitutional Treaty. The body would be renamed, officially becoming the Council of Ministers, with an official separation from the European Council (itself becoming an institution with a separate system of Presidency). Of particular note is a change in voting system for most cases to double majority Qualified Majority Voting, replacing the voting weights system. Decisions made by the council have to be taken by 55% of member states and 65% of the Union's population. Under the Lisbon Treaty, the implementation of this voting system would be delayed until 1 November 2014. In terms of the Council's configuration, the fact there are different configurations is mentioned for the first time in treaties but only two are mentioned by name in the Constitution (others are agreed upon by the European Council), they are the General Affairs Council and Foreign Affairs Council, splitting the current General Affairs and External Relations Council. The latter will not be chaired by the Presidency, but by the new High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. The Presidency being conducted in groups of three for 18 months is enshrined in the Constitution. Furthermore the Council is required to meet in public. Ecofin's Eurozone component would be more formalised and elect its own separate President, "Mr Euro". See also Bundesrat of Germany References External links Official Council website – Europa About the Council Council configurations Live broadcast PRADO - The Council of the European Union Public Register of Authentic Travel- and ID Documents Online Council of the European Union – European NAvigator Video presentation on the Council | Council_of_the_European_Union |@lemmatized council:136 european:39 union:25 principal:1 decision:10 make:5 institution:8 eu:20 often:1 informally:1 call:2 minister:23 name:3 use:10 treaty:11 also:16 consilium:1 latin:1 language:4 compromise:2 within:5 competency:1 community:10 pillar:6 powerful:4 two:13 legislative:11 chamber:3 parliament:26 confuse:2 assembly:2 head:3 state:35 government:14 europe:1 non:7 organisation:4 compose:16 twenty:2 seven:2 national:9 one:8 per:2 however:12 exact:1 membership:3 depend:5 upon:7 topic:3 discuss:3 example:9 agricultural:1 policy:17 agriculture:10 form:2 law:8 limit:2 specific:3 area:11 override:1 operate:3 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6,584 | Nanometre | A nanometre (American spelling: nanometer; symbol nm) (Greek: νάνος, nanos, "dwarf"; μέτρον, metrοn, "unit of measurement") is a unit of length in the metric system, equal to one billionth of a metre (i.e., 10-9 m or one millionth of a millimetre). It is one of the more often used units for very small lengths, and equals ten Ångström, an internationally recognized non-SI unit of length. It is often associated with the field of nanotechnology and the wavelength of light. Formerly, millimicron (symbol mµ) was used for the nanometre. The symbol µµ has also been used THE SVEDBERG and J. BURTON NICHOLS; “Determination of the size and distribution of size of particle by centrifugal methods”; Journal of the American Chemical Society; American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.; December 1923; 45 (12): pp. 2910–2917. THE SVEDBERG and HERMAN RINDE; “The ulta-centrifuge, a new instrument for the determination of size and distribution of size of particle in amicroscopic colloids”; Journal of the American Chemical Society; American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C.; December 1924; 46 (12): pp. 2677–2693. KARL TERZAGHI; Erdbaumechanik auf bodenphysikalischer Grundlage; Franz Deuticke, Vienna, Austria / Leipzig, Germany; 1925 [Unaltered reproduction by G. Gistel & Cie., Vienna; 1976]; 399 pp. (page 32) . It is also the most common unit used to describe the manufacturing technology used in the semiconductor industry. It is the most common unit to describe the wavelength of light, with visible light falling in the region of 400–700 nm. The data in compact discs is stored as indentations (known as pits) that are approximately 100 nm deep by 500 nm wide. Similar terms Nanometry is the science of counting and measuring particles on the scale of nanometres. The term nanoscale is used to refer to objects with dimensions on the order 1–100 nm. The term is often heard in relation to nanotechnology. References See also 1 E-9 m SI prefix Orders of magnitude (length) Conversion of units, for comparison with other units of length Micrometre an order of magnitude down 1/1,000,000 of a meter External links Near-field Mie scattering in optical trap nanometry | Nanometre |@lemmatized nanometre:3 american:5 spelling:1 nanometer:1 symbol:3 nm:5 greek:1 νάνος:1 nanos:1 dwarf:1 μέτρον:1 metrοn:1 unit:8 measurement:1 length:5 metric:1 system:1 equal:2 one:3 billionth:1 metre:1 e:2 millionth:1 millimetre:1 often:3 use:6 small:1 ten:1 ångström:1 internationally:1 recognize:1 non:1 si:2 associate:1 field:2 nanotechnology:2 wavelength:2 light:3 formerly:1 millimicron:1 mµ:1 µµ:1 also:3 svedberg:2 j:1 burton:1 nichols:1 determination:2 size:4 distribution:2 particle:3 centrifugal:1 method:1 journal:2 chemical:4 society:4 washington:2 c:2 december:2 pp:3 herman:1 rinde:1 ulta:1 centrifuge:1 new:1 instrument:1 amicroscopic:1 colloid:1 karl:1 terzaghi:1 erdbaumechanik:1 auf:1 bodenphysikalischer:1 grundlage:1 franz:1 deuticke:1 vienna:2 austria:1 leipzig:1 germany:1 unaltered:1 reproduction:1 g:1 gistel:1 cie:1 page:1 common:2 describe:2 manufacturing:1 technology:1 semiconductor:1 industry:1 visible:1 fall:1 region:1 data:1 compact:1 disc:1 store:1 indentation:1 know:1 pit:1 approximately:1 deep:1 wide:1 similar:1 term:3 nanometry:2 science:1 counting:1 measure:1 scale:1 nanoscale:1 refer:1 object:1 dimension:1 order:3 hear:1 relation:1 reference:1 see:1 prefix:1 magnitude:2 conversion:1 comparison:1 micrometre:1 meter:1 external:1 link:1 near:1 mie:1 scatter:1 optical:1 trap:1 |@bigram compact_disc:1 si_prefix:1 external_link:1 |
6,585 | Sid_Meier's_Alpha_Centauri | Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri (sometimes abbreviated to SMAC or Alpha Centauri) is a 4X turn-based strategic computer game created by Brian Reynolds and Sid Meier under the auspices of Firaxis Games in 1999. It is based on a fictional attempt by human beings to colonize a planet in the Alpha Centauri star system. It picks up where Meier and Reynolds' earlier titles, Civilization I and Civilization II, left off. An expansion pack called Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire (aka SMACX or just SMAX) was also released. Although popular with gamers, the game never reached the heights of success of the Civilization games. Pre-patched versions of Alpha Centauri and Alien Crossfire were later bundled together in the Alpha Centauri Planetary Pack. The game has also been released under the Sold-Out Software label. Storyline According to the storyline of the game, humanity is destroying itself through war, famine, pollution, and poverty, but before it can complete self-destruction, the U.N. launches an enormous colonization starship called Unity. The Unity is destined for a planet in the Alpha Centauri system. This planet, named "Chiron" (but often just called "Planet") is very similar to Earth. However, before the starship fully reaches Planet, forty years into the journey, the Unity suffers a core malfunction, awakening many of the crew, who then proceed to fix the malfunction. Before they are done, however, the captain of Unity, Garland, is assassinated by an unknown assailant. The rest of the crew is awakened soon after. When news of the assassination spread, the crew panics, the ship beginning to break apart due to mishandling. Seven leaders take up the challenge of leading a faction onto Planet by use of colony pods. (The game's video introduction depicts an eighth escape pod separating from the Unity, only to explode shortly thereafter.) Unity breaks up in high orbit, supplies, components, and factions spread everywhere. After the colony pods land, the player comes in to take control and aid their faction to victory over the others. Gameplay Alpha Centauri: Alien Crossfire screenshot Within the game, the player assumes the role of one of the seven distinct faction leaders and attempts to expand their colony and achieve victory. Players engage themselves in a race against the other factions, and are free to adopt any number of strategies in pursuit of their goal. Scientific discoveries within the game determine what technologies are available to particular factions, which in turn determines what facilities and units they can build at their colony bases. Unlike Civilization I and Civilization III, Alpha Centauri allows the player to fully customize units. Alpha Centauri is open-ended and has multiple, customizable parameters for victory. The player can choose to work toward a victory based on diplomacy, economics, conquest, or transcendence. The Datalinks The Datalinks, similar to Civilizations Civilopedia, contain information crucial to playing the game. Most important is the tech tree, which shows a complete system of all technologies available in the game, along with prerequisite technologies and all benefits the technology gives (new chassis, weapon, armor, reactor, or special ability types, along with new terraformer abilities, base facilities and secret projects, bonuses to xenofungus squares, social engineering choices, etc.) In all technology trades the game allows you to consult the Datalinks to find exactly what is being offered (or demanded). In addition, the Datalinks store the quotes involved with all technologies and secret projects. Many Alpha Centauri fans enjoy the quotes in particular and the thought behind them. The game's creators developed the personality and ideology of all the faction leaders through these quotes, as well as thoughts on human psychology. For instance, the Virtual World secret project is accompanied by Chairman Yang's view that reality is only what one perceives it to be, while Provost Zakharov denounces the general simplistic views on genetics when such technologies are discovered. Tying the imaginary technology of the Datalinks into real intellectual history are quotes from Plato, Machiavelli, Immanuel Kant, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Charles Dickens, Sir Thomas More, Albert Einstein, Saint Augustine, Aristotle, Friedrich Nietzsche, Sun Tzu, Lao Tzu, Herman Melville, Jules Verne, John Milton, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Søren Kirkegaard interspersed among those from the game's characters, as well as references to traditional songs and sayings from Earth. Generation Terrorists. http://www.generationterrorists.com/quotes/smac.html Terrain The game is represented on an isometric map of the planet surface, upon which bases are built and units deployed. Local features of the terrain influence the amount of resources a base harvests from any particular square. For example, rocky squares yield minerals but no food unless cleared, while river squares produce extra energy. The altitude of terrain influences how much energy can be harvested there, can create rain shadows downwind, etc. Terrain can be enhanced and altered (including raising and lowering altitude) by units equipped with a terraformer module. The terrain also affects combat. For example, defending units receive a +50% bonus in rocky squares, while artillery units receive bonuses when attacking from higher elevation. Landmarks The game also includes several "landmarks" that are featured in the standard maps and prone to appear on random maps. They include The Garland Crater, Mount Planet, Pholus Ridge, The New Sargasso, and The Ruins. Many of these are good locations to build bases at due to their resource output, but others, such as the New Sargasso (Sea) should be avoided, as it is filled with native life. The landmarks and their attributes are listed below. Garland Crater: Named after Captain Garland, the captain of the U.N. Starship Unity. Is mostly rocky, crater-shaped, and gives off good mineral output. It takes up 21 squares. Mount Planet: Named after "Planet", the nickname given to Chiron. This is an energy paradise. Building a base on or near Mount Planet will give that base good energy bonuses on all of the squares that are Mount Planet squares. Mount Planet takes up 3×3 squares. Pholus Ridge: This comes in the form of a large ripple that is seen running down part of Planet. Although it is an excellent place to build bases because of its high energy output, it creates a rain shadow on one side or the other depending on the hemisphere it's in. Takes up 2x10-12 squares; the longer side is always pointed down. New Sargasso: Named in honor of the Sargasso Sea, a life-filled segment of the Atlantic Ocean on Earth. The entire span of the New Sargasso is covered in Sea Xenofungus, and always has five "pods" at its center. However, most of the pods will trigger an "Isle of the Deep", the sea version of mindworms, to come up and attack the ship that took it. Attempts at clearing the Sea of Xenofungus will result in Planet getting mad at you and attacking your sea formers, but if you are really determined, then not even Planet can stop you. Takes up from 4×4 squares to 12×12 squares depending on amount of native life on Planet. The Ruins: Named that because of the organization of the monoliths, this is a key point. They take up a 3×3 square segment, with monoliths everywhere except in the center square. Monoliths cannot be "improved" by terraforming, but will allow the adding or removal of Xenofungus as well as roads. Each monolith gives two nutrient, mineral, and energy resources, and is often covered in Xenofungus. Since monoliths not only give good resources, but heal the units and give them a morale bonus, they are excellent points to put a base near. Sunny Mesa: Named because of its excellent energy output, this is a giant plateau that takes up 5×5 squares and, when covered in solar collectors, produces much energy. Freshwater Sea: Named due to its position, the Freshwater Sea is usually cut off from the ocean, taking the form of an inland lake. Provides +1 nutrient to every ocean square within it. Great Dunes: This is the name of the largest desert on Planet, named because all of the land is arid and flat or arid and rocky. Takes up from 3×5 squares to 6×10 squares depending on how arid Planet is. Geothermal Shallows: These are a series of bubble-looking squares that are found in the ocean. These squares give off extra energy bonuses and sometimes have an energy surplus sign in them. Typically takes up 5x5 squares. Monsoon Jungle: A large expanse of land covered with jungle; the only place where jungle can be found on Planet. This gives a +1 Nutrient bonus and all squares are rainy, resulting in +3 total nutrients unless a square is rocky, in which case the +1 nutrient bonus still applies. Takes up from 5×5 squares to 7×15 squares depending on sea level and the amount of rain on Planet. Uranium Flats: A segment of land covered with uranium; this gives off bonus energy resources. Takes up 5×5 squares. In addition there are numerous features named on the standard maps such as Eurytion Bay which improve the feel of the maps but have no effect on game play. Units and combat A unit is made up from different components such as chassis, weapon, armor, reactor, and special ability slots. Unlike the Civilization series proper, units come in default designs but can also be customized by the player. As new technologies become available, old designs may be brought up to date and existing units upgraded. The first of a new type of unit is considered a prototype and generally cost 50% more than the normal production model will. Generally, only friendly units (your own or those of a pact ally) can occupy the same square. Enemy units must be eliminated (or, in some cases, forced to withdraw) in order to move into their square. Combat is usually initiated when a unit belonging to one faction attempts to enter a square occupied by a unit/units of a hostile faction. Many factors affect the outcome of combat, including: The attacking unit's weapon rating; The defending unit's armor rating; The hit points of both units, capped by the type of reactor used; The morale status of both units; Any attack or defense modifiers brought about by base facilities, Secret Projects, faction abilities, unit special abilities and terrain effects. Researching certain new technologies unlocks progressively better equipment. Possessing certain support infrastructure (such as Command Centers), creating units with certain special abilities (such as High Morale), and having a positive morale rating in social engineering will all confer morale bonuses to new units, effectively enhancing their strength multiplier; conversely, a negative morale rating will incur morale penalties on new units. Also, gaining access to the mysterious alien monoliths that dot the planet, or defeating enough enemies to gain experience, will upgrade an existing unit's morale. Psionic combat ignores conventional components and circumstances, focusing instead on morale, and gives a bonus to the attacker if the combat takes place on land. It is resolved normally. Native life forms fight psionically, and some components enhance a unit's psionic ability or permit it to make psionic attacks. It is also possible to cultivate native life forms under a player's control. Here the equivalent of morale is determined by ecological status and breeding techniques, rather than infrastructure. Psi combat also takes priority over regular combat, so that if either attacker or defender is psi-capable then psi combat occurs in place of regular combat. Attacks that occur from a distance, such as missile strikes and artillery or naval bombardments, are an exception to this priority. There are a number of different unit types on land, sea and air, each with specific special properties and movement speeds. Air units are not initially available and require considerable technical development. Conventional missiles are a special type of single-use unit. Planetbuster missiles blast holes in continents, but provoke extreme global warming, a frenzied assault from native life, and being declared hostis humani generis by all other factions. Native Life Adding to the trouble of the human factions is a pinkish-red indigenous semi-sentient fungus (xenofungus) (pronounced Zee-noe-fuhn-guhs) that spans the planet. Concentrations of it can spawn more aggressive native life forms, the most basic of which are known as mind worms. Mind worms and other native life act as the planet's immune system, reacting to heavy industrial pollution by attacking offending cities and installations. On the flip side, mind worms can be captured by factions with a deep understanding of Planet's fragile ecology and used as instruments of war and police. Also, in addition to native life there are certain structures dotted across the map called monoliths. These monoliths will upgrade any attack-based unit by one level only once. Every other time you land on them, they merely heal the unit, making them good places to fight or skirmish if you control them. Within many maps there is a ring of monoliths that fills all the squares in a 3x3 section of the map except the middle square with monoliths. These are called The Ruins by the game. This is a key point, as monoliths give the base an even "2" of every resource (nutrient, minerals, and energy). However, in most games this area is covered in xenofungus, so in order to build a base there (bases cannot be built in xenofungus) a player will need to have a former come down and clear it off, but beware: clearing too much fungus is considered polluting, and Planet may become angry and send mindworms to attack offending formers. Note* even if the land that The Ruins was on submerges, the monoliths will be there. They cannot ever be destroyed unless a random event makes them "disappear" as happens on rare occasions when a unit attempts to use them. Once in a while, what appears as a drop pod from the Unity turns out to be a purple "alien artifact." These immensely valuable items may be used to finish prototypes or secret projects more quickly, or to reveal a new technology when combined with the Network Node base facility or the Network Backbone secret project. In the course of the storyline, it is discovered that all xenofungus collectively forms a massive neural network, making the entire ecosystem a colossal group mind. It grows increasingly intelligent as the game progresses, even beginning communications with faction leaders in cut-scenes from time to time. However, contrary to the concept of a benevolent Mother Earth, the "Planetmind" is suspicious of humans and will defend itself if necessary. Faction leader quotes scattered throughout the game reveal that all of them, with the notable exception of Lady Deirdre--the first leader to have a conversation with the Planetmind--consider the emerging mind to be highly dangerous. This is due to the fact that the final growth stage is self-destructive, and will take humanity with it. However, the Transcendence victory condition allows the player to unite human consciousness with the Planetmind, helping it avoid self-destruction and propelling humanity to a new plane of existence. Bases The Alpha Centauri game CD (Microsoft Windows version), depicting the surface of the planet Chiron and the system's two stars. Bases, like cities in the earlier Civilization games, are the center of the game. A base is nothing less than a self-contained city that can be built, captured, as well as destroyed (either through war casualties, starvation, abandonment by constructing a colony pod at base size 1, weapons of mass destruction, unintentional ecological disruptions, being overrun by native mind worms, or through ethnic cleansing--i.e., putting a civilian populace to death). A base collects resources from the surrounding environment, using the manpower of the local population, or mechanically through resource crawler units. Mineral resources are used in building units and maintaining their upkeep, or can be converted to energy credits. Nutrient resources feed the local citizens, with more nutrients harvested leading to a higher rate of population growth. Energy collected from boreholes, tidal harnesses, forests or solar collectors is piped into three priorities: PSYCH, ECONOMY and LABS. PSYCH represents how much energy is being used in improving the living standard of the inhabitants. ECONOMY represents how much energy is diverted into energy credits. LABS represents how much energy is being diverted into powering research. The output of all three can be enhanced by facilities or by special inhabitants called specialists. Energy credits created by the economy are the currency of the game. They can be used to hurry the production of new base facilities, units, secret projects, or they can be bartered in diplomatic encounters. Some covert missions or prototype construction also require energy credits. Depending on a faction's social policies and the individual base's distance from the capital, a portion of collected energy can be lost to inefficiency. Citizens are the inhabitants of a base. One citizen represents 10,000 inhabitants. It takes one citizen to harvest the resources of one square. New citizens are produced when a base has accumulated a set quantity of excess nutrients. The amount of nutrients needed to create growth becomes higher as the population multiplies. Social engineering choices or facilities can help reduce this required amount during each stage of growth. If the base's population reaches 127 (i.e. 1,270,000) the next increase incorrectly rolls over to -128 as the base population size is stored in a signed 8-bit value. Bases build all of the faction's units, and by extension, new bases. A new base is created when a previous base builds a unit equipped with a colony pod module and the unit is deployed at the desired location, which cannot be adjacent to an existing base of any faction. Building new units requires a set amount of minerals, depending on how complex or advanced the unit is. Each turn, minerals processed by citizens are added to the current task until it is completed. This process can be hurried by spending energy credits. New technologies are researched in a similar manner. LABS output from every base is accumulated each turn until it fulfills the required cost to research the technology. All of these aspects can be enhanced by facilities and other factors. A base can also build facilities and secret projects. Facilities, which are analogous to the buildings of the original Civilization games, create or alter some function of the base they are located in. Similarly, Secret Projects are comparable to the Great Wonders of the original Civilization. They are expensive and can only be built once, and only by one faction per game, but usually have dramatic benefits ranging from free facilities to social engineering effects and special unit abilities. Launching Space-Based Vehicles As you progress in the game, you will discover "Orbital Spaceflight," which allows you to launch the first type of space probe into space. There are four different probes that can be sent into space. The first is called a "Sky Hydroponics Lab" and gives every base in your control a +1 Nutrient bonus. They are compatible with each other and can be built multiple times at the same base. However, they only give a full nutrient per satellite if the base has an Aerospace Complex; otherwise the base will only get half as much. Note that the nutrients cannot exceed the base size. The second is called an "Orbital Power Transmitter." This has the same properties as the Sky Hydroponics Lab except for the fact that you get bonus energy instead of nutrients. The third is called a "Nessus Mining Station" and has the same properties as the previous two satellites have except it gives bonus minerals instead of nutrients. The fourth satellite is not for domestic purposes; it is called an "Orbital Defense Pod." When deployed, each one you build has a 50% chance of intercepting a planet buster, though they have to be deployed, ie, expended, for that. Diplomacy When two factions have established contact, they can engage in a variety of diplomatic actions. New technology, energy credits and bases can be bargained for, given away or demanded with the threat of force. Factions can sign treaties and pacts, declare war or ask for a temporary cessation of hostilities. Treaties lead to commerce between faction bases and an increase in income for both factions. Pacts allow units to enter allied-held territory and bases, and double the commerce modifier between the two factions. Computer controlled factions will remember past dealings, betrayals and atrocities, and will base their reactions (modified by the leader's personality) to the player's diplomatic overtures accordingly. Once one human faction has made contact with all other human factions, it can choose to convene the Planetary Council and elect a Planetary Governor. Thereafter, factions can periodically convene the council (at most once every 20 years (turns) for each faction; the Planetary Governor only has to wait 10 years) to make proposals such as electing a new governor, salvaging the Unity fusion reactor core to gain a large amount of energy credits for each faction, lower sea levels via satellite shades or raise them by melting the polar ice caps, eliminate the ban on atrocities like weapons of mass destruction, killing civilians with gas or punishing rioters by nerve-stapling, or creating or repealing a global trade pact. With the exception of the Planetary Governor or Supreme Leader elections, each faction has one vote, with the governor holding veto power. In Planetary Governor or Supreme Leader elections, each faction casts a number of votes based on its total population and modifiers from faction ability and secret projects. Society Despite being set in the future, the problems of human society still plague the inhabitants of Chiron. Reflecting this are the existence of drones in the population. Drones represent the undereducated, discontent segments of society. When the number of drones overwhelms the number of well educated citizens, called Talents, a drone riot occurs. During a drone riot all productive activity within the base is suspended. If not stopped, prolonged drone riots will eventually escalate in severity until facilities are destroyed or, in extreme cases, the entire city defects to another faction. Drone riots can be suppressed through the use of in-base military units as police. The amount of suppression allowed depends on the degree of tolerance the society, under current social engineering models, has for policing and on special police training the units may have. There also exists the temporary and more extreme solution of nerve stapling. This directly suppresses the violent tendencies of the population, preventing drone riots for a short period of time, but carrying it out is considered an atrocity and will negatively impact diplomatic interactions. As well, the base facility called Punishment Sphere, among other effects, eliminates all drones from a base's population; the secret project named The Telepathic Matrix, among other effects, does not eliminate drones but means they will never riot in any base of the player who controls it. Social Engineering Social engineering is another decisive game element reflecting human nature. Here, political, economic, social and future society models may be chosen. Each choice has its benefits and drawbacks, shown in a technical manner in-game by altering listed values which reflect how a faction operates overall. For instance, a good "INDUSTRY" rating improves build speeds and a good "ECONOMY" rating increases your faction's wealth. Politics represents the method your society uses to make political decisions. Frontier is the default system. This represents the informal government used early on before colonies grow large enough to warrant a more sophisticated system. Police State is the system in which an oppressive police presence is maintained. This helps improve police effect and military support, but economic efficiency suffers. Democratic is the system where the citizens partake in government via elected representatives. The stability this offers promotes growth and efficiency, but large military deployments become costly due to support penalties representing citizens' unease with long military campaigns. Fundamentalist is the system where the government is controlled and run in a religious manner. This improves military morale and helps counter enemy espionage, but scientific research suffers greatly due to suspicion of secular methods. Economics represents how a faction society manages its resources. Simple is the default administration. It represents the ad hoc economy which is utilized in the setting's early years. Free Market is the system where market forces run free. This system generates great wealth, but due to lack of any regulation damages to the environment and cripples any sort of police presence. Planned is the system where the market is controlled by heavy government regulation in accordance to an overall economic plan. This improves population growth and industrial output, but bureaucracy makes management of resources inefficient. Green is the system whereby the economy is regulated such that it places environmental management above all else. This helps limit ecological damage and improves efficient use of resources, but because of ecological safeguards population growth is limited. Values represents which value system a faction leader places emphasis upon. Survival is the most important value early on in the game, before factions become established and safe enough to divert to other choices. Power is the value of having a strong military. This bolsters morale and allows for large forces to be maintained more easily, but civilian industry suffers due to martial concerns having priority. Knowledge is the value of supporting intellectual pursuits. Scientific research is accelerated and efficiency improves due to an emphasis on the free flow of information and taking the "best option", but this freedom of information also makes enemy espionage and subversion easier. Wealth is the value emphasizing finance and its material rewards. This improves the economy and industry, but the official emphasis on greed as a motivating factor hurts military morale. Future society represents advanced social-engineering models, which can only be applied very late in the game due to the high technological base and willingness for societal realignment required. Unlike other social engineering choices, the designers could not rely on observable societies in the real world, and had to speculate on how technology and society would progress. None is the default future society, where a faction is not advanced enough to yet consider such things. Cybernetic is the future society where artificial intelligences take over many tasks, improving efficiency and greatly reducing effects on the environment. Research also improves from humans being freed from menial labor for more intellectual pursuits, but policing becomes more difficult due to handling discontented workers displaced by machines. Eudaimonia is the future society where people are encouraged to strive for their hopes and dreams, valuing life and liberty. Population growth, the economy and industry all prosper, but military morale is lowered and training drops in quality due to near-pacifism espoused by the populace. Thought Control is the future society where mind control methods are used to subjugate people to the will of the government. Crime and disorder are seriously reduced, military morale improves, and enemy espionage is made difficult, but the massive material support needed diverts resources away from military maintenance. Social engineering plays an important role in game diplomacy with computer players. Players that presently utilize the social engineering preference of a particular faction may have improved diplomatic relations with that faction. However, if a player has made a different social engineering ideal in whatever area of society (government, economy, values, or future society) a computer player's social choice lies, diplomatic relations will become strained, sometimes leading to outright vendetta. For example, the Gaians may make the social choice of Green economics, which will lead to strained relations with the Morganites (who favor Free Market economics) but will make no difference with the Hive, even if the Hive is using Free Market or Planned economics, since the Hive's preference is that of a Police State government. At the beginning of each game, each faction is designated a particular social engineering preference and a particular social engineering aversion. Computer players must use their social engineering preference as soon as it is available, while all players (regardless of whether they are human or computer) may not use their social engineering aversion. Normally, the preference and aversion reflect the apparent ideologies of the faction (i.e. the Gaians favor Green economics and abhor Free Market economics). However, the player has the option to randomize the social agendas of all computer players. If this option is selected, the social engineering aversion of the faction remains the same. Consequently, it is possible for any faction to have the same social engineering choice as a preference and an aversion. In such a case, the player will still support that particular social engineering choice in diplomatic relations but cannot use that particular choice. Factions The original seven factions in the game are as follows below (the Alien Crossfire expansion adds seven more): Spartan Federation True to its namesake, the militaristic Spartan faction places the highest priority on strength, discipline and combat readiness. Colonel Corazón Santiago, a survivalist from Puerto Rico, and a UNS Unity Security officer, leads the faction, and led the initial mutiny aboard ship. The Spartans make planetfall with the technology Doctrine: Mobility. Spartan units receive morale upgrades (making them better fighters) and their disciplined society is naturally tolerant of martial law, allowing two military units to help suppress a colony's drones. The Spartans' skilled military expertise allows them to build prototype units without extra mineral cost. However, the society's devotion to military imposes a 10% penalty to industrial production. The Spartans prefer the Power social engineering choice and may not pursue Wealth, all the while remaining wary of those who don't choose an emphasis on Power. The Spartans are likely to press vendetta against the Hive and the Gaians. Their founding base is Sparta Command. Social effects: +2 Morale, +1 Police, -1 Industry; prototypes do not cost extra minerals Gaia's Stepdaughters The Gaians are a faction that values living in ecological harmony with Planet and abhors ecological destruction, particularly after the way humanity left Earth. They are led by Lady Deirdre Skye (Unity officer in charge of hydroponics) of Scotland. The Gaians make planetfall with the technology Centauri Ecology. The Gaians' ecological safeguards allow them to avoid ecological damage and to capture native mind worms (they also automatically succeed on their first attempt to capture a mindworm), and their experience with lifecycles and recycling gives them an efficiency bonus. The Gaians also receive one extra nutrient from fungal squares and their infantry units can move through xenofungus with reduced movement penalties. The Gaians are pacifistic and freedom-loving, giving rise to their weaknesses: low troop morale and a lower tolerance for policing. The Gaians prefer Green economics and may not use a Free Market system in social engineering, and look upon Planned economics as little better - which usually leads them to bitter hostilities with the Morganites, The Spartans, and The Hive. Their founding base is Gaia's Landing. Social effects: +2 Efficiency, +1 Planet, -1 Morale. -1 Police; +1 nutrients in fungus squares, always auto-capture first mind worm. University of Planet A technocratic faction that values knowledge and scientific advancement above all else, including ethics. The University are led by Academician Prokhor Zakharov of Russia (possibly named in tribute to physicist–politician Andrei Sakharov; the character's name was changed from Saratov early in development), Unity'''s chief science officer. The University makes planetfall with Information Networks, as well as one other level 1 technology that of the player's choice. The brilliant researchers of the University allow them to discover new technologies 20% faster than normal, but the openness of their academic networks leaves them prone to infiltration from other factions' probe teams. Every University base comes equipped with a Network Node base facility for free (Nodes boosts research by another 50% and allows the base to study alien artifacts, and have other benefits related to certain secret projects). Due to the University's lack of ethics in regards to research and experimentation, the faction suffers from more drones, representing the underclasses' discontent with and distrust of their amoral, well-educated leaders. The University prefers the Knowledge value in social engineering and may not use a Fundamentalist government. They are most likely to go to war with the Believers. Their founding site is University Base. Social effects: +2 Research, -2 Probe; free Network Node in each base; one additional drone for every four citizens in all bases). Peacekeeping Forces This faction works hard to keep the peace through diplomacy and maintaining the United Nations charter. Led by Commissioner Pravin Lal of India, the UNS Unitys Chief of Surgery and third-in-command after its arrival in the Alpha Centauri system, the Peacekeepers make planetfall with the technology Biogenetics. The United Nations-style bureaucracy of the faction causes them to have a negative efficiency rating, but the Peacekeepers attract intellectual elites. Peacekeeper colonies may grow two sizes beyond normal population restrictions. In votes for Planetary Governor and Supreme Leader, Lal's experience with politics means the Peacekeepers' votes are doubled. The Peacekeepers favor democratic politics and may not use a police state government in social engineering, and neither are they keen on religious dogma thanks to their liberal universalist tendencies. As a result, they tend to go to war with the Hive and the Believers, who favor these forms of government. Their founding base is United Nations Headquarters. Social effects: -1 Efficiency; one additional talent for every four citizens in each base, double votes in Planetary Governor/Supreme Leader). Human Hive A totalitarian faction based on Collectivist principles. They are controlled by Chairman Sheng-Ji Yang of Great China, the former Executive Officer (second-in-command) for the Unity mission, who tends to see his people as fodder for sociological experimentation. The Hive makes planetfall with the technology Doctrine: Loyalty. However they begin with only a single colony pod. The Hive has its growth rate boosted by 10% and its brutal serfdom decreases the mineral cost of units and facilities by 10%; however, the lack of political freedom causes each base to generate one fewer unit of energy per turn. The Hive has an immunity to inefficiency caused by social engineering choices thanks to the remorseless treatment of workers; this greatly bolsters the Police State government favored by Yang as it removes negative side effects caused by that choice. The Hive may not use a Democratic government, and is wary of religious hyperbole. This may lead the Hive into conflict with the Peacekeeping, Gaian, and Believing factions. Their founding base, naturally, is The Hive. Social effects: +1 Growth, +1 Industry, -2 Economy; free Perimeter Defense in each base, immune to negative Efficiency in social engineering table During development, this faction was named "The Labyrinth" and had a stronger scientific inclination, before being changed to "The Hive" in the final release; however, one of their bases is still called The Labyrinth. In the pre-release version of the game, the Hive's belief in the greater good greatly raised the morale of Yang's army; however, this is not present in the final version of SMAC or the SMAX expansion pack. Lord's Believers A fundamentalist faction wary of secular technology. Led by Sister Miriam Godwinson (Unity's chaplain) from the Christian States of America. The Believers make planetfall with the technology Social Psych. The Believers' convictions give them a 25% attack bonus as well as increasing the morale of their Probe Teams and their ability to resist enemies' probe attempts. Their eagerness to defend their faith allows each colony to support up to four units without cost of minerals. Because the Believers feel that Chiron is their promised land, ecological tensions are increased and production of resources in fungal squares is decreased. The Believers are also skeptical of secular technology, thus their research rate is decreased by 20% and they may not accumulate any research points in the first ten years on Chiron. The Believers prefer Fundamentalist government and may not use Knowledge as a social engineering choice, and for reasons best known to themselves become very upset with neighboring Democratic and Police states; Sister Miriam generally decries them as "Godless". While the game was being coded, this faction was named "The Conclave" before being changed to "The Believers" in the final release. Their founding base is named New Jerusalem. The AI behavior of the Believers tends toward aggression and forceful actions to get what they want. Because they cannot gain technology at the rate of most of the other factions, the Believers prefer to deploy large numbers of technologically inferior troops, overwhelming their foes by force of numbers. The faction they are most likely to declare war on is the University, as they have nearly opposite views. Social effects: +2 Support, +1 Probe, -2 Research, -1 Planet; +25% bonus when attacking). Morgan Industries A corporate capitalistic faction, led by self-made mogul and diamond tycoon Nwabudike Morgan (whose company funded the Unity mission, and had a secret, private sleeping pod installed on the ship for him) of Namibia. The Morganites make planetfall with the technology Industrial Base and an additional 100 energy credits. Because they are an industrial conglomerate, and thus skilled in matters of economy and production, they receive an energy bonus in social engineering - an extra unit of energy in each base, and one energy per square and even larger bonuses if this is combined with social engineering values such as Free Market or Wealth. However, because of the faction's followers' expensive tastes and demand for creature comforts, Morganite units have high mineral maintenance costs and colonies cannot exceed population size four until the Hab Complex Facility is built (the default is seven). The Morganites receive extra energy from commerce due to their marketing and trade expertise. They prefer Free Market economics and may not choose a Planned economy in social engineering, and find that Green economics 'hinder the just and proper flow of capital'. Their founding base is Morgan Industries. Social benefits (+1 economy, -1 support, extra 100 credits at beginning, hab complex needed to expand base beyond 4, and extra energy through commerce). While the Morganites prefer the Free Market social-engineering choice, they cannot be said to be a wholly "free-market" oriented faction, which the portrayed attitude of N. Morgan through the game, particularly at the end, also shows--Morgan proves to be a dedicated monopolist, and indeed the Economic victory could hardly be called an attempt at a free market (see below). Morganites can easily make astronomical profits with the right social engineering, but cannot effectively maintain a large army due to their support penalties (at least not until the invention of clean reactors, which erase support costs for military units using them). A common strategy is to use waves of probe teams to subvert (i.e., control) enemy units, putting their vast funding to good use. Victory conditions There are several victory methods available in Alpha Centauri. As well, it is possible to have a cooperative victory, allowing multiple pact-bonded factions to win the game if one of the factions achieves one of the following methods. Conquest A victory by conquest occurs when all factions are annihilated or have surrendered to one player. If cooperative victory is enabled then there may be up to three pact siblings who can share the victory (excluding those who have surrendered). Economic When a player has enough energy reserves (roughly equal to what it would take to mind-control all the remaining cities on Planet), he or she can win the game through economic victory by cornering the global energy market. This takes 20 turns to achieve, and can be prevented if during this time the faction's headquarters falls to an enemy. Diplomatic A player achieves diplomatic victory by uniting the Planetary Council behind him or her. To do this, the player must get 75% of the votes, by population, at Planetary Council. If the vote succeeds but remaining factions oppose the decision, they must be eliminated by force to achieve a victory by conquest. Transcendence The transcendence victory is achieved by building the Ascent to Transcendence secret project, which becomes available after the Voice of Planet secret project has been built (by any faction). This concept of a post-human era is very closely related to the idea of the technological singularity. After this project is built the human inhabitants of Chiron leave their material bodies to merge with the emerged planet intelligence. Inspirations According to the game's designer, much inspiration for the game came from "classic works of science fiction" Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri Manual p.185 . Reynolds cites Frank Herbert's novel The Jesus Incident as a clear inspiration. The native life and singular planet mind of the game draws heavily from this book. The concept of presenting quotes with every achievement also comes from The Jesus Incident. Chiron (the name of the planet) is the name of the only non-barbaric centaur in Greek mythology and an important loregiver and teacher for humanity. It also is an homage to James P. Hogan's 1982 space opera novel Voyage from Yesteryear, where a human colony is artificially created at Alpha Centauri by automatic probe on a planet later named by colonists as Chiron. Chiron in the game has two moons, named after the centaurs Nessus and Pholus, with the combined tidal force of Earth's Moon, and is the second planet out from Alpha Centauri A, the innermost planet being the Mercury-like planet named after the centaur Eurytion. Alpha Centauri B is also dubbed Hercules, a reference to him killing several centaurs in mythology, and the second star preventing the formation of larger planets. The arrival on Chiron is referred to as "Planetfall", which is a term used in many science fiction novels, including Robert A. Heinlein's Future History series, and Infocom's celebrated comic interactive fiction adventure Planetfall. Vernor Vinge's concept of technological singularity is the origin of the Transcendence concept. The CG footage, and many of the still images from the cutscenes are original to the game, but the majority of the live action footage in these scenes is from the 1992 experimental documentary film Baraka. Influence While not being a direct sequel of Civilization II, Alpha Centauri was considered a spiritual successor of that much-acclaimed game, because it had the same general principles and was made by many of the original developers. At the time, the future of the Civilization franchise was in dispute since Sid Meier and Brian Reynolds had left Microprose to found Firaxis. Unable to make Civilization III, the two made Alpha Centauri instead, beginning the game where the storyline had left off in Civilization, with mankind leaving Earth to travel to Alpha Centauri. Alpha Centauri was also built on the Civilization II engine modified for voxel graphics. The magazine PC Gamer US awarded Alpha Centauri a score of 98%, which was the highest score ever given by that magazine—Civilization II being the previous holder of this record with 97%. Later, PC Gamer also gave Half-Life 2 and Crysis scores of 98% in 2004 and 2007, respectively, tying each with Alpha Centauri. The magazine also gave Alpha Centauri Editor's choice and Turn-based strategy game of the year awards in 1999.Alpha Centauri has also won several Game of the Year awards, including those from The Denver Post and Toronto Sun. It won Turn-based Strategy Game of the year award from GameSpot as well. The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences named Alpha Centauri best strategy game of the year. In 2000 Alpha Centauri won the Origins Award for Best Strategy Computer Game of 1999. In the community of Civilization players, many quotations from Alpha Centauri, which are shown at different points in the gameplay, are also quite popular. The game has also sparked a trilogy of novels (see below) and a strategy guide by Chris Hartpence ("Velociryx"), which was later printed and published. Steve Jackson Games also published GURPS Alpha Centauri, a sourcebook for the GURPS role-playing game set in the Alpha Centauri universe. Many gameplay features which made their debut in Alpha Centauri would be implemented in later games in the Civilization series, such as enhanced diplomatic options (including the ability to loan money to other players and to make other players become vassals), an election-based UN-like system for enacting laws affecting all players, and the ability to fine-tune a faction's governmental structures by varying separate aspects of their governance. TechnologyAlpha Centauri employs (isometric) 3-D rendering for both the terrain and units. This is made possible by the "Caviar" voxel library by AnimaTek International (now Digital Element), which renders the voxel models and terrain geometry using self-modifying assembly language routines. Fiction The original story of the journey and splintering of the colonization space ship from Earth to Alpha Centauri was detailed in multiple installments that were released periodically by Michael Ely of Firaxis on the web, immediately prior to the release of the game, for marketing purposes. During the course of the installments, the names of regular forum members on the official Firaxis forums were incorporated into the story in cameos. The resulting short story Journey to Centauri can be downloaded from the official website Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri: The Story . A second short story, Arrival, introducing the Alien Crossfire factions, is also downloadable from that site. For further reading, game story developer Michael Ely has also written a trilogy of novels based on the game. Each of these novels is loosely based on one of the three "Faction vs. Faction" scenarios included with the game: Peacekeepers vs. Spartans, Gaians vs. Morganites, and Believers vs. University, respectively. There is also a graphic novel Alpha Centauri: Power of the Mindworms written by Steve Darnell and illustrated by Rafael Kayanan. References See also Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire Outpost 2 External links Official sitePlanetfall'': fan-based attempt to use SMAC elements on the Civilization IV engine. | Sid_Meier's_Alpha_Centauri |@lemmatized sid:7 meier:8 alpha:34 centauri:37 sometimes:3 abbreviate:1 smac:4 turn:10 base:80 strategic:1 computer:8 game:60 create:10 brian:2 reynolds:4 auspex:1 firaxis:4 fictional:1 attempt:9 human:15 colonize:1 planet:42 star:3 system:18 pick:1 early:6 title:1 civilization:19 ii:4 leave:7 expansion:3 pack:3 call:14 alien:9 crossfire:6 aka:1 smacx:1 smax:2 also:32 release:7 although:2 popular:2 gamers:1 never:2 reach:3 height:1 success:1 pre:2 patched:1 version:5 later:4 bundle:1 together:1 planetary:10 sell:1 software:1 label:1 storyline:4 accord:2 humanity:5 destroy:4 war:7 famine:1 pollution:2 poverty:1 complete:3 self:6 destruction:5 u:3 n:3 launch:3 enormous:1 colonization:2 starship:3 unity:15 destine:1 name:23 chiron:11 often:2 similar:3 earth:8 however:15 fully:2 forty:1 year:9 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6,586 | History_of_the_Dominican_Republic | The Dominican Republic occupies the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antilles. Successive waves of Arawak migrants, moving northward from the Orinoco delta in South America, settled the islands of the Caribbean. Around A.D. 600, the Taíno Indians, a late Stone Age culture, arrived on the island, displacing the previous inhabitants. They were organized into cacicazgos (chiefdoms), each led by a cacique (chief). The final Arawak migrants, the Caribs, began moving up the Lesser Antilles in the 1100s, and were raiding Taíno villages on the island's eastern coast by the time the Spanish arrived.- The arrival of the Europeans Christopher Columbus reached the island on his first voyage, on December 5, 1492, naming it La Española. Believing that the Europeans were in someway supernatural, the Taínos welcomed them with all the honors available. This was a totally different society from the one the Europeans came from. Guacanagarix, the chief who hosted Christopher Columbus and his men, treated them kindly and provided them with everything they desired. Yet the Taínos' allegedly "egalitarian" system clashed with the Europeans' feudalist system, with more rigid class structures. This led the Europeans to believe the Taínos to be either weak or misleading, and they began to treat the tribes with more violence. Columbus tried to temper this when he and his men departed from Quisqueya — as the Taínos called the island — and they left on a good note. Columbus had cemented a firm alliance with Guacanagarix, who was a powerful chief on the island. After the shipwrecking of the Santa María, Columbus decided to establish a small fort with a garrison of men that could help him lay claim to this possession. The fort was called La Navidad, since the events of the shipwrecking and the founding of the fort occurred on Christmas Day. The garrison, in spite of all the wealth and beauty on the island, was wracked by divisions that evolved into conflict amongst these first Europeans. The more rapacious ones began to terrorize the Taíno, Ciguayo and Macorix tribesmen up to the point of trying to take their women. Viewed as weak by the Spaniards and even some of his own people, Guacanagarix tried to come to an accommodation with the Spaniards, who saw his appeasement as the actions of someone who submitted. They treated him with contempt and even took some of his wives. The powerful cacique of the Maguana, Caonabo, could brook no further affronts and attacked the Europeans, destroying La Navidad. Guacanagarix was dismayed by this turn of events but did not try too hard to aid these guamikena, probably hoping that the troublesome outsiders would never return. However, they did return. In 1493, Christopher Columbus came back to the island on his second voyage and founded the first Spanish colony in the New World, the city of Isabella. In 1496, his brother Bartholomew Columbus established the settlement of Santo Domingo de Guzmán on the southern coast, which became the new capital. An estimated 400,000 Tainos living on the island were soon enslaved to work in gold mines. As a consequence of oppression, forced labor, hunger, disease, and mass killings, it is estimated that by 1508 that number had been reduced to around 500,000. By 1535, only 600,000 were still alive. Jonathan Hartlyn, The Struggle for Democratic Politics in the Dominican Republic, p.24, The University of North Carolina Press, 1998 During this period, the Spanish leadership changed hands several times. When Columbus departed on another exploration, Francisco de Bobadilla became governor. Settlers' charges against Columbus of mismanagement added to the tumultuous political situation. In 1502, Nicolás de Ovando replaced de Bobadilla as governor, with an ambitious plan to expand Spanish influence in the region. It was he who dealt most brutally with the Taínos. One rebel, however, successfully fought back. Enriquillo, leading a group of those who had fled to the mountains, attacked the Spanish repeatedly for fourteen years. Finally, the Spanish offered him a peace treaty. In addition, they gave Enriquillo and his followers their own city in 1534. The city did not last long, however; several years after its establishment, a slave rebellion burned it to the ground, killing anyone who stayed behind. African enslavement In 1501, the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand I and Isabella, first granted permission to the colonists of the Caribbean to import African slaves, which began arriving to the island in 1503. These African importees arrived with a rich and ancient culture that has had an influence second only to that of Europe on the racial, political and cultural character of the modern Dominican Republic. In 1510, the first sizable shipment, consisting of 250 Black Ladinos, arrived in Hispaniola from Spain. Eight years later African-born slaves arrived in the West Indies. Sugar cane was introduced to Hispaniola from the Canary Islands, and the first sugar mill in the New World was established in 1516, on Hispaniola.Sugar Cane: Past and Present, Peter Sharpe http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/sugar.htm The need for a labor force to meet the growing demands of sugar cane cultivation led to an exponential increase in the importation of slaves over the following two decades. The sugar mill owners soon formed a new colonial elite, and convinced the Spanish king to allow them to elect the members of the Real Audiencia from their ranks. Poorer colonists subsisted by hunting the herds of wild cattle that roamed throughout the island and selling their hides. The first major slave revolt in the Americas occurred in Santo Domingo during 1522, when enslaved Muslims of the Wolof nation led an uprising in the sugar plantation of admiral Don Diego Colon, son of Christopher Columbus. Many of these insurgents managed to escape to the mountains where they formed independent maroon communities. descended from tainos mixed with runaway Africans, who reached the cacique. 1540-1844 While sugar cane dramatically increased Spain's earnings on the island, large numbers of the newly imported slaves fled into the nearly impassable mountain ranges in the island's interior, joining the growing communities of cimarrónes-literally, 'wild animals'. By the 1530s, cimarron bands had become so numerous that in rural areas the Spaniards could only safely travel outside their plantations in large armed groups. By the 1540s, the Caribbean Sea had become overrun with English, French and Dutch pirates. In 1541 Spain authorized the construction of Santo Domingo's fortified wall, and decided to restrict sea travel to enormous, well-armed caravans. In another move, which would destroy Hispaniola's sugar industry, in 1561 Havana, more strategically located in relation to the Gulf Stream, was selected as the designated stopping point for the merchant flotas, which had a royal monopoly on commerce with the Americas. In 1564, the island's main inland cities Santiago de los Caballeros and Concepción de la Vega were destroyed by an earthquake. Colonial decline, French encroachment and the Haitian Revolution With the conquest of the American mainland, Hispaniola quickly declined. Most Spanish colonists left for the silver-mines of Mexico and Peru, while new immigrants from Spain bypassed the island. Agriculture dwindled, new imports of slaves ceased, and white colonists, free blacks and slaves alike lived in poverty, weakening the racial hierarchy and aiding intermixing, resulting in a population of predominantly mixed Taino, Spaniard and African descent. Except for the city of Santo Domingo, which managed to maintain some legal exports, Dominican ports were forced to rely on contraband trade, which, along with livestock, became the sole source of livelihood for the island dwellers. In 1586, Sir Francis Drake captured the city of Santo Domingo, collecting a ransom for its return to Spanish rule. In 1605, Spain, unhappy that Santo Domingo was facilitating trade between its other colonies and other European powers, attacked vast parts of the colony's northern and western regions, forcibly resettling their inhabitants closer to the city of Santo Domingo. Knight, Franklin, The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism, 3rd ed. p.54 New York, Oxford University Press 1990 This action, known as the devastaciones, proved disastrous; more than half of the resettled colonists died of starvation or disease. Rough Guide to the Dominican Republic, Pg. 352 French and English buccaneers took advantage of Spain's retreat into a corner of Hispaniola to settle the island of Tortuga in 1629, which France established direct control over in 1640, reorganizing it into an official colony and expanding to the north coast of Hispaniola itself. Spain ceded the western end of the island to France in 1697 under the name Saint-Domingue, under the Treaty of Ryswick. In 1655, Oliver Cromwell dispatched a fleet, commanded by Admiral Sir William Penn, to conquer Santo Domingo. After meeting heavy resistance, the English retreated, taking the island of Jamaica instead. The House of Bourbon replaced the House of Habsburg in Spain in 1700 and introduced economic reforms that gradually began to revive trade in Santo Domingo. The crown progressively relaxed the rigid controls and restrictions on commerce between Spain and the colonies and among the colonies. The last flotas sailed in 1737; the monopoly port system was abolished shortly thereafter. By the middle of the century, the population was bolstered by emigration from the Canary Islands, resettling the northern part of the colony and planting tobacco in the Cibao Valley, and importation of slaves was renewed. The population of Santo Domingo grew from about 6,000 in 1737 to approximately 125,000 in 1790. Of this number, about 40,000 were white landowners, about 25,000 were black or mulatto freedmen, and some 60,000 were slaves. However, it remained poor and neglected, particularly in contrast with neighboring French Saint-Domingue, which became the wealthiest colony in the New World. Dominican Republic - THE FIRST COLONY As restrictions on colonial trade were relaxed, the colonial elites of St. Domingue offered the principal market for Santo Domingo's exports of beef, hides, mahogany and tobacco. With the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution, the rich urban families linked to the colonial bureaucracy fled the island, while most of the rural hateros (cattle ranchers) remained, even though they lost their principal market. Spain saw in the unrest an opportunity to seize all, or part, of the western third of the island in an alliance of convenience with the British and the rebellious slaves. They were defeated by the forces of the black Jacobin General Toussaint Louverture, and in 1795, France gained control of the whole island under the Treaties of Basel. In 1801, L'Ouverture arrived in Santo Domingo, proclaiming the abolition of slavery on behalf of the French Republic. Shortly afterwards, Napoleon dispatched an army which subdued the whole island and ruled it for a few months. Mulattos and blacks again rose up against these French in October 1802 and finally defeated them in November 1803. On 1 January 1804 the victors declared Saint-Domingue to be the independent republic of Haiti. Even after their defeat by the Haitians, a small French garrison remained in the former Spanish colony. Slavery was reestablished and many of the émigré Spanish colonists returned. In 1805, after crowning himself Emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines invaded, reaching Santo Domingo before retreating in the face of a French naval squadron. In their retreat through the Cibao, the Haitians sacked the towns of Santiago de los Caballeros and Moca, slaughtering most of their residents and helping to lay the foundation for two centuries of animosity between the two countries. The French held on in the eastern part of the island, until defeated by the Spanish inhabitants at the Battle of Palo Hincado on November 7, 1808 and the final capitulation of the besieged Santo Domingo on July 9, 1809, with help from the Royal Navy. The Spanish authorities showed little interest in their restored colony, and the following period is recalled as La España Boba – 'The Era of Foolish Spain'. The great ranching families such as the Santanas came to be the leaders in the south east, the law of the "machete" ruled for a time. Spanish lieutenant governor José Núñez de Cáceres declared the colony's independence as the state of Spanish Haiti (Haiti Español) on November 30, 1821, requesting admission to the Republic of Gran Colombia, but Haitian forces, led by Jean-Pierre Boyer, occupied the whole island just nine weeks later. Haitian occupation The twenty two year Haitian occupation that followed is recalled by Dominicans as a period of brutal military rule, though the reality is more complex. It led to large-scale land expropriations and failed efforts to force production of export crops, impose military services, restrict the use of the Spanish language, and eliminate traditional customs such as cockfighting. It reinforced Dominicans' perceptions of themselves as different from Haitians in "language, race, religion and domestic customs." Moya Pons, Frank Between Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish-speaking Caribbean in the 19th Century. Baltimore; Johns Hopkins University Press 1985 Yet, this was also a period that definitively ended slavery as an institution in the eastern part of the island. Haiti's constitution forbade whites from owning land, and the major landowning families were forcibly deprived of their properties. Most emigrated to Cuba, Puerto Rico or Gran Colombia, usually with the encouragement of Haitian officials, who acquired their lands. The Haitians, who associated the Roman Catholic Church with the French slave-masters who had exploited them before independence, confiscated all church property, deported all foreign clergy, and severed the ties of the remaining clergy to the Vatican. Santo Domingo’s university, the oldest in the Western Hemisphere, lacking both students and teachers, closed down. In order to receive diplomatic recognition from France, Haiti was forced to pay an indemnity of 150 million francs to the former French colonists, which was subsequently lowered to 60 million francs, and Haiti imposed heavy taxes on the eastern part of the island. Since Haiti was unable to adequately provision its army, the occupying forces largely survived by commandeering or confiscating food and supplies at gunpoint. Attempts to redistribute land conflicted with the system of communal land tenure (terrenos comuneros), which had arisen with the ranching economy, and newly emancipated slaves resented being forced to grow cash crops under Boyer's Code Rural. Terrenos comuneros arose because of “scarce population, low value of the land, the absence of officials qualified to survey the lands, and the difficulty of dividing up the ranch in such a way that each would receive a share of the grasslands, forests, streams, palm groves, and small agricultural plots that, only when combined, made possible the exploitation of the ranch.” (Hoetink, The Dominican People: Notes for a Historical Sociology transl. Stephen Ault Pg. 83 (Johns Hopkins Press: Baltimore, 1982) In rural areas, the Haitian administration was usually too inefficient to enforce its own laws. It was in the city of Santo Domingo that the effects of the occupation were most acutely felt, and it was there that the movement for independence originated. 1844-1929 Juan Pablo Duarte y Diez In 1838 Juan Pablo Duarte, Ramón Matías Mella and Francisco del Rosario Sanchez founded a secret society called La Trinitaria to win independence from Haiti. In 1843 they allied with a Haitian movement in overthrowing Boyer. By revealing themselves as revolutionaries working for Dominican independence, the new Haitian president, Charles Riviere-Hérard, exiled or imprisoned the leading Trinitarios. At the same time, Buenaventura Báez, an Azua mahogany exporter and deputy in the Haitian National Assembly, was negotiating with the French Consul-General for the establishment of a French protectorate. In an uprising timed to preempt Báez, on February 27, 1844, the Trinitarios declared independence from Haiti, backed by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle-rancher from El Seibo who commanded a private army of peons who worked on his estates. Independence from Haiti The Dominican Republic's first constitution was adopted on November 6, 1844. It adopted a presidential form of government with many liberal tendencies, but it was marred by Article 210, imposed by Pedro Santana on the constitutional assembly by force, giving him the privileges of a dictatorship until the war of independence was over. These privileges not only served him to win the war, but also allowed him to persecute, execute and drive into exile his political opponents, among which Duarte was the most important. During the first decade of independence, Haïti mounted five invasions to reconquer the eastern part of the island: in 1844, 1845, 1849, 1853 and 1855-56. Although each was repulsed, Santana used the ever-present threat of Haitian invasion as a justification for consolidating dictatorial powers. For the Dominican elite-mostly landowners, merchants and priests-the threat of re-conquest by more populous Haïti was sufficient to seek annexation by an outside power. Offering the deepwater harbor of Samaná bay as bait, over the next two decades, negotiations were made with Britain, France, the United States and Spain to declare a protectorate over the country.- Without adequate roads, the regions of the Dominican Republic developed in isolation from one another. In the south, the economy was dominated by cattle-ranching (particularly in the southeastern savannah) and cutting mahogany and other hard woods for export. This region retained a semi-feudal character-with little commercial agriculture, the hacienda as the dominant social unit and the majority of the population living at a subsistence level. In the Cibao Valley, the nation's richest farmland, peasants supplemented their subsistence crops by growing tobacco for export, mainly to Germany. Tobacco required less land than cattle ranching and was mainly grown by small holders, who relied on itinerant traders to transport their crops to Puerto Plata and Monte Cristi. Santana antagonized the Cibao farmers, enriching himself and his supporters at their expense by resorting to multiple peso printings that allowed him to buy their crops for a fraction of their value. In 1848, he was forced to resign, and was succeeded by his vice-president, Manuel Jimenes. After returning to lead Dominican forces against a new Haitian invasion in 1849, Santana marched on Santo Domingo, deposing Jimenes. At his behest, Congress elected Buenaventura Báez as President, but Báez was unwilling to serve as Santana's puppet, challenging his role as the country's acknowledged military leader. In 1853 Santana was elected president for his second term, forcing Báez into exile. Three years later, after repulsing the last Haitian invasion, he negotiated a treaty leasing a portion of Samaná Peninsula to a U.S. company; popular opposition forced him to abdicate, enabling Báez to return and seize power. With the treasury depleted, Báez printed eighteen million uninsured pesos, purchasing the 1857 tobacco crop with this currency and exporting it for hard cash at immense profit to himself and his followers. The Cibaeño tobacco planters, who were ruined when inflation ensued, revolted, recalling Santana from exile to lead their rebellion. After a year of civil war, Santana seized Santo Domingo and installed himself as President. Annexation by Spain and War Restoration Pedro Santana inherited a bankrupt government on the brink of collapse. Having failed in his initial bids to secure annexation by the U.S. or France, Santana initiated negotiations with Queen Isabel II and the Captain-General of Cuba to have the island reconverted into a Spanish colony. The American Civil War rendered the United States incapable of enforcing the Monroe Doctrine. In Spain, Prime Minister Don Leopoldo O'Donnell advocated renewed colonial expansion, waging a campaign in northern Morocco that conquered the city of Tetuan. In March 1861, Santana officially restored the Dominican Republic to Spain. This move was widely rejected and on August 16, 1863, a national war of restoration began in Santiago, where the rebels established a provisional government. Spanish troops reoccupied the town, but the rebels fled to the mountains along the ill-defined Haitian border. Haitian President Fabre Geffrard provided the Dominican rebels with sanctuary and arms, sending a detachment of his presidential guards (the Tirailleurs) to fight alongside them. Santana initially was named Capitan-General of the new Spanish province, but it soon became obvious that Spanish authorities planned to deprive him of his power, leading him to resign in 1862. Condemned to death by the provisional government, Santana died under mysterious circumstances in 1864, and is widely believed to have committed suicide. Restrictions on trade, discrimination against the mulatto majority, rumors that Spain intended to reimpose slavery, and an unpopular campaign by the new Spanish Archbishop against extramarital unions, which were widespread after decades of abandonment by the Church, all fed resentment of Spanish rule. Confined to the major towns, the Spanish army was unable to defeat the guerillas or contain the insurrection, and suffered heavy losses due to Yellow Fever. Spanish colonial authorities encouraged Queen Isabel II to abandon the island, seeing the occupation as a nonsensical waste of troops and money. However, the rebels were in a state of political disarray, and proved unable to present a cohesive set of demands. The first president of the provisional government, Pepillo Salcedo (allied with Báez) was deposed by General Gaspar Polanco in September 1864, who, in turn, was deposed by General Antonio Pimentel three months later. The rebels formalized their provisional rule by holding a national convention in February 1865, which enacted a new constitution, but the new government exerted little authority over the various regional guerilla caudillos, who were largely independent of one another. Unable to extract concessions from the disorganized rebels, when the American Civil War ended, in March 1865, Queen Isabel II annulled the annexation and independence was restored, with the last Spanish troops departing by July. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+do0017) Second Republic By the time the Spanish departed, most of the main towns lay in ruins and the island was divided among several dozen caudillos. José María Cabral controlled most of Barahona and the southwest with the support of Buenaventura Báez's mahogany-exporting partners, while cattle rancher Cesáreo Guillermo assembled a coalition of former Santanista generals in the southeast, and Gregorio Luperón controlled the north coast. From the Spanish withdrawal to 1879, there were twenty-one changes of government and at least fifty military uprisings. Frank Moyna-Pons, Dominican Republic: A National History Pg. 222 (Hispaniola Books: New Rochelle, N.Y., 1995) In the course of these conflicts, two parties emerged. The Partido Rojo represented the southern cattle ranching latifundia and mahogany-exporting interests, as well as the artisans and laborers of Santo Domingo, and was dominated by Buenaventura Báez, who continued to seek annexation by a foreign power. The Partido Azul, led by Gregorio Luperón, represented the tobacco farmers and merchants of the Cibao and Puerto Plata and was nationalist and liberal in orientation. During these wars, the small and corrupt national army was far outnumbered by militias organized and maintained by local caudillos who set themselves up as provincial governors, which were filled out by poor farmers or landless plantation workers impressed into service who usually took up banditry when not fighting in revolution.- Within a month of the nationalist victory, Cabral, whose troops were the first to enter Santo Domingo, ousted Pimental, but a few weeks later General Cesáreo Guillermo led a rebellion in support of Báez, forcing Cabral to resign and allowing Báez to retake the presidency in October. Báez was overthrown by the Cibao farmers under Gregorio Luperón, leader of the Partido Azul, the following spring, but Luperón's allies turned on each other and Cabral reinstalled himself as President in a coup in 1867. After bringing several Azules into his cabinet the Rojos revolted, returning Báez to power. In 1869, Báez signed a treaty with President Ulysses S. Grant, selling the country to the United States for $150,000. Ian Bell,The Dominican Republic Pg. 59 (Westview Pres: Boulder, Co., 1981) Supported by Secretary of State William Seward, who hoped to establish a Navy base at Samana, in 1871 it was defeated in the Senate through the efforts of abolitionist Senator Charles Sumner. *Dennis Hidalgo, Charles Sumner and the Annexation of the Dominican Republic, Itinerario (Volume XXI, 2/1997): 51. (Published by the Centre for the History of European Expansion of Leiden University, The Netherlands). In 1874, the Rojo governor of Puerto Plata, Ignacio Maria González, staged a coup in support of an Azul rebellion, but was deposed by the Azules two years later. In February 1876, Ulises Espaillat, backed by Luperón, was named President, but ten months later troops loyal to Báez returned him to power. One year a new rebellion allowed González to seize power, only to be deposed by Cesáreo Guillermo in September 1878, who was in turn deposed by Gregorio Luperón in December 1879. Ruling the country from his hometown of Puerto Plata, enjoying an economic boom due to increased tobacco exports to Germany, Luperón enacted a new constitution setting a two-year presidential term limit and providing for direct elections, suspended the semi-formal system of bribes and initiated construction on the nation's first railroad, linking the town of La Vega with the port of Sánchez on Samaná Bay. The Ten Years' War in Cuba brought Cuban sugar planters to the country in search of new lands and security from the insurrection that freed their slaves and destroyed their property. Most settled in the southeastern coastal plain, and, with assistance from Luperón’s government, built the nation's first mechanized sugar mills. They were later joined by Italians, Germans, Puerto Ricans and Americans in forming the nucleus of the Dominican sugar bourgeoisie, marrying into prominent families to solidify their social position. Disruptions in global production caused by the Ten Years' War, the American Civil War and the Franco-Prussian War allowed the Dominican Republic to become a major sugar exporter. Over the following two decades, sugar surpassed tobacco as the leading export, with the former fishing hamlets of San Pedro de Macorís and La Romana transformed into thriving ports. To meet their need for better transportation, over 300 miles of private rail-lines had been built by and serving the sugar plantations by 1897. Emilio Betances, State and Society in the Dominican Republic Pg. 32 (Westview Press: Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford, 1995) An 1884 slump in prices led to a wage freeze, and a subsequent labor shortage was filled by migrant workers from the Leeward Islands-the Virgin Islands, St. Kitts and Nevis, Anguilla and Antigua (referred to by Dominicans as cocolos). cocolo is a corruption of one of the names of one of the principal islands of origin, Tortola Teresita Martinez-Vergne, Nation and Citizenship in the Dominican Republic Pg. 86 (University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, N.C., 2005) These English-speaking blacks were often victims of racism, but many remained in the country, finding work as stevedores and in railroad construction and sugar refineries. Ulises Heureaux and U.S. dominance Allying with the emerging sugar interests, the dictatorship of General Ulises Heureaux, popularly known as Lilís, brought unprecedented stability to the island through iron-fisted rule that lasted almost two decades. The son of a Haitian father and a mother from St. Thomas, Lilís was distinguished by his blackness from most Dominican political leaders, with the exception of Luperón. He served as President from 1882-1883, 1887 and 1889-1899, welding power through a series of puppet presidents when not occupying the office. Incorporating both Rojos and Azules into his government, he developed an extensive network of spies and informants to crush potential opposition. His government undertook a number of major infrastructural projects, including the electrification of Santo Domingo, the beginning of telephone and telegraph service, the construction of a bridge over the Ozama River, and the completion of a single-track railroad linking Santiago and Puerto Plata, financed by the Amsterdam-based Westendorp Co.. Teresita Martínez-Vergne, Nation & Citizen in the Dominican Republic, Pg. 135 Lilís' dictatorship was dependent upon heavy borrowing from European and American banks to enrich himself, stabilize the existing debt, strengthen the bribe system, pay for the army, finance infrastructural development and help set up sugar mills. However, sugar prices underwent a steep decline in the last two decades of the 19th century. When the Amsterdam-based Westendorp Co., went bankrupt in 1893, he was forced to mortgage the nation's customs fees, the main source of government revenues, to a New York financial firm called the San Domingo Improvement Co. (SDIC), which took over its railroad contracts and the claims of its European bondholders, in exchange for two loans, one of $1.2 million and the other of £2 million. Ian Bell, The Dominican Republic Pg. 86 (Westview Press: Boulder, Co., 1981) As the growing public debt made it impossible to maintain his political machine, Heureaux relied on secret loans from the SDIC, sugar planters and local merchants. In 1897, with his government virtually bankrupt, Lilís printed five million uninsured pesos, known as papelitas de Lilís, ruining most Dominican merchants and inspiring a conspiracy that ended in his death. In 1899, when Lilís was assassinated by the Cibao tobacco merchants he had been begging for a loan from, the national debt was over $35 million, fifteen times the annual budget. Emilio Betances, State and Society in the Dominican Republic Pg. 50 (Westview Press: Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford, 1995) The six years after Lilís death witnessed four revolutions and five different presidents. Howard Wirada, Dominican Republic: A Nation in Transition Pg. 30 (Pall Mall Press: London, 1966) The Cibao politicians who had conspired against Heureaux-Juan Isidro Jimenes, the nation's wealthiest tobacco planter, and General Horacio Vásquez-after being named President and Vice-President, quickly fell out over the division of spoils among their supporters, the Jimenistas and Horacistas. Troops loyal to Vásquez overthrew Jimenes in 1903, but he was deposed by Jimenista General Alejandro Woss y Gil, who seized power for himself. The Jimenistas toppled his government, but their leader, Carlos Morales, refused to return power to Jimenes, allying with the Horacistas, and he soon faced a new revolt by his betrayed Jimenista allies. With the nation on the brink of defaulting, France, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands sent warships to Santo Domingo to press the claims of their nationals. In order to preempt military intervention, Theodore Roosevelt introduced the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, declaring that the United States would assume responsibility for ensuring that the nations of Latin America met their financial obligations. In January 1905, under this corollary, the United States assumed administration of the Dominican Republic's customs. Under the terms of this agreement, a Receiver-General, appointed by the U.S. President, kept 55% of total revenues to pay off foreign claimants, while remitting 45% to the Dominican government. After two years, the nation's external debt was reduced from $40 million to $17 million. Emilio Betances, State and Society in the Dominican Republic Pg. 53 (Westview Press: Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford, 1995) In 1907, this agreement was converted into a treaty, transferring control over customs receivership to the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs and providing a loan of $20 million from a New York bank as payment for outstanding claims, making the United States the Dominican Republic’s only foreign creditor. Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention in the Dominican Republic, 1916-1924 Pg. 24 (University of Texas Press: Austin, Texas, 1984) In 1906, Morales resigned, and Horacista vice-president Ramon Cáceres became President. After suppressing a rebellion in the northwest by Jiemnista caudillo General Desiderio Arias, his government brought political stability and renewed economic growth, aided by new American investment in sugar industry. However, his assassination in 1911, for which Morales and Arías were at least indirectly responsible, once again plunged the republic into chaos. For two months, executive power was held by a civilian junta dominated by the chief of the army, General Alfredo Victoria. The surplus of more than 4 million pesos left by Cáceres was quickly spent to suppress a series of insurrections. Frank Moya-Pons, Dominican Republic: A National History Pg. 306 He forced Congress to elect his uncle, Eladio Victoria, as President, but he was soon replaced by the neutral Archbishop Adolfo Nouel. After four months, Nouel resigned, and was succeeded by Horacista Congressman José Bordas Valdez, who aligned with Arías and the Jimenistas to maintain power. In 1913, Vásquez returned from exile in Puerto Rico to lead a new rebellion. In June 1914 U.S. President Woodrow Wilson issued an ultimatum for the two sides to end hostilities and agree on a new president, or have the United States impose one. Jimenes was elected in October, and soon faced new demands, including the appointment of an American director of public works and financial advisor and the creation of a new military force commanded by U.S. officers. The Dominican Congress rejected these demands and began impeachment proceedings against Jimenes. The United States occupied Haiti in July 1915, with the implicit threat that the Dominican Republic might be next. Jimenes's Minister of War Desiderio Arias staged a coup d'état in April 1916, providing a pretext for the United States to occupy the Dominican Republic. United States occupation United States Marines landed in Santo Domingo on May 15, 1916. Prior to their landing, Jimenes resigned, refusing to exercise an office 'regained with foreign bullets.' Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention In The Dominican Republic, 1916-1924 (University of Texas Press: Austin, TX 1984) Pg. 8 On June 1, Marines occupied Monte Cristi and Puerto Plata, and, after a brief campaign, took Arias's stronghold Santiago by the beginning of July. The Dominican Congress elected Dr. Francisco Henríquez Carvajal as President, but in November, after he refused to meet the American demands, Woodrow Wilson announced the imposition of a U.S. military government, with Rear Admiral Harry Shepard Knapp as Military Governor. The American military government implemented many of the institutional reforms carried out in the United States during the Progressive Era, including reorganization of the tax system, accounting and administration, expansion of primary education, the creation of a nation-wide police force to unify the country, and the construction of a national system of roads, including a highway linking Santiago to Santo Domingo. Despite the reforms, virtually all Dominicans resented the loss of their sovereignty to foreigners, few of whom spoke Spanish or displayed much real concern for the nation's welfare, and the military government, unable to win the backing of any prominent Dominican political leaders, imposed strict censorship laws and imprisoned critics of the occupation. In 1920, U.S. authorities enacted a Land Registration Act, which broke up the terrenos comuneros and dispossessed thousands of peasants who lacked formal titles to the lands they occupied while legalizing false titles held by the sugar companies. In the southeast, dispossessed peasants formed armed bands, called gavilleros, waging a guerilla war that lasted the duration of the occupation, with most of the fighting in Hato Mayor and El Seibo. At any given time, the Marines faced eight to twelve caudillos, each of whom commanded several hundred followers. The guerrillas benefited from a superior knowledge of the terrain and the support of the local population, forcing the Marines to rely on increasingly brutal counterinsurgency methods. However, rivalries between various caudillos often led them to fight against one another, and even cooperate with occupation authorities. In addition, cultural schisms between the campesinos and city dwellers prevented the guerillas from cooperating with the urban, middle-class nationalist movement. In the San Juan valley, near the border with Haïti, followers of a Vodu faith healer named Liborio resisted the occupation and aided the Haitian cacos in their war against the Americans, until his death in 1922. The principal legacy of the occupation was the creation of a National Police Force, used by the Marines to help fight against the various guerillas, and later the main vehicle for the rise of Rafael Trujillo. In what was referred to as la danza de los milliones, with the destruction of European sugar-beet farms during World War I sugar prices rose to their highest level in history, from $5.50 in 1914 to $22.50 per pound in 1920. Dominican sugar exports increased from 122,642 tons in 1916 to 158,803 tons in 1920, earning a record $45.3 million. Bruce Calder, The Impact of Intervention, Pg. 93 However, European beet sugar production quickly recovered, which, coupled with the growth of global sugar cane production, glutted the world market, causing prices to plummet to only $2.00 by the end of 1921. This crisis drove many of the local sugar planters into bankruptcy, allowing large American conglomerates to dominate the sugar industry. By 1926, only twenty-one major estates remained, occupying an estimated 520,000 acres (2,100 km²). Of these, twelve U.S.-owned companies owned more than 81% of total area. Ibid The largest two corporations, the South Porto Rico Company and West Indies Sugar Corporation, owned 150,000 and 100,000 acres (600 and 400 km²) respectively. While the foreign planters who had built the sugar industry integrated into Dominican society, these corporations expatriated their profits to the United States. As prices declined, sugar estates increasingly relied on Haitian laborers. This was facilitated by the military government's introduction of regulated contract labor, the growth of sugar production in the southwest, near the Haitian border, and a series of strikes by cocolo cane cutters organized by the Universal Negro Improvement Association. In the 1920 United States presidential election Republican candidate Warren Harding criticized the occupation and promised eventual U.S. withdrawal. While Jimenes and Vásquez sought concessions from the United States, the collapse of sugar prices discredited the military government and gave rise to a new nationalist political organization, the Dominican National Union, led by Dr. Henríquez from exile in Santiago de Cuba, which demanded unconditional withdrawal. They formed alliances with frustrated nationalists in Puerto Rico and Cuba, as well as critics of the occupation in the United States itself, most notably The Nation and the Haiti-San Domingo Independence Society. In May 1922, a Dominican lawyer, Francisco Peynado, went to Washington and negotiated what became known as the Hughes-Peynado Plan. It stipulated immediate establishment of a provisional government pending elections, approval of all laws enacted by the U.S. military government, and the continuation of the 1907 treaty until all the Dominican Republic's foreign debts had been settled. On October 1, Juan Bautista Vicini, the son of a wealthy Italian immigrant sugar planter, was named provisional president, and the process of U.S. withdrawal began. 1924 to 1996 The occupation ended in 1924, with a democratically elected Dominican government under president Horacio Vasquez. In an effort to preserve power for his supporters, in 1927 Vásquez extended his term from four to six years. There was some debatable legal basis for the move, which was approved by the Congress, but its enactment effectively invalidated the constitution of 1924 that Vásquez had previously sworn to uphold. With the Great Depression, sugar prices dropped to less than $1 per pound; although elections were scheduled for May 1930, Vásquez's extension of power cast doubts about their fairness. In February, a revolution was proclaimed in Santiago by a lawyer named Rafael Estrella Ureña. When the commander of the Guardia Nacional Dominicana (the new designation of the armed force created under the occupation), Rafael Trujillo, ordered his troops to remain in their barracks, the sick and aging Vásquez was forced into exile and Estrella proclaimed provisional president. In May, Trujillo was elected with 95% of the vote, using the army to harass and intimidate electoral personnel and potential opponents. After his inauguration in August, at his request, the Dominican Congress proclaimed the beginning of the 'Era of Trujillo.' The Era of Trujillo Rafael Leonidas Trujillo established absolute political control, while promoting economic development--from which mainly he and his supporters benefitted--and severe repression of domestic human rights. Johathan Hartlyn. The Trujillo Regime in the Dominican Republic. In Sultanistic Regimes, Johns Hopkins University Press Trujillo treated his political party, El Partido Dominicano (The Dominican Party), as a rubber-stamp for his decisions. The true source of his power was the Guardia Nacional - larger, better armed, and more centrally controlled than any military force in the nation's history. By disbanding the regional militias, the Marines eliminated the main source of potential opposition, giving it "a virtual monopoly on power.” Emilio Betances, State and Society in the Dominican Republic, Pg. 96 Trujillo's regime oversaw the expansion of the Guardia Nacional into one of the largest military forces in Latin America; by 1940, military spending was 21% of the national budget. Emilio Betances, State and Society in the Dominican Republic, Pg. 97 At the same time, he developed an elaborate system of espionage agencies. By the late 1950s, there were at least seven categories of intelligence agencies, spying on each other as well as the public. All citizens were required to carry identification cards and good-conduct passes from the secret police. Obsessed with adulation, Trujillo promoted an extravagant cult of personality. When a hurricane struck Santo Domingo in 1930, killing over 3,000 people, he rebuilt the city and renamed it Ciudad Trujillo; he also renamed the countries highest mountain, Pico Duarte, Pico Trujillo. Over 1,800 statues of Trujillo were built, and all public works projects were required to have a plaque with the inscription 'Era of Trujillo, Benefactor of the Fatherland.' Eric Paul Roorda, The Dictator Next Door: The Good Neighbor Policy and the Dominican Republic, 1930-1945.-</ref> As sugar estates turned to Haiti for seasonal migrant labor, increasing numbers settled in the Dominican Republic permanently. The census of 1920, conducted by the military government, gave a total of 28,258 Haitians living in the country, by 1935 there were 52,657. Needed but unwanted: Haitian immigrants and their descendants in the Dominican Republic, Pg. 24 (Catholic Institute For International Refugees, 2004) In 1937, Trujillo ordered the massacre of 17,000 to 35,000 Haitians, citing Haiti's support for Dominican exiles plotting to overthrow his regime. This event later became known as the Parsley Massacre. Jan Kippers Black, Politics and development in an unsovereign state Pg. 27 The massacre of tens of thousands of unarmed Haitians living on the border of Haiti and Dominican Republic was met with international critics. This was the result of a new policy which Trujillo called the 'Dominicanisation of the frontier.' Place names along the border were changed from Creole and French to Spanish, the practice of Voo doo was outlawed, quotas were imposed on the percentage of foreign workers companies could hire, and a law was passed preventing Haitian workers from remaining after the sugar harvest. Althrough Trujillo sought to emulate Generalissimo Francisco Franco, he welcomed Republican refugees following the Spanish Civil War. During the European Holocaust in the Second World War, the Dominican Republic took in many Jews fleeing Hitler who had been refused entry by other countries. These decision arose from a policy of blanquismo, closely connected with anti-Haitian xenophobia, which sought to whiten the Dominican population by promoting immigration from Europe. As part of the Good Neighbor Policy, in 1940, the State Department signed a treaty with Trujillo relinquishing control over the nation's customs. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor Trujillo followed the United States in declaring war on the Axis powers, even though he had openly professed admiration for Hitler and Mussolini. During the Cold War, he maintained close ties to the United States, declaring himself the world's 'Number One Anticommunist' and becoming the first Latin American President to sign a Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement with the United States. Trujillo and his family established a near-monopoly over the national economy. By the time of his death, he had accumulated a fortune of around $800 million; he and his family owned 50-60 percent of the arable land, some 700,000 acres (2,800 km²), and Trujillo-owned businesses accounted for 80% of the commercial activity in the capital. Howard Wirada The Dominican Republic: A Nation in Transition, Pg. 40-41 He exploited nationalist sentiment to purchase most of the nation's sugar plantations and refineries from U.S. corporations; operated monopolies on salt, rice, milk, cement, tobacco, coffee, and insurance; owned two large banks, several hotels, port facilities, an airline and shipping line; deducted 10% of all public employees' salaries (ostensibly for his party); and received a portion of prostitution revenues. Jared Diamond, Collapse, 'One Island, Two Peoples, Two Histories' (Penguin Books: New York and London, 2005) Pg. 337 World War II brought increased demand for Dominican exports, and the 1940s and early 1950s witnessed economic growth and considerable expansion of the national infrastructure. During this period, the newly-renamed Ciudad Trujillo was transformed from merely an administrative center to the national center of shipping and industry, although 'it was hardly coincidental that new roads often led to Trujillo's plantations and factories, and new harbors benefited Trujillo's shipping and export enterprises.'<ref>Jan Kippers Black, The Dominican Republic: politics and development in an unsovereign state. - Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems. By the end of the 1950s, the economy was deteriorating due to a combination of overspending on a festival to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the regime, overspending to purchase privately owned sugar mills and electricity plants, and a decision to make a major investment in state sugar production that proved economically unsuccessful. In 1956, Trujillo's agents in New York murdered Jesús María de Galíndez, a Basque exile who had worked for Trujillo and later denounced his regime, causing public opinion in the United States to turn against him. In August 1960, the Organization of American States (OAS) imposed diplomatic sanctions against the Dominican Republic as a result of Trujillo's complicity in an attempt to assassinate President Rómulo Betancourt of Venezuela. Fearing that Trujillo might unite the country against him and bring another communist revolution, the CIA helped a group of Dominican dissidents who assassinated Trujillo in a car chase on the way to his country villa near San Cristóbal on May 30, 1961. The sanctions remained in force after Trujillo's assassination. His son, Ramfis Trujillo, assumed de facto control, but was deposed by his two uncles after a dispute over potential liberalization of the regime. In November 1961, the Trujillo family was forced into exile, fleeing to France, and vice-president Joaquín Balaguer assumed power. The Post-Trujillo Era At the insistence of the United States, Joaquín Balaguer was forced to share power with a seven-member Council of State, established on January 1, 1962, and including moderate members of the opposition. OAS sanctions were lifted January 4, and, after an attempted coup, Balaguer resigned and went into exile on January 16. The reorganized Council of State, under President Rafael Filiberto Bonnelly headed the Dominican government until elections could be held. These elections, in December 1962, were won by Juan Bosch, a scholar and poet who had founded the opposition Partido Revolucionario Dominicano (Dominican Revolutionary Party, or PRD) in exile. His leftist policies, including land redistribution, nationalization of certain foreign holdings, and attempts to bring the military under civilian control, antagonized the military officer corps, the Catholic hierarchy and the upper-class, who feared 'another Cuba.' Bosch was overthrown by a right-wing military coup in September 1963, fleeing into exile in Puerto Rico. Afterwards a supposedly civilian triumvirate established a de facto dictatorship until April 24, 1965, when reformist officers and civilian combatants loyal to Bosch, calling themselves the Constitutionalists, staged a coup, seizing the national palace. Immediately, conservative military forces, led by Air Force Colonel Elías Wessín y Wessín and calling themselves Loyalists, struck back with tank assaults and aerial bombings against Santo Domingo. On April 28, after being requested by the anti-Bosch army elements, U.S. military forces landed, officially to protect U.S. citizens and to evacuate U.S. and other foreign nationals in what was known as Operation Power Pack. Ultimately, 23,000 U.S. troops were ordered to the Dominican Republic. In June 1966, Joaquín Balaguer, leader of the Reformist Party (now called the Social Christian Reformist Party--PRSC), was elected and then re-elected to office in May 1970 and May 1974, both times after the major opposition parties withdrew late in the campaign because of the high degree of violence by pro-government groups. On November 28, 1966 a constitution was created, signed, and put into use. The constitution stated that a president was elected to a four year term. If there was a close election there would be a second round of voting to decide the winner. Finally, you could vote at age eighteen unless married in which case you could vote at the age you were married. Balaguer led the Dominican Republic through a thorough economic restructuring, based on opening the country to foreign investment while protecting state-owned industries and certain private interests. This distorted, dependent development model produced uneven results. For most of Balaguer's nine years in office the country experienced high growth rates (e.g., an average GDP growth rate of 9.4 percent between 1970 - 1975), to the extent that people talked about the "Dominican miracle." Foreign--mostly U.S.--investment, as well as foreign aid, flowed into the country, sugar (then the country's main export product) enjoyed good prices in the international market and tourism grew tremendously. However, this excellent macroeconomic performance was not accompanied by an equitable distribution of wealth. While a group of new millionaires flourished during Balaguer's administrations, the poor simply became poorer. Morever, the poor were commonly the target of state repression, and their socioeconomic claims were labeled "communist" and dealt with accordingly by the state security apparatus. Roberto Cassa, Los doce años: Contrarevolución y desarrollismo, 2nd ed. Santo Domingo: Editora Buho 1991 In the May 1978 election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by Antonio Guzmán Fernández of the PRD. Subsequently, he ordered troops to storm the election centre and destroy ballot boxes, declaring himself the victor. U.S. President Jimmy Carter refused to recognize the election, and, faced with the loss of foreign aid, Balaguer stood down. Guzmán's inauguration on August 16 marked the country's first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another. By the late 1970s, economic expansion slowed considerably as sugar prices declined and oil prices rose. Rising inflation and unemployment diminished support for the government and helped trigger a wave of mass emigration from the Dominican Republic to New York, coming on the heels of the similar migration of Puerto Ricans in the preceding decades. Elections were again held in 1982. Salvador Jorge Blanco of the Dominican Revolutionary Party defeated Bosch and a resurgent Balaguer. Balaguer completed his return to power in 1986 when he won the Presidency again and remained in office for the next ten years. Elections in 1990 were marked by violence and suspected electoral fraud. The 1994 election too saw widespread pre-election violence, often aimed at intimidating members of the opposition. Balaguer won in 1994 but most observers felt the election had been stolen. Under pressure from the United States, Balaguer agreed to hold new elections in 1996. He himself would not run. 1996—present In 1996, U.S.-raised Leonel Fernández Reyna of the Partido de la Liberación Dominicana (Dominican Liberaiton Party) secured more than 51% of the vote through an alliance with Balaguer. The first item on the president's agenda was the partial sale of some state-owned enterprises. Fernández was praised for ending decades of isolationism and improving ties with other Caribbean countries, but he was criticized for not fighting corruption or alleviating the poverty that affects 60% of the population. In August 2000 the center-left Hipólito Mejía of the PRD was elected president amid popular discontent over power outages in the recently privatized electric industry. His presidency saw major inflation and instability of the peso. During his time as president, the relatively stable unit of currency fell from ~ 16 DOP (Dominican Pesos) to 1 USD (United States Dollar) to ~ 60 DOP to 1 USD, and was in the 50s to a dollar when he left office. In the May 2004 presidential elections he was defeated by former president Leonel Fernández. Fernández instituted austerity measures to deflate the peso and rescue the country from its economic crisis, and in the first half of 2006, the economy grew 11.7%. The peso is currently at the exchange rate of ~35 DOP to 1 USD. Over the last three decades, remittances (remesas) from Dominicans living abroad, mainly in the United States, have become increasingly important to the economy. From 1990 to 2000, the Dominican population of the U.S. doubled in size, from 520,121 in 1990 to 1,041,910, two-thirds of whom were born in the Dominican Republic itself. More than half of all Dominican Americans live in New York City, with the largest concentration in the neighborhood of Washington Heights in northern Manhattan. Over the past decade, the Dominican Republic has become the largest source of immigration to New York City, and today the metropolitan area of New York has a larger Dominican population than any city except Santo Domingo The Newest New Yorkers: Immigrant New York in the New Millennium (New York City Department of City Planning, Population Division, 2004) Pg. 9 . Dominican communities have also developed in New Jersey (particularly Paterson), Miami, Boston, Philadelphia, Providence, Rhode Island and Lawrence, Massachusetts. In addition, thousands of Dominicans illegally cross the Mona Passage to Puerto Rico, many traveling on to the mainland U.S.. (See Dominican immigration to Puerto Rico). Dominicans living abroad send an estimated $3 billion per year in remittances to relatives at home. The Hindu Business Line : Dominican Republic: The business-pleasure tango In 1997, a new law took effect, allowing Dominicans living abroad to retain their citizenship and vote in Presidential elections. Leonel Fernández Reyna, who grew up in New York, was the principal beneficiary of this law. The Dominican Republic was involved in the US-led coalition in Iraq, as part of the Spain-led Latin-American Plus Ultra Brigade, but in 2004, the nation pulled its 300 or so troops out of Iraq. References External links Visiting the Dominican Republic.com, Dominican Republic History | History_of_the_Dominican_Republic |@lemmatized dominican:89 republic:52 occupy:8 eastern:6 two:22 third:3 island:39 hispaniola:9 great:3 antilles:2 successive:2 wave:2 arawak:2 migrant:4 move:5 northward:1 orinoco:1 delta:1 south:4 america:5 settle:5 caribbean:6 around:3 taíno:3 indian:1 late:4 stone:1 age:4 culture:2 arrive:7 displace:1 previous:1 inhabitant:3 organize:3 cacicazgos:1 chiefdoms:1 lead:23 cacique:3 chief:4 final:2 carib:1 begin:8 less:3 raid:1 village:1 coast:4 time:12 spanish:32 arrival:1 european:14 christopher:4 columbus:10 reach:3 first:18 voyage:2 december:3 name:10 la:10 española:1 believe:3 someway:1 supernatural:1 taínos:5 welcome:2 honor:1 available:1 totally:1 different:3 society:9 one:17 come:5 guacanagarix:4 host:1 men:3 treat:4 kindly:1 provide:5 everything:1 desire:1 yet:2 allegedly:1 egalitarian:1 system:9 clash:1 feudalist:1 rigid:2 class:3 structure:1 either:1 weak:2 misleading:1 tribe:1 violence:4 try:4 temper:1 depart:4 quisqueya:1 call:9 leave:5 good:6 note:2 cement:2 firm:2 alliance:4 powerful:2 shipwrecking:2 santa:1 maría:3 decide:3 establish:10 small:5 fort:3 garrison:3 could:7 help:7 lay:3 claim:5 possession:1 navidad:2 since:2 event:3 founding:1 occur:2 christmas:1 day:1 spite:1 wealth:2 beauty:1 wrack:1 division:3 evolve:1 conflict:3 amongst:1 rapacious:1 terrorize:1 ciguayo:1 macorix:1 tribesman:1 point:2 take:9 woman:1 view:1 spaniard:4 even:6 people:5 accommodation:1 saw:4 appeasement:1 action:2 someone:1 submit:1 contempt:1 wife:1 maguana:1 caonabo:1 brook:1 affront:1 attack:4 destroy:5 dismay:1 turn:6 hard:3 aid:6 guamikena:1 probably:1 hop:2 troublesome:1 outsider:1 would:6 never:1 return:11 however:10 back:5 second:6 found:3 colony:13 new:47 world:8 city:16 isabella:2 brother:1 bartholomew:1 settlement:1 santo:28 domingo:30 de:16 guzmán:3 southern:2 become:15 capital:2 estimated:2 tainos:2 live:8 soon:6 enslave:2 work:7 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6,587 | Atari_ST | The Atari ST is a home/personal computer that was commercially available from 1985 to the early 1990s. It was released by Atari Corporation in 1985. The "ST" officially stands for "Sixteen/Thirty-two", which referred to the Motorola 68000's 16-bit external bus and 32-bit internals. Overview The Atari ST was part of the 16/32 bit generation of home computers, based on the Motorola 68000 CPU, with 512 KB of RAM or more, and 3½" floppy disks as storage. It was similar to other contemporary machines which used the Motorola 68000, the Apple Macintosh and the Commodore Amiga. Although the Macintosh was the first widely available computer with a graphical user interface (GUI), it was limited to a monochromatic display on a smaller built-in monitor. Preceding the Amiga's commercial release by almost two months, the Atari ST was the first computer to come with a fully bit-mapped color GUI , using a version of Digital Research's GEM released that February A.N.A.L.O.G. TCS #1 001 03/20/85 DRI SHIPS GEM - net.micro.atari - Google Groups . It was also the first home computer with integrated MIDI support. The ST was primarily a competitor to the Apple Macintosh and the Commodore Amiga systems. This platform rivalry was often reflected by the owners and was most prominent in the Demo Scene. Where the Amiga had custom processors which gave it the edge in the games and video market, the ST was generally cheaper, had a slightly faster CPU, and had a high-resolution monochrome display mode, ideal for business and CAD. Thanks to its built-in MIDI ports it enjoyed success as a music sequencer and controller of musical instruments among amateurs and professionals alike, being used in concert by bands such as Tangerine Dream, Fatboy Slim and 90s UK dance act 808 State. In some markets, particularly Germany, the machine gained a strong foothold as a small business machine for CAD and Desktop publishing work. The ST was later superseded by the Atari TT and Falcon computers. Since Atari pulled out of the computer market there has been a market for powerful TOS-based machines (clones). Like most "retro" computers the Atari enjoys support in the emulator scene. Origins Tramel Technology At Commodore International an argument involving Commodore's chairman (and largest shareholder) Irving Gould and Commodore founder Jack Tramiel ensued over Tramiel's desire for his sons to take more active executive roles within Commodore. The argument resulted in Tramiel's immediate departure from Commodore on January 13, 1984 Christina Erskine. "History of Computers: Part 2" p.39 CU Amiga, (September 1992) . Tramiel immediately formed a holding company, Tramel Technology, Ltd., and began to visit various US computer companies with the intention of purchasing a company. Tramiel visited Mindset (run by Roger Badersher, former head of Atari's Computer Division) and Amiga where Tramiel told Amiga staff that he was very interested in the chipset, but not the staff. Tramiel set his chief engineer — Shiraz Shivji — the task of developing a new low-cost, high-end computer system. The original design considered using the NS32032, but in talks, National Semiconductor could not supply the chip in the numbers or price that the project required. In retrospect this proved to be fortunate as a prototype built on the NS32032 benchmarked slower than the 16/32-bit 68000. The project, codenamed "RBP" for 'Rock Bottom Price', began to form between April and July 1984 into a design that was almost identical to the ST that eventually shipped. The design was a combination of custom chips and commonly available parts in a highly integrated single-board design, fully equipped with standard and custom ports. Amiga contract Prior to the introduction of the ST, Atari's computer division developed a line of home computers based on the 6502 CPU. The machines used a set of custom VLSI processors — ANTIC (DMA), CTIA/GTIA (Graphics), POKEY (AUDIO) and PIA (I/O) and were sold from 1979 through 1982 as the Atari 400 (16K) and Atari 800 (48k). In 1982 Atari introduced the 1200XL, which was too closed a design and was replaced with the 600XL/800XL series. Atari prepared several high-end computers for introduction in 1984, but these were cancelled when the Tramiels took over Atari. Several months prior to the release of the ST line, Atari released its 65XE (64K) and 130XE(128k) computers to replace the XL series 6502 8-bit computers. Jay Miner, one of the original designers for the custom chips found in the Atari 2600 and Atari 8-bit machines, tried to convince Atari management to invest big money into creating a new chipset and console/computer idea. When his idea was rejected, Miner left Atari to form a small think tank called Hi-Toro in 1982 and set about designing this new chipset. The company — which was later renamed Amiga — started selling various video game controllers and games while it developed its "Lorraine" computer system. During development, Amiga had run out of capital to complete the development of its Lorraine chipset, and the "Warner owned" Atari had paid Amiga to continue development work. In return Atari was to get one-year exclusive use of the design as a video game console. After one year Atari would have the right to add a keyboard and market the complete Amiga computer. The Atari Museum has acquired the Atari-Amiga contract and Atari engineering logs revealing that the Atari Amiga was originally designated as the 1850XLD. As Atari was heavily involved with Disney at the time, it was later code-named "Mickey", and the 256K memory expansion board was codenamed "Minnie". "Confidential Atari-Amiga Agreement" and "Afterthoughts: The Atari 1600XL Rumor" The following year, Tramiel discovered that Warner Communications wanted to sell Atari, which at that point was losing about $1,000,000 a day. Interested in Atari's overseas manufacturing and world wide distribution network for his new computer, he approached Atari and entered talks. After on again/off again negotiations with Atari in May and June 1984, Tramiel had secured his funding and bought Atari's Consumer Division (which included the console and home computer departments) that July. As more executives and researchers left Commodore to join Tramiel's new company Atari Corp. after the announcement, Commodore followed by filing lawsuits against four former engineers for theft of trade secrets. This was intended to, in effect, bar Tramiel from releasing his new computer. One of Tramiel's first acts after forming Atari Corp. was to fire most of Atari's remaining staff and cancel almost all ongoing projects in order to review their continued viability. It was during this time in late July/early August that Tramiel representatives discovered the original Amiga contract. It turned out that Amiga was supposed to deliver the Amiga chipset to Atari on June 30, 1984. The Amiga crew, having continuing serious financial problems, had sought more monetary support from investors that Spring (one of which had been Tramel Technology, which ended quickly given his desire to replace nearly everyone at Amiga). Having heard rumors that Tramiel was in closed negotiations to complete the purchase of Atari in several days — at around the same time that Tramiel was in negotiations with Atari — Amiga entered in to discussions with Commodore. The discussions ultimately led to Commodore wanting to purchase Amiga outright, which would (from Commodore's viewpoint) cancel any outstanding contracts — including Atari Inc.'s. So instead of Amiga delivering the chipset, Commodore delivered a check of $500,000 to Atari on Amiga's behalf, in effect returning the funds invested into Amiga for completion of the Lorraine chipset. Seeing a chance to gain some leverage Tramiel immediately used the situation to countersue Commodore through its new (pending) subsidiary, Amiga, which was done on August 13, 1984. He sought damages and an injunction to bar Amiga (and effectively Commodore) from producing anything with that technology. The suit tried to render Commodore's new acquisition (and the source for its next generation of computers) useless and do to Commodore what they were trying to do to him. Meanwhile at Commodore, the Amiga team (according to conversations by Curt Vendel of Atarimuseum.com directly with Dave Needles of Amiga and also with Joe Decuir of Amiga) was sitting in limbo for nearly the entire summer because of the lawsuit. No word on the status of the chipset, the Lorraine computer system or the team's fate was known. Finally in the fall of 1984 Commodore informed the team that the Lorraine project was active again, the chipset to be improved, the OS developed and the hardware design completed. This delay bought Atari several additional months in 1985 to release Atari STs to Atari User Groups in June 1985 and to go into full retail sales of the Atari 520ST in September 1985. In March 1987, the two companies settled the dispute out of court in a closed decision. This chapter is used on Wikipedia with permission from http://www.atarimuseum.com Interestingly, the two home computer rivals essentially performed a swap of 16/32-bit platforms, with the ST being designed by ex-Commodore engineers, Three Years with the ST and the Amiga by ex-Atarians. Jay G. Miner - Visionary In light of the later wars between Atari and Amiga owners, what is even more ironic is that Atari already had several prototypes of computers which were superior to both the Amiga and ST. The Sierra 68000 used a new chipset called "Silver & Gold", and the Gaza was a dual MC68000 processor system using a new chipset called "Rainbow". Though Warner Atari liked the projects, they were canceled when James J. Morgan was CEO and wanted Atari to return to its video game roots. Jack Tramiel was unaware of their existence when he bought Atari. Atari - Project Sierra The operating system With the hardware design nearing completion, the team started looking at solutions for the operating system. Soon after the buyout, Microsoft approached Tramiel with the suggestion that they port Windows to the platform, but the delivery date was out by about two years, far too long for their needs. Another possibility was Digital Research, who were working on a new GUI-based system then known as Crystal, soon to become GEM. Another option was to write a new operating system in-house, but this was eventually rejected due to the risk. Digital Research was fully committed to the Intel platform, so a team from Atari was sent to the Digital Research headquarters to work with the "Monterey Team" which comprised a mixture of Atari and Digital Research engineers. Atari's Jim Tittsler was Atari key OS engineer overseeing "Project Jason" (aka — The Operating System) for the Atari ST line of computers. The name came from the original designer and developer, Jason Loveman. Tim Oren has an article describing the history of the project, from his series "Professional GEM." TOS 1.0 with the GEM user interface CP/M-68K was essentially a direct port of CP/M's original, mature operating system. By 1985, it was becoming increasingly outdated in comparison to MS-DOS 2.0; for instance, CP/M did not support sub-directories and did not have a hierarchical file system. Digital Research was also in the process of building a new DOS-like operating system specifically for GEM, GEMDOS, and there was some discussion of whether or not a port of GEMDOS could be completed in time for product delivery in June. The decision was eventually taken to port it, resulting in a GEMDOS file system which became part of TOS (The Operating System). This was beneficial as it gave the ST a fast, hierarchical file system, essential for hard drive storage disks, plus programmers had function calls similar to the IBM PC DOS. Debut of the ST The Atari 520ST was officially launched at the Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas in January 1985. Due to its similarities to the original Apple Macintosh, it was quickly nicknamed the "Jackintosh". The 520ST shipped during May and June 1985 to the press and Atari User Groups and then in early July 1985 for general retail sales. The machine had gone from concept to store shelves in a little under a year. Atari had originally intended to release versions with 128 KB and 256 KB of RAM as the 130ST and 260ST respectively. However, with the OS loaded from floppy into RAM, there would be little or no room left over for applications to run. The 260ST did make its way into Europe on a limited basis. The ST could support a monochrome or color monitor. The monochrome monitor was less expensive and had higher resolution (640x400). The hardware supported two different color resolution, 320x200 with 16 colors, or 640x200 with 4 colors. The monochrome monitor was better suited to business applications. Color was required by many games. Early models shipped with TOS on disk, but were designed with ROM sockets to make for easy upgrading to the future ROM based TOS. These became available only a few months later, and were included in all new machines, as well as being available to upgrade older machines. By late 1985 the machines were also upgraded with the addition of an RF modulator (for TV display), a version known as the 520STM. Atari had originally intended to include GEM's GDOS (Graphical Device Operating System), which allowed programs to send GEM VDI (Virtual Device Interface) commands to drivers loaded by GDOS. This allowed developers to send VDI instructions to other devices simply by pointing to it. However, GDOS was not ready at the time the ST started shipping, and was included in software packages and later ST machines. Later versions of GDOS supported vector fonts. A limited set of GEM fonts were also included within the ROMs. These fonts also featured two additions: The standard 8x8 pixel graphical character set for the ST (the main in-ROM "font" for GEM, and text-mode TOS operations in color modes) contains, following all the standard numbers, letters, symbols and accented characters, four unusual characters. These can be placed together in a square, forming a basic but recognisable facsimile of the face of J. R. "Bob" Dobbs, the supposed founder of the Church of the Subgenius.The face of J.R. "Bob" Dobbs Jack Tramiel chose to include the Hebrew alphabet with ST's ROM character set because of his Jewish heritage. On the plus side, the ST was less expensive than most machines, including the Macintosh Plus, and tended to be faster than most (external link: price comparison). Largely as a result of the price/performance factor, the ST would go on to be a fairly popular machine, notably in European markets where the foreign exchange rates amplified prices. Indeed, the company's English advertising strapline of the era was "power without the price." In fact, an Atari ST and terminal emulation software was much cheaper than a Digital VT220 terminal, which was commonly needed by offices with central computers. Description Housing The Atari 520ST The 520ST was an all-in-one unit, similar to earlier home computers like the Commodore 64. By the time the 520ST reached the market, however, consumers demanded a keyboard with cursor keys and a numeric keypad. For this reason, the 520ST was a fairly large and awkward computer console. Adding to this problem was the number of large cables needed to connect to the peripherals. This problem was addressed to some degree in the follow-on models which included a built-in floppy disk drive, though this addition resulted in the awkward placement of the mouse and joystick ports to a cramped niche underneath the keyboard. Early 520ST owners became accustomed to the "Atari Twist" and the "Atari Drop" service procedures. "Atari Twist" seemed to help discharge built-up static electricity (Atari soldered-down the metal shielding to fix the problem) while the "Atari Drop" appeared to help re-seat chips which may have become partially unseated over time. The case design was created by Ira Valenski — Atari's chief Industrial Designer whose aesthetic sensibility brought a stylish and attractive look which was unique in an industry traditionally providing an industrial utilitarian look, and certainly a factor which helped sales. The ST featured bold angular lines and was basically wedge shaped, with a series of grilles cut into the rear for airflow. The majority of the machines had keyboards with soft tactile feedback and with rhomboid-shaped function keys across the top. The original 520ST design used an external floppy drive; the 1040ST-style case featured a built-in floppy drive. The power supply for the early 520ST was a large external brick while the 1040ST's was inside the machine. Atari 520ST ports Port connections The ST featured a large number of ports mounted at the rear of the machine. Standard ports: RS-232c serial port (DB25 male) Centronics printer port (DB25 female) joystick/mouse ports (DE-9 male) MIDI ports (5-pin DIN) Atari ST mouse(2000) ST-specific ports: Monitor port (13-pin DIN) ACSI (similar to SCSI) DMA port (for hard disks and laser printers) Floppy port ST cartridge port (for 128 KB ROM cartridges) Because of its bi-directional design, the Centronics printer port could be used for joystick input and several games made use of available adaptors that plugged into the printer socket, providing two additional 9-pin joystick ports. Atari initially used single-sided disk drives that could store up to 360 KB. Later drives were double-sided versions that stored 720 KB. Due to the early sales of so many of the single-sided drives, almost all software would ship on two single-sided disks instead of a single double-sided one, for fear of alienating early adopters. ST magazines wishing to cater to the entire audience while still supplying a large amount of material on a single cover disc had to adopt innovative custom formats to work around this problem. Another sticking point was that while the Atari double-sided drive could read IBM-formatted disks, IBM PCs could not read Atari disks. This was a formatting issue that was later resolved by third-party software formatters and TOS upgrades (1.4 and higher). STF and STFM models Atari 1040ST Atari later upgraded the basic design in 1986 with the 1040STF (also written STF). The machine was generally similar to the earlier 520ST, but moved the power supply and a double-sided floppy drive into the rear of the housing of the computer, as opposed to being external. This added to the size of the machine, but reduced cable clutter in the back. The 1040 shipped with 1 MB of RAM, and the same design was also used for the new 512 KB 520STFM, which replaced the earlier models in the market. The early 'STF' machines lacked the 'M' modulator that allowed a TV to be used and would only work with a monitor. The 1040ST was the first personal computer shipped with a base RAM configuration of 1 MB, and when the list price was reduced to $999 in the U.S. it became the first computer to break the $1000/megabyte price barrier, and was featured on the cover of BYTE. However, the ST remained generally the same internally over the majority of its several-year lifespan. The choice of model numbers was inherited from the model numbers of the XE series of the Atari 8-bit family of computers. A limited number of 1040STFs shipped with a single-sided floppy drive. Mega models Initial sales were strong, especially in Europe where Atari sold 75% of its computers. Germany became Atari's strongest market, with small business users using them for desktop publishing and CAD. To address this growing market segment, Atari came up with the ST1. First debuted at Comdex, 1986, it was received favorably. Renamed the Mega, this new machine included a detached high-quality keyboard, stronger case (to support the weight of a monitor), and internal bus expansion connector. The upcoming SLM804 laser printer would not come with a processor or memory, reducing costs. It would attach to the Mega through the ST DMA port and have the Mega computer render the pages. Initially equipped with 2 or 4 MB (a 1 MB version, the Mega 1 would later follow), the Mega machines would complement the Atari laser printer for a low-cost desktop publishing package which received acclaim and was featured on the cover of Computer Shopper magazine. A custom blitter co-processor was to be included to speed the performance of some graphics operations on the screen, but due to delays it was eventually released on the Mega 2 and Mega 4 machines. Developers wanting to use it had to detect for it in their programs because it was not present on all machines. However, properly-written programs using the screen VDI commands could use the blitter seamlessly since GEM API was a higher-level interface to TOS. Later models For about the first four years, no major design changes in the ST platform took place as Atari focused on manufacturing problems and distribution. ST enhanced In late 1989, Atari released the STE (also written STE), a version of the ST with improvements to the multimedia hardware and operating system. The STE featured an increased color palette of 4096 colors from the ST's 512 (though the maximum displayable palette of these without programming tricks was still limited to 16 in the lowest 320x200 resolution and even fewer in higher resolutions), Genlock support, and a graphics co-processor chip called Blitter which could quickly move large blocks of data (most particularly, graphics sprites) around in RAM. It also included a new 2-channels digital sound chip that could play 8-bit stereo samples in hardware at up to 50 kHz. Two enhanced joystick ports (EJP) were added (two normal joysticks could be plugged into each port with an adaptor), with the new connectors placed in more easily-accessed locations on the side of the case. The enhanced joystick ports were re-used in Atari's Jaguar console, and are compatible. RAM was now much more simply upgradable via SIMMs. Despite all of this, it still ran at 8 MHz, and the enhanced hardware was clearly designed to catch up with the Amiga. The STE models initially had software and hardware conflicts resulting in some applications and games written for the ST line being unstable or even completely unusable, primarily caused by programming direct hardware calls which bypassed the operating system. Sometimes incompatibility could be solved by expanding the RAM. Furthermore, even having a joystick plugged in would sometimes cause strange behaviour with a few applications (such as First Word Plus). Very little use was made of the extra features of the STE: STE-enhanced and STE-only software was rare, generally being limited to serious art, CAD or music applications, with very few games taking advantage of the hardware as it was found on so few machines. Quality did, however, seem to substitute for quantity, as the coders who took advantage of the new abilities used them to their fullest. The last STE machine, the Mega STE, was an STE in a grey Atari TT case that ran at a switchable 16 MHz, dual-bus design (16-bit external, 32-bit internal), optional Motorola 68882 FPU, built-in 3½" floppy disk drive, VME expansion slot, a network port (very similar to that used by Apple's LocalTalk) and an optional built-in 3½" hard drive. It also shipped with TOS 2.00 (better support for hard drives, enhanced desktop interface, memory test, 1.44 MB floppy support, bug fixes). It was marketed as more affordable than a TT but more powerful than an ordinary ST. The 68030 machines In 1990, Atari released the high-end workstation-oriented TT (32 MHz, 68030-based TT030), continuing the nomenclature system with the 030 chip being a full 32 bit chip with thirty-two bit internal and external registers, hence TT. Originally planned with a 68020 CPU, the TT included improved graphics and more powerful support chips. The case was a new design with an integrated hard drive enclosure. The final ST computer was the multimedia Falcon (also 68030-based, operating at 16 MHz, but with improved video modes and extensive custom chip provisions, particularly high-quality audio DSPs). Although 68030 microprocessor was capable of using 32-bit memory, the Falcon used a 16-bit bus which impacted performance, but also served to reduce its cost. In another cost-reduction measure, Atari shipped the Falcon in an inexpensive case much like that of the STE. After-market upgrade kits were available that allowed the Falcon to be put in a desktop or rack-mount case, with the keyboard separate. Released in 1992, the Falcon was canceled by Atari the following year. In Europe, C-Lab licenced the Falcon design from Atari and released the C-Lab Falcon Mk I (the same as Atari's Falcon except for some slight modifications to the audio circuitry), Mk II (as Mk I but with an internal 500 MB SCSI hard disk) and Mk X (as Mk II but in a desktop case). Aftermath In 1993, Atari cancelled development on the ST computers to focus on the Jaguar. Following the exit of Atari from the computer market, Medusa Computer Systems manufactured some powerful 3rd-party Atari Falcon/TT-compatible machines that used 68040 and 68060 processors, based around multimedia (particularly audio, but also video), CAD and office uses. Despite the lack of a hardware supplier, there is a small active community dedicated to keeping the ST platform alive. There have been advancements in the operating system, software emulators (for Windows, Mac & Linux), and some hardware developments. There are accelerator cards, such as the CT60 & CT63, which is a 68060 based accelerator card for the Falcon, and there is the Atari Coldfire Project, which aims at developing an Atari-clone based on the Coldfire processor. Milan Computer of Germany also made 68040 and 68060-based Atari clones that can run either Atari TOS 4.5 or Milan Computer's MultiOS operating system. Software Music / Sound The ST was the first home computer with built-in MIDI ports, and there was plenty of MIDI-related software for use professionally in music studios, or by amateur enthusiasts. The popular Windows/Macintosh applications Cubase and Logic Pro originated on the Atari ST (the latter as Notator Logic, preceded by Creator, Notator and Notator-SL). Another popular and powerful ST music sequencer application, Dr. T's KCS, contained a "Multi-Program Environment" that allowed ST users to run other applications, such as the synthesizer patch editing software XoR (now known as Unisyn on the Macintosh), from within the sequencer application. Even today some people (such as Fatboy Slim) are still using the Atari ST for composing music. Music tracker software was popular on the ST, such as the TCB Tracker, aiding the production of quality music from the Yamaha synthesizer ('chiptunes'). An innovative music composition program that combined the sample playing abilities of a tracker with conventional music notation (which was usually only found in MIDI software) was called Quartet (after its 4-note polyphonic tracker, which displayed one monophonic stave at a time on colour screens). Due to the ST having comparatively large amounts of memory for the time, sound sampling packages became a realistic proposition. The Microdeal Replay Professional product featured a sound sampler that cleverly used the ST cartridge port to read in parallel from the cartridge port from the ADC. For output of digital sound, it used the on-board frequency output, set it to 128 kHz (inaudible) and then modulated the amplitude of that. Another program that had good success on the ST platform was MasterTracks Pro from Passport Designs, of Half Moon Bay, CA., that was first put out by Don Williams for the Macintosh. When the ST died, a PC version continued that one could port MIDI to using the generic .MID format. Passport was bought out by GVox, which continues the program along with the other Passport product, the notation program Encore. In addition to the sound sampling functionalities, the availability of software packages with MIDI support for music composition and efficient sound analysis contributed to make the Atari ST a forerunner of later computer-based all-in-one studios. The ST's low cost, built-in MIDI ports, and fast, low-latency response times made it a favorite with musicians: The Fatboy Slim album You've Come A Long Way, Baby has an Atari ST in the large foldout picture of Fatboy Slim's studio. Highly acclaimed electronic music artists Mike Paradinas and Luke Vibert started out writing music on Atari STs. Mike Oldfield's album Earth Moving album notes state that it was recorded using an Atari ST and C-Lab MIDI software. In the Paris performance of Jean Michel Jarre's album Waiting for Cousteau, musicians have attached Atari ST machines with unidentified MIDI software to their keyboards, as could be seen in the TV live show and video recordings. White Town's "Your Woman", which reached #1 in the UK singles charts, was created using an Atari ST. All the drums MIDI files for The Berzerker's self-titled debut album were written on an Atari. Applications Also popular on the ST was professional desktop publishing software, such as PageStream and Calamus; office tools such as word processors (WordPerfect, WordWriter ST and others), spreadsheets and database programs; and various CAD and CAM tools from amateur hobbyist to professional grade, all being largely targeted or even limited to high resolution monochrome-monitor owners. Graphics programs such as NEOchrome, Degas & Degas Elite, Canvas, Deluxe Paint, and Cyber Paint (which author Jim Kent would later evolve into Autodesk Animator) The Antic Cyber Graphics Software and the Pre-History of Autodesk 3D Studio and Discreet 3ds max featured advanced features such as 3D design and animation. One paint program, Spectrum 512, used the ST's rapid palette switching ability to expand the maximum number of colors to be displayed on-screen at once to 512 The Antic Cyber Graphics Software and the Pre-History of Autodesk 3D Studio and Discreet 3ds max (up to 46 in each scan line — the STE never had a Spectrum4096, but other more minor applications filled this speciality niche, one even going so far as to program the shifter chip to palette shift at a rate enabling a display of 19200 colours). 3D computer graphics applications (like Cyber Studios CAD-3D, which author Tom Hudson would later develop into Autodesk 3D Studio Dinner with Tom Hudson The People of ANALOG ), brought 3D modelling, sculpting, scripting, and most important, computer animation (using delta-compression) to the desktop. Video capture and editing applications using special video capture 'dongles' connected using the cartridge port — low frame rate, mainly silent and monochrome, but progressing to sound and basic colour (in still frames) by the end of the machine's life. At the end, Spectrum 512 and CAD-3D teamed up to produce realistic 512 color textured 3D renderings, but processing was slow, and Atari's failure to deliver a machine with a math coprocessor had Hudson and Yost looking towards the PC as the future before a finished product could be delivered to the consumer. http://www.asterius.com/atari/whatmight The Antic Cyber Graphics Software and the Pre-History of Autodesk 3D Studio and Discreet 3ds max Software development The Atari ST had a wide variety of languages and tools for development. 68000 assemblers (MadMac from Atari Corp, HiSoft's Devpac), Pascal (OSS Personal Pascal), Modula-2, C compilers (like Turbo C (Borland), Alcyon C, Lattice C, Megamax C, Mark Williams C, GNU C, Aztec C), LISP, Prolog, Logo and many others. The initial development kit from Atari included a computer and manuals. At $5,000, this discouraged many from developing software for the ST. Later, the Atari Developer's Kit consisted of software and manuals (no hardware) for $300. Included with the kit were a resource kit, C compiler (first Alcyon C, then Mark Williams C), debugger, and 68000 assembler (plus the non-disclosure agreement). The ST came bundled with a system disk that contained ST BASIC, the first BASIC for the ST. However, due to its poor performance, users favored other BASICs, such as GFA BASIC, FaST BASIC (notable for being one of the few programs to actually be supplied as a ROM cartridge instead of on disc) and the relatively famous STOS, which then inspired and led to the creation of AMOS on the Amiga, and powerful enough that it was used (with a compiler, opposed to its usual runtime interpreter) for the production of at least two commercial titles and an innumerable host of good quality shareware and public domain games. Even novelty tools such as SEUCK were available. Games The ST enjoyed success in gaming due to low cost, fast performance and colorful graphics. Notable individuals who developed games on the ST include Peter Molyneux, Doug Bell, Jeff Minter, Jez San, James Hutchby, Dimitri Koveos and David Braben. The first real-time 3D role-playing computer game, Dungeon Master, was first developed and released on the ST, and was the best-selling software ever produced for the platform. Simulation games like Falcon and Flight Simulator II made use of the enhanced graphics found in the ST machines, as did many arcade ports. One game, MIDI Maze used the midi ports to connect with other machines for interactive networked play. Games simultaneously released on the Amiga that had identical graphics and sound were often accused by computer game magazines of simply being ST ports. See List of Atari ST games and :Category:Atari ST games. Utilities / Misc Utility software was available to drive hardware add-ons such as video digitisers. Office Productivity and graphics software was also bundled with the ST (HyperPaint II by Dimitri Koveos, HyperDraw by David Farmborough, 3D-Calc spreadsheet by Frank Schoonjans, and several others commissioned by Bob Katz, later of Electronic Arts). There was a thriving output of public domain and shareware software which was distributed by, in the days long before public internet access, public domain software libraries that advertised in magazines and on popular dial-up Bulletin Board Systems. Remarkably, a modest core fanbase for the system, supporting a dwindling number of good quality print magazines, survived to the mid 90s and the birth of the modern, publicly accessible internet as we know it. Despite the limited graphics, memory, and temporary hard storage capabilities of the system, several email, FTP, telnet, IRC, and even full-blown graphical World Wide Web browser applications are available and usable on the ST. Screenshots Screenshot of GEM (Desktop)GEM (Desktop)Neochrome1st WordSTZipAtari/Digital Research (1985)Dave Staugas (1985)GST (1985)Vincent Pomey (1994) Dungeon MasterMIDI MazePopulousXenon 2 MegablastMirrorsoft/FTL (1987)Hybrid Arts (1987)EA/Bullfrog (1989)Bitmap Brothers (1989) More screenshots can be found on the Atari ST Games page. Technical specifications All STs were made up of both custom and commercial chips: Custom chipsST Shifter "Video shift register chip"—Enabled bitmap graphics using 32 KB of contiguous memory for all resolutions. Screen address had to be a multiple of 256.ST GLU "Generalized Logic Unit"—Control logic for the system used to connect the ST's chips. Not part of the data path, but needed to bridge chips with each other.ST MMU "Memory Management Unit"—Enabled physical memory access up to 4 MB. Maps out the memory space in the ST.ST DMA "Direct Memory Access"—Used for floppy and hard drive data transfers. Can directly access main memory in the ST. Support chipsMC6850P ACIA "Asynchronous Common Interface Adapter"—Enabled the ST to directly communicate with MIDI devices and keyboard (2 chips used). 31.25 kBaud for MIDI, 7812.5 bit/s for keyboard.MC68901 MFP "Multi Function Peripheral"—Used for interrupt generation/control, serial and misc. control input signals. Atari TT030 had 2 MFP chips.WD-1772-PH "Western Digital Floppy Disk Controller"—Floppy controller chip.YM2149F PSG "Programmable Sound Generator"—Provided 3-voice sound synthesis, also used for floppy signalling, serial control output and printer parallel port.HD6301V1 "Hitachi keyboard processor"—Used for keyboard scanning and mouse/joystick ports. ST/STF/STM/STFM As originally released in the 520ST: CPU: Motorola 68000 16-/32-Bit CPU @ 8 MHz. 16 bit data/32 bit internal/24-bit address. RAM: 512 KB or 1 Megabyte Display modes (60 Hz NTSC, 50 Hz PAL, 71.2 Hz monochrome): Low resolution - 320×200 (16 color), palette of 512 colors Medium resolution - 640×200 (4 color), palette of 512 colors High resolution - 640×400 (mono), monochrome Sound: Yamaha YM2149 3-voice squarewave plus 1-voice white noise mono Programmable Sound Generator Drive: Single-sided 3½" floppy disk drive, 360 KB capacity when formatted to standard 9 sector, 80 track layout. Ports: TV out (on ST-M and ST-FM models, NTSC or PAL standard RF modulated), MIDI in/out (with 'out-thru'), RS-232 serial, Centronics parallel (printer), monitor (RGB or Composite Video colour and mono, 13-pin DIN), extra disk drive port (15-pin DIN), DMA port (ACSI port, Atari Computer System Interface) for hard disks and Atari Laser Printer (sharing RAM with computer system), joystick and mouse ports (9-pin MSX standard) Operating System: TOS v1.00 (The Operating S'ystem) with the Graphical Environment Manager (GEM) WiMP (Windows, Mouse, Pointer) GUI Very early machines included the OS on a floppy disk due to it not being ready to be burned to ROM (Like the Amiga 1000 had) This early version of TOS was bootstrapped from a very small core boot ROM, but this was quickly replaced with (expanded capacity) ROM versions of TOS 1.0 when it was ready. (This change was also greatly welcomed as older ST machines with memory below 512 KB suffered, as GEM loaded its entire 192 KB code into RAM when booting the desktop). Having the OS loaded from disk was due to Atari (and Commodore) trying to rush the machines to market without ironing out all the bugs in the OS. Soon after this change, most production models became STFs, with an integrated single- (520STF/512 KB RAM) or double-sided (1040STF/1024 KB RAM) double density drive built-in, but no other changes. The next later models used an upgraded version of TOS - 1.02 (also known as TOS 1.2). Another early addition (after about 6 months) was an RF Modulator that allowed the machine to be hooked to a colour TV when run in its low or medium resolution (525/625 line 60/50 Hz interlace, even on RGB monitors) modes, greatly enhancing the machine's saleability and perceived value (no need to buy a prohibitively expensive, even if exceptionally crisp and clear, monitor). These models were known as the 520STM (or 520STM). Later F and FM models of the 520 had a built in double-sided disk drive instead of a single-sided one. STE As originally released in the 520STE/1040STE: All of the features of the 520STFM/1040STFM Extended palette of 4,096 available colours to choose from BLiTTER chip for copy/fill/clear large data blocks in memory (fill rate 4 MB/s) Hardware-support for horizontal and vertical fine scrolling and split screen (using the Shifter video chip) DMA sound chip with 2-channels stereo 8-bit PCM sound at 6.25/12.5/25/50 kHz and stereo RCA audio-out jacks (using enhancements to the Shifter video chip to support audio shifting) National LMC 1992 audio controller chip, allowing adjustable left/right/master volume and bass and treble EQ via a "Microwire" (3-bit serial) interface Memory: 30-pin SIMM memory slots (SIPP packages in earliest versions) allowing upgrades up to 4 MB Allowable memory sizes including only 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 4.0 MB due to configuration restraints (however, 2.5 and 3.0 MB are unsupported and have compatibility problems). Later 3rd-party upgrade kits allow a maximum of 14MB, bypassing the stock MMU Ability to synchronise the video-timings with an external device so that a video Genlock device can be used without having to make any modifications to computer's hardware Analogue joypad ports (2), with support for devices such as paddles and light pens in addition to joysticks/joypads. The Atari Jaguar joypads and Power Pad joypads (grey version of Jaguar joypads marketed for the STE and Falcon) can be used without an adaptor. Two standard Atari-style digital joysticks could be plugged into each analogue port with an adaptor. TOS 1.06 (also known as TOS 1.6) or TOS 1.62 (which fixed some major backwards-compatibility bugs in TOS 1.6) in two socketed 128 KB ROM chips. Socketed PLCC 68000 CPU Models A number of machines were released in the ST family. Here they are, in rough chronological order after the original 520ST: 520ST+ - Name for early 520STs with 1 MB of RAM, but without floppy disk 260ST — European name for the 520ST with 512 KB. Used after the release of the 520ST+ to differentiate the cheaper 512 KB models from the 1 MB models 520STM - a 520ST with a built-in modulator for TV output 520STFM - a 520STM with a newly redesigned motherboard in a larger case with a built-in floppy disk drive 1040STF - a 520STFM with 1 MB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk, but without RF modulator 1040STFM - a 520STFM with 1 MB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk with RF modulator Mega ST (MEGA2, MEGA4) - redesigned motherboard with 2 or 4 MB of RAM, respectively, in a much improved "pizza box" case with a detached keyboard. Early models did not include the BLiTTER chip; most did. Included a real-time clock and internal expansion connector. 520STE and 1040STE - a 520STFM/1040STFM with enhanced sound, the BLiTTER chip, and a 4096-color palette, in the older 1040 style all-in-one case 4160STE - as 1024STE but with 4 MB of RAM. Never officially released except a small quantity of development units. Labels were sent out to dealers to affix to machines that had been upgraded to 4MB. Mega STE - same hardware as 1040STE except for a faster 16 MHz processor, in the TT case STacy - A portable (but definitely not laptop) version of the ST. Originally designed to operate on 12 standard C cell flashlight batteries for portability, when Atari finally realized how quickly the machine would use up a set of batteries (especially when rechargeable batteries of the time supplied insufficient power compared to the intended alkalines), they simply glued the lid of the battery compartment shut, and soon discontinued the machine. ST BOOK (later version portable ST), vastly more portable than the STacy, but sacrificing several features in order to achieve this — notably the backlight, and internal floppy disc drive. Files were meant to be stored on a small amount (one megabyte) of internal flash memory 'on the road' and transferred using serial or parallel links, memory flashcards or external (and externally powered) floppy disc to a 'real' desktop ST once back indoors. The screen is highly reflective for the time, but still hard to use indoors or in low light (the idea of a switchable green LED backlight seeming not to have inspired the Atari technical department as it did many wristwatch manufacturers), it is fixed to the 640x400 1-bit mono mode (not even greyscale emulation of colour in low res is offered), and no external video port was provided. For its limitations, it gained some popularity as being the most utterly portable 'real' computer of the day (slim, light, quiet, reliable, and with a long battery life, even by today's standards for all 5), particularly amongst musicians already used to using the original computer and perhaps having lugged a STacy or even a full ST + Monitor + accessories rig on tour. STylus/STPad Other models Atari TT030—new machine based on the Motorola 68030 processor running at 32 MHz, in yet another new case design with a detached keyboard. Capable of high screen resolutions with better colour palettes and addressing more memory, with optional onboard hard drive (slotting onto the base as a second, smaller box). Popular with CAD and DTP communities of the time for its sheer graphical capability (its high resolution only recently having become a common size on modern PCs) and processing speed. Atari Falcon 030—another 68030 based (albeit only 16 MHz) machine like the TT, but in the STE-style case (yet again) with further upgrades to the graphics and sound, a Motorola 56000 DSP for CD-quality sound recording and processing, multitasking OS (on disk) and a LocalTalk port for networking. Last computer made by Atari. Atari ABAQ, or Atari Transputer Workstation—A standalone machine developed in conjunction with Perihelion Hardware, containing modified ST hardware and up to 17 transputers capable of massively parallel operations for tasks such as ray tracing. There were also some unreleased prototypes: Falcon 040 (based on a Motorola 68040, new case and slots), ST Pad (A4 (Letter paper) sized pen-operated portable ST computer, handheld and with an unlit monochrome LCD screen derived from the ST Book, forerunner of modern tablet PCs), and the STylus (Apple Newton-style palmtop). Non-Atari Models Medusa 040, Medusa 060, Hades 040, Hades 060—3rd-party Falcon/TT compatible machines manufactured by Medusa Computer Systems. The Atari Coldfire Project aims to create a follow up to the Falcon by utilising a Freescale Coldfire cpu. Experiment-s is an FPGA implementation of an Atari Falcon that is currently being prototyped. Peripherals SF354 - Single-sided double-density 3½ floppy drive (360 KB) SF314 - Double-sided double-density 3½ floppy drive (720 KB) SM124 - Monochrome monitor, 12" screen, 640x400 pixels, 70 Hz refresh SM147 - Monochrome monitor, 14" screen, no speaker, replacement for SM124 SC1224 - Color monitor, 12" screen, 640x200 pixels plus speaker SC1425 - Color monitor, 14" screen, One speaker on the left of screen, a jack to plug ear-listeners SC1435 - Color monitor, 14" screen, stereo speakers, replacement for SC1224 (rebadged Magnavox 1CM135) SM195 - Monochrome monitor, 19" screen for TT030. 1280x960 pixels. 70 Hz refresh SH204 - External hard drive, 20 MB Megafile 20, 30, 60 - External hard drive, Mega ST matching case Megafile 44 - Removable cartridge drive, Mega ST matching case SLM804 - Laser printer, connected through ACSI DMA port, used ST's memory and processor to build pages for printing SLM605 - Laser printer, connected through ACSI DMA port, smaller than SLM805 References See also List of Atari ST games. Spectre GCR (Apple Macintosh emulator) Atari ST demos—The demoscene on the Atari ST. Amiga External links "The little green desktop" "Atari Museum - ST Section History YM-2149 MUSIC RECORDINGS "3 Years With the ST" article Atari Gallery – Descriptions of the various ST models; courtesy of YesCREW The Atari section of the University of Michigan software archives. Ultimate TOS Software Index | Atari_ST |@lemmatized atari:138 st:106 home:8 personal:3 computer:59 commercially:1 available:11 early:17 release:20 corporation:1 officially:3 stand:1 sixteen:1 thirty:2 two:15 refer:1 motorola:8 bit:24 external:13 bus:4 internals:1 overview:1 part:5 generation:3 base:17 cpu:8 kb:19 ram:18 floppy:24 disk:24 storage:3 similar:6 contemporary:1 machine:45 use:60 apple:6 macintosh:9 commodore:22 amiga:38 although:2 first:15 widely:1 graphical:6 user:7 interface:8 gui:4 limit:4 monochromatic:1 display:7 small:10 built:3 monitor:18 precede:2 commercial:3 almost:4 month:5 come:6 fully:3 map:2 color:19 version:15 digital:12 research:7 gem:15 february:1 n:1 l:1 g:2 tcs:1 dri:1 ship:9 net:1 micro:1 google:1 group:3 also:23 integrated:3 midi:17 support:18 primarily:2 competitor:1 system:32 platform:8 rivalry:1 often:2 reflect:1 owner:4 prominent:1 demo:2 scene:2 custom:10 processor:13 give:3 edge:1 game:22 video:17 market:15 generally:4 cheap:3 slightly:1 faster:1 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contains:1 letter:2 symbol:1 accented:1 unusual:1 place:3 together:1 square:1 basic:8 recognisable:1 facsimile:1 face:2 r:4 bob:3 dobbs:2 church:1 subgenius:1 choose:2 hebrew:1 alphabet:1 jewish:1 heritage:1 side:15 tend:1 link:3 largely:2 performance:6 factor:2 fairly:2 popular:7 notably:2 european:2 foreign:1 exchange:1 rate:4 amplify:1 indeed:1 english:1 advertising:1 strapline:1 era:1 power:6 without:7 fact:1 terminal:2 emulation:2 much:4 office:4 central:1 description:2 housing:2 unit:4 earlier:1 reach:2 demand:1 cursor:1 numeric:1 keypad:1 reason:1 awkward:2 cable:2 connect:6 peripheral:3 address:5 degree:1 placement:1 mouse:6 joystick:12 cramped:1 niche:2 underneath:1 accustomed:1 twist:2 drop:2 service:1 procedure:1 seem:3 help:3 discharge:1 static:1 electricity:1 solder:1 metal:1 shield:1 fix:4 appear:1 seat:1 partially:1 unseated:1 case:18 ira:1 valenski:1 industrial:2 whose:1 aesthetic:1 sensibility:1 bring:2 stylish:1 attractive:1 unique:1 industry:1 traditionally:1 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6,588 | Lead | Lead () is a main-group element with symbol Pb () and atomic number 82. Lead is a soft, malleable poor metal, also considered to be one of the heavy metals. Lead has a bluish-white color when freshly cut, but tarnishes to a dull grayish color when exposed to air. It has a shiny chrome-silver luster when melted into a liquid. Lead is used in building construction, lead-acid batteries, bullets and shot, weights, and is part of solder, pewter, fusible alloys and radiation shields. Lead has the highest atomic number of all stable elements, although the next element, bismuth, has a half-life so long (longer than the estimated age of the universe) it can be considered stable. Like mercury, another heavy metal, lead is a potent neurotoxin that accumulates in soft tissues and bone over time. Lead poisoning was documented in ancient Rome, Greece, and China. Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, ductile, very soft, highly malleable, bluish-white metal that has poor electrical conductivity. This true metal is highly resistant to corrosion, and because of this property, it is used to contain corrosive liquids (e.g., sulfuric acid). Because lead is very malleable and resistant to corrosion it is extensively used in building construction, e.g., external coverings of roofing joints. Lead can be toughened by adding a small amount of antimony or other metals to it. It is a common misconception that lead has a zero Thomson effect. All lead, except 204Pb, is the end product of a complex radioactive decay. Lead is also poisonous. History Lead has been commonly used for thousands of years because it is widespread, easy to extract and easy to work with. It is highly malleable and ductile as well as easy to smelt. Metallic lead beads dating back to 6400 B.C. have been found in Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey. In the early Bronze Age, lead was used with antimony and arsenic. Lead is mentioned in the Book of Exodus (15:10). In alchemy, lead was thought to be the oldest metal and was associated with the planet Saturn. Lead pipes that bear the insignia of Roman emperors are still in service and many Roman "pigs" (ingots) of lead figure in Derbyshire lead mining history and in the history of the industry in other English centres. The Romans also used lead in molten form to secure iron pins that held together large limestone blocks in certain monumental buildings. Lead's symbol Pb is an abbreviation of its Latin name plumbum for soft metals; originally it was plumbum nigrum (literally, "black plumbum"), where plumbum candidum (literally, "bright plumbum") was tin. The English words "plumbing," "plumber," "plumb" and "plumb-bob" also derive from this Latin root. Occurrence Metallic lead does occur in nature, but it is rare. Lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver and (most abundantly) copper, and is extracted together with these metals. The main lead mineral is galena (PbS), which contains 86.6% lead. Other common varieties are cerussite (PbCO3) and anglesite (PbSO4). Ore processing Lead ore Most ores contain less than 10% lead, and ores containing as little as 3% lead can be economically exploited. Ores are crushed and concentrated by froth flotation typically to 70% or more. Sulfide ores are roasted, producing primarily lead oxide and a mixture of sulfates and silicates of lead and other metals contained in the ore. Lead oxide from the roasting process is reduced in a coke-fired blast furnace. This converts most of the lead to its metallic form. Three additional layers separate in the process and float to the top of the metallic lead. These are slag (silicates containing 1.5% lead), matte (sulfides containing 15% lead), and speiss (arsenides of iron and copper). These wastes contain concentrations of copper, zinc, cadmium, and bismuth that can be recovered economically, as can their content of unreduced lead. Metallic lead that results from the roasting and blast furnace processes still contains significant contaminants of arsenic, antimony, bismuth, zinc, copper, silver, and gold. The melt is treated in a reverberatory furnace with air, steam, and sulfur, which oxidizes the contaminants except silver, gold, and bismuth. The oxidized contaminants are removed by drossing, where they float to the top and are skimmed off. Most lead ores contain significant concentrations of silver, resulting in the smelted metal also containing silver as a contaminant. Metallic silver as well as gold is removed and recovered economically by means of the Parkes process. Desilvered lead is freed of bismuth according to the Betterton-Kroll process by treating it with metallic calcium and magnesium, which forms a bismuth dross that can be skimmed off. Very pure lead can be obtained by processing smelted lead electrolytically by means of the Betts process. The process uses anodes of impure lead and cathodes of pure lead in an electrolyte of silica fluoride.. Production and recycling Production and consumption of lead is increasing worldwide. Total annual production is about 8 million tonnes; about half is produced from recycled scrap. Top lead producing countries, as of 2008, are Australia, China, USA, Peru, Canada, Mexico, Sweden, Morocco, South Africa and North Korea. Australia, China and the United States account for more than half of primary production. 2008 mine production: 3,886,000 tones 2008 metal production: 8,725,000 tones 2008 metal consumption: 8,706,000 tones At current use rates, the supply of lead is estimated to run out in 42 years. Environmental analyst, Lester Brown, however, has suggested lead could run out within 18 years based on an extrapolation of 2% growth per year. This may need to be reviewed to take account of renewed interest in recycling, and rapid progress in fuel cell technology. Isotopes Lead has many isotopes but 4 stable ones. The 4 stable isotopes are204Pb, 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb with204Pb regarded as primordial Pb and 206, 207, 208 are formed from decay of U and Th. The one common radiogenic isotope, 202Pb, has a half-life of approximately 53,000 years. Health effects Lead is a poisonous metal that can damage nervous connections (especially in young children) and cause blood and brain disorders. Because of its low reactivity and solubility, lead poisoning usually only occurs in cases when the lead is dispersed, like when sanding lead based paint, or long term exposure in the case of pewter tableware. Long term exposure to lead or its salts (especially soluble salts or the strong oxidant PbO2) can cause nephropathy, and colic-like abdominal pains. The effects of lead are the same whether it enters the body through breathing or swallowing. Lead can affect almost every organ and system in the body. The main target for lead toxicity is the nervous system, both in adults and children. Long-term exposure of adults can result in decreased performance in some tests that measure functions of the nervous system. It may also cause weakness in fingers, wrists, or ankles. Lead exposure also causes small increases in blood pressure, particularly in middle-aged and older people and can cause anemia. Exposure to high lead levels can severely damage the brain and kidneys in adults or children and ultimately cause death. In pregnant women, high levels of exposure to lead may cause miscarriage. Chronic, high-level exposure in men can damage the organs responsible for sperm production. The concern about lead's role in cognitive deficits in children has brought about widespread reduction in its use (lead exposure has been linked to learning disabilities ). Most cases of adult elevated blood lead levels are workplace-related. High blood levels are associated with delayed puberty in girls. Lead has been shown many times to permanently reduce the cognitive capacity of children at extremely low levels of exposure. There appears to be no detectable lower limit, below which lead has no effect on cognition. In the 20th century, the use of lead in paint pigments was sharply reduced because of the danger of lead poisoning, especially to children. By the mid-1980s, a significant shift in lead end-use patterns had taken place. Much of this shift was a result of the U.S. lead consumers' compliance with environmental regulations that significantly reduced or eliminated the use of lead in non-battery products, including gasoline, paints, solders, and water systems. Lead use is being further curtailed by the European Union's RoHS directive. Lead may still be found in harmful quantities in stoneware, vinyl (such as that used for tubing and the insulation of electrical cords), and brass manufactured in China. Between 2006 and 2007 many children's toys made in China were recalled, primarily due to lead in paint used to color the product. Older houses may still contain substantial amounts of lead paint. White lead paint has been withdrawn from sale in industrialized countries, but the yellow lead chromate is still in use; for example, Holland Colours Holcolan Yellow. Old paint should not be stripped by sanding, as this produces inhalable dust. Lead salts used in pottery glazes have on occasion caused poisoning, when acidic drinks, such as fruit juices, have leached lead ions out of the glaze. It has been suggested that what was known as "Devon colic" arose from the use of lead-lined presses to extract apple juice in the manufacture of cider. Lead is considered to be particularly harmful for women's ability to reproduce. For that reason, many universities do not hand out lead-containing samples to women for instructional laboratory analyses. Lead(II) acetate (also known as sugar of lead) was used by the Roman Empire as a sweetener for wine, and some consider this to be the cause of the dementia that affected many of the Roman Emperors. Lead as a soil contaminant is a widespread issue, since lead is present in natural deposits and may also enter soil through (leaded) gasoline leaks from underground storage tanks or through a wastestream of lead paint or lead grindings from certain industrial operations. Lead can also be found listed as a criteria pollutant in the United States Clean Air Act section 108. Lead that is emitted into the atmosphere can be inhaled, or it can be ingested after it settles out of the air. It is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream and is believed to have adverse effects on the central nervous system, the cardiovascular system, kidneys, and the immune system. Biochemistry of lead poisoning In the human body, lead inhibits porphobilinogen synthase and ferrochelatase, preventing both porphobilinogen formation and the incorporation of iron into protoporphyrin IX, the final step in heme synthesis. This causes ineffective heme synthesis and subsequent microcytic anemia. At lower levels, it acts as a calcium analog, interfering with ion channels during nerve conduction. This is one of the mechanisms by which it interferes with cognition. Acute lead poisoning is treated using disodium calcium edetate: the calcium chelate of the disodium salt of ethylene-diamine-tetracetic acid (EDTA). This chelating agent has a greater affinity for lead than for calcium and so the lead chelate is formed by exchange. This is then excreted in the urine leaving behind harmless calcium. Leaching of lead from metal surfaces It is clear from the Pourbaix diagram below that lead is more likely to corrode in a citrate medium than it is in a non-complexing medium. The central part of the diagram shows that lead metal oxidizes more easily in the citrate medium than in normal water. In a Pourbaix diagram, the acidity is plotted on the x axis using the pH scale, while how oxidising/reducing nature of the system is plotted on the y axis in terms of volts relative to the standard hydrogen electrode. The diagram shows the form of the element which is most chemically stable at each point, it only comments on thermodynamics and it says nothing about the rate of change (kinetics). Occupational exposure It is widely used in the production of batteries, metal products (solder and pipes), ammunition and devices to shield X-rays leading to its exposure to the people working in these industries. Use of lead in gasoline, paints and ceramic products, caulking, and pipe solder has been dramatically reduced in recent years because of health concerns. Ingestion of contaminated food and drinking water is the most common source of lead exposure in humans. Exposure can also occur via inadvertent ingestion of contaminated soil/dust or lead-based paint. Testing Water contamination can be tested with commercially available kits. Analysis of lead in whole blood is the most common and accurate method of assessing lead exposure in human. Erythrocyte protoporphyrin (EP) tests can also be used to measure lead exposure, but are not as sensitive at low blood lead levels (<20 μg/dL). Lead in blood reflects recent exposure. Bone lead measurements are an indicator of cumulative exposure. While measurements of urinary lead levels and hair have been used to assess lead exposure, they are not reliable. Descriptive chemistry Various oxidized forms of lead are easily reduced to the metal. An example is heating PbO with mild organic reducing agents such as glucose. A mixture of the oxide and the sulfide heated together without any reducing agent will also form the metal. 2PbO + PbS → 3 Pb + SO2 Metallic lead is attacked only superficially by air, forming a thin layer of oxide that protects it from further oxidation. The metal is not attacked by sulfuric or hydrochloric acids. It does, however, dissolve in nitric acid with the evolution of nitric oxide gas to form dissolved Pb(NO3)2. 3 Pb + 8 H+ + 8 NO3– → 3 Pb2+ + 6 NO3– + 2 NO + 4H2O When heated with nitrates of alkali metals, metallic lead oxidizes to form PbO (also known as litharge), leaving the corresponding alkali nitrite. PbO is representative of lead's II oxidation state. It is soluble in nitric and acetic acids, from which solutions it is possible to precipitate halide, sulfate, chromate, carbonate (PbCO3), and basic carbonate ( salts of lead. The sulfide can also be precipitated from acetate solutions. These salts are all poorly soluble in water. Among the halides, the iodide is less soluble than the bromide, which, in turn, is less soluble than the chloride. The II oxide is also soluble in alkali hydroxide solutions to form the corresponding plumbite salt. PbO + 2OH– + H2O → Pb(OH)42– Chlorination of plumbite solutions causes the formation of lead's IV oxidation state. Pb(OH)42– + Cl2 → PbO2 + 2 Cl– + 2 H2O Lead dioxide is representative of the IV state, and is a powerful oxidizing agent. The chloride of this oxidation state is formed only with difficulty and decomposes readily into the II chloride and chlorine gas. The bromide and iodide of IV lead are not known to exist. Lead dioxide dissolves in alkali hydroxide solutions to form the corresponding plumbates. PbO2 + 2 OH– + 2 H2O → Pb(OH)62– Lead also has an oxide that is a hybrid between the II and IV oxidation states. Red lead (also called minium) is Pb3O4. Lead readily forms an equimolar alloy with sodium metal that reacts with alkyl halides to form organometallic compounds of lead such as tetraethyl lead. Chloride complexes Diagram showing the forms of lead in chloride media Ignasi Puigdomenech, Hydra/Medusa Chemical Equilibrium Database and Plotting Software (2004) KTH Royal Institute of Technology, freely downloadable software at Lead(II) forms a series of complexes with chloride, the formation of which alters the corrosion chemistry of the lead. This will tend to limit the solubility of lead in saline media. + Equilibrium constants for aqueous lead chloride complexes at 25 °C Pb<sup>2+</sub> + Cl– → PbCl+ K1 = 12.59 PbCl+ + Cl− → PbCl20 K2 = 14.45 PbCl20 + Cl− → PbCl3− K3 = 3.98 ×10−1 PbCl3− + Cl− → PbCl42− K4 = 8.92 × 10−2 Phase diagrams of solubilities Lead(II) sulfate is poorly soluble, as can be seen in the following diagram showing addition of SO42− to a solution containing 0.1M of Pb<sup>2+</sub>. The pH of the solution is 4.5, as above that, Pb2+ concentration can never reach 0.1M due to the formation of Pb(OH)2. Observe that Pb2+ solubility drops 10,000 fold as SO42− reaches 0.1M. Here it can be seen that the addition of chloride can lower the solubility of lead, however in chloride rich media (such as aqua regia) the lead can become soluble again as anionic chlorocomplexes. Applications Because of its high density and resistance against corrosion, lead is used for the ballast keel of sailboats. Its high weight-to-volume ratio allows it to counterbalance the heeling effect of wind on the sails while at the same time occupying a small volume and thus offering the least underwater resistance. For the same reson its is used in scuba diving weight belts to counteract the diver's natural buoyancy and that of his equipment. It does not have the weight-to-volume ratio of many heavy metals, but its low cost increases its use in these and other applications. Roman lead water pipes with taps Lead pipe in Roman baths Lead is a major constituent of the lead-acid battery used extensively as a car battery. Lead is used as a coloring element in ceramic glazes, notably in the colors red and yellow. Lead is used to form glazing bars for stained glass or other multi-lit windows. The practice has become less common, not for danger but for stylistic reasons. Lead is frequently used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic, which coats electrical cords. Lead is used as projectiles for firearms and fishing sinkers because of its density, low cost compared to alternative products and ease of use due to relatively low melting point. Lead or "sheet-lead" is used as a sound deadening layer in such areas as wall, floor and ceiling design in sound studios where levels of airborne and mechanically produced sound are targeted for reduction or virtual elimination. Lead is used in some candles to treat the wick to ensure a longer, more even burn. Because of the dangers, European and North American manufacturers use more expensive alternatives such as zinc. Lead is used as shielding from radiation, e.g. in x-ray rooms. Molten lead is used as a coolant, eg. for lead cooled fast reactors. Lead glass is composed of 12-28% lead oxide. It changes the optical characteristics of the glass and reduces the transmission of radiation. Lead is the traditional base metal of organ pipes, mixed with varying amounts of tin to control the tone of the pipe. Lead is used as electrodes in the process of electrolysis. Lead is used in solder for electronics, although this usage is being phased out by some countries to reduce the amount of environmentally unfriendly waste. Lead is used in high voltage power cables as sheathing material to prevent water diffusion into insulation. Lead is added to brass to reduce machine tool wear. Some artists using oil-based paints continue to use lead carbonate white, citing its properties in comparison with the alternatives. Lead, in the form of strips or "tape" is used for the customization of tennis racquets. Tennis racquets of the past sometimes had lead added to them by the manufacturer to increase weight. Lead has many uses in the construction industry, e.g. lead sheets are used as architectural metals in roofing material, cladding, flashings, gutters and gutter joints, and on roof parapets. Detailed lead mouldings are used as decorative motifs used to fix lead sheet. Lead is still widely used in statues and sculptures. Tetra-ethyl lead is used as an anti-knock additive for aviation fuel in piston driven aircraft. Lead-based semiconductors, such as lead telluride, lead selenide and lead antimonide are finding applications in photovoltaic (solar energy) cells and infrared detectors. Lead is often used to balance the wheels of a car; this use is being phased out in favor of other materials for environmental reasons. Former applications Lead pigments were used in lead paint for white as well as yellow, orange, and red. Most have been discontinued due of the dangers of lead poisoning. However, lead chromate is still in industrial use. Lead carbonate (white) is the traditional pigment for the priming medium for oil painting, but it has been largely displaced by the zinc and titanium oxide pigments. It was also quickly replaced in water-based painting mediums. Lead carbonate white was used by the Japanese geisha and in the West for face-whitening make-up, which caused ill-health in the wearer. Lead was the hot metal used in hot metal typesetting. Lead was used for plumbing in Ancient Rome. Lead was used as a preservative for food and drink in Ancient Rome. Lead was used for joining cast iron water pipes and used as a material for small diameter water pipes until the early 1970s. Tetraethyl lead was used in leaded fuels to reduce engine knocking; however, this is no longer common practice in the Western world due to its incompatibility with catalytic converters. The EPA banned the use of lead gasoline for highway transportation, beginning January 1, 1996. Lead has been used to make "clubs" or bats more lethal by melting it into a hole drilled into the top. Lead was used to make bullets for slings. Lead was used as a component of toys. Due to toy safety regulations, this use has been stopped in the United States. Lead was used in car body filler, which was used in many custom cars in the 1940s–60s. Hence the term Leadsled. Lead is a superconductor at 7.2 K and IBM tried to make a Josephson effect computer out of lead-alloy. Lead was also used in pesticides before the 1950s, when fruit orchards were treated (ATSDR). Contrary to popular belief, pencil "leads" have never been made from lead. The term comes from the Roman stylus, called the penicillus, which was made of lead. When the pencil originated as a wrapped graphite writing tool, the particular type of graphite being used was named plumbago (lit. "act for lead"; "lead mockup"). See also Adult Blood Lead Epidemiology and Surveillance Lead-Free Toys Act Medical geology Plumbosolvency References Further reading Keisch, B., Feller, R. L., Levine, A. S., and Edwards, R. R.: "Dating and Authenticating Works of Art by Measurement of Natural Alpha Emitters". In: Science, 155, No. 3767, p. 1238–1242, 1967. Keisch, B: "Dating Works of Art Through their Natural Radioactivity: Improvements and Applications". In: Science, 160, p. 413–415, 1968. Keisch, B: "Discriminating Radioactivity Measurements of Lead: New Tool for Authentication". In: Curator, 11, No. 1., p. 41–52, 1968. Jose S. Casas and Jose Sordo. Lead Chemistry, Analytical Aspects. Environmental Impacts and Health Effects, 2006, First Edition, ELSEVIER B.V R.M. Harrison and D.P.H. Laxen, Lead Pollution Causes and Control, 1981, First Publish, British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data External links | Lead |@lemmatized lead:199 main:3 group:1 element:5 symbol:2 pb:13 atomic:2 number:2 soft:4 malleable:4 poor:2 metal:27 also:21 consider:4 one:4 heavy:3 bluish:2 white:7 color:5 freshly:1 cut:1 tarnish:1 dull:2 grayish:1 expose:1 air:5 shiny:1 chrome:1 silver:7 luster:2 melt:4 liquid:2 use:70 building:3 construction:3 acid:7 battery:5 bullet:2 shot:1 weight:5 part:2 solder:5 pewter:2 fusible:1 alloy:3 radiation:3 shield:3 high:8 stable:5 although:2 next:1 bismuth:6 half:4 life:2 long:6 estimated:1 age:3 universe:1 like:3 mercury:1 another:1 potent:1 neurotoxin:1 accumulate:1 tissue:1 bone:2 time:3 poisoning:6 document:1 ancient:3 rome:3 greece:1 china:5 characteristic:2 dense:1 ductile:2 highly:3 electrical:3 conductivity:1 true:1 resistant:2 corrosion:4 property:2 contain:13 corrosive:1 e:4 g:4 sulfuric:2 extensively:2 external:2 covering:1 roof:3 joint:2 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6,589 | Politics_of_Nepal | The politics of Nepal function within a framework of a republic with a multi-party system. Currently, the positions of President (head of state) and Prime Minister (head of government) are occupied by Ram Baran Yadav and Madhav Kumar Nepal, respectively. Executive power is exercised by the President and the Prime Minister and his cabinet, while legislative power is vested in the Constituent Assembly. Until May 28, 2008, Nepal was a constitutional monarchy. On that date, the constitution was altered by the Constituent Assembly to make the country a republic. Nepal's monarchy abolished, republic declared AFP, 2008-05-28 Political conditions 1990–1996: Parliamentary monarchy Until 1990, Nepal was an absolute monarchy running under the executive control of the king. Faced with a people's movement against the absolute monarchy, King Birendra, in 1990, agreed to large-scale political reforms by creating a parliamentary monarchy with the king as the head of state and a prime minister as the head of the government. Nepal's legislature was bicameral consisting of a House of Representatives and a National Council. The House of Representatives consisted of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council had 60 members, 10 nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature had a five-year term, but was dissolved by the king before its term could end. All Nepalese citizens 18 years and older became eligible to vote. The executive comprised the King and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election was appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet was appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. Governments in Nepal have tended to be highly unstable; no government has survived for more than two years since 1991, either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch. In the first free and fair elections in Nepal in 1991, the Nepali Congress was victorious. The 1994 election defeat of the Nepali Congress Party by the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) (CPN(UML)) made Nepal the first communist-led monarchy in Asia, with Man Mohan Adhikary prime minister. In mid-1994, parliament was dissolved due to dissension within the Nepali Congress Party. The subsequent general election, held 15 November 1994, gave no party a majority and led to several years of unstable coalition governments. As of the May 1999 general elections, the Nepali Congress Party once again headed a majority government. There have been three Nepali Congress Party Prime Ministers since the 1999 elections: K.P. Bhattarai (31 May 1999–17 March 2000); Girija Prasad Koirala (20 March 2000–19 July 2001); and Sher Bahadur Deuba (23 July 2001–2003). The final distribution of seats in Parliament gave the Nepali Congress 113; the CPN(UML) 69; the RPP 11; the RJM 5; the NSP 5; the Workers and Peasants Party 1; and the United People's Front 1. Nepali Congress Party has divided to Nepali Congress Party led by G. P. Koirala and Nepali Congress (Democratic) led by Sher Bahadur Deuba. Amongst the elected MPs, 39 MPs belong to Nepali Congress (Democratic). Former Prime Minister and Influential Leader Krishna Prasad Bhattarai has expressed his support for Nepali Congress (Democratic). Both Congress parties regard Krishna Prasad Bhattarai as their main leader. King Gyanendra discharged Sher Bahadur Deuba and on 4 June 2003 appointed Surya Bahadur Thapa as Prime Minister. 1996: Maoist insurgency In February 1996, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) began a violent insurgency in more than 50 of the country's 75 districts. About 11,000 police, civilians, and insurgents have been killed in the conflict since 1996. In July 2001 Prime Minister Deuba announced a cease-fire, which the Maoists pledged to observe, as part of a government effort to seek a negotiated solution to the conflict. Although Maoist-instigated intimidation and extortion continue, the killings have largely subsided since the cease-fire was announced. The government and Maoists held talks in August and September 2001. Political parties agreed in 1991 that the monarchy would remain to enhance political stability and provide an important symbol of national identity for the culturally diverse Nepali people. The King exercises limited powers, including the right to declare a state of emergency in the event of war or armed revolt, with the advice and consent of the Council of Ministers and the Prime Minister. According to the constitution, the King's declaration of a state of emergency must be approved by a two-thirds majority of the lower house of the Parliament. 2001: Royal massacre On June 1, 2001, Crown Prince Dipendra was officially reported to have shot and killed his father, King Birendra; his mother, Queen Aishwarya; his brother; his sister, his father's younger brother, Prince Dhirendra; and several aunts, before turning the gun on himself. Although he never regained consciousness before dying, Crown Prince Dipendra was nonetheless the king under the law of Nepalese royal succession. After his death two days later, the late King's surviving brother Gyanendra was proclaimed king. 2005–2007: Suspension of parliament and Loktantra Andolan On 1 February 2005 King Gyanendra suspended the Parliament, appointed a government led by himself, and enforced martial law. The King argued that civil politicians were unfit to handle the Maoist insurgency. Telephone lines were cut and several high-profile political leaders were detained. Other opposition leaders fled to India and regrouped there. A broad coalition called the Seven Party Alliance (SPA) was formed in opposition to the royal takeover, encompassing the seven parliamentary parties who held about 90% of the seats in the old, dissolved parliament. The UN-OHCHR, in response to events in Nepal, set up a monitoring program in 2005 to assess and observe the human rights situation there Nepal Summary, OHCHR. On 22 November 2005, the Seven Party Alliance (SPA) of parliamentary parties and the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) agreed on a historic and unprecedented 12-point memorandum of understanding (MOU) for peace and democracy. Nepalese from various walks of life and the international community regarded the MOU as an appropriate political response to the crisis that was developing in Nepal. Against the backdrop of the historical sufferings of the Nepalese people and the enormous human cost of the last ten years of violent conflict, the MOU, which proposes a peaceful transition through an elected constituent assembly, created an acceptable formula for a united movement for democracy. As per the 12-point MOU, the SPA called for a protest movement, and the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) supported it. This led to a countrywide uprising that started in April 2006. All political forces including civil society and professional organizations actively galvanized the people. This resulted in massive and spontaneous demonstrations and rallies held across Nepal against King Gyanendra's autocratic rule. The people's participation was so broad, momentous and pervasive that the king feared being overthrown. On 21 April 2006, King Gyanendra declared that "power would be returned to the people". This had little effect on the people, who continued to occupy the streets of Kathmandu and other towns, openly defying the daytime curfew. Finally King Gyanendra announced the reinstatement the House of Representatives, thereby conceding one of the major demands of the SPA, at midnight on 24 April 2006. Following this action the coalition of political forces decided to call off the protests. Twenty-one people died and thousands were injured during the 19 days of protests. On 19 May 2006, the parliament assumed total legislative power and gave executive power to the Government of Nepal (previously known as His Majesty's Government). Names of many institutions (including the army) were stripped of the "royal" adjective and the Raj Parishad (a council of the King's advisers) was abolished, with his duties assigned to the Parliament itself. The activities of the King became subject to parliamentary scrutiny and the King's properties were subjected to taxation. Moreover, Nepal was declared a secular state abrogating the previous status of a Hindu Kingdom. However, most of the changes have, as yet, not been implemented. On 19 July 2006, the prime minister, G. P. Koirala, sent a letter to the United Nations announcing the intention of the Nepalese government to hold elections to a constituent assembly by April 2007. December 2007 to May 2008: Abolition of the monarchy On 23 December 2007, an agreement was made for the monarchy to be abolished and the country to become a federal republic with the Prime Minister becoming head of state. Defying political pundits, who had predicted it to be trounced in the April 2008 elections, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) became the largest party amidst a general atmosphere of fear and intimidation from all sides. A federal republic was established in May 2008, with only four members of the 601-seat Constituent Assembly voting against the change, Nepal votes to abolish monarchy BBC News, 2008-05-28 which ended 240 years of royal rule in Nepal. The government announced a public holiday for three days, (May 28—May 30), to celebrate the country becoming a federal republic. Legislative branch Pre-2006 From 1991 to 2002 the Parliament (Sansad) had two chambers. The House of Representatives (Pratinidhi Sabha) had 205 members elected for five year term in single-seat constituencies. The National Council (Rashtriya Sabha) had 60 members, 35 members elected by the Pratinidhi Sabha, 15 representatives of Regional Development Areas and 10 members appointed by the king. Parliament was subsequently dissolved by the king in 2002 on the pretext that it was incapable of handling the Maoists rebels. From Loktantra Andolan to the Constituent Assembly After the victory of Loktantra Andolan in the spring of 2006, a unicameral interim legislature replaced the previous parliament. The new body consists both of members of the old parliament as well as nominated members. As of December 2007, the legislature had the following composition. PartySeatsNepali Congress133Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist)84Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)83Rashtriya Prajatantra Party9Nepal Sadbhavana Party (Anandi Devi)5Janamorcha Nepal4Nepal Workers Peasants Party4Rashtriya Jana Morcha3United Left Front2Communist Party of Nepal (Unified)2Rashtriya Janashakti Party1 The first democratic elections: the Constituent Assembly In May 2008 the first democratic elections made the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) the largest party in the the Constituent Assembly, which will have a term of two years. PartySeatsCommunist Party of Nepal (Maoist)220Nepali Congress110Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist)103Madeshi Jana Adhikar Forum Nepal52Tarai-Madhesh Loktantrik Party20Sadbhavana Party9Rashtriya Prajatantra Party8Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist)8Janamorcha Nepal7Communist Party of Nepal (United)5Rastriya Prajatantra Party Nepal4Rastriya Janamorcha4Nepal Workers Peasants Party4Rastriya Janshakti Party3Sanghiya Loktantrik Rastriya Manch2Nepal Sadbhavana Party (Anandidevi)2Rastriya Janamukti Party2Nepali Janata Dal2Communist Party of Nepal (Unified)2Dalit Janajati Party1Nepa Rastriya Party1Samajbadi Prajatantrik Janata Party, Nepal1Chure Bhawar Rastriya Ekta Party, Nepal1Nepal Loktantrik Samajbadi Dal1Nepal Parivar Dal1Independents2Not yet determined26 Political parties Since the late 1940s, Nepalese politics has been a contest for power between three separate political streams; Congress, communists and royalists. Since the advent of legal party politics after the 1990 Jana Andolan, all three streams have gone through various processes of divisions and mergers. Congress: The Nepali Congress is a rightwing "socialist" party, built up around the Koirala family. Has historically advocated constitutional monarchy for Nepal, but has recently accepted the idea of transforming Nepal into a republic. Between 2002 and 2007, Sher Bahadur Deuba led an important splinter-group, Nepali Congress (Democratic). On September 25, 2007 NC(D) and NC re-unified. Communists: The Communist Party of Nepal was established in 1949. The party was splintered into a plethora of different factions during the 1960s and 1970s. In the early 1990s, two important unification processes took place, with the moderate sectors of the communist movement forming the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) whereas more radical sectors formed the Communist Party of Nepal (Unity Centre). CPN(UML) became a major parliamentary force. CPN(UC) was divided in 1994, with one faction forming a group that would become the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). Today, in between CPN(UML) and CPN(Maoist) are various smaller communist groups, out of whom five have parliamentary representation. Royalists: When multi-party politics began, elements of the previous regime formed the Rashtriya Prajatantra Party. The RPP became the third force in parliamentary politics during the 1990s, and an important partner in various governing coalitions, it was ridden by divisions. Presently the main RPP and one splinter-group, Rashtriya Janashakti Party are represented in the parliament. Judicial branch The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court (Sarbochha Adalat), appellate courts, and various district courts. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was appointed by the monarch on recommendation of the Constitutional Council; the other judges were appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. Nepal's judiciary is legally separate from the executive and legislative branches and has increasingly shown the will to be independent of political influence. The judiciary has the right of judicial review under the constitution. The king appointed the chief justice and all other judges to the supreme, appellate, and district courts upon the recommendation of the Judicial Council. All lower court decisions, including acquittals, are subject to appeal. The Supreme Court is the court of last appeal. The king could grant pardons and suspend, commute, or remit any sentence by any court. International organization participation AsDB, CCC, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, MONUC, NAM, OPCW, SAARC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNIFIL, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNMOT, UNTAET, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (applicant) Further reading Jonathan Gregson. 2002. Massacre at the Palace: The Doomed Royal Dynasty of Nepal. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 0-7868-6878-3. (Note that Gregson finds the official story of the royal killings plausible while many in Nepal do not.) References External links The Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2063 (2007) A News Blog about Nepalese Politics The Constitution of The Kingdom of Nepal, 2047 (1990) (terminated by the Interim Constitution) | Politics_of_Nepal |@lemmatized politics:6 nepal:42 function:1 within:2 framework:1 republic:7 multi:2 party:48 system:1 currently:1 position:1 president:2 head:6 state:6 prime:13 minister:15 government:13 occupy:2 ram:1 baran:1 yadav:1 madhav:1 kumar:1 respectively:1 executive:5 power:7 exercise:2 cabinet:3 legislative:4 vest:1 constituent:8 assembly:8 may:9 constitutional:3 monarchy:12 date:1 constitution:6 alter:1 make:5 country:4 abolish:4 declare:4 afp:1 political:12 condition:1 parliamentary:9 absolute:2 run:1 control:1 king:27 face:1 people:10 movement:4 birendra:2 agree:3 large:3 scale:1 reform:1 create:2 legislature:4 bicameral:1 consisting:1 house:6 representative:6 national:4 council:9 consist:2 member:9 directly:1 elect:5 nominate:1 remain:2 electoral:1 college:1 chair:1 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6,590 | Quotient_group | In mathematics, specifically group theory, a quotient group (or factor group) is a group obtained by identifying together elements of a larger group using an equivalence relation. For example, the cyclic group of addition modulo n can be obtained from the integers by identifying elements that differ by a multiple of n. In a quotient of a group, the equivalence class of the identity element is always a normal subgroup of the original group, and the other equivalence classes are the cosets of this normal subgroup. The resulting quotient is written G / N, where G is the original group and N is the normal subgroup. (This is pronounced “G mod N,” where “mod” is short for modulo.) Much of the importance of quotient groups is derived from their relation to homomorphisms. The first isomorphism theorem states that the image of any group G under a homomorphism is always isomorphic to a quotient of G. Specifically, the image of G under a homomorphism φ: G → H is isomorphic to G / ker(φ) where ker(φ) denotes the kernel of φ. Theoretically, the notion of a quotient group is dual to the notion of a subgroup, these being the two primary ways of forming a smaller group from a larger one. In category theory, quotient groups are examples of quotient objects, which are dual to subobjects. For other examples of quotient objects, see quotient ring, quotient space (linear algebra), quotient space (topology), and quotient set. The product of subsets of a group In the following discussion, we will use a binary operation on the subsets of G: if two subsets S and T of G are given, we define their product as ST = { st : s in S and t in T }. This operation is associative and has as identity element the singleton {e}, where e is the identity element of G. Thus, the set of all subsets of G forms a monoid under this operation. In terms of this operation we can first explain what a quotient group is, and then explain what a normal subgroup is: A quotient group of a group G is a partition of G which is itself a group under this operation. It is fully determined by the subset containing e. A normal subgroup of G is the set containing e in any such partition. The subsets in the partition are the cosets of this normal subgroup. A subgroup N of a group G is normal if and only if the coset equality aN = Na holds for all a in G. In terms of the binary operation on subsets defined above, a normal subgroup of G is a subgroup that commutes with every subset of G and is denoted N ⊲ G. A subgroup that permutes with every subgroup of G is called a permutable subgroup. Definition Let N be a normal subgroup of a group G. We define the set G/N to be the set of all left cosets of N in G, i.e., G/N = { aN : a in G }. The group operation on G/N is the product of subsets defined above. In other words, for each aN and bN in G/N, the product of aN and bN is (aN)(bN). This operation is closed, because (aN)(bN) really is a left coset: (aN)(bN) = a(Nb)N = a(bN)N = (ab)NN = (ab)N. The normality of N is used in this equation. Because of the normality of N, the left cosets and right cosets of N in G are equal, and so G/N could be defined as the set of right cosets of N in G. Because the operation is derived from the product of subsets of G, the operation is well-defined (does not depend on the particular choice of representatives), associative, and has identity element N. The inverse of an element aN of G/N is a−1N. Motivation for definition The reason G/N is called a quotient group comes from division of integers. When dividing 12 by 3 one obtains the answer 4 because one can regroup 12 objects into 4 subcollections of 3 objects. The quotient group is the same idea, however we end up with a group for a final answer instead of a number because groups have more structure than a random collection of objects. To elaborate, when looking at G/N with N a normal subgroup of G, the group structure is used to form a natural "regrouping". These are the cosets of N in G. Because we started with a group and normal subgroup the final quotient contains more information than just the number of cosets (which is what regular division yields), but instead has a group structure itself. Examples Consider the group of integers Z (under addition) and the subgroup 2Z consisting of all even integers. This is a normal subgroup, because Z is abelian. There are only two cosets: the set of even integers and the set of odd integers; therefore, the quotient group Z/2Z is the cyclic group with two elements. This quotient group is isomorphic with the set { 0, 1 } with addition modulo 2; informally, it is sometimes said that Z/2Z equals the set { 0, 1 } with addition modulo 2. A slight generalization of the last example. Once again consider the group of integers Z under addition. Let n be any positive integer. We will consider the subgroup nZ of Z consisting of all multiples of n. Once again nZ is normal in Z because Z is abelian. The cosets are the collection {nZ,1+nZ,...,(n−2)+nZ,(n−1)+nZ}. An integer k belongs to the coset r+nZ, where r is the remainder when dividing k by n. The quotient Z/nZ can be thought of as the group of "remainders" modulo n. This is a cyclic group of order n. The cosets of N in G Consider the multiplicative abelian group G of complex twelfth roots of unity, which are points on the unit circle, shown on the picture on the right as colored balls with the number at each point giving its complex argument. Consider its subgroup N made of the fourth roots of unity, shown as red balls. This normal subgroup splits the group into three cosets, shown in red, green and blue. One can check that the cosets form a group of three elements (the product of a red element with a blue element is blue, the inverse of a blue element is green, etc.). Thus, the quotient group G/N is the group of three colors, which turns out to be the cyclic group with three elements. Consider the group of real numbers R under addition, and the subgroup Z of integers. The cosets of Z in R are all sets of the form a + Z, with 0 ≤ a < 1 a real number. Adding such cosets is done by adding the corresponding real numbers, and subtracting 1 if the result is greater than or equal to 1. The quotient group R/Z is isomorphic to the circle group S1, the group of complex numbers of absolute value 1 under multiplication, or correspondingly, the group of rotations in 2D about the origin, i.e., the special orthogonal group SO(2). An isomorphism is given by f(a + Z) = exp(2πia) (see Euler's identity). If G is the group of invertible 3 × 3 real matrices, and N is the subgroup of 3 × 3 real matrices with determinant 1, then N is normal in G (since it is the kernel of the determinant homomorphism). The cosets of N are the sets of matrices with a given determinant, and hence G/N is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of non-zero real numbers. Consider the abelian group Z4 = Z/4Z (that is, the set { 0, 1, 2, 3 } with addition modulo 4), and its subgroup { 0, 2 }. The quotient group Z4 / { 0, 2 } is { { 0, 2 }, { 1, 3 } }. This is a group with identity element { 0, 2 }, and group operations such as { 0, 2 } + { 1, 3 } = { 1, 3 }. Both the subgroup { 0, 2 } and the quotient group { { 0, 2 }, { 1, 3 } } are isomorphic with Z2. Consider the multiplicative group . The set N of nth residues is a multiplicative subgroup of order ϕ(n) of . Then N is normal in G and the factor group G/N has the cosets N, (1+n)N, (1+n)2N,…,(1+n)n−1N. The Pallier cryptosystem is based on the conjecture that it is difficult to determine the coset of a random element of G without knowing the factorization of n. Properties The quotient group G / G is isomorphic to the trivial group (the group with one element), and G / {e} is isomorphic to G. The order of G / N is by definition equal to [G : N], the index of N in G. If G is finite, the index is also equal to the order of G divided by the order of N. Note that G / N may be finite, although both G and N are infinite (e.g. Z / 2Z). There is a "natural" surjective group homomorphism π : G → G / N, sending each element g of G to the coset of N to which g belongs, that is: π(g) = gN. The mapping π is sometimes called the canonical projection of G onto G / N. Its kernel is N. There is a bijective correspondence between the subgroups of G that contain N and the subgroups of G / N; if H is a subgroup of G containing N, then the corresponding subgroup of G / N is π(H). This correspondence holds for normal subgroups of G and G / N as well, and is formalized in the lattice theorem. Several important properties of quotient groups are recorded in the fundamental theorem on homomorphisms and the isomorphism theorems. If G is abelian, nilpotent or solvable, then so is G / N. If G is cyclic or finitely generated, then so is G / N. If N is contained in the center of G, then G is called the central extension of the quotient group. If H is a subgroup in a finite group G, and the order of H is one half of the order of G, then H is guaranteed to be a normal subgroup, so G / H exists and is isomorphic to C2. This result can also be stated as "any subgroup of index 2 is normal", and in this form it applies also to infinite groups. Every group is isomorphic to a quotient of a free group. Sometimes, but not necessarily, a group G can be reconstructed from G / N and N, as a direct product or semidirect product. The problem of determining when this is the case is known as the extension problem. An example where it is not possible is as follows. Z4 / { 0, 2 } is isomorphic to Z2, and { 0, 2 } also, but the only semidirect product is the direct product, because Z2 has only the trivial automorphism. Therefore Z4, which is different from Z2 × Z2, cannot be reconstructed. Quotients of Lie groups If G is a Lie group and N is a normal Lie subgroup of G, the quotient G / N is also a Lie group. In this case, the original group G has the structure of a fiber bundle (specifically, a principal N-bundle), with base space G / N and fiber N. For a non-normal Lie subgroup N, the space G / N of left cosets is not a group, but simply a differentiable manifold on which G acts. The result is known as a homogeneous space. See also Quotient ring, also called a factor ring Group extension Extension problem Lattice theorem Quotient category Short exact sequence | Quotient_group |@lemmatized mathematics:1 specifically:3 group:74 theory:2 quotient:33 factor:3 obtain:3 identify:2 together:1 element:17 large:2 use:4 equivalence:3 relation:2 example:6 cyclic:5 addition:7 modulo:6 n:79 integer:10 differ:1 multiple:2 class:2 identity:6 always:2 normal:21 subgroup:36 original:3 cosets:18 resulting:1 write:1 g:90 pronounced:1 mod:2 short:2 much:1 importance:1 derive:2 homomorphisms:1 first:2 isomorphism:3 theorem:4 state:2 image:2 homomorphism:5 isomorphic:11 φ:4 h:7 ker:2 denote:2 kernel:3 theoretically:1 notion:2 dual:2 two:4 primary:1 way:1 form:6 small:1 one:6 category:2 object:5 subobjects:1 see:3 ring:3 space:5 linear:1 algebra:1 topology:1 set:14 product:10 subset:10 following:1 discussion:1 binary:2 operation:11 give:4 define:6 st:2 associative:2 singleton:1 e:8 thus:2 monoid:1 term:2 explain:2 partition:3 fully:1 determine:3 contain:6 coset:5 equality:1 na:1 hold:2 commute:1 every:3 permute:1 call:5 permutable:1 definition:3 let:2 left:4 word:1 bn:6 close:1 really:1 nb:1 ab:2 nn:1 normality:2 equation:1 right:3 equal:5 could:1 well:2 depend:1 particular:1 choice:1 representative:1 inverse:2 motivation:1 reason:1 come:1 division:2 divide:3 answer:2 regroup:2 subcollections:1 idea:1 however:1 end:1 final:2 instead:2 number:8 structure:4 random:2 collection:2 elaborate:1 look:1 natural:2 start:1 information:1 regular:1 yield:1 consider:8 z:16 consisting:2 even:2 abelian:5 odd:1 therefore:2 informally:1 sometimes:3 say:1 slight:1 generalization:1 last:1 positive:1 nz:8 k:2 belongs:2 r:5 remainder:2 think:1 order:7 multiplicative:4 complex:3 twelfth:1 root:2 unity:2 point:2 unit:1 circle:2 show:3 picture:1 colored:1 ball:2 argument:1 make:1 fourth:1 red:3 split:1 three:4 green:2 blue:4 check:1 etc:1 color:1 turn:1 real:6 add:2 corresponding:1 subtract:1 result:3 great:1 absolute:1 value:1 multiplication:1 correspondingly:1 rotation:1 origin:1 special:1 orthogonal:1 f:1 exp:1 euler:1 invertible:1 matrix:3 determinant:3 since:1 hence:1 non:2 zero:1 nth:1 residue:1 ϕ:1 pallier:1 cryptosystem:1 base:2 conjecture:1 difficult:1 without:1 know:3 factorization:1 property:2 trivial:2 index:3 finite:3 also:7 note:1 may:1 although:1 infinite:2 surjective:1 π:4 send:1 gn:1 mapping:1 canonical:1 projection:1 onto:1 bijective:1 correspondence:2 correspond:1 formalize:1 lattice:2 several:1 important:1 record:1 fundamental:1 theorems:1 nilpotent:1 solvable:1 finitely:1 generate:1 center:1 central:1 extension:4 half:1 guarantee:1 exists:1 apply:1 free:1 necessarily:1 reconstruct:2 direct:2 semidirect:2 problem:3 case:2 possible:1 follow:1 automorphism:1 different:1 cannot:1 lie:5 fiber:2 bundle:2 principal:1 simply:1 differentiable:1 manifold:1 act:1 homogeneous:1 exact:1 sequence:1 |@bigram equivalence_relation:1 normal_subgroup:14 subgroup_quotient:3 left_cosets:3 bn_bn:1 matrix_determinant:1 finitely_generate:1 semidirect_product:2 differentiable_manifold:1 |
6,591 | John_Lee_Hooker | John Lee Hooker (August 22, 1917 – June 21, 2001) was a Grammy Award-winning influential African American singer-songwriter and blues guitarist, born in Coahoma County near Clarksdale, Mississippi. Hooker began his life as the son of a sharecropper, and rose to prominence performing his own unique style of what was originally closest to Delta blues. He developed a half-spoken style that was his trademark. Though similar to the early Delta blues, his music was rhythmically free. John Lee Hooker could be said to embody his own unique genre of the blues, often incorporating the boogie-woogie piano style and a driving rhythm into his masterful and idiosyncratic blues guitar and singing. His best known songs include "Boogie Chillen" (1948) and "Boom Boom" (1962). Hooker's life experiences were chronicled by several scholars and often read like a classic case study in the racism of the music industry, although he eventually rose to prominance with memorable songs and influence on a generation of musicians. Biography Early life Hooker was born on August 22, 1917 There is some debate as to the year of Hooker's birth. 1915, 1917, 1920, and 1923 have all been given.(Boogie Man, p. 22) 1917 is the one most commonly cited, although Hooker himself claimed, at times, 1920, which would have made him "the same age as the recorded blues" (p. 59) in Coahoma County near Clarksdale, Mississippi, USA the youngest of the eleven children of William Hooker (1871–1923), a sharecropper and Baptist Preacher, and Minnie Ramsey (b. 1875). Hooker and his siblings were home-schooled. They were permitted to listen only to religious songs, with his earliest musical exposure being the spirituals sung in church. In 1921, his parents separated. The next year, his mother married William Moore, a blues singer who provided Hooker with his first introduction to the guitar (and whom John would later credit for his distinctive playing style). Conversation with the Blues By Paul Oliver, p. 188See also: Guitar Facts By Bennett Joe, Trevor Curwen, Cliff Douse, Joe Bennett, p. 76 Because of this, it can be said that Hooker was raised in a musical family. He was cousin to Earl Hooker. Hooker was also influenced by his stepfather, a local blues guitarist, who learned in Shreveport, Louisiana to play a droning, one-chord blues that was strikingly different from the Delta blues of the time. The year after that (1923), John's natural father died; and at age 15, John ran away from home, never to see his mother and stepfather again. Boogie Man p.43 Throughout the 1930s, Hooker lived in Memphis where he worked on Beale Street at the New Daisy Theatre and occasionally performed at house parties. He worked in factories in various cities during World War II, drifting until he found himself in Detroit in 1948 working at Ford Motor Company. He felt right at home near the blues venues and saloons on Hastings Street, the heart of black entertainment on Detroit's east side. In a city noted for its pianists, guitar players were scarce. Performing in Detroit clubs, his popularity grew quickly, and seeking a louder instrument than his crude acoustic guitar, he bought his first electric guitar. Career Hooker's recording career began in 1948 when his agent placed a demo disc, made by Hooker, with the Bihari brothers, owners of the Modern Records label. The company initially released an up-tempo number, "Boogie Chillen", which became Hooker's first hit single. Though they were not songwriters, the Biharis often purchased or claimed co-authorship of songs that appeared on their labels, thus securing songwriting royalties for themselves, in addition to their streams of income. Sometimes these songs were older tunes which Hooker renamed as with B. B. King's "Rock Me Baby", anonymous jams "B.B.'s Boogie" or songs by employees (bandleader Vince Weaver). The Biharis used a number of pseudonyms for songwriting credits: Jules was credited as Jules Taub; Joe as Joe Josea; and Sam as Sam Ling. One song by John Lee Hooker, "Down Child" is solely credited to "Taub", with Hooker receiving no credit for the song whatsoever. Another, "Turn Over a New Leaf" is credited to Hooker and "Ling". Despite being illiterate, Hooker was a prolific lyricist. In addition to adapting the occasionally traditional blues lyric (such as "if I was chief of police, I would run her right out of town"), he freely invented many of his songs from scratch. Recording studios in the 1950s rarely paid black musicians more than a pittance, so Hooker would spend the night wandering from studio to studio, coming up with new songs or variations on his songs for each studio. Due to his recording contract, he would record these songs under obvious pseudonyms such as "John Lee Booker", "Johnny Hooker", or "John Cooker." Liner notes to Alternative Boogie: Early Studio Recordings, 1948-1952 His early solo songs were recorded under Bernie Besman. John Lee Hooker rarely played on a standard beat, changing tempo to fit the needs of the song. This often made it difficult to use backing musicians who were not accustomed to Hooker's musical vagaries: As a result, Besman would record Hooker, in addition to playing guitar and singing, stomping along with the music on a wooden pallet. Boogie Man p. 121 For much of this time period he recorded and toured with Eddie Kirkland, who is still performing as of 2008. Later sessions for the VeeJay label in Chicago used studio musicians on most of his recordings, including Eddie Taylor, who could handle his musical idiosyncrasies very well. His biggest UK hit, "Boom Boom", (originally released on VeeJay) had a horn section to boot. 1980 to present He appeared and sang in the 1980 movie The Blues Brothers. Due to Hooker's improvisational style, his performance was filmed and sound-recorded live at the scene at Chicago's Maxwell Street Market, in contrast to the usual "playback" technique used in most film musicals. The Blues Brothers (1980) - Trivia Hooker was also a direct influence in the look of John Belushi's character Jake Blues, borrowing his trademark sunglasses and soul patch. In 1989, he joined with a number of musicians, including Carlos Santana and Bonnie Raitt to record The Healer, for which he and Santana won a Grammy Award. Hooker recorded several songs with Van Morrison, including "Never Get Out of These Blues Alive", "The Healing Game" and "I Cover the Waterfront". He also appeared on stage with Van Morrison several times, some of which was released on the live album A Night in San Francisco. The same year he appeared as the title character on Pete Townshend's The Iron Man: A Musical. Hooker recorded over 100 albums. He lived the last years of his life in the San Francisco Bay Area, where, in 1997, he opened a nightclub in San Francisco's Fillmore District called "John Lee Hooker's Boom Boom Room", after one of his hits. "Discovering the Blues of John Lee Hooker" Adapted from: Blues For Dummies, by Lonnie Brooks, Cub Koda, Wayne Baker Brooks, Dan Aykroyd, ISBN 0-7645-5080-2, August 1998 He fell ill just before a tour of Europe in 2001 and died soon afterwards at the age of 83. The last song Hooker recorded before his death, is "Ali D'Oro", a collaboration with the Italian soul singer Zucchero, in which Hooker sang the chorus "I lay down with an angel". He was survived by eight children, nineteen grandchildren, numerous great-grandchildren and a nephew. Among his many awards, Hooker has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and in 1991 he was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Two of his songs, "Boogie Chillen" and "Boom Boom" were included in the list of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. "Boogie Chillen" was included as one of the Songs of the Century. He was also inducted in 1980 into the Blues Hall of Fame. In 2000, Hooker was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. Music Hooker's guitar playing is closely aligned with piano boogie-woogie. He would play the walking bass pattern with his thumb, stopping to emphasize the end of a line with a series of trills, done by rapid hammer-ons and pull-offs. The songs that most epitomize his early sound are "Boogie Chillen", about being 17 and wanting to go out to dance at the Boogie clubs, "Baby Please Don't Go", a blues standard first recorded by Big Joe Williams, and "Tupelo Blues", YouTube - John Lee Hooker - 'Tupelo' (1995) a stunningly sad song about the flooding of Tupelo, Mississippi in April 1936. He maintained a solo career, popular with blues and folk music fans of the early 1960s and crossed over to white audiences, giving an early opportunity to the young Bob Dylan. As he got older, he added more and more people to his band, changing his live show from simply Hooker with his guitar to a large band, with Hooker singing. His vocal phrasing was less closely tied to specific bars than most blues singers. This casual, rambling style had been gradually diminishing with the onset of electric blues bands from Chicago but, even when not playing solo, Hooker retained it in his sound. Though Hooker lived in Detroit during most of his career, he is not associated with the Chicago-style blues prevalent in large northern cities, as much as he is with the southern rural blues styles, known as delta blues, country blues, folk blues, or "front porch blues". His use of an electric guitar tied together the Delta blues with the emerging post-war electric blues. Rhino - John Lee Hooker (1917-2001) - Rzine #203 His songs have been covered by Cream, AC/DC ZZ Top, Led Zeppelin, Jimi Hendrix, Eric Clapton, Van Morrison, The Yardbirds, The Animals, Buddy Guy, The Doors, The White Stripes, MC5, George Thorogood, R. L. Burnside, The J. Geils Band, The Gories and The Jon Spencer Blues Explosion. Awards and Recognition A Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame Inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1980 Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1991 Grammy Awards: Best Traditional Blues Recording, 1990 for I'm in the Mood (with Bonnie Raitt) Best Traditional Blues Recording, 1998 for Don't Look Back Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals, 1998, "Don't Look Back" (with Van Morrison) Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2000 Two of his songs, "Boogie Chillen" and "Boom Boom" were named to the list of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. "Boogie Chillen" was included as one of the Songs of the Century. Discography Singles Hooker issued a large number of singles, with almost a hundred releases by 1960. John Lee Hooker - The World´s Greatest Blues Singer - cont´d (page 1) Here are ten of his early classic recordings: Detroit September 1948 - Boogie Chillen - Modern 627 (11/48) R&B #1 (Crown LP "The Blues") Detroit September 1948 - Hobo Blues - Modern 663 (3/49) R&B #5 (Crown LP "The Blues") Detroit September 1948 - Crawling King Snake - Modern 715 (10/49) R&B #6 (Crown LP "The Blues") Detroit August 7, 1951 - I'm In the Mood - Modern 835 (9/51) R&B #1 (Crown LP "The Blues") Detroit Early 1955 - The Syndicator b/w Hug And Squeeze - Modern 966 (8/55) (Crown LP "Sings The Blues") Chicago March 17, 1956 - Dimples - Vee-Jay 205 (8/56) (VJ LP "I'm John Lee Hooker") Chicago June 10, 1958 - I Love You Honey - Vee-Jay 293 (9/58) R&B #29 (VJ LP "I'm John Lee Hooker") Chicago March 1, 1960 - No Shoes - Vee-Jay 349 (4/60) R&B#21 (VJ LP "Travelin'") Chicago Late 1961 - Boom Boom - Vee-Jay 438 (4/62) R&B #16 (VJ LP "Burnin'") Chicago Mid 1964 - It Serves Me Right (To Suffer) - Vee-Jay 708 (11/65) (VJ/Dynasty LP "In Person") Albums There are many John Lee Hooker albums. Below you will find the original albums with notable reissues. THE DETROIT YEARS (recordings 1948-1955) 1960 - The Blues (Crown) - reissued on United, also as "The Greatest Hits" (Kent, 1971) Modern tracks 1960 - House Of The Blues (Chess) 1951-52 tracks 1961 - Sings The Blues (Crown) - reissued on United, also as "Driftin' Thru The Blues" (Custom) Modern tracks 1961 - Plays And Sings The Blues (Chess) 1950-52 tracks 1961 - Sings Blues (King) - reissued as "Moanin' and Stompin'", and "Don't You Remember Me" (Charly) Texas Slim 1948-50 tracks 1962 - Folk Blues (Crown) - reissued on United (Modern tracks) 1963 - The Great John Lee Hooker (CrownCrown) - reissued as "The Great Blues Sounds of" (United) Modern tracks 1963 - Don't Turn Me from Your Door - John Lee Hooker Sings His Blues (Atco) 1953 and 1961 1963 - Big Maceo Merriweather / John Lee Hooker (Fortune) 1/2 of an LP 1964 - Original Folk Blues (Kent) Modern compilation - reissued on United 1967 - John Lee Hooker & his Guitar (Advent) British bootleg; early tracks 1969 - No Friend Around (Red Lightnin') early tracks, bootleg compilation 1970 - Alone (Specialty) 1949-1951 tracks 1971 - Goin' Down Highway 51 (Specialty) 1949-1951 tracks 1972 - Coast to Coast Blues Band - Anywhere Anytime Anyplace (United Artists) 1948-1952 tracks 1972 - Johnny Lee (Greene Bottle) early Besman alternates (not issued on CD) 1973 - Hooker, Hopkins, Hogg (Specialty) half an LP of 1954 recordings 1973 - Slim's Stomp (Polydor) King's "Sings Blues" plus bonus tracks 1973 - John Lee Hooker's Detroit (United Artists) Besman alternate 1948-1952 tracks 1973 - Mad Man Blues (Chess) compilation 1950s and 1966 1979 - Southern Blues (Savoy) 1948 tracks on half an LP 1981 - Blues For Big Town (Chess) compilation featuring unissed early 1950s 1987 - Gotham Golden Classics - Rare Recordings (Collectables) 1951-52 tracks - also issued as "Detroit Blues, 1950-51" (Krazy Kat with bonus tracks) 1989 - 40th Anniversary Album (DCC) - also issued on Demon as "The Detroit Lion" (compilation of early tracks) 1990 - Boogie Awhile (Krazy Kat) unissued early Elmer Barbee recordings 1999 - Savoy Blues Legends, 1948-1949 (SavoyJazz/Atlantic) - reissued on Savoy (Elmer Barbee recordings) 2000 - The Unknown John Lee Hooker (Krazy Kat, 1951 tracks) - reissued as "Jack 0'Diamonds" (Eagle, 2004) THE CHICAGO YEARS (recordings 1955-1964) 1959 - I'm John Lee Hooker (Vee Jay 1955-1959) 1960 - Travelin (Vee Jay) 1961 - The Folk Lore of John Lee Hooker (Vee Jay) 1962 - Burnin' (Vee Jay) 1962 - The Big Soul of John Lee Hooker (Vee Jay) 1962 - The Best of John Lee Hooker (Vee Jay) - compilation 1963 - John Lee Hooker On Campus (Vee Jay) - reissued as "Big Band Blues" (Buddha) 1965 - ... And Seven Nights (Verve-Folkways) British recordings of 1964 (re-issued with brass overdub as "On The Waterfront" on Wand) - and reissued in several versions later 1965 - Is He The World's Greatest Blues Singer? (Vee Jay) compilation - reissued on Exodus 1974 - Gold (Vee Jay) - compilation comprisising "I'm John Lee Hooker" and "Burnin'" 1974 - In Person (VeeJay/Dynasty) late Vee-Jay tracks 1993 - John Lee Hooker on Vee-Jay 1955-1958 (VeeJay) compilation THE FOLK YEARS (recordings 1959-1963) 1959 - The Country Blues of John Lee Hooker (Riverside) - reissued as "How Long Blues" (Battle, 1963) 1960 - That's My Story - JLH Sings the Blues (Riverside) - reissued as "The Blues Man" (Battle, 1963) 1962 - John Lee Hooker (Galaxy) - reissued as "The King of Folk Blues" (America) 1963 - Live At Sugar Hill (Galaxy) 1964 - Burning Hell (Riverside) recorded 1959 1964 - Concert At Newport (Vee Jay) - reissued with bonus tracks as "Live At Newport" (Fantasy) 1966 - Teachin' The Blues (Guest Star) half an LP of recordings from 1961 1969 - That's Where It's At! (Stax) recordings of 1961 1971 - Detroit Special (Atlantic) compilation ("Don't Turn Me From Your Door" plus bonus tracks) 1972 - Boogie Chillun (Fantasy) ("Live at Sugar Hill" plus bonus tracks) - reissued on Ace as "Live at Sugar Hill Vol. 1 & 2" 1972 - Black Snake (Fantasy 2-set) - reissue of Riverside's "The Country Blues" nd "Tat's My Story" 1979 - Sittin' Here Thinkin (Muse) - reissued as "Sad And Lonesome" (Savoy recordings of 1961) 2002 - Live At Sugar Hill, Vol. 2 (Fantasy) unissued recordings from 1961 (featuring a "third session") THE ABC YEARS (recordings 1965-1974) 1966 - It Serve You Right To Suffer (Impulse! Records) 1966 - The Real Folk Blues (Chess) new Chicago recordings 1967 - Live at the Café Au Go-Go (Bluesway) 1968 - Urban Blues (Bluesway) 1969 - Simply The Truth (Bluesway) 1969 - If You Miss 'Im ... I Got 'Im (Bluesway) 1969 - On The Waterfront (Wand) (... And Seven Nights" with brass overdub) 1970 - I Wanna Dance All Night (America) Europe recordings - reissued with the next as "Black Rhythm 'n' Blues" (Festival) 1970 - I Feel Good (Carson) Europe recordings - reissued on Jewel (1972) 1971 - Endless Boogie (ABC) 1971 - Get Back Home In The USA (Black & Blue) Europe recordings - reissued with bonus tracks as "Get Back Home" 1971 - Hooker 'N Heat (Liberty) - reissued as "Infinite Boogie" (Rhino) 1972 - Never Get Out Of These Blues Alive (ABC) 1972 - Live at Kabuki Wuki (Bluesway) 1973 - Live At Soledad Prison (ABC) 1973 - Born In Mississippi, Raised Up In Tennessee (ABC) 1974 - Free Beer And Chicken (ABC) 1991 - More Real Folk Blues - The Missing Album (Chess) - also issued with "The Real Folk Blues" as "The Complete Chess Folk Blues Sessions" THE ROSEBUD YEARS (recordings 1975-2001) 1976 - Alone Vol 1 (Labor) live - reissued on Tomato 1976 - Alone - Live in New York Vol 2 (MMG) - reissued on Tomato 1978 - Live + Well (Ornament) 1978 - The Cream (Tomato) live recordings - reissued with bonus tracks on Charly 1979 - Live in 1978 (Lunar) 1981 - Hooker 'n' Heat Recorded Live at the Fox Venice Theatre (Rhino, various artists) 1986 - Jealous (Pulsa) - reissued on Pointblank 1996 - and on Shout!Factory with bonus tracks 1989 - The Healer (Chameleon) 1990 - The Hot Spot (Featuring Miles Davis) 1991 - Mr. Lucky (Pointblank) 1992 - Boom Boom (Pointblank) - reissued on Shout!Factory with bonus tracks 1995 - Chill Out (Pointblank) - reissued on Shout!Factory with bonus tracks 1997 - Don't Look Back (Pointblank/Virgin) - reissued on Shout!Factory with bonus tracks 1998 - The Best of Friends (Pointblank) compilation 1986-1998 incl one new track - reissued on Shout!Factory download with bonus track 2003 - Face to Face (Eagle) new recordings Selected CD Compilations 1990 - That's My Story/The Folk Blues of (Ace) - the two original Riverside LPs on one CD 1990 - That's Where It's At (Stax) reissue of Florida recordings from 1961 1991 - The Ultimate Collection 1948-1990 (Rhino 2CDbox) 1991 - Half A Stranger (Mainstream) Modern tracks 1948-1955 incl unedited masters 1991 - Free Beer And Chicken (BeatGoesOn/MCA) recorded 1974 1991 - Don't Turn Me From Your Door (Atlantic/Atco) 1953 and 1961 (incl the bonus tracks) 1992 - Graveyard Blues (Specialty/Ace) 1948-1950 Besman/Sensation tracks 1992 - The Best of John Lee Hooker 1965 to 1974 (Universal) Impulse and ABC/Bluesway recordings 1993 - Everybody's Blues (Specialty/Ace) Besman tracks of 1950-51 plus two 1954 sessions direct for Specialty 1993 - The Legendary Modern Recordings 1948-1954 (Flair/Ace) the original singles 1994 - The Boogie Man (Charly DIG 5) anthology box featuring 1948-1966 (excluding Modern) 1995 - Alternative Boogie - Early Studio Recordings, 1948-1952 (Capitol 3CD) Besman alternates 1995 - The Gold Collection - 40 Classic Performances (Retro) 2 CD set Made in Italy by Phonocomp 1996 - Live at the Café Au Go-Go (and Soledad Prison) (Universal) 1966 with Muddy Waters' band and 1972 1998 - The Complete 50's Chess Recordings (Chess 2CD) anthology featuring the tracks from "House of the Blues" and "Plays and Sings the Blues" (1951-52) plus several bonus tracks from Fortune 1954 incl "Blues For Big Town" 2000 - The Complete 1964 recordings (RPM) last Vee-Jay session 1964 plus British London recordings - the British tracks reissued with brass overdubs as "The London 1965 Sessions" on Sequel 2000 - I'm John Lee Hooker (Charly -with bonus tracks) his very first LP, 1955-1959 recordings - reissued on SNAP in 2003 and without bonus tracks on Shout!Factory in 2007 2000 - Travelin' (Charly -with bonus tracks) the great LP session of 1960- reissued on SNAP in 2003 2000 - The Folk Lore of John Lee Hooker (Charly -with bonus tracks) his third VJ LP - reissued on SNAP in 2003 2000 - Burnin (Charly -with bonus tracks) the fourth VJ LP, 1962 - reissued on SNAP in 2003 2000 - The Complete - Vol. 1 1948-49 [Body & Soul 2CD] 2000 - The Complete - Vol. 2 1949 [Body & Soul 2CD] 2001 - The Complete - Vol. 3 1949-50 [Body & Soul 2CD] 2001 - House Rent Boogie (Ace) Modern compilation of rare early 1950s recordings 2001 - Testament - 3CDbox featuring some of the very best Vee-Jay recordings (Charly/Snapper) 2002 - The Complete - Vol. 4 1950-51 [Body & Soul 2CD] 2002 - The Real Folk Blues/More Real Folk Blues (Chess) 1966 recordings; reissue of the 1991 CD "The Complete Chess Folk Blues Sessions" 2003 - Boogie Chillen (Audio Fidelity) 1949 - 1952 Besman and Siracuse (engineer) compilation 2003 - Blues Kingpins - Blues Immortal (Virgin) 1948-1955 Modern anthology 2004 - Early Years - The Classic Savoy Sessions (Metro Doubles 2CD) recorded 1948 and 1961 - comprising the tracks from "Savoy Blues Legends" (Savoy in 1999 and 2003) and the 1961 Savoy recordings from "Sittin' Here Thinkin'" (32Blues in 2004 with the bonus track) 2004 - I'm A Boogie Man (Varése Sarabande) Vintage 1948 - 1953 Texas Slim and John Lee Booker (King/DeLuxe tracks featuring all the King singles) 2004 - The Complete - Vol. 5 1951-53 [Body & Soul 2CD] 2005 - The Complete - Vol. 6 1953-54 [Body & Soul 2CD] 2006 - Hooker (4 disc chronological anthology covering his entire career) (Shout!Factory) 2006 - The Boogie Man 1948 - 1955 (Charly 4 CDBox) - not identical to Charly's rare CD DIG 5 (but this time also featuring Modern recordings) 2007 - Gold (Hip-O Select 2CD) 1948-2001 chronological anthology 2009 - John Lee Hooker Anthology: 50 Years (Shout!Factory 2CD) 1948-1998 chronological anthology See also Guitar solo "Money (That's What I Want)" Chicago Blues Festival List of honorific titles in popular music BibliographyBoogie Man: Adventures of John Lee Hooker in the American 20th Century'', by Charles Shaar Murray, ISBN 0-14-016890-7. "John Lee Hooker - That's my story" Documentary by Jörg Bundschuh References External links Discography and album ratings Official John Lee Hooker Site John Lee Hooker Resource Page The World's Greatest Blues Singer John Lee Hooker 1980 Blues Foundation Induction into Hall of Fame The Boom Boom Room San Francisco nightclub founded by Hooker | John_Lee_Hooker |@lemmatized john:43 lee:39 hooker:78 august:4 june:2 grammy:5 award:8 win:2 influential:1 african:1 american:2 singer:7 songwriter:2 blue:93 guitarist:2 bear:3 coahoma:2 county:2 near:3 clarksdale:2 mississippi:4 begin:2 life:4 son:1 sharecropper:2 rise:2 prominence:1 perform:4 unique:2 style:8 originally:2 close:1 delta:5 develop:1 half:5 spoken:1 trademark:2 though:3 similar:1 early:19 music:6 rhythmically:1 free:3 could:2 say:2 embody:1 genre:1 often:4 incorporate:1 boogie:26 woogie:2 piano:2 driving:1 rhythm:2 masterful:1 idiosyncratic:1 guitar:12 singing:3 best:8 know:2 song:25 include:7 chillen:9 boom:16 experience:1 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6,592 | Larry_Sanger | Lawrence Mark "Larry" Sanger (born July 16, 1968) is an American philosopher, co-founder of Wikipedia, and the creator of encyclopedia Citizendium. He grew up in Anchorage, Alaska. From an early age he has been interested in philosophy. Sanger holds a B.A. in philosophy from Reed College in 1991 and a Ph.D. in philosophy from Ohio State University in 2000. Most of his philosophical work has focused on epistemology, the theory of knowledge. He has been involved with various online encyclopedia projects. He is the former editor-in-chief of Nupedia, chief organizer (2001-2002) of its successor, Wikipedia, and editor-in-chief of Citizendium. From his position at Nupedia, he assembled the process for article development. Sanger conceived of Wikipedia. He proposed implementing a wiki, which directly led to the creation of Wikipedia. Initially Wikipedia was a complementary project for Nupedia. He was Wikipedia's early community leader and established many of its original policies. He spearheaded an alternative wiki-based project, Citizendium. After departing from Wikipedia in 2002, Sanger became critical of Wikipedia. He articulated that despite the project's merits, the encyclopedia lacks credibility due to, among other things, its lack of respect for expertise. In the interim, he taught philosophy at Ohio State University and was an early strategist for the expert-authored Encyclopedia of Earth. On September 15, 2006 he publicly announced Citizendium, first envisioned as a fork of Wikipedia. It was launched on March 25, 2007. Citizendium represents an effort to become a credible encyclopedia. Sanger aims to bring more accountability to the internet encyclopedia model. He presently serves full-time as the volunteer editor-in-chief of Citizendium and works part-time as a writer, speaker, and consultant on the topic of collaborative online communities. Early life and education Sanger was born in Bellevue, Washington, and raised in Anchorage, Alaska. When he was seven years old, the family moved to Anchorage, Alaska, where Sanger spent his formative years and excelled in the classroom. At an early age, he was interested in philosophical topics. In high school, Sanger was asked, "What are you ever going to do with philosophy?" He said, "Well, change the way the world thinks, for one thing." He graduated from high school in 1986 and went off to Reed College, majoring in philosophy. As a college student, he explored the understanding and sources of knowledge. He also became interested in the Internet and its publishing abilities. These interests helped him to realize the benefits of using a wiki for an online encyclopedia. He set up an early attempt with a listserver as a medium for students and tutors to meet up for "expert tutoring" and "to act as a forum for discussion of tutorials, tutorial methods, and the possibility and merits of a voluntary, free network of individual tutors and students finding each other via the Internet for education outside the traditional university setting." He started and moderated a philosophy discussion list. The Association for Systematic Philosophy, managed by Sanger, published a journal. Dated March 22, 1994, Sanger wrote in his opening manifesto: "The history of philosophy is full of disagreement and confusion. One reaction by philosophers to this state of things is to doubt whether the truth about philosophy can ever be known, or whether there is any such thing as the truth about philosophy. But there is another reaction: one may set out to think more carefully and methodically than one's intellectual forebears." He received a B.A. in philosophy from Reed College in 1991, an M.A. from Ohio State University in 1995, and a Ph.D. from Ohio State University in 2000. His bachelor thesis is titled Descartes' methods and their theoretical background and his doctoral thesis concerned Epistemic Circularity: An Essay on the Problem of Meta-Justification. From 1998 to 2000 he ran a website called "Sanger's Review of Y2K News Reports" (formerly at sangersreview.com), a resource for Y2K watchers. Nupedia and Wikipedia Nupedia was a Web-based encyclopedia whose articles were written by experts and licensed as free content. It was co-founded by Jimmy Wales and underwritten by Bomis, with Sanger hired as editor-in-chief. He developed a review process for articles and recruited editors. Articles were reviewed before being posted on the site. Frustrated at the slow progress of Nupedia, in January 2001, Sanger proposed a wiki be created to spur article development, and the result of this proposal was Wikipedia, officially launched on January 15, 2001. It was initially intended as a collaborative wiki for the public to write entries that would then be fed into the Nupedia review process of expertise. The majority of Nupedia's experts wanted little to do with this project, so Sanger initiated a separate site named Wikipedia. To the surprise of Sanger and Wales, within a few days of launching Wikipedia it had outgrown Nupedia, and a small community of editors gathered. By virtue of his position with Nupedia, Sanger spearheaded and named the project, and formulated much of the original policy, including "Ignore all rules" and "Neutral point of view." Sanger was the only paid editor of Wikipedia, a status he held from January 15, 2001, until March 1, 2002. Sanger worked on and promoted both the Nupedia and Wikipedia projects until Bomis discontinued funding for his position in February 2002; Sanger resigned as editor-in-chief of Nupedia and as chief organizer of Wikipedia on March 1. Sanger's stated reason for ending his participation in Wikipedia and Nupedia as a volunteer was that he could not do justice to the task as a part-time volunteer. Nupedia shut down the following year in 2003, shortly after Wikipedia's two year anniversary. Origins of Wikipedia Wales, the de facto leader of Wikipedia, started to play down Sanger's role in the founding of the project in 2005, a few years after Sanger left Wikipedia. "I must say I am amused," Sanger wrote in a posting on Wikipedia on Monday. "Having seen edits like this, it does seem that Jimmy is attempting to rewrite history. But this is a futile process because in our brave new world of transparent activity and maximum communication, the truth will out." In lieu of Wales' view, Sanger posted on his personal webpage several links which seemingly confirms his co-founder honorary appellation. Sanger referenced earlier versions of Wikipedia pages, • • • cited press releases from Wikipedia in the years of 2002 - 2004, • • and asserted that early media coverage stories "I can start an article that will consist of one paragraph, and then a real expert will come along and add three paragraphs and clean up my one paragraph," said Larry Sanger of Las Vegas, who founded Wikipedia with Mr. Wales. • described Wales and Sanger as the co-founders. Sanger was identified as a co-founder of Wikipedia at least as early as September 2001. Jimmy Wales identified himself in August 2002 as "co-founder" of Wikipedia. During the time of Sanger's involvement in the project, he was routinely known as a co-founder. The Wikimedia Foundation's first press release in 2004 described Sanger as co-founder. Sanger is widely cited in the media as a co-founder. • • • While Sanger organized the project Wales concentrated on Bomis. The origins of Wikipedia began when Sanger met up with an old friend. Sanger was introduced to wikis at a January 2, 2001 dinner with Ben Kovitz, a computer programmer and regular on Ward Cunningham's wiki. Sanger thought a wiki would be a good platform to use and decided to present the idea to Jimmy Wales, at that time the head of Bomis. Sanger initially proposed the wiki concept to Wales and suggested it be applied to Nupedia and, after some initial skepticism, Wales agreed to try it. Sanger formally proposed a "feeder" project for Nupedia titled "Let's make a wiki" and created a new page on Ward's wiki named "WikiPedia." Over tacos that night, Sanger explained his concerns about Nupedia's lack of progress, the root cause of which was its serial editorial system. As Nupedia was then structured, no stage of the editorial process could proceed before the previous stage was completed. Kovitz brought up the wiki and sketched out "wiki magic," the mysterious process by which communities with common interests work to improve wiki pages by incremental contributions. If it worked for the rambunctious hacker culture of programming, Kovitz said, it could work for any online collaborative project. The wiki could break the Nupedia bottleneck by permitting volunteers to work simultaneously all over the project. With Kovitz in tow, Sanger rushed back to his apartment and called Wales to share the idea. Over the next few days he wrote a formal proposal for Wales and started a page on Cunningham's wiki called "WikiPedia." Wales ascribed the broader idea of an encyclopedia that "non-experts" could contribute to, i.e., the Nupedia. Wales mentioned that he heard of the wiki concept first from Jeremy Rosenfeld in 2005, though he said earlier, in October 2001, that "Larry had the idea to use Wiki software." Sanger "came up with the name 'Wikipedia', a silly name for what was at first a very silly project." Sanger conceived of the wiki-based encyclopedia as an idea to assist with Nupedia's growth inefficiency, and spearheaded and guided the community as its leader in its first year. —Larry Sanger. • Sanger is credited for the policies and strategy that made Wikipedia possible. Wikipedia became an accidental spin-off of Nupedia, originally to allow collaboration on articles prior to the editorial review process. After Wikipedia After Sanger parted ways with Wikipedia in 2002 he became critical of the project. In December 2004, Sanger wrote a critical article for the website Kuro5hin, in which he admitted that there had existed "a certain poisonous social or political atmosphere in the project" that had also accounted for his departure. While stating "to appreciate the merits of Wikipedia fully" and to know and support "the mission and broad policy outlines of Wikipedia very well," Sanger maintained that there are serious problems with the project. There was, he wrote, a lack of public perception of credibility, and the project put "difficult people, trolls, and their enablers" into too much prominence; these problems, he maintained, were a feature of the project's "anti-elitism, or lack of respect for expertise." The article was the subject of much controversy in the blogosphere, and led to some reaction in the news media as well. Sanger, a philosophy instructor, began work as a lecturer at Ohio State University, where he taught philosophy until June 2005. His professional interests are epistemology (in particular), early modern philosophy, and ethics. In his spare time, he plays and teaches Irish traditional music on the fiddle in Columbus and Dayton, Ohio, and also manages a site about the Donegal fiddle tradition. In December 2005, Digital Universe Foundation announced that Sanger had been hired as Director of Distributed Content Programs. He would be a key organizer of the Digital Universe Encyclopedia web projects which was launched in early 2006. The Digital Universe encyclopedia plans to recruit recognized experts to write articles, and to check user-submitted articles for accuracy. The first step in this effort is the expert-authored and edited Encyclopedia of Earth, an electronic reference about the Earth. In April 2006, Sanger published "Text and Collaboration: A personal manifesto for the Text Outline Project" arguing for the importance of what he called "strong collaboration" (that is, collaboration in which people work on the parts they're interested and nobody gets to claim control), the possibility that strong collaboration could be more effective with a less anarchistic set of ground rules than Wikipedia, and the creation of a new Text Outline Project to create The Book of the World, featuring summaries of the arguments of the great philosophers, organized by topic and time, along with summaries of their debates. At the Wizards of OS conference in September 2006, Sanger announced Citizendium, a fork of Wikipedia. The objectives of the fork are to address various perceived flaws in the Wikipedia system. The main differences will be no anonymous editing — every author/editor will have to be identified by his/her real name, no "top-down" hierarchy of editors, and to aspire to be a "real encyclopedia." More differences are discussed at the Citizendium website in the FAQ. The initial fork is of the English language Wikipedia. Prior to its March 2007 public launch, Citizendium favored an emphasis on its own original articles. On September 27, 2006 Sanger announced that he would take a leave of absence from Digital Universe "in order to set up a fully independent Citizendium Foundation." In 2007 Sanger examined the possibilities for education online. He explained, "Imagine that education were not delivered but organized and managed in a way that were fully digitized, decentralized, self-directed, asynchronous, and at-a-distance." He further stated, "There would be no bureaucracy to enforce anything beyond some very basic rules, and decision-making would be placed almost entirely in the hands of teachers and students." In 2008, Sanger was at Oxford University to debate the proposition that "the internet is the future of knowledge." Sanger agreed that today's wikis and blogs are fundamentally changing the way knowledge is created and distributed. Citizendium On March 25, 2007, Citizendium ended its pilot phase, entering a live and publicly readable beta phase. The launch coincided with a feature-length Associated Press article that ran widely, with a title in USA Today of "Citizendium aims to be better Wikipedia." Unlike Wales, who has compared his role in Wikipedia with that of a British monarch, "I'm sort of like a British monarch," Wales said, while smiling. Sanger said he would not head Citizendium indefinitely, and in 2007 announced his intention to step off the leadership team in two or three years. Two weeks after the launch of Citizendium, Sanger criticized Wikipedia, stating the latter was "broken beyond repair," and had a range of problems "from serious management problems, to an often dysfunctional community, to frequently unreliable content, and to a whole series of scandals." Sanger stated in part: "The work of the Wikipedians has astounded the world, but the amateur nature of Wikipedia's contributions, whose authors remain anonymous, is not for everyone. Some experts are hostile toward the idea of Wikipedia and many avoid Wikipedia altogether. We may take Wikipedia as an early prototype of the application of open source hacker principles to content rather than code. I want to argue that it is just that, an early prototype, rather than a mature model of how such principles should be applied to reference, scholarly and educational content. Where Wikipedia shares the culture of anonymity found in the broader Internet, the Citizendium will have a culture of real-world, personal responsibility." Citizendium has a form of peer-review, in which the site's content is subject to "gentle expert oversight." In reference to creating a new encyclopedia project Sanger stated: "I think there is a need for a more reliable and free [online] encyclopedia. If we can create a more reliable and free encyclopedia, particularly if we adopt a different system than Wikipedia's, then we should." Citizendium's editor-in-chief Sanger commented in late October 2007 about Citizendium's one-year anniversary from its initial private launch date of October 30, 2006. According to Sanger, the Citizendium's readers have only just begun to see the power of the project's model: "Simply put, we've pioneered a new and better way to use wikis, and an interesting, dynamic way to build an online knowledge base. Increasingly, the Citizendium is looking like the next step in the evolution of the collaborative Internet. It has been one year since the private launch of the Citizendium (http://www.citizendium.org/) wiki, an online reference source aiming to create "the world's most trusted knowledge base." The innovative non-profit project combines free-wheeling, open wiki collaboration with real names and guidance by expert editors. The project's fundamentals are solid and growing stronger through motivated, diligent effort. Given enough time and enough people, the results would surely be amazing. If this possibility is amazing, it is even more amazing that it's within our grasp. What I do know is that if we do have a good chance to create something so stupefyingly useful for humanity, we must try." When asked in an interview with The Minnesota Daily: Do you see a role for Citizendium anywhere in academia? He responded: "Of course. The idea is it will be good enough for professors to be able to send their students and students to get reliable information from. I know a lot of students use Wikipedia as a place to start to learn about a subject. For that purpose it's fine. I actually think, as a place to start to get some information, it's a fine resource. Approved articles on Citizendium hopefully will be more reliable than articles on Wikipedia." Citizendium v. Wikipedia Building on Sanger's experience from other collaborative encyclopedias, Citizendium represents an effort to establish a scholarly and credible online encyclopedia. Sanger aims to improve upon the wiki-based encyclopedia model by bringing more accountability and academic quality to articles. In an interview with CNET News in 2007 Sanger explained the reasons for starting a Wikipedia alternative: "I think we absolutely need another wiki--first of all, simply because Wikipedia lacks credibility, unfortunately. It's a good starting place, as people say--on some subjects anyway--but it isn't really what we want out of a reliable reference resource. And frankly, I don't think that the Wikipedia community is prepared to make the changes that I think need to be made in order to transform Wikipedia into something that's really reliable." While Citizendium is wiki-based, several aspects set it apart from Wikipedia. Prospective contributors on Citizendium are required to sign in using real names. In contrast, users to Wikipedia may contribute anonymously, or choose one or a series of user names that have no connection to their true names. Experts in their field of expertise have a role in the Citizendium community to approve articles on the basis of accuracy, as opposed to the Good Article and the Featured Article systems on Wikipedia that employs a review by editors. While Wikipedia is perceived to promote consensus and not truth, and verifiability is the inclusion criteria - reporting on what other sources have to say, Citizendium experts have the final say for article content and it is not necessary to cite a source for a content decision on Citizendium. Finally, while vandalization of articles takes up time and effort on the part of Wikipedia's editors to uncover and revert, Citizendium apparently aims to prevent vandalism. Selected writings A partial list of academic work, essays, and presentations Sanger has written include: Academic work Descartes' methods and their theoretical background - bachelor thesis. Epistemic Circularity: An Essay on the Problem of Meta-Justification - doctoral thesis. Essays The Fate of Expertise after Wikipedia (160k PDF). Episteme - Edinburgh University Press, February 2009. Who Says We Know: On The New Politics of Knowledge. Edge Foundation - Edge Reality Club, April 2007. Education 2.0. The Focus Online, June 2007. Why the Citizendium Will (Probably) Succeed. Citizendium, March 2007. Toward a New Compendium of Knowledge. Citizendium, September 2006. Humanity's Coming Enlightenment. Edge Foundation - World Question Center, 2007. The Future of Free Information. The Digital Universe Journal, 2006. Presentations What Strong Collaboration Means for Scholarly Publishing. Keynote at the Annual Meeting of Society for Scholarly Publishing, San Francisco, CA, June 7, 2007. How to Think about Strong Collaboration among Professionals. Keynote at the Handelsblatt IT Congress, Bonn, Germany, January 30, 2007. Why Make Room for Experts in Web 2.0?. Opening keynote at the SDForum, The Business of New Media, Santa Clara, CA, October 25, 2006. References External links Larry Sanger - Sanger's personal website. User:Larry Sanger - Sanger's account on the English Wikipedia. User:Larry Sanger - An essay discussing the origins of Wikipedia. User:Larry Sanger - Meta-Wikimedia - "Possibly outdated," he says. Epistemic Circularity: An Essay on the Problem of Meta-Justification - index. Introductory philosophy lectures - From Sanger's 1998 course at Ohio State University which have been greatly edited. 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6,593 | Mark_Antony | Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N Marcus Antonius Marci Filius Marci Nepos; in English, "Marcus Antonius, son of Marcus, grandson of Marcus". ) (c. January 14, 83 BC–August 1, 30 BC), known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and General. He was an important supporter and the loyal friend of Gaius Julius Caesar as a military commander and administrator, being Caesar's second cousin, once removed, by his mother Julia Antonia. After Caesar's assassination, Antony formed an official political alliance with Octavian (Augustus) and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, known to historians today as the Second Triumvirate. The triumvirate broke up in 33 BC. Disagreement between Octavian and Antony erupted into civil war, the Final War of the Roman Republic, in 31 BC. Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium, and in a brief land battle at Alexandria. He committed suicide, and his lover, the Queen Cleopatra of Egypt, killed herself shortly thereafter. Early life A member of the Antonia gens, Antony was born in winter 87-6 BC, probably in Sulla's army besieging Athens during the Mithridatic War. His father was his namesake, Marcus Antonius Creticus, the son of the great rhetorician Marcus Antonius Orator who had been murdered and decapitated by order of Gaius Marius at the end of 87 B.C. His mother Julia was a daughter of Lucius Caesar (consul 90, censor 89), another Marian victim slain with Antonius the orator. His father (praetor 74) died in 71 B.C. during his command against Mediterranean piracy, and Julia soon remarried to Publius Cornelius Lentulus (Sura) (consul 71), an eminent patrician politician and co-leader of the infamous Conspiracy of Catiline named after the latter. According to authorities like Plutarch, he spent his teenage years wandering the streets of Rome with his brothers and friends, most notably Gaius Curio (the later tribune 50 B.C.), with whom he is said to have had a long term homosexual liaison. Plutarch writes that before Antony reached 20 years of age, he was already indebted to the sum of 250 talents. Plutarch, "Anthony" (About $5 million in today's money. One talent had a purchasing power of about $20,000.. A talent represented nine years of wages for a craftsman. ) After this period of recklessness, Antony fled to Greece to escape his creditors and to study rhetoric. After a short time spent in attendance on the philosophers at Athens, he was summoned by Aulus Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, to take part in the campaigns against Aristobulus II in Judea, and in support of King Ptolemy XII Auletes in Egypt. In the ensuing campaign, he demonstrated his talents as a cavalry commander and distinguished himself with bravery and courage. Indeed, Antony's life was a mixture, often simultaneous, of astounding military honor along with equally astounding debauchery. In a similar vein, Plutarch noted that while his generosity helped raise him to the heights of power, he was equally hindered by his countless faults. http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html Chapter 4, Verse 3 Supporter of Caesar In 54 BC, Antony became a member of the staff of Caesar's armies in Gaul and early Germany. He again proved to be a competent military leader in the Gallic Wars, but his personality caused instability wherever he went. Antony and Caesar were said to be best of friends as well as being relatively close relatives. Antony made himself ever available to assist Caesar in carrying out his military campaigns. Raised by Caesar's influence to the offices of quaestor, augur, and tribune of the plebeians (50 BC), he supported the cause of his patron with great energy. Caesar's two proconsular commands, during a period of ten years, were expiring in 50 BC, and he wanted to return to Rome for the consular elections. But resistance from the conservative faction of the Roman Senate, led by Pompey, demanded that Caesar resign his proconsulship and the command of his armies before being allowed to seek re-election to the consulship. This Caesar would not do, as such an act would at least temporarily render him a private citizen and thereby leave him open to prosecution for his acts while proconsul. It would also place him at the mercy of Pompey's armies. To prevent this occurrence Caesar bribed the plebian tribune Curio to use his veto to prevent a senatorial decree which would deprive Caesar of his armies and provincial command, and then made sure Antony was elected tribune for the next term of office. Antony exercised his tribunician veto, with the aim of preventing a senatorial decree declaring martial law against the veto, and was violently expelled from the senate with another Caesar adherent, Cassius, who was also a tribune of the plebs. Caesar crossed the river Rubicon upon hearing of these affairs which began the Republican civil war. Antony left Rome and joined Caesar and his armies at Ariminium, where he was presented to Caesar's soldiers still bloody and bruised as an example of the illegalities that his political opponents were perpetrating, and as a casus belli. Tribunes of the Plebs were meant to be untouchable and their veto inalienable according to the Roman mos maiorum (although there was a grey line as to what extent this existed in the declaration of and during martial law). Antony commanded Italy whilst Caesar destroyed Pompey's legions in Spain, and led the reinforcements to Greece, before commanding the right wing of Caesar's armies at Pharsalus. When Caesar became dictator for a second time, Antony was made Master of the Horse, the dictator's right hand man, and in this capacity he remained in Italy as the peninsula's administrator in 47 BC, while Caesar was fighting the last Pompeians, who had taken refuge in the province of Africa. But Antony's skills as an administrator were a poor match for his generalship, and he seized the opportunity of indulging in the most extravagant excesses, depicted by Cicero in the Philippics. In 46 BC he seems to have taken offense because Caesar insisted on payment for the property of Pompey which Antony professedly had purchased, but had in fact simply appropriated. Conflict soon arose, and, as on other occasions, Antony resorted to violence. Hundreds of citizens were killed and Rome itself descended into a state of anarchy. Caesar was most displeased with the whole affair and removed Antony from all political responsibilities. The two men did not see each other for two years. The estrangement was not of long continuance, with Antony meeting the dictator at Narbo (45 BC) and rejecting the suggestion of Trebonius that he should join in the conspiracy that was already afoot. Reconciliation arrived in 44 BC, when Antony was chosen as partner for Caesar's fifth consulship. Whatever conflicts existed between the two men, Antony remained faithful to Caesar at all times. On February 15, 44 BC, during the Lupercalia festival, Antony publicly offered Caesar a diadem. This was an event fraught with meaning: a diadem was a symbol of a king, and in refusing it, Caesar demonstrated that he did not intend to assume the throne. On March 14, 44 BC, Antony was alarmed when a Senator named Casca told him the gods would strike down Caesar. The following day, the Ides of March, he went down to warn the dictator but the Liberatores reached Caesar first and he was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC. In the turmoil that surrounded the event, Antony escaped Rome dressed as a slave; fearing that the dictator's assassination would be the start of a bloodbath among his supporters. When this did not occur, he soon returned to Rome, discussing a truce with the assassins' faction. For a while, Antony, as consul, seemed to pursue peace and an end to the political tension. Following a speech by Cicero in the Senate, an amnesty was agreed for the assassins. Then came the day of Caesar's funeral. As Caesar's ever-present second in command, co-consul and cousin, Antony was the natural choice to give the eulogy. In his speech, he made accusations of murder and ensured a permanent breach with the conspirators. Showing a talent for rhetoric and dramatic interpretation, Antony snatched the toga from Caesar's body to show the crowd the stab wounds, pointing at each and naming the authors, publicly shaming them. During the eulogy he also read Caesar's will, which left most of his property to the people of Rome, demonstrating that, contrary to the conspirator's assertions, Caesar had no intention of forming a royal dynasty. Public opinion turned, and that night, the Roman populace attacked the assassins' houses, forcing them to flee for their lives. Enemy of the state and triumvirate Roman aureus bearing the portraits of Mark Antony (left) and Octavian (right). Struck in 41 BC, this coin was issued to celebrate the establishment of the Second Triumvirate by Octavian, Antony and Marcus Lepidus in 43 BC. Both sides bear the inscription "III VIR R P C", meaning "One of Three Men for the Regulation of the Republic". Antony was left as sole Consul, he surrounded himself with a bodyguard of Caesar's veterans and forced the senate to transfer to him the province of Cisalpine Gaul, which was then administered by Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of the conspirators. Brutus refused to surrender the province and Antony set out to attack him in October 44 BC, besieging him at Mutina. Encouraged by Cicero, the Senate denounced Antony and in January 43 they granted Octavian imperium (commanding power), which made his command of troops legal and sent him to relieve the siege, along with Hirtius and Pansa, the consuls for 43 BC. In April 43, Antony's forces were defeated at the Battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. However, both consuls were killed, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies. When they knew that Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius were assembling an army in order to march on Rome, Antony, Octavian and Lepidus allied together in November 43 BC, forming the Second Triumvirate to stop Caesar's assassins.Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Antony and Octavian at the Battle of Philippi in October 42 BC, After the battle, a new arrangement was made between the members of the Second Triumvirate: while Octavian returned to Rome, Antony went on to govern the east. Lepidus went on to govern Hispania and the province of Africa. The triumvirate's enemies were subjected to proscription including Mark Antony's archenemy Cicero who was killed on December 7 43 BC. Antony and Cleopatra Antony and Cleopatra, by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema (1883) Antony summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus in October 41 BC. There they formed an Alliance and became lovers. Antony returned to Alexandria with her, where he spent the winter of 41 BC - 40 BC. In spring 40 BC he was forced to return to Rome following news of his wife Fulvia's Civil war. Fulvia died while Antony was en-route to Sicyon (Where Fulvia was exiled). Antony made peace with Octavian in September 40 BC and married Octavian's Sister Octavia Minor. The Parthian Empire had supported Brutus and Cassius in the civil war, sending forces which fought with them at Philippi; following Antony and Octavian's victory, the Parthians invaded Roman territory, occupying Syria, advancing into Asia Minor and installing Antigonus as puppet king in Judaea to replace the pro-Roman Hyrcanus. Antony sent his general Ventidius to oppose this invasion. Ventidius won a series of victories against the Parthians, killing the crown prince Pacorus and expelling them from the Roman territories they had seized. Antony now planned to retaliate by invading Parthia, and secured an agreement from Octavian to supply him with extra troops for his campaign. With this military purpose on his mind, Antony sailed to Greece with Octavia, where he behaved in a most extravagant manner, assuming the attributes of the Greek god Dionysus (39 BC). But the rebellion in Sicily of Sextus Pompeius, the last of the Pompeians, kept the army promised to Antony in Italy. With his plans again disrupted, Antony and Octavian quarreled once more. This time with the help of Octavia, a new treaty was signed in Tarentum in 38 BC. The triumvirate was renewed for a period of another five years (ending in 33 BC) and Octavian promised again to send legions to the East. But by now, Antony was skeptical of Octavian's true support of his Parthian cause. Leaving Octavia pregnant with her second child Antonia in Rome, he sailed to Alexandria, where he expected funding from Cleopatra, the mother of his twins. The queen of Egypt lent him the money he needed for the army, and after capturing Jerusalem and surrounding areas in 37 BC, he installed Herod as puppet king of Judaea, replacing the Parthian appointee Antigonus. Antony then invaded Parthian territory with an army of about 100,000 Roman and allied troops but the campaign proved a disaster. After defeats in battle, the desertion of his Armenian allies and his failure to capture Parthian strongholds convinced Antony to retreat, his army was further depleted by the hardships of its retreat through Armenia in the depths of winter, losing more than a quarter of its strength in the course of the campaign. Meanwhile, in Rome, the triumvirate was no more. Lepidus was forced to resign after an ill-judged political move. Now in sole power, Octavian was occupied in wooing the traditional Republican aristocracy to his side. He married Livia and started to attack Antony in order to raise himself to power. He argued that Antony was a man of low morals to have left his faithful wife abandoned in Rome with the children to be with the promiscuous queen of Egypt. Antony was accused of everything, but most of all, of "becoming native", an unforgivable crime to the proud Romans. Several times Antony was summoned to Rome, but remained in Alexandria with Cleopatra. A map of the Donations of Alexandria (by Mark Antony to Cleopatra and her children) in 34 BC Again with Egyptian money, Antony invaded Armenia, this time successfully. In the return, a mock Roman Triumph was celebrated in the streets of Alexandria. The parade through the city was a pastiche of Rome's most important military celebration. For the finale, the whole city was summoned to hear a very important political statement. Surrounded by Cleopatra and her children, Antony was about to put an end to his alliance with Octavian. He distributed kingdoms between his children: Alexander Helios was named king of Armenia, Media and Parthia (which were never conquered by Rome), his twin Selene got Cyrenaica and Libya, and the young Ptolemy Philadelphus was awarded Syria and Cilicia. As for Cleopatra, she was proclaimed Queen of Kings and Queen of Egypt, to rule with Caesarion (Ptolemy XV Caesar, son of Julius Caesar), King of Kings and King of Egypt. Most important of all, Caesarion was declared legitimate son and heir of Caesar. These proclamations were known as the Donations of Alexandria and caused a fatal breach in Antony's relations with Rome. Distributing insignificant lands among the children of Cleopatra was not a peace move, but it was not a serious problem either. What did seriously threaten Octavian's political position, however, was the acknowledgment of Caesarion as legitimate and heir to Caesar's name. Octavian's base of power was his link with Caesar through adoption, which granted him much-needed popularity and loyalty of the legions. To see this convenient situation attacked by a child borne by the richest woman in the world was something Octavian could not accept. The triumvirate expired on the last day of 33 BC and was not renewed. Another civil war was beginning. The Battle of Actium, by Lorenzo Castro, 1672, National Maritime Museum, London During 33 and 32 BC, a propaganda war was fought in the political arena of Rome, with accusations flying between sides. Antony (in Egypt) divorced Octavia and accused Octavian of being a social upstart, of usurping power, and of forging the adoption papers by Caesar. Octavian responded with treason charges: of illegally keeping provinces that should be given to other men by lots, as was Rome's tradition, and of starting wars against foreign nations (Armenia and Parthia) without the consent of the Senate. Antony was also held responsible for Sextus Pompeius' execution with no trial. In 32 BC, the Senate deprived him of his powers and declared war against Cleopatra. Both consuls (Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius) and a third of the Senate abandoned Rome to meet Antony and Cleopatra in Greece. In 31 BC, the war started. Octavian's loyal and talented general Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port of Methone, loyal to Antony. The enormous popularity of Octavian with the legions secured the defection of the provinces of Cyrenaica and Greece to his side. On September 2, the naval battle of Actium took place. Antony and Cleopatra's navy was destroyed, and they were forced to escape to Egypt with 60 ships. Octavian, now close to absolute power, did not intend to give them rest. In August 30 BC, assisted by Agrippa, he invaded Egypt. With no other refuge to escape to, Antony committed suicide by stabbing himself with his sword in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had already done so (30 BC). When he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, his friends brought him to Cleopatra's monument in which she was hiding, and he died in her arms.(However, some sources claim that he did not commit suicide, but was killed by an Egyptian priest who was in favour of Octavian). That very day; Cleopatra committed suicide. His children by Cleopatra were spared, but paraded through the streets of Rome by Octavian. Antony's daughters by Octavia were spared, as was his son, Iullus Antonius. But his elder son, Marcus Antonius Antyllus, was killed by Octavian's men while pleading for his life in the Caesarium. Aftermath and legacy When Antony died, Octavian became uncontested ruler of Rome. In the following years, Octavian, who was known as Augustus after 27 BC, managed to accumulate in his person all administrative, political, and military offices. When Augustus died in 14 AD, his political powers passed to his adopted son Tiberius; the Roman Principate had begun. The rise of Caesar and the subsequent civil war between his two most powerful adherents effectively ended the credibility of the Roman oligarchy as a governing power and ensured that all future power struggles would centre upon which of two (or more) individuals would achieve supreme control of the government, rather than upon an individual in conflict with the Senate. Thus Antony, as Caesar's key adherent and one of the two men around whom power coalesced following his assassination, was one of the three men chiefly responsible for the fall of the Roman Republic. Marriages and descendants Antony had been married in succession to Fadia, Antonia, Fulvia, Octavia and Cleopatra, and left behind him a number of children. Through his daughters by Octavia, he would be ancestor to the Roman Emperors Caligula, Claudius and Nero. Marriage to Fadia, a daughter of a freedman. According to Cicero, Fadia bore Antony several children. Nothing is known about Fadia or their children. Cicero is the only Roman source that mentions Antony’s first wife. Marriage to first paternal cousin Antonia Hybrida Minor. According to Plutarch, Antony threw her out of his house in Rome, because she slept with his friend, the tribune Publius Cornelius Dolabella. This occurred by 47 BC and Antony divorced her. By Antonia, he had a daughter: Antonia, married the wealthy Greek Pythodoros of Tralles. Marriage to Fulvia, by whom he had two sons: Marcus Antonius Antyllus, executed by Octavian in 30 BC. Iullus Antonius, married Claudia Marcella Major, daughter of Octavia. Marriage to Octavia Minor, sister of Octavian, later Augustus; they had two daughters: Antonia Major, married Domitius; grandmother of the Empress Valeria Messalina and the emperor Nero. Antonia Minor, married Drusus, the son of Livia; mother of the Emperor Claudius, grandmother of the Emperor Caligula and Empress Agrippina the Younger, great-grandmother of the emperor Nero. Children with the queen Cleopatra of Egypt, the former lover of Julius Caesar: The twins Alexander Helios & Cleopatra Selene II. Selene married King Juba II of Numidia and later Mauretania; the queen of Syria, Zenobia of Palmyra, is descended from Selene and Juba II. Ptolemy Philadelphus. Fictional portrayals Fictional works in which the character of Mark Antony plays a central role include: William Shakespeare's Julius Caesar and Antony and Cleopatra John Dryden's All for Love The TV series Xena: Warrior Princess The TV series Rome (see Mark Antony (character)) The 1963 film Cleopatra Colleen McCullough's Masters of Rome series The Memoirs of Cleopatra, a novel by Margaret George The Capcom videogame Shadow of Rome, in which he is depicted as the main antagonist The 1999 film Cleopatra The 2005 tv mini series Empire Conn Iggulden's Emperor novels References Primary sources Dio Cassius xli.–liii Appian, Bell. Civ. i.–v. Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Gallico and Commentarii de Bello Civili Cicero, Letters and Philippics Orations: The fourteen Philippics against Marcus Antonius ~ Tufts University Classics Collection Plutarch, Parallel Lives (Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans) Plutarch's Parallel Lives: "Antony" ~ Internet Classics Archive (MIT) Plutarch's Parallel Lives: "Life of Antony" - Loeb Classical Library edition, 1920 Plutarch's Parallel Lives: "The Comparison of Demetrius and Antony" ~ Internet Classics Archive (MIT) Modern Works Groebe, Pauly-Wissowa Realencyclopadie de Quincey, Thomas, Essay on the Caesars Lytle, William Haines (1826–1863), Antony and Cleopatra Weigall, Arthur: Marc Antoine, sa vie et son temps (Maurice Gerin translation, Payot, Paris, 1933) Lindsay, Jack: Marc Antony, his World and his Contemporaries (E. P. Dutton & co., New York, 1937) Jones, A M H: The Herods of Judaea (Oxford, 1938) Babcock, C L: “The early career of Fulvia”, AJP 86 (1965), 1-32 Bengtson, Hermann: Marcus Antonius, Triumvir und Herrscher des Orients (C. H. Beck, Münich, 1977) IBSN 3 406 06600 3 Pelling, C B R: Plutarch, Life of Antony (Cambridge UP, 1988) IBSN 0521240662 Paul-Marius Martin, Antoine et Cléopâtre, la fin d'un rêve, Albin Michel, 1990, 287 p. Southern, Pat: Mark Antony (Stroud, Gloucestershire, UK: Tempus Publishing, 1998) hardcover, ISBN 0-7524-1406-2 External links | Mark_Antony |@lemmatized marcus:15 antonius:12 latin:1 antonivs:1 f:1 n:1 marci:2 filius:1 nepos:1 english:2 son:10 grandson:1 c:8 january:2 bc:41 august:2 know:6 mark:7 antony:88 roman:19 politician:2 general:3 important:4 supporter:3 loyal:3 friend:5 gaius:5 julius:4 caesar:49 military:7 commander:2 administrator:3 second:8 cousin:3 remove:2 mother:4 julia:3 antonia:9 assassination:3 form:4 official:1 political:10 alliance:3 octavian:34 augustus:4 aemilius:1 lepidus:5 historian:1 today:2 triumvirate:10 break:1 disagreement:1 erupt:1 civil:6 war:13 final:1 republic:3 defeat:4 naval:3 battle:8 actium:3 brief:1 land:2 alexandria:7 commit:4 suicide:4 lover:3 queen:7 cleopatra:26 egypt:10 kill:7 shortly:1 thereafter:1 early:3 life:11 member:3 gen:1 bear:3 winter:3 probably:1 sulla:1 army:13 besieging:1 athens:2 mithridatic:1 father:2 namesake:1 creticus:1 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6,594 | Nevada | Nevada () is a state located in the western region of the United States. The capital is Carson City, Nevada| and the largest city is Las Vegas. The state's nickname is the "Silver State," due to the large number of silver deposits that were discovered and mined there. In 1864, Nevada became the 36th state to enter the union, and the phrase "Battle Born" on the state flag reflects the state's entry on the Union side during the American Civil War. Its first settlement was called Mormon Station. Nevada is the seventh-largest state in area, and geographically covers the Mojave Desert in the south to the Great Basin in the north. Approximately 86% of the state's land is owned by the U.S federal government under various jurisdictions both civilian and military. As of 2006, there were about 2.6 million residents, with over 85% of the population residing in the metropolitan areas of Las Vegas and Reno. Popul of Nevada's Counties and Incorp cities 2006 Time Series EMAIL 012207.xls The state is well known for its easy marriage and divorce proceedings, entertainment, legalized gambling and in 8 out of its 16 counties legalized active brothels. Etymology and pronunciation The name Nevada comes from the Spanish "Nevada", meaning "snow-covered". after the Sierra Nevada ("snow-covered mountains") mountain range. Although the original Spanish word is pronounced "neh-VAH-duh", with the "ah" as in "father", the State of Nevada is pronounced "neh-VǍ-duh", with the "a" as in "tan". Geography Digitally colored elevation map of Nevada Nevada is almost entirely within the Basin and Range Province, and is broken up by many north-south mountain ranges. Most of these ranges have endorheic valleys between them, which belies the image portrayed by the term Great Basin. Pinion Juniper forests cover large areas of the north and central parts of the state. Sunrise over Reno Much of the northern part of the state is within the Great Basin Desert, a mild desert that experiences hot temperatures in the summer and cold temperatures in the winter. Occasionally, moisture from the Arizona Monsoon will cause summer thunderstorms; Pacific storms may blanket the area with snow. The state's highest recorded temperature was in Laughlin (elevation of ) on June 29, 1994. National Climatic Data Center, Asheville, N.C., and Storm Phillips, Stormfax, Inc. The Humboldt River crosses from east to west across the northern part of the state, draining into the Humboldt Sink near Lovelock. Several rivers drain from the Sierra Nevada eastward, including the Walker, Truckee and Carson rivers. Mountains west of Las Vegas in the Mojave Desert The mountain ranges, some of which have peaks above , harbor lush forests high above desert plains, creating sky islands for endemic species. The valleys are often no lower in elevation than . The southern third of the state, where the Las Vegas area is situated, is within the Mojave Desert. The area receives less rain in the winter but is closer to the Arizona Monsoon in the summer. The terrain is also lower, mostly below , creating conditions for hot summer days and cool to chilly winter nights (due to temperatureinversion). Nevada and California have by far the longest diagonal line (in respect to the cardinal directions) as a state boundary at just over . This line begins in Lake Tahoe nearly offshore (in the direction of the boundary), and continues to the Colorado River where the Nevada, California, and Arizona boundaries merge southwest of the Laughlin Bridge. The largest mountain range in the southern portion of the state is the Spring Mountain Range, just west of Las Vegas. The state's lowest point is along the Colorado River, south of Laughlin. Climate Nevada is made up of mostly desert areas, where daytime summer temperatures sometimes may rise as high as and nighttime winter temperatures may reach as low as . The winter season in the southern part of the state, however, tends to be of short duration and mild. Most parts of Nevada receive scarce precipitation during the year. Most rain falls on the lee side (east and northeast slopes) of the Sierra Nevada Range. The average annual rainfall per year is about 7 inches (18 cm); the wettest parts get around 40 inches (102 cm). Las Vegas: Summer daytime highs average 94-104 degrees, and summer nighttime lows average 69-77 degrees. Winter daytime highs average 57-69 degrees, and winter nighttime lows average 37-47 degrees. Reno: Summer daytime highs average 81-91 degrees, and summer nighttime lows average 43-51 degrees. Winter daytime highs average 45-57 degrees, and winter nighttime lows average 20-29 degrees. Elko: Summer daytime highs average 78-89 degrees, and summer nighttime lows average 38-48 degrees. Winter daytime highs average 37-51 degrees, and winter nighttime lows average 13-26 degrees. Bordering states Utah—East Arizona—Southeast California—West Oregon—Northwest Idaho—Northeast Counties Nevada is divided into political jurisdictions designated as counties. Carson City is officially a consolidated municipality; however, for many purposes under state law it is considered to be a county. As of 1919 there were 17 counties in the state, ranging from 146 to 18,159 square miles (378 to 47,032 km²). In 1969 Ormbsy County was dissolved and the consolidated municipality of Carson City was created by the Legislature in its place co-terminous with the old boundaries of Ormsby County. NEVADA COUNTIESCounty nameCounty seatYear founded2000 populationPercent of totalArea (sq. mi.)Percent of totalCarson CityCarson City186152,4572.63 %1460.13 %ChurchillFallon186123,9821.20 %5,0234.54 %ClarkLas Vegas19081,375,76568.85 %8,0917.32 %DouglasMinden186141,2592.06 %7380.67 %ElkoElko186945,2912.27 %17,20315.56 %EsmeraldaGoldfield18619710.05 %3,5893.25 %EurekaEureka18691,6510.08 %4,1803.78 %HumboldtWinnemucca1856/186116,1060.81 %9,6588.74 %LanderBattle Mountain18615,7940.29 %5,5194.99 %LincolnPioche18664,1650.21 %10,6379.62 %LyonYerington186134,5011.73 %2,0161.82 %MineralHawthorne19115,0710.25 %3,8133.45 %NyeTonopah186432,4851.63 %18,15916.43 %PershingLovelock19196,6930.33 %6,0685.49 %StoreyVirginia City18613,3990.17 %2640.24 %WashoeReno1861339,48616.99 %6,5515.93 %White PineEly18699,1810.46 %8,8978.05 %Total counties: 17Total 2000 population: 1,998,257Total state area: 110,552 square miles Humboldt was designated as a County in 1856 by Utah Territorial Legislature and again in 1861 by the new Nevada Legislature History Before 1861 See History of Utah, History of Las Vegas, and the discovery of the first major U.S. deposit of silver ore in Comstock Lode under Virginia City, Nevada in 1859. Early locomotives such as this one in Ely, Nevada, played an important part in Nevada's mining industry Separation from Utah Territory On March 2, 1861, the Nevada Territory separated from the Utah Territory and adopted its current name, shortened from Sierra Nevada (Spanish for "snowy range"). The separation of the territory from Utah was important to the federal government because of the Nevada population's political leanings, while the population itself was keen to be separated because of animosity (and sometimes violence) between the non-Mormons who dominated Nevada, and the Mormons who dominated the rest of the Utah territory. Animosity between non-Mormon settlers and Mormons was particularly high after the Mountain Meadows massacre of 1857 and the Utah War in 1857-58. Statehood Eight days prior to the presidential election of 1864, Nevada became the 36th state in the union. Statehood was rushed to the date of October 31 to help ensure Abraham Lincoln's reelection on November 8 and post-Civil War Republican dominance in Congress, Rocha Guy, Historical Myth a Month: Why Did Nevada Become A State? as Nevada's mining-based economy tied it to the more industrialized Union. Nevada achieved its current southern boundaries on May 5, 1866 when it absorbed the portion of Pah-Ute County in the Arizona Territory west of the Colorado River, essentially all of present day Nevada south of the 37th parallel. The transfer was prompted by the discovery of gold in the area, and it was thought by officials that Nevada would be better able to oversee the expected population boom. This area includes most of what is now Clark County. In 1868 another part of the western Utah Territory, whose population was seeking to avoid Mormon dominance, was added to Nevada in the eastern part of the state, setting the current eastern boundary. Mining shaped Nevada's economy for many years (see Silver mining in Nevada). When Mark Twain lived in Nevada during the period described in Roughing It, mining had led to an industry of speculation and immense wealth. However, both mining and population declined in the late 19th century. However, the rich silver strike at Tonopah in 1900, followed by strikes in Goldfield and Rhyolite, again put Nevada's population on an upward trend. Gaming and labor Gambling erupted once more following a recession in the early 20th century, helping to build the city of Las Vegas Unregulated gambling was common place in the early Nevada mining towns but outlawed in 1909 as part of a nation-wide anti-gaming crusade. Due to subsequent declines in mining output and the decline of the agricultural sector during the Great Depression, Nevada re-legalized gambling on March 19, 1931, with approval from the legislature. At the time, the leading proponents of gambling expected that it would be a short term fix until the state's economic base widened to include less cyclical industries. However, re-outlawing gambling has never been seriously considered since the industry has become Nevada's primary source of revenue today. The Hoover Dam, located outside Las Vegas near Boulder City, was constructed in the years 1932–1935. Thousands of workers from across the country came to build the dam, and providing for their needs in turn required many more workers. The boom in population is likely to have fueled the re-legalization of gambling, alike present-day industry. Both Hoover Dam and later war industries such as the Basic Magnesium Plant first started the growth of the southern area of the state near Las Vegas. Over the last 75 years, Clark County in Southern Nevada has been experiencing strong population growth and today encompasses most of the state's residents. Nuclear Testing The Nevada Test Site, Northwest of the City of Las Vegas, was founded on January 11, 1951 for the testing of nuclear weapons. The site is composed of approximately of desert and mountainous terrain. Nuclear testing at the Nevada Test Site began with a one-kiloton of TNT (4 terajoule) bomb dropped on Frenchman Flat on January 27, 1951. The last atmospheric test was conducted on July 17, 1962 and the underground testing of weapons continued until September 23, 1992. The location is known for the highest amount of concentrated nuclear detonated weapons in the U.S. Over 80% of the state's area is owned by the federal government. The primary reason for this is that homesteads were not permitted in large enough sizes to be viable in the arid conditions that prevail throughout desert Nevada. Instead, early settlers would homestead land surrounding a water source, and then graze livestock on the adjacent public land, which is useless for agriculture without access to water (this pattern of ranching still prevails). The deficiencies in the Homestead Act as applied to Nevada were probably due to a lack of understanding of the Nevada environment, although some firebrands (so-called "Sagebrush Rebels") maintain that it was due to pressure from mining interests to keep land out of the hands of common folk. This debate continues to be argued among some state historians today. Demographics Nevada Population Density Map According to the Census Bureau's 2007 estimate, Nevada has an estimated population of 2,565,382 which is an increase of 92,909, or 3.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 516,550, or 20.8%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 81,661 people (that is 170,451 births minus 88,790 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 337,043 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 66,098 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 270,945 people. According to the 2006 census estimate, Nevada is the eighth fastest growing state in the nation. CNN The center of population of Nevada is located in southern Nye County. www.census.gov This area the unincorporated town of Pahrump located west of Las Vegas on the California state line has grown 26 times in size from 1980 to 2000. In the year 2006, the town may have over 50,000 permanent residents. Las Vegas was America's fastest-growing city and metropolitan area from 1960 to 2000, but has grown from a gulch of 100 people in 1900 to 10,000 by 1950 to 100,000 by 1970 to have 2.5 million in the metro area today. According to the census estimates the racial distributions were as follows: 65% White American, 7.1% African-American, 6% Asian-American (estimates placed them at 10%), 2% others (American Indians and Pacific Islanders) and the remaining 20% were Hispanics or Latinos of any race. Large numbers of new residents in the state originate from California, which led some locals to feel that their state is being "Californicated". http://employerblog.recruitingnevada.com/2008/08/08/people-keep-moving-to-nevada/ Nevada also has a sizable Basque ancestry population. In Douglas and Pershing Counties, a plurality of residents are of Mexican ancestry with Clark County (Las Vegas) being home to over 200,000 Mexican Americans alone; Nye County and Humboldt County have a plurality of Germans; and Washoe County has many of Irish ancestry. Las Vegas is home to rapid-growing ethnic communities like Scandinavians, Italians, Poles, American Jews and Armenians. Largely African-American sections of Las Vegas ("the Meadows") and Reno can be found, but many African-Americans in Nevada are newly transplanted residents from California, the Midwest, or the East Coast, but the US Armed forces, hotels and domestic services attracted black Americans since the 1950s. Since the California Gold Rush of the 1850s brought thousands of Chinese miners in Washoe county, Asian Americans lived in the state followed by few hundreds of Japanese farm workers in the late 1800s. In the late 20th century, many immigrants from China, Japan, Korea, Philippines and recently from India and Vietnam came to the Las Vegas metropolitan area with one of America's most prolific Asian-American communities, with a mostly Chinese and Taiwanese area known as "Chinatown" west of I-15 on Spring Mountain Boulevard, and an "Asiatown" shopping mall for Asian customers on Charleston Avenue/Paradise Boulevard. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, 16.19% of the population aged 5 and older speak Spanish at home, while 1.59% speak Filipino and 1% speak Chinese languages, the majority of foreign languages are found in ethnic sections of Central Las Vegas. 6.8% of its population were reported as under 5, 26.3% under 18, and 13.6% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 50.7% of the population. As a result of its rapid population growth, Nevada has a higher percentage of residents born outside of the state than any other state. Las Vegas was a major destination for immigrants seeking employment by the gaming and hospitality industries from South Asia and Latin America during the 1990s and 2000s, but farming and construction is the biggest employer of immigrant labor. From about the 1940s to 2003, Nevada was the fastest-growing state in the US percentage-wise. Between 1990 and 2000, Nevada's population increased 66.3%, while the USA's population increased 13.1%. Over two thirds of the population of the state live in the Las Vegas metropolitan area. Religion Major religious affiliations of the people of Nevada are: Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life Roman Catholic – 27% Protestant Mainline – 11% Evangelical – 13% Other Protestant – 2% Latter-day Saint/ Mormon – 11% Muslim – 2% Jewish – 1% Other Religions – 1% Unaffiliated – 20% The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2000 were the Roman Catholic Church with 331,844; the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 116,925; and the Southern Baptist Convention with 40,233. 77,100 Nevadans belong to Jewish congregations. http://www.thearda.com/mapsReports/reports/state/32_2000.asp Economy Nevada quarter Lake Tahoe on the Nevada, California border The Bureau of Economic Analysis estimates that Nevada's total state product in 2007 was $127 billion. Resort areas such as Las Vegas, Reno, Lake Tahoe, and Laughlin attract visitors from around the nation and world. The state's Per capita personal income in 2007 was $39,853, ranking sixteenth in the nation. http://www.bea.gov/regional/gsp/ Its agricultural outputs are cattle, hay, alfalfa, dairy products, onions, and potatoes. Its industrial outputs are tourism, mining, machinery, printing and publishing, food processing, and electric equipment. Prostitution is legal in parts of Nevada in the form of brothels, but only counties with populations under 400,000 residents have the option to legalize it. Of the counties that can legalize it, they may choose to outlaw it if they wish, as some have. Prostitution is illegal and offenders are prosecuted in Clark County (which contains Las Vegas), Washoe County (which contains Reno), and several other counties around the state. In portions of the state outside of the Las Vegas and Reno metropolitan areas, mining and cattle ranching are the major economic activities. By value, gold is by far the most important mineral mined. In 2004, 6.8 million ounces of gold worth $2.84 billion were mined in Nevada, and the state accounted for 8.7% of world gold production (see Gold mining in Nevada). Silver is a distant second, with 10.3 million ounces worth $69 million mined in 2004 (see Silver mining in Nevada). Nevada Mining Association, Economic Overview of the Nevada Mining Industry 2004 Other minerals mined in Nevada include construction aggregates, copper, gypsum, diotomite and lithium. Despite its rich deposits, the cost of mining in Nevada is generally high, and output is very sensitive to world commodity prices. As of January 1, 2006 there were an estimated 500,000 head of cattle and 70,000 head of sheep in Nevada. United States Department of Agriculture Nevada State Agriculture Overview - 2005 Most of these animals forage on rangeland in the summer, with supplemental feed in the winter. Calves are generally shipped to out-of-state feedlots in the fall to be fattened for market. Over 90% of Nevada's of cropland is used to grow hay, mostly alfalfa, for livestock feed. Nevada is also one of only a few states with no personal income tax and no corporate income tax. The state sales tax in Nevada is 6.5%. Counties can assess option taxes as well, making the combined state/county sales taxes rate in some areas as high as 7.75%. Sales tax in Carson City is 7.125% in Clark County 7.75%, in Washoe County 7.375%, while sales tax in Douglas County is 6.75%. Transportation State Route shield Amtrak's California Zephyr train uses the Union Pacific's original transcontinental railroad line in a daily service from Chicago to Emeryville, California serving Elko, Winnemucca, Sparks, and Reno. Amtrak Thruway Motorcoaches also provide connecting service from Las Vegas to trains at Needles, California, Los Angeles, and Bakersfield, California; and from Stateline, Nevada, to Sacramento, California. Union Pacific Railroad has some railroads in the north and in the south. Greyhound Lines provides some bus services. Nighttime on U.S. Route 50 Interstate 15 passes through the southern tip of the state, serving Las Vegas and other communities. I-215 and spur route I-515 also serve the Las Vegas metropolitan area. Interstate 80 crosses through the northern part of Nevada, roughly following the path of the Humboldt River from Utah in the east and passing westward through Reno and into California. It has a spur route, I-580. Nevada also is served by several federal highways: US 6, US 50, US 93, US 95 and US 395. There are also 189 Nevada state highways. Nevada is one of a few states in the U.S. that does not have a continuous interstate highway linking its two major population centers. Even the non-interstate federal highways aren't contiguous between the Las Vegas area and Reno area, though they are well marked by signs showing where to turn. The state is one of just a few in the country that allow semi-trailer trucks with three trailers—what might be called a "road train" in Australia. However, American versions are usually smaller, in part because they must ascend and descend some fairly steep mountain passes. Citizens Area Transit (CAT) is the public transit system in the Las Vegas metropolitan area. The agency is the largest transit agency in the state and operates a network of bus service across the Las Vegas Valley, including the use of double-decker buses on the Las Vegas Strip and several outlying routes. RTC RIDE operates a system of local transit bus service throughout the Reno-Sparks metropolitan area. Other transit systems in the state include Carson City's JAC. Most other counties in the state do not have public transportation at all. Additionally, a four mile monorail system provides public transportation in the Las Vegas area. The Las Vegas Monorail line services several casino properties and the Las Vegas Convention Center on the east side of the Las Vegas Strip, running near Paradise Road, with a possible future extension to McCarran Airport. Several hotels also run their own monorail lines between each other, which are typically several blocks in length. McCarran International Airport in Las Vegas is one of the busiest airports in the nation. The Reno-Tahoe International Airport (formerly known as the Reno Cannon International Airport) is the other major airport in the state. Law and government The current Governor of Nevada is Jim Gibbons (Republican); the governor of Nevada is limited by the Nevada Constitution to two four-year terms in office, by election or succession (lifetime limit). Nevada's two U.S. senators are Harry Reid (Democrat) and John Ensign (Republican). Nevada's three U.S. Representatives are Republican Dean Heller and Democrats Shelley Berkley and Dina Titus. ; Map of Congressional Districts. Legislature A view of the Nevada State Legislative Building in Carson City The Nevada Legislature is a bicameral body divided into an upper house Senate and a lower house Assembly. Members of the Senate serve for four years, and members of the Assembly serve for two years. Both houses of the Nevada Legislature will be impacted by term limits starting in 2010, as Senators and Assemblymen/women will be limited to a maximum of 12 years service in each house (by appointment or election which is a lifetime limit) - this provision in the constitution was recently upheld for legislators by the Supreme Court of Nevada in a unanimous decision (7-0), so term limits will be in effect starting in 2010. Each session of the Legislature meets for a constitutionally mandated 120 days in every odd-numbered year, or longer if the Governor calls a special session. Currently, the Senate is controlled by the Democratic Party (12 to 9 majority) and the Assembly is controlled by the Democratic Party (28 to 14 majority). Judiciary Nevada is one of the few U.S. states without a system of intermediate appellate courts. The state supreme court is the Supreme Court of Nevada. Unlike other state supreme courts, the Supreme Court of Nevada lacks the power of discretionary review, so it must hear all appeals; as a result, Nevada's judicial system is congested. There have been several articles accusing judges in Nevada of making biased or favored decisions as the result of case outcomes and reporting done by the Los Angeles Times newspaper (in which it raised the issue of justice for sale). Original jurisdiction is divided between the District Courts (with general jurisdiction), and Justice Courts and Municipal Courts (both of limited jurisdiction). Libertarian laws The courthouse of the Supreme Court of Nevada In 1900, Nevada's population was the smallest of all states and was shrinking, as the difficulties of living in a "barren desert" began to outweigh the lure of silver for many early settlers. Historian Lawrence Friedman has explained what happened next: "Nevada, in a burst of ingenuity, built an economy by exploiting its sovereignty. Nevada began to legalize or liberalize various institutions in comparison to other states including neighboring California." Prostitution is legal in some parts of Nevada (under the form of licensed brothels). It is, however, illegal in Clark County, which contains Las Vegas; Washoe County, which contains Reno; Carson City; and some other counties. Divorce laws Nevada's early reputation as a "divorce haven" arose from the fact that, prior to the no-fault divorce revolution in the 1970s, divorces were quite difficult to obtain in the United States. Already having legalized gambling and prostitution, Nevada continued the trend of boosting its profile by adopting one of the most liberal divorce statutes in the nation. This resulted in Williams v. North Carolina, , in which the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that North Carolina had to give "full faith and credit" to a Nevada divorce. Tax laws Nevada's tax laws also draw new residents and businesses to the state. Nevada has no personal income tax or corporate income tax. . Incorporation laws Nevada also provides friendly environment for the formation of corporations, and many (especially California) businesspeople have incorporated their businesses in Nevada to take advantage of the benefits of the Nevada statute. Nevada corporations offer great flexibility to the Board of Directors and simplify or avoid many of the rules that are cumbersome to business managers in some other states. In addition, Nevada has no franchise tax. Financial institutions Similarly, many U.S. states have usury laws limiting the amount of interest a lender can charge, but Federal law allows corporations to 'import' these laws from their home state. Nevada (amongst others) has relatively lax interest laws, in effect allowing banks to charge as much as they want, hence the preponderance of credit card companies in the state. Drug and alcohol laws Non-alcohol drug laws are notable exception to Nevada's otherwise libertarian principles. It is notable for having the harshest penalties for drug offenders in the country. Nevada remains the only state to still use mandatory minimum sentencing guidelines for marijuana possession. However, it is now a misdemeanor for possession of less than one ounce but only for persons age 21 and older. In 2006, voters in Nevada defeated attempts to allow possession of 1 ounce of marijuana (for personal use) without being criminally prosecuted, (55% against legalization, 45% in favor of legalization). Also, Nevada is one of the states that allows for use of marijuana for medical reasons (though this remains illegal under federal law). Nevada has very liberal alcohol laws. Bars are permitted to remain open 24 hours, with no "last call". Liquor stores, convenience stores and supermarkets may also sell alcohol 24 hours per day, and may sell beer, wine and spirits. Smoking Nevada voters enacted a smoking ban ("the Nevada Clean Indoor Air Act") in November 2006 that became effective on December 8, 2006. It outlaws smoking in most workplaces and public places. Smoking is permitted in bars, but only if the bar serves no food, or the bar is inside a larger casino. Smoking is also permitted in casinos, hotel rooms, tobacco shops, and brothels. State smoking ban sparks zone-change request for Gardnerville parcel Nevada Appeal serving Carson City, Nevada However, some businesses do not obey this law and the government tends not to enforce it. Have Nevada bars given up the smoking habit? Yet, in one case they did prosecute an establishment called "Bilbo's" but trial is pending until 2008. Las Vegas Now-Breaking News, Local News, Weather, Traffic, Streaming Video, Classifieds, Blogs - UPDATED: Bilbo's Smoking Lawsuit Case Crime Nevada has been ranked as the most dangerous state in the United States for five years in a row . In 2006, the crime rate in Nevada was approximately 24% higher than the national average rate. Property crimes accounted for approximately 84.6% of the crime rate in Nevada which was 21% higher than the national rate. The remaining 20.3% were violent crimes and were approximately 45% higher than other states . In 2008, Nevada had the third highest murder rate, and the highest rate of robbery and motor vehicle theft. It should be noted that many of these statistics may not totally be attributed to the citizens of Nevada themselves, but partially to the high rate of visitors entering and leaving the state as well. Politics + Presidential elections results Year Republican Democratic2008 42.65% 412,827 55.15% 533,736200450.47% 418,690 47.88% 397,190200049.49% 301,575 45.94% 279,9781996 44.55% 198,77545.60% 203,3881992 34.71% 175,82837.41% 189,148198858.90% 206,040 37.91% 132,738 State Politics Due to heavy growth in the southern portion of the state, there is a noticeable divide between politics of northern and southern Nevada. The north has long maintained control of key positions in state government, even while the population of Southern Nevada is larger than the rest of the state combined. The north sees the high population south becoming more influential and perhaps commanding majority rule. The south sees the north as the "old guard" trying to rule as an oligarchy. This has fostered some resentment, however, due to a term limit amendment passed by Nevada voters in 1994, and again in 1996, some of the north's hold over key positions will soon be forfeited to the south, leaving Northern Nevada with less power. Most people outside the state are not familiar with this rivalry. Clark and Washoe counties—home to Las Vegas and Reno, respectively—have long dominated the state's politics. Between them, they cast 87 percent of Nevada's vote, and elect a substantial majority of the state legislature. The great majority of the state's elected officials are either from Las Vegas or Reno. National Politics Nevada has voted for the winner in every presidential election since 1912, except in 1976 when it voted for Gerald Ford over Jimmy Carter. This gives the state status as a political bellwether. As of 2008, 43.8% of voters are registered Democrats, 36.1% are Republican and the remaining 20.1% are considered Independents. http://sos.state.nv.us/elections/voter-reg/2009/0309nvtotage.asp Recently, Nevada supported Democrat Bill Clinton in the 1992 and 1996 presidential elections, Republican George W. Bush won in 2000 and 2004, and Democrat Barack Obama won the state in 2008. The state's U. S. Senators are Democrat Harry Reid, the Senate Majority Leader, and Republican John Ensign, former chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee. The Governorship is held by Jim Gibbons, a Republican from Reno. State departments and agencies: Attorney General Department of Business & Industry Department of Conservation & Natural Resources Consumer Health Assistance Controller's Office Department of Correction Nevada Department of Cultural Affairs Nevada Commission on Economic Development Department of Education Nevada Secretary of State, Election Division Department of Employment, Training & Rehabilitation Gaming Control Board Governor's Office Department of Health and Human Services Department of Information Technology Department of Justice Lieutenant Governor Nevada Military Department Division of Minerals, Commission on Mineral Resources Department of Motor Vehicles Nevada National Guard Department of Personnel Advisory Council for Prosecuting Attorneys Public Employees Benefit Program Public Employees Retirement System Department of Public Safety Public Utilities Commission http://puc.state.nv.us Department of Secretary of State Department of Taxation Commission on Tourism Department of Transportation Nevada State Treasurer Universities and Community Colleges of Nevada Nevada Office of Veterans' Services Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education Nevada Department of Wildlife Local government Incorporated towns in Nevada, known as cities, are vested with home rule powers, meaning that they are given the authority to legislate anything not prohibited by law. Unincorporated towns are settlements eminently governed by the county in which they are located, but who, by local referendum or by the act of the county commission, can form limited local governments in the form of a Town Advisory Board (TAB)/ Citizens Advisory Council (CAC), or a Town Board. Town Advisory Boards and Citizens Advisory Councils are formed purely by act of the county commission. Consisting of three to five members, these elected boards form a purely advisory role, and in no way diminish the responsibilities of the county commission that creates them. Members of advisory councils and boards are elected to two year terms, and serve without compensation. The councils and boards, themselves, are provided no revenue, and oversee no budget. Town Boards are limited local governments created by either the local county commission, or by referendum. The board consists of five members elected to four-year terms. Half the board is required to be up for election in each election. The board elects from within its ranks a town chairperson and town clerk. While more powerful than Town Advisory Boards and Citizens Advisory Councils, they also serve a largely advisory role, with their funding provided by their local county commission. The local county commission has the power to put before residents of the town a vote on whether to keep or dissolve a town board at any general election. Town boards have the ability to appoint a town manager if they choose to do so. Important Cities and Towns Las Vegas Reno Elko Carson City Rank City Population withincity limits Land Area sq. miles PopulationDensity per sq mi County1 Las Vegas 591,536 131.3 4,217.8 Clark2 Henderson 265,790 79.7 2,200.8 Clark3 North Las Vegas 216,672 78.5 1,471.0 Clark4 Reno 214,853 69.1 2,611.4 Washoe5 Sunrise Manor 195,727 38.2 4,081.8 Clark6 Paradise 189,958 47.1 3,947.3 Clark7 Spring Valley 175,581 33.4 3,519.4 Clark8 Sparks 88,518 23.9 2,773.6 Washoe9 Carson City 58,350 143.4 366 Carson City10 Pahrump 44,614 297.9 82.7 Nye Paradise, Sunrise Manor, and Spring Valley are unincorporated towns in the Las Vegas metropolitan area. Rank County Population withincounty limits Land Area sq. miles PopulationDensity per sq mi Largest city1 Clark 1,715,337 7,910 174 Las Vegas2 Washoe 383,453 6,342 54 Reno3 Carson City 56,146 155.7 366 Carson City4 Douglas 47,803 710 58 Gardnerville Ranchos5 Elko 46,499 17,179 3 Elko6 Lyon 44,646 1,994 17 Fernley7 Nye 38,181 18,147 2 Pahrump8 Churchill 26,106 4,929 5 Fallon9 Humboldt 17,129 9,648 2 Winnemucca10 White Pine 8,966 8,876 1 Ely Note: table was compiled using Nevada State estimates from 2004 for population and Census 2000 for area and density 10 richest places in Nevada Ranked by per capita income Incline Village-Crystal Bay $52,521 Washoe County, Nevada Kingsbury $41,421 Douglas County, Nevada Mount Charleston $38,821 Clark County, Nevada Verdi-Mogul $38,233 Washoe County, Nevada Zephyr Cove-Round Hill Village $37,218 Douglas County, Nevada Summerlin South $33,017 Clark County, Nevada Blue Diamond $30,479 Clark County, Nevada Minden $30,405 Douglas County, Nevada Boulder City $29,770 Clark County, Nevada Spanish Springs $26,908 Washoe County, Nevada Education Colleges and universities Nevada System of Higher Education University of Nevada, Reno (UNR) University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV) Nevada State College Truckee Meadows Community College (TMCC) Great Basin College College of Southern Nevada (CSN) Western Nevada College Sierra Nevada College Touro University Nevada University of Southern Nevada Research Institutes Desert Research Institute Mount Charleston Great Basin National Park Valley of Fire State Park Recreation areas maintained by the National Park Service California National Historic Trail Death Valley National Park Great Basin National Park near Baker Lake Mead National Recreation Area Old Spanish National Historic Trail Pony Express National Historic Trail Southern Nevada Ash Meadows National Wildlife Preserve Bootleg Canyon Mountain Bike Park Humboldt-Toiyabe National Forest Mount Charleston and the Mount Charleston Wilderness Spring Mountains and the Spring Mountains National Recreation Area Wilderness There are 68 designated wilderness areas in Nevada, protecting some under the jurisdiction of the National Park Service, U.S. Forest Service, and Bureau of Land Management. Wilderness.net State Parks See: List of Nevada state parks. Sports Although Nevada is not well-known for their professional sports, the state takes pride in college sports, most notably the University of Nevada, Reno Wolf Pack of the Western Athletic Conference and the UNLV Runnin' Rebels of the Mountain West Conference. UNLV is most remembered for their basketball program, which experienced its height of supremacy in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Coached by Jerry Tarkanian, the Runnin' Rebels became one of the most elite programs in the country. In 1990, UNLV won the Men's Division I Championship by defeating Duke University 103–73, which set tournament records for most points scored by a team and largest margin of victory in the national title game. In 1991, UNLV finished the regular season undefeated. Forward Larry Johnson won several awards, including the Naismith Award. UNLV reached the Final Four yet again, but lost their national semifinal against Duke 79-77, and is referred to as one of the biggest upsets in the NCAA Tournament. The Runnin' Rebels were the Associated Press pre-season #1 back to back (1989–90, 1990–91). North Carolina is the only other team to accomplish that (2007-08, 2008-09). Complete List of Nevada sports teams. Las Vegas 51s, Minor League Baseball Las Vegas Wranglers, East Coast Hockey League Battle Born Derby Deamons, Roller Derby Reno Aces, Minor League Baseball Reno Bighorns, NBA D-League Reno Silver Sox, Golden Baseball League Reno Raiders, ECHL Las Vegas Posse, Canadian Football League (defunct) Las Vegas Outlaws, XFL (defunct) UNLV Rebels Nevada Wolf Pack, UNR Las Vegas Motor Speedway Miscellaneous topics Nevada's nicknames are "Sagebrush State, "Battle Born State", and "Silver State", and the state's motto is "All for Our Country". 'Home Means Nevada by Bertha Raffetto is the state song. The phrase "Battle Born" is on the state flag; "The Battle Born State" is the official state slogan, as Nevada was admitted into the union during the American Civil War. Several United States Navy ships have been named USS Nevada in honor of the state. The one that preceded the ship that was at Pearl Harbor was eventually renamed USS Tonopah, for the Nevada city Nevada is home to Nellis Air Force Base, a major testing and training base of the United States Air Force. Nellis is reputedly the home of Area 51, a top-secret installation of the Federal Government. Area 51 is located near Groom Lake a dry salt lake bed. Some time ago, the United States Air Force confirmed that there is an operating facility at Groom Lake, but the nature of the activities being conducted at Groom Lake are classified and cannot be disclosed. The much smaller Creech Air Force Base is located in Indian Springs, Nevada and can be seen on the right side of US 95 when entering the town. The paranormal radio talk show host Art Bell lives in Pahrump. In the Finnish language, there is a very well known concept "huitsin Nevada", which refers to some far away place in spoken language (in a same way as a saying "from here to Timbuktu"). The origin and history of the saying is unknown. "Nevada" refers to the name of this U.S. state and "huitsin" is a slang word meaning "very" or "utter". Songs about Nevada Sands of Nevada from Mark Knopfler's 2000 release Sailing to Philadelphia Darcy Farrow Sin City from AC/DC's Powerage album Sin City from Limbeck's 2005 release Let Me Come Home Home Means Nevada, the state song of Nevada, by Bertha Rafetto Future Issues Nevada enjoys many economic advantages as a whole, and the southern portion of the state enjoys mild winter weather, but rapid growth has led to issues of overcrowded schools. Nevada is already home to the nation's 5th largest school district in the Clark County School District (projected fall 2007 enrollment is 314,000 students grades K-12), the state has seen rising crime levels, and problems with transportation (according to state figures, there is a 1 billion dollar shortfall in funds for road construction projects in Nevada). Most recently, there has been news of water shortfalls in southern Nevada in the years to come, due to the population increase, and the Southern Nevada Water Authority estimates that there will be water shortages by the year 2020. The authority is working on plans to import water from the low populated area of northern Nevada. The state remains one of the fastest growing in the country. The residents of the communities in the Las Vegas Valley pay some of the highest car insurance rates in the nation. Some residents of the town of Wendover, Utah have expressed interest in being annex by the state of Nevada so the town may merged with West Wendover, Nevada. There has also been interest by Needles, California in being annex. These deals will require the permissions of the Nevada and Utah/California legislatures, respectively, as well as the approval of the U.S. Congress. In 2008, the "American State Litter Scorecard," presented at the American Society for Public Administration national conference, positioned Nevada next to Mississippi and Louisiana as one of the worst states for removing litter from public roadways and properties. S. Spacek, The American State Litter Scorecard" March 2008 Recently, an economic downturn due to the housing market collapse in Las Vegas (which has one of the highest home foreclosure rates in the nation), coupled with many months of declining gaming revenue and higher prices for gasoline and consumer goods has caused a 1.2 billion dollar shortfall in the state budget (which is required by the constitution to be balanced), and has caused Nevada to dip into its rainy day fund of $267 million. In August 2008, it was announced that Boyd Gaming would halt construction on a 4.2 billion dollar project called Echelon, which was to replace the old Stardust Hotel & Casino. The reason cited for this is lack of funding/credit from banks. State symbols |Playa areas of Nevada State animal: Desert Bighorn Sheep State artifact: Tule Duck Decoy State bird: Mountain Bluebird State colors: Silver and Blue State fish: Lahontan cutthroat trout State flower: Sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) State fossil: Ichthyosaur State grass: Indian ricegrass State march: "Silver State Fanfare" by Gerald Willis State metal: Silver (Ag) State motto: "Battle Born" State precious gemstone: Virgin Valley black fire opal State semiprecious gemstone: Nevada turquoise State song: "Home Means Nevada" by Bertha Raffetto State reptile: Desert Tortoise State rock: Sandstone State soil: Orovada (soil) series State tartan: A particular tartan designed for Nevada by Richard Zygmunt Pawlowski State trees: Single-leaf Pinyon pine and Bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) See also Index of Nevada-related articles References External links Official state website State Domain Registry website Nevada State Databases - Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Nevada state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association. State Tourism website Nevada state symbols Secretary of State of Nevada Nevada State Library and Archives Energy Profile for Nevada USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Nevada US Census Bureau County Maps of Nevada Full color maps. List of cities, towns and county seats Nevada State Facts Pronunciation Guide: Nevada Forgotten Nevada - Ghost Towns and Mining Camps of Nevada Nevada's Historical Markers Related information be-x-old:Нэвада | Nevada |@lemmatized nevada:211 state:159 locate:7 western:5 region:1 united:8 capital:1 carson:14 city:26 large:14 las:16 vega:44 nickname:2 silver:13 due:10 number:3 deposit:3 discover:1 mine:9 become:7 enter:3 union:7 phrase:2 battle:6 born:4 flag:2 reflect:1 entry:1 side:4 american:18 civil:3 war:5 first:3 settlement:2 call:7 mormon:7 station:1 seventh:1 area:40 geographically:1 cover:3 mojave:3 desert:13 south:10 great:9 basin:7 north:12 approximately:6 land:7 u:26 federal:8 government:11 various:2 jurisdiction:6 civilian:1 military:2 million:6 resident:12 population:30 reside:1 metropolitan:9 la:36 reno:25 popul:1 county:56 incorp:1 time:6 series:2 email:1 xls:1 well:8 know:7 easy:1 marriage:1 divorce:7 proceeding:1 entertainment:1 legalize:7 gambling:7 active:1 brothel:4 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6,595 | Malvales | Hibiscus moscheutos Malvales is the name of an order of flowering plants. As circumscribed by APG II-system, it includes about 6000 species within nine families. The order is placed in the eurosids II, which are part of the eudicots. The plants are mostly shrubs and trees; most of its families have a cosmopolitan distribution in the tropics and subtropics with limited expansion into temperate regions. An interesting distribution occurs in Madagascar, where there are three endemic families of Malvales (Sphaerosepalaceae, Sarcolaenaceae and Diegodendraceae). Many species of Malvaceae s.l. are known for their wood, with that of Ochroma (balsa) being known for its lightness, and that of Tilia (lime or linden) as a popular wood for carving. The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao) is used as an ingredient for chocolate. Kola nuts (genus Cola) are notable for their high content of caffeine, and in past were commonly used for preparing of various cola drinks. Other well-known members of Malvales in the APG II sense are daphnes, hibiscus, hollyhocks, okra, baobab trees, cotton, and kapok. The morphology of Malvales is diverse, and there are few common characteristics. Among those most commonly encountered are palmate leaves, connate sepals, and a specific structure and chemical composition of the seeds. The cortex is often fibrous, built of soft phloem layers. Families (APG system) Bixaceae Cistaceae Cochlospermaceae Cytinaceae Nickrent, Daniel L. "Cytinaceae are sister to Muntingiaceae (Malvales)", Taxon 56 (4): 1129-1135 (2007) (abstract) Diegodendraceae Dipterocarpaceae Malvaceae Muntingiaceae Neuradaceae Sarcolaenaceae Sphaerosepalaceae Thymelaeaceae Classification Family boundaries and circumscriptions of the "core Malvales" families Malvaceae, Bombacaceae, Tiliaceae, and Sterculiaceae have long been problematic. A close relationship among these families, and particularly Malvaceae and Bombacaceae, has generally been recognized although until recently most classification systems have maintained them as separate families. With numerous molecular phylogenies showing that Sterculiaceae, Bombacaceae, and Tiliaceae as traditionally defined are either paraphyletic or polyphyletic, a consensus has been emerging that there has been a trend to expand Malvaceae to include these three families. This expanded circumscription of Malvaceae has been recognized in the most recent version of the Thorne system, by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, and in the most recent comprehensive treatment of vascular plant families and genera, the Kubitzki system (Bayer and Kubitzki, 2003). The dominant family in the APG II-system is the extended Malvaceae (Malvaceae sensu lato) with over 4000 species, followed by Thymelaeaceae with 750 species. This expanded circumscription of Malvaceae is taken to include the families Bombacaceae, Sterculiaceae and Tiliaceae. Under the older Cronquist system the order contained these four "core Malvales" families plus the Elaeocarpaceae and was placed among the Dilleniidae. Some of the currently included families were placed by Cronquist in the Violales. References Alverson, W. S., K. G. Karol, D. A. Baum, M. W. Chase, S. M. Swensen, R. McCourt, and K. J. Sytsma (1998). Circumscription of the Malvales and relationships to other Rosidae: Evidence from rbcL sequence data. American Journal of Botany 85, 876-887. (Available online: Abstract) Bayer, C. and K. Kubitzki. 2003. Malvaceae, pp. 225-311. In K. Kubitzki (ed.), The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, vol. 5, Malvales, Capparales and non-betalain Caryophyllales. Edlin, H. L. 1935. A critical revision of certain taxonomic groups of the Malvales. New Phytologist 34: 1-20, 122-143. Judd, W.S., C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition. pp. 405-410 (Malvales). Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0-87893-403-0. Kubitzki, K. and M. W. Chase. 2003. Introduction to Malvales, pp. 12- 16. In K. Kubitzki (ed.), The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, vol. 5, Malvales, Capparales and non-betalain Caryophyllales. du Mortier, B. C. J. (1829). Analyse des Familles de Plantes, avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent, p. 43. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay. Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M. J. (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. http://delta-intkey.com Whitlock, B. A. (October 2001). Malvales (Mallow). In: Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. Nature Publishing Group, London. (Available online: DOI | ELS site) External links Tree of Life Malvales | Malvales |@lemmatized hibiscus:2 moscheutos:1 malvales:15 name:1 order:3 flower:2 plant:7 circumscribe:1 apg:4 ii:4 system:7 include:4 specie:4 within:1 nine:1 family:17 place:3 eurosids:1 part:1 eudicots:1 mostly:1 shrubs:1 tree:4 cosmopolitan:1 distribution:2 tropic:1 subtropics:1 limited:1 expansion:1 temperate:1 region:1 interesting:1 occur:1 madagascar:1 three:2 endemic:1 sphaerosepalaceae:2 sarcolaenaceae:2 diegodendraceae:2 many:1 malvaceae:10 l:5 know:3 wood:2 ochroma:1 balsa:1 lightness:1 tilia:1 lime:1 linden:1 popular:1 carve:1 cacao:2 theobroma:1 use:2 ingredient:1 chocolate:1 kola:1 nut:1 genus:4 cola:2 notable:1 high:1 content:1 caffeine:1 past:1 commonly:2 prepare:1 various:1 drink:1 well:1 member:1 sense:1 daphne:1 hollyhock:1 okra:1 baobab:1 cotton:1 kapok:1 morphology:1 diverse:1 common:1 characteristic:1 among:3 encounter:1 palmate:1 leaf:1 connate:1 sepal:1 specific:1 structure:1 chemical:1 composition:1 seed:1 cortex:1 often:1 fibrous:1 build:1 soft:1 phloem:1 layer:1 bixaceae:1 cistaceae:1 cochlospermaceae:1 cytinaceae:2 nickrent:1 daniel:1 sister:1 muntingiaceae:2 taxon:1 abstract:2 dipterocarpaceae:1 neuradaceae:1 thymelaeaceae:2 classification:2 boundary:1 circumscription:4 core:2 bombacaceae:4 tiliaceae:3 sterculiaceae:3 long:1 problematic:1 close:1 relationship:2 particularly:1 generally:1 recognize:2 although:1 recently:1 maintain:1 separate:1 numerous:1 molecular:1 phylogeny:2 show:1 traditionally:1 define:1 either:1 paraphyletic:1 polyphyletic:1 consensus:1 emerge:1 trend:1 expand:1 expanded:2 recent:2 version:1 thorne:1 angiosperm:1 group:3 comprehensive:1 treatment:1 vascular:3 kubitzki:6 bayer:2 dominant:1 extended:1 sensu:1 lato:1 follow:1 take:1 old:1 cronquist:2 contain:1 four:1 plus:1 elaeocarpaceae:1 dilleniidae:1 currently:1 violales:1 reference:1 alverson:1 w:4 k:6 g:1 karol:1 baum:1 chase:2 swensen:1 r:1 mccourt:1 j:5 sytsma:1 rosidae:1 evidence:1 rbcl:1 sequence:1 data:1 american:1 journal:1 botany:1 available:2 online:2 c:3 pp:3 ed:2 vol:2 capparales:2 non:2 betalain:2 caryophyllales:2 edlin:1 h:1 critical:1 revision:1 certain:1 taxonomic:1 new:1 phytologist:1 judd:1 campbell:1 e:1 kellogg:1 p:2 f:1 stevens:1 donoghue:1 systematics:1 phylogenetic:1 approach:1 edition:1 sinauer:1 associate:1 sunderland:1 massachusetts:1 isbn:1 introduction:1 du:1 mortier:1 b:2 analyse:1 de:4 familles:1 plantes:1 avec:1 indication:1 principaux:1 genre:1 qui:1 rattachent:1 imprimerie:1 casterman:1 tournay:1 watson:1 dallwitz:1 onwards:1 description:1 illustration:1 identification:1 information:1 retrieval:1 http:1 delta:1 intkey:1 com:1 whitlock:1 october:1 mallow:1 nature:2 encyclopedia:1 life:2 science:1 publish:1 london:1 doi:1 el:1 site:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram cacao_tree:1 kola_nut:1 molecular_phylogeny:1 angiosperm_phylogeny:1 vascular_plant:3 sensu_lato:1 donoghue_plant:1 systematics_phylogenetic:1 sinauer_associate:1 sunderland_massachusetts:1 de_familles:1 familles_de:1 information_retrieval:1 external_link:1 |
6,596 | John_Churchill,_1st_Duke_of_Marlborough | John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough KG (26 May 1650 – 16 June 1722) (O.S) All dates in the article are relating to Britain are Old Style (meaning Julian calendar with 1 January as the start of the year). Events on the Continent are given as New Style (meaning Gregorian calendar). Old Style dates were 10 days behind in the 17th century; from 1700 the difference became 11 days. Thus, the Battle of Blenheim is 13 August N.S or 2 August O.S. was an English soldier and statesman whose career spanned the reigns of five monarchs throughout the late 17th and early 18th centuries. His rise to prominence began as a lowly page in the royal court of Stuart England, but his natural courage on the field of battle soon ensured quick promotion and recognition from his master and mentor James, Duke of York. When James became king in 1685, Churchill played a major role in crushing the Duke of Monmouth's rebellion; but just three years later, Churchill abandoned his Catholic king for the Protestant William of Orange. Honoured at William's coronation, Churchill, now the Earl of Marlborough (pronounced /ʼmɔːl.bɹə/), served with distinction in Ireland and Flanders during the Nine Years' War. However, throughout the reign of William and Mary, their relationship with Marlborough and his influential wife Sarah, remained cool. After damaging allegations of collusion with the exiled court of King James, Marlborough was dismissed from all civil and military offices and temporarily imprisoned in the Tower of London. Only after the death of Mary, and the threat of another major European war, did Marlborough return to favour with William. Marlborough's influence at court reached its zenith with the accession of Sarah's close friend Queen Anne. Promoted to Captain-General of British forces, and later to a dukedom, Marlborough found international fame in the War of the Spanish Succession where, on the fields of Blenheim, Ramillies and Oudenarde, his place in history as one of Europe's great generals was assured. However, when his wife fell from royal grace as Queen Anne's favourite, the Tories, determined on peace with France, pressed for his downfall. Marlborough was dismissed from all civil and military offices on charges of embezzlement, but the Duke eventually regained favour with the accession of George I in 1714. Although returned to his former offices, the Duke's health soon deteriorated and, after a series of strokes, he eventually succumbed to his illness in his bed at Windsor Lodge on 16 June 1722. Early life (1650–78) Ashe House At the end of the English Civil War, Lady Eleanor Drake was joined at her Devon home, Ashe House, by her third daughter Elizabeth, and Elizabeth's husband, Winston Churchill. Unlike his mother-in-law, who had supported the Parliamentary cause, Winston had had the misfortune of fighting on the losing side of the war for which he, like so many other cavaliers, was forced to pay recompense; in his case £446 18s. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 27. Churchill insists that the often recorded fine of £4446 18s was a misprint in Hutchin’s History of Dorset, 1774. This huge figure was subsequently, and erroneously repeated by other Marlborough biographers including Coxe. This severe fine had impoverished the ex-Royalist cavalry captain whose motto Fiel Pero Desdichado (Faithful but Unfortunate) is still today used by his descendants. The Duke of Marlborough's genealogy. With no surviving male heir, Henrietta became the 2nd Duchess of Marlborough. On her death in 1733, Anne's son Charles became the 3rd Duke of Marlborough. Elizabeth gave birth to 12 children, only five of whom survived infancy. The eldest daughter, Arabella was born in February 1649; the eldest son, John, was born the following year on 26 May 1650 (O.S). Growing up in these impoverished conditions, with family tensions soured by conflicting allegiances, may have had a lasting impression on the young Churchill. His father's namesake, and John Churchill's biographer, Sir Winston Churchill, asserted – "[The conditions at Ashe] might well have aroused in his mind two prevailing impressions: First a hatred of poverty … and secondly, the need of hiding thoughts and feelings from those to whom their expression would be repugnant." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 31 After the Restoration of King Charles II in 1660 his father's fortunes took a turn for the better, although he remained far from prosperous. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 60 In 1661, Winston became Member of Parliament for Weymouth, and as a mark of Royal favour he also received rewards for losses incurred fighting Parliament during the civil war, including the appointment as a Commissioner for Irish Land Claims in Dublin in 1662. While in Ireland, John attended the Dublin Free School, but a year later, after his father was recalled to take up the position of Junior Clerk Comptroller of the King's Household at Whitehall, his studies were transferred to St Paul's School in London. Charles' own penury, however, meant the old cavaliers received scant financial reward, but what the prodigal king could offer – which would cost him nothing – were positions at court for their progeny. So it was that in 1665, Winston Churchill's eldest daughter, Arabella, became Maid of Honour to Anne Hyde, the Duchess of York, joined some months later by her brother John, as page to her husband, James. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 5 Arabella later became one of the Duke of York's mistresses. Early military experience James, Duke of York's passion for all things naval and military rubbed off on young Churchill. Often accompanying the Duke inspecting the troops in the royal parks, it was not long before the boy had set his heart on becoming a soldier himself. Coxe: Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough, vol.i p. 2 On 14 September 1667 (O.S), he obtained a commission as ensign in the King's Own Company in the 1st Guards, later to become the Grenadier Guards. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 6 His career was further advanced when in 1668, Churchill sailed for the North African outpost of Tangier, recently acquired as part of the dowry of Charles' Portuguese wife, Catherine of Braganza. In a rude contrast to life at court, Churchill stayed here for three years, gaining first-class tactical training and field experience skirmishing with the Moors. Although details of this period are sketchy, it is surmised that in 1670 he also served aboard ship in the naval blockade of the Barbary pirate-den of Algiers. Back in London by February 1671, Churchill's handsome features and manner – described by Lord Chesterfield as "irresistible to either man or woman" – had soon attracted the ravenous attentions of one of the King's most noteworthy mistresses, Barbara Villiers, Duchess of Cleveland. Hibbert The Marlboroughs, p. 7. Churchill was 20, she was 29 when they became lovers. But his liaisons with the insatiable temptress were indeed dangerous. One account has it that upon His Majesty's appearance, Churchill leapt out of his lover's bed and hid in the cupboard, but the King, himself wily in such matters, soon discovered young Churchill who promptly fell to his knees – "You are a rascal," said the King, "but I forgive you because you do it to get your bread." Churchill was known to be cautious with money: when the Duchess gave him a large sum, instead of gambling as many other young men tended to do, he invested it wisely. The incident with the King may be apocryphal (another version has Churchill jumping out of the window), but it is widely accepted that he was the father of Cleveland's last daughter born on July 16, 1672. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 60. (O.S). Battle of Solebay by Willem van de Velde the Younger. Churchill here learned the uncertainties and hazards of naval warfare. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 40 A year later Churchill went to sea again. Whilst fighting the Dutch navy at the Battle of Solebay off the Suffolk coast in June 1672, valorous conduct aboard the Duke of York's flagship, the Prince, earned Churchill promotion (above the resentful heads of more senior officers) to a captaincy in the Lord High Admiral's Regiment. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs p. 9 The following year Churchill gained a further commendation at the Siege of Maastricht when the young captain distinguished himself as part of the 30-man forlorn hope, successfully capturing and defending part of the fortress. During this incident Churchill is credited with saving the Duke of Monmouth's life, receiving a slight wound in the process but gaining further praise from a grateful House of Stuart, as well as recognition from the House of Bourbon. King Louis XIV in person commended the deed, from which time forward bore Churchill an enviable reputation for physical courage, as well as earning the high regard of the common soldier. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 7 Although King Charles' anti-French Parliament had forced England to withdraw from the Franco-Dutch War in 1674, some English regiments remained in French service. In April Churchill was appointed to the colonelcy of one such regiment, thereafter serving with, and learning from, the great Marshal Turenne from whom, in Thomas Macaulay's words, he received 'many marks of esteem and confidence'. Macaulay: The History of England, p.82 Churchill was present at the hard-fought battles of Sinzheim and Entzheim; he may also have been present at Sasbach in June 1675, where Turenne was killed. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 8 Marriage Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, c.1700 by Sir Godfrey Kneller. Gregg: Queen Anne On his return to St James' Palace, Churchill's attention was drawn towards other matters, and to a fresh face at court. "I beg you will let me see you as often as you can," pleaded Churchill in a letter to Sarah Jennings, "which I am sure you ought to do if you care for my love … " Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 13 Sarah Jennings' social origins were in many ways similar to Churchill's – minor gentry blighted by debt-induced poverty. After her father died when she was eight, Sarah, together with her mother and sisters, moved to London. As Royalist supporters, the Jennings' loyalty to the crown, like the Churchill's, was repaid with court employment – by 1673, Sarah had become a Maid of Honour to the Duchess of York, Mary of Modena, second wife to James, Duke of York. Field: The Favourite: Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough, p. 8 Sarah was about fifteen when Churchill returned from the Continent in 1675, and he appears to have been almost immediately captivated by her charms and not inconsiderable good looks. But Churchill's amorous, almost abject, missives of devotion were, it seems, received with suspicion and accusations of incredulity – his first lover, Barbara Villiers, was just moving her household to Paris, feeding doubts that he may well have been looking at Sarah as a replacement mistress rather than a fiancée. Field: The Favourite: Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough, p. 23 "You say I pretend passion for you," protested Churchill … "I cannot imagine what you mean by it." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 14 However, his persistent courtship over the coming months eventually won over the beautiful, if relatively poor, Maid of Honour. Although Sir Winston wished his son to marry the wealthy Catherine Sedley (if only to ease his own burden of debt), Colonel Churchill married Sarah secretly sometime in the winter of 1677–78, possibly in the apartments of the Duchess of York. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 129 Years of crises (1678–1700) Diplomatic service It was not long before Churchill was awarded his first important diplomatic mission to the Continent. Accompanied by his friend and rising politician, Sidney Godolphin, Churchill was assigned to negotiate a treaty in The Hague with the Dutch and Spanish in preparation for war – this time against France. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 18 The young diplomat's essay in international statecraft proved personally successful, bringing him into contact with William, Prince of Orange, who was highly impressed by the shrewdness and courtesy of Churchill's negotiating skills. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 43 The assignment had helped Churchill develop a breadth of experience that other mere soldiers were never to achieve, but because of the duplicitous dealings of Charles's secret negotiations with Louis XIV (Charles had no intention of waging war against France), the mission ultimately proved abortive. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 10. On his return to England, Churchill was appointed temporary rank of Brigadier-General of Foot, but hopes of promised action on the Continent proved illusory as the warring factions sued for peace and signed the Treaty of Nijmegen. A later painting of The Marlborough family by John Closterman. On the Duke's left are Elizabeth, Mary, the Duchess, Henrietta, Anne and John. When Churchill returned to England at the end of 1678 he found grievous changes in English society. The iniquities of the Popish Plot (Titus Oates' fabricated conspiracy aimed at excluding the Catholic Duke of York from the English accession), meant temporary banishment for James – an exile that would last nearly three years. Churchill was obliged to attend his master – who in due course was permitted to move to Scotland – but it was not until 1682, after Charles's complete victory over the exclusionists, that the Duke of York was allowed to return to London and Churchill's career could again prosper. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 24. During his time in Scotland, Churchill was dispatched on various important diplomatic missions. His personal successes led to talk of him becoming British minister at The Hague. For his services to James, Churchill was made Baron Churchill of Eyemouth in the peerage of Scotland on 21 December 1682, and the following year appointed colonel of the King's Own Royal Regiment of Dragoons. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 164 The Churchills now combined income ensured a life of some style and comfort; as well as maintaining their residence in London (staffed with seven servants), they were also able to purchase Holywell House in St Albans where their growing family could enjoy the benefits of country life, but they were soon drawn back to court. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 27 In July 1683 Colonel Churchill was sent to the Continent to conduct Prince George of Denmark to England for his arranged marriage to the 18-year-old Princess Anne. Anne lost no time in appointing Sarah – of whom she had been passionately fond since childhood – one of her Ladies of the Bedchamber. Their relationship continued to blossom, so much so that years later Sarah wrote – "To see [me] was a constant joy; and to part with [me] for never so short a time, a constant uneasiness … This worked even to the jealousy of a lover." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 28 For his part, Churchill treated the princess with respectful affection and grew genuinely attached to her, assuming – in his reverence to royalty – the chivalrous role of a knightly champion. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 135 From this time forward the Churchills were increasingly detached from James's inner circle and more noticeably associated with Anne, the Duke's younger daughter. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p.179 Monmouth's execution on Tower Hill, 15 July 1685 (O.S). Other rebels, including Daniel Defoe, were more fortunate and managed to escape. Rebellion With the death of King Charles in 1685, his brother, James, Duke of York became King James II. Urged on by malcontents and various Whig conspirators (exiled for their part in the failed Rye House plot), the illegitimate son of Charles and Lucy Walter, James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth, prepared to take what he considered rightfully his – the Protestant crown of England. Monmouth landed at Lyme Regis on 11 June (O.S). Churchill had earlier been affirmed Gentleman of the King's Bedchamber in April, and the following month admitted to the English peerage as Baron Churchill of Sandridge in the county of Hertfordshire, but he was frustrated with his appointment as second in command to face Monmouth's rebels; the honour of leading the King’s forces instead passed to the limited, but highly loyal, Louis de Duras, 2nd Earl of Feversham. Unaware that he had just been promoted to Major-General on 3 July (O.S), Churchill complained to Lord Clarendon, "I see plainly that the trouble is mine, and that the honour will be another's." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 188 Monmouth's ill-timed, ill-equipped, and ill-advised peasant rebellion eventually floundered on the Somerset field of Sedgemoor on 6 July 1685 (O.S), but although his role was subordinate to Feversham, Churchill's administrative organisation, tactical skill, and courage in battle was pivotal in the victory – the man who saved Monmouth's life at Maastricht had now brought about his demise at Sedgemoor. As prophesised, Feversham received the lion's share of the reward. Churchill was not entirely forgotten – in August he was awarded the lucrative colonelcy of the Third Troop of Life Guards – but the witch-hunt that followed the rebellion, driven by the bloodthirsty zeal of Judge Jeffreys, sickened his sense of propriety. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 22. Churchill played no part in the aftermath of slaughter. Indeed, it may be possible that the Sedgemoor campaign, and its subsequent persecutions, set in train a process of disillusion that culminated in his abandonment of his king, and long-time patron and friend, just three short years later. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 21 Revolution John Churchill in his thirties, attributed to John Riley. The Star of the Order of the Garter was added after 1707. Churchill remained at court, but was anxious not to be seen as sympathetic towards the King's growing religious ardour against the Protestant establishment. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 36 James's promotion of Catholics in royal institutions – including the army – engendered first suspicion, and ultimately sedition in his mainly Protestant subjects; even members of his own family expressed alarm at the King's fanatic zeal for the Roman Catholic religion. Coxe: Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough, vol. i, p. 18 Some in the King's service, such as the Earl of Salisbury and the Earl of Melfort betrayed their Protestant upbringing in order to gain favour at court, but Churchill remained true to his conscience, "I have been bred a Protestant, and intend to live and die in that communion." Coxe: Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough, vol. i, p. 20 Seven men met to draft the invitation to William (whose wife, Mary, was another of James's daughters), to invade England. The signatories to the letter included Whigs, Tories, and a Bishop (Henry Compton), who assured the Prince of Orange that, "Nineteen parts of twenty of the people ... are desirous of change." Miller: James II, p. 187 William needed no further encouragement. Although the invitation was not signed by Churchill (he was not, as yet, of significant political rank to be a signatory), he declared his intention through William's principal English contact in The Hague – "If you think there is anything else that I ought to do, you have but to command me." Churchill: Marlbrough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 240 Churchill, like many others, was looking for an opportune time to desert James. William landed at Torbay on 5 November 1688 (O.S); from there, he moved his army to Exeter. James' forces – once again commanded by Lord Feversham – moved to Salisbury, but few of its officers were eager to fight – even James's daughter Princess Anne wrote to William to wish him "good success in this so just an undertaking." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 41 Churchill, promoted to Lieutenant-General, was still at his king's side, but displaying "the greatest transports of joy imaginable" at the desertion of Lord Cornbury, led to entreaties from Feversham for his arrest. Churchill himself had openly encouraged defection to the Orangist cause, but James continued to hesitate. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 24 Soon it was too late to act. After the meeting of the council of war on the morning of 23 November (O.S), Churchill, accompanied by some 400 officers and men, slipped from the royal camp and rode towards William in Axminster. The following day, Churchill left behind him a letter of apology and self-justification: " ... I hope ... [I] may reasonably convince Your Majesty and the world that I am actuated by a higher principle ..." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 263 When the King saw he could not even keep Churchill, for so long his loyal and intimate servant, he despaired. James, who in the words of one French contemporary, had "given up three kingdoms for a Mass", fled to France, taking with him his heir, James, Prince of Wales (later known as "The Old Pretender"). With barely a shot fired, William had secured the throne, reigning as joint sovereign with James' eldest daughter, Mary. Nine Years War In April 1689, as part of William's coronation honours, Churchill was created Earl of Marlborough. His elevation in the peerage led to accusatory rumours from James's supporters that Marlborough had disgracefully betrayed his erstwhile King for personal gain; William himself entertained reservations about the man who had deserted James. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 46 Marlborough's apologists though (including his most notable descendant Winston Churchill) have been at pains to attribute patriotic, religious, and moral motives to his action, but, in the words of historian David Chandler, it must be plainly asserted that Marlborough was also motivated by ambition and self-interest – it is difficult to absolve Marlborough of ruthlessness, ingratitude, intrigue, and treachery against a man to whom he owed virtually everything in his life and career to date. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 25. Less than six months after James' departure for the Continent, England declared war on France as part of a powerful coalition aimed at curtailing the ambitions of King Louis XIV; but throughout the Nine Years War (1688–97), Marlborough saw only three years' service in the field, and then mostly in subordinate commands. However, at Walcourt on 25 August 1689 Marlborough won praise from the Dutch commander, Prince Waldeck, – " … despite his youth he displayed greater military capacity than do most generals after a long series of wars … He is assuredly one of the most gallant men I know." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 48 Princess Anne c.1690 by Michael Dahl. When he returned to England, Marlborough was presented with further opportunities. As commander-in-chief of the forces in England he became highly knowledgeable of all the intricacies and illogicalities of the English military system, and played a major role in its reorganisation and recruitment; but since Walcourt, Marlborough's popularity at court had waned. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 35 William and Mary distrusted both Lord and Lady Marlborough's influence as confidents and supporters of the Princess; so much so that a resentful Mary asked her sister to choose between herself and the King on the one hand, and the Marlboroughs on the other – unhesitantly, Anne chose the latter. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 137: Anne wished to have her own Civil List income granted by Parliament, rather than a grant from the Privy Purse, which meant reliance on William. In this, and other matters, Anne was supported by Sarah. For the moment though, the clash of tempers were over-shadowed by more pressing events in Ireland, where James had landed in March 1689 in his attempt to regain his throne. When William left for Ireland in June 1690, Marlborough was appointed a member of the Council of Nine to advise Queen Mary in the King's absence, but she made scant effort to disguise her distaste at his appointment – "I can neither trust or esteem him," she wrote to William. William's decisive victory at the Boyne on 1 July 1690 (O.S) had forced James to abandon his army and flee back to France. After obtaining permission from William, Marlborough himself left for Ireland, capturing the ports of Cork and Kinsale in October, but he was to be disappointed in his hopes of an independent command. Although William recognised Marlborough's qualities as a soldier, he was still not disposed to fully trust anyone who had defected from King James, and loath to advance a career of a man whom he described to Lord Halifax as 'very assuming'. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 50 Dismissal and disgrace William's bias towards Dutchmen for positions of high authority angered the English officers in the army, including Marlborough. The refusal of the Order of the Garter and failure to appoint him Master-General of the Ordnance, rankled with the ambitious Earl; nor had Marlborough concealed his bitter disappointment behind his usual bland discretion. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 22. Godert de Ginkell, remained in command in Ireland while Waldeck, who had been severely beaten by the duc de Luxembourg at Fleurus in July 1690, continued in charge of the allied army on the Continent. Using his influence in Parliament and the army, Marlborough aroused dissatisfaction concerning William's preferences for foreign commanders, an exercise designed to force the King's hand. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 46: William's Dutch friend, William, aware of this, in turn began to speak openly of his distrust of Marlborough; the Elector of Brandenburg's envoy to London overheard the King remark that he had been treated – "so infamously by Marlborough that, had he not been king, he would have felt it necessary to challenge him to a duel." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 57 King James, exiled in Saint-Germain, maintained contact with his supporters in England whose principal object was to re-establish James upon his throne. Since January 1691, Marlborough had been in contact with James, anxious to obtain the exiled King's pardon for deserting him in 1688 – a pardon essential for the success of his future career in the not altogether unlikely event of James' restoration. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 327 William was well aware of these contacts (as well as others such as Godolphin and Shrewsbury), but their double-dealing was seen more in the nature of an insurance policy, rather than as an explicit commitment – a necessary element in a situation of unexampled complexity. Churchill: A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution, p. 11. But William was conscious of Marlborough's qualities, military and political, and the danger the Earl posed, "William was not prone to fear," wrote Macaulay, "but if there was anyone on earth that he feared, it was Marlborough." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 341 Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, Lord Treasurer, Chief Minister and fellow Tory friend of Marlborough. By the time William and Marlborough had returned from an uneventful campaign in the Spanish Netherlands in October 1691, their relationship had further deteriorated. In January 1692, the Queen, angered by Marlborough's intrigues in Parliament, the army, and even with Saint Germain, ordered Anne to dismiss Sarah from her household – Anne refused. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 343 The next day, on 20 January (O.S), the Earl of Nottingham, Secretary of State, ordered Marlborough to dispose of all his posts and offices, both civil and military, and consider himself dismissed from the army and banned from court. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 137: Queen Mary also demanded Anne should dismiss Sarah, which she refused to do. No reasons were given but Marlborough's chief associates were outraged; the Duke of Shrewsbury voiced his disapproval and Godolphin threatened to retire from government; Admiral Russell, now commander-in-chief of the Navy personally accused the King of ingratitude to the man who had "set the crown upon his head." Churchill: A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution, p. 12: John Childs in his British Army of William III, p. 63, states that the most serious misdemeanour in the eyes of William was his "role in alienating the British army officer corps from the Dutch and German generals." High treason The nadir of Marlborough's fortunes had not yet been reached. The spring of 1692 brought renewed threats of a French invasion and new accusations of Jacobite treachery. Acting on the testimony of Robert Young, the Queen had arrested all the signatories to a letter supporting the restoration of James II and the seizure of King William. Marlborough, as one of these signatories was sent to the Tower of London on 4 May (O.S) where he languished for five weeks; his anguish compounded by the news of the death of his younger son Charles on 22 May (O.S). Young's letters were eventually discredited as forgeries and Marlborough released, but he continued his correspondence with James, leading to the celebrated incident of the "Camaret Bay letter" of 1694. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 47 For several months the Allies had been planning an attack against Brest, the French port in the Bay of Biscay. The French had received intelligence alerting them to the imminent assault, enabling Marshal Vauban to strengthen its defences and reinforce the garrison. Inevitably, the attack on 18 June, led by the English General Thomas Tollemache, ended in disaster; most of his men were killed or captured – Tollemache himself died of his wounds shortly afterwards. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 67 Despite lacking evidence, Marlborough's detractors claimed that it was he who had alerted the enemy. Thomas Macaulay in his History of England suggests that Marlborough betrayed the allied plans to rid himself of a talented rival. But although it is practically certain that Marlborough sent a message across the Channel in early May describing the impending attack on Brest, it is equally certain that the French had long learned of the expedition from another source – possibly Godolphin or the Earl of Danby. Winston Churchill goes as far as to say that the letter was a forgery, but David Chandler states – "the whole episode is so obscure and inconclusive that it is still not possible to make a definite ruling. In sum, perhaps we should award Marlborough the benefit of the doubt." Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 48 Reconciliation Queen Mary II died childless in 1694 (O.S), leaving her sister Anne as heir apparent. Mary's death on 28 December 1694 (O.S), eventually led to a formal, but cool, reconciliation between William and Anne, now heir to the throne. Marlborough hoped that the rapprochement would lead to his own return to office, but although he and Lady Marlborough were allowed to return to court, the earl received no offer of employment. In 1696 Marlborough, together with Godolphin, Russell and Shrewsbury, was yet again implicated in a treasonous plot with King James, this time instigated by the Jacobite militant Sir John Fenwick. The conspiracy was eventually dismissed as a fabrication and Fenwick executed – the King himself had remained incredulous of the accusations – but it was not until 1698, a year after the Treaty of Ryswick brought an end to the Nine Years War, that the corner was finally turned in William's and Marlborough's relationship. On the recommendation of Lord Sunderland (whose wife was also a close friend of Lady Marlborough), William eventually offered Marlborough the post of governor to the Duke of Gloucester, Anne's eldest son. He was also restored to the Privy Council, together with his military rank, Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 80. Marlborough's son John, was appointed Master of the Horse at a salary of £500 a year. but striving to reconcile his close Tory connections with that of the dutiful royal servant was difficult, leading Marlborough to bemoan – "The King's coldness to me still continues." Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 49 Later life (1700–22) War of the Spanish Succession With the death of the infirm and childless King Charles II of Spain on 1 November 1700, the succession of the Spanish throne, and subsequent control over her empire (including the Spanish Netherlands), once again embroiled Europe in war – the War of the Spanish Succession. On his deathbed, Charles had bequeathed his domains to King Louis XIV's grandson, Philip, Duc d'Anjou. This threatened to unite the Spanish and French kingdoms under the House of Bourbon – something unacceptable to England, the Dutch Republic, and the Austrian Emperor, Leopold I, who had himself a claim to the Spanish throne. With William's health deteriorating (the King himself estimating he had but a short time to live), and with the Earl's undoubted influence over his successor Princess Anne, William decided that Marlborough should take centre stage in European affairs. Representing William in The Hague as Ambassador-Extraordinary, and as commander of English forces, Marlborough was tasked to negotiate a new coalition to oppose France and Spain. On 7 September 1701, the Treaty of the Second Grand Alliance was duly signed by England, the Emperor, and the Dutch Republic to thwart the ambitions of Louis XIV and stem Bourbon power. Gregg: Queen Anne, p. 126: Marlborough was also to settle the number of soldiers and sailors each coalition partner was to contribute and to supervise the organisation and supply of these troops. In these matters he was ably assisted by Adam Cardonnel and William Cadogan. William, however, was not to see England's declaration of war. On 8 March 1702 (O.S), the King, already in a poor state of health, died from injuries sustained in a riding accident, leaving his sister-in-law, Anne, to be immediately proclaimed as his successor. But although the King's death occasioned instant disarray amongst the coalition, Count Wratislaw was able to report – "The greatest consolation in this confusion is that Marlborough is fully informed of the whole position and by reason of his credit with the Queen can do everything." Barnett: Marlborough, p. 24 John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough by Sir Godfrey Kneller. Pictured here in his garter robes. This 'credit with the Queen' also proved personally profitable to her long-standing friends. Anxious to reward Marlborough for his diplomatic and martial skills in Ireland and on the continent, Marlborough became the Master-General of the Ordnance – an office he had long desired – made a Knight of the Garter and Captain-General of her armies at home and abroad. With Lady Marlborough's advancements as Groom of the Stole, Mistress of the Robes, and Keeper of the Privy Purse, the Marlboroughs, now at the height of their powers with the Queen, enjoyed a joint annual income of over £60,000, and unrivalled influence at court. Gregg: Queen Anne, p. 153: £4m in today's money. Early campaigns On 4 May 1702 (O.S) England formally declared war on France. Marlborough was given command of the British, Dutch, and hired German forces, but the command had its limitations: as Captain-General he had the power to give orders to Dutch generals only when Dutch troops were in action with his own; at all other times he had to rely on the consent of accompanying Dutch field deputies or political representatives of the States-General – his ability to direct allied strategy would rely on his tact and powers of persuasion. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 31 But despite being frustrated by his Dutch Allies' initial lassitude to bring the French to battle, the war began well for Marlborough who managed to out-manoeuvre the French commander, Marshal Boufflers. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 104. The Dutch generals and deputies were naturally concerned by the threat of an invasion from a powerful enemy. In 1702 he had captured Venlo, Roermond, Stevensweert and Liège in the Spanish Netherlands for which, in December, a grateful Queen publicly proclaimed Marlborough a Duke and Marquess of Blandford. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 107. The Queen also granted him £5,000 annually for life, but Parliament refused. Sarah, indignant at this ingratitude, suggested he refuse the title. On 9 February 1703 (O.S), soon after the Marlboroughs' elevation, their daughter Elizabeth married Scroop Egerton, Earl of Bridgewater; this was followed in the summer by an engagement between Mary and John Montagu, heir to the Earl of, and later Duke of, Montagu, (they later married on 20 March 1705). Their two older daughters were already married: Henrietta to Godolphin's son Francis in April 1698, and Anne to the hot-headed and intemperate Charles Spencer, Earl of Sunderland in 1700. Gregg: Queen Anne, p. 118. Marlborough himself was not keen on the marriage but Sarah, enchanted by his Whig ideology and intellectual prowess, was decidedly more enthusiastic. However, Marlborough's hopes of founding a great dynasty of his own reposed in his eldest and only surviving son, John, who, since his father's elevation had borne the courtesy title of Marquess of Blandford. But while studying at Cambridge in early 1703, the 17 year-old was stricken with a severe strain of smallpox. His parents rushed to be by his side, but on Saturday morning, 20 February the boy died, plunging the duke into 'the greatest sorrow in the world'; he later lamented to Lord Ailesbury – "I have lost what is so dear to me." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 115 Bearing his grief, and leaving Sarah to hers, the Duke returned to The Hague at the beginning of March. By now Marshal Villeroi had replaced Boufflers as commander in the Spanish Netherlands, Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 116. Boufflers redeemed himself with a crushing victory over the Dutch at the Battle of Eckeren. but although Marlborough was able to take Bonn, Huy, and Limbourg in 1703, continuing Dutch hesitancy prevented him from bringing the French in Flanders to a decisive battle. Gregg: Queen Anne, p. 172. A commemorative medal of these gains was cast with Queen Anne on one side and Marlborough on the other together with the inscription – 'Victory without slaughter.' Domestically the Duke also encountered resistance. Both he and Godolphin were hampered by, and often at variance with, their High Tory colleagues who, rather than advocating a European policy, favoured the full employment of the Royal Navy in pursuit of trade advantages and colonial expansion overseas. For their part, the Whigs, although enthusiastic for the European strategy, had dropped all pretence at supporting the conduct of the war, accounting Marlborough and Godolphin guilty of failing to provide gains commensurate with the funds generously granted them in Parliament. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 119 The moderate Tory ministry of Marlborough and Godolphin found itself caught between the political extremes. However, Marlborough, whose diplomatic tact had held together a very discordant Grand Alliance, was now a general of international repute and the limited success of 1703 was soon eclipsed by the Blenheim campaign of 1704. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 121 Marlborough writing the Blenheim despatch to Sarah, by Robert Alexander Hillingford. "I have no time to say more but to beg you will give my duty to the Queen, and let her know her army has had a glorious victory." Barnett: Marlborough, p. 121 Blenheim and Ramillies Pressed by the French and Bavarians to the west and Hungarian rebels to the east, Austria faced the real possibility of being forced out of the war. Concerns over Vienna and the need to ensure the continuing involvement of Emperor Leopold I in the Grand Alliance, had convinced Marlborough of the necessity of sending aid to the Danube; but the scheme of seizing the initiative from the enemy was extremely bold. From the start the Duke resolved to mislead the Dutch who would never willingly permit any major weakening of the allied forces in the Spanish Netherlands. To this end, Marlborough moved his English troops to the Moselle, (a plan approved of by The Hague), but once there, he resolved to slip the Dutch leash and march south to link up with Austrian forces in southern Germany. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 286 A combination of strategic deception and brilliant administration enabled Marlborough to achieve his purpose. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 128 After covering approximately in five weeks, Marlborough – together with Prince Eugene of Savoy – delivered a crushing defeat of the Franco-Bavarian forces at the Battle of Blenheim on 13 August 1704. The whole campaign, which historian John Lynn describes as one of the greatest examples of marching and fighting before Napoleon, had been a model of planning, logistics, and tactical skill, the successful outcome of which had altered the course of the conflict – Bavaria and Cologne were knocked out of the war, and Louis' hopes of an early victory were destroyed. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 294 The campaign continued with the capture of Landau on the Rhine, followed by Trier and Trarbach on the Moselle. With these successes, Marlborough now stood as the foremost soldier of the age; even the Tories, who had declared that should he fail they would "break him up like hounds on a hare", could not entirely restrain their patriotic admiration. Churchill: A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution, p. 44 The Queen lavished upon her favourite the royal manor of Woodstock and the promise of a fine palace commemorative of his great victory, but since her accession, her relationship with Sarah had become progressively distant. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 192 The Duke and Duchess had risen to greatness not least because of their intimacy with Anne, but Sarah had tired of petty ceremony and formality of court life and increasingly found her mistress's company wearisome. For her part, Anne, now Queen of England and no longer the timid adolescent so easily dominated by her more beautiful friend, had grown tired of Sarah's tactless political hectoring and increasingly haughty manner. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 207. Anne was a Tory; Sarah was a committed Whig who considered most Tories little better than Jacobites. Queen Anne enthusiastically agreed to Emperor Leopold’s offer (made during the duke’s march to the Danube) to make Marlborough a prince of the Holy Roman Empire in the small principality of Mindelheim – the Bavarian estate which had been confiscated from the Elector and effectively occupied after Blenheim. The Treaty of Utrecht restored Mindelheim to the Elector of Bavaria. But after the successes of 1704, the campaign of 1705 brought little reason for satisfaction on the continent. Endless delays and evasions from his Allies had once again frustrated Marlborough's attempts at any major offensive. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 157 "I find so little zeal for the common cause that it is enough to break a better heart than mine," he confided to Anthonie Heinsius. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 154 Although Marlborough had been able to penetrate the Lines of Brabant in July, allied indecision had prevented the Duke from pressing his advantage. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 164. Marlborough, for once making no attempt to hide his feelings, complained to the States-General, resulting in General Slangenburg's dismissal. The year 1705 had provided the French time to reorganize their forces. Marshal Villars’ successes against Baden along the Rhine, and Vendome’s victory at Calcinato in Italy, had thwarted Marlborough's original plan for 1706 – a possible march to Italy to link up with Prince Eugene. Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 2, p. 79. For months Marlborough had been preparing for that end: troops, money and equipment gathered for its eventuality. The Duke, however, soon adjusted his schemes. In May Marlborough marched into enemy territory, hoping to lure Marshal Villeroi into accepting battle. Equally determined to fight, and keen to avenge Blenheim, King Louis goaded his commander to seek out 'Monsieur Marlbrouck'. The subsequent Battle of Ramillies, fought in the Spanish Netherlands on 23 May 1706, was perhaps Marlborough's most successful action, one which, in the words of Villars, had caused "the most shameful, humiliating and disastrous of routs" of French forces. For the loss of less than 3,000 dead and wounded (far fewer than Blenheim), his victory had inflicted over 20,000 casualties on the enemy. Town after town fell, but although the campaign was not decisive, it was an unsurpassed operational triumph for the English general. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 308 When Marlborough eventually closed down the Ramillies campaign, he had completed the conquest of almost all the Spanish Netherlands. Good news for the Allies also arrived from the Italian front – in September Prince Eugene routed the French army at Turin. After his victory at Ramillies the titular 'Charles III' offered Marlborough the governorship of the Spanish Netherlands, worth £60,000 per annum. But the Dutch, who wished to maintain their economic and political dominance in the region, found the Habsburg offer displeasing, raising suspicions of England's motives, and the Duke's in particular. It was a position Marlborough desired, but in the name of Anglo–Dutch unity, it was one he refused. Gregg: Queen Anne, p. 216 Falling out of favour While Marlborough fought in Flanders, a series of personal and party rivalries instigated a general reversal of fortune. The Whigs, who were the main prop of the war, had been laying siege to Marlborough's close friend and ally, Lord Godolphin. As a price for supporting the government in the next parliamentary session, the Whigs demanded a share of public office with the appointment of a leading member of their 'Junto', the Earl of Sunderland, to the post of Secretary of State. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 186. Sunderland was Marlborough's son-in-law; he had married his daughter Anne. The Queen, who loathed the Whigs, bitterly opposed the move; but Godolphin, increasingly dependent on Whig support, had little room for manoeuvre. With Sarah's tactless, unsubtle backing, Godolphin relentlessly pressed the Queen to submit to Whig demands. In despair, Anne finally relented and Sunderland received the seals of office, but the special relationship between Godolphin, Sarah, and the Queen had taken a severe blow and she began to turn increasingly to a new favourite, Abigail Masham. Anne also became ever more reliant on the advice of Godolphin's and Marlborough's fellow moderate Tory Robert Harley, who, convinced that the duumvirate's policy of appeasing the Whig Junto was unnecessary, had set himself up as alternative source of advice to a sympathetic Queen. Barnet: Marlborough, p. 195. Abigail was Sarah's cousin and had been recommended by her for a minor court position. The Allies' annus mirabilis was followed in 1707 with a resurgence in French arms in all fronts of the war, and a return to political squabbling and indecision within the Grand Alliance. Marlborough's diplomatic skill was able to prevent Charles XII, King of Sweden, from entering the war against the Empire, but Prince Eugene's retreat from Toulon, and major setbacks in Spain and in Germany had ended any lingering hopes of a war-winning blow that year. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 199 Marlborough returned to England and a political storm. The High Tories were critical of Marlborough's failure to win the war in 1707 and demanded the transfer of 20,000 troops from the Low Countries to the Spanish theatre. For their part the Whigs, infuriated by the Queen's appointment of Tory bishops, threatened to withdraw support from the government. To the Duke and Godolphin this necessitated further wooing of the Junto in order to win back their support (the Junto were full of zeal for the war and, like Marlborough, considered Spain a military sideshow). Barnet: Marlborough, p. 197 Yet the more they urged the Queen to make concessions to the Whigs, the more they pushed her into Harley's hands; at every stage of this process, the wider the breach became between the Queen and her Captain-General. Churchill: A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution, p. 59 Oudenarde and Malplaquet Marlborough's main battles and sieges in the War of the Spanish Succession. In the decade he held command, 1702–11, Marlborough fought five great battles and besieged and captured over thirty enemy fortresses. The setbacks of 1707 had lasted throughout the opening months of 1708 with the losses of Bruges and Ghent to French forces. Marlborough remained despondent about the general situation, but his optimism received a major boost with the arrival of Prince Eugene. Heartened by the Prince's robust confidence, Marlborough set about to regain the strategic initiative for the Allies. On the night of 10 July, with the French preparing to besiege Oudenarde, the Duke made a forced march to surprise the enemy. Marlborough's ensuing victory over Marshal Vendôme at the Battle of Oudenarde on 11 July 1708, had demoralised the French army in Flanders; his eye for ground, his sense of timing, and his keen knowledge of the enemy were again amply demonstrated. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 222. One French commentator said the battle – "reduced us … to a timid and difficult defensive … we were effectively under the orders of M. de Marlborough." Marlborough professed himself satisfied with the campaign, but he had become increasingly fatigued by the worsening atmosphere at court; on hearing the news of the Duke's victory the Queen initially exclaimed – "Oh Lord, when will all this bloodshed cease!" Barnett: Marlborough, p. 212 Sarah also vexed the Duke. Relentlessly bombarding him with letters of complaint, he had at one point wearily replied – "I have neither spirits nor time to answer your three last letters." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 232 On 22 October Marlborough captured Lille, the strongest fortress in Europe (Boufflers yielded the city's citadel on 10 December); he also re-took Bruges and Ghent, but the Duke and Godolphin found themselves ever more uncomfortably placed between the Whig demands for office, and a Queen strongly disinclined to reconciliation. By November, the Whig Junto had gained ascendancy in British politics, reducing the Tories to an ineffective minority; but the more the Queen resisted the Whigs, the more Godolphin and Marlborough were attacked by them for not succeeding in persuading her to give way, and in turn, attacked by the Tories for endeavouring to do so. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 214 Prince Eugene of Savoy by Jacques van Schuppen. Apart from Ramillies, Eugene shared in Marlborough's greatest triumphs in the War of the Spanish Succession. After the Oudenarde campaign, and one of the worst winters in modern history, France was on the brink of collapse. Gregg: Queen Anne, p. 279 However, formal peace talks broke down in April 1709 after uncompromising and exacting Whig demands were rejected by King Louis. But despite his opposition to Whig obduracy, Marlborough no longer had the support of the Queen he had once enjoyed, and, with the Whigs holding the reins of British policy, he played only a subordinate role throughout the negotiations. To compound his troubles news arrived in August of fresh trouble between the Queen and his wife; Anne had informed Sarah that finally she had had enough of her bullying, writing – "It is impossible for you to recover my former kindness … " Barnett: Marlborough, p. 235 After outwitting Marshal Villars to take the town of Tournai on 3 September, the two opposing generals finally met at the tiny village of Malplaquet on 11 September 1709. On the left flank, the Prince of Orange led his Dutch infantry in desperate charges only to have it cut to pieces; on the other flank, Eugene attacked and suffered almost as severely. But sustained pressure on his extremities forced Villars to weaken his centre, thus enabling Marlborough to breakthrough and claim victory. But the cost was high; the allied casualty figures were approximately double that of the French, leading Marlborough to admit – "The French have defended themselves better in this action than in any battle I've seen." Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 266 Marlborough proceeded to take Mons on 20 October, but on his return to England his enemies used the Malplaquet casualty figures to sully his repute. Harley, now master of the Tory party, did all he could to persuade his colleagues that the Whigs – and by their apparent concord with Whig policy, Marlborough and Godolphin – were bent on leading the country to ruin, even hinting that the Duke was prolonging the war to line his own pockets. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 229 In March 1710, fresh peace talks re-opened between Louis and the Allies, but despite French concessions the Whig government remained unwilling to compromise. However, support for the pro-war policy of the Whigs was ebbing away and, by a series of successive steps, the whole character of the government was altered. Godolphin was forced from office and, after the general election in October, a new Tory ministry installed. Although Marlborough remained a national hero and a figure of immense European prestige, it took urgent entreaties from both Prince Eugene and Godolphin to prevent the Duke from proffering his resignation. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 281 Endgame Marlborough and John Armstrong his chief engineer, possibly by Enoch Seeman. Depicted discussing the Siege of Bouchain. In January 1711, Marlborough – 'much thinner and greatly altered' – returned to England; the crowds cheered but the Queen's new ministers, Harley and Henry St John were less welcoming; if he wished to continue to serve, he was to be nothing more than their obedient military servant. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 256 The Queen, who had recently expressed her intention of dismissing his wife, remained cold. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 267. The loss of his wife's offices would also be a severe blow to his own prestige. The Duke saw Anne in a last attempt to save his wife from dismissal, but she was not to be swayed by his supplicatory pleading, and demanded Sarah give up her Gold Key, the symbol of her office, within two days, warning – "I will talk of no other business till I have the key." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 268 Notwithstanding all this turmoil – and his declining health – Marlborough returned to The Hague in March to prepare for what was to be his last campaign, and one of his greatest. Once again Marlborough and Villars formed against each other in line of battle, this time along the Avesnes-le Comte-Arras sector of the lines of Non Plus Ultra (see map). Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 79. The Non Plus Ultra lines were the last and most imposing entrenched fortifications designed to halt enemy raids and hinder the movements of enemy armies. The Non Plus Ultra lines ran from the coast at Montreuil to the River Sambre. Expecting another onslaught on the scale of Malplaquet, the allied generals surmised that their commander, distressed from domestic turmoil, was leading them to an appalling slaughter. Churchill: A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution, p. 73 But by an exercise of brilliant psychological deception, Barnett: Marlborough, p. 259 and a secretive night march covering in 18 hours, the Allies penetrated the allegedly impregnable lines without losing a single man; Marlborough was now in position to besiege the fortress of Bouchain. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 343 Villars, deceived and outmanoeuvred, was helpless to intervene, compelling the fortress's unconditional surrender on 12 September. Historian David Chandler writes – "The pure military artistry with which he repeatedly deceived Villars during the first part of the campaign has few equals in the annals of military history … the subsequent siege of Bouchain with all its technical complexities, was an equally fine demonstration of martial superiority." Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 299 For Marlborough though, time had run out. Throughout 1711 secret peace negotiations (to which Marlborough was not privy), had proceeded between London and Versailles. On 7 December 1711 (O.S), the Queen was able to announce, that – "notwithstanding those who delight in the arts of war" – a sneer towards Marlborough – "both time and place are appointed for opening the treaty of a general peace." The Duke of Marlborough's services as Captain-General would no longer be required. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 278 Dismissal The British representative, Henry St John, had gained highly favourable terms but Marlborough, who was a close associate of George of Hanover, the heir to the throne, and still enjoyed the support of the King of Prussia and the Princes of the Grand Alliance, was wholeheartedly against a separate peace treaty between Britain and France. Harley and St John now determined once and for all to mastermind Marlborough's fall. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 302 On 20 January 1711 (O.S), the Commissioners of Public Accounts laid a report before the Commons accusing the Duke (and others), of turning public funds to his own profit. Marlborough was confronted with two irregularities: first, an assertion that over nine years he had illegally received more than £63,000 from the bread and transport contractors in the Netherlands; second, that the 2.5% he had received from the pay of foreign troops, totalling £280,000, was public money and 'ought to be accounted for'. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 302. The Tory Examiner, for which the poet Matthew Prior and author Jonathon Swift wrote, also accused the Duke of diverting money from the medical services to line his own pockets. On 31 December (O.S), the Queen saw fit to dismiss Marlborough from all employments so – "that the matter might have impartial examination." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 286 Marlborough, however, was able to refute the charges of embezzlement. Concerning the first allegation he could claim ancient precedent: contractors had always paid a yearly sum as a perquisite to the commander-in-chief in the Low Countries. For the second charge he could produce a warrant signed by the Queen in 1702 authorising him to make the deduction – which had always been customary in the Grand Alliance since the days of King William – and that all the money received was used for providing him with the means of creating an intelligence network; Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 302. Marlborough employed an extensive network of spies, informers and reporters who kept him supplied with intelligence. a Secret service that had penetrated the court of King Louis. Able speeches in the House were made on the Duke's behalf, but the Tories (whose campaign of discrediting the Duke had included the talents of the great satirist Jonathan Swift) were in the majority. When the vote was taken it was carried by 270 against 165. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 285 The Queen ordered the Attorney-General to prepare a prosecution against Marlborough, but St John, acknowledging the flimsiness of the government's case, was compelled to halt the impeachment proceedings – Marlborough's successor, the Duke of Ormonde, had himself already been authorized to take the same 2.5% commission on the pay of foreign troops. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 267 Return to favour Sir John Vanbrugh's Blenheim Palace. Begun in 1705, but plagued by financial troubles, this ‘pile of stones’, as the Duchess resentfully called it, was finally completed in 1722. Marlborough, later to be joined by Sarah, left faction-torn England for the Continent. Reasons for his exile remain speculative, but wherever they travelled they were welcomed and fêted by the people and courts of Europe, where he was not only respected as a great general, but also as a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 290. Mindelheim was lost 1714 to the Elector of Bavaria under Treaty of Utrecht, without compensation. Marlborough lost the principality of Mindelheim at the Treaty of Rastadt, but retained the title which was passed on to future Dukes of Marlborough. Churchill visited Mindelheim in late May 1713, receiving royal honours from his subjects. But the fate of the principality, and of Churchill's effective sovereignty, depended upon the ultimate peace treaty, and it was exchanged 1713 for Mellenburg. Marlborough bore the exile better than his wife who complained – "Tis much better to be dead than to live out of England;" but further tragedy struck the aging Duke when news arrived of the death of his beloved daughter Elizabeth, Countess of Bridgewater, from smallpox. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 295. It is said on hearing the news, his head dropped with such force on the marble mantelpiece that he fell unconscious to the floor. On their return to Dover on 2 August 1714 (O.S) (21 months after departure), they learnt that Queen Anne had died only the day before. They left immediately for London, escorted by a 'train of coaches and a troop of militia with drums and trumpets'. With equal warmth the Elector of Hanover, now King George I, received Marlborough with the welcoming words – "My Lord Duke, I hope your troubles are now all over." Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 298 John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough by Enoch Seeman. This late portrait shows Marlborough during his retirement possibly 1716/17 after his stroke. Reappointed as Master-General of Ordnance as well as Captain-General, Marlborough became once more a person of great influence and respect at court. Together with the Hanoverian minister Count Bernsdorf, the Hanoverian diplomatist Baron von Bothmar, and Lord Townshend, Marlborough returned to the heart of government; but the Duke's health was fading fast. His central position was increasingly taken over by Robert Walpole and James Stanhope, so much so that during the 1715 Jacobite rising, he was only nominally in command, leaving it to the younger men to deal decisively with the crisis. Hibbert: The Marlboroughs, p. 300 On 28 May 1716, shortly after the death of his favourite daughter Anne, Countess of Sunderland, the Duke suffered a paralytic stroke at Holywell House. This was followed by another stroke in November, this time at a house on the Blenheim estate. The Duke recovered somewhat, but while his speech had become impaired, his mind remained clear, recovering enough to ride out to watch the builders at work on Blenheim Palace and its landscaped grounds. In 1719 the Duke and Duchess were able to move into the east wing of the unfinished palace, but Marlborough had only three years to enjoy it. While living at the Great Lodge in Windsor Great Park, he suffered another stroke in June 1722, not long after his 72nd birthday. His two surviving daughters, Henrietta Godolphin and Mary Montagu, called on their dying father; but to Sarah, who had always felt the children an intrusion between herself and her husband, this was an unwelcome visitation. In the night hours the Duke began to slip away, and on the morning of 16 June 1722 (O.S), John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, died. Assessment Personal To military historian David Chandler, Marlborough is without doubt the greatest British commander in history, an assessment that is shared by others, including the Duke of Wellington who could – "conceive nothing greater than Marlborough at the head of an English army." However, the Whig historian, Thomas Macaulay, denigrates Marlborough throughout the pages of his History of England; in the words of historian John Wilson Croker, Macaulay pursues the Duke with "more than the ferocity, and much less than the sagacity, of a bloodhound." Macaulay: The History of England, p. 32 It was in response to Macaulay’s History that Winston Churchill (Marlborough’s descendant) wrote his four volume work, Marlborough: His Life and Times. Marlborough was ruthlessly ambitious, relentless in the pursuit of wealth, power and social advancement. Indeed, in his quest for fame and personal interests he could be somewhat unscrupulous, as his desertion of King James testifies. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 313 But this selfishness was also matched by a strong streak of altruism, witnessed by his loyalty to Queen Anne after the decline of their friendship until 1712, and his refusal to accept the twice-proffered position of Viceroy of the Spanish Netherlands in the interests of the Second Grand Alliance. Indeed, it was this diplomatic tact that enabled Marlborough to hold together an often disparate alliance throughout the War of the Spanish Succession. Although avaricious and exceptionally mean where money was concerned (a possible consequence of his early impoverishment at Ashe House), Marlborough was also known for his great charm and gentleness. He was not, however, above straightforward flattery, assuring King Charles XII of Sweden during his visit in 1707 of his desire to serve under his command, and to learn the last refinements of the military arts. To his enemies, the Duke was courteous – his treatment of Marshal Tallard after Blenheim is one of many examples; but it was not just his social equals that Marlborough displayed compassion. His concern for the welfare of the common soldier (it was not entirely uncommon for the Duke to offer a tired trooper on campaign a lift in his personal coach), together with his ability to inspire trust and confidence, often earned him adulation from his men – "The known world could not produce a man of more humanity," observed Corporal Matthew Bishop. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 314 When occasion demanded it, however, he could be ruthless. The hard realities of early 18th century warfare offers no better example than the Duke’s ravaging of the Bavarian countryside prior to the Battle of Blenheim in 1704; for military ends, he was prepared to burn 400 villages in the name of ‘cruel necessity’. But it was whilst on campaign that Marlborough shows us another virtue – his courage. Although frequently depressed and even physically unwell prior to a major engagement such as Blenheim or Oudenarde, his personal interventions at Ramillies and Elixheim for example, provide ample testimony to his continued gallantry – a reputation he had held since the siege of Maastricht in 1673. Military Blenheim Column of Victory on the grounds of the Blenheim estate, Oxfordshire. Over 130 ft (40 m) high, it is surmounted by a larger than life-size Duke by Robert Pit. On the grand strategic level Marlborough had rare ability to grasp the broad issues, but he had to deal with doubting governments and hesitant Allies; he suffered greatly from obstructive Dutch field-deputies and generals, and frequently had to compromise in order to ensure co-operation. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 323 As a strategist he preferred battle over slow moving siege warfare; even if the immediate cost – such as at the Schellenberg – was high. Aided by an expert staff (particularly his carefully-selected aides-de-camp such as Cadogan), as well as enjoying an excellent relationship with the talented Imperial commander, Prince Eugene, Marlborough proved far-sighted, often way ahead of his contemporaries in his conceptions, and was a master at assessing his enemy’s characteristics in battle. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 324 At the tactical level, Marlborough was again extremely adept. Invariably he would aim to seize the initiative, and commit to action whether the enemy desired it or not – at the Schellenberg for example, he achieved surprise by attacking late in the afternoon. Having thrown his foe off balance, the Duke would launch initial probing attacks to draw enemy reserves into action, whilst his own forces completed their own battle formations. This probing action would induce the enemy to weaken the sector chosen by the Captain-General for the main attack, and where he would assemble a decisive superiority of force to deliver the fatal blow. Once victory was assured, Marlborough was unusual in his belief of immediate pursuit – after the battles of Schellenberg and Ramillies the follow-through was relentless. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 325 But although Marlborough was more likely to manoeuvre than his opponents, and was better at maintaining operational tempo at critical times, the Duke qualifies more as a great practitioner within the constraints of early 18th century warfare, rather than as a great innovator who radically redefined military theory. Lynn: The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714, p. 273 Additionally, his tactics – attack the enemy flanks and make a breakthrough at the centre – could become somewhat predictable. Nevertheless, his predilection for fire, movement, and co-ordinated all-arms attacks, lay at the root of his great battlefield successes. Chandler: Marlborough as Military Commander, p. 327 Marlborough’s administrative skills and attention to detail meant his troops rarely went short of bread, shoes, clothing, tents or billets – when his army arrived at its destination it was intact and in a fit state to fight. Barnett: Marlborough, p. 264 Although he eschewed innovation, he had the aptitude to make existing systems of supply work well. It was this range of abilities that makes Marlborough outstanding. Yet all this would have meant little without enormous reserves of stamina, willpower and self-discipline. As Winston Churchill declared: "He commanded the armies of Europe against France for ten campaigns. He fought four great battles and many important actions … He never fought a battle that he did not win, nor besieged a fortress that he did not take … He quitted war invincible." Churchill: Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, p. 15 No other British soldier has ever carried so great a weight and variety of responsibility. Notes References Barnett, Correlli. Marlborough. Wordsworth Editions Limited, (1999). ISBN 1-84022-200-X Chandler, David G. Marlborough as Military Commander. Spellmount Ltd, (2003). ISBN 1-86227-195-X Churchill, Winston. A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, (2002). ISBN 0-304-36393-6 Churchill, Winston. Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 1, vols. i & ii. University of Chicago Press, (2002). ISBN 0-226-10633-0 Churchill, Winston. Marlborough: His Life and Times, Bk. 2, vols. iii & iv. University of Chicago Press, (2002). ISBN 0-226-10635-7 Coxe, William. Memoirs of the Duke of Marlborough: 3 volumes. London, (1847) Johannes Erichsen / Katharina Heinemann (Hgg.), Brennpunkt Europas 1704. Die Schlacht von Höchstädt / The Battle of Blenheim, Stuttgart, Thorbecke, 2004. James Falkner, Marlborough's Wars. Eyewitness Accounts 1702-1713, Barnsley, Pen & Sword Military, 2005. Field, Ophelia. The Favourite: Sarah, Duchess of Marlborough. Hodder and Stoughton, (2002). ISBN 0-340-76807-X Gregg, Edward. Queen Anne. Yale University Press, (2001). ISBN 0-300-09024-2 Hibbert, Christopher. The Marlboroughs. Penguin Books Ltd, (2001). ISBN 0-670-88677-7 Lynn, John A. The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667–1714. Longman, (1999). ISBN 0-582-05629-2 Macaulay, Thomas. The History of England (abridged). Penguin Books, (1968). ISBN 0-14-043-133-0 Miller, John. James II. Yale University Press, (2000). 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6,597 | Luxembourg_Army | The military of Luxembourg consists of a solitary branch: the army (the Gendarmerie was merged into the Grand Ducal Police in 2000), which was formerly commanded by a colonel, but as of 2008 is commanded by a general; Luxembourg has no navy (it's a landlocked nation) or air force. The army has been an all-volunteer force since 1967. It has a current strength of approximately 450 professional soldiers, about 340 enlisted recruits and 100 civilians, and a total budget of $369 million, or 0.9% of GDP. The army is under civilian control. The Commander-in-Chief is the Grand Duke, but day-to-day responsibility for defence matters is vested in the Minister for Defence, currently Jean-Louis Schiltz (since February 23 2006), under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Immigration. Luxembourg has participated in the Eurocorps since 1994, has contributed troops to the UNPROFOR and IFOR missions in former Yugoslavia, and participates with a small contingent in the current NATO SFOR mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Luxembourg army is integrated into the Multinational Beluga Force under Belgian command. Luxembourg troops have also deployed to Afghanistan to support ISAF. Luxembourg has financially supported international peacekeeping missions during the 1991 Gulf War, in Rwanda and, more recently, Albania. The army also has participated in humanitarian relief missions such as setting up refugee camps for Kurds and providing emergency supplies to Albania. Luxembourg Army Luxembourgish soldiers during national day. The army of Luxembourg has four main combat formations which come under the control of the Centre Militaire: Compagnie A Compagnie A is the first of two rifle companies - it forms the Luxembourg contingent of the Eurocorps. The company is organised into four platoons - there is the HQ platoon, an anti-tank platoon equipped with TOW, and a pair of rifle platoons. Compagnie B Compagnie B is the educational unit of the army, providing various educational courses for personnel to take in preparation for advancement. In order to attend L'Ecole de l'Armee, a soldier must have at least 18 months of service. The School is divided into two sections: Level B - this is open for all soldiers at the end of their first 18 months of service. Soldiers follow two six-month periods of tuition in both general and military based subjects prior to taking examinations. Upon gaining 75% pass marks, they can proceed to the next level. Level A - Level A is open to soldiers who have achieved the required passes at Level B, or who have gained the equivalent in civilian life prior to their enlistment. Soldiers do a single six-month period of tuition in the same subjects as Level B, but for longer each week. Compagnie Commandement et Instruction The Compagnie Commandement et Instruction is the main military training unit of the Luxembourg Army, with instruction given in: Basic soldiering Driving Physical training The Company is also responsible for the army's Elite Sports Section - this is for sportsmen who choose to join the army. Following their basic training, they join the Section de Sports d'Elite de l'Armée (SSEA). Compagnie D Compagnie D is the second rifle company - it provides the Luxembourg contingent to NATO as the Luxembourg Reconnaissance Company of the AMF(L). As a rifle company, it mirrors Compagnie A in organisation, with HQ, anti-tank and rifle platoons. Equipment Personal firearms Steyr AUG A1. Luxembourgish HMMWV on national day. |A NATO E-3 with the roundel of Luxembourg painted on its tail. Browning Hi-Power 9 mm pistol (Service pistol) Steyr AUG 5.56 mm rifle (Service rifle) Steyr AUG HBAR 5.56 mm automatic rifle FN MAG 7.62 mm machine-gun, M2 Browning Machine Gun .50 calibre Anti-tank weapons and artillery M72 Light Anti-tank Weapon (LAW) BGM-71 TOW missiles 105 mm howitzer (bored up 25 pdr.) for ceremonial purposes Vehicles HMMWV vehicles, armoured and unarmoured (including 24 armoured M1114 HMMWV) Mercedes Jeeps, 300D version. (1st generation Mercedes-Benz G-Class version) MAN 4T trucks Aircraft The government of Luxembourg has ordered 1 Airbus A400M transport aircraft in cooperation with the Belgian Air Component. The 20 aircraft of the NATO AEW Force are all registered to Luxembourg, flown by NATO pilots, and based at the NATO Air Base Geilenkirchen: 3 NATO Trainer Cargo Aircraft (TCA), modified Boeing 707-320Cs NATO military aviation OrBat 17 Boeing E-3A AWACS Communications equipment HF: AN/GRC-106TA, VRC-620 VHF: AN/GRC-160, AN/VRC-46, AN/PRC-77, PRC-613 UHF: PRC-660T, URC-240T In fiction In the Season 3 episode A Full Rich Day on the television series M*A*S*H, the major plot involves the missing body of a Luxembourgian officer, Lieutenant LeClerq, of the Belgo-Luxembourg Battalion during the Korean War. In reality, Luxembourg suffered two killed in action and seventeen wounded in action during the war. Prominent Luxembourg soldier Tessy Antony, born 1985, is among the more prominent former members of Luxembourg's military. From March to July 2004 she took part in a mission in Yugoslavia, in Mitrovica within KFOR, the NATO peacekeeping force in Kosovo. In 2006 she married Prince Louis of Luxembourg, and is styled Tessy de Nassau, having attained an NCO rank before leaving the military. Footnotes External links Luxembourgian Army official website History of Luxembourg's Army | Luxembourg_Army |@lemmatized military:6 luxembourg:21 consists:1 solitary:1 branch:1 army:13 gendarmerie:1 merge:1 grand:2 ducal:1 police:1 formerly:1 command:3 colonel:1 general:2 navy:1 landlocked:1 nation:1 air:3 force:5 volunteer:1 since:3 current:2 strength:1 approximately:1 professional:1 soldier:9 enlist:1 recruit:1 civilian:3 total:1 budget:1 million:1 gdp:1 control:2 commander:1 chief:1 duke:1 day:5 responsibility:1 defence:2 matter:1 vest:1 minister:1 currently:1 jean:1 louis:2 schiltz:1 february:1 ministry:1 foreign:1 affair:1 immigration:1 participate:3 eurocorps:2 contribute:1 troop:2 unprofor:1 ifor:1 mission:5 former:2 yugoslavia:2 small:1 contingent:3 nato:9 sfor:1 bosnia:1 herzegovina:1 integrate:1 multinational:1 beluga:1 belgian:2 also:3 deploy:1 afghanistan:1 support:2 isaf:1 financially:1 international:1 peacekeeping:2 gulf:1 war:3 rwanda:1 recently:1 albania:2 humanitarian:1 relief:1 set:1 refugee:1 camp:1 kurd:1 provide:3 emergency:1 supply:1 luxembourgish:2 national:2 four:2 main:2 combat:1 formation:1 come:1 centre:1 militaire:1 compagnie:9 first:2 two:4 rifle:8 company:6 form:1 organise:1 platoon:5 hq:2 anti:4 tank:4 equip:1 tow:2 pair:1 b:5 educational:2 unit:2 various:1 course:1 personnel:1 take:3 preparation:1 advancement:1 order:2 attend:1 l:4 ecole:1 de:4 armee:1 must:1 least:1 month:4 service:4 school:1 divide:1 section:3 level:6 open:2 end:1 follow:2 six:2 period:2 tuition:2 base:3 subject:2 prior:2 examination:1 upon:1 gain:2 pas:1 mark:1 proceed:1 next:1 achieve:1 required:1 pass:1 equivalent:1 life:1 enlistment:1 single:1 long:1 week:1 commandement:2 et:2 instruction:3 training:2 give:1 basic:2 drive:1 physical:1 train:1 responsible:1 elite:2 sport:2 sportsman:1 choose:1 join:2 armée:1 ssea:1 second:1 reconnaissance:1 amf:1 mirror:1 organisation:1 equipment:2 personal:1 firearm:1 steyr:3 aug:3 hmmwv:3 e:2 roundel:1 paint:1 tail:1 brown:1 hi:1 power:1 mm:5 pistol:2 hbar:1 automatic:1 fn:1 mag:1 machine:2 gun:2 browning:1 calibre:1 weapon:2 artillery:1 light:1 law:1 bgm:1 missile:1 howitzer:1 bore:1 pdr:1 ceremonial:1 purpose:1 vehicle:2 armour:1 unarmoured:1 include:1 armoured:1 mercedes:2 jeep:1 version:2 generation:1 benz:1 g:1 class:1 man:1 truck:1 aircraft:4 government:1 airbus:1 transport:1 cooperation:1 component:1 aew:1 register:1 fly:1 pilot:1 geilenkirchen:1 trainer:1 cargo:1 tca:1 modify:1 boeing:2 aviation:1 orbat:1 awacs:1 communication:1 hf:1 grc:2 vrc:2 vhf:1 prc:3 uhf:1 urc:1 fiction:1 season:1 episode:1 full:1 rich:1 television:1 series:1 h:1 major:1 plot:1 involve:1 miss:1 body:1 luxembourgian:2 officer:1 lieutenant:1 leclerq:1 belgo:1 battalion:1 korean:1 reality:1 suffer:1 kill:1 action:2 seventeen:1 wound:1 prominent:2 tessy:2 antony:1 born:1 among:1 member:1 march:1 july:1 part:1 mitrovica:1 within:1 kfor:1 kosovo:1 marry:1 prince:1 style:1 nassau:1 attain:1 nco:1 rank:1 leave:1 footnote:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 website:1 history:1 |@bigram grand_ducal:1 commander_chief:1 foreign_affair:1 bosnia_herzegovina:1 peacekeeping_mission:1 automatic_rifle:1 rifle_fn:1 gun_calibre:1 bgm_tow:1 mm_howitzer:1 mercedes_benz:1 aviation_orbat:1 external_link:1 |
6,598 | Medieval_warfare | Medieval Warfare is the warfare of the Middle Ages. In Europe, technological, cultural, and social developments had forced a dramatic transformation in the character of warfare from antiquity, changing military tactics and the role of cavalry and artillery. Similar patterns of warfare existed in other parts of the world. In China, weapons employing gunpowder date back to the tenth century, and the first permanent standing Chinese navy was established in the early twelfth century by the Song Dynasty. The Middle East and North Africa used very different methods and equipment than was used in Europe, and there occurred a considerable amount of technological exchange and tactical adaptation between the different cultures. In Japan the Medieval warfare period is considered by many to have stretched into the eighteenth century. In Africa along the Sahel and Sudan, states like the Kingdom of Sennar and Fulani Empire employed Medieval tactics and weapons through the nineteenth century. Strategy and tactics Employment of force The experience level and tactical maneuvering ability of medieval armies varied depending on the period and region. For larger battles, pre-battle planning typically consisted of a council of the war leaders, which could either be the general laying down a plan or a noisy debate between the different leaders, depending on how much authority the general possessed. Battlefield communications before the advent of strict lines of communication were naturally very difficult. Communication was done through musical signals, audible commands, messengers, or visual signals such raising a standard, banner, or flag. The infantry, including missile troops, would typically be employed at the outset of the battle to break open infantry formations while the cavalry attempted to defeat its opposing number. Once one side coaxed their opposing infantry into breaking formation, the cavalry would be deployed in attempt to exploit the loss of cohesion in the opposing infantry lines and begin slaying the infantrymen from horse top. Once a break in the lines was exploited, the cavalry became instrumental to victory - causing further breakage in the lines and wreaking havoc amongst the infantrymen, as it is much easier to kill a man from the top of a horse than to stand on the ground and face a half-ton destrier carrying an armed knight. However, until a significant break in the enemy infantry lines arose, the cavalry could not be used to much effect against infantry since horses are not easily harried into a wall of pikemen. Pure infantry conflicts would be drawn-out affairs. Cannons were introduced to the battlefield in the later medieval period. However, their very poor rate of fire (which often meant that only one shot was fired in the course of an entire battle) and their inaccuracy made them more of a psychological force multiplier than an effective anti-personnel weapon. Later on in medieval warfare, once hand cannons were introduced, the rate of fire improved only slightly, but the cannons became far easier to aim, largely because they were smaller and much closer to their wielder. Their users could be easily protected, because the cannons were lighter and could be moved far more quickly. However, real field artillery did not become truly effective or commonly employed until well into the early modern period. Retreat A hasty retreat could cause greater casualties than an organized withdrawal, because the fast cavalry of the winning side's rearguard would intercept the fleeing enemy while their infantry continued their attack. In most medieval battles, more soldiers were killed during the retreat than in battle, since mounted knights could quickly and easily dispatch the archers and infantry who were no longer protected by a line of pikes as they had been during the previous fighting. Fortifications Breakdowns in centralized states led to the rise of a number of groups that turned to large-scale pillage as a source of income. Most notably the Vikings (but also Arabs, Mongols and Magyars) raided significantly. As these groups were generally small and needed to move quickly, building fortifications was a good way to provide refuge and protection for the people and the wealth in the region. These fortifications evolved over the course of the Middle Ages, the most important form being the castle, a structure which had become synonymous with the Medieval era to many. The castle served as a protected place for the local elites. Inside a castle they were protected from bands of raiders and could send mounted warriors to drive the raiders from the area, or to disrupt the efforts of larger armies to supply themselves in the region by gaining local superiority over foraging parties that would be impossible against the whole enemy host. Fortifications were a very important part of warfare because they provided safety to the lord, his family, and his servents.They provided refuge from armies too large to face in open battle. The ability of the heavy cavalry to dominate a battle on an open field was useless against fortifications. Building siege engines was a time-consuming process, and could seldom be effectively done without preparations before the campaign. Many sieges could take months, if not years, to weaken or demoralize the defenders sufficiently. Fortifications were an excellent means of ensuring that the elite could not be easily dislodged from their lands - as a French nobleman once commented on seeing enemy troops ravage his lands from the safety of his castle, "they can't take the land with them". Siege warfare In the Medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of siege engines including: scaling ladders; battering rams; siege towers and various types of catapults such as the mangonel, onager, ballista, and trebuchet. Siege techniques also included mining. Advances in the prosecution of sieges encouraged the development of a variety of defensive counter-measures. In particular, medieval fortifications became progressively stronger — for example, the advent of the concentric castle from the period of the Crusades — and more dangerous to attackers — witness the increasing use of machicolations and murder-holes, as well the preparation of hot or incendiary substances. Arrow slits, concealed doors for sallies, and deep water wells were also integral to resisting siege at this time. Designers of castles paid particular attention to defending entrances, protecting gates with drawbridges, portcullises and barbicans. Wet animal skins were often draped over gates to retard fire. Moats and other water defenses, whether natural or augmented, were also vital to defenders. In the European Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls — Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is an impressive and well-preserved example — and more important cities had citadels, forts or castles. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of underground tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia. Against these would be matched the mining skills of teams of trained sappers, who were sometimes employed by besieging armies. Until the invention of gunpowder-based weapons (and the resulting higher-velocity projectiles), the balance of power and logistics definitely favored the defender. With the invention of gunpowder, the traditional methods of defense became less and less effective against a determined siege. Organization Knights A medieval knight was usually a mounted and armoured soldier, often connected with nobility or royalty, although (especially in north-eastern Europe) knights could also come from the lower classes, and could even be unfree persons. The cost of their armor, horses, and weapons was great; this, among other things, helped gradually transform the knight, at least in western Europe, into a distinct social class separate from other warriors. During the crusades, holy orders of Knights fought in the Holy Land (see Knights Templar, the Hospitallers, etc.). Heavy cavalry Heavily armed cavalry, armed with lances and a varied assortment of hand weapons played a significant part in the battles of the Middle Ages. The heavy cavalry mainly consisted of wealthy knights and noblemen who could afford the equipment. Heavy cavalry was the difference between victory and defeat in many key battles. Their thunderous charges could break the lines of most infantry formations, making them a valuable asset to all medieval armies. Costumes of Roman and German Soldiers From Miniatures on different Manuscripts, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries. Infantry Infantry were recruited and trained in a wide variety of manners in different regions of Europe all through the Middle Ages, and probably always formed the most numerous part of a medieval field army. Many infantrymen in prolonged wars would be mercenaries. Most armies contained significant numbers of spearmen, archers and other unmounted soldiers. In sieges, perhaps the most common element of medieval warfare, infantry units served as garrison troops and archers, among other positions. Near the end of the Middle Ages, with the advancements of weapons and armour, the infantryman became more important to an army. Recruiting In the earliest Middle Ages it was the obligation of every noble to respond to the call to battle with his own equipment, archers, and infantry. This decentralized system was necessary due to the social order of the time, but could lead to motley forces with variable training, equipment and abilities. The more resources the noble had access to, the better his troops would typically be. As central governments grew in power, a return to the citizen armies of the classical period also began, as central levies of the peasantry began to be the central recruiting tool. England was one of the most centralized states in the Middle Ages, and the armies that fought the Hundred Years' War were mostly paid professionals. In theory, every Englishman had an obligation to serve for forty days. Forty days was not long enough for a campaign, especially one on the continent. Thus the scutage was introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early twelfth century. As the Middle Ages progressed in Italy, Italian cities began to rely mostly on mercenaries to do their fighting rather than the militias that had dominated the early and high medieval period in this region. These would be groups of career soldiers who would be paid a set rate. Mercenaries tended to be effective soldiers, especially in combination with standing forces, but in Italy they came to dominate the armies of the city states. This made them considerably less reliable than a standing army. Mercenary-on-mercenary warfare in Italy also led to relatively bloodless campaigns which relied as much on manoeuvre as on battles. The knights were drawn to battle by feudal and social obligation, and also by the prospect of profit and advancement. Those who performed well were likely to increase their landholdings and advance in the social hierarchy. The prospect of significant income from pillage and ransoming prisoners was also important. For the mounted knight Medieval Warfare could be a relatively low risk affair. Nobles avoided killing each other for several reasons—for one thing, many were related to each other, had fought alongside one another, and they were all (more or less) members of the same elite culture; for another, a noble's ransom could be very high, and indeed some made a living by capturing and ransoming nobles in battle. Even peasants, who did not share the bonds of kinship and culture, would often avoid killing a nobleman, valuing the high ransom that a live capture could bring, as well as the valuable horse, armour and equipment that came with him. However, this is by no means a rule of medieval warfare. It was quite common, even at the height of "chivalric" warfare, for the knights to suffer heavy casualties during battles. Varlet or Squire carrying a Halberd with a thick Blade; and Archer, in Fighting Dress, drawing the String of his Crossbow with a double-handled Winch.--From the Miniatures of the "Jouvencel," and the "Chroniques" of Froissart, Manuscripts of the Fifteenth Century (Imperial Library of Paris). Equipment Personal equipment for Knight Infantryman Engineer Archer Burgher Weapons Medieval weapons consisted of many different types of ranged and hand-held objects: Battle axe Bow Arming sword Crossbow Claymore Dagger Flail Greatsword Halberd War hammer Pick Javelin Lance Bill Longbow Longsword Mace Shield Spear Sword Pike Poleaxe Armour Maille Leather armour Scale armour Plate armour Lamellar armour Horses Horses in the Middle Ages Destrier Courser Rouncey Artillery Medieval siege weaponry Relics The practice of carrying relics into battle is a feature that distinguishes medieval warfare from its predecessors or from early modern warfare. The presence of relics was an important source of supernatural power that served both as a spiritual weapon and a form of defense; the relics of martyrs were considered by John Chrysostom much more powerful than "walls, trenches, weapons and hosts of soldiers" John Chrysostom, Laudatio martyrum Aegyptiorum, 1 PG 50 col. 694f. In Italy, the carroccio or carro della guerra, the "war wagon", was an elaboration of this practice that developed during the 13th century. The carro della guerra of Milan was described in detail in 1288 by Bonvesin de la Riva in his book on the "Marvels of Milan". Wrapped in scarlet cloth and drawn by three yoke of oxen that were caparisoned in white with the red cross of Saint George, the city's patron, it carried a crucifix so massive it took four men to step it in place, like a ship's mast. Bovesin de la Riva, De Magnalibus Mediolani: Meraviglie di Milano (Milan, 1998), as reported in John Dickie, Delizia! The Epic History of Italians and Their Food (New York, 2008), p. 33. Supplies and logistics As Napoleon famously said, an army marches on its stomach, a weakness that has applied to all military campaigns in history. Medieval armies were supplied much as earlier armies had been. With the advent of castle-building and the extended siege, supply problems had to be solved on a scale seldom seen before, as armies had to stay in one spot for months, or even years. Plunder and foraging The usual method for solving logistical problems for smaller armies was foraging or "living off the land". As medieval campaigns were often directed at well-populated settled areas, a travelling army would forcibly commandeer all available resources from the land they passed through, from food to raw materials to equipment. Living off the land is not very easy when there is no food ready to eat, so there was, in theory at least, a prescribed "campaign season" that aimed to conduct warfare at a predictable time, when there would be both food on the ground and relatively good weather. This season was usually from spring to autumn, as by early-spring all the crops would be planted, thus freeing the male population for warfare until they were needed for harvest time in late-autumn. As an example, in many European countries serfs and peasants were obliged to perform around 45 days of military service per year without pay, usually during this campaign season when they were not required for agriculture. Plunder in itself was often the objective of a military campaign, to either pay mercenary forces, seize resources, reduce the fighting capacity of enemy forces, or as a calculated insult to the enemy ruler. Examples are the Viking attacks across Europe, or the highly destructive English chevauchées across northern France during the Hundred Years' War. Supply trains Supply trains are more a feature of modern warfare than medieval warfare. Due to the impossibility of maintaining a real front in premodern warfare, the supplies had to be carried with the army and/or transported to it while under guard. However, a supply source moving with the army was necessary for any large-scale army to operate. Medieval supply trains are often found in illuminations and even poems of the period. River and sea travel proved to be the easiest ways to transport supplies. During his invasion of the Levant, Richard I of England was forced to supply his army as it was marching through a barren desert. By marching his army along the shore, Richard was regularly resupplied by ships travelling along the coast. Likewise, as in Roman times, armies would frequently follow rivers while their supplies were being carried by barges. Supplying armies by mass land-transport would not become practical until the invention of rail transport and the internal combustion engine. The baggage train provided an alternative supply method that was not dependent on access to a water-way. However, it was often a tactical liability. Supply chains forced armies to travel more slowly than a light skirmishing force and were typically centrally placed in the army, protected by the infantry and outriders. Attacks on an enemy's baggage when it was unprotected — as for instance the French attack on the English train at Agincourt, highlighted in the play Henry V—could cripple an army's ability to continue a campaign. This was particularly true in the case of sieges, when large amounts of supplies had to be provided for the besieging army. To refill its supply train, an army would forage extensively as well as resupply itself in cities or supply points - border castles were frequently stocked with supplies for this purpose. Famine and disease A failure in logistics often resulted in famine and disease for a medieval army, with corresponding deaths and loss of morale. A besieging force could starve while waiting for the same to happen to the besieged, which meant the siege had to be lifted. With the advent of the great castles of high medieval Europe however, this problem was typically something commanders prepared for on both sides, so sieges could be long, drawn-out affairs. Epidemics of diseases such as smallpox, cholera, typhoid, and dysentery often swept through medieval armies, especially when poorly supplied or sedentary. In a famous example, in 1347 the bubonic plague erupted in the besieging Mongol army outside the walls of Caffa, Crimea where the disease then spread throughout Europe as the Black Death. For the inhabitants of a contested area, famine often followed protracted periods of warfare, because foraging armies ate any food stores they could find, reducing or depleting reserve stores. In addition, the overland routes taken by armies on the move could easily destroy a carefully planted field, preventing a crop the following season. Moreover, the death toll in war hit the farming labour pool particularly hard, making it even more difficult to recoup losses. Naval warfare The Battle of Sluys, 1340, from Jean Froissart's Chronicles In the Mediterranean, naval warfare in the medieval period resembled that of the ancient period: fleets of galleys would exchange missile fire come alongside for marines to fight on deck. This mode of naval warfare continued even into the early modern period, as, for example, at the Battle of Lepanto. Famous admirals included Andrea Doria, Hayreddin Barbarossa, and Don John of Austria. However, galleys were fragile and difficult to use in the cold and turbulent North Sea and northern Atlantic, although they saw occasional use. Bulkier ships were developed which were primarily sail-driven, although the long lowboard Viking-style rowed longship saw use well into the fifteenth century. Ramming was impractical with these sailing ships, but the main purpose of these warships remained the transportation of soldiers to fight on the decks of the opposing ship (as, for example, at the Battle of Svolder or the Battle of Sluys). Warships resembled floating fortresses, with towers in the bows and at the stern (respectively, the forecastle and aftcastle). The large superstructure made these warships quite unstable, but the decisive defeats the more mobile but considerably lower boarded longships suffered at the hands of high-boarded cogs in the fifteenth century ended the issue of which ship type would dominate northern European warfare. In the medieval period, it had proved difficult to mount cannons on board a warship, although some were placed in the fore- and aftcastles. Small hand-held anti-personnel cannons were used, but large cannons mounted on deck further compromised the stability of warships, and cannons at that time had a slow rate of fire and were inaccurate. All this was about to change at the end of the medieval period. The insertion of an opening in the side of a ship, with a hinged cover, allowed the creation of a gundeck below the main deck. The weight of cannon distributed to lower decks of the ship increased its stability immensely, effectively providing ballast, and a row of cannon on a lower deck produced the broadside, where the weight of shot overcame the inherent inaccuracy of firing cannons from a ship at sea. An example is the Mary Rose, the flagship of King Henry VIII's fleet, which had around thirty cannon per side, all of which were capable of firing shot nine pounds or more. The Spanish took this concept and produced the galleon. Rise of infantry In the Medieval period, the mounted cavalry long held sway on the battlefield. Heavily armoured, mounted knights represented a formidable foe for reluctant peasant draftees and lightly-armoured freemen. To defeat mounted cavalry, infantry used swarms of missiles or a tightly packed phalanx of men, techniques honed in Antiquity by the Greeks. The ancient generals of Asia used regiments of archers to fend off mounted threats. Alexander the Great combined both methods in his clashes with swarming Asiatic horseman, screening the central infantry core with slingers, archers and javelin men, before unleashing his cavalry to see off attackers. Swiss pikemen The use of long pikes and densely-packed foot troops was not uncommon in Medieval times. The Flemish footmen at the Battle of the Golden Spurs met and overcame French knights in 1302, and the Scots held their own against heavily-armored English invaders. During the St.Louis crusade, dismounted French knights formed a tight lance-and-shield phalanx to repel Egyptian cavalry. The Swiss used pike tactics in the late medieval period. While pikemen usually grouped together and awaited a mounted attack, the Swiss developed flexible formations and aggressive maneuvering, forcing their opponents to respond. The Swiss won at Morgarten, Laupen, Sempach, Grandson and Murten, and between 1450 and 1550 every leading prince in Europe hired Swiss pikemen, or emulated their tactics and weapons (e.g., the German Landsknechte). English longbowmen The English longbowman used a single-piece longbow(but some bows later devloped a composite design) to deliver arrows that could penetrate contemporary plate armour and mail. The longbow was a difficult weapon to master, requiring long years of use and constant practice. A skilled longbowman could shoot about 10 shots per minute. This rate of fire was far superior to competing weapons like the crossbow or early gunpowder weapons. The nearest competitor to the longbow was the much more expensive crossbow, used often by urban militias and mercenary forces. The crossbow had greater penetrating power, and did not require the extended years of training. However, it lacked the accuracy and rate of fire of the longbow. At the Crécy and Agincourt bowmen unleashed clouds of arrows into the ranks of knights. At Crécy, even 15,000 Genoese' crossbowmen could not dislodge them from their hill. At Agincourt, thousands of French knights were brought down by armour-piercing bodkin point arrows and horse-maiming broadheads. The longbowmen decimated an entire generation of the French nobility. Since the longbow was difficult to deploy in a thrusting mobile offensive, it was best used in a defensive configuration. Bowmen were extended in thin lines and protected and screened by pits (as at the Battle of Bannockburn), staves or trenches. The terrain was usually chosen to put the archers at an advantage forcing their opponents into a bottleneck (at Agincourt) or a hard climb under fire (at Crécy). Sometimes the bowmen were deployed in a shallow "W", enabling them to trap and enfilade their foes. The pike and the longbow put an end to the dominance of cavalry in European warfare, making the use of foot soldiers more important than they had been in recent years. Gunpowder eventually was to provoke even more significant changes. However, the heavy cavalry continued to be an important battlefield arm of European armies until the nineteenth century, when new and more accurate weapons made the mounted soldier too easy a target. Significant medieval battles The Battle of Chalons (451) The Sack of Rome (455) The Battle of Salsu (612) The Battle of Badr (624) The Battle of Uhud (625) The Battle of the Trench (627) The Battle of Mu'tah (629) The Conquest of Mecca (630) The Battle of Walaja (633) The Battle of Ullais (633) The Battle of Zumail (633) The Battle of Firaz (634) The Battle of Bosra (634) The Battle of Ajnadayn (634) The Battle of Fahl (635) The Battle of Yarmouk (636) The Battle of al-Qādisiyyah (636) The Battle of Iron bridge (637) The Battle of Baekgang (663) The Battle of Guadalete (711) The Siege of Constantinople (718) The Battle of Tours (732) The Battle of Rajasthan (738) The Battle of Talas (751) Тhe Battle of Pliska (811) The Sack of Rome (846) The Battle of Anchialus (917) The Battle of Brunanburh (937) The Battle of Lechfeld (955) The Battle of Tara (980) The Battle of Maldon (c. 991) The Battle of Kleidion (1014) The Battle of Stamford Bridge (1066) The Battle of Hastings (1066) The Battle of Manzikert (1071) The Battle of Levounion (1091) The Siege of Jerusalem (1099) The Battle of Didgori (1121) The Siege of Lisbon (1147) The Battle of Caishi (1161) The Battle of Tangdao (1161) The Battle of Sirmium (1167) The Battle of Myriokephalon (1176) The Battle of Hattin (1187) The Battle of Adrianople (1205) The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) The Battle of Bouvines (1214) The Battle of Parwan (1221) The Battle of Indus (1221) The Battle of the Kalka River (1223) The Battle of Klokotnitsa (1230) The Battle of Legnica (1241) The Battle of Mohi (1241) The Battle of Baghdad (1258) The Battle of Fishing Town (1259) The Battle of Ain Jalut (1260) The Battle of Xiangyang (1273) The Battle of Yamen (1279) The Second Battle of Homs (1281) The Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297) The Battle of the Golden Spurs (1302) The Battle of Bannockburn (1314) The Second Battle of Athenry (1316) The Battle of Dysert O'Dea (1318) The Battle of Faughart (1318) The Battle of Velbazhd (1330) The Battle of Crécy (1346) The Battle of Poitiers (1356) The Battle of Lake Poyang (1363) The Battle of Adrianople (1365) The Battle of Maritsa (1371) The Battle of Kulikovo (1380) The Battle of Aljubarrota (1385) The Battle of Kosovo (1389) The Battle of Nicopolis (1396) The Battle of Ankara (1402) The Battle of Grunwald/Tannenberg (1410) The Battle of Agincourt (1415) The Battle of Patay (1429) The Fall of Constantinople (1453) The Battle of Towton (1461) The Battle of Vaslui (1475) The Battle of Nancy (1477) The Siege of Rhodes (1480) The Battle of Bosworth Field (1485) The Battle of Knockdoe (1504) Medieval wars Major wars of the Middle Ages, arranged chronologically by year begun. The Muslim conquests (624-1526) Byzantine-Arab Wars (629-1169) Muslim conquest of Syria (629-640) Muslim conquest of Egypt (639-654) Umayyad conquest of North Africa (647-709) Conquest of Mecca (630) Ridda wars (632-633) Islamic conquest of Persia (634-652) Islamic conquest of Afghanistan (662-679) Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent (664-1526) Umayyad conquest of Hispania (711-718) Khazar-Arab Wars (711-750) Muslim conquest of southern Italy (831-902) Byzantine-Seljuk wars (1064-1308) Byzantine-Ottoman wars (1299–1453) Bulgarian-Ottoman Wars (1354–1422) The Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars (680–1364) The Saxon Wars - (772-804) The Spanish Reconquista (718-1492): In which the Moors were driven from the Iberian Peninsula; begun under Pelayo in Asturias, concluded under the Catholic Monarchs (Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon), of Columbus fame. The Crusades (1096–1291): A generic, catch-all term for Church-sanctioned wars against non-Christians or heretics. 1096–1099—First Crusade: The only "successful" crusade against the Islamic Near East; Christian states were established throughout the Levant. 1101—Crusade of 1101 1147–1149—Second Crusade 1147-1410—Northern Crusades 1187–1191—Third Crusade 1202–1204—Fourth Crusade: In which the Western forces sacked Constantinople 1209–1229—Albigensian Crusade: In which the Albigensians in southern France were crushed. 1217–1221—Fifth Crusade 1228—Sixth Crusade 1248–1254—Seventh Crusade 1270—Eighth Crusade 1271–1291—Ninth Crusade The Wars of China Wars of the Southern and Northern Dynasties (420-581) Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598–614) Linyi-Champa Campaign (602-605): Chinese Invasion of Annam and Champa (Vietnam)) Sino-Tibetan Wars (635-821) Wars of Korean Unification (660–668): which included aid from Tang China and the expulsion of Yamato Japanese forces. An Lushan Rebellion (756-763) (Chinese Tang Dynasty) The Sino-Khitan Wars (979-1125): Conflict between the Song Dynasty and the Liao Dynasty. The Jurchen Conquest of Northern China (1125–1127) Sino-Jurchen Wars (1127–1164) Southern Chinese Resistance against the Mongols (1234–1279) Red Turban Rebellion (1351–1368): Chinese rebellion and collapse of Mongol power. Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598): an alliance of Joseon Dynasty Korea and Ming Dynasty China against the Japanese forces of Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The Mongol invasions (1205–1472) Mongol invasions of China (1205–1279) Mongol invasion of Central Asia (1218–1221) Mongol invasions of Georgia and Armenia (1220–1330) Mongol invasion of Europe (1223–1284) Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria (1223–1236) Mongol invasion of Rus (1237–1242) Mongol invasions of Russia (1252–1472) Mongol invasions of Korea (1231–1273) Mongol invasions of Vietnam (1257–1287) Mongol invasion of Baghdad (1258) Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–1281) Mongol invasion of Syria (1299) The Timur Lenk's invasions (1370-1405) The Hussite Wars (1420-1434) The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453): In which the English were eventually driven out of France; many famous events occurred during this war, including the Battle of Agincourt and the campaign under Joan of Arc. The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487): War for the English throne between the Houses of Lancaster and York Medieval conquerors The Arabs The initial Arab Muslim conquests began in the seventh century after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and were marked by a century of rapid Arab expansion beyond the Arabian Peninsula under the Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates. Under the Rashidun, the Arabs conquered the Persian Empire, along with Roman Syria and Roman Egypt during the Byzantine-Arab Wars, all within just seven years from 633 to 640. Under the Umayyads, the Arabs annexed North Africa and southern Italy from the Romans and the Arab Empire soon stretched from parts of the Indian subcontinent, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, and southern Italy, to the Iberian Peninsula and the Pyrenees. The Arab Empire became the largest empire the world had ever seen, up until the Mongol Empire five centuries later. The most famous early Arab military commander was Khalid ibn al-Walid, also known as the Sword of Allah. In having the distinction of being undefeated in over a hundred battles against the numerically superior forces of the Roman Empire, Persian Empire, and their allies, Khalid is regarded as one of the finest military commanders in history. His greatest strategic achievements were his swift conquest of the Persian Empire and conquest of Roman Syria all within just three years from 633 to 636, while his greatest tactical achievements were his double envelopment manoeuvre against the larger Persian forces at the Battle of Walaja, and his decisive victories against the larger combined forces of the Persians, Romans, Greeks and Arab Christians at the Battle of Firaz, and the larger combined forces of Romans, Greeks, Ghassanids, Russians, Slavs, Franks, Georgians and Armenians at the Battle of Yarmouk. Other famous Muslim military commanders included ‘Amr ibn al-‘As during the Muslim conquest of Egypt against the Roman Empire, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah against the Persian Empire, Tariq ibn-Ziyad during the Umayyad conquest of Hispania against the Visigoths, Ziyad ibn Salih at the Battle of Talas against the Chinese Tang Empire, and Saladin against the Crusaders. The early Arab army mainly consisted of light infantry, with some light cavalry and a few camel cavalry. In contrast, the Roman army and Persian army at the time both had large numbers of heavy infantry (Roman legions and Persian daylami) and heavy cavalry (cataphracts and clibanarii) that were better equipped, heavily protected, and more experienced and disciplined. The Roman and Persian armies were also led by skilled generals such as Heraclius and Rostam Farrokhzād respectively. Despite being outnumbered by these superior Roman and Persian armies that were several times larger in almost every early battle, the Arabs were able to overcome the odds and defeat their enemies each time, mainly due to being led by tactical geniuses such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, ‘Amr ibn al-‘As, and Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas, as well as the better mobility of light cavalry and light infantry units which allowed them to use better maneuvers, including various flanking maneuvers and pincer movements. In particular, the double envelopment manoeuvre, which Khalid ibn al-Walid successfully used against the larger Persian forces at the Battle of Walaja, is regarded as one of the greatest tactical manoeuvres in history, and was only successfully used once before by Hannibal at the Battle of Cannae. According to Steven Muhlberger of the ORB Encyclopedia, the "...vigor and prowess of the Arab armies" was due "... to the willingness of the great mass of the conquered population to make a deal with the Arab armies" and the "confidence of the Muslims" due to their religion and "esprit de corps." Steven Muhlberger. Section 4: The Impact of the Arabs, Overview of Late Antiquity , ORB Encyclopedia. The Vikings The Vikings were a feared force in Europe because of their savagery and speed of their attacks. Whilst seaborne raids were nothing new at the time the Vikings refined the practice to a science through their shipbuilding, tactics and training. Unlike other raiders the Vikings made a lasting impact on the face of Europe. During the Viking age their expeditions, frequently combined raiding and trading, penetrated most of the old Frankish empire, the British Isles, The Baltic, Russia and both Muslim and Christian Iberia. Many served as mercenaries, and the famed Varangian Guard, serving the Emperor of Constantinople was drawn principly of Scandinavian warriors. Viking longships were swift and easily manoeuvred, they could navigate deep seas or shallow rivers, and could carry warriors that could be rapidly deployed directly onto land due to the longships being able land directly. The longship was the enabler of the Viking style of fare that was fast and mobile, relying heavily on the element of surprise, and they tended to capture horses for mobility rather than carry them on their ships. The usual method was to approach a target stealthily, strike with surprise and then retire swiftly. The tactics used were difficult to stop, for the Vikings, like guerrilla style raiders elsewhere, deployed at a time and place of their own choosing. The fully armoured Viking raider would wear an iron helmet and a maille hauberk, and fight with a combination of axe, sword, shield, spear or great "Danish" two-handed axe, although the typical raider would be unarmoured, carrying only a shield and spear; swords and axes were much less common. Almost by definition opponents of the Vikings were ill prepared to fight a force that struck at will, with no warning. European countries with a weak system of government would be unable to organize a suitable response would naturally suffer the most to viking raiders. Viking raiders always had the option to fallback in the face or a superior force or stubborn defence and then reappear to attack other locations or retreat to their bases in what is now Sweden, Denmark, Norway and their atlantic colonies. As time went on, Viking raids became more sophisticated, with coordinated strikes involving multiple forces and large armies, as the "Great Heathen Army" that ravaged Anglo-Saxon England in the ninth century. In time the Vikings began to hold on to the areas they raided, first wintering and then consolidating footholds for further expansion later. With the growth of centralized authority in the Scandinavian region, Viking raids, always an expression of "private enterprise" ceased and the raids became pure voyages of conquest. In 1066, King Harald Hardråde of Norway invaded England, only to be defeated by Harold Godwinson, who in turn was defeated by William of Normandy, descendant of the Viking Rollo, who had accepted Normandy as a fief from the Frankish King. The three rulers had their claims to the the English crown (Harald probably primarily on the overlord-ship of Northumbria) and it was this that motivated the battles rather than the lure of plunder. At this point the Scandinavians had entered their medieval period the medieval period marks the end of significant raider activity both for plunder or conquest. Whilst obviously Scandinavian countries would continue to go to war. The growth of centralized authority throughout europe limited the vikings raider warefare in terms of opportunity whilst the christianization of the viking kingdoms reduced their motivation. The Vikings formed the kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The Scandinavians started adapting more continental European ways, whilst retaining an emphasis on naval power from an early date - the "Viking" clinker-built warship was used effectively in war until the fourteenth century at least, and the larger Scandinavian warships in this style are all from the medieval period. However developments in shipbuilding elsewhere removed the previous advantage the Scandinavian countries had enjoyed at sea whilst castle builing throughout europe effectively ended any benefit it might bring. Naturally trading and diplomatic links between Scandinavia and ensured that the Scandinavians kept up to date with continental developments in warfare. Mongols The Mongolian nomads were one of the most feared forces ever to take the field of battle. Operating in massive cavalry sweeps consisting of light mobile cavalry and horse archers, together with smaller tactical units, extending over dozens of miles, the fierce horsemen combined a shock, mobility and firepower unmatched in land warfare until the advent of the gunpowder age. From about two centuries, beginning with the rise of Genghis Khan in the 1200s, the Mongol warriors defeated some of the world's most powerful, well established and sophisticated empires, and claiming over one-twelfth of the world's land surface at their height, seen by some as the largest contiguous empire in human history - stretching from across Asia to parts of Poland.Mongols deployed weapons, bows, scimitars and lances. The Mongol bow was a composite bow, made from glue, horn, sinew and wood or bamboo, with a range of over 200 yards. The Mongols were exceedingly tough warriors, used to privation and hardship. Hardy steppes ponies furnished the means of transport into battle. Warriors were tightly organized into units of ten, and into larger formations such as the Mongol tumen of 10,000 soldiers. Coordination was provided by designated unit leaders, with signalling provided by horns, smoke, and flags. Most columns or tumen were self-sufficient in the short run, living off the land. Their main tactics were speed, surprise and mobility; as well, the Mongols were not rigid in their thinking, and nor did they adhere to Medieval European notions of chivalry. Mongols used siege engineers to overcome fortifications, and Mongol terror was used as a psychological warfare tactic. Mongols in the West By 1241, having conquered large parts of Russia, the Mongols continued the invasion of Europe with a massive three-pronged advance, following the fleeing Cumans, who had established an uncertain alliance with King Bela IV of Hungary. They first invaded Poland, then Transylvania, and finally Hungary, culminating in the crushing defeat of the Hungarians in the Battle of Mohi. The Mongol aim seems to have consistently been to defeat the Hungarian-Cuman alliance. The Mongols raided across the borders to Austria and Bohemia in the summer when the Great Khan died, and the Mongol princes returned home to elect a new Great Khan. The Golden Horde would frequently clash with Hungarians, Lithuanians and Poles in the thirteenth century, with two large raids in the 1260s and 1280s respectively. In 1284 the Hungarians repelled the last major raid into Hungary, and in 1287 the Poles repelled a raid against them. The instability in the Golden Horde seems to have quieted the western front of the Horde. The Hungarians and Poles had responded to the mobile threat by extensive fortification-building, army reform in the form of better armoured cavalry, and refusing battle unless they could control the site of the battlefield to deny the Mongols local superiority. The Lithuanians relied on the their forested homelands for defense, and used their cavalry for raiding into Mongol-dominated Russia. Turks Trade between China, the Middle East, and Europe along the Silk Road extended throughout the period of the Middle Ages. The Turkic peoples were exposed to military technology from the days of the Roman Empire onwards, as well as financial wealth as a result of their position midway on the route. An early Turkic group, the Seljuks, were known for their cavalry archers. These fierce nomads were often raiding empires, such as the Byzantine Empire, and they scored several victories using mobility and timing to defeat the heavy cataphracts of the Byzantines. One notable victory was at Manzikert, where a conflict among the generals of the Byzantines gave the Turks the perfect opportunity to strike. They hit the cataphracts with arrows, and outmaneuvered them, then rode down their less mobile infantry with light cavalry that used scimitars. When gunpowder was introduced, the Ottoman Turks of the Ottoman Empire hired the mercenaries that used the gunpowder weapons and obtained their instruction for the Janissaries. Out of these Ottoman soldiers rose the Janissaries (yeni ceri; "new soldier"), from which they also recruited many of their unsung heroes, the heavy infantry. Along with the use of cavalry and early grenades, the Ottomans mounted an offensive in the early Renaissance period and attacked Europe, taking Constantinople with the help of their huge cannons that were bigger than their opponent's, notably Basilica, the giant that pounded the walls of Constantinople. Basilica was itself designed and cast for the Grand Turk by a Christian Hungarian named Urban. Despite its size, however, it was not very successful as an artillery piece due to its multiple-hour load rate. Like many other nomadic peoples, the Turks featured a core of heavy cavalry from the upper classes. These evolved into the Sipahis (feudal landholders similar to western knights and Byzantine pronoiai) and Qapukulu (door slaves, taken from youth like Janissaries and trained to be royal servants and elite soldiers, mainly cataphracts). See also Horses in warfare Endemic warfare Notes References Contamine, Philippe. War in the Middle Ages. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. Creveld, Martin Van. Technology and War: From 2000 BC to present, 1989. Keegan, John. The face of battle: a study of Agincourt, Waterloo, and the Somme. London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1988. Keen, Maurice. Medieval Warfare: A History. Oxford University Press, 1999. McNeill, William Hardy. The pursuit of power: technology, armed force, and society since A.D. 1000. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Nicholson, Helen. Medieval Warfare. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004, Oman, Charles William Chadwick. A history of the art of war in the Middle Ages. London: Greenhill Books; Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1998. De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History Kosztolnyik, Z.J. Hungary in the thirteenth century. New York: Columbia University Press: Stackpole Books, 1996. (Parts of which are available online) Parker, Geoffrey. 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6,599 | British_Columbia | British Columbia () (BC) (, C.-B.) is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is famed for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu ("Splendour without Diminishment"). It was the sixth province to join the Canadian Confederation. The capital of British Columbia is Victoria, the 15th largest metropolitan region in Canada. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada and the second-largest in the Pacific Northwest. Etymology The province's name was chosen by Queen Victoria when the Mainland became a British colony in 1858. It references the Columbia District, the British name for the territory drained by the Columbia River, which has its origins and upper reaches in southeastern British Columbia, which was the namesake of the pre-Oregon Treaty Columbia Department of the Hudson's Bay Company. Queen Victoria chose British Columbia to distinguish what was the British sector of the Columbia District from that of the United States ("American Columbia" or "Southern Columbia"), which became the Oregon Territory in 1848 as a result of the treaty. Geography Cities of British Columbia; Regional District boundaries shown Physical map of British Columbia Strait of Georgia, near Vancouver British Columbia is bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the west, by the U.S. state of Alaska on the northwest, and to the north by the Yukon and the Northwest Territories, on the east by the province of Alberta, and on the south by the U.S. states of Washington, Idaho, and Montana. The current southern border of British Columbia was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, although its history is tied with lands as far south as the California border. British Columbia's land area is . British Columbia's rugged coastline stretches for more than , and includes deep, mountainous fjords and about six thousand islands, most of which are uninhabited. British Columbia's capital is Victoria, located at the southeastern tip of Vancouver Island. The province's most populous city is Vancouver, which is not on Vancouver Island but rather is located in the southwest corner of the mainland (an area often called the Lower Mainland). Other major cities include Surrey, Burnaby, Coquitlam, Richmond, Delta, and New Westminster in the Lower Mainland; Abbotsford, Pitt Meadows, Maple Ridge and Langley in the Fraser Valley; Nanaimo on Vancouver Island; and Kelowna and Kamloops in the Interior. Prince George is the largest city in the northern part of the province, while a village northwest of it, Vanderhoof, is near the geographic centre of the province. The Coast Mountains and the Inside Passage's many inlets provide some of British Columbia's renowned and spectacular scenery, which forms the backdrop and context for a growing outdoor adventure and ecotourism industry. Seventy-five percent of the province is mountainous (more than above sea level); 60% is forested; and only about 5% is arable. Cheakamus Lake at dawn, in Garibaldi Provincial Park, B.C. The Okanagan area is one of three wine-growing regions in Canada and also produces excellent ciders. The city of Penticton, and rural towns of Oliver, and Osoyoos have some of the warmest and longest summer climates in Canada, although their temperature ranges are exceeded by the warmer Fraser Canyon towns of Lillooet and Lytton, where shade temperatures on summer afternoons often surpass but with very low humidity. Much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by temperate rain forest. This region, which includes parts of the west coast of the United States, is one of a mere handful of such temperate rain forest ecosystems in the world (notable others being in Turkey, Georgia, Chile, New Zealand, Tasmania, and the Russian Far East). The province's mainland away from the coastal regions is not as moderated by the Pacific Ocean and ranges from desert and semi-arid plateau to the range and canyon districts of the interior plateau. A few southern interior valleys have short cold winters with infrequent heavy snow, while those in the Cariboo, the northern part of the Central Interior, are colder because of their altitude and latitude, but without the intensity or duration experienced at similar latitudes elsewhere in Canada. The northern two-thirds of the province is largely unpopulated and undeveloped, and is mostly mountainous except east of the Rockies, where the Peace River District in the northeast of the province contains BC's portion of the Canadian Prairies. Parks and protected areas Mount Robson, Canadian Rockies, B.C. Yoho National Park There are 14 designations of parks and protected areas in the province that reflects the different administration and creation of these areas in a modern context. There are 141 ecological Reserves, 35 provincial marine parks, 7 Provincial Heritage Sites, 6 National Historic Sites, 4 National Parks and 3 National Park Reserves. 12.5% (114,000 km²) of British Columbia is currently considered protected under one of the 14 different designations that includes over 800 distinct areas. British Columbia contains seven of Canada's national parks: Glacier National Park Gulf Islands National Park Reserve Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site Kootenay National Park Mount Revelstoke National Park Pacific Rim National Park Reserve Yoho National Park British Columbia also contains a large network of provincial parks, run by BC Parks of the Ministry of Environment. British Columbia's provincial parks system is the second largest parks system in Canada (the largest is Canada's National Parks system). In addition to these areas, over 4.7 million hectares of arable land are protected by the Agricultural Land Reserve. History Fur trade and colonial eras The discovery of stone tools on the Beatton River near Fort St. John date human habitation in British Columbia to at least 11,500 years ago. The Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast spread throughout the region, achieving a high population density; at the time of European contact, nearly half the aboriginal people in present-day Canada lived in the region. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the Pacific Northwest Native Americans. "Smallpox epidemic ravages Native Americans on the northwest coast of North America in the 1770s." The smallpox epidemic of the 1770s was the first and the most devastating of a number that were to follow. "Plagues and Peoples on the Northwest Coast" Kwakwaka'wakw house pole, second half of the 19th century The explorations of James Cook in the 1770s and George Vancouver in 1792 established British jurisdiction over the coastal area north and west of the Columbia River. In 1793, Sir Alexander Mackenzie was the first European to journey across North America overland to the Pacific Ocean, inscribing a stone marking his accomplishment on the shoreline of Dean Channel near Bella Coola. His expedition theoretically established British sovereignty inland, and a succession of other fur company explorers charted the maze of rivers and mountain ranges between the Canadian Prairies and the Pacific. Mackenzie and these other explorers — notably John Finlay, Simon Fraser, Samuel Black, and David Thompson — were primarily concerned with extending the fur trade, rather than political considerations. In 1794, by the third of a series of agreements known as the Nootka Conventions, Spain conceded its claims of exclusivity in the Pacific. This opened the way for formal claims and colonization by other powers, including Britain, but because of the Napoleonic Wars there was little British action on its claims in the region until later. The establishment of trading posts under the auspices of the North West Company and the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), effectively established a permanent British presence in the region. The Columbia District, broadly defined as being south of 54°40′ north latitude, (the southern limit of Russian America) and north of Mexican Controlled California west of the Rocky Mountains was, by the Anglo-American Convention of 1818, under the "joint occupancy and use" of citizens of the United States and subjects of Britain (which is to say, the fur companies). This co-occupancy was ended with the Oregon Treaty of 1846. The major supply route was the York Factory Express between Hudson Bay and Fort Vancouver. Some of the early outposts grew into settlements, communities, and cities. Among the places in British Columbia that began as fur trading posts are Fort St. John (established 1794); Hudson's Hope (1805); Fort Nelson (1805); Fort St. James (1806); Prince George (1807); Kamloops (1812); Fort Langley (1827); Fort Victoria (1843); Yale (1848); and Nanaimo (1853). Fur company posts that became cities in what is now the United States include Vancouver, Washington (Fort Vancouver), formerly the "capital" of Hudson's Bay operations in the Columbia District, Colville, Washington and Walla Walla, Washington (old Fort Nez Perces). With the amalgamation of the two fur trading companies in 1821, the region now comprising British Columbia existed in three fur trading departments. The bulk of the central and northern interior was organized into the New Caledonia district, administered from Fort St. James. The interior south of the Thompson River watershed and north of the Columbia was organized into the Columbia District, administered from Fort Vancouver on the lower Columbia River. The northeast corner of the province east of the Rockies, known as the Peace River Block, was attached to the much larger Athabasca District, headquartered in Fort Chipewyan, in present day Alberta. Until 1849, these districts were a wholly unorganized area of British North America under the de facto jurisdiction of HBC administrators. Unlike Rupert's Land to the north and east, however, the territory was not a concession to the company. Rather, it was simply granted a monopoly to trade with the First Nations inhabitants. All that was changed with the westward extension of American exploration and the concomitant overlapping claims of territorial sovereignty, especially in the southern Columbia basin (within present day Washington state and Oregon). In 1846, the Oregon Treaty divided the territory along the 49th parallel to Georgia Strait, with the area south of this boundary (excluding Vancouver Island and the Gulf Islands) transferred to sole American sovereignty. The Colony of Vancouver Island was created in 1849, with Victoria designated as the capital. New Caledonia, as the whole of the mainland rather than just its north-central Interior came to be called, continued to be an unorganized territory of British North America, "administered" by individual HBC trading post managers. With the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush in 1858, an influx of Americans into New Caledonia prompted the colonial office to formally designate the mainland as the Colony of British Columbia, with New Westminster as its capital. A series of gold rushes in various parts of the province followed, the largest being the Cariboo Gold Rush in 1862, forcing the colonial administration into deeper debt as it struggled to meet the extensive infrastructure needs of far-flung boom communities like Barkerville and Lilooet, which sprang up overnight. The Vancouver Island colony was facing financial crises of its own, and pressure to merge the two eventually succeeded in 1866. Rapid growth and development Lord Strathcona drives the Last Spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway, at Craigellachie, 7 November 1885. Completion of the transcontinental railroad was a condition of entry into Confederation. The Confederation League, including such figures as Amor De Cosmos, John Robson, and Robert Beaven, led the chorus pressing for the colony to join Canada, which had been created out of three British North American colonies in 1867 (the Province of Canada, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick). Several factors motivated this agitation, including the fear of annexation to the United States, the overwhelming debt created by rapid population growth, the need for government-funded services to support this population, and the economic depression caused by the end of the gold rush. With the agreement by the Canadian government to extend the Canadian Pacific Railway to British Columbia and to assume the colony's debt, British Columbia became the sixth province to join Confederation on 20 July 1871. The borders of the province were not completely settled until 1903, however, when the province's territory shrank somewhat after the Alaska Boundary Dispute settled the vague boundary of the Alaska Panhandle. Population in British Columbia continued to expand as the province's mining, forestry, agriculture, and fishing sectors were developed. Mining activity was particularly notable in the Boundary Country, in the Slocan, in the West Kootenay around Trail, the East Kootenay (the southeast corner of the province), the Fraser Canyon, the Cariboo and elsewhere. Agriculture attracted settlers to the fertile Fraser Valley, and cattle ranchers and later fruit growers came to the drier grasslands of the Thompson River area, the Cariboo, the Chilcotin, and the Okanagan. Forestry drew workers to the lush temperate rain forests of the coast, which was also the locus of a growing fishery. The completion of the railway in 1885 was a huge boost to the province's economy, facilitating the transportation of the region's considerable resources to the east. The booming logging town of Granville, near the mouth of the Burrard Inlet was selected as the terminus of the railway, prompting the incorporation of the community as Vancouver in 1886. The completion of the Port of Vancouver spurred rapid growth, and in less than fifty years the city surpassed Winnipeg, Manitoba, as the largest in western Canada. The early decades of the province were ones in which issues of land use — specifically, its settlement and development — were paramount. This included expropriation from First Nations people of their land, control over its resources, as well as the ability to trade in some resources (such as the fishery). Establishing a labour force to develop the province was problematic from the start, and British Columbia was the locus of immigration from Europe, China, and Japan. The influx of a non-Caucasian population stimulated resentment from the dominant ethnic groups, resulting in agitation (much of it successful) to restrict the ability of Asian people to immigrate to British Columbia through the imposition of a head tax. This resentment culminated in mob attacks against Chinese and Japanese immigrants in Vancouver in 1887 and 1907. By 1923, almost all Chinese immigration had been blocked except for merchants and investors Meanwhile, the province continued to grow. In 1914, the last spike of a second transcontinental rail line, the Grand Trunk Pacific, linking north-central British Columbia from the Yellowhead Pass through Prince George to Prince Rupert was driven at Fort Fraser. This opened up the north coast and the Bulkley Valley region to new economic opportunities. What had previously been an almost exclusively fur trade and subsistence economy soon became a locus for forestry, farming, and mining. 1920s through 1940s When the men returned from World War I, they discovered the recently-enfranchised women of the province had helped vote in the prohibition of liquor in an effort to end the social problems associated with the hard-core drinking that Vancouver and the rest of the province was famous for until the war. Because of pressure from veterans, prohibition was quickly relaxed so that the "soldier and the working man" could enjoy a drink, but widespread unemployment among veterans was hardened by many of the available jobs being taken by European immigrants and disgruntled veterans organized a range of "soldier parties" to represent their interests, variously named Soldier-Farmer, Soldier-Labour, and Farmer-Labour Parties. These formed the basis of the fractured labour-political spectrum that would generate a host of fringe leftist and rightist parties, including those who would eventually form the Co-operative Commonwealth and the early Social Credit splinter groups. Internment camp for the Japanese during World War II The advent of prohibition in the United States created new opportunities, and many found employment or at least profit in cross-border liquor smuggling. Much of Vancouver's prosperity and opulence in the 1920s results from this "pirate economy", although growth in forestry, fishing and mining continued. The end of U.S. prohibition, combined with the onset of the Great Depression, plunged the province into economic destitution. Compounding the already dire local economic situation, tens of thousands of men from colder parts of Canada swarmed into Vancouver, creating huge hobo jungles around False Creek and the Burrard Inlet rail yards, including the old Canadian Pacific Railway mainline right-of-way through the heart of the city's downtown (at Hastings and Carrall). Increasingly desperate times led to intense political organizing efforts, an occupation of the main Post Office at Granville & Hastings which was violently put down by the police and an effective imposition of martial law on the docks for almost three years. A Vancouver contingent for the On-to-Ottawa Trek was organized and seized a train, which was loaded with thousands of men bound for the capital but was met by a Gatling gun straddling the tracks at Mission; the men were arrested and sent to work camps for the duration of the Depression. There were some signs of economic life beginning to return to normal towards the end of the 1930s, but it was the onset of World War II which transformed the national economy and ended the hard times of the Depression. Because of the war effort, women entered the workforce as never before. British Columbia has long taken advantage of its location on the Pacific Ocean to have close relations with East Asia. However, this has often caused friction between cultures which have caused occasional displays of animosity toward Asian immigrants. This was most manifest during the Second World War when many people of Japanese descent were relocated or interned in the Interior of the province. Conversely, there have also been historically high rates of intermarriage and other examples of inter-racial harmony, cooperation and integration Coalition and the post-War boom The BC Regiment, DCO, marching in New Westminster, 1940. During World War II the mainstream British Columbia Liberal Party and British Columbia Conservative Party Parties of British Columbia united in a formal coalition government under new Liberal leader John Hart, who replaced Duff Pattullo when the latter failed to win a majority in the 1941 election. While the Liberals won the most number of seats, they actually received fewer votes than the socialist Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF). Pattullo was unwilling to form a coalition with the rival Conservatives led by Royal Lethington Maitland and was replaced by Hart who formed a coalition cabinet made up of five Liberal and three Conservative ministers. The CCF was invited to join the coalition but refused. The pretext for continuing the coalition after the end of World War II was to prevent the CCF, which had won a surprise victory in Saskatchewan in 1944, from ever coming to power in British Columbia. The CCF's popular vote was high enough in the 1945 election that they were likely to have won three-way contests and could have formed government. However, the coalition prevented that by uniting the anti-socialist vote. In the post-war environment the government initiated a series of infrastructure projects, notably the completion of Highway 97 north of Prince George to the Peace River Block, a section called the John Hart Highway and also public hospital insurance. In 1947 the reins of the Coalition were taken over by Byron Ingemar Johnson. The Conservatives had wanted their new leader Herbert Anscomb to be premier, but the Liberals in the Coalition refused. Johnson led the coalition to the highest percentage of the popular vote in British Columbia history (61%) in the 1949 election. This victory was attributable to the popularity of his government's spending programmes, despite rising criticism of corruption and abuse of power. During his tenure, major infrastructure continued to expand, and the agreement with Alcan to build the Kemano-Kitimat hydro and aluminum complex was put in place. Johnson achieved popularity for flood relief efforts during the 1948 flooding of the Fraser Valley, which was a major blow to that region and to the province's economy. Increasing tension between the Liberal and Conservative coalition partners led the Liberal Party executive to vote to instruct Johnson to terminate the arrangement. Johnson ended the coalition and dropped his Conservative cabinet ministers, including Deputy Premier and Finance Minister Herbert Anscomb, precipitating the general election of 1952. Hans J. Michelmann, David E. Smith, Cristine De Clercy Continuity And Change in Canadian Politics: Essays in Honour of David E. Smith, University of Toronto Press (2006), page 184 A referendum on electoral reform prior to this election had instigated an elimination ballot (similar to a preferential ballot), where voters could select second and third choices. The intent of the ballot, as campaigned for by Liberals and Conservatives, was that their supporters would list the rival party in lieu of the CCF, but this plan backfired when a large group of voters from all major parties, including the CCF, voted for the fringe British Columbia Social Credit Party (Socreds), who wound up with the largest number of seats in the House (19), only one seat ahead of the CCF, despite the CCF having 34.3% of the vote to Social Credit's 30.18%. The Social Credit Party, led by rebel former Conservative MLA W. A. C. Bennett, formed a minority government backed by the Liberals and Conservatives (with 6 and 4 seats respectively). Bennett began a series of fiscal reforms, preaching a new variety of populism as well as waxing eloquent on progress and development, laying the ground for a second election in 1953 in which the new Bennett regime secured a majority of seats, with 38% of the vote. Growth of government in the economy Premier W. A. C. Bennett and his wife accompany Princess Margaret in Victoria, August 1958. Bennett governed the province for an unprecedented twenty years With the election of the Social Credit Party, British Columbia embarked a phase of rapid economic development. Bennett and his party governed the province for the next twenty years, during which time the government initiated an ambitious programme of infrastructure development, fuelled by a sustained economic boom in the forestry, mining, and energy sectors. During these two decades, the government nationalized British Columbia Electric and the British Columbia Power Company, as well as smaller electric companies, renaming the entity BC Hydro. By the end of the 1960s, several major dams had been begun or completed in — among others — the Peace, Columbia, and Nechako River watersheds. Major transmission deals were concluded, most notably the Columbia River Treaty between Canada and the United States. The province's economy was also boosted by unprecedented growth in the forest sector, as well as oil and gas development in the province's northeast. The 1950s and 1960s were also marked by development in the province's transportation infrastructure. In 1960, the government established BC Ferries as a crown corporation, in order to provide a marine extension of the provincial highway system. That system was improved and expanded through the construction of new highways and bridges, and paving of existing highways and provincial roads. Vancouver and Victoria become cultural centres as poets, authors, artists, musicians, as well as dancers, actors, and haute cuisine chefs flocked to the beautiful scenery and warmer temperatures. Similarly, these cities have either attracted or given rise to their own noteworthy academics, commentators, and creative thinkers. Tourism also began to play an important role in the economy. The rise of Japan and other Pacific economies was a great boost to British Columbia's economy. Politically and socially, the 1960s brought a period of significant social ferment. The divide between the political left and right, which had prevailed in the province since the Depression and the rise of the labour movement, sharpened as so-called free enterprise parties coalesced into the defacto coalition represented by Social Credit — in opposition to the social democratic New Democratic Party, the successor to the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. As the province's economy blossomed, so did labour-management tensions. Tensions emerged, also, from the counterculture movement of the late 1960s, of which Vancouver and Nanaimo were centres. The conflict between hippies and Vancouver mayor Tom Campbell was particularly legendary, culminating in the so-called Gastown Riots of 1971. By the end of the decade, with social tensions and dissatisfaction with the status quo rising, the Bennett government's achievements could not stave off its growing unpopularity. 1970s and 1980s On August 27, 1969, the Social Credit Party was re-elected in a general election for what would be Bennett's final term in power. At the start of the 1970s, the economy was quite strong because of rising coal prices and an increase in annual allowable cuts in the forestry sector. However, BC Hydro reported its first loss, which was the beginning of the end for Bennett and the Social Credit Party. The Socreds were forced from power in the August 1972 election, paving the way for a provincial New Democratic Party (NDP) government under Dave Barrett. Under Barrett, the large provincial surplus soon became a deficit, although changes to the accounting system makes it likely that some of the deficit was carried over from the previous Social Credit regime and its "two sets of books", as WAC Bennett had once referred to his system of fiscal management. The brief three year ("Thousand Days") period of NDP governance brought several lasting changes to the province, most notably the creation of the Agricultural Land Reserve, intended to protect farmland from redevelopment, and the Insurance Corporation of British Columbia, a crown corporation charged with a monopoly on providing single-payer basic automobile insurance. Perceptions that the government had instituted reforms either too swiftly or that were too far-reaching, coupled with growing labour disruptions led to the ouster of the NDP in the 1975 general election. Social Credit, under W.A.C. Bennett's son, Bill Bennett, was returned to office. Under the younger Bennett's government, 85% of the province's land base was transferred from Government Reserve to management by the Ministry of Forests, reporting of deputy ministers was centralized to the Premier's Office, and NDP-instigated social programs were rolled back, with then-Human Resources Minister infamously demonstrating a golden shovel to highlight his welfare policy, although the new-era Socreds also reinforced and backed certain others instigated by the NDP — notably the Resort Municipality of Whistler. Also during the "Miniwac" regime (WAC was "Big Wac"), certain money-losing Crown-owned assets were "privatized" in a mass giveaway of shares in the British Columbia Resources investment Corporation, "BCRIC", with the "Brick shares" soon becoming near-worthless. Towards the end of his tenure in power, Bennett oversaw the completion of several megaprojects meant to stimulate the economy and win votes Unlike most right-wing parties, British Columbia's Social Credit actively practiced government stimulation of the economy. Most notable of these was the winning of a world's fair for Vancouver, which came in the form of Expo 86, to which was tied the construction of the Coquihalla Highway and Vancouver's SkyTrain system. The Coquihalla Highway project became the subject of a scandal after revelations that the premier's brother bought large tracts of land needed for the project before it was announced to the public, and also because of graft investigations of the huge cost overruns on the project. Both investigations were derailed in the media by a still further scandal, the Doman Scandal, in which the Premier and millionaire backer Herb Doman were investigated for insider-trading and securities fraud. Nonetheless, the Socreds were re-elected in 1979 under Bennett, who led the party until 1986. The Coquihalla Highway was one of the legacies of Expo 86. The creation of the toll highway sparked controversy. As the province entered a sustained recession, Bennett's popularity and media image were in decline. On April 1, 1983 Premier Bennett overstayed his constitutional limits of power by exceeding the legal tenure of a government, and the Lieutenant-Governor was forced to call Bennett to Government House to resolve the impasse, and an election was called for April 30, while in the meantime government cheques were covered by special emergency warrants as the Executive Council no longer had signing authority because of the constitutional crisis. Campaigning on a platform of moderation, and backed by the support and computer-organization tactics of the Big Blue Machine from Ontario and other consultants who were electoral lobbyists for the American Republican Party, Bennett won an unexpected majority. After several weeks of silence in the aftermath, a sitting of the House was finally called and in the speech from the Throne the Socreds instituted a programme of fiscal cutbacks dubbed "restraint", which had been a buzzword for moderation during the campaign. The programme include cuts to "motherdhood" issues of the left, including the human rights branch, the offices of the Ombudsman and Rentalsman, women's programs, environmental and cultural programs, while still supplying mass capital infusions to corporate British Columbia. This sparked a backlash, with tens of thousands of people in the streets the next day after the budget speech, and through the course of a summer repeated large demonstrations of up to 100,000 people. This became known as the 1983 Solidarity Crisis, from the name of the Solidarity Coalition, a huge grassroots opposition movement mobilized, consisting of organized labour and community groups, with the British Columbia Federation of Labour forming a separate organization of unions, Operation Solidarity, under the direction of Jack Munro, then-President of the IWA, the most powerful of the province's resource unions. Tens of thousands participated in protests and many felt that a general strike would be the inevitable result unless the government backed down from its policies they had claimed were only about restraint and not about recrimination against the NDP and the left. Just as a strike at Pacific Press ended, which had crippled the political management of the public agenda by the publishers of the province's major papers, the movement collapsed after an apparent deal was struck by union leader and IWA president, Jack Munro and Premier Bennett. A tense winter of blockades at various job sites around the province ensued, as among the new laws were those enabling non-union labour to work on large projects and other sensitive labour issues, with companies from Alberta and other provinces brought in to compete with union-scale British Columbia companies. Despite the tension, Bennett's last few years in power were relatively peaceful as economic and political momentum grew on the megaprojects associated with Expo, and Bennett was to end his career by hosting Prince Charles and Lady Diana on their visit to open Expo 86. His retirement being announced, a Social Credit convention was scheduled for the Whistler Resort, which came down to a three-way shooting match between Bud Smith, the Premier's right-hand man but an unelected official, Social Credit party grande dame Grace McCarthy, and the charismatic but eccentric Bill Vander Zalm. Bill Vander Zalm became the new Socred leader when Smith threw his support to him rather than see McCarthy win, and led the party to victory in the election later that year. Vander Zalm was later involved in a conflict of interest scandal following the sale of Fantasy Gardens, a Christian and Dutch culture theme park built by the Premier, to Tan Yu, a Taiwanese gambling kingpin. There were also concerns over Yu's application to the government for a bank licence, and lurid stories from flamboyant realtor Faye Leung of a party in the "Howard Hughes Suite" on the top two floors of the Bayshore Inn, where Tan Yu had been staying, with reports of a bag of money in a brown paper bag passed from Yu to Vander Zalm during the goings-on. These scandals forced Vander Zalm's resignation, and Rita Johnston became premier of the province. Johnston presided over the end of Social Credit power, calling an election which led to the reducing of the party's caucus to only two seats, and the revival of the long-defunct British Columbia Liberal Party as Opposition to the victorious NDP under former Vancouver mayor Mike Harcourt. In 1988, David See-Chai Lam was appointed by the Queen of Canada to become British Columbia’s twenty-fifth Lieutenant-Governor, and was the Province's first Lieutenant-Governor of Chinese origin. 1990s to present Johnston lost the 1991 general election to the NDP, under the leadership of Mike Harcourt, a former mayor of Vancouver. The NDP's unprecedented creation of new parkland and protected areas was popular, and helped boost the province's growing tourism sector. However, the economy continued to struggle against the backdrop of a weak resource economy. Housing starts and an expanded service sector saw growth overall through the decade, despite political turmoil. Harcourt ended up resigning over "Bingogate" — a political scandal involving the funnelling of charity bingo receipts into party coffers in certain ridings. Harcourt was not directly implicated, but he resigned nonetheless in respect of constitutional conventions calling for leaders under suspicion to step aside. Glen Clark, a former president of the BC Federation of Labour, was chosen the new leader of the NDP, which won a second term in 1996. More scandals dogged the party, most notably the Fast Ferry Scandal involving the province trying to develop the shipbuilding industry in British Columbia. An allegation (never explicitly substantiated) that the Premier had received a favour in return for granting a gaming licence led to Clark's resignation as Premier. He was succeeded on an interim basis by Dan Miller who was in turn followed by Ujjal Dosanjh. For Dosanjh and the NDP, however, it was too late to save the party from near-oblivion in the next election. In the 2001 general election Gordon Campbell's BC Liberals defeated the NDP party, gaining 77 out of 79 seats total seats in the provincial legislature. Campbell instituted various reforms and removed some of the NDP's policies including scrapping the "fast ferries" project, lowering income taxes, and the controversial sale of BC Rail to CN Rail. Campbell was also the subject of criticism after he was arrested for driving under the influence during a vacation in Hawaii. However, Campbell still managed to lead his party to victory in the 2005 general election, against a substantially strengthened NDP opposition. The province successfully won a bid to host the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and Whistler, with Olympic organizers narrowly winning a referendum held in the city of Vancouver. British Columbia has also been significantly affected by demographic changes within Canada and around the world. Vancouver (and to a lesser extent some other parts of British Columbia) was a major destination for many of the emigrants from Hong Kong who left the former UK colony (either temporarily or permanently) in the years immediately prior to its handover to the People's Republic of China. British Columbia has also been a significant destination for internal Canadian migrants. This has been the case throughout recent decades, because of its image of natural beauty, mild climate and relaxed lifestyle, but is particularly true during periods of economic growth. As a result, British Columbia has moved from approximately 10% of Canada's population in 1971 to approximately 13% in 2006. The final fundamental demographic shift is that away from rural British Columbia to urban centres, particularly the Lower Mainland. This trend has reversed itself to a limited degree in recent years with improved resource-economy prospects, but the Metro Vancouver metro area now includes 52% of the Province's population, followed in second place by Greater Victoria. These two metropolitan regions have traditionally dominated the demographics of BC. 150th Anniversary of British Columbia (2008) In 2008, British Columbia celebrated the 150th anniversary of its designation as a crown colony (strictly speaking, it marks the anniversary of the mainland portion of the province gaining such status, Colony of British Columbia). At the same time, Victoria celebrated its 165th anniversary of its founding on the formerly separate Colony of Vancouver Island. On August 4, 2008, the main birthday party took place on the grounds of the legislature in Victoria, with approximately 40,000 people in attendance, along with Premier Gordon Campbell, Prime Minister Stephen Harper, and others. Afterwards, Sarah McLachlan, Burton Cummings, Colin James, and Feist performed for the crowd at a free concert. Canadian Amateur radio operators may also use special call sign prefixes from October 1 to November 30 as part of the anniversary. Special Event Callsigns - Radio Amateurs of Canada Demographics Welcome sign at the province's border Population since 1851 YearPopulationFive Year % changeTen Year % changeRank Among Provinces1851 55,000 n/a n/a 61861 51,524 n/a -6.3 61871 36,247 n/a -35.3 71881 49,459 n/a 36.4 81891 98,173 n/a 98.5 81901 178,657 n/a 82.0 61911 392,480 n/a 119.7 61921 524,582 n/a 33.7 61931 694,263 n/a 32.3 61941 817,861 n/a 17.8 61951 1,165,210 n/a 42.5 31956 1,398,464 20.0 n/a 31961 1,629,082 16.5 39.8 31966 1,873,674 15.0 34.0 31971 2,184,620 16.6 34.1 31976 2,466,610 12.9 31.6 31981 2,744,467 11.3 25.6 31986 2,883,370 5.1 16.9 31991 3,282,061 13.8 19.6 31996 3,724,500 13.5 29.2 32001 3,907,738 4.9 19.1 32006 4,113,487 5.3 10.4 3 Canada's population. Statistics Canada. Last accessed September 28, 2006. Religion Religious groups in BC (1991 & 2001) & Canada (2001) 1991 BC %2001 BC % 2001 Canada % BC 2001 number Total population 100% 100%100% 3,868,875 No religious affiliation 30.0% 35.1% 17% 1,388,300includes Agnostic, Atheist, Humanist, and No religion, and other responses, such as Darwinism, etc. Protestant 41.9% 31.4%29% 1,213,295 Catholic18.3%17.2%44% 675,320includes Roman Catholic, Eastern Catholic . Christian Orthodox0.7%0.9%2%35,655 Christian n. i. e. 2.7% 5.2%3% 200,345Includes mostly answers of 'Christian', not otherwise stated Sikh2.3% 3.5% 1%450,310 Buddhist1.1% 2.2%1%85,540 Muslim0.8% 1.5%2%56,220 Hindu 0.6% 0.8%1%31,500 Jewish 0.5% 0.5%1%21,230 Eastern religions 0.3%0.1% 9,970includes Baha'i, Eckankar, Jains, Shinto, Taoist, Zoroastrian and Eastern religions, not identified elsewhere Other religions 0.4%0.2%16,205includes Aboriginal spirituality, Pagan, Wicca, Unity - New Thought - Pantheist, Scientology, Rastafarian, New Age, Gnostic, Satanist, etc. Statistics Canada. Statistics Canada. The largest denominations by number of adherents according to the 2001 census were none (atheist, agnostic, etc) with 1,388,300 (35.9%); the Roman Catholic Church with 666,905 (17 %); the United Church of Canada with 361,840 (9 %); and the Anglican Church of Canada with 298,375 (8 %). Religions in Canada Ethnic groups The following statistics represent both single (e.g., "German") and multiple (e.g., "part Chinese, part English") responses to the 2001 Census, and thus do not add up to 100%. Likewise "Canadian" is not necessarily associated with any ethnic or racial group, but simply with self-identification as a Canadian, of whatever ancestry,. Ethnic OriginPopulationPercentEnglish1,144,33529.6%Canadian / Canadien939,46024.3%Scottish748,90519.4%Irish562,89514.5%German500,67512.9%Chinese373,8309.7%French331,5358.6%East Indian183,6504.75%Dutch (Netherlands)180,6354.7%Ukrainian178,8804.6%North American Indian175,0854.5%Italian126,4203.3%Norwegian112,0452.9%Polish107,3402.8%Swedish89,6302.3%Welsh86,7102.2%Russian86,1102.2%Filipino69,3451.8%American (USA)59,0751.5%Danish49,6851.3% Ethnic OriginPopulationPercentMétis45,4551.2%Hungarian43,5151.1%Japanese37,3851.0%Austrian36,8501.0%Spanish33,9450.9%Korean32,2000.8%Jewish31,2800.8%British30,6300.8%Portuguese30,0850.8%Finnish27,2700.7%Vietnamese27,1900.7%Swiss23,8950.6%Iranian21,9100.6%Romanian19,9100.5%Icelandic19,1550.5%Czech17,8650.5%Greek17,7050.5%Punjabi16,5650.4%Croatian16,2850.4%Belgian14,5550.4% British Columbia has a very diverse ethnic population, with a large number of immigrants having lived in the province for 30 years or less. Of the provinces, British Columbia had the highest proportion of visible minorities, representing 24.8% of its population. "Statistics Canada. "Canada’s Ethnocultural Mosaic, 2006 Census: Provinces and territories"". Asians are by far the largest visible minority demographic, with many of the Lower Mainland's large cities having sizable Chinese, South Asian, Japanese, Filipino, and Korean communities. Within the South Asian communities, the Sikh population is the most notable in extent, especially in Surrey and South Vancouver. Also present in large numbers relative to other cities in Canada (except Toronto), and ever since the province was first settled (unlike Toronto), are many European ethnicities of the first and second generation, notably Germans, Scandinavians, Yugoslavs and Italians; third-generation Europeans are generally of mixed lineage, and traditionally intermarried with other ethnic groups more than in any other Canadian province. First-generation Britons remain a strong component of local society despite limitations on immigration from Britain since the ending of special status for British subjects in the 1960s. It is the only province where "English" ethnicity gets more response than "Canadian". American ancestry is under-reported; many Americans crossed into British Columbia during 19th century gold rushes and political turmoil like the Vietnam War. The percentages add to more than 100% because of dual responses (e.g. "French Canadian" generates an entry in both the category "French" and the category "Canadian".) Figures shown are the total number of responses and the percentage of the 3,868,875 responses to this question in the 2001 Census. Groups with more than 12,000 responses are included. Language Of the 4,113,847 population counted by the 2006 census, 4,074,385 people completed the section about language. Of these 4,022,045 gave singular responses to the question regarding mother tongue. The languages most commonly reported were the following: LanguageNumber of native speakersPercentage of singular responsesEnglish2,875,77071.5%Chinese languages342,9208.5%Punjabi158,7504.0%German86,6902.2%French54,7451.4%Tagalog (Filipino)50,4251.3%Korean46,5001.2%Spanish34,0750.9%Persian (Farsi)28,1500.7%Italian27,0200.7%Dutch (Nederlands)26,3550.7%Vietnamese24,5600.7%Hindi23,2400.6%Japanese20,0400.5%Russian19,3200.5%Polish17,5650.4%Portuguese14,3850.4%Ukrainian12,2850.3%Hungarian (Magyar)10,6700.3%Croatian8,5050.2% LanguageNumber of native speakersPercentage of singular responsesArabic8,4400.2%Urdu7,0250.2%Danish6,7200.5%Greek6,6200.2%Gujarati6,5650.2%Romanian6,3350.2%Serbian6,1800.2%Czech6,0000.1%Finnish4,7700.1%Athabaskan languages3,5000.1%Slovak3,4900.1%Norwegian3,2750.1%Tamil3,2000.1%Salish languages3,1900.1%Ilocano3,1000.1%Malay3,1000.1%Bisayan languages3,0350.1%Swedish2,8750.1%Turkish2,2550.1%Tsimshian languages2,1250.1% Numerous other languages were also counted, but only languages with more than 2,000 native speakers are shown. (Figures shown are for the number of single language responses and the percentage of total single-language responses) Economy Seabus leaving for North Vancouver.|Vancouver is the business capital of British Columbia British Columbia has a resource dominated economy, centred on the forestry industry but also with increasing importance in mining. While employment in the resource sector has fallen steadily, unemployment is currently at a 30-year low of 4.5%. New jobs are mostly in the construction and retail/service sectors. Known as Hollywood North, the Vancouver region is the third-largest feature film production location in North America, after Los Angeles and New York City. The economic history of British Columbia is replete with tales of dramatic upswings and downswings, and this boom and bust pattern has influenced the politics, culture and business climate of the province. Economic activity related to mining in particular has widely fluctuated with changes in commodity prices over time, with documented costs to community health. Transportation Transportation played a major role in British Columbia history. The Rocky Mountains and the ranges west of them constituted a significant obstacle to overland travel until the completion of the transcontinental railway in 1885. The Peace River Canyon through the Rocky Mountains was the route that the earliest explorers and fur traders used. Fur trade routes were only marginally used for access to British Columbia through the mountains. Travel from the rest of Canada before 1885 meant the difficulty of overland travel via the United States, around Cape Horn or overseas from Asia. Nearly all travel and freight to and from the region occurred via the Pacific Ocean, primarily through the ports of Victoria and New Westminster. Until the 1930s, rail was the only means of overland travel to and from the rest of Canada; travellers using motor vehicles needed to journey through the United States. With the construction of the Inter-Provincial Highway in 1932 (now known as the Crowsnest Pass Highway), and later the Trans-Canada Highway, road transportation evolved into the preferred mode of overland travel to and from the rest of the country. Roads and highways Alex Fraser Bridge on Highway 91 in Richmond/Delta Because of its size and rugged, varying topography, British Columbia requires thousands of kilometres of provincial highways to connect its communities. British Columbia's roads systems were notoriously poorly maintained and dangerous until a concentrated programme of improvement was initiated in the 1950s and 1960s. There are now freeways in the Lower Mainland and Central Interior of the province, and much of the rest of the province is accessible by well-maintained two lane arterial highways with additional passing lanes in mountainous areas. The building and maintenance of provincial highways is the responsibility of the provincial government. There are four major routes through the Rocky Mountains to the rest of Canada. From south to north they are: The Crowsnest Pass Highway through Sparwood, the Trans-Canada Highway through Banff National Park, the Yellowhead Highway through Jasper National Park, and Highway 2 through Dawson Creek. There are also several highway crossings to the adjoining American states of Washington, Idaho, and Montana. The longest highway is Highway 97, running from the British Columbia-Washington border at Osoyoos north to Watson Lake, Yukon. As of 2008, the provincial Occupational Health and Safety Regulation was amended to require that fuel purchases must be prepaid. Regulation Part 4 General Conditions - Tue May 26, 2009 The regulation amendment — nicknamed "Grant's Law" - was enacted following the death of gas station employee Grant DePatie, who attempted to stop a theft of gasoline in 2005. British Columbia is the first province in Canada to enact such a rule. Public transit Prior to 1978, surface public transit was administered by BC Hydro, the provincially-owned electricity utility. Subsequently, the province established BC Transit to oversee and operate all municipal transportation systems. In 1998, Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority (TransLink) (now South Coast British Columbia Transportation Authority), a separate authority for the Greater Vancouver Regional District (now Metro Vancouver), was established. Public Transit in British Columbia consists mainly of diesel buses such as those in Victoria, although Vancouver is also serviced by a fleet of trolleybuses. Victoria has some newer hybrid buses that has both gasoline and electric engines. TransLink operates SkyTrain, a light rapid transit system serving Vancouver, Burnaby, New Westminster, and North Surrey. Presently, extensions of the line south to Richmond (the Canada Line) and east to Coquitlam and Port Moody (the Evergreen Line) are being developed. Rail CPR train traversing the Stoney Creek Bridge Rail development expanded greatly in the decades after the completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway in 1885 and was the chief mode of long-distance surface transportation until the expansion and improvement of the provincial highways system began in the 1950s. Two major routes through the Yellowhead Pass competed with the Canadian Pacific Railway—the Grand Trunk Pacific, terminating at Prince Rupert, and the Canadian National Railway, terminating at Vancouver. The Pacific Great Eastern line supplemented this service, providing a north-south route between Interior resource communities and the coast. The Pacific Great Eastern (later known as British Columbia Railway and now owned by Canadian National Railway) connects Fort St James, Fort Nelson, and Tumbler Ridge with North Vancouver. The E&N Railway, rebranded as Southern Railway of Vancouver Island, serves the commercial and passenger train markets of Vancouver Island by owning the physical rail lines. Passenger train service on Vancouver Island is operated by Via Rail. Water BC Ferries was established as a provincial crown corporation in 1960 to provide passenger and vehicle ferry service between Vancouver Island and the Lower Mainland as a cheaper and more reliable alternative to the service operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway. It now operates 25 routes among the islands of British Columbia, as well as between the islands and the mainland. Ferry service to Washington is offered by the Washington State Ferries (between Sidney and Anacortes) and Black Ball Transport (between Victoria and Port Angeles, Washington). Ferry service over inland lakes and rivers is provided by the provincial government. Commercial ocean transport is of vital importance. Major ports are located at Vancouver, Roberts Bank (near Tsawwassen), Prince Rupert, and Victoria. Of these, the Port of Vancouver is the most important, being the largest in Canada and the most diversified in North America. Vancouver, Victoria, and Prince Rupert are also major ports of call for cruise ships. In 2007, a large maritime container port will be opened in Prince Rupert with an inland sorting port located in Prince George. Air There are over 200 airports located throughout British Columbia, the major ones being the Vancouver International Airport, the Victoria International Airport, the Kelowna International Airport, and the Prince George International Airport, the first three of which each served over 1,000,000 passengers in 2005. Vancouver International Airport is the second busiest airport in the country with an estimated 17.9 million travellers passing through in 2008. Government and politics The BC Legislative Buildings in Victoria The chamber of the provincial legislature The Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia, Steven Point, is the Queen of Canada's representative in the Province of British Columbia. During the absence of the lieutenant-governor, the Governor General in Council may appoint an administrator to execute the duties of the office. In practice, this is usually the Chief Justice of British Columbia. Executive Power in the Provinces under the Constitutional Act, 1867. British Columbia has a 85-member elected Legislative Assembly, elected by the plurality voting system, though in recent years there has been significant debate about switching to a single transferable vote system. Currently, the province is governed by the British Columbia Liberal Party under Premier Gordon Campbell. Campbell won the largest landslide election in British Columbia history in 2001 (77 of 79 seats), but the legislature is more evenly divided between Liberals and members of the social democratic New Democratic Party (NDP) following the 2005 provincial election. Recent years have seen the Green Party of British Columbia becoming a serious contender with double digit support, though they have not yet won a seat in the legislature. The British Columbia Liberal Party is not related to the federal Liberal Party and does not share the same ideology. Instead, the BC Liberal party is a rather diverse coalition, made up of the remnants of the Social Credit Party, many federal Liberals, federal Conservatives, and those who would otherwise support right-of-centre or free enterprise parties. Historically, there have commonly been third parties present in the legislature (including the Liberals themselves from 1952 to 1975), but there are presently none. Prior to the rise of the Liberal Party, British Columbia's main political party was the British Columbia Social Credit Party which ruled British Columbia for 20 continuous years. While sharing some ideology with the current Liberal government, they were more right-wing although undertook nationalization of various important monopolies, notably BC Hydro and BC Ferries. In an April poll by polling firm Ipsos-Reid, the BC Liberals were shown as having the support of 49% of voters, compared to 32% for the NDP. The next election is scheduled for May 2009. S. 23 of the Constitution Act (British Columbia) requires elections to be held on the second Tuesday in May every fourth year after May 2005.Constitution Act. Retrieved on 2009-04-06. British Columbia is known for having politically active labour unions who have traditionally supported the NDP or its predecessor, the CCF. British Columbia's political history is typified by scandal and a cast of colourful characters, beginning with various colonial-era land scandals and abuses of power by early officials (such as those that led to McGowan's War in 1858-59). Notable scandals in Social Credit years included the Robert Bonner Affair, the Fantasy Gardens scandal which forced Premier Bill Vander Zalm to resign and ended the Social Credit era, the Bingogate scandal which brought down NDP Premier Mike Harcourt, the alleged scandal named Casinogate which drove NDP Premier Glen Clark to resign. A variety of scandals have plagued the current Liberal government, but with little apparent effect on the electorate, including the Premier's arrest for drunk driving in Maui and the resignation of various cabinet ministers because of conflict-of-interest allegations. A Christmas Eve raid on the Parliament Buildlings in Victoria, including the Premier's Office, has resulted in charges only for ministerial aides, although key cabinet members from the time have since resigned. The case, currently in preliminary hearings in the courts and relating to the sale of BC Rail to an American company, may not reach trial because of the mass of evidence and various procedural problems. Cities The flag of British Columbia flying aboard the BC Ferries vessel MV Queen of Oak Bay Half of all British Columbians live in the Metro Vancouver, which includes Vancouver, Surrey, New Westminster, West Vancouver, North Vancouver (city), North Vancouver (district municipality), Burnaby, Coquitlam, Port Coquitlam, Maple Ridge, Langley (city), Langley (district municipality), Delta, Pitt Meadows, White Rock, Richmond, Port Moody, Anmore, Belcarra, Lions Bay and Bowen Island, with adjacent unincoprated areas represented in the regional district as the electoral area known as Greater Vancouver Electoral Area A. Seventeen Indian reserves are located in the metropolitan area but are outside the jurisdiction of the regional district and not represented in its government. Also in the metropolitan area but not represented in the regional district are the University Endowment Lands. The second largest concentration of British Columbia population is located at the southern tip of Vancouver Island, which is made up of the 13 municipalities of Greater Victoria, (Victoria, Saanich, Esquimalt, Oak Bay, View Royal, Highlands, Colwood, Langford, Central Saanich/Saanichton, North Saanich, Sidney, Metchosin, Sooke, which are part of the Capital Regional District. The metropolitan area also includes several Indian Reserves (the governments of which are not part of the regional district). Almost half of the Vancouver Island population is located in Greater Victoria. + Ten Largest Metropolitan Areas in BC by Population Indian reserve populations are not included in these figures Community (includes metro areas)20061996Vancouver2,215,2001,831,665Victoria330,088304,287Kelowna162,276136,349Abbotsford159,020136,480Kamloops92,88285,407Nanaimo92,36182,691Prince George83,22587,731Chilliwack80,89266,254Vernon55,41849,701Courtenay49,21446,297 + Ten Largest Municipalities in BC by PopulationMunicipality20061996Vancouver578,041514,008Surrey (Metro Vancouver)394,976304,477Burnaby (Metro Vancouver)202,799179,209Richmond (Metro Vancouver)174,461148,867Abbotsford123,864104,403Coquitlam (Metro Vancouver)114,565101,820Saanich (Metro Victoria)108,265101,388Kelowna106,70789,422Delta (Metro Vancouver)96,72395,411Langley Township (Metro Vancouver)93,72680,179 A view overlooking Skaha Lake in the Okanagan Valley, one of the driest regions of the province's Interior. Other municipalities Campbell River Chilliwack Colwood Courtenay Cranbrook Dawson Creek Fernie Fort St. John Kimberley Langford Maple Ridge Mission Parksville North Cowichan Penticton Port Alberni Prince George Prince Rupert Quesnel Vernon Victoria (provincial capital) Williams Lake Ecology Much of the province is wild or semi-wild, so that populations of many mammalian species that have become rare in much of the United States still flourish in British Columbia. Watching animals of various sorts, including a very wide range of birds, has also long been popular. Bears (grizzly, black, and the Kermode bear or spirit bear—only found in British Columbia) live here, as do deer, elk, moose, caribou, big-horn sheep, mountain goats, marmots, beavers, muskrat, coyotes, wolves, mustelids (such as wolverines, badgers and fishers), mountain lions, eagles, ospreys, herons, Canada geese, swans, loons, hawks, owls, ravens, harlequin ducks, and many other sorts of ducks. Smaller birds (robins, jays, grosbeaks, chickadees, etc.) also abound. Healthy populations of many sorts of fish are found in the waters (including salmonids such as several species of salmon, trout, char, etc.). Besides salmon and trout, sport-fishers in B.C. also catch halibut, steelhead, bass, and sturgeon. On the coastlines, harbour seals and river otters are common. Cetacean species native to the coast include the Orca, Gray Whale, Harbour Porpoise, Dall's Porpoise, Pacific White-Sided Dolphin and Minke Whale. British Columbian introduced species include: common dandelion, ring-necked pheasant, Pacific oyster, brown trout, black slug, European starling, cowbird, knapweed, bullfrog, purple loosestrife, Scotch broom, European earwig, tent caterpillar, sowbug, gray squirrel, Asian long-horn beetle, English ivy, fallow deer, thistle, gorse, Norway rat, crested mynah, and Asian or European gypsy moth. Some endangered species in British Columbia are: Vancouver Island marmot, spotted owl, white pelican, and badgers. Type of organism Red-listed species in BC Total number of species in BC Freshwater fish 24 80 Amphibians 5 19 Reptiles 6 16 Birds 34 465 Terrestrial mammals 11 104 Marine mammals 3 29 Plants 257 2333 Butterflies 12 187 Dragonflies 9 87 As of 2001 BC Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management, Conservation Data Centre Recreation Given its varied mountainous terrain and its coasts, lakes, rivers, and forests, British Columbia has long been enjoyed for pursuits like hiking and camping, rock climbing and mountaineering, hunting and fishing. Water sports, both motorized and non-motorized, are enjoyed in many places. Sea kayaking opportunities abound on the British Columbia coast with its fjords. Whitewater rafting and kayaking are popular on many inland rivers. Sailing and sailboarding are widely enjoyed. Ice sailing in Whistler In winter, cross-country and telemark skiing are much enjoyed, and in recent decades high-quality downhill skiing has been developed in the Coast Mountain range and the Rockies, as well as in the southern areas of the Shuswap Highlands and the Columbia Mountains. Snowboarding has mushroomed in popularity since the early 1990s. The 2010 Winter Olympics downhill events will be held in Whistler-Blackcomb area of the province, while the indoor events will be in the Vancouver area. In Vancouver and Victoria (as well as some other cities), opportunities for joggers and bicyclists have been developed. Cross-country bike touring has been popular since the ten-speed bike became available many years ago. Since the advent of more robust mountain bikes, trails in more rugged and wild places have been developed for them. Some of the province's retired rail beds have been converted and maintained for hiking, biking, and cross-country skiing. Longboarding is also a popular activity because of the hilly geography of the region. Horseback riding is enjoyed by many British Columbians. Opportunities for trail riding, often into especially scenic areas, have been established for tourists in numerous areas of the province. British Columbia also has strong participation levels in many other sports, including golf, tennis, soccer, hockey, Canadian football, rugby union, softball, basketball, curling and figure skating. British Columbia has produced many outstanding athletes, especially in aquatic and winter sports. Consistent with both increased tourism and increased participation in diverse recreations by British Columbians has been the proliferation of lodges, chalets, bed and breakfasts, motels, hotels, fishing camps, and park-camping facilities in recent decades. A crop of Cannabis Sativa, or "BC Bud" In certain areas, there are businesses, non-profit societies, or municipal governments dedicated to promoting ecotourism in their region. A number of British Columbia farmers offer visitors to combine tourism with farm work, e.g. through the WWOOF Canada program. Recreational cannabis A 2004 study (published 2006) by the University of Victoria Centre for Addictions Research of BC and Simon Fraser University Applied Research on Mental Health and Addictions indicated cannabis use is more widespread among British Columbians than other Canadians. However, a UN report published in July 2007 actually placed Quebec as the highest consumption province, citing 15.8% of Quebecers having used marijuana in a single year, versus 14.1% of Canadians nationally, and resulted in Canada being placed first in the industrialized world in marijuana use. With the actual growing of marijuana, British Columbia is responsible for 40% of all cannabis produced in Canada. See also Predating the Province of British Columbia: Oregon Country Oregon boundary dispute United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia Stikine Territory List of British Columbia-related topics List of British Columbians List of premiers of British Columbia List of Lieutenant-Governors of British Columbia List of airports in British Columbia List of communities in British Columbia List of British Columbia Universities List of law enforcement agencies in British Columbia List of emergency organizations in British Columbia List of ghost towns in British Columbia List of Royal Navy ships in the Pacific Northwest Same-sex marriage in British Columbia Higher Education in British Columbia List of British Columbia-related topics-continued British Columbia health authorities Fraser Health Interior Health Provincial Health Services Authority Northern Health Vancouver Coastal Health Vancouver Island Health Authority Geography of British Columbia List of British Columbia rivers Kootenays Queen Charlotte Islands Sunshine Coast Mountain peaks of the Rocky Mountains Scouting in British Columbia British Columbia Government Agencies and Crown Corporations British Columbia Utilities Commission Medical Services Plan Okanagan References External links Tourism British Columbia official website Provincial Archives including online photo database Vancouver Public Library; Historical Photographs of BC & the Yukon B.C. 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